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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3a7953e --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #69389 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69389) diff --git a/old/69389-0.txt b/old/69389-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b9102c1..0000000 --- a/old/69389-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4810 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Arctic regions and the northern -whale-fishery, by William Scoresby - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Arctic regions and the northern whale-fishery - -Author: William Scoresby - -Release Date: November 19, 2022 [eBook #69389] - -Language: English - -Produced by: deaurider, Bob Taylor and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARCTIC REGIONS AND THE -NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY *** - - - - - -Transcriber’s Note -italic text shown as _italic_ - - - - -[Illustration: SPITZBERGEN.] - - - - - THE - - ARCTIC REGIONS - - AND THE - - NORTHERN - - WHALE-FISHERY. - - BY - - CAPTAIN SCORESBY, F.R.S.E. - - - LONDON: THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY: _Instituted 1799_. 56, - PATERNOSTER ROW, AND 65, ST. PAUL’S CHURCHYARD. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The following pages contain, in an abridged and somewhat modified -form, the substance of the first volume of captain (now the rev. -Dr.) Scoresby’s work on the Arctic Regions and the Whale-fishery, -Edinburgh, 1820; with the omission of the third chapter on the -Hydrographical Survey of the Greenland Sea. It is now issued by the -kind permission of the author; and a wider circulation may thus be -secured for the interesting contents of his volumes than they could -receive in their original and more costly form. Some few materials -have also been collated from the valuable papers by the same author -contributed to the “Edinburgh Philosophical Journal.” - - - - -CONTENTS. - - -CHAPTER I. - -Page - - REMARKS ON THE CELEBRATED QUESTION OF THE EXISTENCE OF A SEA - COMMUNICATION BETWEEN THE ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC OCEANS, BY THE NORTH; - WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY IN THE NORTHERN REGIONS 9 - - -CHAPTER II. - - DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE POLAR COUNTRIES 33 - - -CHAPTER III. - - AN ACCOUNT OF THE GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE 62 - - -CHAPTER IV. - - OBSERVATIONS ON THE ATMOSPHEROLOGY OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS, - PARTICULARLY RELATING TO SPITZBERGEN AND THE ADJACENT - GREENLAND SEA 96 - - -CHAPTER V. - - A SKETCH OF THE ZOOLOGY OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS 139 - - -CHAPTER VI. - - EXPEDITIONS FOR FURTHER DISCOVERY 188 - - - - -THE ARCTIC REGIONS. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -REMARKS ON THE CELEBRATED QUESTION OF THE EXISTENCE OF A SEA -COMMUNICATION BETWEEN THE ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC OCEANS, BY THE NORTH; -WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY IN THE NORTHERN REGIONS. - - -The question of the existence of a navigable communication between -the European and the Chinese seas, by the north, is one which has -been long in agitation without being resolved, and has been often -revived, with the most sanguine expectations of success, to be again -abandoned as hopeless. The first attempts to reach China by sea, were -made by steering along the coast of Africa toward the south, and the -next, by proceeding from the European shore in a westerly direction. -The former, which first proved successful, was accomplished by -Vasquez de Gama, a Portuguese, in the year 1497-8; and the latter was -undertaken by the renowned navigator, Columbus, in 1492. The notion -of steering to India by the north-west, as the shortest way, was -suggested about the middle or latter end of the fifteenth century, -by John Vaz Costa Cortereal, who performed a voyage to Newfoundland -about the year 1463-4; or, according to a more general opinion, -by John Cabot, the father of the celebrated Sebastian Cabot, who -attempted the navigation in 1497, and perhaps also in 1494-5. The -idea of a passage to India by the North Pole was suggested by Robert -Thorne, merchant of Bristol, as early as the year 1527; and the -opinion of a passage by the north-east was proposed soon afterwards. - -The universal interest which has been attached to this question of -a sea communication between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, by the -north, ever since it was first suggested, about three hundred and -thirty or three hundred and fifty years ago, is fully proved by the -facts, that the speculation has never but once been abandoned by the -nations of Europe for more than twenty-five years together, and that -there have been only three or four intervals of more than fifteen -years in which no expedition was sent out in search of one or other -of the supposed passages, from the year 1500 down to the present -time. And it is not a little surprising that, after nearly a hundred -different voyages have been undertaken with a view of discovering -the desired communication with the Indian seas, all of which have -failed, Britain should again revive and attempt the solution of this -interesting problem. - -Several facts may be brought forward, on which arguments of no mean -force may be founded, in support of the opinion of the existence of a -sea communication by the north between Europe and China. They may be -enumerated in order. - -1. The prevailing current in the Spitzbergen sea flows, we are -well assured, during nine months of the year, if not all the year -round, from the north-east towards the south-west. The velocity of -this current may be from five to twenty miles per day, varying in -different situations, but is most considerable near the coast of -Old Greenland. The current, on the other hand, in the middle of -Behring’s Strait, as observed by lieutenant Kotzebue, sets strongly -to the north-east, with a velocity, as he thought, of two miles and -a half an hour; which is greater, however, by one-half than the rate -observed by captain Cook. - -2. By the action of the south-westerly current, a vast quantity -of ice is annually brought from the north and east, and conducted -along the east shore of Old Greenland as far as Cape Farewell, -where such masses as still remain undissolved are soon destroyed by -the influence of the solar heat and the force of the sea, to which -they then become exposed from almost every quarter. This ice being -entirely free from salt, and very compact, appears originally to -have consisted of field-ice, a kind which perhaps requires the -action of frost for many years to bring it to the thickness which -it assumes. The quantity of heavy ice, in surface, which is thus -annually dissolved, may, at a rough calculation, be stated to be -about twenty thousand square leagues, while the quantity annually -generated in the regions accessible to the whale-fishers is, -probably, not more than one-fourth of that area. As such, the ice, -which is so inexhaustible, must require an immense surface of sea for -its generation, perhaps the whole or greater part of the so-called -“Polar Basin;” the supply required for replacing what is dissolved -in Behring’s Strait, where the current sets towards the north, -being, probably, of small moment. The current, in opposite parts of -the northern hemisphere, being thus found to follow the same line -of direction, indicates a communication between the two across the -Poles; and the inexhaustible supply of ice, affording about fifteen -thousand square leagues, to be annually dissolved above the quantity -generated in the known parts of the Spitzbergen seas, supports the -same conclusion. - -3. The origin of the considerable quantity of drift-wood, found in -almost every part of the Greenland sea, is traced to some country -beyond the Pole, and may be brought forward in aid of the opinion -of the existence of a sea communication between the Atlantic and -the Pacific; which argument receives additional strength from the -circumstance of some of the drift-wood being worm-eaten. This last -fact I first observed on the shores of the island of Jan Mayen, in -August, 1817, and confirmed it by more particular observation when at -Spitzbergen the year following. Having no axe with me when I observed -the worm-eaten wood, and having no means of bringing it away, I could -not ascertain whether the holes observed in the timber were the work -of a _ptinus_ or a _pholas_. In either case, however, as it is not -known that these animals ever pierce wood in arctic countries, it is -presumed that the worm-eaten drift-wood is derived from a transpolar -region. Numerous facts of this nature might be adduced, all of which -support the same conclusion. - -4. The northern faces of the continents of Europe and Asia, as well -as of that of America, so far as yet known, are such as renders it -difficult even to imagine such a position for the unascertained -regions, as to cut off the communication between the Frozen Sea, near -the meridian of London, and that in the opposite part of the northern -hemisphere, near Behring’s Strait. - -5. Whales, which have been harpooned in the Greenland seas, have been -found in the Pacific Ocean; and whales, with stone lances sticking -in their fat, (a kind of weapon used by no nation now known,) have -been caught both in the sea of Spitsbergen and in Davis’s Strait. -This fact, which is sufficiently authenticated, seems to me the most -satisfactory argument. - -The Russians, it appears, have, at intervals, discovered all the -navigation between Archangel and the Strait of Behring, excepting a -portion of about two hundred miles, occupied by the eastern part of a -noss, or promontory, lying between the rivers Khatanga and Piacina. -The northern extremity of this noss, called Cape Ceverovostochnoi, -appears to have been doubled by lieutenant Prontschitscheff, in the -year 1735, so that ice, and perhaps some small islands, seem in this -place to form the great obstruction to the navigation. As far as can -be well substantiated, the portion of the route between Archangel -and Kamtchatka, which has been hitherto accomplished, clearly proves -that, if a sea communication between the Atlantic and Pacific by the -north-east really exists, it could never be practicable in one year. -Inasmuch as the Russians were five or six years in performing so much -of the navigation as has been accomplished, though they employed a -number of different vessels in the undertaking, it is probable that -the voyage could never be performed in one vessel, unless by mere -accident, in less than eight or ten years. It is clear, therefore, -that the discovery of a “north-east passage” could never be of any -advantage to our commerce with China or India. - -Though, however, the voyages undertaken in search of a north-east -passage by the different nations of Europe have amounted to about -twelve, besides numerous partial attempts by the Russians, and though -all of them have failed in their principal intention, yet they have -not been wholly lost to us; the Spitzbergen whale and seal fisheries, -so valuable to the country, with the trade to Archangel, having -arisen out of them. - -The voyages of Davis, in the years 1585-6 and 1587-8, of Hudson, in -1610, and of Baffin, in 1616, were the source of the greatest part -of the discoveries which have been made in the countries situated -to the northward and westward of the south point of Greenland. -To these regions, consisting of what have been called bays and -straits, the names of these celebrated voyagers have been applied. -All the voyages, indeed, since undertaken for discovery in the -same quarter, amounting to nearly thirty, have done little more -than confirm the researches of these three individuals, and show -how little there was to be found, instead of discovering anything -of moment. The ostensible object of most of these voyages, was the -discovery of a shorter passage to India than that by the Cape of -Good Hope, by the north-west. The existence of such a passage is -not yet either proved or refuted. In an account of “a Voyage to -Hudson’s Bay,” by Henry Ellis, such a passage is inferred to exist -from the following considerations:—the want of trees on the west -side of Hudson’s Bay beyond a certain latitude; the appearance of a -certain ridge of mountains lying near the same coast, and extending -in a direction parallel to it; the direct testimony of the Indians, -that they have seen the sea beyond the mountains, and have observed -vessels navigating therein; and, most particularly, the nature and -peculiarities observed in the tides. This latter argument is by far -the most conclusive. From observations on the winds and tides in the -Baltic, Mediterranean, and other inland seas, Ellis proceeds to show, -that every circumstance with regard to the tides in Hudson’s Bay -is different from what would take place in an inland sea, and then -concludes that Hudson’s Bay is not such a sea, but has some opening -which communicates with the Frozen Ocean on the north-west. - -Other arguments, which have been offered in favour of the separation -of Greenland from America, are deduced from the existence of a -current setting from the north—from the circumstance of icebergs and -drift-wood being brought down by the current—from whales wounded in -the Spitzbergen seas having been caught in Davis’s Strait—from the -position of the land, as represented on skins by the native American -Indians—and from the occurrence of certain plants in Greenland, which -are natives of Europe, but have never been found in any part of the -American continent. - -The opinion appears to be quite incorrect, that if a passage were -discovered, it would, probably, be open above half the year. I -imagine it would be only at intervals of years that it would be open -at all, and then, perhaps, for no longer time than eight or ten -weeks in a season. Hence, as affording a navigation to the Pacific -Ocean, the discovery of a north-west passage would be of no service. -For many reasons, however, the examination of these interesting -countries is an object worthy of the attention of a great nation. -The advantages that have already arisen to Britain from the voyages -undertaken in search of a north-west passage are, the establishment -of the Davis’s Strait’s whale-fishery, and of the trade of the -Hudson’s Bay company, so that the expenditure has not altogether been -lost. - -The adventurous spirit manifested by our early navigators, in -performing such hazardous voyages in small barks, in which we should -be scrupulous of trusting ourselves across the German Ocean, is -calculated to strike us with surprise and admiration, while the -correctness of their investigations gives us a high opinion of their -perseverance and talent. The famous voyage of Baffin, in which the -bay bearing his name was discovered, was performed in a vessel of -only fifty-five tons’ burden; that of Hudson, in which also the bay -called by his name was first navigated, in the very same vessel; and -the voyages of Davis chiefly in vessels of fifty, thirty-five, and -ten tons’ burden. - -In perusing the voyages of our old navigators, it is particularly -gratifying to those who consider religion as the chief business of -this life, to observe the strain of piety and dependence upon Divine -Providence which runs through almost every narrative. Their honest -and laudable acknowledgments of a particular interference of the -Almighty, working out deliverance for them in times of difficulty -and danger, and their frequent declarations expressive of their -reliance upon Providence, for assistance and protection in their -adventurous undertakings, are worthy of our imitation. Thus, while -our modern voyagers are much in the habit of attributing their most -remarkable deliverances to “luck,” “chance,” and “fortune,” those of -old evidenced certainly a more Christian-like feeling, under such -circumstances, by referring their deliverances to that great Being, -from whom alone every good thing must be derived. They only who have -a similar dependence on Providence, and who have been occasionally -in trying situations, can duly appreciate the confidence and comfort -which this belief is calculated to afford under the most appalling -circumstances. - -The class of vessels best adapted for discovery in the Polar seas, -seems to be that of one hundred to two hundred tons’ burden. They -are stronger, more easily managed, in less danger of being stoved or -crushed by ice, and not so expensive as those of larger dimensions. -An increase of size is a diminution of comparative strength; and -hence it is evident, that a vessel intended for discovery should be -just large enough for conveying the requisite stores and provisions, -and for affording comfortable accommodation to the navigators, but -no larger. Perhaps a vessel about one hundred and fifty tons’ burden -would be fully sufficient to answer every purpose. The navigation of -the Polar seas, which is peculiar, requires in a particular manner an -extensive knowledge of the nature, properties, and usual motions of -the ice, and it can only be performed to the best advantage by those -who have had long experience in working a ship in icy situations. -It might be a material assistance to those employed in completing -the examination of Baffin’s Bay, as well as productive of some -interesting information in meteorological phenomena, were a vessel or -two to remain in the northern part of this bay through the winter. -There is very little doubt that the vessel would, by this method, be -released by the ice as early as May or June, and thus be afforded -about double the time of research that could be obtained by wintering -out of the bay. There would not, I imagine, be any very great danger -in making this experiment, provided a sufficient quantity of fresh -provisions, for the prevention of the scurvy among the crew, were -taken out, and certain precautions adopted for the preservation of -the ships. The ingenious apparatus invented by Mr. Thomas Morton -designed to supersede, in repairing vessels, the necessity of dry -docks, might be eminently advantageous. - -In seas perpetually encumbered with ice, and probably crowded with -islands, if not divided by necks of land, the chance of great -discoveries and of extensive navigations towards the north-west, -even under the best arrangements and under the boldest seamen, is -but small. The most certain method of ascertaining the existence of -a communication between the Atlantic and Pacific, along the northern -face of America, would doubtless be by journeys on land. Men there -are who, being long used to travel upon snow in the service of the -Hudson’s Bay company, would readily undertake the journey by the -interior lakes of North America to the Frozen Ocean, or, in case of -a continuity of land being found, to the very Pole itself, of whose -success we should certainly have a reasonable ground of hope. The -practicability of this mode of making discoveries has been fully -proved by the expeditions of Mackenzie and Hearne; and a possibility -of performing very long journeys on snow can be attested, from -personal experience, by those who have wintered a few times in -Hudson’s Bay. - -The plan of performing a journey in this way, for discovering the -northern termination of the American continent, and for tracing -it round to its junction with the coasts of the same country, -washed by the Atlantic, might be in some measure as follows. The -party intended for this expedition, which should consist of as few -individuals as possible, ought, perhaps, in the course of one summer, -to make their way to one of the interior settlements of the Hudson’s -Bay company, or of the Canadian traders, such as Slave Fort, on the -great Slave Lake, situated in the 62nd degree of latitude, or Fort -Chepewyan, near the Athapescow Lake, in latitude 58° 40′, from whence -sir Alexander Mackenzie embarked on his voyage to the Frozen Ocean, -and there abide during the first winter. Supposing the travellers -to winter at Slave Fort, they might calculate on being within the -distance of two hundred leagues, or thirty or forty days’ journey, -moderate travelling, of the Frozen Ocean. In the month of March or -April, the party, consisting of two or three Europeans, one or two -Esquimaux interpreters, and two or more Indian guides, provided with -everything requisite for the undertaking, might set out towards the -north. On the arrival of the travellers among the Esquimaux, their -Indian guides, from fear of this nation, would probably desert them, -but the presence of their Esquimaux interpreters would secure them -a good reception. When once they should meet with this people, they -would have a strong evidence of being near the sea, as it is well -known the Esquimaux never retire far from the coast. On their arrival -at the coast, it will be necessary to associate with the Esquimaux, -to submit in some measure to their mode of living, and, to effect -any considerable discovery, it might be requisite to spend a winter -or two among them, in which case they might trace the line of the -Frozen Ocean to such a length, that the place where it joins the -western coast of Baffin’s Bay, or Hudson’s Bay, or the eastern side -of Greenland, would be determined. Or, if it should be objectionable -to winter among the Esquimaux, several expeditions might be sent out -at the same time from different stations, and on different meridians. -The expense of three or four such expeditions over land would -probably be less than that of one expedition by sea. - -The scheme suggested by Robert Thorne, of Bristol, of finding a -passage to India across the North Pole, about the year 1527, appears -to have been immediately attempted by an expedition, consisting of -two ships, sent out by order of Henry VIII.; one of the ships, we -are informed, was lost; of the nature of the success of the other we -have but a very unsatisfactory account. After this voyage, Barentz, -Heemskerke, and Ryp, attempted the transpolar navigation, in 1596; -Hudson, in 1607; Jonas Poole, in 1610 and 1611; Baffin and Fotherby, -in 1614; Fotherby, in 1615; Phipps, in 1773; and Buchan and Franklin, -in 1818. The highest latitude attained by any of these navigators did -not, it would appear, exceed 81°. My father, in the ship Resolution, -of Whitby, in the year 1806, with whom I then served as chief mate, -sailed to a much higher latitude. Our latitude, on three occasions, -in the month of May, as derived from observations taken with a -sextant by myself and my father, was 80° 50′ 28″, 81° 1′ 53″, and -81° 12′ 42″; after which we sailed so far to the northward as made -it about 81° 30′, which is one of the closest approximations to the -Pole which I conceive has been well authenticated. - -Whatever may be our opinion of the accounts brought forward by some -parties to prove the occasional accessibility of the 83rd or 84th -parallel of north latitude, of this we may be assured, that the -opinion of an open sea round the Pole is altogether chimerical. It -is urged, indeed, that the extraordinary power of the sun, about the -summer solstice, is so far greater at the Pole than at the Equator, -as to destroy all the ice generated in the winter season, and to -render the temperature of the Pole warmer and more congenial to -feeling than it is in some places lying nearer the Equator. So far, -however, from the actual influence of the sun, though acknowledged -at a certain season to be greater at the Pole than at the Equator, -being above what it is calculated to be by the ordinary formulæ for -temperature, it is found by experiment in latitude 78° to be greatly -below it—how then can the temperature of the Pole be expected to -be so very different? From the remarks in the ensuing pages, it -will be shown that ice is annually formed during nine months of the -year in the Spitzbergen sea, and that neither calm weather, nor the -proximity of land, is essential for its formation. Can it, then, be -supposed, that at the Pole, where the mean temperature is probably as -low as 10°, the sea is not full of ice? If the masses of ice, which -usually prevent the advance of navigators beyond the 82nd degree of -north latitude, be extended in a continued series to the Pole, (of -which, unless there be land in the way, there appears no doubt,) -the expectation of reaching the Pole by sea is altogether vain. By -land, however, I do not conceive the journey would be impracticable. -It would not exceed one thousand two hundred miles, (six hundred -miles each way,) and might be performed on sledges, drawn by dogs -or reindeer, or even on foot. Foot travellers would require to draw -the apparatus and provisions, necessary for the undertaking, on -sledges by hand, and in this way, with good dispatch, the journey -would occupy at least two months; but, with the assistance of dogs, -it might, probably, be accomplished in a little less time. With -favourable winds, great advantage might be derived from sails set -upon the sledges, which sails, when the travellers were at rest, -would serve for the erection of tents. Small vacancies in the ice -would not prevent the journey, as the sledges might be adapted so -as to answer the purpose of boats, nor would the usual unevenness of -the ice, nor the depth or softness of the snow, be an insurmountable -difficulty, as journeys of nearly equal length, and under similar -inconveniences, have been accomplished. - -Among many similar accounts, there is one related by Muller, in -his “Voyages from Asia to America,” of a Cossack having actually -performed a journey of about eight hundred miles in a sledge, drawn -by dogs, across a surface of ice lying to the northward of the -Russian dominions, which sufficiently establishes the practicability -of a journey across the ice to the Pole. Alexei Markoff, a Cossack, -was sent to explore the Frozen Ocean, in the summer of the year 1714, -by order of the Russian government, but finding the sea so crowded -with ice that he was unable to make any progress in discovery, he -formed the design of travelling in sledges, during the winter or -spring of the year, over the ice, which might then be expected to be -firm and compact. Accordingly, he prepared several of the country -sledges, drawn by dogs, and accompanied by eight persons, he set -out on the 10th of March from the mouth of the Jana, in latitude -70° 30′, and longitude about 138° east. He proceeded for seven days -northward, as fast as his dogs could draw, which, under favourable -circumstances, is eighty or one hundred versts a day, until his -progress was impeded, about the 78th degree of latitude, by the -ice elevated into prodigious mountains. This prevented his further -advance; at the same time, falling short of provisions for his dogs, -his return was effected with difficulty; several of his dogs died for -want, and were given to the rest for their support. On the 3rd of -April, he arrived at Ust-Jauskoe Simowie, the place from whence he -started, after an absence of twenty-four days, during which time he -appears to have travelled about eight hundred miles. The journey of -Markoff was nearly equal in extent to the projected journey to the -Pole, and there appears no very great reason why a person equally -adventurous with Markoff, and better provided, might not in a similar -manner reach the Pole. - -The first considerable discovery which appears to have been made -in or near the arctic circle, was the result of accident; one of -the numerous Scandinavian depredators, who, in the ninth century, -cruised the northern seas in search of plunder, having been driven, -by a long-continued storm, from the eastward upon the coast of -Iceland, in the year 861. This island, from the quantity of snow seen -on the mountains, was, by its discoverer Naddodd, at first called -_Schnee_, or _Snowland_. It was visited by a Swede of the name of -Gardar Suaffarson, three years after its discovery, and afterwards by -another Swede, Flocke, from whom it received the name of _Iceland_. -It was again visited in the year 874, by Ingolf and Lief, two -Norwegians, and became the seat of a Norwegian colony. - -The coast of Norway, to the entrance of the White Sea, was examined -about this period by a person of the name of Ohthere, a Norwegian, -who himself gave an account of his voyage to Alfred the Great, by -whom it has been handed down to us along with the translation of the -Ormesta of Orosius. - -About the middle, or towards the end of the tenth century, an -extensive country, to the westward of Iceland, was discovered by -one of the colonists of the name of Gunbiorn, which country was -visited, in the year 982, by one Eric Rauda, who had fled from Norway -to Iceland, to avoid the punishment due to the crime of murder -and various other offences. To this country he gave the name of -_Greenland_, and in consequence of his exaggerated account of its -products and appearance, a respectable colony was founded. About -the year 1001, one of the Iceland colonists, Biorn by name, was -accidentally driven by a storm to the southward of Greenland, where -he discovered a new country, covered with wood. Lief, the son of Eric -Rauda, fitted out a vessel, and visited the country. Grapes were -discovered in it, and from this circumstance it was called _Vinland_; -the day was eight hours long in winter, whence it appears that it -must have been somewhere on the coast of North America, probably on -the shore of Newfoundland. - -The Christian religion was introduced into Iceland and Greenland -about the year 1000, and within a hundred years afterwards generally -diffused. Above sixteen churches were then built, and two convents. -These buildings, as well as the habitations of the colonists, -were erected near the southern point of Greenland. They had two -settlements, the most western of which increased up to four parishes, -containing one hundred farms or villages; and the most eastern, to -twelve parishes, one hundred and ninety villages, one bishop’s see, -and two convents. The intercourse between Greenland and the rest of -the world was intercepted about the year 1406, when the seventeenth -bishop attempted to reach his see, but was prevented by ice. Since -the beginning of the fifteenth century, these unfortunate colonists -have been of necessity left to themselves, and not having been heard -of, are supposed to have perished; but whether they were destroyed -by their enemies the Esquimaux, or perished for want of their usual -supplies, or were carried off by a destructive pestilence, as some -have imagined, is still matter of doubt. Various attempts have been -made by order of the Danish government for recovery of this country, -and to ascertain the fate of these colonists, but hitherto without -success. - -Alter the voyages of Columbus, a new stimulus was offered to -the enterprising trader, and to those who might be desirous of -prosecuting the task of discovery, and a Portuguese navigator, John -Vaz Costa Cortereal, about the year 1463 or 1464, tried the passage -to India by the west, on a parallel far to the northward of that -pursued by Columbus. In this voyage the land of Newfoundland appears -to have been seen. The same voyage was attempted by Sebastian Cabot, -a Venetian, in the year 1497, and by Gaspar Cortereal and Michael -Cortereal, sons of the previously named Costa. Both these brothers -perished, and a third brother, who would have followed in search of -them, was prohibited from embarking by the king of Portugal. - -An important voyage of discovery was that of sir Hugh Willoughby, -in the year 1553, in which the coast now called Nova Zembla was -discovered, and the Russian territory on the east side of the -White Sea. In consequence of this expedition, a regular trade was -established with Russia, which was accomplished under various -privileges. In the year 1556, further discoveries in the same quarter -were made by Stephen Burrough. Then followed the voyages of Martin -Frobisher and John Davis; the latter in the year 1585. He proceeded -along the west side of Greenland, and then crossing an open sea to -the north-westward, discovered land in latitude 66° 40′, giving names -to the different parts of the coast which has since been denominated -_Cumberland Island_. In the course of this voyage, they met with a -multitude of natives, whom they found a very tractable people, and -liberal in their mode of trafficking. In the following year, Davis -prosecuted another voyage, but with no discovery of any consequence; -and again also, for the third time, in the year following. - -Amongst several expeditions sent out by the Dutch, to explore a -passage to India and China by the north-east, that of two ships, -under the pilotage of William Barentz, is the most memorable. It -sailed from Amsterdam the 10th of May, 1596. After having discovered -Spitzbergen, the two ships pursued different courses, and Barentz, -while endeavouring to sail round Nova Zembla, became entangled in -the ice. They were, in consequence, compelled to winter in this -desolate and frozen country. “The journal of the proceedings of -these poor people,” as Mr. Barrow beautifully observes, “during -this cold, comfortless, dark, and dreadful winter is intensely and -painfully interesting. No murmuring escapes them in their hopeless -and afflicted situation; but such a spirit of true piety, and a tone -of such mild and subdued resignation to Divine Providence, breathe -throughout the whole narrative, that it is impossible to peruse -the simple tale of their sufferings, and contemplate their forlorn -situation, without the deepest emotion.” Forcibly, indeed, does their -narrative illustrate the mind’s independence of external comforts, -and the peace and joy to be derived from trust in God, and cordial -submission to his appointments. Part of the sufferers made their -escape in two open boats from this dismal country, in the following -summer, and after a perilous and painful voyage, of above one -thousand one hundred miles, arrived in safety at Cola; but Barentz, -with some others, was overcome by the severity of the climate, and -the extraordinary exertions which he was obliged to make, and died. - -In the year 1608, Henry Hudson was employed in search of a north-east -passage; and, in 1610, in a voyage of discovery towards the -north-west, in a vessel of fifty-five tons’ burden. It was on this -occasion that he discovered the bay which bears his name, hauled -his ship on shore in a convenient situation, and wintered there. -They fell short of provisions, and the following summer the crew -mutinied, and abandoned their captain, his son, and others of the -crew, to a most cruel fate. In 1616 was accomplished the remarkable -voyage of William Baffin, attended by discoveries of a most extensive -nature in the bay which bears his name, which, though regarded with -considerable doubt at first, have since been abundantly confirmed by -the labours of captain Ross and lieutenant Parry. - -In March, 1822, the ship Baffin sailed from Liverpool, and reached -80° north latitude without experiencing any frost; on the 27th April, -we arrived within ten miles of Spitzbergen, and were stopped in -latitude 80° 30′ by main ice. Afterwards, we encountered a most heavy -gale, the thermometer falling in the space of sixteen hours 34°, -being the most remarkable change I ever experienced in Greenland -seas. On the 1st May, we advanced to only five hundred and sixty-six -miles’ distance from the Pole, and subsequently discovered the -eastern coast of Greenland, a continuation towards the north of -the coast on which the ancient Icelandic colonies were planted. We -surveyed and named various parts of this coast, to the extent of -about eight hundred miles, and found traces of inhabitants. It was -inferred that Greenland is probably a great group of islands. The -expedition returned on the 18th September, in the same year. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE POLAR COUNTRIES. - - -Spitzbergen extends furthest towards the north of any country yet -discovered. It is surrounded by the Arctic Ocean, or Greenland -Sea; and, though the occasional resort of persons drawn thither -for purposes of hunting and fishing, does not appear to have been -ever inhabited. It lies between the latitudes 76° 30′ and 80° 7′ -north, and between the longitude of 9°, and, perhaps, 22° east; -but some of the neighbouring islands extend at least as far north -as 80° 40′, and still further towards the east than the mainland -of Spitzbergen. The western part of this country was discovered -by Barentz, Heemskerke, and Ryp, in two vessels, fitted out of -Amsterdam, on the 19th of June, 1596, who, from the numerous peaks -and acute mountains observed on the coast, gave it the appropriate -name of Spitzbergen, signifying “sharp mountains.” It was afterwards -named _Newland_, or _King James’s Newland_, and then _Greenland_, -being supposed to be a continuation towards the east of the country -so-called by the Icelanders. It was re-discovered by Henry Hudson, -an English navigator, in 1607, and four years afterwards became the -resort of the English for the purpose of taking whales, since which -period its shores have annually been visited by one or other of the -nations of Europe, with the same object, to the present time. And -though the soil of the whole of this remote country does not produce -vegetables suitable or sufficient for the nourishment of a single -human being, yet its coasts and adjacent seas have afforded riches -and independence to thousands. - -This country exhibits many interesting views, with numerous examples -of the sublime. Its stupendous hills, rising by steep acclivities -from the very margin of the ocean to an immense height; its surface, -contrasting the native, protruding, dark-coloured rocks, with the -burden of purest snow and magnificent ices, altogether constitute an -extraordinary and beautiful picture. - -The whole of the western coast is mountainous and picturesque, and -though it is shone upon by a four months’ sun every year, its snowy -covering is never wholly dissolved, nor are its icy monuments of -the dominion of frost ever removed. The valleys, opening towards -the coast, and terminating in the background with a transverse -chain of mountains, are chiefly filled with everlasting ice. The -inland valleys, at all seasons, present a smooth and continued bed -of snow, in some places divided by considerable rivulets, but in -others exhibiting a pure unbroken surface for many leagues in extent. -Along the western coast, the mountains take their rise from within -a league of the sea, and some from its very edge. Few tracts of -table-land, of more than a league in breadth, are to be seen, and in -many places the blunt termination of mountain ridges project beyond -the regular line of the coast, and overhang the waters of the ocean. -The southern part of Spitzbergen consists of groups of insulated -mountains, little disposed in chains, or in any determinate order, -having conical, pyramidal, or ridged summits, sometimes round-backed, -frequently terminating in points, and occasionally in acute peaks, -not unlike spires. An arm of a short mountain chain, however, forms -the southern cape, or Point Look-out, but a low flat, in the form of -a fish’s tail, of about forty square miles in surface, constitutes -the termination of the coast. Other promontories, lying nearly north -and south, are of a similar nature. - -To the northward of Charles’s Island the mountains are more -dispersed in chains than they are to the southward. The principal -ridge lies nearly north and south, and the principal valley extends -from the head of Cross Bay to the northern face of the country, -a distance of forty or fifty miles. An inferior chain of hills, -two or three leagues from the coast, runs parallel with the shore, -from which lateral ridges project into the sea, and terminate in -mural precipices. Between these lateral ridges, some of the largest -icebergs on the coast occur. The most remarkable mountains I have -seen are situated near Horn Sound, on Charles’s Island, and near -King’s Bay. Horn Mount, or Hedge-hog Mount, so-called from an -appearance of spires on the top, when seen in some positions, takes -its rise from a small tract of alpine land, on the southern side -of Horn Sound. It has different summits, chiefly in the form of -spires, one of which is remarkably elevated. I had an opportunity of -determining its height in the year 1815. From one set of observations -its altitude came out 1,457 yards, and from another 1,473 yards, the -mean of which is 1,465 yards, or 4,395 feet. Another peak, a few -miles further to the northward, appeared to be 3,306 feet high. - -On Charles’s Island is a curious peak, which juts into the sea. It -is crooked, perfectly naked, being equally destitute of snow and -verdure, and from its black appearance, or pointed figure, has been -denominated the Devil’s Thumb. Its height may be about 1,500 or -2,000 feet. The middle hook of the foreland, as the central part -of the chain of mountains in Charles’s Island is called, is a very -interesting part of the coast. These mountains, which are, perhaps, -the highest land adjoining the sea which is to be met with, take -their rise at the water’s edge, and, by a continued ascent of an -angle at first of about 30°, and increasing to about 45°, or more, -each comes to a point, with the elevation of about six-sevenths of -an English mile. This portion of the chain exhibits five distinct -summits, some of them to appearance are within half a league, -horizontal distance, of the margin of the sea. The points formed by -the top of two or three of them are so fine, that the imagination is -at a loss to conceive of a place on which an adventurer, attempting -the hazardous exploit of climbing one of the summits, might rest. -Were such an undertaking practicable, it is evident it could not be -effected without imminent danger. Besides extraordinary courage and -strength requisite in the adventurer, such an attempt would need -the utmost powers of exertion, as well as the most irresistible -perseverance. Frederick Martens, in his excellent account of a -“Voyage to Spitzbergen,” undertaken in the year 1671, describes -some of the cliffs as consisting of but one stone from the bottom -to the top, and as smelling very sweet where covered with lichens. -In Magdalen Bay, the rocks he describes as lying in a semicircular -form, having at each extremity two high mountains, with natural -excavations, “after the fashion of a breastwork,” and, at their -summits, points and cracks like battlements. - -Some of the mountains of Spitzbergen are well-proportioned, -four-sided pyramids, rising out of a base of a mile, or a mile and -a half, to a league square; others form angular chains, resembling -the roof of a house, which recede from the shore in parallel ridges, -until they dwindle into obscurity in the distant perspective. Some -exhibit the exact resemblance of art, but in a style of grandeur -exceeding the famed pyramids of the east, or even the more wonderful -tower of Babel. An instance of such a regular and magnificent work of -nature is seen near the head of King’s Bay, consisting of three piles -of rocks, of a regular form, known by the name of the Three Crowns. -They rest on the top of the ordinary mountains, each commencing with -a square table, or horizontal stratum of rock, on the top of which -is another of similar form and height, but of smaller area; this is -continued by a third, a fourth, and so on, each succeeding stratum -being less than the next below it, until it forms a pyramid of steps, -almost as regular, to appearance, as if worked by art. - -Many of the mountains of Spitzbergen are inaccessible. The steepness -of the ascent, and the looseness of the rocks, with the numerous -lodgments of ice in the cliffs, or on the sides of the cliffs, -constitute in many places insurmountable obstacles. Some hills, -indeed, may be climbed with tolerable safety, but generally the -attempt is hazardous. Many have fallen and lost their lives, -especially in the descent. When Barentz and Heemskerke discovered -Cherie Island, on their advance towards the north, they also -discovered Spitzbergen, when some daring fellows among their sailors, -who had been collecting birds’ eggs, climbed a high, steep mountain, -resembling those of Spitzbergen, and unexpectedly found themselves -in a most perilous situation, for, on turning to descend, the way -by which they had advanced presented a dismal assemblage of pointed -rocks, perpendicular precipices, and yawning chasms. The view of the -danger of the ascent struck them with terror. No relief, however, -could be afforded them, and they were bewildered among the rocks. -At length, after a most anxious and painful exercise, in which they -found it necessary to slide down the rocks, while lying flat on their -bodies, they reached the foot of the cliff in safety. Barentz, who -had observed their conduct from the shore, gave them a sharp reproof -for their temerity. - -One of the most interesting appearances to be found in Spitzbergen, -is the iceberg. These mountains of ice occur in the valleys adjoining -the coast of Spitzbergen, and other Polar countries. A little to the -northward of Charles’s Island are the _Seven Icebergs_. Each of these -occupies a deep valley, opening towards the sea, formed by hills of -about two thousand feet elevation on the sides, and terminated in -the interior by the chain of mountains, of perhaps three thousand -to three thousand three hundred feet in height, which follows the -line of the coast. They are exactly of the nature and appearance of -glaciers, and there are many others of various sizes along the shores -of this remarkable country. - -It is not easy to form an adequate conception of these truly -wonderful productions of nature. Their magnitude, their beauty, -and the contrast they form with the gloomy rocks around, produce -sensations of lively interest. Their upper surfaces are generally -concave; the higher parts are always covered with snow, and have -a beautiful appearance, but the lower parts, in the latter end of -every summer, present a bare surface of ice. The front of each, which -varies in height from the level of the ocean to four hundred or five -hundred feet above it, lies parallel with the shore, and is generally -washed by the sea. This part, resting on the strand, is undermined -to such an extent by the sea, when any way turbulent, that immense -masses, loosened by the freezing of water, lodged in the recesses -in winter, or by the effect of streams of water running over its -surface and through its chasms in summer, break asunder, and, with a -thundering noise, fall into the sea. - -On an excursion to one of the Seven Icebergs, in July, 1818, I was -particularly successful in witnessing one of the grandest effects -which these Polar glaciers ever present. A strong north-westerly -swell having, for some hours, been beating on the shore, had loosened -a number of fragments attached to the iceberg, and various heaps -of broken ice denoted recent shoots of the seaward edge. As we rode -towards it, with a view of proceeding close to its base, I observed -a few little pieces fall from the top, and, while my eye was fixed -on the place, an immense column, probably fifty feet square, and one -hundred and fifty feet high, began to leave the parent ice at the -top, and leaning majestically forward with an accelerated velocity, -fell with an awful crash into the sea. The water into which it -plunged was converted into an appearance of vapour, or smoke, like -that from a furious cannonading. The noise was equal to that of -thunder, which it nearly resembled. The column which fell was nearly -square, and in magnitude resembled a church. It broke into thousands -of pieces. This circumstance was a happy caution, for we might -inadvertently have gone to the base of the icy cliff, from whence -masses of considerable magnitude were continually breaking. - -This iceberg was full of rents as high as any of our people ascended -upon it, extending in a direction perpendicularly downward, and -dividing it into innumerable columns. The surface was very uneven, -being furrowed and cracked all over. This roughness appeared to -be occasioned by the melting of the snow, some streams of water -being seen running over the surface; and others, having worn away -the superficial ice, could still be heard pursuing their course -through subglacial channels to the front of the iceberg, where, in -transparent streams, or in small cascades, they fell into the sea. In -some places, chasms of several yards in width were seen, in others -they were only a few inches or feet across. One of the sailors, who -attempted to walk across the iceberg, imprudently stepped into a -narrow chasm, filled up with snow to the general level. He instantly -plunged up to his shoulders, and might, but for the sudden extension -of his arms, have been buried in the gulf. - -Icebergs are, probably, formed of more solid ice than glaciers, but, -in every other respect, they are very similar. The ice of which they -consist is, indeed, a little porous, but considerable pieces are -found of perfect transparency. Being wholly produced from rain or -snow, the water is necessarily potable. Icebergs have, probably, the -same kind of origin as glaciers, and the time of their first stratum -is nearly coeval with the land on which they are lodged. Though large -portions may be frequently separated from the lower edge, or, by -large avalanches from the mountain summit, be hurled into the sea, -yet the annual growth replenishes the loss, and, probably, on the -whole, produces a perpetual increase in thickness. - -Spitzbergen and its islands, with some other countries within -the Arctic Circle, exhibit a kind of scenery which is altogether -novel. The principal objects which strike the eye are innumerable -mountainous peaks, ridges, precipices, or needles, rising immediately -out of the sea, to an elevation of three thousand or four thousand -feet, the colour of which, at a moderate distance, appears to be -blackish shades of brown, green, grey, and purple; snow or ice, in -striæ, or patches, occupying the various clefts and hollows in the -sides of the hills, capping some of the mountain summits, and filling -with extended beds the most considerable valleys; and ice of the -glacier-form occurring at intervals all along the coast in particular -situations, as already described, in prodigious accumulations. The -glistening, or vitreous appearance of the iceberg precipices, the -purity, whiteness, and beauty of the sloping expanse, formed by the -adjoining or intermixed mountains and rocks, perpetually “covered -with a mourning veil of black lichens,” with the sudden transitions -into a robe of purest white, where patches or beds of snow occur, -present a variety and extent of contrast altogether peculiar, which, -when enlightened by the occasional ethereal brilliancy of the Polar -sky, and harmonized in its serenity with the calmness of the ocean, -constitute a picture both novel and magnificent. There is, indeed, a -kind of majesty, not to be conveyed in words, in these extraordinary -accumulations of snow and ice in the valleys, and in the rocks -above rocks, and peaks above peaks, in the mountain groups, seen -rising above the ordinary elevation of the clouds, and terminating -occasionally in crests of everlasting snow, especially when you -approach the shore under shelter of the impenetrable density of -a summer fog, in which case the fog sometimes disperses like the -drawing of a curtain, when the strong contrast of light and shade, -brightened by a cloudless atmosphere and powerful sun, bursts on the -senses in a brilliant exhibition. Here are to be beheld the glories -of that one God, who is the Maker of all things in heaven and on -earth, and who, unlike the false deities of heathen nations, is not -confined in his presence and government to any particular zone of -the earth’s surface, but illustrates the skill and excellence of his -creation, both in the beauties of icy and torrid climes. - -A remarkable deception, in the apparent distance of the land, is to -be attributed to the strong contrast of light and shade, and the -great height and steepness of the mountains, displayed in these -regions. Any strangers to the Arctic countries, however capable -of judging of the distance of land generally, must be completely -at a loss in their estimations when they approach within sight of -Spitzbergen. When at the distance of twenty miles, it would be no -difficult matter to induce even a judicious stranger to undertake a -passage in a boat to the shore, from the belief that he was within -a league of the land. At this distance, the portions of rock and -patches of snow, as well as the contour of the different hills, are -as distinctly marked as similar objects in many other countries, -not having snow about them, would be at a fourth or a fifth part of -the distance. Hence we can account, on a reasonable ground, for a -curious circumstance related in a Danish voyage, undertaken for the -recovery of the last colony in Greenland, by Mogens Heinson. This -person, who passed for a renowned seaman in his day, was sent out by -Frederick II., king of Denmark. After encountering many difficulties -and dangers from storms and ice, he got sight of the east coast of -Greenland, and attempted to reach it; but, though the sea was quite -free from ice, and the wind favourable and blowing a fresh gale, he, -after proceeding several hours without appearing to get any nearer -the land, became alarmed, backed about, and returned to Denmark. On -his arrival, he attributed this extraordinary circumstance—magnified, -no doubt, by his fears—to his vessel having been stopped in its -course by “some loadstone rocks hidden in the sea.” The true cause, -however, of what he took to be a submarine magnetic influence, -arose, I doubt not, from the deceptive character of the land, as to -distance, which I have mentioned. - -Spitzbergen abounds with deep bays and extensive sounds, in many -of which are excellent harbours. From Point Look-out to Hackluyt’s -Headland, the west coast forms almost a series of rocks and foul -ground, few parts, excepting the bays, affording anchoring for -ships. Some of these rocks are dry only at low water, or only show -themselves when the sea is high, and are dangerous to shipping; -others are constantly above water, or altogether so below the surface -that they can either be seen and avoided, or sailed over in moderate -weather without much hazard. On the east side of Point Look-out, a -ridge of stony ground stretches five leagues into the sea, towards -the south-east, on which the sea occasionally breaks. - -Horn Sound affords tolerable anchorage; within Bell Sound are -several anchoring places and some rivers, and in Ice Sound, at Green -Harbour, is good anchorage near the bank, in ten to eight fathoms’ -water, or less. In several other places, when not encumbered with -ice, there is pretty good refuge for ships. On the north and east -sides of Spitzbergen are several harbours, some of them very safe -and commodious, but they are not so often free from ice as those -westward, and, therefore, have seldom been visited. - -Though the whale-fishers in the present age generally see the level -of Spitzbergen every voyage, yet not many of them visit the shores. -My father has been several times on shore in different parts. My own -landing, for the first time in an Arctic country, was on Charles’s -Island, or Fair Forehead, at the north-west point. The number of -birds seen on the precipices and rocks adjoining the sea was -immense, and the noise which they made on our approach was quite -deafening. The weather was calm and clear when I went on shore, but -suddenly, a thick fog and breeze of wind commencing, obliged us to -put off with haste, and subjected us to great anxiety before we -reached the ship. - -In the summer of 1818, I was several times on shore on the main, -and landed once in the same season on the north side of King’s Bay. -Being near the land, on the evening of the 23rd of July, the weather -beautifully clear, and all our sails becalmed by the hills, excepting -the top-gallant sails, in which we had constantly a gentle breeze, I -left the ship in charge of an officer, with orders to stand no nearer -than into thirty fathoms’ water, and with two boats and fourteen men -rowed to the shore. We arrived at the beach about half-past seven, -P.M., and landed on a track of low flat ground, extending about -six miles north and south, and two or three east and west. This -table-land lies so low that it would be overflown by the sea, were it -not for a natural embankment of shingle thrown up by the sea. - -After advancing about half a furlong, we met with mica slate, -in nearly perpendicular strata; and a little further on with an -extensive bed of limestone, in small angular fragments. Here and -there we saw large ponds of fresh water, derived from melted ice and -snow; in some places, small remains of snow; and lastly, near the -base of the mountains, a considerable morass, into which we sank -nearly to the knees. Some unhealthy-looking mosses appeared on this -swamp, but the softest part, as well as most of the ground we had -hitherto traversed, was entirely void of vegetation. This swamp had -a moorish look, and consisted, apparently, of black alluvial soil, -mixed with some vegetable remains, and was curiously marked on the -surface with small polygonal ridges, from one to three yards in -diameter, so combined as to give the ground an appearance such as -that exhibited by a section of honeycomb. An ascent of a few yards -from the morass, of somewhat firmer ground, brought us to the foot of -the mountain, to the northward of the Mitre Cape. Here some pretty -specimens of _Saxifraga oppositifolia_ and _Greenlandica_, _Salix -herbacea_, _Draba alpina_, _Papaver alpina_, (of Mr. Don,) etc., -and some other plants in full flower, were found on little tufts of -soil, and scattered about on the ascent. The first hill rose at an -inclination of 45°, to the height of about fifteen hundred feet, and -was joined on the north side to another of about twice the elevation. -We began to climb the acclivity on the most accessible side, at -about 10, P.M.; but, from the looseness of the stones, and the -steepness of the ascent, we found it a most difficult undertaking. -There was scarcely a possibility of advancing by the common movement -of walking in this attempt; for the ground gave way at every step, -and no progress was made; hence, the only method of succeeding -was by the effort of leaping or running, which, under the peculiar -circumstances, could not be accomplished without excessive fatigue. -In the direction we traversed, we met with angular fragments of -limestone and quartz, chiefly of one or two pounds’ weight, and a -few naked rocks protruding through the loose materials, of which the -side of the mountain, to the extent it was visible, was principally -composed. These rocks appeared solid at a little distance, but, on -examination, were found to be full of fractures in every direction, -so that it was with difficulty that a specimen of five or six pounds’ -weight, in a solid mass, could be obtained. Along the side of the -first range of hills, near the summit, was extended a band of ice and -snow, which, in the direct ascent, we tried in vain to surmount. By -great exertion, however, in tracing the side of the hill for about -two hundred yards, where it was so uncommonly steep that at every -step showers of stones were precipitated to the bottom, we found a -sort of angle of the hill, free from ice, by which the summit was -scaled. - -Here we rested until I took a few angles and bearings of the most -prominent parts of the coast, when, having collected specimens of -the minerals, and such few plants as the barren ridge afforded, we -proceeded on our excursion. In our way to the principal mountain -near us, we passed along a ridge of the secondary mountains, which -was so acute that I sat across it with a leg on each side as on -horseback. To the very top it consisted of loose sharp limestones, -of a yellowish or reddish colour, smaller in size than the stones -generally used for repairing high roads, few pieces being above a -pound in weight. The fracture appeared rather fresh. After passing -along this ridge about three or four furlongs, and crossing a -lodgment of ice and snow, we descended by a sort of ravine to the -side of the principal mountain, which arose with a uniformly steep -ascent, similar to that we had already surmounted, to the very -summit. The ascent was now even more difficult than before; we could -make no considerable progress, but by the exertion of leaping and -running, so that we were obliged to rest after every fifty or sixty -paces. No solid rock was met with, and no earth or soil. The stones, -however, were larger, appeared more decayed, and were more uniformly -covered with black lichens; but several plants of the _Saxifraga_, -_Salix_, _Draba_, _Cochlearia_, and _Juncus genera_, which had been -met with here and there for the first two thousand feet of elevation, -began to disappear as we approached the summit. The invariably broken -state of the rocks appeared to have been the effect of frost. On -calcareous rocks, some of which are not impervious to moisture, the -effect is such as might be expected; but how frost can operate in -this way on quartz is not so easily understood. - -As we completed the arduous ascent, the sun had just reached the -meridian below the Pole, and still shed his reviving rays of -unimpaired brilliancy on a small surface of snow, which capped the -mountain summit. A thermometer, placed among stones in the shade -of the brow of the hill, indicated a temperature as high as 37°. -At the top of the first hill, the temperature was 42°; and at the -foot, on the plain, 44° to 46°; so that, at the very peak of the -mountain, estimated at three thousand feet elevation, the power of -the sun at midnight produced a temperature several degrees above the -freezing point, and occasioned the discharge of streams of water from -the snow-capped summit. In Spitzbergen, the frost relaxes in the -months of July and August, and the thawing temperature prevails for -considerable intervals on the greatest heights that have been visited. - -As the capacity of air for heat increases as its density decreases, -and that in such a degree that about every ninety yards of elevation -in the lower atmosphere produces a depression of one degree of -temperature of Fahrenheit, we find that the elevation of some of -the Alps, Pyrenees, and mountains of Nepaul in the temperate zone, -is such, that their summits are above the level where a temperature -of thawing can at any time prevail; and though, by the application -of this principle to the mountains of Spitzbergen, we find that -a thawing temperature may be occasionally expected, yet we do -not see how the prevalence of a thaw should be so continual as to -disperse the winter’s coat of snow, where the mean temperature of -the hottest month in the year must, on a mountain fifteen hundred -feet elevation or upward, probably be below the freezing point. -Perhaps the difficulty is to be thus resolved. The weather, in the -months of June, July, and August, is much clearer at Spitzbergen than -it is near the neighbouring ice, where most of my observations on -temperature were made, and as such the temperature of these months -on shore must be warmer than at sea, and so much higher indeed as is -requisite for occasioning the dissolution of snow even on the tops of -the mountains. - -The highest temperature I ever observed in Spitzbergen was 48°; but -in the summer of 1773, when captain Phipps visited Spitzbergen, -a temperature of 58½° once occurred. Supposing this to be the -greatest, degree of height which takes place, it will require an -elevation of 7,791 feet for reducing that temperature to the freezing -point, and hence we may reckon this to be about the altitude of the -upper line of congelation, where frost perpetually prevails. - -The prospect from the mountain which we ascended was most extensive -and grand. A fine sheltered bay was seen on the east of us, an arm -of the same on the north-east, and the sea, whose glassy surface was -unruffled by the breeze, formed an immense expanse on the west; -the icebergs, rearing their proud crests almost to the tops of the -mountains between which they were lodged, and defying the power of -the solar beams, were scattered in various directions about the -sea-coast, and in the adjoining bays. Beds of snow and ice, filling -extensive hollows, and giving an enamelled coat to adjoining valleys, -one of which, commencing at the foot of the mountain where we stood, -extended in a continued line across the north, as far as the eye -could reach; mountain rising above mountain, until by distance they -dwindled into insignificance; the whole contrasted by a cloudless -canopy of deepest azure, and enlightened by the rays of a blazing -sun, and the effect aided by a feeling of danger, seated as we -were on the pinnacle of a rock, almost surrounded by tremendous -precipices; all united to constitute a picture singularly sublime. - -A gentle breeze of wind, that prevailed on the summit, much refreshed -us, and strengthened us for the descent, which, though we had -regarded it with indifference, we found really a very hazardous, and, -in some instances, a painful undertaking. On the flat of land next -the sea, we met with the horns of reindeer, many skulls and other -bones of sea-horses, whales, narwhales, foxes, and seals, and some -human skeletons, laid in chest-like coffins, exposed naked on the -strand. Two Russian lodges formed of logs of pine, with a third in -ruins, were also seen; the former, from a quantity of fresh chips -about them, and other appearances, gave evidence of having been -recently inhabited. These huts were built upon a ridge of shingle, -adjoining the sea. Among the shingle on the beach were numbers of -nests, containing the eggs of terns, ducks, and burgomasters, and in -some of them were young birds. One of the latter, which we took on -board, was very lively, and grew rapidly, but having taken a fancy to -a cake of white lead, with which the surgeon was finishing a drawing, -he was poisoned. The only insect I saw was a small green fly, which -swarmed upon the shingle about the beach. The sea along the coast -teemed with a species of _helix_, with the _clio borealis_, and -with small shrimps. No animal of the class _Vermes_, and no living -quadruped, was observed. Drift-wood was in some abundance, and, owing -to the prevalence of a strong west wind, the shore was covered in -many places with deep beds of sea-weed. - -Of all the objects, however, that we met with in the course of our -research, none excited so much interest as the carcase of a dead -whale, found stranded on the beach, which, though much swollen, -and not a little putrid, fixed our attention, and diverted us from -objects of mere curiosity. It proved a prize to us of the value of -about £400, but was not secured without much labour. From a harpoon -found in its body, it appeared to have been struck by some of the -fishers on the Elbe, and having escaped from them, it had probably -stranded itself where we found it. - -The climate of Spitzbergen is no doubt more disagreeable to human -feeling than that of any other country yet discovered. Extending -to within ten degrees of the Pole, it is generally intensely cold, -and even in the three warmest months, the temperature not averaging -more than 34½°, it is then subject to a cold of three, four, -or more degrees below the freezing point. It has the advantage, -however, of being visited by the sun for an uninterrupted period -of four months in each year, thus having a summer’s day—if so -long an interval between the rising and setting of the sun may be -so denominated—consisting of one-third part of the year. But its -winter is proportionably desolate; the sun, in the northern parts -of the country, remaining perpetually below the horizon from about -the 22nd of October to about the 22nd of February. This great -winter night, though sufficiently dreary, is by no means so dark as -might be expected, God having, by wise and merciful arrangements, -distributed, with some approach to equality, the blessings of his -providence. The sun, even during its greatest south declination, -approaches within 13½° of the horizon, and affords a faint twilight -for about one-fourth part of every twenty-four hours. Added to -this twilight, the aurora borealis, which sometimes exhibits a -brilliancy approaching a blaze of fire—the stars, which shine with -an uncommon degree of brightness—and the moon, which, in north -declination, appears for twelve or fourteen days together without -setting—altogether have an effect, which, when heightened by the -reflection of a constant surface of snow, generally give sufficient -light for going abroad; but, with the light afforded by the heavens, -when the moon is below the horizon, it is seldom possible to read. - -The first human beings who are known to have passed the winter -in Spitzbergen, were two parties of seamen, belonging to English -whalers, who were left on shore by accident, on two different -occasions; the first party, consisting of nine persons, all perished; -but the latter, composed of eight individuals, survived the rigours -of the winter of 1630-1, and were all rescued. In the year 1633, -seven volunteers, belonging to the Dutch fleet, were induced, by -certain emoluments, to attempt the same enterprise, and succeeded -in passing the winter without sustaining any injury; but, on the -same hazardous experiment being tried by seven other persons the -following winter, they all fell a sacrifice to the ravages of the -scurvy. Some Russians seem to have been the next to attempt this -adventurous exploit, who, from being inured to a winter little less -severe at home, were enabled to accomplish it with more safety. -Four men, who landed on an island on the east side of Spitzbergen, -in the year 1743, and were deprived of the means of getting away -by an unexpected calamity having overtaken the vessel to which they -belonged, remained there some years. Being exposed to uncommon -privations, they were led by their necessities to adopt some most -ingenious devices for providing themselves with food and raiment in -their long and severe banishment. One of their number died; but the -others were relieved, after a stay of three years and six months, by -a vessel providentially driven on the coast, and restored to their -friends, enriched with skins and other produce of the country in -which they had been exiled. - -In modern times, people of the same nation have been in the habit of -submitting to a voluntary transportation, with the object of making -some considerable advantage by the opportunities which such a measure -affords them of hunting and fishing. These persons were formerly -employed in the service of the “White Sea Fishing Company;” but this -company being now no longer in existence, the trade is conducted by -private adventurers. They now proceed from Megen, Archangel, Onega, -Rala, and other places bordering the White Sea, in vessels of sixty -to one hundred and sixty tons, some intended for the summer fishing, -and others for the winter. The former put to sea in the beginning -of June, and sometimes return in September; the latter sail about a -month later, and wintering in the most secure coves of Devil Bay, -Bell Sound, Horn Sound, Cross Bay, Magdalen Bay, Love Bay, and -others, return home in the months of August or September of the -following year. The fishermen reside on shore during the winter, in -huts of the same kind as those used by the peasants in Russia, which, -being taken out with them in pieces, are constructed with but little -trouble, in the most convenient situations. They build their stoves -with bricks, or with clay, found in the country. Their largest hut, -which is erected near the place where their vessels or boats are -laid up, is from twenty to twenty-five feet square, and is used as a -station and magazine; but the huts used by the men who go in quest of -skins, which are erected along shore, are only seven or eight feet -square. The smaller huts are usually occupied by two or three men, -who take care to provide themselves from the store with the necessary -provisions for serving them the whole winter. - -I have visited several of these huts, some constructed of logs, -others of deals, two inches in thickness. During the stay of the -hunters, they employ themselves in killing seals, sea-horses, etc., -in the water; and bears, foxes, deer, or whatever else they meet -with, on land. They are furnished with provisions for eighteen months -by their employers, consisting of rye-flour for bread, oatmeal, -barley-meal, peas, salt beef, salt cod, and salt halibut, together -with curdled milk, honey, and linseed oil; besides which, they -procure for themselves _lion_-deer in winter, and birds in summer. -Their drink chiefly consists of a liquor called _nuas_, made from -rye-flour and water; malt or spirituous liquors being entirely -forbidden, to prevent drunkenness, as these persons, when they -were allowed it, drank so immoderately, that their work was often -altogether neglected. For general purposes, they use spring water -when it is to be had, or, in lieu of it, take water from lakes; -but, when neither can be got, they use melted snow. Their fuel, for -the most part, is brought with them from Russia, and drift-wood is -used for the same purpose. The hunters defend themselves from the -rigour of the frost by a covering made of skin, over which they wear -a garment called _kushy_, made of the skin of rein-deer, with boots -of the same. A warm cap, called a _trucchy_, defends the whole head -and neck, and part of the face; and gloves of sheep-skin, the hands. -They seldom travel far in winter, but the short excursions they have -occasion to make they perform on foot, on snow-skates, and draw their -food after them on hand-sledges, but such as have dogs employ them in -this service. Their huts, in stormy weather, are often buried in the -snow, and in such cases they are obliged to make their way through -the chimney to get out. As an anti-scorbutic, they make use of a herb -produced in the country, a stock of which they generally provide -themselves with on the approach of winter, but sometimes they are -under the necessity of digging through the snow to obtain it. They -either eat it without any preparation, or drink the liquor prepared -from it by infusion in water. For the same purpose, they use a kind -of raspberry, and a decoction of fir-tops. - -Spitzbergen does not afford many vegetables. It may be remarked, -that vegetation goes on uncommonly quick in this country. Most of -the plants spring up, flower, and afford seed in the course of a -month or six weeks. They are chiefly of a dwarfish size. Some of the -flowers are really pretty, but exhibit few colours, excepting yellow, -white, and purple. The only plant I met with partaking of the nature -of a tree, (a _salix_, allied to _S. herbacea_,) grows but to the -height of three or four inches. Although Spitzbergen is probably -rich in minerals, yet so partial has been the examination of it that -nothing of any value, excepting marble and coal, has yet been met -with. The remarks made concerning the appearances and productions of -Spitzbergen apply in general to the islands adjacent. The principal -of these are Moffen Island, Low Island, Hope Island, and Cherie -Island. The last abounds in sea-horses, bears, foxes, and sea-fowl. -Lead ore, in veins at the surface, has been found here, and specimens -of virgin silver. - -Between the latitudes of 70° 49′ and 71° 8′ 20″ north, and between -the longitudes 7° 26′ and 8° 44′, lies the island of Jan Mayen, said -to have been first seen by a Dutch navigator of this name in the year -1611. The west side, affording the greatest number of anchorages, -having the best convenience for landing, and being better sheltered -from the most frequent storms, was selected by the Dutch for their -_boiling_ stations. I was successful, in my passage homeward, in -the year 1817, in effecting a landing. On approaching, the first -object which strikes attention is the peak of Beerenberg, which I -subsequently saw at a distance (by observation) of ninety-five to a -hundred miles. It rears its icy summit to an elevation of 6,780 feet -above the level of the sea. After leaving the sea-shore, fragments -of lava were seen at every step, and numerous undoubted marks of -recent volcanic action. On reaching a summit, estimated at 1,500 feet -above the sea, we beheld a beautiful crater, forming a basin of 500 -or 600 feet in depth, and 600 or 700 yards in diameter. The bottom -of the crater was filled with alluvial matter to such a height that -it presented a horizontal flat of an elliptical form, measuring 400 -feet by 240. In the spring of the following year, some volcano was, I -believe, in action in this neighbourhood, as I observed considerable -jets of smoke discharged from the earth at intervals of every three -or four minutes. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -AN ACCOUNT OF THE GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE. - - -Of the inanimate productions of the Polar Seas, none perhaps excite -so much interest and astonishment in a stranger as the ice in its -great abundance and variety. The stupendous masses known by the name -of icelands or icebergs, common to Davis’s Strait, and sometimes -met with in the Spitzbergen Sea, from their height, various forms, -and the depth of water in which they ground, are calculated to -strike the beholder with wonder; yet the prodigious sheets of ice, -called ice-fields, more peculiar to the Spitzbergen Sea, are not -less astonishing. Their deficiency in elevation is sufficiently -compensated by their amazing extent of surface. Some of them have -been observed extending many leagues in length, and covering an area -of several hundreds of square miles, each consisting of a single -sheet of ice, having its surface raised in general four or six feet -above the level of the water, and its base depressed to the depth of -ten to twenty feet beneath. - -The ice in general is designated by a variety of appellations, -distinguishing it according to the size or shape of the pieces, -their number or form of aggregation, thickness, transparency, -situation, etc. As the different denominations of ice will be -frequently referred to in the course of this work, it may be useful -to give definitions of the terms in use among the whale-fishers for -distinguishing them. - -1. An _iceberg_, or ice-mountain, is a large insulated peak of -floating ice, or a glacier, occupying a ravine or valley, generally -opening towards the sea in an arctic country. - -2. A _field_ is a sheet of ice, so extensive that its limits cannot -be discerned from the ship’s mast-head. - -3. A _floe_ is similar to a field, but smaller, inasmuch as its -extent _can_ be seen. This term, however, is seldom applied to pieces -of ice of less diameter than half-a-mile or a mile. - -4. _Drift-ice_ consists of pieces less than floes, of various shapes -and magnitudes. - -5. _Brash-ice_ is still smaller than drift-ice, and may be considered -as the wreck of other kinds of ice. - -6. _Bay-ice_ is that which is newly-formed on the sea, and consists -of two kinds, common bay-ice and _pancake_-ice; the former occurring -in smooth extensive sheets, and the latter in small circular pieces, -with raised edges. - -7. _Sludge_ consists of a stratum of detached ice crystals, or of -snow, or of the smaller fragments of brash-ice, floating on the -surface of the sea. - -8. A _hummock_ is a protuberance raised upon any plane of ice above -the common level. It is frequently produced by pressure, where one -piece is squeezed upon another, often set upon its edge, and in -that position cemented by the frost. Hummocks are likewise formed -by pieces of ice mutually crushing each other, the wreck being -heaped upon one or both of them. To hummocks, principally, the ice -is indebted for its variety of fanciful shapes, and its picturesque -appearance. They occur in great numbers in heavy packs, on the edges, -and occasionally in the middle of fields and floes, where they often -attain the height of thirty feet or upwards. - -9. A _calf_ is a portion of ice which has been depressed by the same -means as a hummock is elevated. It is kept down by some larger mass, -from beneath which it shows itself on one side. - -10. A _tongue_ is a point of ice projecting nearly horizontally from -a part that is under water. Ships have sometimes run aground upon -tongues of ice. - -11. A _pack_ is a body of drift-ice, of such magnitude that its -extent is not discernible. A pack is _open_ when the pieces of ice, -though very near each other, do not generally touch, or _close_ when -the pieces are in complete contact. - -12. A _patch_ is a collection of drift or bay-ice, of a circular -or polygonal form. In point of magnitude, a pack corresponds with a -field, and a patch with a floe. - -13. A _stream_ is an oblong collection of drift or bay-ice, the -pieces of which are continuous. It is called a _sea-stream_ when it -is exposed on one side to the ocean, and affords shelter from the sea -to whatever is within it. - -14. _Open-ice_, or _sailing-ice_, is where the pieces are so separate -as to admit of a ship sailing conveniently among them. - -15. _Heavy_ and _light_ are terms attached to ice, distinguishable of -its thickness. - -16. _Land-ice_ consists of drift-ice attached to the shore; or -drift-ice which, by being covered with mud or gravel, appears to have -recently been in contact with the shore; or the flat ice resting on -the land, not having the appearance or elevation of icebergs. - -17. A _bight_ is a bay in the outline of the ice. - -18. A _lane_ or _vein_ is a narrow channel of water in packs or other -large collections of ice. - -When the sea freezes, the greatest part of the salt it contains is -deposited, and the frozen mass, however spongy, probably contains no -salt but what is natural to the sea-water filling its pores. Hence -the generality of ice, when dissolved, affords fresh water. As, -however, the ice frozen altogether from sea-water does not appear -so solid and transparent as that procured from snow or rain water, -the whale-fishers distinguish it into two kinds, accordingly as it -affords water that is potable, or the contrary, as it appears to have -been the product of fresh or salt water. - -What is considered as salt-water-ice appears blackish in the water, -but in the air is of a white or grey colour, porous, and in a great -measure opaque, (except when in very thin pieces,) yet transmits the -rays of light with a blue or blueish green shade. When dissolved, -it produces water sometimes perfectly fresh, and at others saltish. -This depends, in a great measure, on the situation from whence it is -taken; such parts as are raised above the surface of the sea, in the -form of hummocks, or which, though below the surface, have been long -frozen, appear to gain solidity, and are commonly _fresh_; whilst -those pieces taken out of the sea, that have been recently frozen, -are somewhat salt. - -Fresh-water-ice of the sailors is distinguished by its black -appearance when floating in small pieces in the sea, and by its -transparency when removed into the air. Fresh-water-ice is fragile, -but hard; the edges of a fractured part are frequently so keen as to -inflict a wound like glass. The most transparent pieces are capable -of concentrating the rays of the sun, so as to produce a considerable -intensity of heat. With a lump of ice, of by no means regular -convexity, I have frequently burned wood, fired gunpowder, incited -lead, and lit the sailors’ pipes, to their great astonishment, all -of whom, who could procure the needful articles, eagerly flocked -around me, for the satisfaction of smoking a pipe ignited by such -extraordinary means. Their astonishment was increased by observing -that the ice remained firm and pellucid, while the solar rays -emerging from it were so hot, that the hand could not be kept longer -in the focus than for the space of a few seconds. In the formation -of these lenses, I roughed them out with a small axe, and then -scraped them with a knife, polishing them merely by the warmth of -the hand, supporting them during the operation in a woollen glove. -I once procured a piece of the purest ice, so large that a lens of -sixteen inches diameter was obtained out of it; unhappily, however, -the sun became obscured before it was completed, and never made its -appearance again for a fortnight, during which time, the air being -mild, the lens was spoiled. - -All young ice, such as bay-ice and light-ice, which form a -considerable part of drift and pack-ice in general, is considered by -Greenland sailors salt-water-ice; while fields, floes, bergs, and -heavy-ice, chiefly consist of fresh-water-ice. Brash-ice likewise -affords fine specimens of the latter, which, when taken out of the -sea, are always found crowded on the surface with sharp points and -conchoidal excavations. - -Ice, when rapidly dissolved, continues solid as long as any remains, -but, when exposed to the air, at a temperature of only two or three -degrees above the freezing point, its solution is effected in a very -peculiar manner. Thus, a large lump of fresh-water-ice, when acted on -by such a process, if placed in the plane of its formation, resolves -itself into considerable columns of a prismatic appearance. These -columns are situated in a perpendicular position, almost entirely -detached, so that when a blow is struck with an axe, the whole mass -frequently falls to pieces. In the land icebergs, these columns are -often of amazing magnitude, so as, when separated, to form floating -icebergs. - -All the ice floating in the sea is generally rough and uneven on the -surface, and during the greater part of the year covered with snow. -Even newly-formed ice, which is free from snow, is so rough and soft -that it cannot be skated upon. Under water the colour of the ice -varies with the colour of the sea; in blue water it is blue, in green -water it is green, and of deeper shades in proportion to its depth. -In the thickest olive-green coloured water, its colour, far beneath -the surface, appears brownish. - -A description of the process of freezing from its commencement may -now be attempted. The first appearance of ice, when in a state of -detached crystals, is called by the sailors _sludge_, and resembles -snow when cast into water that is too cold to dissolve it. This -smooths the ruffled surface of the sea, and produces an effect like -oil in preventing breakers. These crystals soon unite, and would -form a continuous sheet, but, by the motion of the waves, they are -broken in very small pieces, scarcely three inches in diameter. As -they strengthen, many of them coalesce, and form a larger mass. -The undulations of the sea still continuing, these enlarged pieces -strike each other on every side, whereby they become rounded, and -their edges turn up, whence they obtain the name of _cakes_, or -_pan-cakes_. Several of these again unite, and thereby continue to -increase, forming larger flakes, until they become perhaps a foot -in thickness, and many yards in circumference. Every larger flake -retains on its surface the impression of the smaller flakes of which -it is composed, so that when, by the discontinuance of the swell, the -whole is permitted to freeze into an extensive sheet, it sometimes -assumes the appearance of a pavement. But when the sea is perfectly -smooth, the freezing process goes on more regularly, and probably -more rapidly. During twenty-four hours’ keen frost, the ice will -become an inch or two in thickness, and in less than forty-eight -hours’ time capable of sustaining the weight of a man. Both this -kind, and cake-ice, are termed bay-ice. In every opening of the main -body of ice at a distance from the sea, the water is always as smooth -as that of a harbour; and in low temperatures, all that is necessary -for the formation of ice is still water. There is no doubt that a -large quantity of ice is annually generated in the bays and amidst -the islands of Spitzbergen; which bays, towards the end of summer, -are commonly emptied of their contents, from the thawing of the -snow on the mountains causing a current outwards. But this will not -account for the immense fields which are so abundant in Greenland. -These evidently come from the northward, and have their origin -between Spitzbergen and the Pole. - -Ice-fields constitute one of the wonders of the deep. They are often -met with of the diameter of twenty or thirty miles, and when in the -state of such close combination that no interstice could be seen, -they sometimes extend to a length of fifty or a hundred miles. The -ice of which they are composed is generally pure and fresh, and -in heavy fields it is probably of the average thickness of ten to -fifteen feet, and then appears to be flat, low, thin ice; but when -high hummocks occur, the thickness is often forty feet and fifty -feet. The surface before the month of July is always covered with -a bed of snow, from perhaps a foot to a fathom in depth. This snow -dissolves in the end of summer, and forms extensive pools and lakes -of fresh water. Some of the largest fields are very level and smooth, -though generally their surfaces are varied with hummocks. In some, -these hummocks form ridges or chains, in others, they consist of -insulated heaps. I once saw a field which was so free from either -fissure or hummock, that I imagined, had it been free from snow, -a coach might have been driven many leagues over it in a direct -line, without obstruction or danger. Hummocks somewhat relieve the -uniformity of intense light reflected from the surface of fields, -by exhibiting shades of delicate blue in all the hollows, where the -light is partly intercepted by passing through a portion of ice. - -When the surface of snow on fields is frozen, or when the snow is -generally dissolved, there is no difficulty in travelling over them, -even without snow-skates or sledges. But when the snow is soft and -deep, travelling on foot to any distance is a work of labour. The -tribe of Esquimaux, discovered by captain Ross, made use of sledges, -drawn by dogs, for conveying them across the rough land-ice, lying -between the ships and the shore. A journey they performed with such -celerity, that captain Ross conjectured they could travel fifty or -sixty miles a day. If such a distance were practicable on drift-ice, -occurring near shore, it would be much more easy on the smoother ice -of fields. - -This term, _field_, was given to the largest sheets of ice by a Dutch -whale-fisher. It was not until a period of many years after the -Spitzbergen fishery was established, that any navigator attempted to -penetrate the ice, or that any of the most extensive sheets of ice -were seen. One of the ships resorting to Smeerenberg for fishery, put -to sea on one occasion when no whales were seen, persevered westward -to a considerable length, and accidentally fell in with some immense -flakes of ice, which, on his return to his companions, he described -as truly wonderful, and as resembling fields in the extent of their -surface. Hence the application of the term field to this kind of ice. -The discoverer of it was distinguished by the title of “field-finder.” - -Fields commonly make their appearance in the months of May or June, -though sometimes earlier; they are frequently the resort of young -whales. Strong north and westerly winds expose them to the whalers -by driving off the loose ice. The invariable tendency of fields is -to drift to the south-westward, even in calms, which is the means of -many being yearly destroyed. They have frequently been observed to -advance a hundred miles in this direction within the space of one -month, notwithstanding the occurrence of winds from every quarter. -On emerging from amidst the smaller ice, which before sheltered -them, they are soon broken up by the swell, are partly dissolved, -and partly converted into drift-ice. The places of such are supplied -by others from the north. The power of the swell in breaking the -heaviest fields is not a little remarkable. A grown swell, that is -so inconsiderable as not to be observed in open water, frequently -breaks up the largest fields, and converts them wholly into floes -and drift-ice in the space of a few hours; while fields composed of -bay-ice, or light-ice, being more flexible, endure the same swell -without any destructive effort. - -The occasional rapid motion of fields, with the strange effects -produced by such immense bodies on any opposing substance, is one of -the most striking objects the Polar seas present, and is certainly -the most terrific. They not unfrequently acquire a rotatory movement, -whereby their circumference attains a velocity of several miles per -hour. A field thus in motion, coming in contact with another at -rest, or more especially with another having a contrary direction -of movement, produces a dreadful shock. A body of more than ten -thousand millions of tons in weight, meeting with resistance when -in motion, produces consequences which it is scarcely possible to -conceive. The weaker field is crushed with an awful noise; sometimes -the destruction is mutual; pieces of huge dimensions and weight are -not unfrequently piled upon the top, to the height of twenty or -thirty feet, while a proportionate quantity is depressed beneath. -The view of these stupendous effects in _safety_ exhibits a picture -sublimely grand, but where there is danger of being overwhelmed, -terror and dismay must be the predominant feelings. The whale-fishers -at all times require unremitting vigilance to secure their safety, -but scarcely in any situation so much as when navigating amidst -these fields; in foggy weather, they are particularly dangerous, -as their motions cannot then be distinctly observed. It may easily -be imagined, that the strongest ship is but an insignificant -impediment between two fields in motion. Numbers of vessels, since -the establishment of the fishery, have been thus destroyed; some -have been thrown upon the ice, some have had their hulls completely -torn open, or divided in two, and others have been overrun by the -ice, and buried beneath its heaped fragments. The Dutch have lost as -many as twenty-three sail of ships among the ice in one year. In the -season of 1684, fourteen of their ships were wrecked, and eleven more -remained beset during the winter. - -In the month of May, of the year 1814, I witnessed a tremendous -scene. While navigating amidst the most ponderous ice which the -Greenland Sea presents, in the prospect of making our escape from -a state of _besetment_, our progress was unexpectedly arrested by -an isthmus of ice, about a mile in breadth, formed by the coalition -of the point of an immense field on the north, with that of an -aggregation of floes on the south. To the north field we moored the -ship, in the hope of the ice separating in this place. I then quitted -the ship, and travelled over the ice to the point of collision, to -observe the state of the bar, which now prevented our release. I -immediately discovered that the two points had but recently met, that -already a prodigious mass of rubbish had been squeezed upon the top, -and that the motion had not abated. The fields continued to overlay -each other with a majestic motion, producing a noise resembling -that of complicated machinery, or distant thunder. The pressure was -so immense, that numerous fissures were occasioned, and the ice -repeatedly rent beneath my feet. In one of the fissures, I found the -snow on the level three and a half feet deep, and the ice upwards of -twelve. In one place, hummocks had been thrown up to the height of -twenty feet from the surface of the field, and at least twenty-five -feet from the level of the water; they extended fifty or sixty yards -in length, and fifteen in breadth, forming a mass of about two -thousand tons in weight. The majestic, unvaried movement of the ice, -the singular noise by which it was accompanied, the tremendous power -exerted, and the wonderful effects produced—were calculated to excite -in the mind of the most careless spectator admiration of Him with -whom “the nations are as a drop of a bucket, and are counted as the -small dust of the balance: behold, he taketh up the isles as a very -little thing.” - -The term _icebergs_ has commonly been applied to the glaciers -occurring in Spitzbergen, Greenland, and other arctic countries. It -is also as commonly extended to the large peaks, mountains, or islets -of ice that are found floating in the sea. It is the latter kind of -icebergs we purpose to describe. - -Icebergs occur in many places in the arctic and antarctic regions; -some of them of astonishing magnitude. In the Spitzbergen Sea, -indeed, they are neither numerous nor bulky, compared with those -of other regions; the largest I ever met with in this quarter not -exceeding a thousand yards in circumference, and two hundred feet in -thickness. But in Hudson’s Strait, Davis’s Strait, and Baffin’s Bay, -they occur of a prodigious size. Ellis describes them as sometimes -occurring of the thickness of five hundred or six hundred yards. -Frobisher saw one iceberg which was judged to be “near fourscore -fathoms above water.” One berg is described by captain Ross (the -dimensions of which were given in by lieutenant Parry[1]) as having -nine unequal sides, as being aground in sixty-one fathoms, and as -measuring 4,169 yards (paces) long, 3,689 yards broad, and fifty-one -feet high. The weight of this iceberg, taken at somewhat smaller -dimensions, was estimated, by an officer of the Alexander, at -1,292,397,673 tons. This amount, however, is greater than the truth, -the cubical inch of ice being taken at 240 grains, whereas it does -not exceed 231·5 grains. - -The most abundant source of icebergs known in the arctic regions is -Baffin’s Bay. From this remarkable sea they constantly make their -way towards the south, down Davis’s Strait, and are scattered abroad -in the Atlantic to an amazing extent. The banks of Newfoundland are -occasionally crowded with these wonderful productions of the frigid -zone; beyond which they are sometimes conveyed, by the operation of -the southerly under-current, as low as latitude 40° north, and even -lower, a distance of at least two thousand miles from the place of -their origin. - -Icebergs commonly float on a base which is larger in extent than the -upper surface. Hence the proportion of ice appearing above water is -seldom less in elevation than one-seventh of the whole thickness; and -when the summit is conical, the elevation above water is frequently -one-fourth of the whole depth of the berg. Perhaps the most general -form of icebergs is with one high perpendicular side, the opposite -side very low, and the intermediate surface forming a gradual slope. -When of such a form, captain Ross found that the higher end was -generally to windward. Some icebergs have regular flat surfaces, but -most usually they have different acute summits, and occasionally -exhibit the most fantastic shapes. Some have been seen that were -completely perforated, or containing prodigious caverns, or having -many clefts or cracks in the most elevated parts, so as to give -the appearance of several distinct spires. On some icebergs, where -there are hollows, a great quantity of snow accumulates; others are -smooth and naked. The naked sides are often filled with conchoidal -excavations, of various magnitudes; sometimes with hollows the size -of the finger, and as regular as if formed by art. On some bergs, -pools of water occur stagnant; on others, large streams are seen -oozing through crevices into the sea. In a high sea, the waves -break against them as against a rock; and, in calm weather, where -there is a swell, the noise made by their rising and falling is -tremendous. When icebergs are aground, or when there is a superficial -current running to leeward, the motion of other ice past them is so -great that they appear to be moving to windward. Fields of ice, of -considerable thickness, meeting a berg under such circumstances, -are sometimes completely ripped up and divided through the middle. -Icebergs, when acted on by the sun, or by a temperate atmosphere, -become hollow and fragile. Large pieces are then liable to be broken -off, and fall into the sea with a terrible crash, which, in some -places, produces an echo in the neighbouring mountains. When this -circumstance, called _calving_, takes place, the iceberg loses -its equilibrium, sometimes turns on one side, and is occasionally -inverted. The sea is thereby put into commotion, fields of ice in the -vicinity are broken up, the waves extend, and the noise is heard to -the distance of several miles; and sometimes the rolling motion of -the berg not ceasing, other pieces get loosened and detached, till -the whole mass falls asunder like a wreck. - -Icebergs differ a little in colour according to their solidity and -distance, or state of the atmosphere. A very general appearance -is that of cliffs of chalk, or of white or grey marble. The sun’s -rays reflected from them sometimes give a glistening appearance to -their surfaces. Different shades of colour occur in the precipitous -parts, accordingly as the ice is more or less solid, and accordingly -as it contains strata of earth, gravel, or sand, or is free from -any impurity. In the fresh fracture, greenish grey, approaching to -emerald green, is the prevailing colour. In the night, icebergs -are readily distinguished, even at a distance, by their natural -effulgence; and in foggy weather, by a peculiar blackness in the -atmosphere, by which the danger to the navigator is diminished. -As, however, they occur far from land, and often in unexpected -situations, navigators require to be always on the watch for them. -Though often dangerous neighbours, they have occasionally proved -useful auxiliaries to the whale-fishers. Their situation in a smooth -sea is very little affected by the wind; under the strongest gale -they are not perceptibly moved, but, on the contrary, have the -appearance of advancing to windward, because every other description -of ice moves rapidly past them. From the iceberg’s firmness, it often -affords a stable mooring to the ship in strong adverse winds, and the -fisher likewise avails himself of it when his object is to gain a -windward situation more open. He moors under the lee of the iceberg, -loose ice soon forces past, the ship remains nearly stationary, and -the wished-for effect seldom fails to result. Vessels have, however, -often been staved, and sometimes wrecked, by the fall of their icy -mooring; while smaller objects, such as boats, have been repeatedly -overwhelmed, even at a considerable distance, by the vast waves -occasioned by such events. - -All ice becomes exceedingly fragile towards the close of the -whale-fishing season, when the temperate air thaws its surface, -and changes its solid structure into a brittle mass of imperfectly -attached columns. Bergs in this state being struck by an axe, for -the purpose of placing a mooring anchor, have been known to rend -asunder, and precipitate the careless seaman into the yawning -chasm; whilst, occasionally, the masses are hurled apart, and fall -in contrary directions with a prodigious crash, burying boats and -men in one common ruin. The awful effect produced by a solid mass, -many thousands, or even millions, of tons in weight, changing its -situation with the velocity of a falling body, whereby its aspiring -summit is in a moment buried in the ocean, can be more easily -imagined than described. Though a blow with an edge-tool on brittle -ice does not sever the mass, still it is often succeeded by a -crackling noise, proving the mass to be ready to burst from the force -of internal expansion, or from the destruction of its texture by a -warm temperature. It is common, when ships moor to icebergs, to lie -as remote from them as their ropes will allow, and yet accidents -sometimes happen, though the ship ride at the distance of a hundred -yards from the ice. In the year 1812, while the Thomas, of Hull, -captain Taylor, lay moored to an iceberg in Davis’s Strait, a _calf_ -was detached from beneath, and rose with such tremendous force, that -the keel of the ship was lifted on a level with water at the bow, -and the stern was nearly immersed beneath the surface. Fortunately, -the blow was received on the keel, and the ship was not materially -damaged. - -From the deep pools of water found in the summer season on the -depressed surface of some bergs, or from streams running down their -sides, the ships navigating where they abound are presented with -opportunities for watering with the greatest ease and dispatch. For -this purpose, casks are landed upon the lower bergs, filled, and -rolled into the sea; but, from the higher, the water is conveyed by -means of a long tube of canvas, or leather, called a _hose_, into -casks placed in the boats, at the side of the ice, or even upon the -deck of the ship. - -The greater part of the icebergs that occur in Davis’s Strait, and on -the eastern coast of North America, notwithstanding their profusion -and immense magnitude, seem to be merely fragments of the land -icebergs, or glaciers, which exist in great numbers on the coast -forming the boundaries of Baffin’s Bay. These glaciers fill immense -valleys, and extend, in some places, several miles into the sea; in -others, they terminate with a precipitous edge at the general line -formed by the coast. In the summer season, when they are particularly -fragile, the force of cohesion is often overcome by the weight of -the prodigious masses that overhang the sea; and, in winter, the -same effect may be produced by the powerful expansion of the water -filling any excavation, or deep-seated cavity, when its dimensions -are enlarged by freezing, thereby exerting a tremendous force, and -bursting the berg asunder. Pieces thus, or otherwise, detached, -are hurled into the sea with a dreadful crash. When they fall into -sufficiently deep water, they are liable to be drifted off the land, -and down Davis’s Strait, according to the set of the current; but, -if they fall into a shallow sea, they must remain until sufficiently -wasted to float away. - -Spitzbergen is possessed of every character which is supposed to be -necessary for the formation of the largest icebergs; high mountains, -deep extensive valleys, intense frost, occasional thaws, and great -falls of sleet and snow; yet here a berg is rarely met with, and -the largest that occur are not to be compared with the productions -of Baffin’s Bay. The reason of the difference between Spitzbergen -and Old Greenland as to the production of icebergs is, perhaps, -this—that, while the sea is generally deep, and the coast almost -continually sheltered by drift-ice at the foot of the glaciers, in -Baffin’s Bay; in Spitzbergen, on the contrary, they usually terminate -at the water’s edge, or where the sea is shallow, so that no very -large mass, if dislodged, can float away, and they are, at the same -time, so much exposed to heavy swells, as to occasion dismemberments -too frequently to admit of their attaining considerable magnitude. - -That extensive body of ice which, with occasional tracts of land, -occupies the northern extremity of the earth, and prevents all access -to the regions immediately surrounding the Pole, fills, it appears, -on an average, a circle of above two thousand geographical miles -diameter, and presents an outline which, though subject to partial -variations, is found at the same season of each succeeding year to be -generally similar, and often strikingly uniform. The most remarkable -alteration in the configuration of the Polar ice on record, is that -said to have taken place between Iceland and Greenland, in the -beginning of the fifteenth century, whereby the intercourse between -the Icelanders and the colonies in Greenland was interrupted; and, -although many attempts have been made on the part of Denmark for the -recovery of these colonies, and for ascertaining the fate of the -colonists, they have not yet succeeded. In various countries, changes -of climate, to a certain extent, have occurred within the limits -of historical record; these changes have been commonly for the -better, and have been considered as the effects of human industry, in -draining marshes and lakes, felling woods, and cultivating the earth; -but here is an occurrence which, if it be indeed true, is the reverse -of common experience, and concerning the causes of which it is not -easy to offer any conjecture. - -With each recurring spring, the north Polar ice presents the -following general outline. Filling the Bays of Hudson and Baffin, -as well as the Straits of Hudson, and part of that of Davis, it -exhibits an irregular, waving, but generally continuous line, from -Newfoundland or Labrador to Nova Zembla. From Newfoundland it -extends in a northerly direction along the Labrador shore, generally -preventing all access to the land, as high as the mouth of Hudson’s -Strait; then, turning to the north-eastward, forms a bay near the -coast of Greenland, in latitude perhaps 66° or 67°, by suddenly -passing away to the southward to the extremity of Greenland. The -quantity of ice on the east side of Davis’s Strait being often small, -the continuity of its border is liable to be broken, so as to admit -of ships reaching the land; and sometimes the bay of the ice, usually -occurring in the spring, in latitude 66° or 67°, does not exist, but -the sea is open up the strait to a considerable distance beyond it. -After doubling the southern promontory, or Cape Farewell, it advances -in a north-eastern direction along the east coast, sometimes -enveloping Iceland as it proceeds, until it reaches the Island of -Jan Mayen. Passing this island on the north-west, but frequently -inclosing it, the edge of the ice then trends a little more to the -eastward, and usually intersects the meridian of London between the -71st and 73rd degree of latitude. Having reached the longitude of 5° -or 6° east, in some instances as far as 8° or 10°, in the 73rd or -74th degree or north latitude, it joins a remarkable promontory, and -suddenly stretches to the north, sometimes proceeding on a meridian -to the latitude of 80°, at others forming a deep sinuosity, extending -two or three degrees to the northward, and then south-easterly to -Cherie Island, which, having passed, it assumes a more direct course -a little to the southward of east, until it forms a junction with the -Siberian or Nova Zemblan coast. - -During the winter and spring months, the Polar ice seems closely to -embrace the whole of the northern shores of Russia, to the eastward -of Nova Zembla, and filling, in a great measure, Behring’s Strait -and the sea to the northward of it, continues in contact with the -Polar face of the American continent, following the line of the coast -to the eastward, until it effects a junction with the ice in the -Spitzbergen Sea, or in the great north-western bays of Hudson and -Baffin, or is terminated by land yet undiscovered. - -That remarkable promontory midway between Jan Mayen and Cherie -Islands, formed by the sudden stretch of the ice to the north, -constitutes the line of separation between the east, or _whaling_, -and west, or _sealing_, ice of the fishers; and the deep bay lying to -the east of this promontory, which may be called the _Whale-fisher’s -Bight_, invariably forms the only pervious track for proceeding -to fishing latitudes northward. When the ice at the extremity of -this bay occurs so strong and compact as to prevent the approach -to the shores of Spitzbergen, and the advance northward beyond the -latitude of 75° or 76°, it is said to be a _close season_, and, on -the contrary, it is called an _open season_ when an uninterrupted -navigation extends along the western coast of Spitzbergen to -Hackluyt’s Headland. - -The place where whales occur in the greatest abundance is generally -found to be in 78° or 79° of north latitude, though, from the 72nd to -the 81st degree they have been met with. They prefer those situations -which afford them the most secure retreats, and the course of their -flight when scared or wounded is generally towards the nearest or -most compact ice. The place of their retreat, however, is regulated -by various circumstances; it may sometimes depend on the quality or -quantity of food occurring, the disposition of the ice, or exemption -from enemies. Sometimes they seem collected within a small and -single circuit; at others, they are scattered in various hordes -and numerous single individuals over an amazing extent of surface. -In _close seasons_, though the ice joins the south of Spitzbergen, -and thereby forms a _barrier_ against the fishing-stations, yet this -barrier is often of a limited extent, and terminates on the coasts -of Spitzbergen in an open space, either forming or leading to the -retreat of the whales. Such space is sometimes frozen over till the -middle or end of the month of May, but not unfrequently free from -ice. The barrier here opposed to the fisher usually consists of a -body of ice, from twenty to thirty or forty leagues across in the -shortest diameter. It is of importance to pass this barrier of ice as -early as possible in the season. The fisher here avails himself of -every power within his command. The sails are expanded in favourable -winds, and withdrawn in contrary breezes. The ship is urged forward -amongst drift-ice by the force of the wind, assisted with ropes and -saws. Whenever a vein of water appears in the required direction, it -is, if possible, attained. It always affords a temporary relief, and -sometimes a permanent release, by extending itself through intricate -mazes, amidst ice of various descriptions, until at length it opens -into the desired place, void of obstruction, constituting the usual -retreat of the whales. - -The barrier which we have described, when it occurs, is regularly -encountered on the first arrival of the Greenland ships in the -month of April, but is generally removed by natural means as the -season advances. It is usually found separate from the land, and -divided asunder by the close of the month of June; and hence it is -that, however difficult and laborious may have been the ingress -into the fishing country, the egress is commonly effected without -much inconvenience. In the month of May, the severity of the frost -relaxes, and the temperature generally approaches a few degrees of -the freezing point. The salt in the sea then exerts its liquefying -influence, and destroys the tenacity of the bay-ice, makes inroads -in its parts by enlarging its pores into holes, diminishes its -thickness, and, in the language of the whale-fisher, completely rots -it. Packed drift-ice is then liberated, and obeys the slightest -impulses of the winds or currents. The heavier having more stability -than the lighter, an apparent difference of movement obtains among -the pieces, and holes and lanes of water are formed to allow the -entrance and progress of the ships. Bay-ice, though sometimes -serviceable to the whalers in preserving them from the brunt of the -heavy ice, is often the means of besetment, and hence the primary -cause of every calamity. Heavy ice, many feet in thickness, and in -detached pieces of from fifty to a hundred tons’ weight each, though -crowded together in the form of a pack, may be penetrated in a -favourable gale with tolerable dispatch, whilst a sheet of bay-ice, -of a few inches only in thickness, with the same advantage of wind, -will often arrest the progress of the ship, and render her in a few -minutes immovable. If this ice be too strong to be broken by the -weight of the boat, recourse must be had to sawing, an operation slow -and laborious in the extreme. - -When the warmth of the season has rotted the bay-ice, the passage -to the northward can generally be accomplished with a very great -saving of labour. Therefore it was the older fishers seldom or never -used to attempt it before the 10th of May, and foreign fishers -in the present day are in general late. Sometimes late arrivals -are otherwise beneficial, since it frequently happens, in _close -seasons_, that ships entering the ice about the middle of May obtain -an advantage over those preceding them, by gaining a situation more -eligible, on account of its nearness to the land. Their predecessors, -meanwhile, are drifted off to the westward with the ice, and cannot -recover their easting. Hence, it appears, it would be economical -and beneficial to sail so late as not to reach the _country_ before -the middle of May, or to persevere on the sealing stations until -that time. There are, however, some weighty objections to this -method. Open seasons occasionally occur, and great progress may be -made, especially by superior fishers, before that time. A week or a -fortnight’s solitary fishing, under favourable circumstances, has -frequently gained half a cargo. The change which takes place in the -ice, amidst which the whale-fisher pursues his object, is, towards -the close of the _season_, indeed astonishing. For, not only does -it separate into its original individual portions, not only does -it retreat in a body from the western coast of Spitzbergen, but, -in general, that barrier of ice which incloses the fishing-site -in the spring, which costs the fisher immense labour and anxiety -to penetrate, by retarding his advance towards the north, and -his progress in the fishery, for the space of several weeks, -spontaneously divides in the midst about the month of June, and, on -the return of the ships, is not at all to be seen. Then is the sea -rendered freely navigable from the very haunts of the whales to the -expanse of the Atlantic Ocean. - -Our remarks may now be directed, for a few pages, to the properties, -peculiar movements, and drifting of the ice. - -1. The ice always has a tendency to separate during calms. - -2. Openings in packs and among fields, or floes, frequently break -out, or disappear, without any apparent cause. - -3. Fields often open, close, and revolve, in the most extraordinary -manner, in calms as well as in storms. - -4. The amazing changes which take place amongst the most compact ice -are often unaccountable. - -5. When speaking of the currents of the Spitzbergen Sea, it has -been remarked that the Polar ice, in this situation, has a constant -tendency to drift to the south-westward. Near Spitzbergen, indeed, -this tendency is not usually observed, because the influence of the -tide, eddies, peculiar pressures, etc., sometimes produce a contrary -effect; but, at a distance from land, its universal prevalence is -easily illustrated. - -In the beginning of May, 1814, we entered with the ship Esk, -of Whitby, a spacious opening of the ice, in latitude 78° 10′, -longitude 4° east, to a distance of ten or twelve leagues from the -exterior, wherein we were tempted to stay, from the appearance of -a great number of whales. On the 9th of May, the ship became fixed -in the ice, and, until the 16th, we lay immovable. A break of the -bay-ice then appeared about half-a-mile from us, to attain which we -laboured with energy, and, in eight hours, accomplished a passage -for the ship. On the 20th, in attempting to advance, we endured a -heavy pressure of the bay-ice, which shook the ship in an alarming -manner. After a fatiguing effort in passing through the midst of an -aggregation of floes against the wind, we reached a channel, which -led us several miles to the south-eastward; and, on the 23rd, we -lay at rest with four other ships. The day following, having sawn -a place for the ship in a thin floe, we forced forward between two -large masses, where bay-ice, unconsolidated, had been compressed -till it had become ten or twelve feet thick. We were assisted by a -hundred men from the accompanying ships, which followed close in -our rear. After applying all our mechanical powers during eight -or nine hours, we passed the strait of about a furlong in length, -and immediately the ice collapsed, and riveted the ships of our -companions to the spot. We advanced on various winding courses to -the distance of several miles, and then discovered a continuation of -the navigation between two immense sheets of ice, but the channel -was so narrow and intricate, that, for the distance of near a mile, -it did not appear more than from ten to twenty yards in width. The -prospect was, indeed, appalling; but, perceiving indications of the -enlargement of the passage rather than the contrary, we advanced -under a press of sail, driving aside some disengaged lumps of ice -that opposed us, and shortly accomplished our wishes in safety. Here -an enlivening prospect presented itself; to the extreme limits of -the horizon no interruption was visible. We made a predetermined -signal to the ships we had left, indicative of our hope of speedy -release. In two hours, however, we were disappointed by meeting -the fields in the act of collapsing, and completely barring our -progress. As the distance across was scarcely a mile, and the sea, to -appearance, clear beyond it, the interruption was most tantalizing. -We waited at the point of union, and, on the morning of the 26th of -May, our anxiety was happily relieved by the wished-for division -of the ice. The ship, propelled by a brisk wind, darted through the -strait, and entered a sea, which we considered the termination of -our difficulties. After steering three hours to the south-eastward, -we were concerned to discover our conclusions had been premature. -An immense pack opened on our view, stretching directly across our -path. There was no alternative but forcing through it; we therefore -pushed forward into the least connected part. By availing ourselves -of every advantage of sailing, where sailing was practicable, and -_boring_ or drifting where the pieces of ice lay close together, we -at length reached the leeward part of a narrow channel, in which we -had to ply a considerable distance against the wind. When performing -this, the wind, which had hitherto blown a brisk breeze from the -north, increased to a strong gale. The ship was placed in such a -critical situation that we could not, for above an hour, accomplish -any reduction of the sails; and while I was personally engaged -performing the duty of a pilot on the topmast-head, the bending -of the mast was so uncommon that I was seriously alarmed for its -stability. At length, we were enabled to reef our sails, and for -some time proceeded with less danger. Our direction was now east, -then north for several hours, then easterly, ten or fifteen miles; -when, after eighteen hours of the most difficult and occasionally -hazardous sailing, in which the ship received some hard blows from -the ice, after pursuing a tedious course nearly ninety miles, and -accomplishing a distance on a direct north-east course of about forty -miles, we found ourselves at the very margin of the sea, separated -only by a narrow sea-stream. The sea was so great without, and the -wind so violent, that we durst not hazard an attempt to force through -this remaining obstacle. After waiting about thirty hours, on the -morning of the 28th of May, the weather cleared, and the wind abated. -The sea-stream was now augmented to upwards of a mile broad. One -place alone was visible where the breadth was less considerable, and -through it we accomplished our final escape into the open sea. - -I have thus been minute in the relation of our extrication from an -alarming, though not very uncommon state of besetment, in order to -give a faint idea of the difficulties and dangers which those engaged -in the whale-fishery have occasionally to encounter, as well as to -illustrate the manner in which ships are carried away from their -original situation by the regularity of the drift of ice to the -south-westward. The life of the mariner is one always of great labour -and peril, but in navigating these arctic seas he is exposed to -sudden and peculiar dangers. - -It is possible that the title and contents of this volume may allure -to its perusal some who look forward to exposure to dangers such -as those which are here described. They surely will not deem it -intrusive to be reminded that the most important preparation for -such undertakings, as well as for the whole of life, is to surrender -the heart to that Saviour who has died to redeem his servants from -guilt and ruin. The pardon and peace which he freely confers on all -who come to him, are the only safe comforts of a departing soul. It -is his blood only that cleanses from all sin; it is his Spirit that -renews and sanctifies the mind; and whatever pain or accident may -befal the body, there can be “no condemnation” in time or in eternity -“to them which are in Christ Jesus.” The message of God to man is the -offer of a free salvation, through the death of his glorious Son. -This offer must determine the eternal condition of all to whom it is -in God’s mercy revealed. “God so loved the world, that he gave his -only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, -but have everlasting life!” Reader, do you understand, and have you -accepted, this gracious message? - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Now sir John Ross and sir Edward Parry. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -OBSERVATIONS ON THE ATMOSPHEROLOGY OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS, -PARTICULARLY RELATING TO SPITZBERGEN AND THE ADJACENT GREENLAND SEA. - - -In treating of the subject of this chapter, our remarks shall, in -the first instance, relate to the _climate of the Arctic Regions -and the general effects of cold_. In the autumn and spring seasons, -the climate of Spitzbergen and its adjacent sea is variable and -tempestuous. The temperature passes through its extreme range, which, -probably, exceeds fifty degrees in the same season, or even in the -same month, with a rapidity unknown in countries situate within the -temperate zones. North, west, and east winds bring with them the -extreme cold of the icy regions immediately surrounding the Pole, -whilst a shift of wind to the south-west, south, or south-east, -elevates the temperature towards that of the neighbouring seas. - -An arctic winter consists of the accumulation of almost everything -among atmospheric phenomena that is disagreeable to the feelings, -together with the privation of those bounties of Heaven with which -other parts of the earth, in happier climates, are so plentifully -supplied. During the whole of the winter months, the cheering rays of -the sun are neither seen nor felt, and there are occasional storms of -wind and snow. - -The most severe cold, says Crantz, that occurs in Greenland, sets in, -as in temperate climates, “after the new year; and is so piercing -in February and March, that the stones split in twain, and the sea -reeks like an oven.” On the return of the sun, the months of May, -June, and August, are even occasionally pleasant; but with July, and -partially with June and August, the densest fogs prevail, which are -more depressing to the spirits than even intense cold. - -The temperature of the atmosphere, when the fogs prevail, is -generally near the freezing point, and is not above three or four -degrees higher at midday than at midnight, and sometimes does not -vary above a degree or two for several days together. But, in the -spring and winter seasons, the temperature is subject to very great -and rapid alterations, which are frequently simultaneous with the -greatest changes of pressure. This renders the thermometer a valuable -appendage in the prognostication of the weather. - -The great depression of temperature which takes place in the -proximity of ice with a northerly wind, appears equally as -considerable to the feelings in low as in high latitudes. As great -a degree of cold as ever I noticed in a series of twelve years’ -observations (once excepted) was in latitude 71¼°, April 12, 1814, -when the mean of three thermometers indicated zero; and, on the same -occasion, during an interval of three days, the mean temperature was -less than 5°. The wind in the mean time was continually blowing from -the north-eastward, generally blowing a gale, but sometimes moderate. -On the 25th of April, 1813, in latitude 8°, the thermometer fell to -4°, during a hard gale from the north-east, but on account of the -ship being driven away from the ice it soon rose to 10° or 15°. The -effect of the ice in reducing the temperature is so considerable, -that our proximity to it is often announced by the coldness before -it can be seen. In this manner, the difference of a few leagues in -position sometimes produces a surprising increase of cold. - -The Greenland sailors, being well defended from external cold by -a choice selection of warm clothing, generally support the lowest -temperature, after a few days’ habitude, without much inconvenience. -When, however, its attacks are not gradual, as when a ship, which -has attained the edge of the ice, under a southerly gale, is exposed -suddenly to a northerly breeze, the change of temperature is so great -and rapid, that the most hardy cannot conceal their uneasiness under -its first impression. On one occasion, in the year 1814, there -was between the time of my leaving the deck at night and arising -the following morning an increase in the cold of about 20°. This -remarkable change was attended with singular effects. The circulation -of the blood was accelerated, a sense of parched dryness was excited -in the nose; the mouth, or rather lips, were contracted in all their -dimensions, as by a sphincter, and the articulation of many words was -rendered difficult and imperfect; indeed, every part of the body was -more or less stimulated or disordered by the severity of the cold. -The hands, if exposed, would have been frozen in a few minutes, and -even the face could not have resisted the effects of a brisk wind, -continued for any length of time. A piece of metal, when applied to -the tongue, instantly adhered to it, and could not be removed without -its retaining a portion of the skin; iron became brittle, and such -as was at all of inferior quality might be fractured by a blow; -brandy, of English manufacture and wholesale strength, was frozen; -quicksilver, by a single process, might have been consolidated; the -sea, in some places, was in the act of freezing, and, in others, -appeared to smoke, and produced, in the formation of _frost-rime_, an -obscurity greater than that of the thickest fog. - -The subtle principle of magnetism seemed to be, in some way or other, -influenced by the frost, for the deck compasses became sluggish, or -even motionless, while a cabin compass traversed with celerity. The -ship became enveloped in ice; the bows, sides, and lower rigging, -were loaded; and the rudder, if not repeatedly freed, would, in a -short time, have been rendered immovable. A considerable swell at -this time prevailing, the smoke in the cabin, with the doors closed, -was so intolerable, that we were under the necessity of giving free -admission to the external air to prevent it. The consequence was, -that, in front of a brisk fire, at the distance of a yard and a half -from it, the temperature was 25°; water spilt on the table froze, -and, indeed, congelation took place in one situation at the distance -of only two feet from the stove. Hoar-frost, also, appeared in the -sailors’ bed-cabins, arising from their breath, and was deposited -upon their blankets. - -Under such a temperature, the whale-fishery could not be prosecuted, -for nature could not sustain continued exposure to the pungent force -of the wind. With a calm atmosphere, however, the sensible effects of -cold are singularly diminished; the cold of zero then becomes equally -supportable with the temperature of 10, 15, or even 20 degrees, when -impressed by a brisk wind; hence, the sensations produced on the body -become a very equivocal criterion for estimating the degree of cold. - -The effect of cold in preventing the traversing of compasses, exposed -to its influence, has been noticed by some navigators. As a remedy -against this inconvenience, Ellis, in his voyage to Hudson’s Bay, -suggests the propriety of removing the compasses into a warm place, -by which the needles speedily resume their activity. I have found, -by experiments, that neither the attractive nor directive power of -the magnet suffers diminution by an increase of cold. There appears, -however, to be an increase of friction, or the introduction of some -unknown principle, which, when the degree of cold is very much -increased, occasions a diminution in the mobility of magnetic needles. - -Many remarkable effects of cold are related in the journals of Polar -navigators. Captain James, when wintering in Hudson’s Bay, latitude -52° north, experienced such cold, that, on the 10th December, many -of the sailors had their noses, cheeks, and fingers, frozen as white -as paper. Ellis, who wintered in the same region, latitude 57° 30′, -found, by the 3rd of November, bottled beer, though wrapped in -tow, and placed near a good, constant fire, frozen solid. Many of -the sailors had their faces, ears, and toes frozen; iron adhered -to their fingers; glasses used in drinking stuck to the mouth, and -sometimes removed the skin from the lips or tongue; and a sailor, who -inadvertently used his finger for stopping a spirit-bottle in place -of a cork, while removing it from the house to his tent, had his -finger fast frozen in the bottle, in consequence of which a part of -it was obliged to be taken off to prevent mortification. - -A Hamburgh whaler, beset by the ice, near Spitzbergen, in the year -1769, was exposed to great danger. The effect of the frost was such, -that the seams in the ship’s sides cracked with a noise resembling -the report of a pistol. These openings at first rendered the vessel -very leaky, but after she got free from the ice, and into a milder -climate, they again closed. - -In the interesting narrative, by Pelham, of the preservation of eight -seamen, who were accidentally left in Spitzbergen, in the year 1630, -and wintered there, are some remarks on the effects of cold. The sea -of the bay, where they took up their abode, froze over on the 10th -of October. After the commencement of the new year, the frost became -most intense; it raised blisters in their flesh as if they had been -burned with fire, and if they touched iron at such times it would -stick to their fingers like bird-lime. Sometimes, when they went -out of doors to procure water, they were seized in such a way by -the cold, that their flesh felt as sore as if they had been cruelly -beaten. - -The effects of cold at Disco, as observed by M. Paul Egedé, on the -7th January, 1738, and recorded by David Crantz, in his History of -Greenland, are too striking to be omitted. “The ice and hoar-frost,” -says Egedé, “reach through the chimney to the stove’s mouth, without -being thawed by the fire in the day-time. Over the chimney is an -arch of frost, with little holes, through which the smoke discharges -itself. The doors and walls are as if they were plastered over with -frost, and, which is scarcely credible, beds are often frozen to the -bedsteads. The linen is frozen in the drawers, the upper eider-down -bed and the pillows are quite stiff with frost an inch thick, from -the breath.” - -The terrific power of these mighty agencies of nature illustrate His -perfections, who has all resources at his command, to minister to -the comfort of his servants, or the inevitable destruction of his -enemies. To be hostile to the God of heaven and of earth, is surely -the height of folly as well as of ingratitude. “He sendeth forth his -commandment upon earth: his word runneth very swiftly. He giveth snow -like wool: he scattereth the hoar-frost like ashes. He casteth forth -his ice like morsels: who can stand before his cold?” - -In these frigid regions, the scurvy becomes a very alarming disease, -and many individuals have perished by it, who have attempted to -winter in Spitzbergen and neighbouring countries. It appears, -however, probable, that this disease is not so much influenced by -the severity of the climate as by the use of improper aliment. An -excellent paper on this subject, by Dr. John Aikin, is published in -the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. -It affirms, that by the constant use of fresh provisions, the -occasional use of oleaginous substances, together with frequent -exercise, a warm dwelling, and a warm clothing, there would, -probably, be little danger in exposure to the severities of a -Spitzbergen winter. Whenever I have had occasion to expose myself to -severe cold, I have found that the more I am heated the longer I can -resist the cold without inconvenience. The warmth produced by simple -fluids, such as tea or soup, is preferable to that occasioned by -spirits. After the liberal use of tea, I have often sustained a cold -ten degrees at the mast-head for several hours without uneasiness. I -have frequently gone from the breakfast-table, where the temperature -was 50° or 60°, to the mast-head, where it was ten, without any other -additional clothing except a cap, yet I never received any injury, -and seldom much inconvenience, from the uncommon transition. - -The antiseptical property of frost is remarkable. Animal substances -requisite as food, of all descriptions, (fish excepted,) may be taken -to Greenland, and there preserved any length of time, without being -smoked, dried, or salted. Beef, mutton, pork, and fowls, the latter -neither plucked nor drawn, are constantly taken out from England, -Shetland, or Orkney, and preserved in this way. When used, the beef -is best divided by a saw; it is then thawed in cold water, and, -if cooked, when three, four, or five months old, will frequently -appear as profuse of gravy as if it had been recently killed. A -further antiseptical effect is produced by the cold on animal and -vegetable substances, so as to preserve them, if they remain in the -same climate, unchanged for a period of many years. An instance -corroborative of this remark is given by M. Bleau, who, in his Atlas -Historique, informs us, that the bodies of seven Dutch seamen, who -perished in Spitzbergen, in the year 1635, were found twenty years -afterwards by some sailors, who happened to land about the place -where they were interred, in a perfect state, not having suffered the -smallest degree of putrefaction. Wood, indeed, has been met with in -Spitzbergen, which has resisted all injury from the weather during -the lapse of a century. - -Our remarks must now be directed to _meteorology_, and to an -investigation of the temperature of the north Polar regions, and its -constant tendency to equalization. - -Though in a state of rapid improvement, the science of meteorology -is acknowledged to be yet in its infancy. Before the discovery -of the weight of the atmosphere by Torricelli, about the year -1630, no means of registering its variations of pressure could be -known or practised. Hence we can have no very correct idea of the -relative temperature of climates in the present and remote periods, -unless from occasional historical remarks of the formation of ice -in particular lakes, rivers, or parts of the sea, or from the -capability of the earth for producing certain fruits or grain. In -consequence, however, of the use of the thermometer and barometer, -meteorology, as a science, has made considerable advancement. The -records of phenomena, which these instruments indicate, have proved -highly useful. Professor Mayer has given us a formula for determining -the temperature of any situation on the globe, where observations -have not been made. Dr. Hutton has presented us with an ingenious -and plausible theory of rain; and Kirwan, Humboldt, and others, have -advanced our knowledge of the climates of different countries. Dr. -Wells has investigated the phenomena of dew, and professor Leslie -has conducted profound researches on the relations of air to heat -and moisture, and on the propagation of heat and cold through the -atmosphere to distant regions. By the invention, also, of several -curious and useful instruments, especially the hygrometer for the -measurement of the dryness or dampness of the atmosphere, he has -contributed very largely to the advancement of meteorological -knowledge. - -The temperature of the atmosphere in any particular region is one -of those phenomena, which, however they may fluctuate, or whatever -may be their daily, monthly, or yearly variations, and however -unequal and capricious these may be, will, on the average of numerous -corresponding periods, be found to be dependent on certain laws -tending to produce equilibrium; so that the general results are -remarkably uniform. When we experience particularly cold winters, or -particularly hot summers, we might suppose that the mean temperature -of the years in which the former occur, would be greatly below, -and that of years in which the hot summers occur, would be greatly -above, the general standard. But this will seldom be found to be the -case. In temperate climates of the northern hemisphere, the mean -temperature of any one year, derived from the mean of the daily -extremes of heat and cold, or from any particular number of daily -observations, continued through the course of twelve successive -months, seldom differs from the general mean temperature, as derived -from the observation of a great, number of years, more than two or -three degrees. The mean temperature of any single month cannot be -supposed to be equally uniform; this, however, does not differ so -widely from the general mean of the month as might be expected. - -As the mean annual temperature of a country is, therefore, probably -given by one year’s observations only, to within two or three degrees -of the truth, the mean of a period of eight or ten years will, -probably, come within one degree of the truth. By the comparison -of the results of thermometrical observations, made in different -countries, with each other, tracing the changes of temperature, -which appear with certain changes of latitude or situation, some -ingenious and philosophical men have endeavoured, by principles -of analogy and induction, to determine the mean temperature of -every parallel of latitude from the Equator to the north Pole. -These calculations have been considered as near approximations; -and, as long as observations were wanting, served for purposes of -investigation, to complete the scale of the temperature of the globe. -When we reach, however, the regions of perpetual ice, a remarkable -anomaly is discovered, the mean temperature falling below the -estimation in these tables at once 17°. From a series of observations -on the temperature, etc., of the Polar regions, conducted with care -during twelve successive voyages to the Greenland Seas, I am able to -deduce the following conclusions. - -The mean temperature of the months of April, May, June, and July, -are satisfactorily derived from the means of the latitudes and of -the observations of temperature; but the mean temperature of the -whole year, and of the winter months, wherein no observations in -such high latitudes have yet been made, can only be ascertained by -analogy. From the examination of numerous thermometrical registers, -particularly one consisting of 54,750 observations, made in a -succession of fifty years, at Stockholm, it would seem that the -temperature of the year in northern latitudes is indicated by that -of the 27th to 28th of April. I have collated 656 observations, -made on 242 days, in nine different years, extending equally before -and after the 27th of April, from which the mean temperature of the -year, in latitude 76° 45′, near the meridian of London, appears -to be 18° 86′. Reducing all the monthly temperatures derived from -my observations to the parallel of latitude 78° north, by the -application of Mayer’s formula, and allowing for the fact that many -of the observations of April were made at a considerable distance -from the ice, I calculate the temperature of April, latitude 78°, -to be 14° 23′, and the mean of the year in the same proportion -exactly 17°. Having discovered, by observation chiefly, the mean -temperature of the months of April, May, June, and July, and the -probable mean temperature of the year in the icy regions adjoining -Spitzbergen, I conceive it not difficult to calculate the temperature -of the remaining months. The difference between the mean temperature -of the year and that of July, is 21½° in Stockholm, and 20° near -Spitzbergen. Finding not only that the difference of temperature -between the mean of the year and July, near Spitzbergen, but that -the progressive increase of temperature from April to July, also, -bore a strong analogy to the relative circumstances at Stockholm, -I formed a scheme of decimals, connected with a simple formula, by -which the same proportion of change, which has been observed to take -place every month at Stockholm, may be made very readily to apply to -any other country, whence, situations and circumstances being nearly -similar, the temperature of unobserved months may be calculated. The -temperature of January, latitude 78°, comes out—1°; that of February, -O° 7′; March, 6° 1′; August, 34° 9′; September, 27° 8′; October, 18° -5′; November, 9° 8′; and December, 3° 1′. - -Following the example of every generalizing meteorologist, I -may, with some propriety, extend my observations to the probable -temperature of the north Pole, provided I can proceed on data, not -merely arbitrary or fanciful, but founded on observation and analogy. - -It has been observed, that professor Mayer’s theory for ascertaining -the temperature of every latitude, becomes exceedingly wide of the -truth when we approach the regions of perpetual ice, notwithstanding -in most other situations on the sea, or bordering thereon, it holds -sufficiently near. According to it, the mean temperature of latitude -76° 45′, near the western coast of Spitzbergen, would have been 33° -8′, instead of 18° 8′, as shown by my observations; and, according -to it, the mean temperature of the Pole is reckoned to be about 31°. -The 15° difference between the observation and calculation must be -considered as the frigorific effect of the ice, of which, if we can -ascertain the probable measurement at the Pole, we shall be able -to modify Mayer’s calculation, so as to approximate to the mean -temperature. At the Pole, no wind could convey the mild influence -of a temperate climate, because, from whatever direction it should -blow, it must be cooled down by brushing over an extensive surface -of ice; consequently, the full frigorific effect of the ice must be -greater in the Pole than in places situated at or near the borders -of the ice. In a total period of 242 days, the temperature of the -air was, by observation, found to be more or less influenced by the -ice during 173 days of that period. Hence, as 173 is to 15°, the -anomaly occasioned by the mean temperature, so is 242 to 21°, which -is the probable anomaly that may be expected when the temperature is -always influenced by the ice, or the anomaly which may be supposed -to occur at the Pole. Now, if we deduct 21° from 31°, the calculated -temperature of the Pole, the actual mean temperature at the Pole will -be about 10°. - -Concerning the pressure of the atmosphere in Polar latitudes, I would -remark, particularly in the winter and spring months, it is liable -to sudden and very considerable variations, and a careful study and -observation of these is necessary to enable the watchful mariners to -anticipate the approach of storms. - -The following are the relations which, in Polar latitudes, I have -been enabled to trace between the barometer and the weather:— - -1. A hard westerly gale, with snow, occasions the greatest depression -of the mercury; and a light easterly wind, with dry weather, the -greatest elevation. - -2. The rising of the mercury foretells the subsidence of wind or -rain, a change of wind or fine weather; and its falling, rain, snow, -or a change or increase of wind. - -3. The mercury rising unusually high, and then becoming stationary, -indicates, in the months of April and May, a continuance of fine -weather; but in June or July, foggy weather. - -4. If, in the month of April, the mercury fall with some rapidity an -inch or more, a storm will most certainly succeed, however contrary -appearances may be, which will probably be the more severe in -proportion as it approximates the east, and will frequently continue, -with unabated violence, for fifty or sixty hours. - -5. The rising of the mercury usually precedes the cessation of -a storm, but does not invariably determine the period of its -continuance, as storms frequently blow for a day or two after the -first rise of the mercury. - -6. Sudden and repeated fluctuations are indicative of unsettled -weather; but the rapid fall of the mercury is no indication of a -short gale, though, in other regions, the reverse is said to be -the case; for, before storms that continue two or three days, the -barometer frequently falls an inch within twenty-four hours; and -indeed, in a gale as long and as heavy as I almost ever witnessed, -the fall of the mercury was above an inch in twelve hours. - -7. Before very heavy storms, when the barometer falls uncommonly low, -the mercury seems to get below its natural level, and often rises two -or three tenths of an inch as soon as the predicted storm commences; -hence this first rise of the mercury is no indication whatever of an -abatement of the wind. - -8. On account of the different states of the barometer in west and -east winds, the usual level of the mercury, with a moderate wind at -west, not being much higher than with a gale at east, a change of -wind from one of these quarters to the opposite may be accompanied -with the greatest alteration in the strength of the wind, without -producing any effect on the barometer. - -The appearance of the Greenland atmosphere corresponds in some degree -with the winter sky of Britain; the colour of the former is, however, -of a deeper azure, and its transparency, when clear and free from icy -crystals, perhaps more perfect. - -Far within the borders of compact ice the atmosphere, in summer, is -often cloudless, and the weather serenely pleasant, though cold. -But in the usual fishing-stations, and on the exterior of the ice -in general, a clear sky is not frequent; nevertheless, when it does -occur, its transparency is peculiarly beautiful. The sun sometimes -sweeps two or three times round the Pole, without being for a moment -obscured by a cloud. Objects the most remote may be seen perfectly -distinct and clear. A ship’s top-gallant-mast, at the distance of -five or six leagues, may be discerned when just appearing above the -horizon, with a common perspective glass; and the summits of some -mountains are visible at the distance of sixty to a hundred miles. -This perfect clearness occurs most frequently before easterly winds; -in general, however, especially in very cold weather, objects on the -horizon, when viewed with a high magnifier, appear affected with -a perpetual tremor; whence the contemplation of distant objects -is accomplished as perfectly with a good pocket-glass as with the -best telescope. This tremulous motion is evidently produced by the -quantity of delicate icy crystals which, in very low temperatures, -are almost always seen floating in the air. - -The general obscurity of the atmosphere, arising from clouds or -fogs, is such, that the sun is frequently invisible during several -successive days. At such times, when the sun is near the northern -tropic, there is scarcely any sensible variation in the quantity of -light from noon to midnight. Hence, when the sailors have been long -abroad in the boats, or so fully engaged as to be unable to mark the -progress of time, the inquiry, whether it be day or night, is not -unfrequent. - -There is nothing remarkable in the appearance of the sun at midnight, -excepting that, when its altitude is very small, it may be viewed -with the naked eye, without producing any painful sensation; but when -it is more than four or five degrees above the horizon, it generally -appears as effulgent as with the same elevation in Britain. The force -of the sun’s rays is sometimes remarkable. Where they fall upon the -snow-clad surface of the ice or land, they are, in a great measure, -reflected, without producing any material elevation of temperature; -but when they impinge on the black exterior of a ship, the pitch on -one side occasionally becomes fluid, while ice is rapidly generated -on the other; or, while a thermometer, placed against the black -paint-work on which the sun shines, indicates a temperature of 80° or -90°, or even more, on the opposite side of the ship a cold of 20° is -sometimes found to prevail. - -This remarkable force of the sun’s rays is accompanied with a -corresponding intensity of light. A person placed in the centre of -a field or other compact body of ice, under a cloudless atmosphere -and elevated sun, experiences such an extraordinary intensity of -light, that if it be encountered for any length of time, is not only -productive of a most painful sensation in the eyes, but sometimes -of temporary, or even, as I have heard, of permanent blindness. -Under such circumstances, the use of green glasses affords a most -agreeable relief. Some of the Indians of North America defend their -eyes by the use of a kind of wooden spectacles, having, instead of -glasses, a narrow perpendicular slit opposite to each eye. This -simple contrivance, which intercepts, perhaps, nine-tenths of the -light that would reach a naked eye, prevents any painful consequences -in the most intense reflection of light that ever occurs. - -The constant light of the sun during the summer prevents the stars -from being seen; and this, together with the frequency of cloudy -or foggy weather, rarely admits a sight of the moon. Hence, the -longitude, which is of such essential importance in navigation, can -seldom be determined by lunar observations. Chronometers, therefore, -though but little used by the whale-fishers, become of enhanced -value; and even a good watch, well regulated, will, where the degrees -of longitude are so very contracted, point out the meridianal -situation of the ship for short intervals, with a very tolerable -degree of accuracy. - -Though the air in the arctic seas is generally in a state of -dampness, approaching to complete saturation, yet the absolute -quantity of moisture cannot, when the cold is very excessive, be -considerable. It is remarked, that vessels are less apt to rust here -than in any other climate; and this observation, if we consider the -relative humidity of the atmosphere as indicated by the hygrometer, -is certainly correct; but though the air in the Polar regions is -generally damp, yet it is probable there is no habitable situation in -the known world in which such a degree of actual dryness prevails, as -in a house or in the cabin of a ship, well heated, when the external -air is intensely cold. The wainscoting of the cabin of a ship in cold -weather sometimes shrinks, in consequence of the uncommon dryness, as -much as half an inch in a panel of about fifteen inches broad, being -equal to one-thirtieth of the breadth; but, on returning to Britain, -the same panel expands again to almost its original dimensions. - -Few observations, comparatively, seem to have been made on the -electricity of the atmosphere, especially in high latitudes. Perhaps, -some trials that I made in the spring of 1818, on this subject, were -the first that have been attempted within the arctic circle. When -in latitude 68°, I erected an insulated conductor, eight feet above -the maintop-gallant mast-head, connected by a copper wire with a -copper ball, attached by a silk string to the deck. The conductor -consisted of a slender tapering tube of tinned iron, terminated by a -pointed brass wire. It was fixed in an iron socket, supported by a -large cylindrical piece of glass; which glass, by means of another -iron socket, was secured to the top of a long pole, elevated several -feet above the mast-head. A tin cone encompassed the bottom of the -conductor, the mouth of which being downward, defended the rod of -glass from getting wet, so as to injure its insulated property. -The conducting wire, being kept clear of the rigging of the ship, -was expected to exhibit in the ball, where it terminated, any -difference between the state of the electricity of the ship or sea -and that of the atmosphere. The test of electricity was a Bennet’s -gold-leaf electrometer, brought into contact with the ball; but -though trials were made for several successive days, from lat. 78° to -lat. 75°, during clear, cloudy, and showery weather, not the least -excitation was ever observed. That the effect might be rendered more -perceptible, the electrometer was well dried and warmed immediately -before each experiment, without which, indeed, no excitation could be -produced in it, either with glass or sealing-wax. The nights being -light, the aurora borealis could not be seen; but on the evening of -the 20th of May, an appearance was observed, very much resembling the -aurora borealis, yet no signs of electricity were observed in the -electrometer applied to the conductor. - -There are several phenomena of the atmosphere dependent on reflection -and refraction, deserving of notice. _Ice-blinks_ have been already -mentioned, when speaking of the ice. Under certain circumstances, all -objects seen on the horizon seem to be lifted above it a distance -of two to four, or more, minutes of altitude, or so far extended in -height above their natural dimensions. Ice, land, ships, boats, and -other objects, when thus enlarged and elevated, are said to _loom_. -The lower part of _looming_ objects are sometimes connected with the -sensible horizon by an apparent fibrous or columnar extension of -their parts, which columns are always perpendicular to the horizon; -at other times, they appear to be quite lifted into the air, a void -space being seen between them and the horizon. This phenomenon is -observed most frequently on, or before, an easterly wind, and is -generally considered as indicative of such. - -A most extraordinary appearance of the Foreland, or Charles’s Island, -Spitzbergen, occurred on the 16th of July, 1814. While sailing to the -southward, along the coast, with an easterly wind, I observed what -appeared to be a mountain, in the form of a slender, but elevated, -monument. I was surprised that I had never seen it before, and -was more astonished when I saw, not far distant, a prodigious and -perfect arch thrown across a valley, of above a league in breadth. -The neighbouring mountains disclosed the cause, by exhibiting an -unnatural elevation with the columnar structure of looming objects. -Presently, the scene was changed, the mountains along the whole coast -assumed the most fantastical forms; the appearance of castles, with -lofty spires, towers, and battlements, would, in a few minutes, be -converted into a vast arch or romantic bridge. These varied, and -sometimes beautiful, metamorphoses naturally suggested the reality -of fairy descriptions; for the air was perfectly transparent; the -contrast of snow and rocks was quite distinct; even in the substance -of the most uncommon phantasms, though examined with a powerful -telescope, and every object deemed to possess every possible -stability. I never before observed a phenomenon so varied or so -amusing. The land was not alone affected by this peculiar refraction, -since every object between the north-east and south-east points of -the compass was, more or less, deformed by it. A mass of ice on -the horizon appeared of the height of a cliff, and the prismatic -structure of its front suggested the idea of basaltic columns. It -may be remarked, that these phenomena took place on a clear evening, -after an uncommonly warm afternoon. - -I observed many other peculiar effects of refraction. Such phenomena -are frequent on the commencement or approach of easterly winds, -and are probably occasioned by the commixture, near the surface of -the land or sea, of two streams of air of different temperatures, -so as to occasion an irregular deposition of imperfectly condensed -vapour, which, when passing the verge of the horizon, produced these -appearances. - -_Parhelia_, mock suns, and _corona_, haloes, are perhaps not so -frequent in Greenland as in some parts of America. I do not recollect -to have observed them more than thrice. In the first instance, I did -not minutely notice the particulars. I recollect, however, there were -two or three parhelia, and four or five coloured circles, some of -which almost equalled in their colours the brilliancy of the rainbow. -On the second occasion, several parhelia were succeeded by a lunar -halo, together with the aurora borealis, and proved the harbingers -of a tremendous tempest. The last phenomenon of the kind which I -saw, consisted of a large circle of luminous whiteness, passing -through the centre of the sun, in a direction nearly parallel with -the horizon, intersected in various places with coloured circles of -smaller dimensions. - -_Rainbows_ are common in these regions, but the _fog-bow_, or -_fog-circle_, is more rarely observed, and is entitled to our -attention. It is a circle depicted on the fog, which prevails in -the Polar seas, at certain seasons, resting upon the surface of the -water, and seldom reaching to a considerable height. On the 19th -July, 1813, I observed one of about 30° diameter, with bands of vivid -colours depicted on the fog. The centre of the circle was in a line -drawn from the sun, through the point of vision, until it met the -visible vapour in a situation exactly opposite to the sun. The lower -part of the circle descended beneath my feet to the side of the ship, -and although it could not be a hundred feet from the eye, it was -perfect, and the colours distinct. The centre of the coloured circle -was distinguished by my own shadow, the head of which, enveloped by -a halo, was most conspicuously portrayed. I remained a long time -contemplating the beautiful phenomenon before me. - -In the phenomena of the winds, which I am now about to describe, I -cannot be so precise as I have been in my observations on atmospheric -temperature and pressure; being able to give a correct idea only -of their peculiarities and direction, whilst their relative force, -founded on conjecture, I am unable to express otherwise than in the -phraseology of the mariner, which, it must be allowed, is somewhat -ambiguous. - -In proportion as we recede from the equator, we find the winds -become more variable, irregular, and partial. Storms and calms, -in the northern regions, repeatedly alternate, without warning or -progression; forcible winds blow at one place, when, at the distance -of a few leagues, gentle breezes prevail; a storm from the south, on -one hand, exhausts its impetuosity upon the gentle breeze, blowing -from off the ice on the other, without prevailing in the least; -ships, within the circle of the horizon, may be seen enduring every -variety of wind and weather at the same moment; come becalmed, and -tossing about by the violence of the waves; some, under close-reefed -topsails, labouring under the force of a storm; and others, flying -under gentle breezes, from quarters as diverse as the cardinal -points. - -The most general preliminaries to _sudden storms_ are perfect calms; -curiously variable breezes, with strong squalls; singular agitation -of the sea, together with thick snow, which often changes from flakes -to powder, and falls in such profusion, as to occasion an astonishing -gloominess and obscurity in the atmosphere. If the snow clear away, -the gale is often at hand, whilst a luminousness on the horizon, -resembling the ice-blink, sometimes points out its direction, and -a noise in the upper regions of the air announces its immediate -approach. In this variable and occasionally tempestuous climate, -the value of the barometer is satisfactorily proved. My father once -removed his ship from a most dangerous bight in the main ice, where -she would probably have been lost, had she remained a few moments -longer, in consequence of his having heard the rushing of a storm in -the air, while at the mast-head. Before the ship was out of danger, -a heavy gale commenced, but the sails being set, and the ship under -command, she was extricated from the perilous situation. From this -circumstance, he imagined that sudden storms frequently commence at -some height in the atmosphere, and gradually descend to the surface. -_Intermitting gales_ are almost equally common with sudden storms, -and variable winds prevail, in an extraordinary degree, in the frigid -zone. The winds, indeed, among ice, are generally unsteady in their -direction, and attended with strong gusts or squalls, particularly -in very cold weather, and towards the termination of a storm. This -variableness, being the effect of the unequal temperature of the ice -and water, is curious, but the phenomenon that is most calculated to -excite surprise is, that several distinct, and even opposite winds, -with the force, in many instances, of a fresh gale, will occasionally -prevail at the same moment of time, within the range of the horizon. -The situation in which this circumstance occurs, would appear to be -the point where conflicting winds contend for the superiority; and -as, in some instances, their forces are effectually balanced, the -winds, which simultaneously blow from the southward and northward, or -from the eastward and westward, have their energies almost destroyed -at the place of combination. Thus it sometimes happens that ships, -within sight of each other, will, at the same period of time, -experience every variety of weather, from calm to storm, from fair -weather to thickest snow, together with several distinct and contrary -currents of wind. - -On the morning of the 30th of April, 1810, the ship Resolution—in -which I served in the capacity of chief-mate, or harpooner—was, -during thick showers of snow, sailing by the edge of a stream of ice, -with the wind from the north-westward. About ten, A.M., the snow -abated, and several ships were seen within the distance of three or -four miles. As all of these ships were sailing “on a wind,” it was -easy to ascertain the direction of the wind where they were, and -curious to observe its variableness. Two ships, bearing north-east -from us, had the wind at north-east; two, bearing east, had east or -east-north-east; two, bearing south-east, had the wind at south-east; -while, with us, it blew from the north-west. In each of these -situations a fresh breeze prevailed; but in some situations, where -there happened to be no ships, there appeared to be no wind at all. -The clouds above us, at the time, we’re constantly changing their -forms. Showers of snow were seen in various places at a distance. - -Instances of _local storms_ are not uncommon in temperate climates, -but in the arctic regions they are frequent and striking. Their -locality is such, that a calm may occur when a storm is expected and -actually does prevail at a short distance, so that the indication of -the barometer may appear to be erroneous. In such cases, however, the -reality of the storm is often proved by the agitation of the sea. -Swells from various quarters make their appearance, and frequently -prevail at the same time. My father, whose opportunities of -observation have been very numerous, relates the following instance -of the locality of a storm. When commanding the ship Henrietta, he -was on one occasion navigating the Greenland Sea during a tedious -gale of wind, accompanied with snowy weather. As the wind began to -abate, a ship appeared in sight, under all sails, and presently -came up with the Henrietta. The master hailed, and inquired what had -happened that my father’s ship was under close-reefed top-sail in -such moderate weather. On being told that a storm had just subsided, -he declared that he knew nothing of it; he observed, indeed, a swell, -and noticed a black cloud a-head of his ship that seemed to advance -before him until he was overshadowed with it a little while before he -overtook the Henrietta, but he had had fine weather and light winds -the whole day! - -A single instance is given of those sudden gusts and various currents -of wind, which occur at some elevation in the atmosphere, and which -are common to all climates. On a particularly fine day, my father -having landed on the northern part of Charles’s island, incited by -the same curiosity which led him on shore, ascended, though not -without great difficulty and fatigue, a considerable elevation, -the summit of which was not broader than a common table, and which -shelved on one side as steep as the roof of a house, and on the other -formed a mural precipice. Engaged in admiring the extensive prospect -from an eminence of about two thousand feet, he scarcely noticed -the advance of a very small cloud. Its rapid approach and peculiar -form (having somewhat the appearance of a hand) at length excited -his attention, and when it reached the place where he was seated -in a calm air, a torrent of wind assailed him with such violence, -that he was obliged to throw himself on his body and stick his hands -and feet in the snow to prevent himself from being hurled over the -tremendous slope which threatened his instant destruction. The cloud -having passed, the air, to his great satisfaction, became calm, when -he immediately descended by sliding down the surface of snow, and in -a few minutes reached the base of the mountain in safety. - -The course of the seasons, as relates to prevailing winds, is -as follows. In the spring months, north-east and east winds are -frequent, with severe storms from these and other quarters. The -storms from the north-east, east, and south-east, are generally the -most violent. When they occur in March and April, they frequently -continue without intermission for two or three successive days, and -rarely subside till the wind veers round to the north or north-west. -Storms, in the spring of the year, blowing from the south-east, -generally change, before they abate, to the east, north-east, north, -and north-west; but storms commencing at south-west or south, usually -veer, before they subside, in the contrary direction, towards the -north-west, and sometimes continue changing until their strength is -spent in the north or north-east quarter. A storm beginning to blow -from the western quarter seldom continues long; when it blows hard -it commonly veers to the north or north-east, and it is observable -that a very hard southerly or easterly gale is frequently succeeded -within a few days by another from the opposite quarter. With the -advance of the month of May, storms become less frequent, and the -weather becomes sensibly better. The winds then begin to blow more -frequently from the north-west; in June, the most common winds are -north and north-west, south and south-west; and in July, south and -south-westerly winds prevail. At this season, calms or very light -winds also become frequent, and continue sometimes for several days -together. In high northern latitudes, however, very heavy storms -from the southward occur in July, and blow for thirty or forty hours -at a time. In August, north-east winds begin again to prevail. The -south-west and southerly storms of the autumn blow with particular -violence. “The wind rages so vehemently, that the houses quiver -and crack, the tents and lighter boats fly up in the air, and -the sea-water scatters about in the land like snow-dust—nay, the -Greenlanders say that the storm rends off stones a couple of pounds’ -weight, and mounts them in the air. In summer, whirlwinds also spring -up, that draw up the waters out of the sea, and turn a boat round -several times.” - -When the countries of temperate climates suffer under tempests in -frequent succession, Polar regions enjoy comparative tranquillity. -After the autumn gales have passed, a series of calm weather, -attended by severe frosts, frequently succeeds. So striking, indeed, -is the stillness of the northern winter, that there is truth in Dr. -Guthrie’s observation, that nature seems “to have studied perfect -equality in the distribution of her favours, as it is only parts of -the earth which most enjoy the kindly influences of the sun that -suffer by the effects of its superior heat, so that if the atmosphere -of the north is not so genial as that of the south, at least it -remains perfectly quiet and serene, without threatening destruction -to man and the product of his industry as in what are called happier -climates.” - -The principal meteors, not being of the aqueous kind, that remain to -be considered are lightning and the aurora borealis. As we approach -the Pole, the former phenomenon becomes more rare, and the latter -more common. Lightning, indeed, is seldom seen to the northward -of the arctic circle, and when it does occur, it is very seldom -accompanied by thunder. - -In Spitzbergen, neither thunder nor lightning has, I believe, ever -been observed. For my own part, I have never seen lightning northward -of latitude 65°, and only in two instances when at any considerable -distance from land. The aurora borealis occurs independent of land -and of cold, becoming more frequent in its appearance as we approach -the Pole, and enlivening by its brilliancy and peculiar grandeur -the tedious gloom of the long winter nights. Its appearance, though -not very frequently seen in Britain, is very common as far south as -Shetland and Feroe. In Iceland, and other countries bordering on the -arctic circle, the northern lights occur almost every clear night -during the winter. In the summer, they can seldom be seen on account -of the presence of the sun, and in the spring of the year, the -obscurity of the atmosphere prevents their frequent exhibition. In -several instances, I have known stormy weather follow the appearance -of the brilliant aurora, and one of the most tremendous storms I was -ever exposed to, succeeded a splendid exhibition of the northern -lights. Under certain circumstances, especially when they are seen -at a considerable altitude above the horizon, having a red or copper -colour, they are supposed to be indicative of a violent storm. - -Our chapter on atmospherical phenomena must now be concluded by -observations on aqueous meteors; including clouds, rain, hail, snow, -frost-rime, hoar-frost, and fog. - -Very little clear weather occurs in the Greenland seas, for often -when the atmosphere is free from any visible vapour on the land, at -sea it is obscured by frost-rime in the spring of the year, and by -clouds or fog in the summer; so that scarcely one-twentieth of the -season devoted to the whale-fishery can be said to consist of clear -weather. - -The _clouds_ most generally consist of a dense stratum of obscurity, -composed of irregular compact patches covering the whole expanse of -the heavens. The _cirrus_, _cirrocumulus_, and _cirrostratus_, of -Howard’s nomenclature, are occasionally distinct; the _nimbus_ is -partly formed, but never complete: and the grandeur of the _cumulus_ -or thunder-cloud is never seen, unless it be on the land. In the -atmosphere over the coasts in Greenland and Spitzbergen, where the -air is greatly warmed by the concentration and reflection of the -sun’s rays in the sheltered valleys, a small imperfect cumulus is -sometimes exhibited. - -The known agents made use of in the economy of nature for the -production of rain are changes of temperature and electricity. The -latter principle is supposed to act most powerfully in the production -of thunder-showers, in which case it is not unlikely that a portion -of the air of the atmosphere is, by the passing of the lightning from -one cloud to another, converted into water. The former seems to be -the chief agent in the colder regions of the globe, where electricity -is either more equal in its distribution, or not so active in its -operations as in the warmer climates. From the beautiful theory -of the late Dr. James Hutton, supported by the researches of -professor Leslie, it appears, that “while the temperature advances -uniformly in arithmetical progression, the dissolving power which -this communicates to the air mounts with the accelerating rapidity -of a geometrical series;” and this in such a ratio, that the “air -has its dryness doubled at each rise of temperature answering to -fifteen centesimal degrees,” or twenty-seven of Fahrenheit. Hence, -“whatever be the actual condition of a mass of air, there must -always exist some temperature at which it would become perfectly -damp;” and hence whenever two streams of air saturated with moisture -of different temperatures are mixed together, or brush against one -another, in the form of different currents of wind, there must always -be a quantity of moisture precipitated. For if two masses of air, of -different temperatures, but equal in quantity, and both saturated -with moisture, were mixed together, the resulting temperature would -be nearly the mean of the two, but, at that temperature, the capacity -of air for moisture being less than the quantity contained in the two -commixed masses, the surplus must be deposited. - -Rain is by no means common in the Polar countries excepting in the -months of July and August, and then only with southerly or westerly -winds. During all seasons of the year, however, with strong gales -blowing from a southern climate, rain is occasionally observed in -situations near the edge of the ice; but snow or sleet are more -common even under such circumstances; and in remote situations among -ice, near the 80th parallel of latitude, rain seldom or never occurs. - -_Hail_ is a much more familiar meteor in temperate than in frigid -climates. In the Greenland Sea, this aqueous concretion is very -rarely seen; and if we define it as consisting of pellucid spheres of -ice, generated in the atmosphere, it may be said to be unknown in -very high latitudes. This fact is in favour of the electrical origin -of hail, as it is well-known to be common in temperate climates, -where the air is in a high state of electricity, and to be the -frequent concomitant of thunder and lightning. The only substance -resembling hail that is generated in the frigid zone consists of a -white, porous, spherical concretion of light and snowy texture. - -_Snow_ is so very common in the arctic regions, that it may be boldly -stated, that in nine days out of ten, in April, May, and June, -more or less snow falls. With southerly winds, near the borders of -the ice, or in situations where humid air, blowing from the sea, -assimilates with a gelid breeze from the ice, the heaviest falls of -snow occur. In this case, a depth of two or three inches is sometimes -deposited in an hour. The thickest precipitations also frequently -precede sudden storms. The form of the particles of snow presents an -endless variety. When the temperature of the air is within a degree -or two of the freezing point, much snow falls, frequently consisting -of large irregular flakes, such as are common in Britain. Sometimes -it exhibits small granular, or large rough white concretions; at -others, it consists of white spiculæ, or rude stellated crystals. But -in severe frosts, though the sky appears perfectly clear, lamellar -flakes of snow, of the most regular and beautiful forms, are always -seen floating in the air, and sparkling in the sunbeams, and the snow -which falls in general is of most elegant texture and appearance. - -Snow, of a reddish or brownish colour, is not unfrequently seen. -The brownish stain, which occurs on shore, is given by an earthy -substance brought from the mountains by the streams of water, derived -from thawing ice and snow, or the fall of rain. The reddish colour, -as far as I have observed, is given by the mute of birds; though, -in the example met with by captain Ross, in Baffin’s Bay, the stain -appears to have been of a vegetable nature. The little auk, (_Alca -alle_,) which feeds upon shrimps, is found, in some parts of the -Polar seas, in immense numbers. They frequently retreat to pieces -of ice, or surfaces of snow, and stain them all over red with their -mute. Martens saw red snow in Spitzbergen, which he considered as -being stained by rain-water running down by the rocks. - -The extreme beauty and endless variety of the microscopic objects -procured in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, are perhaps fully -equalled, if not surpassed, in both particulars of beauty and -variety, by the crystals of snow. The principal configurations are -the stelliform and hexagonal, though almost every shape, of which -the generating angles of 60° and 12° are susceptible, may, in the -course of a few years’ observation, be discovered. The various -modifications of crystals may be classed under five general kinds, -or genera. - -1. _Lamellar_, infinite in variety, most delicate in structure, and -capable of sub-division into several distinct species. - -2. _A lamellar, or spherical nucleus, with spinous ramifications in -different planes._ This genus also consists of two or three species. - -3. _Fine spiculæ, or six-sided prisms._ The finest specimens resemble -white hair, cut into lengths not exceeding a quarter of an inch. - -4. _Hexagonal pyramids._ I have but once seen this kind of snow -crystal. - -5. _Spiculæ, or prisms having one or both extremities inserted in the -centre of a lamellar crystal._ This genus resembles a pair of wheels, -united by an axle-tree. - -In low temperatures, the greatest proportion of crystals that fall -are, probably, perfect geometrical figures. - -Some of the general varieties in the figures of the crystals may -be referred to the temperature of the air; but the particular and -endless modifications of similar classes of crystals can only be -referred to the pleasure of the great First Cause, whose works, even -the most minute and evanescent, and in regions the most remote from -human observation, bear the impress of His own hand, and display to -his intelligent creatures his vast and beneficent wisdom. If, on -these forms of unintelligent matter, he has bestowed such excellent -workmanship, with how much more transcendent loveliness will he -clothe those who are redeemed by the exceeding riches of his grace, -and who, beyond the history and productions of all worlds, will -reflect the beauty of his glorious countenance! - -_Frost-rime_, or frost-smoke, is a meteor peculiar to those parts of -the globe where a very low temperature prevails for a considerable -time. It consists of a dense frozen vapour, apparently arising out of -the sea, or any large sheet of water, and ascending, in high winds -and turbulent seas, to the height of eighty or one hundred feet, -but, in light breezes and smooth water, creeping along the surface. -The particles of which it consists are as small as dust, and cleave -to the rigging of ships, or almost any substance against which they -are driven by the wind, and afford a coating of an inch or upwards -in depth. These particles adhere to one another until the windward -surface of the ropes is covered, and form long fibres somewhat of a -prismatical or pyramidal shape, having their points directed towards -the wind. Frost-rime adheres readily to articles of clothing; and, -from the circumstance of its lodging in the hair, and giving it the -appearance of being powdered, the sailors humorously style it “the -barber.” Such of the frost-rime as is dislodged from the rigging -whenever the ship is tacked, covers the deck to a considerable -thickness, and, when trod upon, emits an acute sound, resembling the -crushing of fine particles of glass. The cause of this phenomenon, -which generally is not observed until the cold is reduced to 14°, -may perhaps be similar to that producing rain, and may be explained -according to Dr. Hutton’s theory. - -An aqueous vapour, consisting of very minute frozen particles, -sometimes occupies the lower regions of the atmosphere in temperate -and frigid climates, during frosty weather, and is deposited on -the ground, on surfaces of ice, or almost any other substance with -which it comes in contact. This vapour seems to be of the nature of -_hoar-frost_; it generally appears in the evening, after a bright -sunshiny day. - -_Fog_, or mist, is the last meteor that remains to be considered. -This is one of the greatest annoyances that the arctic whalers have -to encounter. It frequently prevails during the greater part of the -month of July, and sometimes, at considerable intervals, in June -and August. Its density is often such, that it circumscribes the -prospect to an area of a few acres, not being pervious to sight at -the distance of a hundred yards. It frequently lies so low that the -brightness of the sun is scarcely at all intercepted; in such cases, -substances warmed by the sun’s rays, give to the air immediately -above them increased capacity for moisture, by which evaporation goes -briskly on during the densest fogs. In Newfoundland, on occasions -when the sun’s rays penetrate the mist, and heat the surface of the -rocks, fish is frequently dried during the thickest fogs. Fogs are -more frequent and more dense at the borders of the ice than near the -coast of Spitzbergen. They occur principally when the mercury, in the -thermometer, is near the freezing point, but they are by no means -uncommon with the temperature of 40° or 45°. They are most general -with south-westerly, southerly, and south-easterly winds. They seldom -occur with high winds, yet in one or two instances I have observed -them very thick, even in storms. Rain generally disperses them. Fogs, -by increasing the apparent distances of objects, appear sometimes to -magnify men into giants, hummocks of ice into mountains, and common -pieces of drift-ice into heavy floes or bergs. They are an especial -annoyance to the whale-fisher, and greatly perplex the navigator, -by preventing him from obtaining observations for the correction -of his latitude and longitude, so that he often sails in complete -uncertainty. Fogs are more common near the ice than in the vicinity -of the land, more frequent in open seasons than in close seasons, and -more intense and more common in the southern fishing-stations than in -the most northern. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -A SKETCH OF THE ZOOLOGY OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS. - - -In the arrangement of the following original observations on, -and descriptions of the more remarkable animals inhabiting, or -frequenting, Spitzbergen and the adjacent seas, I have followed -Linnæus, in combination with La Cepède. The latter author has -published a most voluminous and pleasing account of cetaceous -animals, and has made some judicious changes in the Linnæan -arrangements. By La Cepède, for instance, whales having the dorsal -fin are separated from those without it; the former being called, in -distinction from the latter, _Balænopteræ_, signifying whales with a -fin. - -Our first description must relate to the animals of the _cetaceous -kind_, which frequent the Greenland Seas. - -Of these the first in eminence and of importance to our commerce, -is the _Balæna mysticetus_, the common or Greenland whale. This -animal is productive of more oil than any other of the cetacea, and -being less active, slower in its motion, and more timid than any -other of its kind, of similar, or nearly similar, magnitude, it is -more easily captured. Its size has been much overrated, and, in his -excellent natural history of cetaceous animals, La Cepède has been -guilty of considerable exaggeration. In the age when whales were -regarded with superstitious dread, it is easy to conceive that the -dimensions of an animal inhabiting an element in which it cannot -easily be measured, would be recorded with extravagance. Authors of -the first respectability in the present day give a length of eighty -to one hundred feet to the mysticetus, and remark with unqualified -assertion, that when the captures were less frequent, and the animals -had sufficient time to attain their full growth, specimens were -found of one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet in length, or -even longer; and some ancient naturalists, indeed, have gone so far -as to assert, that whales had been seen of above nine hundred feet -in length. In the present day, however, it is certain that they are -by no means so bulky. Of three hundred and twenty-two individuals, -in the capture of which I have been personally concerned, no one, -I believe, exceeded sixty feet in length, and the largest I ever -measured was fifty-eight feet, from one extremity to the other, -being one of the largest to appearance which I ever saw. An uncommon -whale that was caught near Spitzbergen, about twenty years ago, -the whalebone of which measured almost fifteen feet, was not, I -understand, so much as seventy feet in length; and the longest -actual measurement that I have met with, or heard of, is given by -sir Charles Giesecké, who informs us, that in the spring of 1813, -a whale was killed at Godhaven of the length of sixty-seven feet. -These, however, are very uncommon instances. I therefore conceive -that sixty feet may be considered as the size of the larger animals -of this species, and sixty-five feet in length as a magnitude which -very rarely occurs. - -I believe, too, that whales are now met with of as large dimensions -as at any former period since the commencement of the whale-fishery; -a point which, I think, can be established from various historical -records. - -The greatest circumference of the whale is from thirty to forty feet. -It is thickest a little behind the fins, or in the middle, between -the anterior and posterior extremes of the animal, from whence it -gradually tapers in a conical form towards the tail, and slightly -towards the head. Its form is cylindrical, from the neck to within -ten feet of the tail, beyond which it becomes somewhat quadrangular, -the greatest ridge being upward, or on the back, and running backward -nearly across the middle of the tail. The head has somewhat of a -triangular shape. The under-part, the arched outline of which is -given by the jaw-bones, is flat, and measures sixteen to twenty feet -in length, and ten to twelve in breadth. The lips, extending fifteen -or twenty feet in length, and five or six in height, and forming -the cavity of the mouth, are attached to the under-jaw, and rise -from the jaw-bones at an angle of about 80°, having the appearance, -when viewed in front, of the letter U. The upper-jaw, including the -“crown-bone,” or skull, is bent down at the extremity, so as to -shut the front and upper parts of the cavity of the mouth, and is -overlapped by the lips in a squamous manner at the sides. - -When the mouth is open, it presents a cavity as large as a room, and -capable of containing a merchant-ship’s jolly-boat full of men, being -six or eight feet wide, ten or twelve feet high in front, and fifteen -or sixteen feet long. The fins, two in number, are placed between -one-third and two-fifths of the length of the animal, from the snout, -and about two feet behind the angle of the mouth. They are seven to -nine feet in length, and four or five in breadth; and in the living -animal are capable of considerable flexion. The whale has no dorsal -fin. - -The tail, comprising in a single surface eighty or one hundred square -feet, is a formidable instrument of motion or defence. Its length -is only five or six feet, but its width is eighteen to twenty-four -or twenty-six feet. Its position is horizontal. In its form it is -flat and semi-lunar, indented in the middle, the two lobes somewhat -pointed and turned a little backward. Its motions are rapid and -universal; its strength immense. - -The eyes are situated in the sides of the head, about a foot -obliquely above and behind the angle of the mouth. They are little -larger than those of an ox. The whale has no external ear. The -spiracles or nostrils of the whale are two longitudinal apertures, -six or eight inches in length, from which a moist vapour, mixed -with mucous, is discharged when the animal breathes, but no water -accompanies it unless the breathing takes place under the surface. -The mouth, in place of teeth, contains two extensive rows of “fins,” -or whalebone, which are suspended from the sides of the crown-bone. -Each series, or side of bone, as the whale-fishers term it, consists -of upwards of three hundred laminæ, of which the longest are near the -middle. Ten or eleven feet is the average length, and the greatest -breadth at the gum ten or twelve inches. The interior edges of these -laminæ are covered with a fringe of hair. In the youngest whales, -called suckers, the whalebone is only a few inches long; when the -length reaches six feet or upwards, the whale is said to be of -_size_. The colour of the whalebone is brownish black, or bluish -black, and occasionally striped longitudinally with white. A large -whale sometimes affords a ton and a half of whalebone. The gum, -in which the thick ends of the whalebone are inserted, is white, -fibrous, tender, and tasteless. It cuts like cheese, and has the -appearance of the kernel of the cocoanut. The animal has a large -tongue, a slight beard, and a remarkably narrow throat. - -The milk of the whale resembles that of quadrupeds in appearance, and -is said to be rich and well-flavoured. In the female, two paps are -situated on the abdomen. - -The colour of the mysticetus is velvet black, grey, and white, with -a tinge of yellow, according to the parts of the body. The older -animals contain the most grey and white; under-sized whales are -altogether of a bluish black, and suckers of a pale bluish, or bluish -grey colour. - -The skin of the body is slightly furrowed, but on the tail it is -smooth. That part of the skin, which can be pulled off in sheets -after it has been dried a little in the air, or particularly in the -frost, is not thicker than parchment. The _rete mucosum_ in adults is -about three-fourths of an inch in thickness over most parts of the -body. Under it lies the true skin, white and tough, and immediately -in contact with it the blubber. - -This most valuable portion of the animal encompasses its whole -body. Its colour is yellowish white, yellow, or red; in old animals -sometimes resembling the substance of the salmon. It swims in water. -Its thickness all round the body is eight or ten to twenty inches, -varying in different parts, as well as in different individuals. The -lips are composed almost entirely of blubber, and yield from one to -two tons of pure oil each. The oil appears retained in the blubber -in minute cells, connected by a strong reticulated combination of -tendinous fibres, which are condensed at the surface, and appears -to form the substance of the skin. The oil is expelled when heated. -In its fresh state, the blubber is without unpleasant smell, and it -is only at the end of the voyage that the cargo of a Greenland ship -becomes disagreeable. - -The quantity of oil yielded by a certain quantity of blubber varies -according to the age of the animal; the blubber of the sucker -contains a very small portion. The quantity of oil generally bears a -proportion to the length of the longest blade of whalebone. Four tons -of blubber in measure generally produce three tons of oil; the ton of -oil being two hundred and fifty-two gallons, wine-measure. - -The flesh of the young whale is of a red colour, and, when broiled -and seasoned with pepper and salt, eats like coarse beef. The bones -are very porous, and contain much fine oil. The ribs are thirteen in -number, and are nearly solid, and the bones of the fins, in number -and proportion, are similar to those of the fingers of the human hand. - -A stout whale, of sixty feet in length, is of the enormous weight of -seventy tons; the blubber weighs about thirty tons; the bones of the -head, whalebone, fins, and tail, eight or ten; the carcase thirty or -thirty-two. - -The whale is dull of hearing, but its sense of seeing is acute, -especially when under water. It has no voice, but makes in breathing -or blowing a very loud noise. It blows or breathes about four or -five times a minute, discharging vapour to the height of some yards, -which, at a distance, looks like a puff of smoke. When the animal is -wounded, this vapour is often stained with blood, and on the approach -of death jets of blood are sometimes discharged. The whale being -lighter than the water, can remain at the surface with ease, but -requires considerable exertion to descend. It advances through the -water by means of the tail, which, to attain the greatest velocity, -is moved alternately upward and downward; and, for slower progress, -laterally and obliquely downward, in the manner of _skulling_ a boat. -The fins are used for balancing the animal, and in bearing off their -young. I have observed a whale descending, after I had harpooned -it, to the depth of four hundred fathoms, with the average velocity -of seven or eight miles per hour. The usual rate at which whales -swim, however, seldom exceeds four miles an hour, and though their -extreme velocity may be eight or nine, yet we find this speed never -continues longer than for a few minutes. They sometimes ascend with -such rapidity as to leap entirely out of the water, apparently for -amusement, and to the high admiration of the distant spectator. At -other times they throw themselves into a perpendicular posture, with -their heads downward, and rearing their tails on high in the air, -they beat the water with awful violence; the sea is thrown into foam, -the air is filled with vapours, and the noise in calm weather is -heard to a great distance. Sometimes the whale shakes its tremendous -tail in the air, which, cracking like a whip, resounds to the -distance of two or three miles. - -When it retires from the surface, it first lifts its head, then -plunging it under water, elevates its back, like the segment of a -sphere, deliberately rounds it away towards the extremity, throws its -tail out of the water, and then disappears. Whales usually remain -at the surface to breathe about two minutes, during which time they -“blow” eight or nine times, and then descend for an interval usually -of five or ten minutes, but sometimes, when feeding, fifteen or -twenty. They commonly descend to only a trifling depth; but, when -struck, they have been known, by the quantity of line taken out of -the boat, to descend to the depth of an English mile, and, with such -velocity, as to break their jaw-bones by the blow struck against the -bottom. Occasionally, they may be found sleeping in calm weather -among ice, and some persons are of opinion that, when undisturbed, -they can remain under the surface for many hours at a time. - -The food of the whale consists of various species of _actiniæ_, -_clioncs_, _sepiæ_, _medusæ_, _cancri_, and _helices_, judging from -the fact that some of these genera are always to be seen wherever any -tribe of whales is found stationary. I have only discovered in the -stomachs of dead animals _squillæ_ or shrimps. When the whale feeds, -it swims swiftly through the sea, with its jaws extended; its food is -entangled by the whalebone, which, from its compact arrangement and -thick internal covering of hair, does not allow a particle to escape. - -The whale has one young at a birth. At this time the young one -is said to be at least ten feet long, and continues under the -protection of the mother for probably a year, until, by the growth -of the whalebone, it is able to maintain itself. It probably reaches -the magnitude called _size_, that is, with a six feet length of -whalebone, in twelve years, and attains its full growth at the age -of twenty or twenty-five. Whales live to a great age. The maternal -affection of the whale is very interesting. The cub, being insensible -to danger, is easily harpooned, and is sometimes struck as a snare -to secure the mother. In this case she joins it at the surface -whenever it has occasion to rise for respiration, encourages it to -swim off, assists its flight by taking it under her fin, and seldom -deserts it while life remains. In June, 1811, one of my harpooners -struck a sucker, with the hope of its leading to the capture of the -mother. Presently she arose close by “the fast-boat,” and seizing the -young one, dragged about a hundred fathoms of line out of the boat -with remarkable force and velocity. Again she rose to the surface, -darted furiously to and fro, frequently stopped short, or suddenly -changed her direction, and gave every possible intimation of extreme -agony. For a length of time she continued thus to act, though closely -pursued by the boats; and, inspired with courage and resolution by -her concern for her offspring, seemed regardless of the danger which -surrounded her. At length, one of the boats approached so near that a -harpoon was hove at her. It hit, but did not attach itself. A second -harpoon was struck, this also failed to penetrate, but a third was -more effectual, and held. Still she did not attempt to escape, but -allowed other boats to approach, so that, in a few minutes, three -more harpoons were fastened, and, in the course of an hour afterwards -she was killed. - -There is something deeply interesting in the manner in which the -great Maker of all things, in giving laws to the animal kingdom, has -thus presented so many illustrations of the parental relation. It -is as if he would not leave his intelligent creatures destitute of -memorials of their relation to himself; so that, while in the field -and on the flood, they behold the signs of parental affection and -filial dependence, they may be led to ponder the solemn question of -their tender and faithful Parent in heaven—“If, then, I be a Father, -where is mine honour?” - -The mysticetus occurs most abundantly in the frozen seas of Greenland -and Davis’s Strait, in the bays of Baffin and Hudson, in the sea -to the northward of Behring’s Strait, and along some part of the -northern shores of Asia, and probably America. It is never met with -in the German Ocean, and rarely within two hundred leagues of the -British coast; but along the coasts of Africa and South America it -is met with periodically, in considerable numbers. In these regions, -it is attacked and captured by the southern British and American -whalers, as well as by some of the people inhabiting the coasts to -which it resorts. Whether this whale is precisely of the same kind -as that of Spitzbergen and Greenland is uncertain, though it is -evidently a mysticetus. One striking difference, possibly the effect -of situation and climate, is, that the mysticetus in southern regions -is often covered with barnacles, while those of the Arctic Seas are -free from these shell-fish. - -Besides the formidable inroads made upon the whale by man, it is -subject to annoyance from sharks, and it is also said from the -narwal, sword-fish, and thrasher. The opinion as to the narwal I -am persuaded is incorrect; the sword-fish and thrasher (if such -an animal there be) may be enemies of the whale, and the shark -certainly is hostile to the extent of his ability, which, in -comparison to that of the whale, can hardly be very formidable. - -It is certain that the flesh of the whale is now eaten by savage -nations, and it is also well authenticated that, in the twelfth, -thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, it was used as food -by the Icelanders, the Netherlander, the French, the Spaniards, and, -probably, by the English. Besides forming a choice eatable, the -inferior products of the whale are applied to other purposes by the -Indians and Esquimaux of Arctic countries, and, with some nations, -are essential to their comfort. Some membranes of the abdomen -are used for an upper article of clothing, and the peritoneum in -particular, being thin and transparent, is used instead of glass in -the windows of their huts; the bones are converted into harpoons -and spears for striking the seal, or darting at the sea-birds, and -are also employed in the erection of their tents, and, with some -tribes, in the formation of their boats; the sinews are divided into -filaments, and used as thread, with which they join the seams of -their boats and tent-cloths, and sew, with great taste and nicety, -the different articles of dress they manufacture; and the whalebone -and other superior products, so valuable in European markets, have -also their uses among them. - -The largest animal of the whale tribe is not the mysticetus, but the -_Balæna physalis_ of Linnæus, _Balænoptera gibbar_ of La Cepède, and -razor-back of the whalers. This is, probably, the most powerful and -bulky of created beings. In comparison with the mysticetus, it has -a form less cylindrical, a body longer and more slender, whalebone -shorter, produce in blubber and oil less, colour bluer, fins more -numerous, breathing more violent, speed greater, and actions quicker, -more restless and more bold. Its length is about one hundred feet, -and its greatest circumference thirty or thirty-five. Its colour is -a pale bluish black, or dark bluish grey, in which it resembles the -sucking mysticetus. Besides the two pectoral fins, it has a small -horny protuberance, or rayless and immovable fin on the extremity -of the back. Its greatest velocity in swimming is about twelve -miles an hour. It is by no means a timid animal, yet it does not -appear revengeful or mischievous. When closely pursued by boats, it -manifests little fear, and does not attempt to outstrip them in the -race, but merely endeavours to avoid them by diving or changing its -direction. If harpooned, or wounded, it then exerts all its energies, -and escapes with its utmost velocity, but shows little disposition -to retaliate on its enemies, or to repel their attacks by engaging -in a combat. Unlike the mysticetus, it very rarely, when descending -into the water, throws its tail into the air. Its great speed and -activity render it a difficult and dangerous object of attack, and -the small quantity of inferior oil it affords makes it unworthy the -general attention of the fishers. When struck, it not uncommonly -drags the fast-boat with such speed through the water, that it is -liable to be carried immediately beyond the reach of assistance, and -soon out of sight of both boats and ship. Hence the striker is under -the necessity of cutting the line, and sacrificing his employer’s -property for securing the safety of himself and his companions. In -the year 1818, I ordered a general chase of them, providing against -the danger of having my crew separated from the ship by appointing a -rendezvous on the shore not far distant, and preparing against the -loss of much line by dividing it at two hundred fathoms from the -harpoon, and affixing a buoy to the end of it. Thus arranged, one -of these whales was shot, and another struck. The former dived with -such impetuosity that the line was broken by the resistance of the -buoy, as soon as it was thrown into the water, and the latter was -liberated within a minute by the division of the line, occasioned, -it was supposed, by its friction against the dorsal fin. Both of -them escaped. Another physalis was struck by one of my inexperienced -harpooners, who mistook it for a mysticetus. It dived obliquely with -such velocity that four hundred and eighty fathoms of line were -withdrawn from the boat in about a minute of time. This whale was -also lost by the breaking of the line. - -The physalis occurs in great numbers in the Arctic Seas, especially -along the edge of the ice, between Cherie Island and Nova Zembla, -and also near Jan Mayen. Persons trading to Archangel have often -mistaken it for the common whale. It is seldom seen among much ice, -and seems to be avoided by the mysticetus; hence the fishers view it -with painful concern. It inhabits most generally in the Spitzbergen -quarter the parallels of 70° to 76°; but in the months of June, July, -and August, when the sea is usually open, it advances along the land -to the northward as high as 80° of latitude. In open seasons it is -seen near the headland at an earlier period. A whale, probably of -this kind, one hundred and one feet in length, was stranded on the -banks of the Humber, about the middle of September, 1750. - -Another species of whale frequenting the coasts of Scotland, Ireland, -Norway, etc., is the _Balænoptera rorqual_ of La Cepède, _Balæna -musculus_ of Linnæus, or the broad-nosed whale. - -In many characters, this species resembles the physalis, though, I -think, with an essential difference. The musculus is shorter, having -a larger head and mouth, and a rounder under-jaw than the physalis -and is said to feed principally upon herrings. Several individuals, -apparently of this kind, have been stranded or killed on different -parts of the coast of the United Kingdom. One was embayed and killed -in Balta Sound, Shetland, in the winter of 1817-18, some remains of -which I saw. It was eighty-two feet in length, the jaw-bones were -twenty-one feet long, and the largest lamina of whalebone about three -feet. Instead of hair at the inner edge, and at the point of each -blade of whalebone, it had a fringe of bristly fibres, and it was -stiffer, harder, and more horny in its texture than common whalebone. -It produced only about five tons of oil, all of it of an inferior -quality; some of it viscid and bad. It valued, deducting expenses, no -more than £60 sterling. It had the usual sulci about the thorax, and -a dorsal fin. - -A smaller species of whale is _Balænoptera jubartes_ of La Cepède, -_Balæna boops_ of Linnæus, or the finner of the whale-fishers. - -The following is its description:—Length, about forty-six feet; -greatest circumference of the body, about twenty feet; dorsal -protuberance, or fin, about two feet and a half high; pectoral fins, -four or five feet long externally, and scarcely a foot broad; tail, -about three feet deep and ten broad; whalebone, about three hundred -laminæ on each side, the longest about eighteen inches in length, -the under-jaw about fifteen feet long, or one-third of the whole -length of the animal; sulci, about two dozen in number; two external -blow-holes; blubber on the body two or three inches thick, under the -sulci none. - -The last, and smallest of the whalebone whales, with which I am -acquainted, is the _Balænoptera acuto-rostrata_ of La Cepède, _Balæna -rostrata_ of Linnæus, or the beaked whale. An animal of this kind was -killed in Scalpa Bay, November 14, 1808. Its length was seventeen and -a half feet, circumference twenty. Pectoral fins, two feet long and -seven inches broad; dorsal fin fifteen inches long by four and a half -feet broad. Largest whalebone, about six inches. The rostrata is said -to inhabit principally the Norwegian Seas, and to grow to the length -of twenty-five feet. One of the species was killed near Spitzbergen, -in 1813, and I have some of the whalebone in my possession. - -Three species of narwals are noticed by La Cepède, though I myself -have seen but one, and perhaps the other species are imaginary, for -the animal varies in appearance. It is the _Monodon monoceros_ of -Linnæus, and the narwal, or unicorn, of whalers. - -It is, when full grown, from thirteen to sixteen feet in length, -exclusive of the tusk; and in circumference (two feet behind the -fins, where it is thickest,) eight to nine feet. The form of the -head, with the part of the body before the fins, is paraboloidal; -of the middle of the body, nearly cylindrical; of the hinder-part, -to within two or three feet of tail, somewhat conical, and from -thence a ridge, commencing both at the back and belly; the section -becomes first an ellipse, and then a rhombus, at the junction -of the tail. At the distance of twelve or fourteen inches from -the tail the perpendicular diameter is about twelve inches, the -transverse diameter about seven. The head is about one-seventh of -the whole length of the animal; it is small, blunt, round, and of -a paraboloidal form. The mouth is small and not capable of much -extension. The under-lip is wedge-shaped. The eyes are small, the -largest diameter being only an inch, and are placed in a line with -the opening of the mouth about thirteen inches from the snout. The -blow-hole, which is directly over the eyes, is a single opening, of -a semicircular form, about three and a half inches in diameter, or -breadth, and one and a half radius, or length. The fins are twelve or -fourteen inches long, and six or eight broad; the tail, from fifteen -to twenty inches long, and three to four feet broad. It has no dorsal -fin, but in place of it an irregular, sharpish, fatty ridge. The -colour of the narwal is in the young animal blackish grey, on the -back variegated with numerous darker spots, running into one another; -in the older animals the ground is wholly white, or yellowish white. -The integuments are similar to those of the mysticetus, only thinner. - -A long prominent tusk, with which some narwals are furnished, is -considered as a horn by the whale-fishers, and as such has given -occasion for the name of _unicorn_ being applied to this animal. This -tusk occurs on the left side of the head, and is sometimes found -of the length of nine or ten feet; according to Egedé, fourteen or -fifteen. It springs from the lower part of the upper-jaw, points -forward and a little downward, being parallel in its direction to the -roof of the mouth. It is spirally situated from right to left, is -nearly straight, and tapers to around, blunt point, is of a yellowish -white colour, and consists of a compact kind of ivory. It is usually -hollow from the base to within a few inches of the point. In a five -feet tusk the diameter at the base is two and a quarter inches, and -about three-eighths within an inch of the end. This external tusk is -peculiar to the male, and there is another imbedded in the skull, -on the right side of the head, about nine inches long. Two or three -instances have occurred of male narwals having been taken, which -had two large external tusks. The use of the tusk is ambiguous. It -cannot be essential for procuring their food, nor for defence. Dr. -Barclay is of opinion that it is principally a sexual distinction; -and it appears not improbable that it is used in piercing the ice for -convenience of breathing, without the animal being obliged to retreat -to open water. If this latter supposition be correct, it affords -another illustration of the wisdom of the great Creator, who has -adapted in so many instances the organization of every animal to the -locality which it inhabits. - -A quantity of blubber, from two to three and a half inches in -thickness, and amounting sometimes to above half a ton, encompasses -the whole body of the narwal, and affords a large proportion of -very fine oil. In a fine fatty substance about the internal ears of -the narwal are found multitudes of worms. They are about an inch in -length, some shorter, very slender, and taper both ways, but are -sharper at one end than at the other. They are transparent. The -vertebral column of the narwal is about twelve feet in length. The -cervical vertebræ are seven in number, the dorsal twelve, the lumbar -and caudal thirty-five. The spinal marrow appears to run through the -processes of all the vertebræ from the head to the fortieth, but does -not penetrate the forty-first. The ribs are twelve on each side, six -true and six false, and are small for the size of the animal. The -principal food of the narwal are molluscous animals. I have found -remains of sepiæ in several stomachs which I have examined. Narwals -are quick, active, inoffensive animals, and swim with considerable -velocity. They appear in numerous little herds of half a dozen or -more together, each herd being most frequently composed of animals -of the same sex. When harpooned, the narwal dives with almost the -velocity of the mysticetus, but not to the same extent; on returning -to the surface it is dispatched with a lance in a few minutes. - -Passing now from these tribes, a short space must be allotted to the -description of the dolphins. The first is _Delphinus deductor_, -defined by Dr. Traill, the ca’ing or leading whale. The following are -its specific characters. Body thick, black; one short dorsal fin; -pectoral fins long, narrow; head obtuse; upper jaw bent forward; -teeth subconoid, sharp, and a little bent. - -This animal grows to the length of about twenty-four feet, and is -about ten feet in circumference. The skin is smooth, resembling -oiled-silk; the colour a white blueish black on the back, and -generally whitish on the belly; the blubber is three or four inches -thick. The head is short and round; the upper jaw projects a little -over the lower. Externally it has a single spiracle. The full grown -have generally twenty-two to twenty-four teeth in each jaw, and when -the mouth is shut, the teeth lock between one another like the teeth -of a trap. The tail is about five feet broad, the dorsal fin about -fifteen inches high, cartilaginous, and immovable. - -This kind of dolphin sometimes appears in large herds off the Orkney, -Shetland, and Feroe islands. The main body of the herd follows the -leading whales, and from this property the animal is called in -Shetland the ca’ing whale, and by Dr. Traill the deductor. Many herds -of this animal have been driven on shore at different periods, and -it is recorded that there were taken in two places in the year 1664 -about a thousand; and in modern times extensive slaughters have -taken place on the shores of the British and other northern islands. - -The _Delphinapterus beluga_ of La Cepède, _Delphinus Leucas_ of -Linnæus, _Beluga_ of Pennant, or white whale of the fishers, is -the last of the cetacea to which we shall refer. It is not unlike -the narwal in its general form, but is thicker about the middle of -its body in proportion to its length. Both jaws are furnished with -teeth. It has no dorsal fin. The skin is smooth, the colour white. -A male animal of this kind was taken in the Frith of Forth in June, -1815. The length was thirteen feet four inches, and the greatest -circumference nine feet. The beluga is generally met with in families -or herds of five or ten together. They are plentiful in Hudson’s -Bay, Davis’s Strait, and on some parts of the northern coasts of -Europe and Asia, where they frequent some of the larger rivers. -They are taken for the sake of the oil they produce by harpoons or -strong nets; in the latter case, the nets are extended across the -stream, so as to prevent their escape out of the river, and when -thus interrupted in their course to seaward, they are attacked with -lances, and great numbers are sometimes killed. - -It is now our purpose to give an account of the _quadrupeds_ which -inhabit Spitzbergen and the icy seas adjacent. - -The connecting link between the mammalia of the land and the -water is _Trichecus rosmarus_, walrus, morse, or sea-horse of the -whale-fishers. It corresponds in several of its characters both with -the bullock and the whale. It grows to the bulk of an ox. Its canine -teeth, two in number, are of the length externally of ten to twenty -inches, (some naturalists say three feet,) and extend downward from -the upper jaw, and include the point of the lower jaw between them. -They are incurvated inward. Their full length when cut out of the -skull is commonly fifteen to twenty inches, sometimes almost thirty, -and their weight five to ten pounds each or upward. The walrus -being a slow clumsy animal on land, its tusk seems necessary for -its defence against the bear, and also for enabling it to raise its -unwieldy body upon the ice when its access to the shore is prevented. - -The walrus is found on the shores of Spitzbergen twelve to fifteen -feet in length, and eight to ten feet in circumference. The head is -short, small, and flattened in front. The flattened part of the face -is set with strong bristles. The nostrils are on the upper part of -the snout, through which it blows like a whale. The fore paws, which -are a kind of webbed hand, are two-sevenths of the full length of -the animal from the snout. They are from two to two and a half feet -in length, and being expansive maybe stretched to the breadth of -fifteen to eighteen inches. The hind feet, which form a sort of tail -fin, extend straight backward. They are not united, but detached from -each other. The length of each is about two to two and a half feet; -the breadth, when fully extended, two and a half or three feet; the -termination of each toe is marked by a small tail. - -The skin of the walrus is about an inch thick, and it is covered with -a short, yellowish brown coloured hair. The inside of the paws in -old animals is defended by a rough, horny kind of casing, a quarter -of an inch thick, probably produced by the hardening of the skin in -consequence of coarse usage in climbing over ice and rocks. - -Beneath the skin is a thin layer of fat. At some seasons the produce -is said to be considerable, but I have never met with any that -afforded above twenty or thirty gallons of oil. In the stomachs -of walruses I have met with shrimps, a kind of craw-fish, and the -remains of young seals. - -It is not at all improbable that the walrus has afforded foundation -for some of the stories of mermaids. I have myself seen a sea-horse -in such a position, that it requires little stretch of imagination -to mistake it for a human being; so like, indeed, was it, that the -surgeon of the ship actually reported to me that he had seen a man -with his head just appearing above the surface of the water. - -The walrus is a fearless animal. It pays no regard to a boat, -excepting as an object of curiosity. It is sometimes taken by a -harpoon when in the water. If one attack fails, it often affords -an opportunity for repeating it. The capture cannot be always -accomplished without danger, for, as they go in herds, an attack -made upon one individual draws all its companions to its defence. In -such cases they frequently rally round the boat from which the blow -was struck, pierce its planks with their tusks, and, though resisted -in the most determined manner, sometimes raise themselves upon the -gunwale, and threaten to overset it. The best defence against these -enraged animals is, in such a crisis, sea-sand, which, being thrown -into their eyes, occasions a partial blindness, and obliges them to -disperse. When on shore they are best killed with long sharp-pointed -knives. - -The tusks of the walrus, which are hard, white, and compact ivory, -are employed by dentists in the fabrication of false teeth. The -skin is used in place of mats for defending the yards and rigging -of ships from being chafed by friction against each other. When -cut into shreds and plaited into cordage, it answers admirably for -wheel-ropes, being stronger and wearing much longer than hemp. In -ancient times, most of the ropes of ships, in northern countries -at least, would appear to have been made of this substance. When -tanned, it is converted into a soft porous leather, above an inch in -thickness, but it is by no means so useful or so durable as in its -green or raw state. - -As early as the ninth century, we have accounts of the walrus being -extensively fished for on the western coast of Norway. Prior to the -institution of the Spitzbergen whale-fishery, the capture of this -animal was an object of some commercial importance. It was at first -attacked by the English, on Cherie Island, but being driven from -thence, if not extirpated in that quarter, by the great slaughter -that was carried on, it was then pursued to Spitzbergen. The earliest -attacks made on it were very unsuccessful, but experience rendered -the assailants more skilful, and, in one voyage, nine hundred or -one thousand sea-horses were killed in less than seven hours. The -Russians now, rather than the British, are their enemies. - -With the exception of the head, the general form of the walrus is -similar to the next animal which we describe, the phoca, or seal. - -Several species of seals occur in the Greenland Sea, and resort -to the ice in the neighbourhood of Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen, in -immense herds; but, as the seal frequents the British coast, and is a -well-described and well-known animal, I shall not particularize the -well-known species that are met with in the Arctic Seas. Some few -general observations only will be necessary. - -Seals are generally fat in the spring of the year, and afford several -gallons of blubber; even small seals will then yield about four or -five gallons of oil. The voice of the young seal when in pain or -distress is a whining cry, resembling that of a child. They appear -to hear well under water; music, or particularly a person whistling, -draws them to the surface, and induces them to stretch their necks -to the utmost extent, so as to prove a snare by bringing them within -reach of the shooter. The most effectual way of shooting them is by -the use of small shot, fired into their eyes; when killed with a -bullet they generally sink, and are lost. Seals are often seen on -their passage from one situation to another in very large shoals. -Their general conduct in such cases is such as to amuse spectators, -and the sailors call such a shoal a “seal’s wedding.” The feet of -seals are better adapted for motion in the water than on land. They -feed on birds, crabs, and small fishes, and are very tenacious of -life. - -The uses of the seal are various, and to some nations highly -important. It yields train-oil, and its skin is extensively employed -in making shoes, and, when dressed with the hair, in covering trunks. -To the Esquimaux the seal is everything. Its flesh is food, its fat -gives light, and its skin, dressed so as to be waterproof, is used -for covering for boats and tents, and for garments. - -The _Phoca vitulina_ is the common species in the Greenland -Sea, especially near Jan Mayen. The hooded seal is common near -Spitzbergen. The latter is longer than the former, and is said to -grow to the length of ten or twelve feet. It is also much more -formidable. Seals are not fond of the water, but, when on the ice, -are extremely watchful, and secure their retreat either by reclining -at the edge or by keeping a hole in the ice open for them. The young -ones, however, are not so wary as the old folks. The best situation -for the seal-fishery in the Arctic Sea is in the vicinity of Jan -Mayen, and the best season March and April. The capture of the -seal is the work of a moment. A blow with a seal-club on the nose -immediately stuns it, and affords opportunity of making a prize -of many at a time. Ships fitted out for the whale-fishery have -accidentally obtained in April from two thousand to three thousand -seals, and sometimes more; and vessels sent out for seal-fishery -only, four thousand or five thousand, yielding nearly one hundred -tons of oil. From the ports of the Elbe and Weser a number of sealers -are annually dispatched, but few comparatively on this pursuit alone -sail from Britain. - -Of the dangers of the seal-fishery, arising from the liability to -heavy storms at the season and in the place where seals are taken, -the following narrative will furnish full illustration. - -Fifty-four ships, chiefly Hamburghers, were, in the year 1774, fitted -out for seal-fishery alone from foreign ports. In the spring of -the year they met with several English ships on the borders of the -ice, about sixty miles to the eastward of the island of Jan Mayen. -While the boats of the fleet were in search for seals, a dreadful -storm suddenly arose. Almost all the people who were at a distance -from the ships perished. The Duke of York, captain Peters, had two -boats at that time down. The crews of these by great exertion rowed -up to the ship, got hold of the rudder rings, but were unable to -make their way alongside; they held fast for some time, but the sea -was too strong for them, and they lost their hold and fell astern. -The chief-mate of the ship, seeing that they were too exhausted to -recover their position, determined to attempt their rescue at the -peril of his own life. He manned a boat with six stout seamen beside -himself, and went to their assistance. On reaching them he exchanged -four of his vigorous crew for two of the fainting men in each boat. -Thus reinforced, the three boats, by the exertions of their crews, -were brought to the stern of the ship; but while in this critical -situation, a sea struck the boats, filled and overwhelmed them, on -which the whole of their crews, nineteen men, perished. This was only -a portion of the disasters of the storm. One ship foundered in a -heavy surge, and all hands were lost. Another was wrecked on the ice, -and all hands perished. Many boats and men were washed from several -others, and the results were that about four hundred foreign seamen, -and two hundred British, were drowned, four or five ships lost, and -scarcely any escaped without damage. - -To all those who navigate the treacherous ocean, especially to such -as do business in such dangerous waters, it ought to be of more than -ordinary importance to live in a continued preparation for death and -judgment, and to be the servants of that God who - - “—— rides upon the stormy sky - And manages the seas.” - -Beneath his care the mariner is safe, and whether from the abysses of -its ancient caves, or the foundations of its lofty icebergs, the sea -must surrender unto eternal life the bodies of the disciples of Jesus. - -The Arctic fox, _Canis lagopus_, is an animal known to those who -winter in Spitzbergen, though seldom seen by the whale-fishers. -They are rarely found on the ice, though I have often found their -impressions on the snow. They are of a white colour, and not easily -distinguished. - -A more remarkable animal is the Polar or Greenland bear, _Ursus -maritimus_. He is the sovereign of the quadrupeds of the Arctic -countries. He is powerful and courageous; savage and sagacious; -apparently clumsy, yet not inactive. His senses are extremely acute, -especially his sight and smell. As he traverses extensive fields -of ice, he mounts the hummocks and looks for prey, and on rearing -his head and snuffing the breeze, he can perceive the scent of the -carrion of the whale at an immense distance. Seals are his usual -food, but from their watchfulness he is often obliged to fast. He is -as much at home on the ice as on the land, and is found on field-ice -above two hundred miles from shore. He can swim with the velocity of -three miles an hour, and can dive to a considerable distance. - -Bears occur in Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, Greenland, and other Arctic -countries, throughout the year. In some places, they are met with in -great numbers. By means of the ice, they often effect a landing on -Iceland, but as soon as they appear, they are generally attacked by -the inhabitants and destroyed. On the east coast of Greenland, they -have appeared like flocks of sheep on a common. - -The size of the bear is generally four or five feet in height, seven -or eight in length, and nearly as much in circumference. Sometimes, -however, the size is much larger. His paws are seven inches in -breadth, and his claws two inches in length. His canine teeth, -exclusive of the part in the jaw, are about an inch and a half in -length. He has been known by the strength of his jaw to bite a lance -in two, though made of iron half an inch in diameter. In the water -he can be captured without much danger, but on land the experiment -is hazardous. When pursued and attacked, he turns upon his enemies. -He always, however, unless urged by hunger, retreats before men. -His general walk is slow, but upon the ice he can easily outrun any -man. If struck with a lance, he is apt to seize it in his mouth, -and either bite it in two, or wrest it out of the hand. If shot -with a ball, unless he is struck in the head, in the heart, or in -the shoulder, he is enraged rather than depressed, and falls with -increased power upon his pursuers. When shot at a distance, and -able to escape, he has been observed to retire to the shelter of a -hummock, and, as if conscious of the styptical effect of cold, apply -snow with his paws to the wound. - -The bear feeds on the kreng, or carcases of the whales, as they are -left by the fishers; on seals, birds, foxes, and deer, when it can -surprise them; on eggs, and indeed on any animal substance that comes -within its power. The skin of the bear, when dressed with the hair -on, forms beautiful mats for a hall or for the bottom of a carriage. -Prepared without being ripped up, and the hairy side turned inward, -it forms a very warm sack bed, and is used as such in some parts of -Greenland. The flesh, when cleared of the fat, is well flavoured and -savoury, especially the muscular part of the ham. I once treated my -surgeon with a dinner of bears ham, and he did not know for above -a month afterwards, but that it was beefsteak. The liver is very -unwholesome. - -Bears are remarkably affectionate towards their young, and peculiarly -sagacious. The female has generally two at a birth. On one occasion, -a mother bear with two cubs was pursued across a field of ice by -a party of armed sailors. At first, she urged her young ones to -increase their speed, but finding the pursuers gaining on them, -she carried or pushed or pitched them alternately forward, until -she effected their escape. The little creatures are said to have -placed themselves across her path to receive her impulse, and when -thrown forward they ran on till she overtook them, when they adjusted -themselves for a second throw. - -Many instances have been observed of the peculiar sagacity of these -animals. A seal, lying on the middle of a large piece of ice, with -a hole just before it, was marked out by a bear for its prey, and -secured by the artifice of diving under the ice, and making its way -to the hole by which the seal was prepared to retreat. The seal, -however, observed its approach, and plunged into the water, but -the bear instantly sprang upon it, and appeared in about a minute -afterwards with the seal in its mouth. - -The captain of one of the whalers being anxious to procure a bear -without wounding the skin, made trial of the stratagem of laying the -noose of a rope in the snow, and placing a piece of kreng within it. -A bear, ranging the neighbouring ice, was soon enticed to the spot -by the smell of burning meat. He perceived the bait, approached, and -seized it in his mouth, but his foot, at the same moment, by a jerk -of the rope being entangled in the noose, he pushed it off with the -adjoining paw, and deliberately retired. After having eaten the piece -he carried away with him he returned. The noose, with another piece -of kreng, being then replaced, he pushed the rope aside, and again -walked triumphantly off with the kreng. A third time the noose was -laid, and this time the rope was buried in the snow and the bait laid -in a deep hole dug in the centre. But Bruin, after snuffing about the -place for a few minutes, scraped the snow away with his paw, threw -the rope aside, and escaped unhurt with his prize. - -In the month of June, 1812, a female bear, with two cubs, approached -the ship I commanded, and was shot. The cubs, not attempting to -escape, were taken alive. These animals, though at first evidently -very unhappy, became at length, in some measure, reconciled to their -situation, and being tolerably tame, were allowed occasionally to go -at large about the deck. While the ship was moored to a floe, a few -days after they were taken, one of them, having a rope fastened round -its neck, was thrown overboard. It immediately swam to the ice, got -upon it, and attempted to escape. Finding itself, however, detained -by the rope, it endeavoured to disengage itself in the following -ingenious way:—Near the edge of the floe was a crack in the ice, of -considerable length, but only eighteen inches or two feet wide, and -three or four feet deep. To this spot the bear returned; and when, -on crossing the chasm, the bight of the rope fell into it, he placed -himself across the opening; then, suspending himself by his hind -feet, with a leg on each side, he dropped his head and most of his -body into the chasm, and, with a foot applied to each side of the -neck, attempted for some minutes to push the rope over his head. -Finding this scheme ineffectual, he removed to the main ice, and -running with great impetuosity from the ship, gave a remarkable pull -on the rope; then, going backward a few steps, he repeated the jerk. -At length, after repeated attempts to escape this way, every failure -of which he announced by a significant growl, he yielded himself -to his hard necessity, and lay down on the ice in angry and sullen -silence. - -Accidents with bears occasionally occur; not so many, however, as -the ferocity of these animals, and the temerity of the sailors, -might lead one to expect. Some of the early voyagers to the Polar -Seas had hard conflicts with them. Barentz’s crew especially were -often in danger from them, but always succeeded either in conquering -or repelling them. Two, however, of the crew of a vessel which had -anchored near Nova Zembla, landed on an island at the mouth of -the Weigats, and, impelled by curiosity, wandered some distance -from the beach; but, whilst unconscious of danger, one of them was -suddenly seized on the back by a bear, and brought to the earth. His -companion ran off, and gave the alarm, and a party of his shipmates -came to their assistance. The bear stood over its prey during their -approach without the least appearance of fear and, on their attack, -sprang upon one of their number, and made him also a victim to its -ferocity and power. The rest now fled in confusion, and could not -be induced to renew the conflict. Three sailors only among the crew -had sufficient courage to combat with this formidable animal; they -attacked it, and, after a dangerous struggle, killed it, and rescued -the mangled bodies of their two unfortunate shipmates. - -Captain Cook, of the Archangel, of Lynn, being near the coast of -Spitzbergen, in the year 1788, landed, accompanied by his surgeon -and mate. While traversing the shore, the captain was unexpectedly -attacked by a bear, which seized him in an instant between its -paws. At this awful juncture, when a moment’s pause must have been -fatal to him, he called to his surgeon to fire; who, with admirable -resolution and steadiness, discharged his piece as directed, and -providentially shot the bear through the head. The captain, by this -prompt assistance, was preserved from being torn to pieces. - -On a more recent occasion, a commander of a whale ship was in a -similar danger. Captain Hawkins, of the Everthorpe, of Hull, when -in Davis’s Strait, in July, 1818, seeing a very large bear, took a -boat, and pushed off in pursuit of it. On reaching it, the captain -struck it twice with a lance in the breast; and, while in the act of -recovering his weapon for another blow, the enraged animal sprang -up, and seized him by the thigh, and threw him over its head into -the water. Fortunately it did not repeat its attack, but exerted -itself to escape. This exertion, when the attention of every one was -directed towards their captain, was not made in vain, for it was -allowed to swim away without further molestation. - -With regard to curious adventures, on one occasion a bear, which was -attacked by a boat’s crew, made such formidable resistance, that it -was enabled to climb the side of the boat and take possession of it, -while the intimidated crew fled for safety to the water, supporting -themselves by the gunwale and rings of the boat, until, by the -assistance of another party from the ship it was shot, as it sat -inoffensively in the stern. With regard to narrow escapes, a sailor, -who was pursued on a field of ice by a bear, when at a considerable -distance from assistance, preserved his life by throwing down an -article of clothing whenever the bear gained upon him, on which it -always suspended the pursuit until it had examined it, and thus gave -him time to obtain some advance. In this way, by means of a hat, a -jacket, and a neckerchief, successively cast down, the progress of -the bear was retarded, and the sailor escaped from the danger that -threatened him, in the refuge afforded him by his vessel. - -The rein-deer, _Cervus tarandus_, deserves to be mentioned amongst -the quadrupeds of the Arctic regions. I have never seen one myself, -though it is known to inhabit almost every part of Spitzbergen. - -Our remarks must now be directed to the _Birds_ which frequent the -sea and coast of Spitzbergen. - -The brent goose and eider duck, _Anas bernicla_ and _Anas -mollissima_, are found in these regions; the former occurring -in considerable numbers near the coast of Greenland, but not in -Spitzbergen, and the latter frequenting all the islands in the -Greenland Sea. The puffin, or Greenland parrot, _Alca arctica_, -feeding on shrimps, is rarely seen out of sight of land, but is very -common near the coast of Spitzbergen. _Alca alle_, also, the little -auk or roach, is an extremely numerous species in some situations in -the Polar Seas. They occur in the water in thousands together, and -sometimes in like abundance on the pieces of ice. They dive quickly -on being alarmed, and on the approach of thick weather they are -particularly noisy. - -The fulmar, _Procellaria glacialis_, is the constant companion of -the whale-fisher. It joins his ship immediately on passing the -Shetland Islands, and accompanies it through the trackless ocean -to the highest accessible latitudes. It keeps an eager watch for -anything thrown overboard; the smallest particle of fatty substance -can scarcely escape it. As such, a hook baited with a piece of fat -meat or blubber, and towed by a long twine over the ship’s stern, is -a means employed by the sailor-boys for taking them. In the spring -of the year, before they have glutted themselves with the fat of the -whale, they are pretty good eating. They are remarkably easy and -swift on the wing, and can fly to windward in the highest storms. -Though very few fulmars should be seen when a whale is about being -captured, yet, as soon as the flensing commences, they rush in -from all quarters, and seize, with great audacity, all the pieces -of fat that come in their way. They frequently glut themselves so -completely as to be unable to fly, in which case, when not relieved -by a quantity being disgorged, they rest on the ice until restored -by digestion. The fulmar is a bold and very hardy bird. Its feathers -being thick, it is not easily killed with a blow. Its bite, from the -crookedness, strength, and sharpness of its bill, is very severe. -Fulmars differ in colour; some are a dirty grey, others much paler, -and totally white on the breast and belly. In size this bird is a -little smaller than a duck. Beneath its feathers is a thick bed of -fine grey down. When carrion is scarce, the fulmar sometimes points -out the whale to the fisher by following in its track. They cannot -make much impression on the dead whale until some more powerful -animal tears away the skin. - -The tysté, or doveca, _Colymbus grylle_, is a beautifully formed -bird, occurring in considerable numbers in icy situations, at various -distances from land. It is so watchful, and so quick at diving, that, -if fired at without precaution to conceal the flash of the powder, it -generally escapes the shot. It feeds on shrimps and small fishes. The -common colour is black, but the feet are all red. - -Almost equally common with the preceding is the _Colymbus troile_, -a clumsy bird, weighing two pounds or upwards, and measuring only -sixteen or seventeen inches in length, and twenty-eight inches across -the wings, when full spread, in breadth. It cannot rise on the -wing in any direction except to windward. If it attempts to fly to -leeward, it runs for a considerable distance along the surface of the -water, and at length falls into it. Both in this instance and that of -the doveca, shortness of tail is compensated for by the feet, which -are used as a rudder in flying. The _Colymbus glacialis_ was seen by -captain Phipps on the coast of Spitzbergen. - -The sea-swallow, or great tern, _Sterna hirundo_, is an elegant bird, -common on the shore of Spitzbergen, but is not met with at a distance -from land. Its length is seven or eight inches, and including the -tail fourteen, and the spread of its wings twenty-nine or thirty -inches. It flies with great ease and swiftness, and to a considerable -height. It defends its eggs and young with great boldness from the -Arctic gull, and even descends within a yard of the head of any -person who ventures to molest them, startling him with its loud -screams. It lays its eggs among the shingle of the beach above -high-water mark, where the full power of the sun falls. - -There are several varieties of the gull tribe. The kittywake, _Larus -rissa_, is seen in every part of the northern Atlantic from Britain -to the highest latitudes. It is a better fisher than its enemy, the -Arctic gull, _Larus parasiticus_, by whom it is pursued until it -gives up the food it has procured. The latter kind of gull lives at -the expense of its neighbours, preying upon their eggs and their -young. _Larus crepidatus_ and _Larus eburneus_ are other varieties. -The latter, remarkable for its immaculate whiteness, is as ravenous -as the fulmar. _Larus glaucus_, burgomaster, is the chief magistrate -of the feathered tribe in the Spitzbergen regions, as none of its -class dare dispute its authority, or refuse at its bidding to -surrender their prey. It is a large and powerful bird, twenty-eight -inches in length, and five inches in breadth across the wings. The -kittywake, snow-bird, and burgomaster, are sometimes shot for the -sake of their feathers. The two latter species are very shy. They -are shot with the greatest ease, however, from a house built of snow -on the ice. The _Tringa hypoleucos_, sandpiper, and the _Emberiza -nivalis_, snow-bunting, are inhabitants also of these regions. A bird -of great delicacy and smallness is _Fringilla linaria_, the lesser -redpole. On our approach to Spitzbergen, several of this species -alighted on the ship, and were, apparently, so wearied by flight -that they allowed themselves to be taken alive. It is difficult to -understand how this small bird manages to perform the journey from -Spitzbergen to a milder climate, without becoming exhausted and -perishing by the way. - -The _Amphibia_, _Fishes_, _Animalcules_, etc., must conclude our -sketch of the zoology of the Arctic regions. - -In the class _Amphibia_, the most notable personage is the Greenland -shark, _Squalus borealis_. It has not, I believe, been described. -The ventral fins are separate. It is without anal fin, but has the -temporal opening, and it belongs, therefore, to the third division of -the genus. The spiracles on the neck are five in number on each side. -The colour is cinereous grey. The eyes are the most extraordinary -part of the animal. The pupil is emerald green, the rest of the -eye blue. To the posterior edge of the pupil is attached a white -vermiform substance, one or two inches in length. Each extremity of -it consists of two filaments, but the central part is single. The -sailors imagine this shark is blind, because it pays not the least -attention to the presence of a man, and is, indeed, so apparently -stupid, that it never draws back when a blow is aimed at it with a -knife or a lance. It is twelve or fourteen feet in length, and six or -eight feet in circumference, and in general form very much resembles -the dog-fish. It is one of the foes of the whale. It bites and annoys -it when living, and feeds on it when dead. With its teeth, which are -serrated in one jaw, and lancet-shaped and denticulated in the other, -it scoops out of the body of the whale pieces as large as a person’s -head, and continues scooping and gorging till its belly is filled. -It is so insensible to pain that, though run through the body with a -knife, it will return to its food, and for some hours after its heart -is taken out, or its body cut in pieces, they will continue to show -signs of life. It does not, so far as I am aware, attack the fishers. - -In the class _Pisces_, _Gadus carbonarius_, the coal-fish, was -procured by captain Phipps, as also of the former class, _Cyclopterus -liparis_, during his stay in the vicinity of Spitzbergen. _Mullus -barbatus_ was taken out of the mouth of a seal by a seaman, near -Spitzbergen. It was boiled by our officers, and proved an excellent -dish. - -In the class _Articulata_ are one or two species of _gammarus_. The -_G. arcticus_ of Leach, the actions of which suggest as a familiar -name, the mountebank shrimp. There are also various crabs, and the -_Oniscus ceti_ of Linnæus, or whale’s louse. This little animal is -about half an inch in diameter, and firmly fixes itself by hooked -claws on the skin of the mysticetus. It is found under the fin, and -wherever the skin is tender, and it is not likely to be dislodged. A -similar animal, though smaller, is found on the body of the narwal. - -In the class _Vermes_ are several species found in various animals -inhabiting the northern seas. The sea-snail, _Clio helicina_, is an -animal covered with a delicately beautiful sheet, similar to that of -the nautilus. The diameter is from two-eighths to three-eighths of an -inch. It is found in great quantities near the coast of Spitzbergen. -The _Clio borealis_ occurs in vast numbers in some situations near -Spitzbergen, but is not found generally in the Arctic Seas. In -swimming, it brings the tips of its fins almost into contact, first -oil one side and then on another. I kept several of them alive in a -glass of sea-water for about, a month, when they gradually wasted -away and died. - -The cuttle-fish, _Sepia_, were found by me in large numbers in the -stomachs of the narwals. - -More than six or seven kinds of _Medusæ_ may be distinguished, -among which may be named, _Medusa pileus_, and the purse-shaped, -bottle-shaped, and orange-coloured _medusæ_. _Medusa pileus_ is one -of the most curious of the tribe. It consists of eight lobes, with a -beautiful, irridescent, finny fringe on the external edge of each. A -canal, four-fifths the length of the animal, penetrates the centre -of it, and two red cirrhi, which may be extended to the length of -nearly a foot, proceed from a crooked cavity in opposite sides. The -animal is semi-transparent, the colour white, and the finny fringes -of deeper red. It is found of various sizes. - -The substance of the purse-shaped medusa is tougher than that of any -other species which I have examined. It has one large open cavity, -and is divided by the finny fringes into eight segments, each -alternate pair of which are similar. The colour is a pale crimson, -with waved purple lines, and the finny fringes deeper crimson. The -animal appeared to be almost without sensation. The only evidence it -gave of feeling was in an increased vibration of the finny fringes. -Though it was cut into pieces, each portion on which there was any -of the fringe continued, by its incessant play, to give evidence of -life during two or three days, after which it became putrescent, and -began to waste away. I have only seen one specimen of this and of -the orange-coloured medusa. The colour of the latter was a brilliant -orange, and it was not transparent. It was not tenacious of life, -having died, to appearance, soon after it was taken. - -The Greenland Sea, frozen and extensive as it is, teems with life. -The variety of the animal creation is not, indeed, very great, but -the quantity of some of the species that occur is truly immense. The -minute medusæ and animalcules, throughout the Spitzbergen Sea, would -exceed all the powers of the mind to conceive. These little creatures -constitute the food of the largest animals in the creation. The -common whale feeds on medusæ, sepiæ, cancri, actiniæ, etc., and these -feed, probably, on the minor medusæ animalcules. The fin-whales and -dolphins feed principally on herrings and other small fishes. These -subsist on the smaller cancri, medusæ, and animalcules. The bear’s -most general food is the seal; the seal subsists on the cancri and -small fishes, and these on lesser animals of the tribe, or on the -minor medusæ and animalcules. Thus the whole of the larger animals -depend on these minute beings, which, until the year 1816, when -I first entered on the examination of the sea-water, were not, I -believe, known to exist in the Polar Seas. - -The manner in which these minute animals are preserved, in a sea -which is surrounded by an atmosphere ten or twelve degrees in mean -temperature below the freezing point of salt water, is curious and -interesting, and illustrates the combined wisdom and goodness of the -Lawgiver of these icy regions, as well as of the entire globe. If the -water of the sea were stationary, the temperature of the atmosphere -would soon freeze it to the very bottom, and destroy all these minute -animals, who have not either instinct or power of motion to retire -into a more southern region. A current, however, is provided, -setting towards the south-west, which carries away the ice into a -parallel where it can be dissolved, and creates a circulation of -water into the frozen regions from a warmer climate; while therefore -the superficial current is carrying away the ice, an under-current, -in a contrary direction, is bringing in warmth beneath. But how, it -may be asked, does it happen that the minor medusæ are not carried -away into the southern region? It is no violation of commonly -received principles to suppose, that whenever the medusæ are carried -to some extent southward, they sink in the water until they reach the -stream of the under-current, and are by it conveyed to their proper -element. The fact that the olive-green water of the sea maintains a -similar position for years together, while surface after surface of -ice is carried away and dissipated, is in support of this conjecture. -Thus, by a most beautiful contrivance, a large portion of the -surface of the globe is rendered habitable, which would otherwise -be a solid mass of ice, and the Polar Sea affords a dwelling-place -for many tribes of animals most useful in supplying the wants, and -contributing to the comfort, of man. - -It is not only, therefore, in those regions where - - “Spices breathe and milder seasons smile,” - -but even in the laws of a less genial climate, that we are called -upon to observe His eternal power and godhead, who gives the -bounties of his providence to the just and the unjust, and pleads -with us, in the gospel of his Son, that we should be reconciled -to him. The mighty whale, the ephemeral insect, and the minute -animalcule, all the productions of his power and skill, have their -wants supplied by his laws, and are subject to his control. In these -he displays the strength of his arm, and the adaptations of his -wisdom, but in man, redeemed and sanctified, “the exceeding riches -of his grace.” Happy, indeed, are we, if whilst, with the ancient -psalmist, we can proclaim that the earth is full of the goodness of -the Lord, “who gathereth the waters of the sea together as an heap,” -and “layeth up the depth in store-houses,” we can also, without -presumption, through our union with the great heir of all things, the -Lord Jesus, and by the merit of his life and death, honestly declare -all things are ours, whether ... the world, or life, or death, or -things present, or things to come, all are ours, and we are Christ’s, -and Christ is God’s. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -EXPEDITIONS FOR FURTHER DISCOVERY. - - -Having now completed the account of the Arctic Regions, as given by -captain Scoresby, it may be interesting to the reader to have a brief -statement of some of the principal expeditions for further discovery -down to the present time. - -In 1819, lieutenant Parry sailed with the Hecla and Griper. The -object of his expedition was to examine the great and open bay, known -as sir J. Lancaster’s Sound; and, in case of failure, the Sound of -alderman Jones, and that of sir T. Smith. On the 1st of August, the -ships entered the Sound of sir J. Lancaster, and ran quickly up it, -finding no land across the bottom of the inlet, but arriving at a -strait, which they named Barrow’s Strait, and a magnificent opening -into which it led, Wellington Channel. On the 4th of September, the -expedition crossed the meridian of 110° west longitude, in latitude -74° 44′, becoming entitled to a reward of £5,000. They anchored, and -put into winter-quarters at Melville Island, losing sight of the sun -from 11th November till the 3rd of February, when it became once more -visible from the Hecla’s main-top. With the greatest difficulty, -they managed to escape from the ice during the months of August and -September, arriving at the Orkneys 28th October, 1820. - -The second voyage of Parry was with the Fury and Hecla. His -instructions were to proceed towards, or into, Hudson’s Strait, to -penetrate to the westward through that strait, until he should reach -some portion of the coast of the continent of America. The object was -to discover a way westward from the Atlantic into the Pacific Ocean. -The vessels left the Nore 8th May, 1821, and arrived at Resolution -Island, at the entrance of Hudson’s Strait, on 2nd July, attempted -the direct passage through the Frozen Strait, and passed through it -into Repulse Bay. From it no passage was found to the west, and the -ships, after beating about to no profit, were compelled to winter -near Lyon’s Inlet. Here the dreariness of the winter was relieved by -interviews with the inhabitants, who were found to be intelligent -and honest. On 2nd July, the ships left their winter-quarters, and, -after being exposed to the most fearful dangers, arrived at a strait, -called by Parry, the Strait of the Fury and Hecla, and believed by -him to be an opening into the Polar Sea. The ships again went into -winter-quarters, and were frozen in until late in the following year, -but arrived at Lerwick on October 10th, 1823. - -The same ships, under the same commander, sailed on a third -expedition in May, 1824, having for its object to penetrate through -Lancaster Sound, Barrow’s Strait, and Prince Regent’s Inlet, to the -westward. Through detention by the ice, they did not arrive at -Lancaster Sound till 10th September, and went into winter-quarters on -the 27th, in Prince Regent’s Inlet, at Port Bowen. On the breaking up -of the ice, they explored, southerly, close to the westward shore; -but by the accidents to which they were exposed, they were compelled -to abandon the Fury, with her stores, and the Hecla only returned to -England. - -In 1827, captain Parry proposed to reach the North Pole by means of -travelling with sledge-boats over the ice. Two boats were constructed -for the purpose, the one to be commanded by Parry, the other by -lieutenant Ross. They proceeded in the Hecla to Spitzbergen, and -there left the ship, starting in their sledge-boats with seventy-one -days’ provisions. They travelled by night rather than by day; found -the ice very rough, and in some places tender; and after experiencing -great difficulties, arrived only at latitude 82° 45′, and were -compelled to abandon the undertaking as hopeless. - -Captain John Franklin received instructions to explore the northern -coast of America, from the mouth of Copper Mine River to the -eastward. He sailed on 22nd May, 1819, in a ship of the Hudson’s -Bay Company. They arrived at York Factory, in Hudson’s Bay, on 30th -August. Their route was to be by Cumberland House, and through a -chain of posts to the Great Slave Lake. At Cumberland House, it was -arranged that Franklin and others should proceed at once on to the -Athobasca department, to the northward of the Great Slave Lake, and -that the rest of the party should follow in the spring. The place of -meeting was Fort Chepewyan, eight hundred and fifty-seven miles from -Cumberland House; and, by the 20th August, they had advanced to Fort -Enterprise, five hundred and fifty miles from Chepewyan. Here they -wintered, and were exposed to awful hardships; but, on the arrival -of the spring, they prosecuted their journey down the Copper Mine -River, reaching the Polar Sea on the 18th July. They then navigated -the coast to the eastward, in their canoes, exploring Coronation -Gulf. They attempted to return by Hood’s River, and across the land -to Point Lake. After being exposed to the most dreadful sufferings, -they regained their winter-stations, at Fort Enterprise, and returned -to England. - -Notwithstanding the perils and hardships which had already befallen -them, captain Franklin and his companions, Dr. Richardson and -lieutenant Back, undertook a second expedition over the same country, -and left Liverpool 16th February, 1825, arriving at Fort Chepewyan as -early as 15th July. They then descended Mackenzie River to the sea. -Dividing themselves into two parties, they explored the coast east -and west, and the expedition returned home 24th September, 1827. - -Other voyages are those of Ross, of Back, first and second, and of -Dease and Simpson, two officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company, who -surveyed, in 1839, the remainder of the western coast which had been -left by Franklin. Dr. John Rae was dispatched by the Hudson’s Bay -Company in July, 1846, to survey the unexplored portion of the Arctic -coast at the north-eastern angle of the American continent, and -returned successfully in October, 1847. - -An important expedition for discovery in the North Polar regions, -the termination of which is yet awaited with serious anxiety, left -England under sir John Franklin in July, 1845. The ships were -victualled for only three full years, which expired during the summer -of this year. Three expeditions have been sent in search of the lost -travellers. One departed early in February, 1848, for Behring’s -Strait; a second, which sailed in the spring, under sir J. Ross, has -been heard of as having reached Disco Island on the 2nd July; and a -third, under sir John Richardson, accompanied by Dr. Rae, left in -March to proceed overland, and arrived at Lake Superior on 29th of -April. A report has very recently come in from the Esquimaux of their -having seen “two large boats, full of white men, to the east of the -Mackenzie river;” and sir J. Ross has been spoken with by a whaler on -the east side of Baffin’s Bay, in latitude 74° 20′; but no tidings to -relieve the public anxiety have been received to the close of 1848, -concerning the fate of sir J. Franklin and his companions. - - -THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY: INSTITUTED 1799 - - - - - Transcriber’s Note - Hyphenation has been retained as published in the original publication. - Pg 57 Changed Magdalena Bay to Magdalen Bay - Pg 76 Removed quote before: From this remarkable sea - Pg 156 Changed of La Cèpede, to Cepède - Pg 158 Changed according to Egède, to Egedé - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARCTIC REGIONS AND THE -NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Arctic regions and the northern whale-fishery</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: William Scoresby</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: November 19, 2022 [eBook #69389]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: deaurider, Bob Taylor and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARCTIC REGIONS AND THE NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY ***</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 35%"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover"> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp51" id="spitzbergen" style="max-width: 34.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/spitzbergen.jpg" alt=""> - <div class="caption">SPITZBERGEN.</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="p3 chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h1> -<span class="fs60">THE</span><br> -<br> -<span class="fs130">ARCTIC REGIONS</span><br> -<br> -<span class="fs60">AND THE</span><br> -<br> -<span class="fs120">NORTHERN</span><br> -<br> -<span class="fs130">WHALE-FISHERY.</span></h1> - -<p class="p3 center fs80">BY</p> - -<p class="p1 center fs130">CAPTAIN SCORESBY, <span class="allsmcap">F.R.S.E.</span></p><br> - -<p class="p2 center fs130">LONDON:<br> -THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY:</p> -<p class="center fs120"><em>Instituted 1799</em>.</p> -<p class="center">56, PATERNOSTER ROW, AND 65, ST. PAUL’S CHURCHYARD.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg v]</span></p> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2> -</div> -<hr class="r5"> - -<p>The following pages contain, in an abridged -and somewhat modified form, the substance -of the first volume of captain (now the rev. -Dr.) Scoresby’s work on the Arctic Regions -and the Whale-fishery, Edinburgh, 1820; with -the omission of the third chapter on the Hydrographical -Survey of the Greenland Sea. It is -now issued by the kind permission of the -author; and a wider circulation may thus be -secured for the interesting contents of his -volumes than they could receive in their -original and more costly form. Some few -materials have also been collated from the -valuable papers by the same author contributed -to the “Edinburgh Philosophical Journal.”</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg vii]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> - -<hr class="r5"> - -<table class="autotable fs80"> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER I.</td> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr">Page</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">REMARKS ON THE CELEBRATED QUESTION OF THE EXISTENCE -OF A SEA COMMUNICATION BETWEEN THE -ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC OCEANS, BY THE NORTH; -WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY -IN THE NORTHERN REGIONS</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER II.</td> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE POLAR COUNTRIES</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER III.</td> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">AN ACCOUNT OF THE GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER IV.</td> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">OBSERVATIONS ON THE ATMOSPHEROLOGY OF THE -ARCTIC REGIONS, PARTICULARLY RELATING TO -SPITZBERGEN AND THE ADJACENT GREENLAND SEA</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER V.</td> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">A SKETCH OF THE ZOOLOGY OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER VI.</td> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">EXPEDITIONS FOR FURTHER DISCOVERY</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p> -</div> - -<p class="center">THE</p> - -<p class="center fs200">ARCTIC REGIONS.</p> - -<hr class="r5"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I"><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER I.</a></h2> - -<p class="center fs80">REMARKS ON THE CELEBRATED QUESTION OF THE EXISTENCE -OF A SEA COMMUNICATION BETWEEN THE -ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC OCEANS, BY THE NORTH; WITH -AN ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY IN THE -NORTHERN REGIONS.</p> - - -<p>The question of the existence of a navigable -communication between the European and the -Chinese seas, by the north, is one which has -been long in agitation without being resolved, -and has been often revived, with the most -sanguine expectations of success, to be again -abandoned as hopeless. The first attempts to -reach China by sea, were made by steering -along the coast of Africa toward the south, -and the next, by proceeding from the European -shore in a westerly direction. The former, -which first proved successful, was accomplished -by Vasquez de Gama, a Portuguese, in the year -1497-8; and the latter was undertaken by -the renowned navigator, Columbus, in 1492.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> -The notion of steering to India by the north-west, -as the shortest way, was suggested about -the middle or latter end of the fifteenth century, -by John Vaz Costa Cortereal, who performed a -voyage to Newfoundland about the year 1463-4; -or, according to a more general opinion, by John -Cabot, the father of the celebrated Sebastian -Cabot, who attempted the navigation in 1497, -and perhaps also in 1494-5. The idea of a -passage to India by the North Pole was suggested -by Robert Thorne, merchant of Bristol, -as early as the year 1527; and the opinion of -a passage by the north-east was proposed soon -afterwards.</p> - -<p>The universal interest which has been attached -to this question of a sea communication -between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, by the -north, ever since it was first suggested, about -three hundred and thirty or three hundred and -fifty years ago, is fully proved by the facts, -that the speculation has never but once been -abandoned by the nations of Europe for more -than twenty-five years together, and that there -have been only three or four intervals of more -than fifteen years in which no expedition was -sent out in search of one or other of the supposed -passages, from the year 1500 down to the -present time. And it is not a little surprising -that, after nearly a hundred different voyages -have been undertaken with a view of discovering -the desired communication with the Indian -seas, all of which have failed, Britain should<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> -again revive and attempt the solution of this -interesting problem.</p> - -<p>Several facts may be brought forward, on -which arguments of no mean force may be -founded, in support of the opinion of the existence -of a sea communication by the north -between Europe and China. They may be -enumerated in order.</p> - -<p>1. The prevailing current in the Spitzbergen -sea flows, we are well assured, during nine -months of the year, if not all the year round, -from the north-east towards the south-west. -The velocity of this current may be from five -to twenty miles per day, varying in different -situations, but is most considerable near the -coast of Old Greenland. The current, on the -other hand, in the middle of Behring’s Strait, -as observed by lieutenant Kotzebue, sets strongly -to the north-east, with a velocity, as he thought, -of two miles and a half an hour; which is -greater, however, by one-half than the rate -observed by captain Cook.</p> - -<p>2. By the action of the south-westerly current, -a vast quantity of ice is annually brought -from the north and east, and conducted along -the east shore of Old Greenland as far as Cape -Farewell, where such masses as still remain -undissolved are soon destroyed by the influence -of the solar heat and the force of the sea, to -which they then become exposed from almost -every quarter. This ice being entirely free -from salt, and very compact, appears originally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span> -to have consisted of field-ice, a kind which -perhaps requires the action of frost for many -years to bring it to the thickness which it -assumes. The quantity of heavy ice, in surface, -which is thus annually dissolved, may, at -a rough calculation, be stated to be about -twenty thousand square leagues, while the -quantity annually generated in the regions -accessible to the whale-fishers is, probably, not -more than one-fourth of that area. As such, -the ice, which is so inexhaustible, must require -an immense surface of sea for its generation, -perhaps the whole or greater part of the so-called -“Polar Basin;” the supply required for -replacing what is dissolved in Behring’s Strait, -where the current sets towards the north, being, -probably, of small moment. The current, in -opposite parts of the northern hemisphere, being -thus found to follow the same line of direction, -indicates a communication between the two -across the Poles; and the inexhaustible supply -of ice, affording about fifteen thousand square -leagues, to be annually dissolved above the -quantity generated in the known parts of the -Spitzbergen seas, supports the same conclusion.</p> - -<p>3. The origin of the considerable quantity of -drift-wood, found in almost every part of the -Greenland sea, is traced to some country beyond -the Pole, and may be brought forward in -aid of the opinion of the existence of a sea -communication between the Atlantic and the -Pacific; which argument receives additional<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> -strength from the circumstance of some of the -drift-wood being worm-eaten. This last fact -I first observed on the shores of the island of -Jan Mayen, in August, 1817, and confirmed it -by more particular observation when at Spitzbergen -the year following. Having no axe -with me when I observed the worm-eaten wood, -and having no means of bringing it away, I -could not ascertain whether the holes observed -in the timber were the work of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ptinus</i> or a -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pholas</i>. In either case, however, as it is not -known that these animals ever pierce wood in -arctic countries, it is presumed that the worm-eaten -drift-wood is derived from a transpolar -region. Numerous facts of this nature might -be adduced, all of which support the same -conclusion.</p> - -<p>4. The northern faces of the continents of -Europe and Asia, as well as of that of America, -so far as yet known, are such as renders it -difficult even to imagine such a position for the -unascertained regions, as to cut off the communication -between the Frozen Sea, near the -meridian of London, and that in the opposite -part of the northern hemisphere, near Behring’s -Strait.</p> - -<p>5. Whales, which have been harpooned in -the Greenland seas, have been found in the -Pacific Ocean; and whales, with stone lances -sticking in their fat, (a kind of weapon used by -no nation now known,) have been caught both -in the sea of Spitsbergen and in Davis’s Strait.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> -This fact, which is sufficiently authenticated, -seems to me the most satisfactory argument.</p> - -<p>The Russians, it appears, have, at intervals, -discovered all the navigation between Archangel -and the Strait of Behring, excepting a portion -of about two hundred miles, occupied by the -eastern part of a noss, or promontory, lying -between the rivers Khatanga and Piacina. The -northern extremity of this noss, called Cape -Ceverovostochnoi, appears to have been doubled -by lieutenant Prontschitscheff, in the year 1735, -so that ice, and perhaps some small islands, -seem in this place to form the great obstruction -to the navigation. As far as can be well substantiated, -the portion of the route between -Archangel and Kamtchatka, which has been -hitherto accomplished, clearly proves that, if a -sea communication between the Atlantic and -Pacific by the north-east really exists, it could -never be practicable in one year. Inasmuch -as the Russians were five or six years in performing -so much of the navigation as has been -accomplished, though they employed a number -of different vessels in the undertaking, it is -probable that the voyage could never be performed -in one vessel, unless by mere accident, -in less than eight or ten years. It is clear, -therefore, that the discovery of a “north-east -passage” could never be of any advantage to -our commerce with China or India.</p> - -<p>Though, however, the voyages undertaken in -search of a north-east passage by the different<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> -nations of Europe have amounted to about -twelve, besides numerous partial attempts by -the Russians, and though all of them have -failed in their principal intention, yet they have -not been wholly lost to us; the Spitzbergen -whale and seal fisheries, so valuable to the -country, with the trade to Archangel, having -arisen out of them.</p> - -<p>The voyages of Davis, in the years 1585-6 -and 1587-8, of Hudson, in 1610, and of Baffin, -in 1616, were the source of the greatest part of -the discoveries which have been made in the -countries situated to the northward and westward -of the south point of Greenland. To -these regions, consisting of what have been -called bays and straits, the names of these -celebrated voyagers have been applied. All the -voyages, indeed, since undertaken for discovery -in the same quarter, amounting to nearly -thirty, have done little more than confirm the -researches of these three individuals, and show -how little there was to be found, instead of -discovering anything of moment. The ostensible -object of most of these voyages, was the -discovery of a shorter passage to India than -that by the Cape of Good Hope, by the north-west. -The existence of such a passage is not -yet either proved or refuted. In an account of -“a Voyage to Hudson’s Bay,” by Henry Ellis, -such a passage is inferred to exist from the -following considerations:—the want of trees on -the west side of Hudson’s Bay beyond a certain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> -latitude; the appearance of a certain ridge of -mountains lying near the same coast, and extending -in a direction parallel to it; the direct -testimony of the Indians, that they have seen -the sea beyond the mountains, and have observed -vessels navigating therein; and, most -particularly, the nature and peculiarities observed -in the tides. This latter argument is -by far the most conclusive. From observations -on the winds and tides in the Baltic, Mediterranean, -and other inland seas, Ellis proceeds -to show, that every circumstance with regard -to the tides in Hudson’s Bay is different from -what would take place in an inland sea, and -then concludes that Hudson’s Bay is not such -a sea, but has some opening which communicates -with the Frozen Ocean on the north-west.</p> - -<p>Other arguments, which have been offered -in favour of the separation of Greenland from -America, are deduced from the existence of a -current setting from the north—from the circumstance -of icebergs and drift-wood being -brought down by the current—from whales -wounded in the Spitzbergen seas having been -caught in Davis’s Strait—from the position of -the land, as represented on skins by the native -American Indians—and from the occurrence of -certain plants in Greenland, which are natives -of Europe, but have never been found in any -part of the American continent.</p> - -<p>The opinion appears to be quite incorrect, -that if a passage were discovered, it would,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> -probably, be open above half the year. I -imagine it would be only at intervals of years -that it would be open at all, and then, perhaps, -for no longer time than eight or ten weeks in -a season. Hence, as affording a navigation to -the Pacific Ocean, the discovery of a north-west -passage would be of no service. For -many reasons, however, the examination of -these interesting countries is an object worthy -of the attention of a great nation. The advantages -that have already arisen to Britain from -the voyages undertaken in search of a north-west -passage are, the establishment of the -Davis’s Strait’s whale-fishery, and of the trade -of the Hudson’s Bay company, so that the -expenditure has not altogether been lost.</p> - -<p>The adventurous spirit manifested by our -early navigators, in performing such hazardous -voyages in small barks, in which we should be -scrupulous of trusting ourselves across the -German Ocean, is calculated to strike us with -surprise and admiration, while the correctness -of their investigations gives us a high opinion -of their perseverance and talent. The famous -voyage of Baffin, in which the bay bearing his -name was discovered, was performed in a vessel -of only fifty-five tons’ burden; that of -Hudson, in which also the bay called by his -name was first navigated, in the very same -vessel; and the voyages of Davis chiefly in -vessels of fifty, thirty-five, and ten tons’ burden.</p> - -<p>In perusing the voyages of our old navigators,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> -it is particularly gratifying to those -who consider religion as the chief business of -this life, to observe the strain of piety and dependence -upon Divine Providence which runs -through almost every narrative. Their honest -and laudable acknowledgments of a particular -interference of the Almighty, working out -deliverance for them in times of difficulty and -danger, and their frequent declarations expressive -of their reliance upon Providence, for -assistance and protection in their adventurous -undertakings, are worthy of our imitation. -Thus, while our modern voyagers are much in -the habit of attributing their most remarkable -deliverances to “luck,” “chance,” and “fortune,” -those of old evidenced certainly a more -Christian-like feeling, under such circumstances, -by referring their deliverances to that great -Being, from whom alone every good thing -must be derived. They only who have a -similar dependence on Providence, and who -have been occasionally in trying situations, can -duly appreciate the confidence and comfort -which this belief is calculated to afford under -the most appalling circumstances.</p> - -<p>The class of vessels best adapted for discovery -in the Polar seas, seems to be that of one -hundred to two hundred tons’ burden. They -are stronger, more easily managed, in less -danger of being stoved or crushed by ice, and -not so expensive as those of larger dimensions. -An increase of size is a diminution of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> -comparative strength; and hence it is evident, -that a vessel intended for discovery should be -just large enough for conveying the requisite -stores and provisions, and for affording comfortable -accommodation to the navigators, but -no larger. Perhaps a vessel about one hundred -and fifty tons’ burden would be fully sufficient -to answer every purpose. The navigation of the -Polar seas, which is peculiar, requires in a particular -manner an extensive knowledge of the -nature, properties, and usual motions of the ice, -and it can only be performed to the best advantage -by those who have had long experience in -working a ship in icy situations. It might be a -material assistance to those employed in completing -the examination of Baffin’s Bay, as well -as productive of some interesting information in -meteorological phenomena, were a vessel or two -to remain in the northern part of this bay -through the winter. There is very little doubt -that the vessel would, by this method, be released -by the ice as early as May or June, and -thus be afforded about double the time of research -that could be obtained by wintering out -of the bay. There would not, I imagine, be any -very great danger in making this experiment, -provided a sufficient quantity of fresh provisions, -for the prevention of the scurvy among the -crew, were taken out, and certain precautions -adopted for the preservation of the ships. The -ingenious apparatus invented by Mr. Thomas -Morton designed to supersede, in repairing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> -vessels, the necessity of dry docks, might be -eminently advantageous.</p> - -<p>In seas perpetually encumbered with ice, and -probably crowded with islands, if not divided -by necks of land, the chance of great discoveries -and of extensive navigations towards -the north-west, even under the best arrangements -and under the boldest seamen, is but -small. The most certain method of ascertaining -the existence of a communication between -the Atlantic and Pacific, along the northern face -of America, would doubtless be by journeys on -land. Men there are who, being long used to -travel upon snow in the service of the Hudson’s -Bay company, would readily undertake the -journey by the interior lakes of North America -to the Frozen Ocean, or, in case of a continuity -of land being found, to the very Pole -itself, of whose success we should certainly -have a reasonable ground of hope. The practicability -of this mode of making discoveries -has been fully proved by the expeditions of -Mackenzie and Hearne; and a possibility of -performing very long journeys on snow can be -attested, from personal experience, by those -who have wintered a few times in Hudson’s -Bay.</p> - -<p>The plan of performing a journey in this -way, for discovering the northern termination -of the American continent, and for tracing it -round to its junction with the coasts of the -same country, washed by the Atlantic, might<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> -be in some measure as follows. The party -intended for this expedition, which should -consist of as few individuals as possible, ought, -perhaps, in the course of one summer, to make -their way to one of the interior settlements of -the Hudson’s Bay company, or of the Canadian -traders, such as Slave Fort, on the great -Slave Lake, situated in the 62nd degree of latitude, -or Fort Chepewyan, near the Athapescow -Lake, in latitude 58° 40′, from whence sir -Alexander Mackenzie embarked on his voyage -to the Frozen Ocean, and there abide during -the first winter. Supposing the travellers -to winter at Slave Fort, they might calculate -on being within the distance of two -hundred leagues, or thirty or forty days’ -journey, moderate travelling, of the Frozen -Ocean. In the month of March or April, the -party, consisting of two or three Europeans, -one or two Esquimaux interpreters, and two -or more Indian guides, provided with everything -requisite for the undertaking, might set -out towards the north. On the arrival of the -travellers among the Esquimaux, their Indian -guides, from fear of this nation, would probably -desert them, but the presence of their -Esquimaux interpreters would secure them a -good reception. When once they should meet -with this people, they would have a strong -evidence of being near the sea, as it is well -known the Esquimaux never retire far from -the coast. On their arrival at the coast, it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span> -will be necessary to associate with the Esquimaux, -to submit in some measure to their -mode of living, and, to effect any considerable -discovery, it might be requisite to spend a -winter or two among them, in which case they -might trace the line of the Frozen Ocean to -such a length, that the place where it joins the -western coast of Baffin’s Bay, or Hudson’s Bay, -or the eastern side of Greenland, would be -determined. Or, if it should be objectionable -to winter among the Esquimaux, several expeditions -might be sent out at the same time -from different stations, and on different meridians. -The expense of three or four such -expeditions over land would probably be less -than that of one expedition by sea.</p> - -<p>The scheme suggested by Robert Thorne, of -Bristol, of finding a passage to India across -the North Pole, about the year 1527, appears -to have been immediately attempted by an -expedition, consisting of two ships, sent out by -order of Henry <span class="allsmcap">VIII.</span>; one of the ships, we are -informed, was lost; of the nature of the success -of the other we have but a very unsatisfactory -account. After this voyage, Barentz, Heemskerke, -and Ryp, attempted the transpolar navigation, -in 1596; Hudson, in 1607; Jonas Poole, -in 1610 and 1611; Baffin and Fotherby, in -1614; Fotherby, in 1615; Phipps, in 1773; -and Buchan and Franklin, in 1818. The -highest latitude attained by any of these navigators -did not, it would appear, exceed 81°.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> -My father, in the ship Resolution, of Whitby, -in the year 1806, with whom I then served as -chief mate, sailed to a much higher latitude. -Our latitude, on three occasions, in the month -of May, as derived from observations taken -with a sextant by myself and my father, was -80° 50′ 28″, 81° 1′ 53″, and 81° 12′ 42″; after -which we sailed so far to the northward as -made it about 81° 30′, which is one of the -closest approximations to the Pole which I -conceive has been well authenticated.</p> - -<p>Whatever may be our opinion of the accounts -brought forward by some parties to -prove the occasional accessibility of the 83rd -or 84th parallel of north latitude, of this -we may be assured, that the opinion of an -open sea round the Pole is altogether chimerical. -It is urged, indeed, that the extraordinary -power of the sun, about the summer -solstice, is so far greater at the Pole than at the -Equator, as to destroy all the ice generated in -the winter season, and to render the temperature -of the Pole warmer and more congenial -to feeling than it is in some places lying -nearer the Equator. So far, however, from the -actual influence of the sun, though acknowledged -at a certain season to be greater at the -Pole than at the Equator, being above what it -is calculated to be by the ordinary formulæ for -temperature, it is found by experiment in -latitude 78° to be greatly below it—how then -can the temperature of the Pole be expected to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> -be so very different? From the remarks in -the ensuing pages, it will be shown that ice is -annually formed during nine months of the -year in the Spitzbergen sea, and that neither -calm weather, nor the proximity of land, is -essential for its formation. Can it, then, be -supposed, that at the Pole, where the mean -temperature is probably as low as 10°, the sea -is not full of ice? If the masses of ice, which -usually prevent the advance of navigators -beyond the 82nd degree of north latitude, be -extended in a continued series to the Pole, (of -which, unless there be land in the way, there -appears no doubt,) the expectation of reaching -the Pole by sea is altogether vain. By land, however, -I do not conceive the journey would be impracticable. -It would not exceed one thousand -two hundred miles, (six hundred miles each -way,) and might be performed on sledges, -drawn by dogs or reindeer, or even on foot. -Foot travellers would require to draw the -apparatus and provisions, necessary for the -undertaking, on sledges by hand, and in this -way, with good dispatch, the journey would -occupy at least two months; but, with the -assistance of dogs, it might, probably, be accomplished -in a little less time. With favourable -winds, great advantage might be derived -from sails set upon the sledges, which sails, -when the travellers were at rest, would serve -for the erection of tents. Small vacancies in -the ice would not prevent the journey, as the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> -sledges might be adapted so as to answer the -purpose of boats, nor would the usual unevenness -of the ice, nor the depth or softness of -the snow, be an insurmountable difficulty, -as journeys of nearly equal length, and under -similar inconveniences, have been accomplished.</p> - -<p>Among many similar accounts, there is one -related by Muller, in his “Voyages from Asia -to America,” of a Cossack having actually -performed a journey of about eight hundred -miles in a sledge, drawn by dogs, across a -surface of ice lying to the northward of the -Russian dominions, which sufficiently establishes -the practicability of a journey across the -ice to the Pole. Alexei Markoff, a Cossack, -was sent to explore the Frozen Ocean, in -the summer of the year 1714, by order of -the Russian government, but finding the sea -so crowded with ice that he was unable to -make any progress in discovery, he formed -the design of travelling in sledges, during the -winter or spring of the year, over the ice, which -might then be expected to be firm and compact. -Accordingly, he prepared several of the -country sledges, drawn by dogs, and accompanied -by eight persons, he set out on the 10th -of March from the mouth of the Jana, in latitude -70° 30′, and longitude about 138° east. -He proceeded for seven days northward, as fast -as his dogs could draw, which, under favourable -circumstances, is eighty or one hundred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> -versts a day, until his progress was impeded, -about the 78th degree of latitude, by the ice -elevated into prodigious mountains. This prevented -his further advance; at the same time, -falling short of provisions for his dogs, his -return was effected with difficulty; several of -his dogs died for want, and were given to the -rest for their support. On the 3rd of April, he -arrived at Ust-Jauskoe Simowie, the place from -whence he started, after an absence of twenty-four -days, during which time he appears to -have travelled about eight hundred miles. The -journey of Markoff was nearly equal in extent -to the projected journey to the Pole, and there -appears no very great reason why a person -equally adventurous with Markoff, and better -provided, might not in a similar manner reach -the Pole.</p> - -<p>The first considerable discovery which appears -to have been made in or near the arctic -circle, was the result of accident; one of the -numerous Scandinavian depredators, who, in -the ninth century, cruised the northern seas in -search of plunder, having been driven, by a -long-continued storm, from the eastward upon -the coast of Iceland, in the year 861. This -island, from the quantity of snow seen on the -mountains, was, by its discoverer Naddodd, at -first called <em>Schnee</em>, or <em>Snowland</em>. It was visited -by a Swede of the name of Gardar Suaffarson, -three years after its discovery, and afterwards -by another Swede, Flocke, from whom it received<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> -the name of <em>Iceland</em>. It was again -visited in the year 874, by Ingolf and Lief, two -Norwegians, and became the seat of a Norwegian -colony.</p> - -<p>The coast of Norway, to the entrance of the -White Sea, was examined about this period by -a person of the name of Ohthere, a Norwegian, -who himself gave an account of his voyage to -Alfred the Great, by whom it has been handed -down to us along with the translation of the -Ormesta of Orosius.</p> - -<p>About the middle, or towards the end of the -tenth century, an extensive country, to the -westward of Iceland, was discovered by one of -the colonists of the name of Gunbiorn, which -country was visited, in the year 982, by one -Eric Rauda, who had fled from Norway to Iceland, -to avoid the punishment due to the crime -of murder and various other offences. To this -country he gave the name of <em>Greenland</em>, and in -consequence of his exaggerated account of its -products and appearance, a respectable colony -was founded. About the year 1001, one of the -Iceland colonists, Biorn by name, was accidentally -driven by a storm to the southward of -Greenland, where he discovered a new country, -covered with wood. Lief, the son of Eric Rauda, -fitted out a vessel, and visited the country. -Grapes were discovered in it, and from this -circumstance it was called <em>Vinland</em>; the day -was eight hours long in winter, whence it appears -that it must have been somewhere on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> -coast of North America, probably on the shore -of Newfoundland.</p> - -<p>The Christian religion was introduced into -Iceland and Greenland about the year 1000, -and within a hundred years afterwards generally -diffused. Above sixteen churches were -then built, and two convents. These buildings, -as well as the habitations of the colonists, were -erected near the southern point of Greenland. -They had two settlements, the most western of -which increased up to four parishes, containing -one hundred farms or villages; and the most -eastern, to twelve parishes, one hundred and -ninety villages, one bishop’s see, and two convents. -The intercourse between Greenland and -the rest of the world was intercepted about the -year 1406, when the seventeenth bishop attempted -to reach his see, but was prevented by -ice. Since the beginning of the fifteenth century, -these unfortunate colonists have been of necessity -left to themselves, and not having been -heard of, are supposed to have perished; but -whether they were destroyed by their enemies -the Esquimaux, or perished for want of their -usual supplies, or were carried off by a destructive -pestilence, as some have imagined, is still -matter of doubt. Various attempts have been -made by order of the Danish government for recovery -of this country, and to ascertain the fate -of these colonists, but hitherto without success.</p> - -<p>Alter the voyages of Columbus, a new stimulus -was offered to the enterprising trader, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> -to those who might be desirous of prosecuting -the task of discovery, and a Portuguese navigator, -John Vaz Costa Cortereal, about the -year 1463 or 1464, tried the passage to India -by the west, on a parallel far to the northward -of that pursued by Columbus. In this voyage -the land of Newfoundland appears to have been -seen. The same voyage was attempted by -Sebastian Cabot, a Venetian, in the year 1497, -and by Gaspar Cortereal and Michael Cortereal, -sons of the previously named Costa. Both these -brothers perished, and a third brother, who -would have followed in search of them, was -prohibited from embarking by the king of -Portugal.</p> - -<p>An important voyage of discovery was that -of sir Hugh Willoughby, in the year 1553, in -which the coast now called Nova Zembla was -discovered, and the Russian territory on the -east side of the White Sea. In consequence of -this expedition, a regular trade was established -with Russia, which was accomplished under -various privileges. In the year 1556, further -discoveries in the same quarter were made by -Stephen Burrough. Then followed the voyages -of Martin Frobisher and John Davis; the latter -in the year 1585. He proceeded along the west -side of Greenland, and then crossing an open -sea to the north-westward, discovered land in -latitude 66° 40′, giving names to the different -parts of the coast which has since been denominated -<em>Cumberland Island</em>. In the course of this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> -voyage, they met with a multitude of natives, -whom they found a very tractable people, and -liberal in their mode of trafficking. In the following -year, Davis prosecuted another voyage, -but with no discovery of any consequence; and -again also, for the third time, in the year following.</p> - -<p>Amongst several expeditions sent out by the -Dutch, to explore a passage to India and China -by the north-east, that of two ships, under the -pilotage of William Barentz, is the most memorable. -It sailed from Amsterdam the 10th of -May, 1596. After having discovered Spitzbergen, -the two ships pursued different courses, -and Barentz, while endeavouring to sail round -Nova Zembla, became entangled in the ice. They -were, in consequence, compelled to winter in this -desolate and frozen country. “The journal of -the proceedings of these poor people,” as Mr. -Barrow beautifully observes, “during this cold, -comfortless, dark, and dreadful winter is intensely -and painfully interesting. No murmuring escapes -them in their hopeless and afflicted situation; -but such a spirit of true piety, and a tone -of such mild and subdued resignation to Divine -Providence, breathe throughout the whole narrative, -that it is impossible to peruse the simple -tale of their sufferings, and contemplate -their forlorn situation, without the deepest emotion.” -Forcibly, indeed, does their narrative -illustrate the mind’s independence of external -comforts, and the peace and joy to be derived<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> -from trust in God, and cordial submission to -his appointments. Part of the sufferers made -their escape in two open boats from this dismal -country, in the following summer, and after a -perilous and painful voyage, of above one thousand -one hundred miles, arrived in safety at -Cola; but Barentz, with some others, was overcome -by the severity of the climate, and the -extraordinary exertions which he was obliged -to make, and died.</p> - -<p>In the year 1608, Henry Hudson was employed -in search of a north-east passage; and, -in 1610, in a voyage of discovery towards the -north-west, in a vessel of fifty-five tons’ burden. -It was on this occasion that he discovered the -bay which bears his name, hauled his ship on -shore in a convenient situation, and wintered -there. They fell short of provisions, and the -following summer the crew mutinied, and abandoned -their captain, his son, and others of the -crew, to a most cruel fate. In 1616 was accomplished -the remarkable voyage of William -Baffin, attended by discoveries of a most extensive -nature in the bay which bears his name, -which, though regarded with considerable doubt -at first, have since been abundantly confirmed -by the labours of captain Ross and lieutenant -Parry.</p> - -<p>In March, 1822, the ship Baffin sailed from -Liverpool, and reached 80° north latitude without -experiencing any frost; on the 27th April, -we arrived within ten miles of Spitzbergen, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> -were stopped in latitude 80° 30′ by main ice. -Afterwards, we encountered a most heavy gale, -the thermometer falling in the space of sixteen -hours 34°, being the most remarkable change I -ever experienced in Greenland seas. On the -1st May, we advanced to only five hundred and -sixty-six miles’ distance from the Pole, and subsequently -discovered the eastern coast of Greenland, -a continuation towards the north of the -coast on which the ancient Icelandic colonies -were planted. We surveyed and named various -parts of this coast, to the extent of about eight -hundred miles, and found traces of inhabitants. -It was inferred that Greenland is probably a -great group of islands. The expedition returned -on the 18th September, in the same year.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II"><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER II.</a></h2> -</div> - -<p class="center fs80">DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE POLAR -COUNTRIES.</p> - - -<p>Spitzbergen extends furthest towards the north -of any country yet discovered. It is surrounded -by the Arctic Ocean, or Greenland -Sea; and, though the occasional resort of persons -drawn thither for purposes of hunting and -fishing, does not appear to have been ever -inhabited. It lies between the latitudes 76° 30′ -and 80° 7′ north, and between the longitude of -9°, and, perhaps, 22° east; but some of the neighbouring -islands extend at least as far north as -80° 40′, and still further towards the east than -the mainland of Spitzbergen. The western part -of this country was discovered by Barentz, -Heemskerke, and Ryp, in two vessels, fitted out -of Amsterdam, on the 19th of June, 1596, -who, from the numerous peaks and acute -mountains observed on the coast, gave it the -appropriate name of Spitzbergen, signifying -“sharp mountains.” It was afterwards named -<em>Newland</em>, or <em>King James’s Newland</em>, and then -<em>Greenland</em>, being supposed to be a continuation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> -towards the east of the country so-called by -the Icelanders. It was re-discovered by Henry -Hudson, an English navigator, in 1607, and -four years afterwards became the resort of the -English for the purpose of taking whales, since -which period its shores have annually been -visited by one or other of the nations of Europe, -with the same object, to the present time. And -though the soil of the whole of this remote -country does not produce vegetables suitable -or sufficient for the nourishment of a single -human being, yet its coasts and adjacent seas -have afforded riches and independence to -thousands.</p> - -<p>This country exhibits many interesting -views, with numerous examples of the sublime. -Its stupendous hills, rising by steep acclivities -from the very margin of the ocean to an immense -height; its surface, contrasting the -native, protruding, dark-coloured rocks, with -the burden of purest snow and magnificent -ices, altogether constitute an extraordinary and -beautiful picture.</p> - -<p>The whole of the western coast is mountainous -and picturesque, and though it is shone -upon by a four months’ sun every year, its -snowy covering is never wholly dissolved, nor -are its icy monuments of the dominion of frost -ever removed. The valleys, opening towards -the coast, and terminating in the background -with a transverse chain of mountains, are -chiefly filled with everlasting ice. The inland<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> -valleys, at all seasons, present a smooth and -continued bed of snow, in some places divided -by considerable rivulets, but in others exhibiting -a pure unbroken surface for many leagues -in extent. Along the western coast, the mountains -take their rise from within a league of -the sea, and some from its very edge. Few -tracts of table-land, of more than a league in -breadth, are to be seen, and in many places the -blunt termination of mountain ridges project -beyond the regular line of the coast, and overhang -the waters of the ocean. The southern -part of Spitzbergen consists of groups of insulated -mountains, little disposed in chains, or in -any determinate order, having conical, pyramidal, -or ridged summits, sometimes round-backed, -frequently terminating in points, and -occasionally in acute peaks, not unlike spires. -An arm of a short mountain chain, however, -forms the southern cape, or Point Look-out, but -a low flat, in the form of a fish’s tail, of about -forty square miles in surface, constitutes the -termination of the coast. Other promontories, -lying nearly north and south, are of a similar -nature.</p> - -<p>To the northward of Charles’s Island the -mountains are more dispersed in chains than -they are to the southward. The principal -ridge lies nearly north and south, and the -principal valley extends from the head of Cross -Bay to the northern face of the country, a -distance of forty or fifty miles. An inferior<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> -chain of hills, two or three leagues from the -coast, runs parallel with the shore, from which -lateral ridges project into the sea, and terminate -in mural precipices. Between these lateral -ridges, some of the largest icebergs on the -coast occur. The most remarkable mountains -I have seen are situated near Horn Sound, on -Charles’s Island, and near King’s Bay. Horn -Mount, or Hedge-hog Mount, so-called from -an appearance of spires on the top, when seen -in some positions, takes its rise from a small -tract of alpine land, on the southern side of -Horn Sound. It has different summits, chiefly -in the form of spires, one of which is remarkably -elevated. I had an opportunity of determining -its height in the year 1815. From one -set of observations its altitude came out 1,457 -yards, and from another 1,473 yards, the mean -of which is 1,465 yards, or 4,395 feet. Another -peak, a few miles further to the northward, -appeared to be 3,306 feet high.</p> - -<p>On Charles’s Island is a curious peak, which -juts into the sea. It is crooked, perfectly naked, -being equally destitute of snow and verdure, -and from its black appearance, or pointed -figure, has been denominated the Devil’s -Thumb. Its height may be about 1,500 or -2,000 feet. The middle hook of the foreland, -as the central part of the chain of mountains in -Charles’s Island is called, is a very interesting -part of the coast. These mountains, which -are, perhaps, the highest land adjoining the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> -sea which is to be met with, take their rise at -the water’s edge, and, by a continued ascent -of an angle at first of about 30°, and increasing -to about 45°, or more, each comes to a point, -with the elevation of about six-sevenths of an -English mile. This portion of the chain exhibits -five distinct summits, some of them to -appearance are within half a league, horizontal -distance, of the margin of the sea. The points -formed by the top of two or three of them are -so fine, that the imagination is at a loss to -conceive of a place on which an adventurer, -attempting the hazardous exploit of climbing -one of the summits, might rest. Were such an -undertaking practicable, it is evident it could -not be effected without imminent danger. -Besides extraordinary courage and strength -requisite in the adventurer, such an attempt -would need the utmost powers of exertion, as -well as the most irresistible perseverance. -Frederick Martens, in his excellent account -of a “Voyage to Spitzbergen,” undertaken in -the year 1671, describes some of the cliffs as -consisting of but one stone from the bottom to -the top, and as smelling very sweet where -covered with lichens. In Magdalen Bay, the -rocks he describes as lying in a semicircular -form, having at each extremity two high -mountains, with natural excavations, “after -the fashion of a breastwork,” and, at their -summits, points and cracks like battlements.</p> - -<p>Some of the mountains of Spitzbergen are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> -well-proportioned, four-sided pyramids, rising -out of a base of a mile, or a mile and a half, to -a league square; others form angular chains, -resembling the roof of a house, which recede -from the shore in parallel ridges, until they -dwindle into obscurity in the distant perspective. -Some exhibit the exact resemblance -of art, but in a style of grandeur exceeding the -famed pyramids of the east, or even the more -wonderful tower of Babel. An instance of such -a regular and magnificent work of nature is -seen near the head of King’s Bay, consisting of -three piles of rocks, of a regular form, known -by the name of the Three Crowns. They rest -on the top of the ordinary mountains, each -commencing with a square table, or horizontal -stratum of rock, on the top of which is another -of similar form and height, but of smaller area; -this is continued by a third, a fourth, and so -on, each succeeding stratum being less than -the next below it, until it forms a pyramid of -steps, almost as regular, to appearance, as if -worked by art.</p> - -<p>Many of the mountains of Spitzbergen are inaccessible. -The steepness of the ascent, and the -looseness of the rocks, with the numerous lodgments -of ice in the cliffs, or on the sides of the -cliffs, constitute in many places insurmountable -obstacles. Some hills, indeed, may be climbed -with tolerable safety, but generally the attempt -is hazardous. Many have fallen and lost their -lives, especially in the descent. When Barentz<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> -and Heemskerke discovered Cherie Island, on -their advance towards the north, they also -discovered Spitzbergen, when some daring -fellows among their sailors, who had been collecting -birds’ eggs, climbed a high, steep mountain, -resembling those of Spitzbergen, and -unexpectedly found themselves in a most perilous -situation, for, on turning to descend, the -way by which they had advanced presented a -dismal assemblage of pointed rocks, perpendicular -precipices, and yawning chasms. The -view of the danger of the ascent struck them -with terror. No relief, however, could be -afforded them, and they were bewildered -among the rocks. At length, after a most -anxious and painful exercise, in which they -found it necessary to slide down the rocks, -while lying flat on their bodies, they reached -the foot of the cliff in safety. Barentz, who -had observed their conduct from the shore, -gave them a sharp reproof for their temerity.</p> - -<p>One of the most interesting appearances to -be found in Spitzbergen, is the iceberg. These -mountains of ice occur in the valleys adjoining -the coast of Spitzbergen, and other Polar countries. -A little to the northward of Charles’s -Island are the <em>Seven Icebergs</em>. Each of these -occupies a deep valley, opening towards the -sea, formed by hills of about two thousand feet -elevation on the sides, and terminated in the -interior by the chain of mountains, of perhaps -three thousand to three thousand three hundred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span> -feet in height, which follows the line of the -coast. They are exactly of the nature and -appearance of glaciers, and there are many -others of various sizes along the shores of this -remarkable country.</p> - -<p>It is not easy to form an adequate conception -of these truly wonderful productions of nature. -Their magnitude, their beauty, and the contrast -they form with the gloomy rocks around, produce -sensations of lively interest. Their upper -surfaces are generally concave; the higher parts -are always covered with snow, and have a -beautiful appearance, but the lower parts, in the -latter end of every summer, present a bare surface -of ice. The front of each, which varies in -height from the level of the ocean to four -hundred or five hundred feet above it, lies -parallel with the shore, and is generally washed -by the sea. This part, resting on the strand, is -undermined to such an extent by the sea, -when any way turbulent, that immense masses, -loosened by the freezing of water, lodged in the -recesses in winter, or by the effect of streams of -water running over its surface and through its -chasms in summer, break asunder, and, with a -thundering noise, fall into the sea.</p> - -<p>On an excursion to one of the Seven Icebergs, -in July, 1818, I was particularly successful in -witnessing one of the grandest effects which -these Polar glaciers ever present. A strong -north-westerly swell having, for some hours, -been beating on the shore, had loosened a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> -number of fragments attached to the iceberg, -and various heaps of broken ice denoted recent -shoots of the seaward edge. As we rode towards -it, with a view of proceeding close to its base, -I observed a few little pieces fall from the top, -and, while my eye was fixed on the place, an -immense column, probably fifty feet square, -and one hundred and fifty feet high, began to -leave the parent ice at the top, and leaning -majestically forward with an accelerated velocity, -fell with an awful crash into the sea. The -water into which it plunged was converted into -an appearance of vapour, or smoke, like that -from a furious cannonading. The noise was -equal to that of thunder, which it nearly -resembled. The column which fell was nearly -square, and in magnitude resembled a church. -It broke into thousands of pieces. This circumstance -was a happy caution, for we might -inadvertently have gone to the base of the icy -cliff, from whence masses of considerable magnitude -were continually breaking.</p> - -<p>This iceberg was full of rents as high as any -of our people ascended upon it, extending in a -direction perpendicularly downward, and dividing -it into innumerable columns. The surface -was very uneven, being furrowed and cracked -all over. This roughness appeared to be occasioned -by the melting of the snow, some streams -of water being seen running over the surface; -and others, having worn away the superficial -ice, could still be heard pursuing their course<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> -through subglacial channels to the front of the -iceberg, where, in transparent streams, or in -small cascades, they fell into the sea. In some -places, chasms of several yards in width were -seen, in others they were only a few inches or -feet across. One of the sailors, who attempted -to walk across the iceberg, imprudently stepped -into a narrow chasm, filled up with snow to the -general level. He instantly plunged up to his -shoulders, and might, but for the sudden extension -of his arms, have been buried in the -gulf.</p> - -<p>Icebergs are, probably, formed of more solid -ice than glaciers, but, in every other respect, -they are very similar. The ice of which they -consist is, indeed, a little porous, but considerable -pieces are found of perfect transparency. -Being wholly produced from rain or -snow, the water is necessarily potable. Icebergs -have, probably, the same kind of origin as -glaciers, and the time of their first stratum is -nearly coeval with the land on which they are -lodged. Though large portions may be frequently -separated from the lower edge, or, by -large avalanches from the mountain summit, be -hurled into the sea, yet the annual growth -replenishes the loss, and, probably, on the -whole, produces a perpetual increase in thickness.</p> - -<p>Spitzbergen and its islands, with some other -countries within the Arctic Circle, exhibit a -kind of scenery which is altogether novel. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> -principal objects which strike the eye are -innumerable mountainous peaks, ridges, precipices, -or needles, rising immediately out of -the sea, to an elevation of three thousand or -four thousand feet, the colour of which, at a -moderate distance, appears to be blackish shades -of brown, green, grey, and purple; snow or ice, -<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">in striæ</span>, or patches, occupying the various -clefts and hollows in the sides of the hills, -capping some of the mountain summits, and -filling with extended beds the most considerable -valleys; and ice of the glacier-form occurring -at intervals all along the coast in particular -situations, as already described, in prodigious -accumulations. The glistening, or vitreous appearance -of the iceberg precipices, the purity, -whiteness, and beauty of the sloping expanse, -formed by the adjoining or intermixed mountains -and rocks, perpetually “covered with a -mourning veil of black lichens,” with the sudden -transitions into a robe of purest white, -where patches or beds of snow occur, present a -variety and extent of contrast altogether peculiar, -which, when enlightened by the occasional -ethereal brilliancy of the Polar sky, and harmonized -in its serenity with the calmness of -the ocean, constitute a picture both novel and -magnificent. There is, indeed, a kind of majesty, -not to be conveyed in words, in these extraordinary -accumulations of snow and ice in the -valleys, and in the rocks above rocks, and -peaks above peaks, in the mountain groups,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> -seen rising above the ordinary elevation of the -clouds, and terminating occasionally in crests of -everlasting snow, especially when you approach -the shore under shelter of the impenetrable -density of a summer fog, in which case the fog -sometimes disperses like the drawing of a curtain, -when the strong contrast of light and -shade, brightened by a cloudless atmosphere and -powerful sun, bursts on the senses in a brilliant -exhibition. Here are to be beheld the glories -of that one God, who is the Maker of all things -in heaven and on earth, and who, unlike the -false deities of heathen nations, is not confined -in his presence and government to any particular -zone of the earth’s surface, but illustrates -the skill and excellence of his creation, both in -the beauties of icy and torrid climes.</p> - -<p>A remarkable deception, in the apparent distance -of the land, is to be attributed to the -strong contrast of light and shade, and the great -height and steepness of the mountains, displayed -in these regions. Any strangers to the Arctic -countries, however capable of judging of the -distance of land generally, must be completely -at a loss in their estimations when they approach -within sight of Spitzbergen. When at -the distance of twenty miles, it would be no -difficult matter to induce even a judicious -stranger to undertake a passage in a boat to -the shore, from the belief that he was within a -league of the land. At this distance, the portions -of rock and patches of snow, as well as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> -the contour of the different hills, are as distinctly -marked as similar objects in many other -countries, not having snow about them, would -be at a fourth or a fifth part of the distance. -Hence we can account, on a reasonable ground, -for a curious circumstance related in a Danish -voyage, undertaken for the recovery of the last -colony in Greenland, by Mogens Heinson. This -person, who passed for a renowned seaman in -his day, was sent out by Frederick <span class="allsmcap">II.</span>, king of -Denmark. After encountering many difficulties -and dangers from storms and ice, he got sight -of the east coast of Greenland, and attempted to -reach it; but, though the sea was quite free -from ice, and the wind favourable and blowing -a fresh gale, he, after proceeding several hours -without appearing to get any nearer the land, -became alarmed, backed about, and returned -to Denmark. On his arrival, he attributed -this extraordinary circumstance—magnified, no -doubt, by his fears—to his vessel having been -stopped in its course by “some loadstone rocks -hidden in the sea.” The true cause, however, -of what he took to be a submarine magnetic -influence, arose, I doubt not, from the deceptive -character of the land, as to distance, which I -have mentioned.</p> - -<p>Spitzbergen abounds with deep bays and -extensive sounds, in many of which are excellent -harbours. From Point Look-out to Hackluyt’s -Headland, the west coast forms almost -a series of rocks and foul ground, few parts,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> -excepting the bays, affording anchoring for -ships. Some of these rocks are dry only at -low water, or only show themselves when the -sea is high, and are dangerous to shipping; -others are constantly above water, or altogether -so below the surface that they can either be -seen and avoided, or sailed over in moderate -weather without much hazard. On the east -side of Point Look-out, a ridge of stony ground -stretches five leagues into the sea, towards -the south-east, on which the sea occasionally -breaks.</p> - -<p>Horn Sound affords tolerable anchorage; -within Bell Sound are several anchoring places -and some rivers, and in Ice Sound, at Green -Harbour, is good anchorage near the bank, in -ten to eight fathoms’ water, or less. In several -other places, when not encumbered with ice, -there is pretty good refuge for ships. On the -north and east sides of Spitzbergen are several -harbours, some of them very safe and commodious, -but they are not so often free from -ice as those westward, and, therefore, have -seldom been visited.</p> - -<p>Though the whale-fishers in the present age -generally see the level of Spitzbergen every -voyage, yet not many of them visit the shores. -My father has been several times on shore in -different parts. My own landing, for the first -time in an Arctic country, was on Charles’s -Island, or Fair Forehead, at the north-west -point. The number of birds seen on the precipices<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> -and rocks adjoining the sea was immense, -and the noise which they made on our approach -was quite deafening. The weather was calm -and clear when I went on shore, but suddenly, -a thick fog and breeze of wind commencing, -obliged us to put off with haste, and subjected -us to great anxiety before we reached the ship.</p> - -<p>In the summer of 1818, I was several times -on shore on the main, and landed once in the -same season on the north side of King’s Bay. -Being near the land, on the evening of the 23rd -of July, the weather beautifully clear, and all -our sails becalmed by the hills, excepting the -top-gallant sails, in which we had constantly a -gentle breeze, I left the ship in charge of an -officer, with orders to stand no nearer than into -thirty fathoms’ water, and with two boats and -fourteen men rowed to the shore. We arrived -at the beach about half-past seven, <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>, and -landed on a track of low flat ground, extending -about six miles north and south, and two or -three east and west. This table-land lies so low -that it would be overflown by the sea, were it -not for a natural embankment of shingle thrown -up by the sea.</p> - -<p>After advancing about half a furlong, we -met with mica slate, in nearly perpendicular -strata; and a little further on with an extensive -bed of limestone, in small angular fragments. -Here and there we saw large ponds of fresh -water, derived from melted ice and snow; in -some places, small remains of snow; and lastly,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> -near the base of the mountains, a considerable -morass, into which we sank nearly to the knees. -Some unhealthy-looking mosses appeared on -this swamp, but the softest part, as well as most -of the ground we had hitherto traversed, was -entirely void of vegetation. This swamp had -a moorish look, and consisted, apparently, of -black alluvial soil, mixed with some vegetable -remains, and was curiously marked on the surface -with small polygonal ridges, from one to -three yards in diameter, so combined as to give -the ground an appearance such as that exhibited -by a section of honeycomb. An ascent -of a few yards from the morass, of somewhat -firmer ground, brought us to the foot of the -mountain, to the northward of the Mitre Cape. -Here some pretty specimens of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Saxifraga oppositifolia</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Greenlandica</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Salix herbacea</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Draba -alpina</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Papaver alpina</i>, (of Mr. Don,) etc., and -some other plants in full flower, were found on -little tufts of soil, and scattered about on the -ascent. The first hill rose at an inclination of -45°, to the height of about fifteen hundred feet, -and was joined on the north side to another of -about twice the elevation. We began to climb -the acclivity on the most accessible side, at -about 10, <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>; but, from the looseness of the -stones, and the steepness of the ascent, we found -it a most difficult undertaking. There was -scarcely a possibility of advancing by the common -movement of walking in this attempt; for -the ground gave way at every step, and no<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> -progress was made; hence, the only method of -succeeding was by the effort of leaping or running, -which, under the peculiar circumstances, -could not be accomplished without excessive -fatigue. In the direction we traversed, we met -with angular fragments of limestone and quartz, -chiefly of one or two pounds’ weight, and a few -naked rocks protruding through the loose materials, -of which the side of the mountain, to -the extent it was visible, was principally composed. -These rocks appeared solid at a little -distance, but, on examination, were found to be -full of fractures in every direction, so that it -was with difficulty that a specimen of five or -six pounds’ weight, in a solid mass, could be -obtained. Along the side of the first range of -hills, near the summit, was extended a band of -ice and snow, which, in the direct ascent, we -tried in vain to surmount. By great exertion, -however, in tracing the side of the hill for about -two hundred yards, where it was so uncommonly -steep that at every step showers of stones -were precipitated to the bottom, we found a sort -of angle of the hill, free from ice, by which the -summit was scaled.</p> - -<p>Here we rested until I took a few angles and -bearings of the most prominent parts of the -coast, when, having collected specimens of the -minerals, and such few plants as the barren -ridge afforded, we proceeded on our excursion. -In our way to the principal mountain near us, -we passed along a ridge of the secondary mountains,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> -which was so acute that I sat across it -with a leg on each side as on horseback. To the -very top it consisted of loose sharp limestones, of -a yellowish or reddish colour, smaller in size than -the stones generally used for repairing high -roads, few pieces being above a pound in weight. -The fracture appeared rather fresh. After -passing along this ridge about three or four -furlongs, and crossing a lodgment of ice and -snow, we descended by a sort of ravine to the -side of the principal mountain, which arose with -a uniformly steep ascent, similar to that we had -already surmounted, to the very summit. The -ascent was now even more difficult than before; -we could make no considerable progress, but -by the exertion of leaping and running, so that -we were obliged to rest after every fifty or sixty -paces. No solid rock was met with, and no earth -or soil. The stones, however, were larger, appeared -more decayed, and were more uniformly -covered with black lichens; but several plants -of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Saxifraga</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Salix</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Draba</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cochlearia</i>, and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Juncus genera</i>, which had been met with here -and there for the first two thousand feet of elevation, -began to disappear as we approached the -summit. The invariably broken state of the -rocks appeared to have been the effect of frost. -On calcareous rocks, some of which are not -impervious to moisture, the effect is such -as might be expected; but how frost can operate -in this way on quartz is not so easily -understood.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span></p> - -<p>As we completed the arduous ascent, the -sun had just reached the meridian below the -Pole, and still shed his reviving rays of unimpaired -brilliancy on a small surface of snow, -which capped the mountain summit. A thermometer, -placed among stones in the shade of -the brow of the hill, indicated a temperature as -high as 37°. At the top of the first hill, the -temperature was 42°; and at the foot, on the -plain, 44° to 46°; so that, at the very peak of -the mountain, estimated at three thousand feet -elevation, the power of the sun at midnight -produced a temperature several degrees above -the freezing point, and occasioned the discharge -of streams of water from the snow-capped -summit. In Spitzbergen, the frost relaxes in -the months of July and August, and the -thawing temperature prevails for considerable -intervals on the greatest heights that have been -visited.</p> - -<p>As the capacity of air for heat increases as -its density decreases, and that in such a degree -that about every ninety yards of elevation in -the lower atmosphere produces a depression of -one degree of temperature of Fahrenheit, we find -that the elevation of some of the Alps, Pyrenees, -and mountains of Nepaul in the temperate zone, -is such, that their summits are above the level -where a temperature of thawing can at any -time prevail; and though, by the application -of this principle to the mountains of Spitzbergen, -we find that a thawing temperature<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> -may be occasionally expected, yet we do not -see how the prevalence of a thaw should be so -continual as to disperse the winter’s coat of -snow, where the mean temperature of the hottest -month in the year must, on a mountain -fifteen hundred feet elevation or upward, probably -be below the freezing point. Perhaps -the difficulty is to be thus resolved. The weather, -in the months of June, July, and August, -is much clearer at Spitzbergen than it is near -the neighbouring ice, where most of my observations -on temperature were made, and as such -the temperature of these months on shore must -be warmer than at sea, and so much higher -indeed as is requisite for occasioning the dissolution -of snow even on the tops of the mountains.</p> - -<p>The highest temperature I ever observed in -Spitzbergen was 48°; but in the summer of -1773, when captain Phipps visited Spitzbergen, -a temperature of 58½° once occurred. Supposing -this to be the greatest, degree of height which -takes place, it will require an elevation of 7,791 -feet for reducing that temperature to the freezing -point, and hence we may reckon this to be -about the altitude of the upper line of congelation, -where frost perpetually prevails.</p> - -<p>The prospect from the mountain which we -ascended was most extensive and grand. A -fine sheltered bay was seen on the east of us, an -arm of the same on the north-east, and the sea, -whose glassy surface was unruffled by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> -breeze, formed an immense expanse on the -west; the icebergs, rearing their proud crests -almost to the tops of the mountains between -which they were lodged, and defying the power -of the solar beams, were scattered in various -directions about the sea-coast, and in the adjoining -bays. Beds of snow and ice, filling -extensive hollows, and giving an enamelled coat -to adjoining valleys, one of which, commencing -at the foot of the mountain where we stood, -extended in a continued line across the north, -as far as the eye could reach; mountain rising -above mountain, until by distance they dwindled -into insignificance; the whole contrasted by a -cloudless canopy of deepest azure, and enlightened -by the rays of a blazing sun, and the -effect aided by a feeling of danger, seated as we -were on the pinnacle of a rock, almost surrounded -by tremendous precipices; all united -to constitute a picture singularly sublime.</p> - -<p>A gentle breeze of wind, that prevailed on the -summit, much refreshed us, and strengthened -us for the descent, which, though we had regarded -it with indifference, we found really a -very hazardous, and, in some instances, a painful -undertaking. On the flat of land next the sea, -we met with the horns of reindeer, many skulls -and other bones of sea-horses, whales, narwhales, -foxes, and seals, and some human skeletons, -laid in chest-like coffins, exposed naked on the -strand. Two Russian lodges formed of logs of -pine, with a third in ruins, were also seen;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> -the former, from a quantity of fresh chips -about them, and other appearances, gave -evidence of having been recently inhabited. -These huts were built upon a ridge of shingle, -adjoining the sea. Among the shingle on the -beach were numbers of nests, containing the -eggs of terns, ducks, and burgomasters, and -in some of them were young birds. One of the -latter, which we took on board, was very lively, -and grew rapidly, but having taken a fancy to -a cake of white lead, with which the surgeon -was finishing a drawing, he was poisoned. The -only insect I saw was a small green fly, which -swarmed upon the shingle about the beach. -The sea along the coast teemed with a species -of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">helix</i>, with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clio borealis</i>, and with small -shrimps. No animal of the class <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vermes</i>, and no -living quadruped, was observed. Drift-wood was -in some abundance, and, owing to the prevalence -of a strong west wind, the shore was covered -in many places with deep beds of sea-weed.</p> - -<p>Of all the objects, however, that we met with -in the course of our research, none excited so -much interest as the carcase of a dead whale, -found stranded on the beach, which, though -much swollen, and not a little putrid, fixed our -attention, and diverted us from objects of mere -curiosity. It proved a prize to us of the value -of about £400, but was not secured without -much labour. From a harpoon found in its -body, it appeared to have been struck by some -of the fishers on the Elbe, and having escaped<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> -from them, it had probably stranded itself where -we found it.</p> - -<p>The climate of Spitzbergen is no doubt more -disagreeable to human feeling than that of -any other country yet discovered. Extending -to within ten degrees of the Pole, it is generally -intensely cold, and even in the three warmest -months, the temperature not averaging more -than 34½°, it is then subject to a cold of -three, four, or more degrees below the freezing -point. It has the advantage, however, of being -visited by the sun for an uninterrupted period -of four months in each year, thus having a -summer’s day—if so long an interval between the -rising and setting of the sun may be so denominated—consisting -of one-third part of the year. -But its winter is proportionably desolate; the -sun, in the northern parts of the country, remaining -perpetually below the horizon from -about the 22nd of October to about the 22nd of -February. This great winter night, though sufficiently -dreary, is by no means so dark as might -be expected, God having, by wise and merciful -arrangements, distributed, with some approach -to equality, the blessings of his providence. -The sun, even during its greatest south declination, -approaches within 13½° of the horizon, -and affords a faint twilight for about one-fourth -part of every twenty-four hours. Added -to this twilight, the aurora borealis, which -sometimes exhibits a brilliancy approaching a -blaze of fire—the stars, which shine with an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> -uncommon degree of brightness—and the moon, -which, in north declination, appears for twelve -or fourteen days together without setting—altogether -have an effect, which, when heightened -by the reflection of a constant surface of -snow, generally give sufficient light for going -abroad; but, with the light afforded by the -heavens, when the moon is below the horizon, -it is seldom possible to read.</p> - -<p>The first human beings who are known to -have passed the winter in Spitzbergen, were -two parties of seamen, belonging to English -whalers, who were left on shore by accident, -on two different occasions; the first party, consisting -of nine persons, all perished; but the -latter, composed of eight individuals, survived -the rigours of the winter of 1630-1, and were -all rescued. In the year 1633, seven volunteers, -belonging to the Dutch fleet, were induced, -by certain emoluments, to attempt the -same enterprise, and succeeded in passing the -winter without sustaining any injury; but, on -the same hazardous experiment being tried by -seven other persons the following winter, they -all fell a sacrifice to the ravages of the scurvy. -Some Russians seem to have been the next to -attempt this adventurous exploit, who, from -being inured to a winter little less severe at -home, were enabled to accomplish it with more -safety. Four men, who landed on an island on -the east side of Spitzbergen, in the year 1743, -and were deprived of the means of getting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> -away by an unexpected calamity having overtaken -the vessel to which they belonged, remained -there some years. Being exposed to -uncommon privations, they were led by their -necessities to adopt some most ingenious devices -for providing themselves with food and raiment -in their long and severe banishment. One of -their number died; but the others were relieved, -after a stay of three years and six months, by -a vessel providentially driven on the coast, and -restored to their friends, enriched with skins -and other produce of the country in which -they had been exiled.</p> - -<p>In modern times, people of the same nation -have been in the habit of submitting to a voluntary -transportation, with the object of making -some considerable advantage by the opportunities -which such a measure affords them of hunting -and fishing. These persons were formerly -employed in the service of the “White Sea Fishing -Company;” but this company being now -no longer in existence, the trade is conducted by -private adventurers. They now proceed from -Megen, Archangel, Onega, Rala, and other places -bordering the White Sea, in vessels of sixty to -one hundred and sixty tons, some intended for -the summer fishing, and others for the winter. -The former put to sea in the beginning of June, -and sometimes return in September; the latter -sail about a month later, and wintering in the -most secure coves of Devil Bay, Bell Sound, -Horn Sound, Cross Bay, <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: Magdalena">Magdalen</ins> Bay, Love<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> -Bay, and others, return home in the months of -August or September of the following year. The -fishermen reside on shore during the winter, in -huts of the same kind as those used by the -peasants in Russia, which, being taken out with -them in pieces, are constructed with but little -trouble, in the most convenient situations. They -build their stoves with bricks, or with clay, -found in the country. Their largest hut, which -is erected near the place where their vessels or -boats are laid up, is from twenty to twenty-five -feet square, and is used as a station and -magazine; but the huts used by the men who -go in quest of skins, which are erected along -shore, are only seven or eight feet square. The -smaller huts are usually occupied by two or -three men, who take care to provide themselves -from the store with the necessary provisions for -serving them the whole winter.</p> - -<p>I have visited several of these huts, some -constructed of logs, others of deals, two inches -in thickness. During the stay of the hunters, -they employ themselves in killing seals, sea-horses, -etc., in the water; and bears, foxes, -deer, or whatever else they meet with, on land. -They are furnished with provisions for eighteen -months by their employers, consisting of rye-flour -for bread, oatmeal, barley-meal, peas, salt -beef, salt cod, and salt halibut, together with -curdled milk, honey, and linseed oil; besides -which, they procure for themselves <em>lion</em>-deer in -winter, and birds in summer. Their drink<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> -chiefly consists of a liquor called <em>nuas</em>, made -from rye-flour and water; malt or spirituous -liquors being entirely forbidden, to prevent -drunkenness, as these persons, when they were -allowed it, drank so immoderately, that their -work was often altogether neglected. For -general purposes, they use spring water when it -is to be had, or, in lieu of it, take water from -lakes; but, when neither can be got, they use -melted snow. Their fuel, for the most part, is -brought with them from Russia, and drift-wood -is used for the same purpose. The hunters -defend themselves from the rigour of the frost -by a covering made of skin, over which they -wear a garment called <em>kushy</em>, made of the skin -of rein-deer, with boots of the same. A warm -cap, called a <em>trucchy</em>, defends the whole head -and neck, and part of the face; and gloves of -sheep-skin, the hands. They seldom travel far -in winter, but the short excursions they have -occasion to make they perform on foot, on snow-skates, -and draw their food after them on hand-sledges, -but such as have dogs employ them -in this service. Their huts, in stormy weather, -are often buried in the snow, and in such cases -they are obliged to make their way through -the chimney to get out. As an anti-scorbutic, -they make use of a herb produced in the -country, a stock of which they generally provide -themselves with on the approach of winter, -but sometimes they are under the necessity of -digging through the snow to obtain it. They<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span> -either eat it without any preparation, or drink -the liquor prepared from it by infusion in water. -For the same purpose, they use a kind of raspberry, -and a decoction of fir-tops.</p> - -<p>Spitzbergen does not afford many vegetables. -It may be remarked, that vegetation goes on -uncommonly quick in this country. Most of -the plants spring up, flower, and afford seed in -the course of a month or six weeks. They are -chiefly of a dwarfish size. Some of the flowers -are really pretty, but exhibit few colours, excepting -yellow, white, and purple. The only -plant I met with partaking of the nature of a -tree, (a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">salix</i>, allied to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">S. herbacea</i>,) grows but -to the height of three or four inches. Although -Spitzbergen is probably rich in minerals, yet -so partial has been the examination of it that -nothing of any value, excepting marble and -coal, has yet been met with. The remarks -made concerning the appearances and productions -of Spitzbergen apply in general to the -islands adjacent. The principal of these are -Moffen Island, Low Island, Hope Island, and -Cherie Island. The last abounds in sea-horses, -bears, foxes, and sea-fowl. Lead ore, in veins -at the surface, has been found here, and specimens -of virgin silver.</p> - -<p>Between the latitudes of 70° 49′ and 71° 8′ 20″ -north, and between the longitudes 7° 26′ and -8° 44′, lies the island of Jan Mayen, said to -have been first seen by a Dutch navigator of -this name in the year 1611. The west side,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> -affording the greatest number of anchorages, -having the best convenience for landing, and -being better sheltered from the most frequent -storms, was selected by the Dutch for their -<em>boiling</em> stations. I was successful, in my passage -homeward, in the year 1817, in effecting -a landing. On approaching, the first object -which strikes attention is the peak of Beerenberg, -which I subsequently saw at a distance -(by observation) of ninety-five to a hundred -miles. It rears its icy summit to an elevation -of 6,780 feet above the level of the sea. -After leaving the sea-shore, fragments of lava -were seen at every step, and numerous undoubted -marks of recent volcanic action. On -reaching a summit, estimated at 1,500 feet -above the sea, we beheld a beautiful crater, -forming a basin of 500 or 600 feet in depth, and -600 or 700 yards in diameter. The bottom of -the crater was filled with alluvial matter to -such a height that it presented a horizontal flat -of an elliptical form, measuring 400 feet by -240. In the spring of the following year, some -volcano was, I believe, in action in this neighbourhood, -as I observed considerable jets of -smoke discharged from the earth at intervals of -every three or four minutes.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III"><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER III.</a></h2> -</div> - -<p class="center fs80">AN ACCOUNT OF THE GREENLAND OR POLAR ICE.</p> - - -<p>Of the inanimate productions of the Polar Seas, -none perhaps excite so much interest and -astonishment in a stranger as the ice in its -great abundance and variety. The stupendous -masses known by the name of icelands or icebergs, -common to Davis’s Strait, and sometimes -met with in the Spitzbergen Sea, from their -height, various forms, and the depth of water in -which they ground, are calculated to strike the -beholder with wonder; yet the prodigious sheets -of ice, called ice-fields, more peculiar to the -Spitzbergen Sea, are not less astonishing. Their -deficiency in elevation is sufficiently compensated -by their amazing extent of surface. Some -of them have been observed extending many -leagues in length, and covering an area of -several hundreds of square miles, each consisting -of a single sheet of ice, having its surface -raised in general four or six feet above the level -of the water, and its base depressed to the depth -of ten to twenty feet beneath.</p> - -<p>The ice in general is designated by a variety<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span> -of appellations, distinguishing it according to -the size or shape of the pieces, their number -or form of aggregation, thickness, transparency, -situation, etc. As the different denominations -of ice will be frequently referred to in the course -of this work, it may be useful to give definitions -of the terms in use among the whale-fishers for -distinguishing them.</p> - -<p>1. An <em>iceberg</em>, or ice-mountain, is a large -insulated peak of floating ice, or a glacier, -occupying a ravine or valley, generally opening -towards the sea in an arctic country.</p> - -<p>2. A <em>field</em> is a sheet of ice, so extensive that -its limits cannot be discerned from the ship’s -mast-head.</p> - -<p>3. A <em>floe</em> is similar to a field, but smaller, -inasmuch as its extent <em>can</em> be seen. This -term, however, is seldom applied to pieces of -ice of less diameter than half-a-mile or a -mile.</p> - -<p>4. <em>Drift-ice</em> consists of pieces less than floes, -of various shapes and magnitudes.</p> - -<p>5. <em>Brash-ice</em> is still smaller than drift-ice, -and may be considered as the wreck of other -kinds of ice.</p> - -<p>6. <em>Bay-ice</em> is that which is newly-formed on -the sea, and consists of two kinds, common bay-ice -and <em>pancake</em>-ice; the former occurring in -smooth extensive sheets, and the latter in small -circular pieces, with raised edges.</p> - -<p>7. <em>Sludge</em> consists of a stratum of detached -ice crystals, or of snow, or of the smaller fragments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> -of brash-ice, floating on the surface of -the sea.</p> - -<p>8. A <em>hummock</em> is a protuberance raised upon -any plane of ice above the common level. It is -frequently produced by pressure, where one -piece is squeezed upon another, often set upon -its edge, and in that position cemented by the -frost. Hummocks are likewise formed by -pieces of ice mutually crushing each other, the -wreck being heaped upon one or both of them. -To hummocks, principally, the ice is indebted -for its variety of fanciful shapes, and its picturesque -appearance. They occur in great -numbers in heavy packs, on the edges, and -occasionally in the middle of fields and floes, -where they often attain the height of thirty -feet or upwards.</p> - -<p>9. A <em>calf</em> is a portion of ice which has been -depressed by the same means as a hummock is -elevated. It is kept down by some larger -mass, from beneath which it shows itself on -one side.</p> - -<p>10. A <em>tongue</em> is a point of ice projecting -nearly horizontally from a part that is under -water. Ships have sometimes run aground -upon tongues of ice.</p> - -<p>11. A <em>pack</em> is a body of drift-ice, of such -magnitude that its extent is not discernible. -A pack is <em>open</em> when the pieces of ice, though -very near each other, do not generally touch, -or <em>close</em> when the pieces are in complete contact.</p> - -<p>12. A <em>patch</em> is a collection of drift or bay-ice,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span> -of a circular or polygonal form. In point of -magnitude, a pack corresponds with a field, and -a patch with a floe.</p> - -<p>13. A <em>stream</em> is an oblong collection of drift -or bay-ice, the pieces of which are continuous. -It is called a <em>sea-stream</em> when it is exposed on -one side to the ocean, and affords shelter from -the sea to whatever is within it.</p> - -<p>14. <em>Open-ice</em>, or <em>sailing-ice</em>, is where the pieces -are so separate as to admit of a ship sailing -conveniently among them.</p> - -<p>15. <em>Heavy</em> and <em>light</em> are terms attached to -ice, distinguishable of its thickness.</p> - -<p>16. <em>Land-ice</em> consists of drift-ice attached to -the shore; or drift-ice which, by being covered -with mud or gravel, appears to have recently -been in contact with the shore; or the flat ice -resting on the land, not having the appearance -or elevation of icebergs.</p> - -<p>17. A <em>bight</em> is a bay in the outline of the -ice.</p> - -<p>18. A <em>lane</em> or <em>vein</em> is a narrow channel of -water in packs or other large collections of ice.</p> - -<p>When the sea freezes, the greatest part of the -salt it contains is deposited, and the frozen -mass, however spongy, probably contains no -salt but what is natural to the sea-water filling -its pores. Hence the generality of ice, when -dissolved, affords fresh water. As, however, -the ice frozen altogether from sea-water does -not appear so solid and transparent as that -procured from snow or rain water, the whale-fishers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span> -distinguish it into two kinds, accordingly -as it affords water that is potable, or the contrary, -as it appears to have been the product -of fresh or salt water.</p> - -<p>What is considered as salt-water-ice appears -blackish in the water, but in the air is of a -white or grey colour, porous, and in a great -measure opaque, (except when in very thin -pieces,) yet transmits the rays of light with a -blue or blueish green shade. When dissolved, -it produces water sometimes perfectly fresh, -and at others saltish. This depends, in a great -measure, on the situation from whence it is -taken; such parts as are raised above the surface -of the sea, in the form of hummocks, or -which, though below the surface, have been -long frozen, appear to gain solidity, and are -commonly <em>fresh</em>; whilst those pieces taken out -of the sea, that have been recently frozen, are -somewhat salt.</p> - -<p>Fresh-water-ice of the sailors is distinguished -by its black appearance when floating in small -pieces in the sea, and by its transparency when -removed into the air. Fresh-water-ice is fragile, -but hard; the edges of a fractured part are -frequently so keen as to inflict a wound like -glass. The most transparent pieces are capable -of concentrating the rays of the sun, so as to -produce a considerable intensity of heat. With -a lump of ice, of by no means regular convexity, -I have frequently burned wood, fired -gunpowder, incited lead, and lit the sailors’<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span> -pipes, to their great astonishment, all of whom, -who could procure the needful articles, eagerly -flocked around me, for the satisfaction of smoking -a pipe ignited by such extraordinary -means. Their astonishment was increased by -observing that the ice remained firm and pellucid, -while the solar rays emerging from it -were so hot, that the hand could not be kept -longer in the focus than for the space of a few -seconds. In the formation of these lenses, I -roughed them out with a small axe, and then -scraped them with a knife, polishing them -merely by the warmth of the hand, supporting -them during the operation in a woollen glove. -I once procured a piece of the purest ice, so -large that a lens of sixteen inches diameter was -obtained out of it; unhappily, however, the -sun became obscured before it was completed, -and never made its appearance again for a -fortnight, during which time, the air being -mild, the lens was spoiled.</p> - -<p>All young ice, such as bay-ice and light-ice, -which form a considerable part of drift and -pack-ice in general, is considered by Greenland -sailors salt-water-ice; while fields, floes, bergs, -and heavy-ice, chiefly consist of fresh-water-ice. -Brash-ice likewise affords fine specimens of the -latter, which, when taken out of the sea, are -always found crowded on the surface with -sharp points and conchoidal excavations.</p> - -<p>Ice, when rapidly dissolved, continues solid -as long as any remains, but, when exposed to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> -the air, at a temperature of only two or three -degrees above the freezing point, its solution is -effected in a very peculiar manner. Thus, a -large lump of fresh-water-ice, when acted on -by such a process, if placed in the plane of -its formation, resolves itself into considerable -columns of a prismatic appearance. These -columns are situated in a perpendicular position, -almost entirely detached, so that when a blow -is struck with an axe, the whole mass frequently -falls to pieces. In the land icebergs, these -columns are often of amazing magnitude, so as, -when separated, to form floating icebergs.</p> - -<p>All the ice floating in the sea is generally -rough and uneven on the surface, and during -the greater part of the year covered with snow. -Even newly-formed ice, which is free from -snow, is so rough and soft that it cannot be -skated upon. Under water the colour of the -ice varies with the colour of the sea; in blue -water it is blue, in green water it is green, and -of deeper shades in proportion to its depth. -In the thickest olive-green coloured water, -its colour, far beneath the surface, appears -brownish.</p> - -<p>A description of the process of freezing from -its commencement may now be attempted. -The first appearance of ice, when in a state of -detached crystals, is called by the sailors <em>sludge</em>, -and resembles snow when cast into water that is -too cold to dissolve it. This smooths the ruffled -surface of the sea, and produces an effect like<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span> -oil in preventing breakers. These crystals soon -unite, and would form a continuous sheet, but, -by the motion of the waves, they are broken -in very small pieces, scarcely three inches in -diameter. As they strengthen, many of them -coalesce, and form a larger mass. The undulations -of the sea still continuing, these enlarged -pieces strike each other on every side, whereby -they become rounded, and their edges turn up, -whence they obtain the name of <em>cakes</em>, or <em>pan-cakes</em>. -Several of these again unite, and thereby -continue to increase, forming larger flakes, until -they become perhaps a foot in thickness, and -many yards in circumference. Every larger -flake retains on its surface the impression of -the smaller flakes of which it is composed, so -that when, by the discontinuance of the swell, -the whole is permitted to freeze into an extensive -sheet, it sometimes assumes the appearance -of a pavement. But when the sea is perfectly -smooth, the freezing process goes on more regularly, -and probably more rapidly. During -twenty-four hours’ keen frost, the ice will become -an inch or two in thickness, and in less -than forty-eight hours’ time capable of sustaining -the weight of a man. Both this kind, and -cake-ice, are termed bay-ice. In every opening -of the main body of ice at a distance from the -sea, the water is always as smooth as that of a -harbour; and in low temperatures, all that is -necessary for the formation of ice is still water. -There is no doubt that a large quantity of ice is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span> -annually generated in the bays and amidst the -islands of Spitzbergen; which bays, towards -the end of summer, are commonly emptied of -their contents, from the thawing of the snow -on the mountains causing a current outwards. -But this will not account for the immense fields -which are so abundant in Greenland. These -evidently come from the northward, and have -their origin between Spitzbergen and the Pole.</p> - -<p>Ice-fields constitute one of the wonders of -the deep. They are often met with of the diameter -of twenty or thirty miles, and when in -the state of such close combination that no interstice -could be seen, they sometimes extend -to a length of fifty or a hundred miles. The ice -of which they are composed is generally pure -and fresh, and in heavy fields it is probably of -the average thickness of ten to fifteen feet, and -then appears to be flat, low, thin ice; but when -high hummocks occur, the thickness is often -forty feet and fifty feet. The surface before the -month of July is always covered with a bed of -snow, from perhaps a foot to a fathom in depth. -This snow dissolves in the end of summer, and -forms extensive pools and lakes of fresh water. -Some of the largest fields are very level and -smooth, though generally their surfaces are -varied with hummocks. In some, these hummocks -form ridges or chains, in others, they -consist of insulated heaps. I once saw a field -which was so free from either fissure or hummock, -that I imagined, had it been free from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span> -snow, a coach might have been driven many -leagues over it in a direct line, without obstruction -or danger. Hummocks somewhat relieve -the uniformity of intense light reflected from -the surface of fields, by exhibiting shades of -delicate blue in all the hollows, where the light -is partly intercepted by passing through a portion -of ice.</p> - -<p>When the surface of snow on fields is frozen, -or when the snow is generally dissolved, there -is no difficulty in travelling over them, even -without snow-skates or sledges. But when -the snow is soft and deep, travelling on foot to -any distance is a work of labour. The tribe of -Esquimaux, discovered by captain Ross, made -use of sledges, drawn by dogs, for conveying -them across the rough land-ice, lying between -the ships and the shore. A journey they performed -with such celerity, that captain Ross -conjectured they could travel fifty or sixty miles -a day. If such a distance were practicable on -drift-ice, occurring near shore, it would be much -more easy on the smoother ice of fields.</p> - -<p>This term, <em>field</em>, was given to the largest -sheets of ice by a Dutch whale-fisher. It was -not until a period of many years after the Spitzbergen -fishery was established, that any navigator -attempted to penetrate the ice, or that -any of the most extensive sheets of ice were -seen. One of the ships resorting to Smeerenberg -for fishery, put to sea on one occasion -when no whales were seen, persevered westward<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span> -to a considerable length, and accidentally fell -in with some immense flakes of ice, which, on -his return to his companions, he described as -truly wonderful, and as resembling fields in the -extent of their surface. Hence the application -of the term field to this kind of ice. The discoverer -of it was distinguished by the title of -“field-finder.”</p> - -<p>Fields commonly make their appearance in -the months of May or June, though sometimes -earlier; they are frequently the resort of young -whales. Strong north and westerly winds expose -them to the whalers by driving off the -loose ice. The invariable tendency of fields is -to drift to the south-westward, even in calms, -which is the means of many being yearly destroyed. -They have frequently been observed to -advance a hundred miles in this direction within -the space of one month, notwithstanding the occurrence -of winds from every quarter. On emerging -from amidst the smaller ice, which before -sheltered them, they are soon broken up by the -swell, are partly dissolved, and partly converted -into drift-ice. The places of such are supplied -by others from the north. The power of the -swell in breaking the heaviest fields is not a -little remarkable. A grown swell, that is so -inconsiderable as not to be observed in open -water, frequently breaks up the largest fields, -and converts them wholly into floes and drift-ice -in the space of a few hours; while fields -composed of bay-ice, or light-ice, being more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span> -flexible, endure the same swell without any destructive -effort.</p> - -<p>The occasional rapid motion of fields, with the -strange effects produced by such immense bodies -on any opposing substance, is one of the most -striking objects the Polar seas present, and is -certainly the most terrific. They not unfrequently -acquire a rotatory movement, whereby -their circumference attains a velocity of several -miles per hour. A field thus in motion, coming -in contact with another at rest, or more especially -with another having a contrary direction of -movement, produces a dreadful shock. A body -of more than ten thousand millions of tons in -weight, meeting with resistance when in motion, -produces consequences which it is scarcely possible -to conceive. The weaker field is crushed -with an awful noise; sometimes the destruction -is mutual; pieces of huge dimensions and weight -are not unfrequently piled upon the top, to the -height of twenty or thirty feet, while a proportionate -quantity is depressed beneath. The -view of these stupendous effects in <em>safety</em> exhibits -a picture sublimely grand, but where there -is danger of being overwhelmed, terror and dismay -must be the predominant feelings. The -whale-fishers at all times require unremitting -vigilance to secure their safety, but scarcely in -any situation so much as when navigating -amidst these fields; in foggy weather, they are -particularly dangerous, as their motions cannot -then be distinctly observed. It may easily be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span> -imagined, that the strongest ship is but an insignificant -impediment between two fields in -motion. Numbers of vessels, since the establishment -of the fishery, have been thus destroyed; -some have been thrown upon the ice, some -have had their hulls completely torn open, or -divided in two, and others have been overrun -by the ice, and buried beneath its heaped fragments. -The Dutch have lost as many as twenty-three -sail of ships among the ice in one year. -In the season of 1684, fourteen of their ships -were wrecked, and eleven more remained beset -during the winter.</p> - -<p>In the month of May, of the year 1814, -I witnessed a tremendous scene. While navigating -amidst the most ponderous ice which the -Greenland Sea presents, in the prospect of -making our escape from a state of <em>besetment</em>, -our progress was unexpectedly arrested by an -isthmus of ice, about a mile in breadth, formed -by the coalition of the point of an immense field -on the north, with that of an aggregation of -floes on the south. To the north field we -moored the ship, in the hope of the ice separating -in this place. I then quitted the ship, -and travelled over the ice to the point of collision, -to observe the state of the bar, which now -prevented our release. I immediately discovered -that the two points had but recently met, that -already a prodigious mass of rubbish had been -squeezed upon the top, and that the motion had -not abated. The fields continued to overlay<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span> -each other with a majestic motion, producing a -noise resembling that of complicated machinery, -or distant thunder. The pressure was so immense, -that numerous fissures were occasioned, -and the ice repeatedly rent beneath my feet. -In one of the fissures, I found the snow on the -level three and a half feet deep, and the ice upwards -of twelve. In one place, hummocks had -been thrown up to the height of twenty feet -from the surface of the field, and at least twenty-five -feet from the level of the water; they extended -fifty or sixty yards in length, and fifteen -in breadth, forming a mass of about two thousand -tons in weight. The majestic, unvaried -movement of the ice, the singular noise by -which it was accompanied, the tremendous -power exerted, and the wonderful effects produced—were -calculated to excite in the mind of -the most careless spectator admiration of Him -with whom “the nations are as a drop of a -bucket, and are counted as the small dust of -the balance: behold, he taketh up the isles as -a very little thing.”</p> - -<p>The term <em>icebergs</em> has commonly been applied -to the glaciers occurring in Spitzbergen, -Greenland, and other arctic countries. It is -also as commonly extended to the large peaks, -mountains, or islets of ice that are found floating -in the sea. It is the latter kind of icebergs -we purpose to describe.</p> - -<p>Icebergs occur in many places in the arctic -and antarctic regions; some of them of astonishing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> -magnitude. In the Spitzbergen Sea, -indeed, they are neither numerous nor bulky, -compared with those of other regions; the -largest I ever met with in this quarter not exceeding -a thousand yards in circumference, and -two hundred feet in thickness. But in Hudson’s -Strait, Davis’s Strait, and Baffin’s Bay, -they occur of a prodigious size. Ellis describes -them as sometimes occurring of the thickness -of five hundred or six hundred yards. Frobisher -saw one iceberg which was judged to -be “near fourscore fathoms above water.” -One berg is described by captain Ross (the -dimensions of which were given in by lieutenant -Parry<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>) as having nine unequal sides, -as being aground in sixty-one fathoms, and as -measuring 4,169 yards (paces) long, 3,689 yards -broad, and fifty-one feet high. The weight of this -iceberg, taken at somewhat smaller dimensions, -was estimated, by an officer of the Alexander, -at 1,292,397,673 tons. This amount, however, -is greater than the truth, the cubical inch of -ice being taken at 240 grains, whereas it does -not exceed 231·5 grains.</p> - -<p>The most abundant source of icebergs known -in the arctic regions is Baffin’s Bay. <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: “From">From</ins> -this remarkable sea they constantly make their -way towards the south, down Davis’s Strait, and -are scattered abroad in the Atlantic to an -amazing extent. The banks of Newfoundland -are occasionally crowded with these wonderful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> -productions of the frigid zone; beyond which -they are sometimes conveyed, by the operation -of the southerly under-current, as low as latitude -40° north, and even lower, a distance of at -least two thousand miles from the place of their -origin.</p> - -<p>Icebergs commonly float on a base which is -larger in extent than the upper surface. Hence -the proportion of ice appearing above water is -seldom less in elevation than one-seventh of -the whole thickness; and when the summit is -conical, the elevation above water is frequently -one-fourth of the whole depth of the berg. -Perhaps the most general form of icebergs is -with one high perpendicular side, the opposite -side very low, and the intermediate surface -forming a gradual slope. When of such a -form, captain Ross found that the higher end -was generally to windward. Some icebergs -have regular flat surfaces, but most usually -they have different acute summits, and occasionally -exhibit the most fantastic shapes. -Some have been seen that were completely -perforated, or containing prodigious caverns, -or having many clefts or cracks in the most -elevated parts, so as to give the appearance of -several distinct spires. On some icebergs, -where there are hollows, a great quantity of -snow accumulates; others are smooth and -naked. The naked sides are often filled with -conchoidal excavations, of various magnitudes; -sometimes with hollows the size of the finger,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span> -and as regular as if formed by art. On some -bergs, pools of water occur stagnant; on others, -large streams are seen oozing through crevices -into the sea. In a high sea, the waves break -against them as against a rock; and, in calm -weather, where there is a swell, the noise made -by their rising and falling is tremendous. -When icebergs are aground, or when there is -a superficial current running to leeward, the -motion of other ice past them is so great that -they appear to be moving to windward. Fields -of ice, of considerable thickness, meeting a berg -under such circumstances, are sometimes completely -ripped up and divided through the -middle. Icebergs, when acted on by the sun, -or by a temperate atmosphere, become hollow -and fragile. Large pieces are then liable to be -broken off, and fall into the sea with a terrible -crash, which, in some places, produces an echo -in the neighbouring mountains. When this -circumstance, called <em>calving</em>, takes place, the -iceberg loses its equilibrium, sometimes turns -on one side, and is occasionally inverted. The -sea is thereby put into commotion, fields of -ice in the vicinity are broken up, the waves -extend, and the noise is heard to the distance of -several miles; and sometimes the rolling motion -of the berg not ceasing, other pieces get -loosened and detached, till the whole mass falls -asunder like a wreck.</p> - -<p>Icebergs differ a little in colour according -to their solidity and distance, or state of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> -atmosphere. A very general appearance is that -of cliffs of chalk, or of white or grey marble. -The sun’s rays reflected from them sometimes -give a glistening appearance to their surfaces. -Different shades of colour occur in the precipitous -parts, accordingly as the ice is more or -less solid, and accordingly as it contains strata -of earth, gravel, or sand, or is free from any -impurity. In the fresh fracture, greenish grey, -approaching to emerald green, is the prevailing -colour. In the night, icebergs are readily distinguished, -even at a distance, by their natural -effulgence; and in foggy weather, by a peculiar -blackness in the atmosphere, by which the -danger to the navigator is diminished. As, -however, they occur far from land, and often in -unexpected situations, navigators require to be -always on the watch for them. Though often -dangerous neighbours, they have occasionally -proved useful auxiliaries to the whale-fishers. -Their situation in a smooth sea is very little -affected by the wind; under the strongest gale -they are not perceptibly moved, but, on the -contrary, have the appearance of advancing to -windward, because every other description of -ice moves rapidly past them. From the iceberg’s -firmness, it often affords a stable mooring -to the ship in strong adverse winds, and the -fisher likewise avails himself of it when his -object is to gain a windward situation more -open. He moors under the lee of the iceberg, -loose ice soon forces past, the ship remains<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span> -nearly stationary, and the wished-for effect -seldom fails to result. Vessels have, however, -often been staved, and sometimes wrecked, by -the fall of their icy mooring; while smaller -objects, such as boats, have been repeatedly -overwhelmed, even at a considerable distance, -by the vast waves occasioned by such events.</p> - -<p>All ice becomes exceedingly fragile towards -the close of the whale-fishing season, when the -temperate air thaws its surface, and changes its -solid structure into a brittle mass of imperfectly -attached columns. Bergs in this state being -struck by an axe, for the purpose of placing a -mooring anchor, have been known to rend -asunder, and precipitate the careless seaman -into the yawning chasm; whilst, occasionally, -the masses are hurled apart, and fall in contrary -directions with a prodigious crash, burying -boats and men in one common ruin. The -awful effect produced by a solid mass, many -thousands, or even millions, of tons in weight, -changing its situation with the velocity of a -falling body, whereby its aspiring summit is in -a moment buried in the ocean, can be more -easily imagined than described. Though a -blow with an edge-tool on brittle ice does not -sever the mass, still it is often succeeded by a -crackling noise, proving the mass to be ready -to burst from the force of internal expansion, -or from the destruction of its texture by a warm -temperature. It is common, when ships moor -to icebergs, to lie as remote from them as their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span> -ropes will allow, and yet accidents sometimes -happen, though the ship ride at the distance of -a hundred yards from the ice. In the year -1812, while the Thomas, of Hull, captain -Taylor, lay moored to an iceberg in Davis’s -Strait, a <em>calf</em> was detached from beneath, and -rose with such tremendous force, that the keel -of the ship was lifted on a level with water at -the bow, and the stern was nearly immersed -beneath the surface. Fortunately, the blow was -received on the keel, and the ship was not -materially damaged.</p> - -<p>From the deep pools of water found in the -summer season on the depressed surface of -some bergs, or from streams running down -their sides, the ships navigating where they -abound are presented with opportunities for -watering with the greatest ease and dispatch. -For this purpose, casks are landed upon the -lower bergs, filled, and rolled into the sea; but, -from the higher, the water is conveyed by -means of a long tube of canvas, or leather, -called a <em>hose</em>, into casks placed in the boats, at -the side of the ice, or even upon the deck of -the ship.</p> - -<p>The greater part of the icebergs that occur -in Davis’s Strait, and on the eastern coast of -North America, notwithstanding their profusion -and immense magnitude, seem to be merely -fragments of the land icebergs, or glaciers, -which exist in great numbers on the coast -forming the boundaries of Baffin’s Bay. These<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span> -glaciers fill immense valleys, and extend, in -some places, several miles into the sea; in -others, they terminate with a precipitous edge -at the general line formed by the coast. In the -summer season, when they are particularly -fragile, the force of cohesion is often overcome -by the weight of the prodigious masses that -overhang the sea; and, in winter, the same -effect may be produced by the powerful expansion -of the water filling any excavation, or deep-seated -cavity, when its dimensions are enlarged -by freezing, thereby exerting a tremendous -force, and bursting the berg asunder. Pieces -thus, or otherwise, detached, are hurled into -the sea with a dreadful crash. When they fall -into sufficiently deep water, they are liable to -be drifted off the land, and down Davis’s Strait, -according to the set of the current; but, if they -fall into a shallow sea, they must remain until -sufficiently wasted to float away.</p> - -<p>Spitzbergen is possessed of every character -which is supposed to be necessary for the formation -of the largest icebergs; high mountains, -deep extensive valleys, intense frost, occasional -thaws, and great falls of sleet and snow; yet -here a berg is rarely met with, and the largest -that occur are not to be compared with the -productions of Baffin’s Bay. The reason of the -difference between Spitzbergen and Old Greenland -as to the production of icebergs is, perhaps, -this—that, while the sea is generally deep, and -the coast almost continually sheltered by drift-ice<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span> -at the foot of the glaciers, in Baffin’s Bay; -in Spitzbergen, on the contrary, they usually -terminate at the water’s edge, or where the sea -is shallow, so that no very large mass, if dislodged, -can float away, and they are, at the -same time, so much exposed to heavy swells, -as to occasion dismemberments too frequently -to admit of their attaining considerable magnitude.</p> - -<p>That extensive body of ice which, with occasional -tracts of land, occupies the northern -extremity of the earth, and prevents all access -to the regions immediately surrounding the -Pole, fills, it appears, on an average, a circle of -above two thousand geographical miles diameter, -and presents an outline which, though -subject to partial variations, is found at the -same season of each succeeding year to be -generally similar, and often strikingly uniform. -The most remarkable alteration in the configuration -of the Polar ice on record, is that -said to have taken place between Iceland and -Greenland, in the beginning of the fifteenth -century, whereby the intercourse between the -Icelanders and the colonies in Greenland was -interrupted; and, although many attempts have -been made on the part of Denmark for the -recovery of these colonies, and for ascertaining -the fate of the colonists, they have not yet -succeeded. In various countries, changes of -climate, to a certain extent, have occurred -within the limits of historical record; these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> -changes have been commonly for the better, -and have been considered as the effects of -human industry, in draining marshes and lakes, -felling woods, and cultivating the earth; but -here is an occurrence which, if it be indeed -true, is the reverse of common experience, and -concerning the causes of which it is not easy -to offer any conjecture.</p> - -<p>With each recurring spring, the north Polar -ice presents the following general outline. Filling -the Bays of Hudson and Baffin, as well as -the Straits of Hudson, and part of that of -Davis, it exhibits an irregular, waving, but -generally continuous line, from Newfoundland -or Labrador to Nova Zembla. From Newfoundland -it extends in a northerly direction -along the Labrador shore, generally preventing -all access to the land, as high as the mouth of -Hudson’s Strait; then, turning to the north-eastward, -forms a bay near the coast of Greenland, -in latitude perhaps 66° or 67°, by suddenly -passing away to the southward to the -extremity of Greenland. The quantity of ice -on the east side of Davis’s Strait being often -small, the continuity of its border is liable to -be broken, so as to admit of ships reaching the -land; and sometimes the bay of the ice, usually -occurring in the spring, in latitude 66° or 67°, -does not exist, but the sea is open up the -strait to a considerable distance beyond it. -After doubling the southern promontory, or -Cape Farewell, it advances in a north-eastern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span> -direction along the east coast, sometimes enveloping -Iceland as it proceeds, until it reaches -the Island of Jan Mayen. Passing this island -on the north-west, but frequently inclosing it, -the edge of the ice then trends a little more to -the eastward, and usually intersects the meridian -of London between the 71st and 73rd -degree of latitude. Having reached the longitude -of 5° or 6° east, in some instances as far -as 8° or 10°, in the 73rd or 74th degree or -north latitude, it joins a remarkable promontory, -and suddenly stretches to the north, -sometimes proceeding on a meridian to the -latitude of 80°, at others forming a deep sinuosity, -extending two or three degrees to the -northward, and then south-easterly to Cherie -Island, which, having passed, it assumes a more -direct course a little to the southward of east, -until it forms a junction with the Siberian or -Nova Zemblan coast.</p> - -<p>During the winter and spring months, the -Polar ice seems closely to embrace the whole of -the northern shores of Russia, to the eastward -of Nova Zembla, and filling, in a great measure, -Behring’s Strait and the sea to the northward -of it, continues in contact with the Polar face -of the American continent, following the line of -the coast to the eastward, until it effects a -junction with the ice in the Spitzbergen Sea, -or in the great north-western bays of Hudson -and Baffin, or is terminated by land yet undiscovered.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span></p> - -<p>That remarkable promontory midway between -Jan Mayen and Cherie Islands, formed -by the sudden stretch of the ice to the north, -constitutes the line of separation between the -east, or <em>whaling</em>, and west, or <em>sealing</em>, ice of the -fishers; and the deep bay lying to the east -of this promontory, which may be called the -<em>Whale-fisher’s Bight</em>, invariably forms the -only pervious track for proceeding to fishing -latitudes northward. When the ice at the -extremity of this bay occurs so strong and -compact as to prevent the approach to the -shores of Spitzbergen, and the advance northward -beyond the latitude of 75° or 76°, it is -said to be a <em>close season</em>, and, on the contrary, -it is called an <em>open season</em> when an uninterrupted -navigation extends along the western -coast of Spitzbergen to Hackluyt’s Headland.</p> - -<p>The place where whales occur in the greatest -abundance is generally found to be in 78° or -79° of north latitude, though, from the 72nd to -the 81st degree they have been met with. They -prefer those situations which afford them the -most secure retreats, and the course of their -flight when scared or wounded is generally -towards the nearest or most compact ice. The -place of their retreat, however, is regulated by -various circumstances; it may sometimes depend -on the quality or quantity of food occurring, -the disposition of the ice, or exemption -from enemies. Sometimes they seem collected -within a small and single circuit; at others,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span> -they are scattered in various hordes and numerous -single individuals over an amazing -extent of surface. In <em>close seasons</em>, though the -ice joins the south of Spitzbergen, and thereby -forms a <em>barrier</em> against the fishing-stations, yet -this barrier is often of a limited extent, and -terminates on the coasts of Spitzbergen in an -open space, either forming or leading to the -retreat of the whales. Such space is sometimes -frozen over till the middle or end of -the month of May, but not unfrequently free -from ice. The barrier here opposed to the -fisher usually consists of a body of ice, from -twenty to thirty or forty leagues across in the -shortest diameter. It is of importance to pass -this barrier of ice as early as possible in the -season. The fisher here avails himself of every -power within his command. The sails are -expanded in favourable winds, and withdrawn -in contrary breezes. The ship is urged forward -amongst drift-ice by the force of the wind, -assisted with ropes and saws. Whenever a -vein of water appears in the required direction, -it is, if possible, attained. It always affords a -temporary relief, and sometimes a permanent -release, by extending itself through intricate -mazes, amidst ice of various descriptions, until -at length it opens into the desired place, void -of obstruction, constituting the usual retreat of -the whales.</p> - -<p>The barrier which we have described, when -it occurs, is regularly encountered on the first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> -arrival of the Greenland ships in the month of -April, but is generally removed by natural -means as the season advances. It is usually -found separate from the land, and divided -asunder by the close of the month of June; -and hence it is that, however difficult and -laborious may have been the ingress into the -fishing country, the egress is commonly effected -without much inconvenience. In the month of -May, the severity of the frost relaxes, and the -temperature generally approaches a few degrees -of the freezing point. The salt in the sea -then exerts its liquefying influence, and destroys -the tenacity of the bay-ice, makes inroads in its -parts by enlarging its pores into holes, diminishes -its thickness, and, in the language of the -whale-fisher, completely rots it. Packed drift-ice -is then liberated, and obeys the slightest -impulses of the winds or currents. The heavier -having more stability than the lighter, an -apparent difference of movement obtains among -the pieces, and holes and lanes of water are -formed to allow the entrance and progress -of the ships. Bay-ice, though sometimes serviceable -to the whalers in preserving them from -the brunt of the heavy ice, is often the means -of besetment, and hence the primary cause of -every calamity. Heavy ice, many feet in -thickness, and in detached pieces of from fifty -to a hundred tons’ weight each, though crowded -together in the form of a pack, may be penetrated -in a favourable gale with tolerable dispatch,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span> -whilst a sheet of bay-ice, of a few inches -only in thickness, with the same advantage of -wind, will often arrest the progress of the ship, -and render her in a few minutes immovable. -If this ice be too strong to be broken by the -weight of the boat, recourse must be had to -sawing, an operation slow and laborious in the -extreme.</p> - -<p>When the warmth of the season has rotted -the bay-ice, the passage to the northward can -generally be accomplished with a very great -saving of labour. Therefore it was the older -fishers seldom or never used to attempt it -before the 10th of May, and foreign fishers in -the present day are in general late. Sometimes -late arrivals are otherwise beneficial, -since it frequently happens, in <em>close seasons</em>, that -ships entering the ice about the middle of May -obtain an advantage over those preceding them, -by gaining a situation more eligible, on account -of its nearness to the land. Their predecessors, -meanwhile, are drifted off to the westward with -the ice, and cannot recover their easting. Hence, -it appears, it would be economical and beneficial -to sail so late as not to reach the <em>country</em> before -the middle of May, or to persevere on the -sealing stations until that time. There are, -however, some weighty objections to this method. -Open seasons occasionally occur, and great progress -may be made, especially by superior -fishers, before that time. A week or a fortnight’s -solitary fishing, under favourable circumstances,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span> -has frequently gained half a cargo. -The change which takes place in the ice, amidst -which the whale-fisher pursues his object, -is, towards the close of the <em>season</em>, indeed -astonishing. For, not only does it separate -into its original individual portions, not only -does it retreat in a body from the western coast -of Spitzbergen, but, in general, that barrier of -ice which incloses the fishing-site in the spring, -which costs the fisher immense labour and -anxiety to penetrate, by retarding his advance -towards the north, and his progress in the -fishery, for the space of several weeks, spontaneously -divides in the midst about the month -of June, and, on the return of the ships, is not -at all to be seen. Then is the sea rendered -freely navigable from the very haunts of the -whales to the expanse of the Atlantic Ocean.</p> - -<p>Our remarks may now be directed, for a few -pages, to the properties, peculiar movements, -and drifting of the ice.</p> - -<p>1. The ice always has a tendency to separate -during calms.</p> - -<p>2. Openings in packs and among fields, or -floes, frequently break out, or disappear, without -any apparent cause.</p> - -<p>3. Fields often open, close, and revolve, in -the most extraordinary manner, in calms as -well as in storms.</p> - -<p>4. The amazing changes which take place -amongst the most compact ice are often unaccountable.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span></p> - -<p>5. When speaking of the currents of the -Spitzbergen Sea, it has been remarked that -the Polar ice, in this situation, has a constant -tendency to drift to the south-westward. Near -Spitzbergen, indeed, this tendency is not usually -observed, because the influence of the tide, eddies, -peculiar pressures, etc., sometimes produce -a contrary effect; but, at a distance from land, -its universal prevalence is easily illustrated.</p> - -<p>In the beginning of May, 1814, we entered -with the ship Esk, of Whitby, a spacious -opening of the ice, in latitude 78° 10′, longitude -4° east, to a distance of ten or twelve leagues -from the exterior, wherein we were tempted to -stay, from the appearance of a great number of -whales. On the 9th of May, the ship became -fixed in the ice, and, until the 16th, we lay -immovable. A break of the bay-ice then -appeared about half-a-mile from us, to attain -which we laboured with energy, and, in eight -hours, accomplished a passage for the ship. On -the 20th, in attempting to advance, we endured -a heavy pressure of the bay-ice, which shook -the ship in an alarming manner. After a -fatiguing effort in passing through the midst -of an aggregation of floes against the wind, we -reached a channel, which led us several miles -to the south-eastward; and, on the 23rd, we -lay at rest with four other ships. The day -following, having sawn a place for the ship in a -thin floe, we forced forward between two large -masses, where bay-ice, unconsolidated, had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span> -been compressed till it had become ten or -twelve feet thick. We were assisted by a hundred -men from the accompanying ships, which -followed close in our rear. After applying all -our mechanical powers during eight or nine -hours, we passed the strait of about a furlong -in length, and immediately the ice collapsed, -and riveted the ships of our companions to the -spot. We advanced on various winding courses -to the distance of several miles, and then discovered -a continuation of the navigation between -two immense sheets of ice, but the channel was -so narrow and intricate, that, for the distance of -near a mile, it did not appear more than from ten -to twenty yards in width. The prospect was, -indeed, appalling; but, perceiving indications of -the enlargement of the passage rather than the -contrary, we advanced under a press of sail, -driving aside some disengaged lumps of ice -that opposed us, and shortly accomplished our -wishes in safety. Here an enlivening prospect -presented itself; to the extreme limits of the -horizon no interruption was visible. We made -a predetermined signal to the ships we had left, -indicative of our hope of speedy release. In -two hours, however, we were disappointed by -meeting the fields in the act of collapsing, and -completely barring our progress. As the distance -across was scarcely a mile, and the sea, -to appearance, clear beyond it, the interruption -was most tantalizing. We waited at the point of -union, and, on the morning of the 26th of May,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span> -our anxiety was happily relieved by the wished-for -division of the ice. The ship, propelled by a -brisk wind, darted through the strait, and entered -a sea, which we considered the termination of -our difficulties. After steering three hours to the -south-eastward, we were concerned to discover -our conclusions had been premature. An immense -pack opened on our view, stretching -directly across our path. There was no alternative -but forcing through it; we therefore -pushed forward into the least connected part. -By availing ourselves of every advantage of -sailing, where sailing was practicable, and <em>boring</em> -or drifting where the pieces of ice lay close -together, we at length reached the leeward part -of a narrow channel, in which we had to ply a -considerable distance against the wind. When -performing this, the wind, which had hitherto -blown a brisk breeze from the north, increased -to a strong gale. The ship was placed in such -a critical situation that we could not, for above -an hour, accomplish any reduction of the sails; -and while I was personally engaged performing -the duty of a pilot on the topmast-head, the -bending of the mast was so uncommon that I -was seriously alarmed for its stability. At -length, we were enabled to reef our sails, and -for some time proceeded with less danger. Our -direction was now east, then north for several -hours, then easterly, ten or fifteen miles; when, -after eighteen hours of the most difficult and -occasionally hazardous sailing, in which the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span> -ship received some hard blows from the ice, -after pursuing a tedious course nearly ninety -miles, and accomplishing a distance on a direct -north-east course of about forty miles, we -found ourselves at the very margin of the sea, -separated only by a narrow sea-stream. The -sea was so great without, and the wind so -violent, that we durst not hazard an attempt to -force through this remaining obstacle. After -waiting about thirty hours, on the morning of -the 28th of May, the weather cleared, and the -wind abated. The sea-stream was now augmented -to upwards of a mile broad. One place -alone was visible where the breadth was less -considerable, and through it we accomplished -our final escape into the open sea.</p> - -<p>I have thus been minute in the relation of -our extrication from an alarming, though not -very uncommon state of besetment, in order to -give a faint idea of the difficulties and dangers -which those engaged in the whale-fishery have -occasionally to encounter, as well as to illustrate -the manner in which ships are carried -away from their original situation by the regularity -of the drift of ice to the south-westward. -The life of the mariner is one always of great -labour and peril, but in navigating these arctic -seas he is exposed to sudden and peculiar -dangers.</p> - -<p>It is possible that the title and contents of -this volume may allure to its perusal some who -look forward to exposure to dangers such as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span> -those which are here described. They surely -will not deem it intrusive to be reminded that -the most important preparation for such undertakings, -as well as for the whole of life, is to -surrender the heart to that Saviour who has -died to redeem his servants from guilt and -ruin. The pardon and peace which he freely -confers on all who come to him, are the only -safe comforts of a departing soul. It is his -blood only that cleanses from all sin; it is his -Spirit that renews and sanctifies the mind; and -whatever pain or accident may befal the body, -there can be “no condemnation” in time or in -eternity “to them which are in Christ Jesus.” -The message of God to man is the offer of a free -salvation, through the death of his glorious Son. -This offer must determine the eternal condition -of all to whom it is in God’s mercy revealed. -“God so loved the world, that he gave his only -begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him -should not perish, but have everlasting life!” -Reader, do you understand, and have you -accepted, this gracious message?</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Now sir John Ross and sir Edward Parry.</p> - -</div> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV"><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER IV.</a></h2> -</div> - -<p class="center fs80">OBSERVATIONS ON THE ATMOSPHEROLOGY OF THE ARCTIC -REGIONS, PARTICULARLY RELATING TO SPITZBERGEN -AND THE ADJACENT GREENLAND SEA.</p> - - -<p>In treating of the subject of this chapter, our -remarks shall, in the first instance, relate to -the <em>climate of the Arctic Regions and the general -effects of cold</em>. In the autumn and spring -seasons, the climate of Spitzbergen and its -adjacent sea is variable and tempestuous. The -temperature passes through its extreme range, -which, probably, exceeds fifty degrees in the -same season, or even in the same month, with -a rapidity unknown in countries situate within -the temperate zones. North, west, and east -winds bring with them the extreme cold of the -icy regions immediately surrounding the Pole, -whilst a shift of wind to the south-west, south, -or south-east, elevates the temperature towards -that of the neighbouring seas.</p> - -<p>An arctic winter consists of the accumulation -of almost everything among atmospheric -phenomena that is disagreeable to the feelings, -together with the privation of those bounties of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span> -Heaven with which other parts of the earth, in -happier climates, are so plentifully supplied. -During the whole of the winter months, the -cheering rays of the sun are neither seen nor -felt, and there are occasional storms of wind -and snow.</p> - -<p>The most severe cold, says Crantz, that -occurs in Greenland, sets in, as in temperate -climates, “after the new year; and is so -piercing in February and March, that the -stones split in twain, and the sea reeks like an -oven.” On the return of the sun, the months -of May, June, and August, are even occasionally -pleasant; but with July, and partially -with June and August, the densest fogs prevail, -which are more depressing to the spirits than -even intense cold.</p> - -<p>The temperature of the atmosphere, when -the fogs prevail, is generally near the freezing -point, and is not above three or four degrees -higher at midday than at midnight, and sometimes -does not vary above a degree or two for -several days together. But, in the spring and -winter seasons, the temperature is subject to -very great and rapid alterations, which are frequently -simultaneous with the greatest changes -of pressure. This renders the thermometer a -valuable appendage in the prognostication of -the weather.</p> - -<p>The great depression of temperature which -takes place in the proximity of ice with a -northerly wind, appears equally as considerable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span> -to the feelings in low as in high latitudes. -As great a degree of cold as ever I noticed in a -series of twelve years’ observations (once excepted) -was in latitude 71¼°, April 12, 1814, -when the mean of three thermometers indicated -zero; and, on the same occasion, during an interval -of three days, the mean temperature was -less than 5°. The wind in the mean time was -continually blowing from the north-eastward, -generally blowing a gale, but sometimes moderate. -On the 25th of April, 1813, in latitude -8°, the thermometer fell to 4°, during a hard -gale from the north-east, but on account of the -ship being driven away from the ice it soon -rose to 10° or 15°. The effect of the ice in -reducing the temperature is so considerable, -that our proximity to it is often announced by -the coldness before it can be seen. In this -manner, the difference of a few leagues in position -sometimes produces a surprising increase -of cold.</p> - -<p>The Greenland sailors, being well defended -from external cold by a choice selection of -warm clothing, generally support the lowest -temperature, after a few days’ habitude, without -much inconvenience. When, however, its attacks -are not gradual, as when a ship, which -has attained the edge of the ice, under a southerly -gale, is exposed suddenly to a northerly -breeze, the change of temperature is so great -and rapid, that the most hardy cannot conceal -their uneasiness under its first impression. On<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span> -one occasion, in the year 1814, there was between -the time of my leaving the deck at night -and arising the following morning an increase -in the cold of about 20°. This remarkable -change was attended with singular effects. The -circulation of the blood was accelerated, a -sense of parched dryness was excited in the -nose; the mouth, or rather lips, were contracted -in all their dimensions, as by a sphincter, -and the articulation of many words was -rendered difficult and imperfect; indeed, every -part of the body was more or less stimulated or -disordered by the severity of the cold. The -hands, if exposed, would have been frozen in a -few minutes, and even the face could not have -resisted the effects of a brisk wind, continued -for any length of time. A piece of metal, -when applied to the tongue, instantly adhered -to it, and could not be removed without its -retaining a portion of the skin; iron became -brittle, and such as was at all of inferior quality -might be fractured by a blow; brandy, of English -manufacture and wholesale strength, was -frozen; quicksilver, by a single process, might -have been consolidated; the sea, in some places, -was in the act of freezing, and, in others, appeared -to smoke, and produced, in the formation -of <em>frost-rime</em>, an obscurity greater than that -of the thickest fog.</p> - -<p>The subtle principle of magnetism seemed to -be, in some way or other, influenced by the -frost, for the deck compasses became sluggish,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span> -or even motionless, while a cabin compass -traversed with celerity. The ship became -enveloped in ice; the bows, sides, and lower -rigging, were loaded; and the rudder, if not -repeatedly freed, would, in a short time, have -been rendered immovable. A considerable -swell at this time prevailing, the smoke in the -cabin, with the doors closed, was so intolerable, -that we were under the necessity of giving free -admission to the external air to prevent it. -The consequence was, that, in front of a brisk -fire, at the distance of a yard and a half from -it, the temperature was 25°; water spilt on the -table froze, and, indeed, congelation took -place in one situation at the distance of only -two feet from the stove. Hoar-frost, also, -appeared in the sailors’ bed-cabins, arising -from their breath, and was deposited upon -their blankets.</p> - -<p>Under such a temperature, the whale-fishery -could not be prosecuted, for nature could not -sustain continued exposure to the pungent -force of the wind. With a calm atmosphere, -however, the sensible effects of cold are singularly -diminished; the cold of zero then becomes -equally supportable with the temperature of -10, 15, or even 20 degrees, when impressed by -a brisk wind; hence, the sensations produced -on the body become a very equivocal criterion -for estimating the degree of cold.</p> - -<p>The effect of cold in preventing the traversing -of compasses, exposed to its influence, has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span> -been noticed by some navigators. As a remedy -against this inconvenience, Ellis, in his voyage -to Hudson’s Bay, suggests the propriety of -removing the compasses into a warm place, -by which the needles speedily resume their -activity. I have found, by experiments, that -neither the attractive nor directive power of -the magnet suffers diminution by an increase -of cold. There appears, however, to be an -increase of friction, or the introduction of some -unknown principle, which, when the degree of -cold is very much increased, occasions a diminution -in the mobility of magnetic needles.</p> - -<p>Many remarkable effects of cold are related -in the journals of Polar navigators. Captain -James, when wintering in Hudson’s Bay, latitude -52° north, experienced such cold, that, on -the 10th December, many of the sailors had -their noses, cheeks, and fingers, frozen as white -as paper. Ellis, who wintered in the same -region, latitude 57° 30′, found, by the 3rd of -November, bottled beer, though wrapped in -tow, and placed near a good, constant fire, -frozen solid. Many of the sailors had their -faces, ears, and toes frozen; iron adhered to -their fingers; glasses used in drinking stuck to -the mouth, and sometimes removed the skin -from the lips or tongue; and a sailor, who -inadvertently used his finger for stopping a -spirit-bottle in place of a cork, while removing -it from the house to his tent, had his finger -fast frozen in the bottle, in consequence of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span> -which a part of it was obliged to be taken off -to prevent mortification.</p> - -<p>A Hamburgh whaler, beset by the ice, near -Spitzbergen, in the year 1769, was exposed to -great danger. The effect of the frost was such, -that the seams in the ship’s sides cracked -with a noise resembling the report of a pistol. -These openings at first rendered the vessel very -leaky, but after she got free from the ice, and -into a milder climate, they again closed.</p> - -<p>In the interesting narrative, by Pelham, of -the preservation of eight seamen, who were -accidentally left in Spitzbergen, in the year -1630, and wintered there, are some remarks on -the effects of cold. The sea of the bay, where -they took up their abode, froze over on the -10th of October. After the commencement of -the new year, the frost became most intense; it -raised blisters in their flesh as if they had been -burned with fire, and if they touched iron at -such times it would stick to their fingers like -bird-lime. Sometimes, when they went out of -doors to procure water, they were seized in -such a way by the cold, that their flesh felt as -sore as if they had been cruelly beaten.</p> - -<p>The effects of cold at Disco, as observed by -M. Paul Egedé, on the 7th January, 1738, and -recorded by David Crantz, in his History of -Greenland, are too striking to be omitted. -“The ice and hoar-frost,” says Egedé, “reach -through the chimney to the stove’s mouth, -without being thawed by the fire in the day-time.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span> -Over the chimney is an arch of frost, -with little holes, through which the smoke -discharges itself. The doors and walls are as -if they were plastered over with frost, and, -which is scarcely credible, beds are often frozen -to the bedsteads. The linen is frozen in the -drawers, the upper eider-down bed and the -pillows are quite stiff with frost an inch thick, -from the breath.”</p> - -<p>The terrific power of these mighty agencies -of nature illustrate His perfections, who has all -resources at his command, to minister to the -comfort of his servants, or the inevitable destruction -of his enemies. To be hostile to the -God of heaven and of earth, is surely the -height of folly as well as of ingratitude. “He -sendeth forth his commandment upon earth: -his word runneth very swiftly. He giveth snow -like wool: he scattereth the hoar-frost like -ashes. He casteth forth his ice like morsels: -who can stand before his cold?”</p> - -<p>In these frigid regions, the scurvy becomes a -very alarming disease, and many individuals -have perished by it, who have attempted to -winter in Spitzbergen and neighbouring countries. -It appears, however, probable, that this -disease is not so much influenced by the severity -of the climate as by the use of improper -aliment. An excellent paper on this subject, -by Dr. John Aikin, is published in the Memoirs -of the Literary and Philosophical Society of -Manchester. It affirms, that by the constant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span> -use of fresh provisions, the occasional use of -oleaginous substances, together with frequent -exercise, a warm dwelling, and a warm clothing, -there would, probably, be little danger in -exposure to the severities of a Spitzbergen -winter. Whenever I have had occasion to -expose myself to severe cold, I have found that -the more I am heated the longer I can resist -the cold without inconvenience. The warmth -produced by simple fluids, such as tea or soup, -is preferable to that occasioned by spirits. -After the liberal use of tea, I have often sustained -a cold ten degrees at the mast-head for -several hours without uneasiness. I have frequently -gone from the breakfast-table, where -the temperature was 50° or 60°, to the mast-head, -where it was ten, without any other -additional clothing except a cap, yet I never -received any injury, and seldom much inconvenience, -from the uncommon transition.</p> - -<p>The antiseptical property of frost is remarkable. -Animal substances requisite as food, of -all descriptions, (fish excepted,) may be taken -to Greenland, and there preserved any length -of time, without being smoked, dried, or salted. -Beef, mutton, pork, and fowls, the latter neither -plucked nor drawn, are constantly taken out -from England, Shetland, or Orkney, and preserved -in this way. When used, the beef is -best divided by a saw; it is then thawed in -cold water, and, if cooked, when three, four, or -five months old, will frequently appear as profuse<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span> -of gravy as if it had been recently killed. -A further antiseptical effect is produced by the -cold on animal and vegetable substances, so as -to preserve them, if they remain in the same -climate, unchanged for a period of many years. -An instance corroborative of this remark is -given by M. Bleau, who, in his Atlas Historique, -informs us, that the bodies of seven Dutch -seamen, who perished in Spitzbergen, in the -year 1635, were found twenty years afterwards -by some sailors, who happened to land about -the place where they were interred, in a perfect -state, not having suffered the smallest degree -of putrefaction. Wood, indeed, has been met -with in Spitzbergen, which has resisted all -injury from the weather during the lapse of a -century.</p> - -<p>Our remarks must now be directed to -<em>meteorology</em>, and to an investigation of the -temperature of the north Polar regions, and its -constant tendency to equalization.</p> - -<p>Though in a state of rapid improvement, the -science of meteorology is acknowledged to be -yet in its infancy. Before the discovery of the -weight of the atmosphere by Torricelli, about -the year 1630, no means of registering its variations -of pressure could be known or practised. -Hence we can have no very correct idea of the -relative temperature of climates in the present -and remote periods, unless from occasional -historical remarks of the formation of ice in -particular lakes, rivers, or parts of the sea, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span> -from the capability of the earth for producing -certain fruits or grain. In consequence, however, -of the use of the thermometer and barometer, -meteorology, as a science, has made -considerable advancement. The records of -phenomena, which these instruments indicate, -have proved highly useful. Professor Mayer has -given us a formula for determining the temperature -of any situation on the globe, where -observations have not been made. Dr. Hutton -has presented us with an ingenious and plausible -theory of rain; and Kirwan, Humboldt, -and others, have advanced our knowledge of -the climates of different countries. Dr. Wells -has investigated the phenomena of dew, and -professor Leslie has conducted profound researches -on the relations of air to heat and -moisture, and on the propagation of heat and -cold through the atmosphere to distant regions. -By the invention, also, of several curious and -useful instruments, especially the hygrometer for -the measurement of the dryness or dampness -of the atmosphere, he has contributed very -largely to the advancement of meteorological -knowledge.</p> - -<p>The temperature of the atmosphere in any -particular region is one of those phenomena, -which, however they may fluctuate, or whatever -may be their daily, monthly, or yearly -variations, and however unequal and capricious -these may be, will, on the average of numerous -corresponding periods, be found to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span> -dependent on certain laws tending to produce -equilibrium; so that the general results -are remarkably uniform. When we experience -particularly cold winters, or particularly hot -summers, we might suppose that the mean -temperature of the years in which the former -occur, would be greatly below, and that of -years in which the hot summers occur, would -be greatly above, the general standard. But -this will seldom be found to be the case. In -temperate climates of the northern hemisphere, -the mean temperature of any one year, derived -from the mean of the daily extremes of heat -and cold, or from any particular number of -daily observations, continued through the -course of twelve successive months, seldom -differs from the general mean temperature, as -derived from the observation of a great, number -of years, more than two or three degrees. -The mean temperature of any single month -cannot be supposed to be equally uniform; -this, however, does not differ so widely from -the general mean of the month as might be -expected.</p> - -<p>As the mean annual temperature of a country -is, therefore, probably given by one year’s -observations only, to within two or three -degrees of the truth, the mean of a period of -eight or ten years will, probably, come within -one degree of the truth. By the comparison -of the results of thermometrical observations, -made in different countries, with each other,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span> -tracing the changes of temperature, which -appear with certain changes of latitude or -situation, some ingenious and philosophical -men have endeavoured, by principles of analogy -and induction, to determine the mean -temperature of every parallel of latitude from -the Equator to the north Pole. These calculations -have been considered as near approximations; -and, as long as observations were -wanting, served for purposes of investigation, -to complete the scale of the temperature of the -globe. When we reach, however, the regions -of perpetual ice, a remarkable anomaly is -discovered, the mean temperature falling below -the estimation in these tables at once 17°. -From a series of observations on the temperature, -etc., of the Polar regions, conducted -with care during twelve successive voyages to -the Greenland Seas, I am able to deduce the -following conclusions.</p> - -<p>The mean temperature of the months of -April, May, June, and July, are satisfactorily -derived from the means of the latitudes and of -the observations of temperature; but the mean -temperature of the whole year, and of the -winter months, wherein no observations in such -high latitudes have yet been made, can only -be ascertained by analogy. From the examination -of numerous thermometrical registers, -particularly one consisting of 54,750 observations, -made in a succession of fifty years, at -Stockholm, it would seem that the temperature<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> -of the year in northern latitudes is indicated -by that of the 27th to 28th of April. I have -collated 656 observations, made on 242 days, -in nine different years, extending equally -before and after the 27th of April, from which -the mean temperature of the year, in latitude -76° 45′, near the meridian of London, appears -to be 18° 86′. Reducing all the monthly temperatures -derived from my observations to the -parallel of latitude 78° north, by the application -of Mayer’s formula, and allowing for the fact -that many of the observations of April were -made at a considerable distance from the ice, -I calculate the temperature of April, latitude -78°, to be 14° 23′, and the mean of the year in -the same proportion exactly 17°. Having discovered, -by observation chiefly, the mean -temperature of the months of April, May, -June, and July, and the probable mean temperature -of the year in the icy regions adjoining -Spitzbergen, I conceive it not difficult to calculate -the temperature of the remaining months. -The difference between the mean temperature -of the year and that of July, is 21½° in Stockholm, -and 20° near Spitzbergen. Finding not -only that the difference of temperature between -the mean of the year and July, near Spitzbergen, -but that the progressive increase of -temperature from April to July, also, bore a -strong analogy to the relative circumstances at -Stockholm, I formed a scheme of decimals, connected -with a simple formula, by which the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span> -same proportion of change, which has been -observed to take place every month at Stockholm, -may be made very readily to apply to -any other country, whence, situations and circumstances -being nearly similar, the temperature -of unobserved months may be calculated. -The temperature of January, latitude 78°, comes -out—1°; that of February, O° 7′; March, 6° 1′; -August, 34° 9′; September, 27° 8′; October, -18° 5′; November, 9° 8′; and December, 3° 1′.</p> - -<p>Following the example of every generalizing -meteorologist, I may, with some propriety, extend -my observations to the probable temperature -of the north Pole, provided I can proceed -on data, not merely arbitrary or fanciful, but -founded on observation and analogy.</p> - -<p>It has been observed, that professor Mayer’s -theory for ascertaining the temperature of every -latitude, becomes exceedingly wide of the truth -when we approach the regions of perpetual ice, -notwithstanding in most other situations on the -sea, or bordering thereon, it holds sufficiently -near. According to it, the mean temperature -of latitude 76° 45′, near the western coast of -Spitzbergen, would have been 33° 8′, instead -of 18° 8′, as shown by my observations; and, -according to it, the mean temperature of the -Pole is reckoned to be about 31°. The 15° -difference between the observation and calculation -must be considered as the frigorific effect -of the ice, of which, if we can ascertain the -probable measurement at the Pole, we shall be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span> -able to modify Mayer’s calculation, so as to -approximate to the mean temperature. At the -Pole, no wind could convey the mild influence -of a temperate climate, because, from whatever -direction it should blow, it must be cooled -down by brushing over an extensive surface of -ice; consequently, the full frigorific effect of -the ice must be greater in the Pole than in -places situated at or near the borders of the -ice. In a total period of 242 days, the temperature -of the air was, by observation, found to -be more or less influenced by the ice during -173 days of that period. Hence, as 173 is to -15°, the anomaly occasioned by the mean -temperature, so is 242 to 21°, which is the -probable anomaly that may be expected when -the temperature is always influenced by the -ice, or the anomaly which may be supposed to -occur at the Pole. Now, if we deduct 21° from -31°, the calculated temperature of the Pole, the -actual mean temperature at the Pole will be -about 10°.</p> - -<p>Concerning the pressure of the atmosphere -in Polar latitudes, I would remark, particularly -in the winter and spring months, it is liable to -sudden and very considerable variations, and a -careful study and observation of these is necessary -to enable the watchful mariners to anticipate -the approach of storms.</p> - -<p>The following are the relations which, in -Polar latitudes, I have been enabled to trace -between the barometer and the weather:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span></p> - -<p>1. A hard westerly gale, with snow, occasions -the greatest depression of the mercury; and a -light easterly wind, with dry weather, the -greatest elevation.</p> - -<p>2. The rising of the mercury foretells the -subsidence of wind or rain, a change of wind or -fine weather; and its falling, rain, snow, or a -change or increase of wind.</p> - -<p>3. The mercury rising unusually high, and -then becoming stationary, indicates, in the -months of April and May, a continuance of fine -weather; but in June or July, foggy weather.</p> - -<p>4. If, in the month of April, the mercury -fall with some rapidity an inch or more, a -storm will most certainly succeed, however -contrary appearances may be, which will probably -be the more severe in proportion as it -approximates the east, and will frequently continue, -with unabated violence, for fifty or sixty -hours.</p> - -<p>5. The rising of the mercury usually precedes -the cessation of a storm, but does not -invariably determine the period of its continuance, -as storms frequently blow for a day or -two after the first rise of the mercury.</p> - -<p>6. Sudden and repeated fluctuations are indicative -of unsettled weather; but the rapid -fall of the mercury is no indication of a short -gale, though, in other regions, the reverse is -said to be the case; for, before storms that -continue two or three days, the barometer frequently -falls an inch within twenty-four hours;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span> -and indeed, in a gale as long and as heavy as I -almost ever witnessed, the fall of the mercury -was above an inch in twelve hours.</p> - -<p>7. Before very heavy storms, when the barometer -falls uncommonly low, the mercury -seems to get below its natural level, and often -rises two or three tenths of an inch as soon as -the predicted storm commences; hence this -first rise of the mercury is no indication whatever -of an abatement of the wind.</p> - -<p>8. On account of the different states of the -barometer in west and east winds, the usual -level of the mercury, with a moderate wind at -west, not being much higher than with a gale -at east, a change of wind from one of these -quarters to the opposite may be accompanied -with the greatest alteration in the strength of -the wind, without producing any effect on the -barometer.</p> - -<p>The appearance of the Greenland atmosphere -corresponds in some degree with the winter -sky of Britain; the colour of the former is, -however, of a deeper azure, and its transparency, -when clear and free from icy crystals, -perhaps more perfect.</p> - -<p>Far within the borders of compact ice the -atmosphere, in summer, is often cloudless, and -the weather serenely pleasant, though cold. -But in the usual fishing-stations, and on the -exterior of the ice in general, a clear sky is not -frequent; nevertheless, when it does occur, its -transparency is peculiarly beautiful. The sun<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span> -sometimes sweeps two or three times round -the Pole, without being for a moment obscured -by a cloud. Objects the most remote may be -seen perfectly distinct and clear. A ship’s -top-gallant-mast, at the distance of five or six -leagues, may be discerned when just appearing -above the horizon, with a common perspective -glass; and the summits of some mountains are -visible at the distance of sixty to a hundred -miles. This perfect clearness occurs most frequently -before easterly winds; in general, however, -especially in very cold weather, objects -on the horizon, when viewed with a high magnifier, -appear affected with a perpetual tremor; -whence the contemplation of distant objects is -accomplished as perfectly with a good pocket-glass -as with the best telescope. This tremulous -motion is evidently produced by the quantity -of delicate icy crystals which, in very low -temperatures, are almost always seen floating -in the air.</p> - -<p>The general obscurity of the atmosphere, -arising from clouds or fogs, is such, that the -sun is frequently invisible during several successive -days. At such times, when the sun is -near the northern tropic, there is scarcely any -sensible variation in the quantity of light from -noon to midnight. Hence, when the sailors -have been long abroad in the boats, or so fully -engaged as to be unable to mark the progress -of time, the inquiry, whether it be day or -night, is not unfrequent.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span></p> - -<p>There is nothing remarkable in the appearance -of the sun at midnight, excepting that, -when its altitude is very small, it may be -viewed with the naked eye, without producing -any painful sensation; but when it is more than -four or five degrees above the horizon, it generally -appears as effulgent as with the same -elevation in Britain. The force of the sun’s -rays is sometimes remarkable. Where they -fall upon the snow-clad surface of the ice or -land, they are, in a great measure, reflected, -without producing any material elevation of -temperature; but when they impinge on the -black exterior of a ship, the pitch on one side -occasionally becomes fluid, while ice is rapidly -generated on the other; or, while a thermometer, -placed against the black paint-work -on which the sun shines, indicates a temperature -of 80° or 90°, or even more, on the opposite -side of the ship a cold of 20° is sometimes -found to prevail.</p> - -<p>This remarkable force of the sun’s rays is -accompanied with a corresponding intensity of -light. A person placed in the centre of a field -or other compact body of ice, under a cloudless -atmosphere and elevated sun, experiences such -an extraordinary intensity of light, that if it be -encountered for any length of time, is not only -productive of a most painful sensation in the -eyes, but sometimes of temporary, or even, as -I have heard, of permanent blindness. Under -such circumstances, the use of green glasses<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span> -affords a most agreeable relief. Some of the -Indians of North America defend their eyes by -the use of a kind of wooden spectacles, having, -instead of glasses, a narrow perpendicular slit -opposite to each eye. This simple contrivance, -which intercepts, perhaps, nine-tenths of the -light that would reach a naked eye, prevents -any painful consequences in the most intense -reflection of light that ever occurs.</p> - -<p>The constant light of the sun during the -summer prevents the stars from being seen; -and this, together with the frequency of cloudy -or foggy weather, rarely admits a sight of the -moon. Hence, the longitude, which is of such -essential importance in navigation, can seldom -be determined by lunar observations. Chronometers, -therefore, though but little used by -the whale-fishers, become of enhanced value; -and even a good watch, well regulated, will, -where the degrees of longitude are so very contracted, -point out the meridianal situation of -the ship for short intervals, with a very tolerable -degree of accuracy.</p> - -<p>Though the air in the arctic seas is generally -in a state of dampness, approaching to complete -saturation, yet the absolute quantity of moisture -cannot, when the cold is very excessive, -be considerable. It is remarked, that vessels -are less apt to rust here than in any other climate; -and this observation, if we consider the -relative humidity of the atmosphere as indicated -by the hygrometer, is certainly correct;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span> -but though the air in the Polar regions is generally -damp, yet it is probable there is no -habitable situation in the known world in -which such a degree of actual dryness prevails, -as in a house or in the cabin of a ship, well -heated, when the external air is intensely cold. -The wainscoting of the cabin of a ship in cold -weather sometimes shrinks, in consequence of -the uncommon dryness, as much as half an -inch in a panel of about fifteen inches broad, -being equal to one-thirtieth of the breadth; -but, on returning to Britain, the same panel -expands again to almost its original dimensions.</p> - -<p>Few observations, comparatively, seem to -have been made on the electricity of the atmosphere, -especially in high latitudes. Perhaps, -some trials that I made in the spring of 1818, -on this subject, were the first that have been -attempted within the arctic circle. When in -latitude 68°, I erected an insulated conductor, -eight feet above the maintop-gallant mast-head, -connected by a copper wire with a copper ball, -attached by a silk string to the deck. The -conductor consisted of a slender tapering tube -of tinned iron, terminated by a pointed brass -wire. It was fixed in an iron socket, supported -by a large cylindrical piece of glass; which -glass, by means of another iron socket, was -secured to the top of a long pole, elevated -several feet above the mast-head. A tin cone -encompassed the bottom of the conductor, the -mouth of which being downward, defended the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span> -rod of glass from getting wet, so as to injure its -insulated property. The conducting wire, -being kept clear of the rigging of the ship, was -expected to exhibit in the ball, where it terminated, -any difference between the state of -the electricity of the ship or sea and that of -the atmosphere. The test of electricity was a -Bennet’s gold-leaf electrometer, brought into -contact with the ball; but though trials were -made for several successive days, from lat. 78° -to lat. 75°, during clear, cloudy, and showery -weather, not the least excitation was ever observed. -That the effect might be rendered -more perceptible, the electrometer was well -dried and warmed immediately before each -experiment, without which, indeed, no excitation -could be produced in it, either with glass -or sealing-wax. The nights being light, the -aurora borealis could not be seen; but on the -evening of the 20th of May, an appearance was -observed, very much resembling the aurora -borealis, yet no signs of electricity were observed -in the electrometer applied to the conductor.</p> - -<p>There are several phenomena of the atmosphere -dependent on reflection and refraction, -deserving of notice. <em>Ice-blinks</em> have been -already mentioned, when speaking of the ice. -Under certain circumstances, all objects seen -on the horizon seem to be lifted above it a distance -of two to four, or more, minutes of altitude, -or so far extended in height above their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span> -natural dimensions. Ice, land, ships, boats, -and other objects, when thus enlarged and elevated, -are said to <em>loom</em>. The lower part of -<em>looming</em> objects are sometimes connected with -the sensible horizon by an apparent fibrous or -columnar extension of their parts, which columns -are always perpendicular to the horizon; -at other times, they appear to be quite lifted -into the air, a void space being seen between -them and the horizon. This phenomenon is -observed most frequently on, or before, an -easterly wind, and is generally considered as -indicative of such.</p> - -<p>A most extraordinary appearance of the -Foreland, or Charles’s Island, Spitzbergen, occurred -on the 16th of July, 1814. While sailing -to the southward, along the coast, with an -easterly wind, I observed what appeared to be -a mountain, in the form of a slender, but elevated, -monument. I was surprised that I had -never seen it before, and was more astonished -when I saw, not far distant, a prodigious and -perfect arch thrown across a valley, of above a -league in breadth. The neighbouring mountains -disclosed the cause, by exhibiting an unnatural -elevation with the columnar structure -of looming objects. Presently, the scene was -changed, the mountains along the whole coast -assumed the most fantastical forms; the appearance -of castles, with lofty spires, towers, -and battlements, would, in a few minutes, be -converted into a vast arch or romantic bridge.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span> -These varied, and sometimes beautiful, metamorphoses -naturally suggested the reality of -fairy descriptions; for the air was perfectly -transparent; the contrast of snow and rocks -was quite distinct; even in the substance of -the most uncommon phantasms, though examined -with a powerful telescope, and every -object deemed to possess every possible stability. -I never before observed a phenomenon -so varied or so amusing. The land was not -alone affected by this peculiar refraction, since -every object between the north-east and south-east -points of the compass was, more or less, -deformed by it. A mass of ice on the horizon -appeared of the height of a cliff, and the prismatic -structure of its front suggested the idea -of basaltic columns. It may be remarked, that -these phenomena took place on a clear evening, -after an uncommonly warm afternoon.</p> - -<p>I observed many other peculiar effects of -refraction. Such phenomena are frequent on -the commencement or approach of easterly -winds, and are probably occasioned by the -commixture, near the surface of the land or -sea, of two streams of air of different temperatures, -so as to occasion an irregular deposition -of imperfectly condensed vapour, which, when -passing the verge of the horizon, produced -these appearances.</p> - -<p><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Parhelia</i>, mock suns, and <em>corona</em>, haloes, -are perhaps not so frequent in Greenland as in -some parts of America. I do not recollect to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span> -have observed them more than thrice. In the -first instance, I did not minutely notice the particulars. -I recollect, however, there were two -or three parhelia, and four or five coloured -circles, some of which almost equalled in their -colours the brilliancy of the rainbow. On the -second occasion, several parhelia were succeeded -by a lunar halo, together with the aurora -borealis, and proved the harbingers of a tremendous -tempest. The last phenomenon of the -kind which I saw, consisted of a large circle of -luminous whiteness, passing through the centre -of the sun, in a direction nearly parallel with -the horizon, intersected in various places with -coloured circles of smaller dimensions.</p> - -<p><em>Rainbows</em> are common in these regions, but -the <em>fog-bow</em>, or <em>fog-circle</em>, is more rarely observed, -and is entitled to our attention. It is -a circle depicted on the fog, which prevails in -the Polar seas, at certain seasons, resting upon -the surface of the water, and seldom reaching -to a considerable height. On the 19th July, -1813, I observed one of about 30° diameter, -with bands of vivid colours depicted on the -fog. The centre of the circle was in a line -drawn from the sun, through the point of vision, -until it met the visible vapour in a situation -exactly opposite to the sun. The lower part -of the circle descended beneath my feet to the -side of the ship, and although it could not be -a hundred feet from the eye, it was perfect, and -the colours distinct. The centre of the coloured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span> -circle was distinguished by my own shadow, -the head of which, enveloped by a halo, was -most conspicuously portrayed. I remained a -long time contemplating the beautiful phenomenon -before me.</p> - -<p>In the phenomena of the winds, which I am -now about to describe, I cannot be so precise as -I have been in my observations on atmospheric -temperature and pressure; being able to give -a correct idea only of their peculiarities and -direction, whilst their relative force, founded -on conjecture, I am unable to express otherwise -than in the phraseology of the mariner, which, -it must be allowed, is somewhat ambiguous.</p> - -<p>In proportion as we recede from the equator, -we find the winds become more variable, irregular, -and partial. Storms and calms, in the -northern regions, repeatedly alternate, without -warning or progression; forcible winds blow -at one place, when, at the distance of a few -leagues, gentle breezes prevail; a storm from -the south, on one hand, exhausts its impetuosity -upon the gentle breeze, blowing from off the -ice on the other, without prevailing in the -least; ships, within the circle of the horizon, -may be seen enduring every variety of wind -and weather at the same moment; come becalmed, -and tossing about by the violence of -the waves; some, under close-reefed topsails, -labouring under the force of a storm; and -others, flying under gentle breezes, from quarters -as diverse as the cardinal points.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span></p> - -<p>The most general preliminaries to <em>sudden -storms</em> are perfect calms; curiously variable -breezes, with strong squalls; singular agitation -of the sea, together with thick snow, which -often changes from flakes to powder, and falls -in such profusion, as to occasion an astonishing -gloominess and obscurity in the atmosphere. -If the snow clear away, the gale is often at -hand, whilst a luminousness on the horizon, -resembling the ice-blink, sometimes points out -its direction, and a noise in the upper regions -of the air announces its immediate approach. -In this variable and occasionally tempestuous -climate, the value of the barometer is satisfactorily -proved. My father once removed his -ship from a most dangerous bight in the main -ice, where she would probably have been lost, -had she remained a few moments longer, in -consequence of his having heard the rushing of -a storm in the air, while at the mast-head. -Before the ship was out of danger, a heavy gale -commenced, but the sails being set, and the -ship under command, she was extricated from -the perilous situation. From this circumstance, -he imagined that sudden storms frequently -commence at some height in the atmosphere, -and gradually descend to the surface. <em>Intermitting -gales</em> are almost equally common with -sudden storms, and variable winds prevail, in -an extraordinary degree, in the frigid zone. -The winds, indeed, among ice, are generally -unsteady in their direction, and attended with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span> -strong gusts or squalls, particularly in very -cold weather, and towards the termination of a -storm. This variableness, being the effect of -the unequal temperature of the ice and water, -is curious, but the phenomenon that is most -calculated to excite surprise is, that several -distinct, and even opposite winds, with the -force, in many instances, of a fresh gale, will -occasionally prevail at the same moment of -time, within the range of the horizon. The -situation in which this circumstance occurs, -would appear to be the point where conflicting -winds contend for the superiority; and as, in -some instances, their forces are effectually balanced, -the winds, which simultaneously blow -from the southward and northward, or from -the eastward and westward, have their energies -almost destroyed at the place of combination. -Thus it sometimes happens that ships, within -sight of each other, will, at the same period of -time, experience every variety of weather, from -calm to storm, from fair weather to thickest -snow, together with several distinct and contrary -currents of wind.</p> - -<p>On the morning of the 30th of April, 1810, -the ship Resolution—in which I served in the -capacity of chief-mate, or harpooner—was, -during thick showers of snow, sailing by the -edge of a stream of ice, with the wind from -the north-westward. About ten, <span class="allsmcap">A. M.</span>, the -snow abated, and several ships were seen within -the distance of three or four miles. As all of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span> -these ships were sailing “on a wind,” it was easy -to ascertain the direction of the wind where -they were, and curious to observe its variableness. -Two ships, bearing north-east from us, -had the wind at north-east; two, bearing east, -had east or east-north-east; two, bearing -south-east, had the wind at south-east; while, -with us, it blew from the north-west. In each -of these situations a fresh breeze prevailed; -but in some situations, where there happened to -be no ships, there appeared to be no wind at -all. The clouds above us, at the time, we’re -constantly changing their forms. Showers of -snow were seen in various places at a distance.</p> - -<p>Instances of <em>local storms</em> are not uncommon -in temperate climates, but in the arctic regions -they are frequent and striking. Their locality -is such, that a calm may occur when a storm is -expected and actually does prevail at a short -distance, so that the indication of the barometer -may appear to be erroneous. In such cases, -however, the reality of the storm is often proved -by the agitation of the sea. Swells from various -quarters make their appearance, and frequently -prevail at the same time. My father, whose -opportunities of observation have been very -numerous, relates the following instance of the -locality of a storm. When commanding the ship -Henrietta, he was on one occasion navigating the -Greenland Sea during a tedious gale of wind, -accompanied with snowy weather. As the wind -began to abate, a ship appeared in sight, under<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span> -all sails, and presently came up with the Henrietta. -The master hailed, and inquired what -had happened that my father’s ship was under -close-reefed top-sail in such moderate weather. -On being told that a storm had just subsided, -he declared that he knew nothing of it; he observed, -indeed, a swell, and noticed a black cloud -a-head of his ship that seemed to advance -before him until he was overshadowed with it a -little while before he overtook the Henrietta, -but he had had fine weather and light winds -the whole day!</p> - -<p>A single instance is given of those sudden -gusts and various currents of wind, which occur -at some elevation in the atmosphere, and which -are common to all climates. On a particularly -fine day, my father having landed on the northern -part of Charles’s island, incited by the -same curiosity which led him on shore, ascended, -though not without great difficulty and fatigue, -a considerable elevation, the summit of which -was not broader than a common table, and -which shelved on one side as steep as the roof -of a house, and on the other formed a mural precipice. -Engaged in admiring the extensive -prospect from an eminence of about two thousand -feet, he scarcely noticed the advance of a -very small cloud. Its rapid approach and peculiar -form (having somewhat the appearance of -a hand) at length excited his attention, and -when it reached the place where he was seated -in a calm air, a torrent of wind assailed him with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span> -such violence, that he was obliged to throw himself -on his body and stick his hands and feet in -the snow to prevent himself from being hurled -over the tremendous slope which threatened his -instant destruction. The cloud having passed, the -air, to his great satisfaction, became calm, when -he immediately descended by sliding down the -surface of snow, and in a few minutes reached -the base of the mountain in safety.</p> - -<p>The course of the seasons, as relates to prevailing -winds, is as follows. In the spring -months, north-east and east winds are frequent, -with severe storms from these and other quarters. -The storms from the north-east, east, and south-east, -are generally the most violent. When they -occur in March and April, they frequently continue -without intermission for two or three -successive days, and rarely subside till the wind -veers round to the north or north-west. Storms, -in the spring of the year, blowing from the south-east, -generally change, before they abate, to the -east, north-east, north, and north-west; but -storms commencing at south-west or south, -usually veer, before they subside, in the contrary -direction, towards the north-west, and sometimes -continue changing until their strength is spent -in the north or north-east quarter. A storm -beginning to blow from the western quarter -seldom continues long; when it blows hard it -commonly veers to the north or north-east, and -it is observable that a very hard southerly or -easterly gale is frequently succeeded within a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span> -few days by another from the opposite quarter. -With the advance of the month of May, storms -become less frequent, and the weather becomes -sensibly better. The winds then begin to blow -more frequently from the north-west; in June, -the most common winds are north and north-west, -south and south-west; and in July, south and -south-westerly winds prevail. At this season, -calms or very light winds also become frequent, -and continue sometimes for several days together. -In high northern latitudes, however, -very heavy storms from the southward occur in -July, and blow for thirty or forty hours at a -time. In August, north-east winds begin again -to prevail. The south-west and southerly storms -of the autumn blow with particular violence. -“The wind rages so vehemently, that the houses -quiver and crack, the tents and lighter boats -fly up in the air, and the sea-water scatters -about in the land like snow-dust—nay, the -Greenlanders say that the storm rends off stones -a couple of pounds’ weight, and mounts them in -the air. In summer, whirlwinds also spring up, -that draw up the waters out of the sea, and turn -a boat round several times.”</p> - -<p>When the countries of temperate climates -suffer under tempests in frequent succession, -Polar regions enjoy comparative tranquillity. -After the autumn gales have passed, a series of -calm weather, attended by severe frosts, frequently -succeeds. So striking, indeed, is the -stillness of the northern winter, that there is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span> -truth in Dr. Guthrie’s observation, that nature -seems “to have studied perfect equality in the -distribution of her favours, as it is only parts of -the earth which most enjoy the kindly influences -of the sun that suffer by the effects of its superior -heat, so that if the atmosphere of the north -is not so genial as that of the south, at least it -remains perfectly quiet and serene, without -threatening destruction to man and the product -of his industry as in what are called happier -climates.”</p> - -<p>The principal meteors, not being of the aqueous -kind, that remain to be considered are lightning -and the aurora borealis. As we approach -the Pole, the former phenomenon becomes more -rare, and the latter more common. Lightning, -indeed, is seldom seen to the northward of the -arctic circle, and when it does occur, it is very -seldom accompanied by thunder.</p> - -<p>In Spitzbergen, neither thunder nor lightning -has, I believe, ever been observed. For my own -part, I have never seen lightning northward of -latitude 65°, and only in two instances when at -any considerable distance from land. The -aurora borealis occurs independent of land and -of cold, becoming more frequent in its appearance -as we approach the Pole, and enlivening -by its brilliancy and peculiar grandeur the -tedious gloom of the long winter nights. Its -appearance, though not very frequently seen in -Britain, is very common as far south as Shetland -and Feroe. In Iceland, and other countries<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span> -bordering on the arctic circle, the northern -lights occur almost every clear night during the -winter. In the summer, they can seldom be -seen on account of the presence of the sun, and -in the spring of the year, the obscurity of the -atmosphere prevents their frequent exhibition. -In several instances, I have known stormy -weather follow the appearance of the brilliant -aurora, and one of the most tremendous storms -I was ever exposed to, succeeded a splendid exhibition -of the northern lights. Under certain -circumstances, especially when they are seen -at a considerable altitude above the horizon, -having a red or copper colour, they are supposed -to be indicative of a violent storm.</p> - -<p>Our chapter on atmospherical phenomena -must now be concluded by observations on -aqueous meteors; including clouds, rain, hail, -snow, frost-rime, hoar-frost, and fog.</p> - -<p>Very little clear weather occurs in the Greenland -seas, for often when the atmosphere is free -from any visible vapour on the land, at sea it is -obscured by frost-rime in the spring of the year, -and by clouds or fog in the summer; so that -scarcely one-twentieth of the season devoted to -the whale-fishery can be said to consist of clear -weather.</p> - -<p>The <em>clouds</em> most generally consist of a dense -stratum of obscurity, composed of irregular -compact patches covering the whole expanse of -the heavens. The <em>cirrus</em>, <em>cirrocumulus</em>, and <em>cirrostratus</em>, -of Howard’s nomenclature, are occasionally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span> -distinct; the <em>nimbus</em> is partly formed, -but never complete: and the grandeur of the -<em>cumulus</em> or thunder-cloud is never seen, unless -it be on the land. In the atmosphere over -the coasts in Greenland and Spitzbergen, where -the air is greatly warmed by the concentration -and reflection of the sun’s rays in the sheltered -valleys, a small imperfect cumulus is sometimes -exhibited.</p> - -<p>The known agents made use of in the economy -of nature for the production of rain are -changes of temperature and electricity. The -latter principle is supposed to act most powerfully -in the production of thunder-showers, in -which case it is not unlikely that a portion of -the air of the atmosphere is, by the passing of -the lightning from one cloud to another, converted -into water. The former seems to be the -chief agent in the colder regions of the globe, -where electricity is either more equal in its distribution, -or not so active in its operations as -in the warmer climates. From the beautiful -theory of the late Dr. James Hutton, supported -by the researches of professor Leslie, it appears, -that “while the temperature advances uniformly -in arithmetical progression, the dissolving power -which this communicates to the air mounts -with the accelerating rapidity of a geometrical -series;” and this in such a ratio, that the “air -has its dryness doubled at each rise of temperature -answering to fifteen centesimal degrees,” or -twenty-seven of Fahrenheit. Hence, “whatever<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span> -be the actual condition of a mass of air, there -must always exist some temperature at which -it would become perfectly damp;” and hence -whenever two streams of air saturated with -moisture of different temperatures are mixed -together, or brush against one another, in the -form of different currents of wind, there must -always be a quantity of moisture precipitated. -For if two masses of air, of different temperatures, -but equal in quantity, and both saturated -with moisture, were mixed together, the resulting -temperature would be nearly the mean of -the two, but, at that temperature, the capacity -of air for moisture being less than the quantity -contained in the two commixed masses, the -surplus must be deposited.</p> - -<p>Rain is by no means common in the Polar -countries excepting in the months of July -and August, and then only with southerly or -westerly winds. During all seasons of the year, -however, with strong gales blowing from a -southern climate, rain is occasionally observed -in situations near the edge of the ice; but snow -or sleet are more common even under such -circumstances; and in remote situations among -ice, near the 80th parallel of latitude, rain -seldom or never occurs.</p> - -<p><em>Hail</em> is a much more familiar meteor in -temperate than in frigid climates. In the -Greenland Sea, this aqueous concretion is very -rarely seen; and if we define it as consisting of -pellucid spheres of ice, generated in the atmosphere,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span> -it may be said to be unknown in very -high latitudes. This fact is in favour of the -electrical origin of hail, as it is well-known to -be common in temperate climates, where the -air is in a high state of electricity, and to be -the frequent concomitant of thunder and lightning. -The only substance resembling hail that -is generated in the frigid zone consists of a -white, porous, spherical concretion of light -and snowy texture.</p> - -<p><em>Snow</em> is so very common in the arctic -regions, that it may be boldly stated, that in -nine days out of ten, in April, May, and June, -more or less snow falls. With southerly winds, -near the borders of the ice, or in situations -where humid air, blowing from the sea, assimilates -with a gelid breeze from the ice, the -heaviest falls of snow occur. In this case, a -depth of two or three inches is sometimes deposited -in an hour. The thickest precipitations -also frequently precede sudden storms. The -form of the particles of snow presents an endless -variety. When the temperature of the air -is within a degree or two of the freezing point, -much snow falls, frequently consisting of large -irregular flakes, such as are common in Britain. -Sometimes it exhibits small granular, or -large rough white concretions; at others, it -consists of white <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">spiculæ</span>, or rude stellated -crystals. But in severe frosts, though the sky -appears perfectly clear, lamellar flakes of snow, -of the most regular and beautiful forms, are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span> -always seen floating in the air, and sparkling -in the sunbeams, and the snow which falls in -general is of most elegant texture and appearance.</p> - -<p>Snow, of a reddish or brownish colour, is -not unfrequently seen. The brownish stain, -which occurs on shore, is given by an earthy -substance brought from the mountains by the -streams of water, derived from thawing ice and -snow, or the fall of rain. The reddish colour, -as far as I have observed, is given by the mute -of birds; though, in the example met with by -captain Ross, in Baffin’s Bay, the stain appears -to have been of a vegetable nature. The little -auk, (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alca alle</i>,) which feeds upon shrimps, is -found, in some parts of the Polar seas, in immense -numbers. They frequently retreat to -pieces of ice, or surfaces of snow, and stain -them all over red with their mute. Martens -saw red snow in Spitzbergen, which he considered -as being stained by rain-water running -down by the rocks.</p> - -<p>The extreme beauty and endless variety of -the microscopic objects procured in the animal -and vegetable kingdoms, are perhaps fully -equalled, if not surpassed, in both particulars -of beauty and variety, by the crystals of snow. -The principal configurations are the stelliform and -hexagonal, though almost every shape, of -which the generating angles of 60° and 12° are -susceptible, may, in the course of a few years’ -observation, be discovered. The various modifications<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span> -of crystals may be classed under five -general kinds, or genera.</p> - -<p>1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lamellar</i>, infinite in variety, most delicate -in structure, and capable of sub-division -into several distinct species.</p> - -<p>2. <em>A lamellar, or spherical nucleus, with spinous -ramifications in different planes.</em> This genus -also consists of two or three species.</p> - -<p>3. <em>Fine <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">spiculæ</span>, or six-sided prisms.</em> The -finest specimens resemble white hair, cut into -lengths not exceeding a quarter of an inch.</p> - -<p>4. <em>Hexagonal pyramids.</em> I have but once -seen this kind of snow crystal.</p> - -<p>5. <em><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Spiculæ</span>, or prisms having one or both extremities -inserted in the centre of a lamellar -crystal.</em> This genus resembles a pair of wheels, -united by an axle-tree.</p> - -<p>In low temperatures, the greatest proportion -of crystals that fall are, probably, perfect geometrical -figures.</p> - -<p>Some of the general varieties in the figures -of the crystals may be referred to the temperature -of the air; but the particular and endless -modifications of similar classes of crystals can -only be referred to the pleasure of the great -First Cause, whose works, even the most -minute and evanescent, and in regions the most -remote from human observation, bear the impress -of His own hand, and display to his intelligent -creatures his vast and beneficent wisdom. -If, on these forms of unintelligent matter, he -has bestowed such excellent workmanship, with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span> -how much more transcendent loveliness will he -clothe those who are redeemed by the exceeding -riches of his grace, and who, beyond the -history and productions of all worlds, will reflect -the beauty of his glorious countenance!</p> - -<p><em>Frost-rime</em>, or frost-smoke, is a meteor -peculiar to those parts of the globe where a -very low temperature prevails for a considerable -time. It consists of a dense frozen vapour, -apparently arising out of the sea, or any large -sheet of water, and ascending, in high winds -and turbulent seas, to the height of eighty or -one hundred feet, but, in light breezes and -smooth water, creeping along the surface. -The particles of which it consists are as small -as dust, and cleave to the rigging of ships, or -almost any substance against which they are -driven by the wind, and afford a coating of an -inch or upwards in depth. These particles -adhere to one another until the windward surface -of the ropes is covered, and form long -fibres somewhat of a prismatical or pyramidal -shape, having their points directed towards the -wind. Frost-rime adheres readily to articles -of clothing; and, from the circumstance of its -lodging in the hair, and giving it the appearance -of being powdered, the sailors humorously -style it “the barber.” Such of the frost-rime -as is dislodged from the rigging whenever the -ship is tacked, covers the deck to a considerable -thickness, and, when trod upon, emits an acute -sound, resembling the crushing of fine particles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span> -of glass. The cause of this phenomenon, -which generally is not observed until the cold -is reduced to 14°, may perhaps be similar to -that producing rain, and may be explained -according to Dr. Hutton’s theory.</p> - -<p>An aqueous vapour, consisting of very minute -frozen particles, sometimes occupies the lower -regions of the atmosphere in temperate and -frigid climates, during frosty weather, and is -deposited on the ground, on surfaces of ice, or -almost any other substance with which it comes -in contact. This vapour seems to be of the -nature of <em>hoar-frost</em>; it generally appears in -the evening, after a bright sunshiny day.</p> - -<p><em>Fog</em>, or mist, is the last meteor that remains -to be considered. This is one of the greatest -annoyances that the arctic whalers have to -encounter. It frequently prevails during the -greater part of the month of July, and sometimes, -at considerable intervals, in June and -August. Its density is often such, that it circumscribes -the prospect to an area of a few -acres, not being pervious to sight at the distance -of a hundred yards. It frequently lies -so low that the brightness of the sun is scarcely -at all intercepted; in such cases, substances -warmed by the sun’s rays, give to the air immediately -above them increased capacity for -moisture, by which evaporation goes briskly -on during the densest fogs. In Newfoundland, -on occasions when the sun’s rays penetrate -the mist, and heat the surface of the rocks,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span> -fish is frequently dried during the thickest -fogs. Fogs are more frequent and more dense -at the borders of the ice than near the coast of -Spitzbergen. They occur principally when -the mercury, in the thermometer, is near the -freezing point, but they are by no means uncommon -with the temperature of 40° or 45°. -They are most general with south-westerly, -southerly, and south-easterly winds. They -seldom occur with high winds, yet in one or -two instances I have observed them very thick, -even in storms. Rain generally disperses them. -Fogs, by increasing the apparent distances of -objects, appear sometimes to magnify men into -giants, hummocks of ice into mountains, and -common pieces of drift-ice into heavy floes -or bergs. They are an especial annoyance -to the whale-fisher, and greatly perplex the -navigator, by preventing him from obtaining -observations for the correction of his latitude -and longitude, so that he often sails in -complete uncertainty. Fogs are more common -near the ice than in the vicinity of the land, -more frequent in open seasons than in close -seasons, and more intense and more common -in the southern fishing-stations than in the -most northern.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V"><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER V.</a></h2> -</div> - -<p class="center fs80">A SKETCH OF THE ZOOLOGY OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS.</p> - - -<p>In the arrangement of the following original -observations on, and descriptions of the more -remarkable animals inhabiting, or frequenting, -Spitzbergen and the adjacent seas, I have -followed <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Linnæus</span>, in combination with La -Cepède. The latter author has published a -most voluminous and pleasing account of cetaceous -animals, and has made some judicious -changes in the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Linnæan</span> arrangements. By La -Cepède, for instance, whales having the dorsal -fin are separated from those without it; the -former being called, in distinction from the -latter, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Balænopteræ</i>, signifying whales with -a fin.</p> - -<p>Our first description must relate to the -animals of the <em>cetaceous kind</em>, which frequent -the Greenland Seas.</p> - -<p>Of these the first in eminence and of importance -to our commerce, is the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Balæna mysticetus</i>, -the common or Greenland whale. This -animal is productive of more oil than any other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span> -of the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cetacea</span>, and being less active, slower in -its motion, and more timid than any other of -its kind, of similar, or nearly similar, magnitude, -it is more easily captured. Its size has -been much overrated, and, in his excellent -natural history of cetaceous animals, La Cepède -has been guilty of considerable exaggeration. -In the age when whales were regarded with -superstitious dread, it is easy to conceive that -the dimensions of an animal inhabiting an -element in which it cannot easily be measured, -would be recorded with extravagance. Authors -of the first respectability in the present day -give a length of eighty to one hundred feet to -the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">mysticetus</span>, and remark with unqualified -assertion, that when the captures were less -frequent, and the animals had sufficient time to -attain their full growth, specimens were found -of one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet -in length, or even longer; and some ancient -naturalists, indeed, have gone so far as to -assert, that whales had been seen of above -nine hundred feet in length. In the present -day, however, it is certain that they are by no -means so bulky. Of three hundred and twenty-two -individuals, in the capture of which I have -been personally concerned, no one, I believe, -exceeded sixty feet in length, and the largest -I ever measured was fifty-eight feet, from one -extremity to the other, being one of the largest -to appearance which I ever saw. An uncommon -whale that was caught near Spitzbergen,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span> -about twenty years ago, the whalebone of which -measured almost fifteen feet, was not, I understand, -so much as seventy feet in length; and -the longest actual measurement that I have -met with, or heard of, is given by sir Charles -Giesecké, who informs us, that in the spring of -1813, a whale was killed at Godhaven of the -length of sixty-seven feet. These, however, -are very uncommon instances. I therefore -conceive that sixty feet may be considered as -the size of the larger animals of this species, -and sixty-five feet in length as a magnitude -which very rarely occurs.</p> - -<p>I believe, too, that whales are now met with -of as large dimensions as at any former period -since the commencement of the whale-fishery; -a point which, I think, can be established from -various historical records.</p> - -<p>The greatest circumference of the whale is -from thirty to forty feet. It is thickest a little -behind the fins, or in the middle, between the -anterior and posterior extremes of the animal, -from whence it gradually tapers in a conical -form towards the tail, and slightly towards the -head. Its form is cylindrical, from the neck to -within ten feet of the tail, beyond which it -becomes somewhat quadrangular, the greatest -ridge being upward, or on the back, and running -backward nearly across the middle of the -tail. The head has somewhat of a triangular -shape. The under-part, the arched outline of -which is given by the jaw-bones, is flat, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span> -measures sixteen to twenty feet in length, and -ten to twelve in breadth. The lips, extending -fifteen or twenty feet in length, and five or six -in height, and forming the cavity of the mouth, -are attached to the under-jaw, and rise from -the jaw-bones at an angle of about 80°, having -the appearance, when viewed in front, of the -letter U. The upper-jaw, including the “crown-bone,” -or skull, is bent down at the extremity, -so as to shut the front and upper parts of the -cavity of the mouth, and is overlapped by the -lips in a squamous manner at the sides.</p> - -<p>When the mouth is open, it presents a -cavity as large as a room, and capable of containing -a merchant-ship’s jolly-boat full of -men, being six or eight feet wide, ten or twelve -feet high in front, and fifteen or sixteen feet -long. The fins, two in number, are placed -between one-third and two-fifths of the length -of the animal, from the snout, and about two -feet behind the angle of the mouth. They are -seven to nine feet in length, and four or five in -breadth; and in the living animal are capable -of considerable flexion. The whale has no -dorsal fin.</p> - -<p>The tail, comprising in a single surface -eighty or one hundred square feet, is a formidable -instrument of motion or defence. Its -length is only five or six feet, but its width is -eighteen to twenty-four or twenty-six feet. -Its position is horizontal. In its form it is flat -and semi-lunar, indented in the middle, the two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span> -lobes somewhat pointed and turned a little -backward. Its motions are rapid and universal; -its strength immense.</p> - -<p>The eyes are situated in the sides of the -head, about a foot obliquely above and behind -the angle of the mouth. They are little larger -than those of an ox. The whale has no external -ear. The spiracles or nostrils of the -whale are two longitudinal apertures, six or -eight inches in length, from which a moist -vapour, mixed with mucous, is discharged -when the animal breathes, but no water accompanies -it unless the breathing takes place -under the surface. The mouth, in place of -teeth, contains two extensive rows of “fins,” or -whalebone, which are suspended from the sides -of the crown-bone. Each series, or side of -bone, as the whale-fishers term it, consists of -upwards of three hundred laminæ, of which -the longest are near the middle. Ten or eleven -feet is the average length, and the greatest -breadth at the gum ten or twelve inches. The -interior edges of these laminæ are covered -with a fringe of hair. In the youngest whales, -called suckers, the whalebone is only a few -inches long; when the length reaches six feet -or upwards, the whale is said to be of <em>size</em>. -The colour of the whalebone is brownish black, -or bluish black, and occasionally striped longitudinally -with white. A large whale sometimes -affords a ton and a half of whalebone. -The gum, in which the thick ends of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span> -whalebone are inserted, is white, fibrous, -tender, and tasteless. It cuts like cheese, and -has the appearance of the kernel of the cocoanut. -The animal has a large tongue, a slight -beard, and a remarkably narrow throat.</p> - -<p>The milk of the whale resembles that of -quadrupeds in appearance, and is said to be -rich and well-flavoured. In the female, two -paps are situated on the abdomen.</p> - -<p>The colour of the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">mysticetus</span> is velvet black, -grey, and white, with a tinge of yellow, according -to the parts of the body. The older -animals contain the most grey and white; -under-sized whales are altogether of a bluish -black, and suckers of a pale bluish, or bluish -grey colour.</p> - -<p>The skin of the body is slightly furrowed, -but on the tail it is smooth. That part of the -skin, which can be pulled off in sheets after it -has been dried a little in the air, or particularly -in the frost, is not thicker than parchment. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rete mucosum</i> in adults is about -three-fourths of an inch in thickness over most -parts of the body. Under it lies the true skin, -white and tough, and immediately in contact -with it the blubber.</p> - -<p>This most valuable portion of the animal -encompasses its whole body. Its colour is -yellowish white, yellow, or red; in old animals -sometimes resembling the substance of the -salmon. It swims in water. Its thickness all -round the body is eight or ten to twenty inches,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span> -varying in different parts, as well as in different -individuals. The lips are composed almost -entirely of blubber, and yield from one to two -tons of pure oil each. The oil appears retained -in the blubber in minute cells, connected -by a strong reticulated combination of tendinous -fibres, which are condensed at the surface, -and appears to form the substance of the -skin. The oil is expelled when heated. In its -fresh state, the blubber is without unpleasant -smell, and it is only at the end of the voyage -that the cargo of a Greenland ship becomes -disagreeable.</p> - -<p>The quantity of oil yielded by a certain -quantity of blubber varies according to the age -of the animal; the blubber of the sucker contains -a very small portion. The quantity of -oil generally bears a proportion to the length -of the longest blade of whalebone. Four tons -of blubber in measure generally produce three -tons of oil; the ton of oil being two hundred -and fifty-two gallons, wine-measure.</p> - -<p>The flesh of the young whale is of a red -colour, and, when broiled and seasoned with -pepper and salt, eats like coarse beef. The -bones are very porous, and contain much fine oil. -The ribs are thirteen in number, and are -nearly solid, and the bones of the fins, in number -and proportion, are similar to those of the -fingers of the human hand.</p> - -<p>A stout whale, of sixty feet in length, is of -the enormous weight of seventy tons; the blubber<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span> -weighs about thirty tons; the bones of the -head, whalebone, fins, and tail, eight or ten; -the carcase thirty or thirty-two.</p> - -<p>The whale is dull of hearing, but its sense of -seeing is acute, especially when under water. -It has no voice, but makes in breathing or -blowing a very loud noise. It blows or breathes -about four or five times a minute, discharging -vapour to the height of some yards, which, at -a distance, looks like a puff of smoke. When -the animal is wounded, this vapour is often -stained with blood, and on the approach of -death jets of blood are sometimes discharged. -The whale being lighter than the water, can -remain at the surface with ease, but requires -considerable exertion to descend. It advances -through the water by means of the tail, which, -to attain the greatest velocity, is moved alternately -upward and downward; and, for -slower progress, laterally and obliquely downward, -in the manner of <em>skulling</em> a boat. The -fins are used for balancing the animal, and in -bearing off their young. I have observed a -whale descending, after I had harpooned it, to -the depth of four hundred fathoms, with the -average velocity of seven or eight miles per -hour. The usual rate at which whales swim, -however, seldom exceeds four miles an hour, -and though their extreme velocity may be -eight or nine, yet we find this speed never continues -longer than for a few minutes. They -sometimes ascend with such rapidity as to leap<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span> -entirely out of the water, apparently for amusement, -and to the high admiration of the distant -spectator. At other times they throw themselves -into a perpendicular posture, with their -heads downward, and rearing their tails on -high in the air, they beat the water with -awful violence; the sea is thrown into foam, -the air is filled with vapours, and the noise -in calm weather is heard to a great distance. -Sometimes the whale shakes its tremendous -tail in the air, which, cracking like -a whip, resounds to the distance of two or -three miles.</p> - -<p>When it retires from the surface, it first lifts -its head, then plunging it under water, elevates -its back, like the segment of a sphere, deliberately -rounds it away towards the extremity, -throws its tail out of the water, and then disappears. -Whales usually remain at the surface -to breathe about two minutes, during which -time they “blow” eight or nine times, and then -descend for an interval usually of five or ten -minutes, but sometimes, when feeding, fifteen -or twenty. They commonly descend to only a -trifling depth; but, when struck, they have -been known, by the quantity of line taken out -of the boat, to descend to the depth of an -English mile, and, with such velocity, as to -break their jaw-bones by the blow struck -against the bottom. Occasionally, they may be -found sleeping in calm weather among ice, and -some persons are of opinion that, when undisturbed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span> -they can remain under the surface for -many hours at a time.</p> - -<p>The food of the whale consists of various -species of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">actiniæ</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clioncs</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sepiæ</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">medusæ</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cancri</i>, -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">helices</i>, judging from the fact that some of -these genera are always to be seen wherever -any tribe of whales is found stationary. I have -only discovered in the stomachs of dead animals -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">squillæ</i> or shrimps. When the whale feeds, it -swims swiftly through the sea, with its jaws -extended; its food is entangled by the whalebone, -which, from its compact arrangement and -thick internal covering of hair, does not allow -a particle to escape.</p> - -<p>The whale has one young at a birth. At -this time the young one is said to be at -least ten feet long, and continues under the -protection of the mother for probably a year, -until, by the growth of the whalebone, it is -able to maintain itself. It probably reaches -the magnitude called <em>size</em>, that is, with a six -feet length of whalebone, in twelve years, and -attains its full growth at the age of twenty or -twenty-five. Whales live to a great age. The -maternal affection of the whale is very interesting. -The cub, being insensible to danger, is -easily harpooned, and is sometimes struck as a -snare to secure the mother. In this case she -joins it at the surface whenever it has occasion -to rise for respiration, encourages it to swim -off, assists its flight by taking it under her fin, -and seldom deserts it while life remains. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span> -June, 1811, one of my harpooners struck a -sucker, with the hope of its leading to the capture -of the mother. Presently she arose close -by “the fast-boat,” and seizing the young one, -dragged about a hundred fathoms of line out of -the boat with remarkable force and velocity. -Again she rose to the surface, darted furiously -to and fro, frequently stopped short, or suddenly -changed her direction, and gave every possible -intimation of extreme agony. For a length of -time she continued thus to act, though closely -pursued by the boats; and, inspired with -courage and resolution by her concern for her -offspring, seemed regardless of the danger which -surrounded her. At length, one of the boats -approached so near that a harpoon was hove at -her. It hit, but did not attach itself. A second -harpoon was struck, this also failed to penetrate, -but a third was more effectual, and held. -Still she did not attempt to escape, but allowed -other boats to approach, so that, in a few -minutes, three more harpoons were fastened, -and, in the course of an hour afterwards she -was killed.</p> - -<p>There is something deeply interesting in the -manner in which the great Maker of all things, -in giving laws to the animal kingdom, has thus -presented so many illustrations of the parental -relation. It is as if he would not leave his -intelligent creatures destitute of memorials of -their relation to himself; so that, while in the -field and on the flood, they behold the signs of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span> -parental affection and filial dependence, they -may be led to ponder the solemn question -of their tender and faithful Parent in heaven—“If, -then, I be a Father, where is mine -honour?”</p> - -<p>The <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">mysticetus</span> occurs most abundantly in -the frozen seas of Greenland and Davis’s Strait, -in the bays of Baffin and Hudson, in the sea to -the northward of Behring’s Strait, and along -some part of the northern shores of Asia, and -probably America. It is never met with in -the German Ocean, and rarely within two hundred -leagues of the British coast; but along the -coasts of Africa and South America it is met -with periodically, in considerable numbers. In -these regions, it is attacked and captured by the -southern British and American whalers, as well -as by some of the people inhabiting the coasts -to which it resorts. Whether this whale is precisely -of the same kind as that of Spitzbergen -and Greenland is uncertain, though it is evidently -a <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">mysticetus</span>. One striking difference, -possibly the effect of situation and climate, is, -that the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">mysticetus</span> in southern regions is often -covered with barnacles, while those of the Arctic -Seas are free from these shell-fish.</p> - -<p>Besides the formidable inroads made upon -the whale by man, it is subject to annoyance -from sharks, and it is also said from the narwal, -sword-fish, and thrasher. The opinion as to -the narwal I am persuaded is incorrect; the -sword-fish and thrasher (if such an animal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span> -there be) may be enemies of the whale, and -the shark certainly is hostile to the extent of -his ability, which, in comparison to that of the -whale, can hardly be very formidable.</p> - -<p>It is certain that the flesh of the whale is now -eaten by savage nations, and it is also well -authenticated that, in the twelfth, thirteenth, -fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, it was used -as food by the Icelanders, the Netherlander, -the French, the Spaniards, and, probably, by -the English. Besides forming a choice eatable, -the inferior products of the whale are applied to -other purposes by the Indians and Esquimaux -of Arctic countries, and, with some nations, are -essential to their comfort. Some membranes of -the abdomen are used for an upper article of -clothing, and the peritoneum in particular, -being thin and transparent, is used instead of -glass in the windows of their huts; the bones -are converted into harpoons and spears for -striking the seal, or darting at the sea-birds, -and are also employed in the erection of their -tents, and, with some tribes, in the formation of -their boats; the sinews are divided into filaments, -and used as thread, with which they -join the seams of their boats and tent-cloths, -and sew, with great taste and nicety, the different -articles of dress they manufacture; and -the whalebone and other superior products, so -valuable in European markets, have also their -uses among them.</p> - -<p>The largest animal of the whale tribe is not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span> -the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">mysticetus</span>, but the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Balæna physalis</i> of -<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Linnæus</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Balænoptera gibbar</i> of La Cepède, and -razor-back of the whalers. This is, probably, -the most powerful and bulky of created beings. -In comparison with the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">mysticetus</span>, it has a form -less cylindrical, a body longer and more slender, -whalebone shorter, produce in blubber -and oil less, colour bluer, fins more numerous, -breathing more violent, speed greater, and -actions quicker, more restless and more bold. -Its length is about one hundred feet, and its -greatest circumference thirty or thirty-five. Its -colour is a pale bluish black, or dark bluish -grey, in which it resembles the sucking <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">mysticetus</span>. -Besides the two pectoral fins, it has -a small horny protuberance, or rayless and -immovable fin on the extremity of the back. -Its greatest velocity in swimming is about -twelve miles an hour. It is by no means a -timid animal, yet it does not appear revengeful -or mischievous. When closely pursued by -boats, it manifests little fear, and does not -attempt to outstrip them in the race, but -merely endeavours to avoid them by diving -or changing its direction. If harpooned, or -wounded, it then exerts all its energies, and -escapes with its utmost velocity, but shows -little disposition to retaliate on its enemies, or -to repel their attacks by engaging in a combat. -Unlike the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">mysticetus</span>, it very rarely, when -descending into the water, throws its tail into -the air. Its great speed and activity render it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span> -a difficult and dangerous object of attack, and -the small quantity of inferior oil it affords -makes it unworthy the general attention of the -fishers. When struck, it not uncommonly drags -the fast-boat with such speed through the -water, that it is liable to be carried immediately -beyond the reach of assistance, and -soon out of sight of both boats and ship. -Hence the striker is under the necessity of -cutting the line, and sacrificing his employer’s -property for securing the safety of himself and -his companions. In the year 1818, I ordered -a general chase of them, providing against the -danger of having my crew separated from the -ship by appointing a rendezvous on the shore -not far distant, and preparing against the loss -of much line by dividing it at two hundred -fathoms from the harpoon, and affixing a -buoy to the end of it. Thus arranged, one of -these whales was shot, and another struck. -The former dived with such impetuosity that -the line was broken by the resistance of the -buoy, as soon as it was thrown into the water, -and the latter was liberated within a minute by -the division of the line, occasioned, it was supposed, -by its friction against the dorsal fin. -Both of them escaped. Another <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">physalis</span> was -struck by one of my inexperienced harpooners, -who mistook it for a mysticetus. It dived -obliquely with such velocity that four hundred -and eighty fathoms of line were withdrawn -from the boat in about a minute of time.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span> -This whale was also lost by the breaking of -the line.</p> - -<p>The <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">physalis</span> occurs in great numbers in the -Arctic Seas, especially along the edge of the -ice, between Cherie Island and Nova Zembla, -and also near Jan Mayen. Persons trading to -Archangel have often mistaken it for the common -whale. It is seldom seen among much -ice, and seems to be avoided by the mysticetus; -hence the fishers view it with painful concern. -It inhabits most generally in the Spitzbergen -quarter the parallels of 70° to 76°; but in the -months of June, July, and August, when the -sea is usually open, it advances along the land -to the northward as high as 80° of latitude. -In open seasons it is seen near the headland at -an earlier period. A whale, probably of this -kind, one hundred and one feet in length, was -stranded on the banks of the Humber, about -the middle of September, 1750.</p> - -<p>Another species of whale frequenting the -coasts of Scotland, Ireland, Norway, etc., is the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Balænoptera rorqual</i> of La Cepède, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Balæna musculus</i> -of <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Linnæus</span>, or the broad-nosed whale.</p> - -<p>In many characters, this species resembles the -<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">physalis</span>, though, I think, with an essential -difference. The musculus is shorter, having a -larger head and mouth, and a rounder under-jaw -than the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">physalis</span> and is said to feed principally -upon herrings. Several individuals, -apparently of this kind, have been stranded -or killed on different parts of the coast of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span> -United Kingdom. One was embayed and killed -in Balta Sound, Shetland, in the winter of -1817-18, some remains of which I saw. It was -eighty-two feet in length, the jaw-bones were -twenty-one feet long, and the largest lamina of -whalebone about three feet. Instead of hair at -the inner edge, and at the point of each blade -of whalebone, it had a fringe of bristly fibres, -and it was stiffer, harder, and more horny in -its texture than common whalebone. It produced -only about five tons of oil, all of it of an -inferior quality; some of it viscid and bad. It -valued, deducting expenses, no more than £60 -sterling. It had the usual sulci about the -thorax, and a dorsal fin.</p> - -<p>A smaller species of whale is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Balænoptera -jubartes</i> of La Cepède, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Balæna boops</i> of <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Linnæus</span>, -or the finner of the whale-fishers.</p> - -<p>The following is its description:—Length, -about forty-six feet; greatest circumference of -the body, about twenty feet; dorsal protuberance, -or fin, about two feet and a half high; -pectoral fins, four or five feet long externally, -and scarcely a foot broad; tail, about three feet -deep and ten broad; whalebone, about three -hundred laminæ on each side, the longest about -eighteen inches in length, the under-jaw about -fifteen feet long, or one-third of the whole -length of the animal; <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sulci</span>, about two dozen in -number; two external blow-holes; blubber on -the body two or three inches thick, under the -<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sulci</span> none.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span></p> - -<p>The last, and smallest of the whalebone -whales, with which I am acquainted, is the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Balænoptera acuto-rostrata</i> of La <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: Cèpede">Cepède</ins>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Balæna -rostrata</i> of <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Linnæus</span>, or the beaked whale. An -animal of this kind was killed in Scalpa Bay, -November 14, 1808. Its length was seventeen -and a half feet, circumference twenty. Pectoral -fins, two feet long and seven inches broad; -dorsal fin fifteen inches long by four and a -half feet broad. Largest whalebone, about six -inches. The <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">rostrata</span> is said to inhabit principally -the Norwegian Seas, and to grow to the -length of twenty-five feet. One of the species -was killed near Spitzbergen, in 1813, and I -have some of the whalebone in my possession.</p> - -<p>Three species of narwals are noticed by La -Cepède, though I myself have seen but one, -and perhaps the other species are imaginary, -for the animal varies in appearance. It is the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Monodon monoceros</i> of <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Linnæus</span>, and the narwal, -or unicorn, of whalers.</p> - -<p>It is, when full grown, from thirteen to sixteen -feet in length, exclusive of the tusk; and -in circumference (two feet behind the fins, -where it is thickest,) eight to nine feet. The -form of the head, with the part of the body -before the fins, is paraboloidal; of the middle -of the body, nearly cylindrical; of the hinder-part, -to within two or three feet of tail, -somewhat conical, and from thence a ridge, -commencing both at the back and belly; the -section becomes first an ellipse, and then a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span> -rhombus, at the junction of the tail. At the -distance of twelve or fourteen inches from the -tail the perpendicular diameter is about twelve -inches, the transverse diameter about seven. -The head is about one-seventh of the whole -length of the animal; it is small, blunt, round, -and of a paraboloidal form. The mouth is -small and not capable of much extension. The -under-lip is wedge-shaped. The eyes are small, -the largest diameter being only an inch, and -are placed in a line with the opening of the -mouth about thirteen inches from the snout. -The blow-hole, which is directly over the eyes, -is a single opening, of a semicircular form, about -three and a half inches in diameter, or breadth, -and one and a half radius, or length. The fins -are twelve or fourteen inches long, and six or -eight broad; the tail, from fifteen to twenty -inches long, and three to four feet broad. It -has no dorsal fin, but in place of it an irregular, -sharpish, fatty ridge. The colour of the narwal -is in the young animal blackish grey, on the -back variegated with numerous darker spots, -running into one another; in the older animals -the ground is wholly white, or yellowish white. -The integuments are similar to those of the -mysticetus, only thinner.</p> - -<p>A long prominent tusk, with which some -narwals are furnished, is considered as a horn -by the whale-fishers, and as such has given -occasion for the name of <em>unicorn</em> being applied -to this animal. This tusk occurs on the left<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span> -side of the head, and is sometimes found of the -length of nine or ten feet; according to <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—original text: Egède">Egedé</ins>, -fourteen or fifteen. It springs from the lower -part of the upper-jaw, points forward and a -little downward, being parallel in its direction -to the roof of the mouth. It is spirally situated -from right to left, is nearly straight, and tapers -to around, blunt point, is of a yellowish white -colour, and consists of a compact kind of ivory. -It is usually hollow from the base to within a -few inches of the point. In a five feet tusk the -diameter at the base is two and a quarter -inches, and about three-eighths within an inch -of the end. This external tusk is peculiar to -the male, and there is another imbedded in the -skull, on the right side of the head, about nine -inches long. Two or three instances have -occurred of male narwals having been taken, -which had two large external tusks. The use -of the tusk is ambiguous. It cannot be essential -for procuring their food, nor for defence. -Dr. Barclay is of opinion that it is principally -a sexual distinction; and it appears not improbable -that it is used in piercing the ice for -convenience of breathing, without the animal -being obliged to retreat to open water. If this -latter supposition be correct, it affords another -illustration of the wisdom of the great Creator, -who has adapted in so many instances the -organization of every animal to the locality -which it inhabits.</p> - -<p>A quantity of blubber, from two to three and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span> -a half inches in thickness, and amounting sometimes -to above half a ton, encompasses the whole -body of the narwal, and affords a large proportion -of very fine oil. In a fine fatty substance -about the internal ears of the narwal are found -multitudes of worms. They are about an inch -in length, some shorter, very slender, and taper -both ways, but are sharper at one end than at -the other. They are transparent. The vertebral -column of the narwal is about twelve feet in -length. The cervical vertebræ are seven in -number, the dorsal twelve, the lumbar and -caudal thirty-five. The spinal marrow appears -to run through the processes of all the vertebræ -from the head to the fortieth, but does not penetrate -the forty-first. The ribs are twelve on each -side, six true and six false, and are small for -the size of the animal. The principal food of -the narwal are molluscous animals. I have -found remains of <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sepiæ</span> in several stomachs -which I have examined. Narwals are quick, -active, inoffensive animals, and swim with considerable -velocity. They appear in numerous -little herds of half a dozen or more together, -each herd being most frequently composed of -animals of the same sex. When harpooned, -the narwal dives with almost the velocity of -the mysticetus, but not to the same extent; on -returning to the surface it is dispatched with a -lance in a few minutes.</p> - -<p>Passing now from these tribes, a short space -must be allotted to the description of the dolphins.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span> -The first is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Delphinus deductor</i>, defined -by Dr. Traill, the ca’ing or leading whale. -The following are its specific characters. Body -thick, black; one short dorsal fin; pectoral fins -long, narrow; head obtuse; upper jaw bent -forward; teeth subconoid, sharp, and a little -bent.</p> - -<p>This animal grows to the length of about -twenty-four feet, and is about ten feet in circumference. -The skin is smooth, resembling -oiled-silk; the colour a white blueish black on -the back, and generally whitish on the belly; -the blubber is three or four inches thick. The -head is short and round; the upper jaw projects -a little over the lower. Externally it has a -single spiracle. The full grown have generally -twenty-two to twenty-four teeth in each jaw, -and when the mouth is shut, the teeth lock -between one another like the teeth of a trap. -The tail is about five feet broad, the dorsal fin -about fifteen inches high, cartilaginous, and -immovable.</p> - -<p>This kind of dolphin sometimes appears in -large herds off the Orkney, Shetland, and Feroe -islands. The main body of the herd follows the -leading whales, and from this property the -animal is called in Shetland the ca’ing whale, -and by Dr. Traill the deductor. Many herds of -this animal have been driven on shore at different -periods, and it is recorded that there were taken -in two places in the year 1664 about a thousand; -and in modern times extensive slaughters<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span> -have taken place on the shores of the British -and other northern islands.</p> - -<p>The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Delphinapterus beluga</i> of La Cepède, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Delphinus Leucas</i> of <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Linnæus</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Beluga</i> of Pennant, -or white whale of the fishers, is the last -of the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cetacea</span> to which we shall refer. It is not -unlike the narwal in its general form, but is -thicker about the middle of its body in proportion -to its length. Both jaws are furnished -with teeth. It has no dorsal fin. The skin is -smooth, the colour white. A male animal of -this kind was taken in the Frith of Forth in -June, 1815. The length was thirteen feet four -inches, and the greatest circumference nine feet. -The beluga is generally met with in families or -herds of five or ten together. They are plentiful -in Hudson’s Bay, Davis’s Strait, and on -some parts of the northern coasts of Europe and -Asia, where they frequent some of the larger -rivers. They are taken for the sake of the oil -they produce by harpoons or strong nets; in -the latter case, the nets are extended across the -stream, so as to prevent their escape out of the -river, and when thus interrupted in their -course to seaward, they are attacked with -lances, and great numbers are sometimes killed.</p> - -<p>It is now our purpose to give an account of -the <em>quadrupeds</em> which inhabit Spitzbergen and -the icy seas adjacent.</p> - -<p>The connecting link between the mammalia -of the land and the water is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Trichecus rosmarus</i>, -walrus, morse, or sea-horse of the whale-fishers.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span> -It corresponds in several of its characters both -with the bullock and the whale. It grows to -the bulk of an ox. Its canine teeth, two in -number, are of the length externally of ten to -twenty inches, (some naturalists say three feet,) -and extend downward from the upper jaw, and -include the point of the lower jaw between them. -They are incurvated inward. Their full length -when cut out of the skull is commonly fifteen to -twenty inches, sometimes almost thirty, and -their weight five to ten pounds each or upward. -The walrus being a slow clumsy animal on -land, its tusk seems necessary for its defence -against the bear, and also for enabling it to -raise its unwieldy body upon the ice when its -access to the shore is prevented.</p> - -<p>The walrus is found on the shores of Spitzbergen -twelve to fifteen feet in length, and eight -to ten feet in circumference. The head is short, -small, and flattened in front. The flattened -part of the face is set with strong bristles. The -nostrils are on the upper part of the snout, -through which it blows like a whale. The fore -paws, which are a kind of webbed hand, are two-sevenths -of the full length of the animal from -the snout. They are from two to two and a -half feet in length, and being expansive maybe -stretched to the breadth of fifteen to eighteen -inches. The hind feet, which form a sort of tail -fin, extend straight backward. They are not -united, but detached from each other. The -length of each is about two to two and a half<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span> -feet; the breadth, when fully extended, two and -a half or three feet; the termination of each -toe is marked by a small tail.</p> - -<p>The skin of the walrus is about an inch thick, -and it is covered with a short, yellowish brown -coloured hair. The inside of the paws in old -animals is defended by a rough, horny kind of -casing, a quarter of an inch thick, probably produced -by the hardening of the skin in consequence -of coarse usage in climbing over ice and -rocks.</p> - -<p>Beneath the skin is a thin layer of fat. At -some seasons the produce is said to be considerable, -but I have never met with any that -afforded above twenty or thirty gallons of oil. -In the stomachs of walruses I have met with -shrimps, a kind of craw-fish, and the remains -of young seals.</p> - -<p>It is not at all improbable that the walrus -has afforded foundation for some of the stories -of mermaids. I have myself seen a sea-horse -in such a position, that it requires little stretch -of imagination to mistake it for a human being; -so like, indeed, was it, that the surgeon of the -ship actually reported to me that he had seen a -man with his head just appearing above the -surface of the water.</p> - -<p>The walrus is a fearless animal. It pays no -regard to a boat, excepting as an object of curiosity. -It is sometimes taken by a harpoon -when in the water. If one attack fails, it often -affords an opportunity for repeating it. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span> -capture cannot be always accomplished without -danger, for, as they go in herds, an attack made -upon one individual draws all its companions to -its defence. In such cases they frequently rally -round the boat from which the blow was struck, -pierce its planks with their tusks, and, though -resisted in the most determined manner, sometimes -raise themselves upon the gunwale, and -threaten to overset it. The best defence against -these enraged animals is, in such a crisis, sea-sand, -which, being thrown into their eyes, -occasions a partial blindness, and obliges them -to disperse. When on shore they are best -killed with long sharp-pointed knives.</p> - -<p>The tusks of the walrus, which are hard, -white, and compact ivory, are employed by -dentists in the fabrication of false teeth. The -skin is used in place of mats for defending the -yards and rigging of ships from being chafed -by friction against each other. When cut into -shreds and plaited into cordage, it answers -admirably for wheel-ropes, being stronger and -wearing much longer than hemp. In ancient -times, most of the ropes of ships, in northern -countries at least, would appear to have been -made of this substance. When tanned, it is -converted into a soft porous leather, above an -inch in thickness, but it is by no means so -useful or so durable as in its green or raw -state.</p> - -<p>As early as the ninth century, we have accounts -of the walrus being extensively fished<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span> -for on the western coast of Norway. Prior to -the institution of the Spitzbergen whale-fishery, -the capture of this animal was an object of -some commercial importance. It was at first -attacked by the English, on Cherie Island, but -being driven from thence, if not extirpated -in that quarter, by the great slaughter that was -carried on, it was then pursued to Spitzbergen. -The earliest attacks made on it were very -unsuccessful, but experience rendered the assailants -more skilful, and, in one voyage, nine -hundred or one thousand sea-horses were killed -in less than seven hours. The Russians now, -rather than the British, are their enemies.</p> - -<p>With the exception of the head, the general -form of the walrus is similar to the next animal -which we describe, the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">phoca</span>, or seal.</p> - -<p>Several species of seals occur in the Greenland -Sea, and resort to the ice in the neighbourhood -of Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen, in -immense herds; but, as the seal frequents the -British coast, and is a well-described and well-known -animal, I shall not particularize the -well-known species that are met with in the -Arctic Seas. Some few general observations -only will be necessary.</p> - -<p>Seals are generally fat in the spring of the -year, and afford several gallons of blubber; -even small seals will then yield about four or -five gallons of oil. The voice of the young -seal when in pain or distress is a whining cry, -resembling that of a child. They appear to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span> -hear well under water; music, or particularly -a person whistling, draws them to the surface, -and induces them to stretch their necks to the -utmost extent, so as to prove a snare by bringing -them within reach of the shooter. The -most effectual way of shooting them is by the -use of small shot, fired into their eyes; when -killed with a bullet they generally sink, and -are lost. Seals are often seen on their passage -from one situation to another in very large -shoals. Their general conduct in such cases is -such as to amuse spectators, and the sailors call -such a shoal a “seal’s wedding.” The feet of -seals are better adapted for motion in the water -than on land. They feed on birds, crabs, and -small fishes, and are very tenacious of life.</p> - -<p>The uses of the seal are various, and to some -nations highly important. It yields train-oil, -and its skin is extensively employed in making -shoes, and, when dressed with the hair, in covering -trunks. To the Esquimaux the seal is -everything. Its flesh is food, its fat gives light, -and its skin, dressed so as to be waterproof, is -used for covering for boats and tents, and for -garments.</p> - -<p>The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Phoca vitulina</i> is the common species in -the Greenland Sea, especially near Jan Mayen. -The hooded seal is common near Spitzbergen. -The latter is longer than the former, and is -said to grow to the length of ten or twelve feet. -It is also much more formidable. Seals are -not fond of the water, but, when on the ice, are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span> -extremely watchful, and secure their retreat -either by reclining at the edge or by keeping a -hole in the ice open for them. The young ones, -however, are not so wary as the old folks. -The best situation for the seal-fishery in the -Arctic Sea is in the vicinity of Jan Mayen, and -the best season March and April. The capture -of the seal is the work of a moment. A blow -with a seal-club on the nose immediately stuns -it, and affords opportunity of making a prize of -many at a time. Ships fitted out for the whale-fishery -have accidentally obtained in April from -two thousand to three thousand seals, and -sometimes more; and vessels sent out for seal-fishery -only, four thousand or five thousand, -yielding nearly one hundred tons of oil. From -the ports of the Elbe and Weser a number of -sealers are annually dispatched, but few comparatively -on this pursuit alone sail from -Britain.</p> - -<p>Of the dangers of the seal-fishery, arising -from the liability to heavy storms at the season -and in the place where seals are taken, the following -narrative will furnish full illustration.</p> - -<p>Fifty-four ships, chiefly Hamburghers, were, -in the year 1774, fitted out for seal-fishery -alone from foreign ports. In the spring of the -year they met with several English ships on -the borders of the ice, about sixty miles to the -eastward of the island of Jan Mayen. While -the boats of the fleet were in search for seals, a -dreadful storm suddenly arose. Almost all the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span> -people who were at a distance from the ships -perished. The Duke of York, captain Peters, -had two boats at that time down. The crews -of these by great exertion rowed up to the ship, -got hold of the rudder rings, but were unable -to make their way alongside; they held fast for -some time, but the sea was too strong for them, -and they lost their hold and fell astern. The -chief-mate of the ship, seeing that they were too -exhausted to recover their position, determined -to attempt their rescue at the peril of his own -life. He manned a boat with six stout seamen -beside himself, and went to their assistance. On -reaching them he exchanged four of his vigorous -crew for two of the fainting men in each boat. -Thus reinforced, the three boats, by the exertions -of their crews, were brought to the stern of the -ship; but while in this critical situation, a sea -struck the boats, filled and overwhelmed them, -on which the whole of their crews, nineteen men, -perished. This was only a portion of the disasters -of the storm. One ship foundered in a -heavy surge, and all hands were lost. Another -was wrecked on the ice, and all hands perished. -Many boats and men were washed from several -others, and the results were that about four -hundred foreign seamen, and two hundred -British, were drowned, four or five ships lost, -and scarcely any escaped without damage.</p> - -<p>To all those who navigate the treacherous -ocean, especially to such as do business in such -dangerous waters, it ought to be of more than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span> -ordinary importance to live in a continued preparation -for death and judgment, and to be the -servants of that God who</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza center fs80"> - <div class="verse indent0">“—— rides upon the stormy sky</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And manages the seas.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Beneath his care the mariner is safe, and -whether from the abysses of its ancient caves, -or the foundations of its lofty icebergs, the sea -must surrender unto eternal life the bodies of -the disciples of Jesus.</p> - -<p>The Arctic fox, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Canis lagopus</i>, is an animal -known to those who winter in Spitzbergen, -though seldom seen by the whale-fishers. They -are rarely found on the ice, though I have often -found their impressions on the snow. They -are of a white colour, and not easily distinguished.</p> - -<p>A more remarkable animal is the Polar or -Greenland bear, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ursus maritimus</i>. He is the -sovereign of the quadrupeds of the Arctic -countries. He is powerful and courageous; -savage and sagacious; apparently clumsy, yet -not inactive. His senses are extremely acute, -especially his sight and smell. As he traverses -extensive fields of ice, he mounts the hummocks -and looks for prey, and on rearing his head and -snuffing the breeze, he can perceive the scent of -the carrion of the whale at an immense distance. -Seals are his usual food, but from their watchfulness -he is often obliged to fast. He is as -much at home on the ice as on the land, and is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span> -found on field-ice above two hundred miles -from shore. He can swim with the velocity of -three miles an hour, and can dive to a considerable -distance.</p> - -<p>Bears occur in Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, -Greenland, and other Arctic countries, throughout -the year. In some places, they are met with -in great numbers. By means of the ice, they -often effect a landing on Iceland, but as soon as -they appear, they are generally attacked by the -inhabitants and destroyed. On the east coast -of Greenland, they have appeared like flocks of -sheep on a common.</p> - -<p>The size of the bear is generally four or five -feet in height, seven or eight in length, and -nearly as much in circumference. Sometimes, -however, the size is much larger. His paws -are seven inches in breadth, and his claws two -inches in length. His canine teeth, exclusive of -the part in the jaw, are about an inch and a half -in length. He has been known by the strength -of his jaw to bite a lance in two, though made -of iron half an inch in diameter. In the water -he can be captured without much danger, but -on land the experiment is hazardous. When -pursued and attacked, he turns upon his enemies. -He always, however, unless urged by -hunger, retreats before men. His general walk -is slow, but upon the ice he can easily outrun -any man. If struck with a lance, he is apt to -seize it in his mouth, and either bite it in two, -or wrest it out of the hand. If shot with a ball,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span> -unless he is struck in the head, in the heart, -or in the shoulder, he is enraged rather than -depressed, and falls with increased power upon -his pursuers. When shot at a distance, and -able to escape, he has been observed to retire -to the shelter of a hummock, and, as if conscious -of the styptical effect of cold, apply -snow with his paws to the wound.</p> - -<p>The bear feeds on the kreng, or carcases of the -whales, as they are left by the fishers; on seals, -birds, foxes, and deer, when it can surprise them; -on eggs, and indeed on any animal substance -that comes within its power. The skin of the -bear, when dressed with the hair on, forms -beautiful mats for a hall or for the bottom of -a carriage. Prepared without being ripped -up, and the hairy side turned inward, it forms -a very warm sack bed, and is used as such in -some parts of Greenland. The flesh, when -cleared of the fat, is well flavoured and savoury, -especially the muscular part of the ham. I -once treated my surgeon with a dinner of bears -ham, and he did not know for above a month -afterwards, but that it was beefsteak. The -liver is very unwholesome.</p> - -<p>Bears are remarkably affectionate towards -their young, and peculiarly sagacious. The -female has generally two at a birth. On one -occasion, a mother bear with two cubs was pursued -across a field of ice by a party of armed -sailors. At first, she urged her young ones -to increase their speed, but finding the pursuers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span> -gaining on them, she carried or pushed or -pitched them alternately forward, until she -effected their escape. The little creatures are -said to have placed themselves across her path -to receive her impulse, and when thrown forward -they ran on till she overtook them, when -they adjusted themselves for a second throw.</p> - -<p>Many instances have been observed of the -peculiar sagacity of these animals. A seal, -lying on the middle of a large piece of ice, with -a hole just before it, was marked out by a bear -for its prey, and secured by the artifice of -diving under the ice, and making its way to -the hole by which the seal was prepared to -retreat. The seal, however, observed its approach, -and plunged into the water, but the -bear instantly sprang upon it, and appeared -in about a minute afterwards with the seal in -its mouth.</p> - -<p>The captain of one of the whalers being -anxious to procure a bear without wounding -the skin, made trial of the stratagem of laying -the noose of a rope in the snow, and placing -a piece of kreng within it. A bear, ranging -the neighbouring ice, was soon enticed to the -spot by the smell of burning meat. He perceived -the bait, approached, and seized it in -his mouth, but his foot, at the same moment, -by a jerk of the rope being entangled in -the noose, he pushed it off with the adjoining -paw, and deliberately retired. After having -eaten the piece he carried away with him he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span> -returned. The noose, with another piece of -kreng, being then replaced, he pushed the rope -aside, and again walked triumphantly off with -the kreng. A third time the noose was laid, -and this time the rope was buried in the snow -and the bait laid in a deep hole dug in the -centre. But Bruin, after snuffing about the -place for a few minutes, scraped the snow away -with his paw, threw the rope aside, and escaped -unhurt with his prize.</p> - -<p>In the month of June, 1812, a female -bear, with two cubs, approached the ship I -commanded, and was shot. The cubs, not -attempting to escape, were taken alive. These -animals, though at first evidently very unhappy, -became at length, in some measure, -reconciled to their situation, and being tolerably -tame, were allowed occasionally to go -at large about the deck. While the ship was -moored to a floe, a few days after they were -taken, one of them, having a rope fastened -round its neck, was thrown overboard. It -immediately swam to the ice, got upon it, and -attempted to escape. Finding itself, however, -detained by the rope, it endeavoured to disengage -itself in the following ingenious way:—Near -the edge of the floe was a crack in the ice, -of considerable length, but only eighteen inches -or two feet wide, and three or four feet deep. To -this spot the bear returned; and when, on crossing -the chasm, the bight of the rope fell into -it, he placed himself across the opening; then,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span> -suspending himself by his hind feet, with a -leg on each side, he dropped his head and -most of his body into the chasm, and, with -a foot applied to each side of the neck, attempted -for some minutes to push the rope -over his head. Finding this scheme ineffectual, -he removed to the main ice, and running -with great impetuosity from the ship, gave a -remarkable pull on the rope; then, going -backward a few steps, he repeated the jerk. -At length, after repeated attempts to escape -this way, every failure of which he announced -by a significant growl, he yielded himself to -his hard necessity, and lay down on the ice -in angry and sullen silence.</p> - -<p>Accidents with bears occasionally occur; not -so many, however, as the ferocity of these -animals, and the temerity of the sailors, might -lead one to expect. Some of the early voyagers -to the Polar Seas had hard conflicts with them. -Barentz’s crew especially were often in danger -from them, but always succeeded either in -conquering or repelling them. Two, however, -of the crew of a vessel which had anchored -near Nova Zembla, landed on an island at -the mouth of the Weigats, and, impelled by -curiosity, wandered some distance from the -beach; but, whilst unconscious of danger, one -of them was suddenly seized on the back by -a bear, and brought to the earth. His companion -ran off, and gave the alarm, and a -party of his shipmates came to their assistance.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span> -The bear stood over its prey during -their approach without the least appearance -of fear and, on their attack, sprang upon -one of their number, and made him also a -victim to its ferocity and power. The rest -now fled in confusion, and could not be induced -to renew the conflict. Three sailors only -among the crew had sufficient courage to combat -with this formidable animal; they attacked -it, and, after a dangerous struggle, killed it, -and rescued the mangled bodies of their two -unfortunate shipmates.</p> - -<p>Captain Cook, of the Archangel, of Lynn, -being near the coast of Spitzbergen, in the -year 1788, landed, accompanied by his surgeon -and mate. While traversing the shore, -the captain was unexpectedly attacked by a -bear, which seized him in an instant between -its paws. At this awful juncture, when a -moment’s pause must have been fatal to him, -he called to his surgeon to fire; who, with -admirable resolution and steadiness, discharged -his piece as directed, and providentially shot -the bear through the head. The captain, by -this prompt assistance, was preserved from -being torn to pieces.</p> - -<p>On a more recent occasion, a commander -of a whale ship was in a similar danger. Captain -Hawkins, of the Everthorpe, of Hull, -when in Davis’s Strait, in July, 1818, seeing -a very large bear, took a boat, and pushed -off in pursuit of it. On reaching it, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span> -captain struck it twice with a lance in the -breast; and, while in the act of recovering -his weapon for another blow, the enraged -animal sprang up, and seized him by the -thigh, and threw him over its head into the -water. Fortunately it did not repeat its -attack, but exerted itself to escape. This exertion, -when the attention of every one was -directed towards their captain, was not made -in vain, for it was allowed to swim away -without further molestation.</p> - -<p>With regard to curious adventures, on one -occasion a bear, which was attacked by a boat’s -crew, made such formidable resistance, that it -was enabled to climb the side of the boat and -take possession of it, while the intimidated -crew fled for safety to the water, supporting -themselves by the gunwale and rings of the -boat, until, by the assistance of another party -from the ship it was shot, as it sat inoffensively -in the stern. With regard to narrow escapes, -a sailor, who was pursued on a field of ice by a -bear, when at a considerable distance from -assistance, preserved his life by throwing down -an article of clothing whenever the bear gained -upon him, on which it always suspended the -pursuit until it had examined it, and thus -gave him time to obtain some advance. In -this way, by means of a hat, a jacket, and -a neckerchief, successively cast down, the -progress of the bear was retarded, and the -sailor escaped from the danger that threatened<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span> -him, in the refuge afforded him by his -vessel.</p> - -<p>The rein-deer, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cervus tarandus</i>, deserves to -be mentioned amongst the quadrupeds of the -Arctic regions. I have never seen one myself, -though it is known to inhabit almost every part -of Spitzbergen.</p> - -<p>Our remarks must now be directed to the -<em>Birds</em> which frequent the sea and coast of -Spitzbergen.</p> - -<p>The brent goose and eider duck, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anas bernicla</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anas mollissima</i>, are found in these regions; -the former occurring in considerable numbers -near the coast of Greenland, but not in Spitzbergen, -and the latter frequenting all the -islands in the Greenland Sea. The puffin, or -Greenland parrot, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alca arctica</i>, feeding on -shrimps, is rarely seen out of sight of land, but -is very common near the coast of Spitzbergen. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alca alle</i>, also, the little auk or roach, is an -extremely numerous species in some situations -in the Polar Seas. They occur in the water -in thousands together, and sometimes in like -abundance on the pieces of ice. They dive -quickly on being alarmed, and on the approach -of thick weather they are particularly -noisy.</p> - -<p>The fulmar, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Procellaria glacialis</i>, is the -constant companion of the whale-fisher. It -joins his ship immediately on passing the Shetland -Islands, and accompanies it through the -trackless ocean to the highest accessible latitudes.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span> -It keeps an eager watch for anything -thrown overboard; the smallest particle of fatty -substance can scarcely escape it. As such, a -hook baited with a piece of fat meat or blubber, -and towed by a long twine over the ship’s -stern, is a means employed by the sailor-boys -for taking them. In the spring of the year, -before they have glutted themselves with the -fat of the whale, they are pretty good eating. -They are remarkably easy and swift on the -wing, and can fly to windward in the highest -storms. Though very few fulmars should be -seen when a whale is about being captured, -yet, as soon as the flensing commences, they -rush in from all quarters, and seize, with great -audacity, all the pieces of fat that come in their -way. They frequently glut themselves so completely -as to be unable to fly, in which case, -when not relieved by a quantity being disgorged, -they rest on the ice until restored by -digestion. The fulmar is a bold and very hardy -bird. Its feathers being thick, it is not easily -killed with a blow. Its bite, from the crookedness, -strength, and sharpness of its bill, is very -severe. Fulmars differ in colour; some are a -dirty grey, others much paler, and totally white -on the breast and belly. In size this bird is a -little smaller than a duck. Beneath its feathers -is a thick bed of fine grey down. When -carrion is scarce, the fulmar sometimes points -out the whale to the fisher by following in its -track. They cannot make much impression on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span> -the dead whale until some more powerful animal -tears away the skin.</p> - -<p>The tysté, or doveca, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Colymbus grylle</i>, is a -beautifully formed bird, occurring in considerable -numbers in icy situations, at various distances -from land. It is so watchful, and so -quick at diving, that, if fired at without precaution -to conceal the flash of the powder, it -generally escapes the shot. It feeds on shrimps -and small fishes. The common colour is black, -but the feet are all red.</p> - -<p>Almost equally common with the preceding is -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Colymbus troile</i>, a clumsy bird, weighing two -pounds or upwards, and measuring only sixteen -or seventeen inches in length, and twenty-eight -inches across the wings, when full spread, in -breadth. It cannot rise on the wing in any -direction except to windward. If it attempts to -fly to leeward, it runs for a considerable distance -along the surface of the water, and at -length falls into it. Both in this instance and -that of the doveca, shortness of tail is compensated -for by the feet, which are used as a -rudder in flying. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Colymbus glacialis</i> was -seen by captain Phipps on the coast of Spitzbergen.</p> - -<p>The sea-swallow, or great tern, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sterna -hirundo</i>, is an elegant bird, common on the -shore of Spitzbergen, but is not met with at -a distance from land. Its length is seven or -eight inches, and including the tail fourteen, -and the spread of its wings twenty-nine or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span> -thirty inches. It flies with great ease and -swiftness, and to a considerable height. It defends -its eggs and young with great boldness -from the Arctic gull, and even descends within -a yard of the head of any person who ventures -to molest them, startling him with its loud -screams. It lays its eggs among the shingle of -the beach above high-water mark, where the -full power of the sun falls.</p> - -<p>There are several varieties of the gull tribe. -The kittywake, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Larus rissa</i>, is seen in every -part of the northern Atlantic from Britain to -the highest latitudes. It is a better fisher than -its enemy, the Arctic gull, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Larus parasiticus</i>, -by whom it is pursued until it gives up the -food it has procured. The latter kind of gull -lives at the expense of its neighbours, preying -upon their eggs and their young. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Larus -crepidatus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Larus eburneus</i> are other varieties. -The latter, remarkable for its immaculate -whiteness, is as ravenous as the fulmar. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Larus -glaucus</i>, burgomaster, is the chief magistrate of -the feathered tribe in the Spitzbergen regions, -as none of its class dare dispute its authority, -or refuse at its bidding to surrender their prey. -It is a large and powerful bird, twenty-eight -inches in length, and five inches in breadth -across the wings. The kittywake, snow-bird, -and burgomaster, are sometimes shot for the -sake of their feathers. The two latter species -are very shy. They are shot with the greatest -ease, however, from a house built of snow on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span> -ice. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tringa hypoleucos</i>, sandpiper, and the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Emberiza nivalis</i>, snow-bunting, are inhabitants -also of these regions. A bird of great delicacy -and smallness is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fringilla linaria</i>, the lesser redpole. -On our approach to Spitzbergen, several -of this species alighted on the ship, and were, -apparently, so wearied by flight that they -allowed themselves to be taken alive. It is difficult -to understand how this small bird manages -to perform the journey from Spitzbergen to -a milder climate, without becoming exhausted -and perishing by the way.</p> - -<p>The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Amphibia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fishes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Animalcules</i>, etc., must -conclude our sketch of the zoology of the -Arctic regions.</p> - -<p>In the class <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Amphibia</i>, the most notable personage -is the Greenland shark, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Squalus borealis</i>. -It has not, I believe, been described. The -ventral fins are separate. It is without anal -fin, but has the temporal opening, and it belongs, -therefore, to the third division of the -genus. The spiracles on the neck are five in -number on each side. The colour is cinereous -grey. The eyes are the most extraordinary -part of the animal. The pupil is emerald green, -the rest of the eye blue. To the posterior edge -of the pupil is attached a white vermiform -substance, one or two inches in length. Each -extremity of it consists of two filaments, but -the central part is single. The sailors imagine -this shark is blind, because it pays not the least -attention to the presence of a man, and is,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span> -indeed, so apparently stupid, that it never -draws back when a blow is aimed at it with a -knife or a lance. It is twelve or fourteen feet -in length, and six or eight feet in circumference, -and in general form very much resembles -the dog-fish. It is one of the foes of the whale. -It bites and annoys it when living, and feeds -on it when dead. With its teeth, which are -serrated in one jaw, and lancet-shaped and -denticulated in the other, it scoops out of the -body of the whale pieces as large as a person’s -head, and continues scooping and gorging till -its belly is filled. It is so insensible to pain -that, though run through the body with a knife, -it will return to its food, and for some hours -after its heart is taken out, or its body cut in -pieces, they will continue to show signs of life. -It does not, so far as I am aware, attack the -fishers.</p> - -<p>In the class <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pisces</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gadus carbonarius</i>, the -coal-fish, was procured by captain Phipps, as -also of the former class, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cyclopterus liparis</i>, -during his stay in the vicinity of Spitzbergen. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mullus barbatus</i> was taken out of the mouth of a -seal by a seaman, near Spitzbergen. It was boiled -by our officers, and proved an excellent dish.</p> - -<p>In the class <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Articulata</i> are one or two species -of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gammarus</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">G. arcticus</i> of Leach, the -actions of which suggest as a familiar name, the -mountebank shrimp. There are also various -crabs, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Oniscus ceti</i> of <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Linnæus</span>, or -whale’s louse. This little animal is about half<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span> -an inch in diameter, and firmly fixes itself by -hooked claws on the skin of the mysticetus. -It is found under the fin, and wherever the -skin is tender, and it is not likely to be dislodged. -A similar animal, though smaller, is -found on the body of the narwal.</p> - -<p>In the class <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vermes</i> are several species found -in various animals inhabiting the northern -seas. The sea-snail, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Clio helicina</i>, is an animal -covered with a delicately beautiful sheet, similar -to that of the nautilus. The diameter is from -two-eighths to three-eighths of an inch. It is -found in great quantities near the coast of -Spitzbergen. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Clio borealis</i> occurs in vast -numbers in some situations near Spitzbergen, -but is not found generally in the Arctic Seas. -In swimming, it brings the tips of its fins almost -into contact, first oil one side and then on -another. I kept several of them alive in a glass -of sea-water for about, a month, when they -gradually wasted away and died.</p> - -<p>The cuttle-fish, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sepia</i>, were found by me -in large numbers in the stomachs of the -narwals.</p> - -<p>More than six or seven kinds of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Medusæ</i> may -be distinguished, among which may be named, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Medusa pileus</i>, and the purse-shaped, bottle-shaped, -and orange-coloured <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">medusæ</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Medusa -pileus</i> is one of the most curious of the tribe. -It consists of eight lobes, with a beautiful, -irridescent, finny fringe on the external edge of -each. A canal, four-fifths the length of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</span> -animal, penetrates the centre of it, and two red -cirrhi, which may be extended to the length of -nearly a foot, proceed from a crooked cavity in -opposite sides. The animal is semi-transparent, -the colour white, and the finny fringes of deeper -red. It is found of various sizes.</p> - -<p>The substance of the purse-shaped medusa -is tougher than that of any other species which -I have examined. It has one large open cavity, -and is divided by the finny fringes into eight -segments, each alternate pair of which are -similar. The colour is a pale crimson, with -waved purple lines, and the finny fringes -deeper crimson. The animal appeared to be -almost without sensation. The only evidence -it gave of feeling was in an increased vibration -of the finny fringes. Though it was cut into -pieces, each portion on which there was any of -the fringe continued, by its incessant play, to -give evidence of life during two or three days, -after which it became putrescent, and began to -waste away. I have only seen one specimen of -this and of the orange-coloured medusa. The -colour of the latter was a brilliant orange, and -it was not transparent. It was not tenacious of -life, having died, to appearance, soon after it -was taken.</p> - -<p>The Greenland Sea, frozen and extensive as -it is, teems with life. The variety of the -animal creation is not, indeed, very great, but -the quantity of some of the species that occur -is truly immense. The minute <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">medusæ</span> and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span> -animalcules, throughout the Spitzbergen Sea, -would exceed all the powers of the mind to -conceive. These little creatures constitute the -food of the largest animals in the creation. -The common whale feeds on <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">medusæ</span>, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sepiæ</span>, -<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cancri</span>, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">actiniæ</span>, etc., and these feed, probably, on -the minor <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">medusæ animalcules</span>. The fin-whales -and dolphins feed principally on herrings and -other small fishes. These subsist on the smaller -<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cancri</span>, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">medusæ</span>, and <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">animalcules</span>. The bear’s -most general food is the seal; the seal subsists -on the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cancri</span> and small fishes, and these on -lesser animals of the tribe, or on the minor -<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">medusæ</span> and <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">animalcules</span>. Thus the whole of -the larger animals depend on these minute -beings, which, until the year 1816, when I first -entered on the examination of the sea-water, -were not, I believe, known to exist in the Polar -Seas.</p> - -<p>The manner in which these minute animals -are preserved, in a sea which is surrounded -by an atmosphere ten or twelve degrees in -mean temperature below the freezing point -of salt water, is curious and interesting, and -illustrates the combined wisdom and goodness of -the Lawgiver of these icy regions, as well as of -the entire globe. If the water of the sea were -stationary, the temperature of the atmosphere -would soon freeze it to the very bottom, and -destroy all these minute animals, who have not -either instinct or power of motion to retire into -a more southern region. A current, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span> -is provided, setting towards the south-west, -which carries away the ice into a parallel -where it can be dissolved, and creates a circulation -of water into the frozen regions from a -warmer climate; while therefore the superficial -current is carrying away the ice, an under-current, -in a contrary direction, is bringing -in warmth beneath. But how, it may be asked, -does it happen that the minor <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">medusæ</span> are not -carried away into the southern region? It is -no violation of commonly received principles to -suppose, that whenever the <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">medusæ</span> are carried -to some extent southward, they sink in the -water until they reach the stream of the under-current, -and are by it conveyed to their proper -element. The fact that the olive-green water -of the sea maintains a similar position for years -together, while surface after surface of ice is -carried away and dissipated, is in support of -this conjecture. Thus, by a most beautiful -contrivance, a large portion of the surface of -the globe is rendered habitable, which would -otherwise be a solid mass of ice, and the -Polar Sea affords a dwelling-place for many -tribes of animals most useful in supplying -the wants, and contributing to the comfort, of -man.</p> - -<p>It is not only, therefore, in those regions -where</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - </div> - <div class="stanza center fs80"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Spices breathe and milder seasons smile,”</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="no-indent">but even in the laws of a less genial climate, -that we are called upon to observe His eternal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span> -power and godhead, who gives the bounties of -his providence to the just and the unjust, and -pleads with us, in the gospel of his Son, that -we should be reconciled to him. The mighty -whale, the ephemeral insect, and the minute -animalcule, all the productions of his power -and skill, have their wants supplied by his -laws, and are subject to his control. In these -he displays the strength of his arm, and the -adaptations of his wisdom, but in man, redeemed -and sanctified, “the exceeding riches of -his grace.” Happy, indeed, are we, if whilst, -with the ancient psalmist, we can proclaim that -the earth is full of the goodness of the Lord, -“who gathereth the waters of the sea together -as an heap,” and “layeth up the depth in store-houses,” -we can also, without presumption, -through our union with the great heir of all -things, the Lord Jesus, and by the merit of his -life and death, honestly declare all things are -ours, whether ... the world, or life, or death, -or things present, or things to come, all are -ours, and we are Christ’s, and Christ is God’s.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI"><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER VI.</a></h2> -</div> - -<p class="center fs80">EXPEDITIONS FOR FURTHER DISCOVERY.</p> - - -<p>Having now completed the account of the -Arctic Regions, as given by captain Scoresby, it -may be interesting to the reader to have a brief -statement of some of the principal expeditions -for further discovery down to the present time.</p> - -<p>In 1819, lieutenant Parry sailed with the -Hecla and Griper. The object of his expedition -was to examine the great and open bay, -known as sir J. Lancaster’s Sound; and, in -case of failure, the Sound of alderman Jones, -and that of sir T. Smith. On the 1st of -August, the ships entered the Sound of sir J. -Lancaster, and ran quickly up it, finding no -land across the bottom of the inlet, but arriving -at a strait, which they named Barrow’s Strait, -and a magnificent opening into which it led, -Wellington Channel. On the 4th of September, -the expedition crossed the meridian of 110° -west longitude, in latitude 74° 44′, becoming -entitled to a reward of £5,000. They anchored, -and put into winter-quarters at Melville -Island, losing sight of the sun from 11th -November till the 3rd of February, when it -became once more visible from the Hecla’s -main-top. With the greatest difficulty, they -managed to escape from the ice during the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</span> -months of August and September, arriving at -the Orkneys 28th October, 1820.</p> - -<p>The second voyage of Parry was with the -Fury and Hecla. His instructions were to -proceed towards, or into, Hudson’s Strait, to -penetrate to the westward through that strait, -until he should reach some portion of the coast -of the continent of America. The object was -to discover a way westward from the Atlantic -into the Pacific Ocean. The vessels left the -Nore 8th May, 1821, and arrived at Resolution -Island, at the entrance of Hudson’s Strait, on -2nd July, attempted the direct passage through -the Frozen Strait, and passed through it into -Repulse Bay. From it no passage was found -to the west, and the ships, after beating about -to no profit, were compelled to winter near -Lyon’s Inlet. Here the dreariness of the winter -was relieved by interviews with the inhabitants, -who were found to be intelligent and honest. -On 2nd July, the ships left their winter-quarters, -and, after being exposed to the most fearful -dangers, arrived at a strait, called by Parry, -the Strait of the Fury and Hecla, and believed -by him to be an opening into the Polar Sea. -The ships again went into winter-quarters, and -were frozen in until late in the following year, -but arrived at Lerwick on October 10th, 1823.</p> - -<p>The same ships, under the same commander, -sailed on a third expedition in May, 1824, -having for its object to penetrate through -Lancaster Sound, Barrow’s Strait, and Prince -Regent’s Inlet, to the westward. Through<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</span> -detention by the ice, they did not arrive at -Lancaster Sound till 10th September, and went -into winter-quarters on the 27th, in Prince -Regent’s Inlet, at Port Bowen. On the breaking -up of the ice, they explored, southerly, -close to the westward shore; but by the accidents -to which they were exposed, they were -compelled to abandon the Fury, with her -stores, and the Hecla only returned to England.</p> - -<p>In 1827, captain Parry proposed to reach -the North Pole by means of travelling with -sledge-boats over the ice. Two boats were -constructed for the purpose, the one to be commanded -by Parry, the other by lieutenant -Ross. They proceeded in the Hecla to Spitzbergen, -and there left the ship, starting in their -sledge-boats with seventy-one days’ provisions. -They travelled by night rather than by day; -found the ice very rough, and in some places -tender; and after experiencing great difficulties, -arrived only at latitude 82° 45′, and were compelled -to abandon the undertaking as hopeless.</p> - -<p>Captain John Franklin received instructions -to explore the northern coast of America, from -the mouth of Copper Mine River to the eastward. -He sailed on 22nd May, 1819, in a -ship of the Hudson’s Bay Company. They -arrived at York Factory, in Hudson’s Bay, on -30th August. Their route was to be by Cumberland -House, and through a chain of posts to -the Great Slave Lake. At Cumberland House, -it was arranged that Franklin and others -should proceed at once on to the Athobasca<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</span> -department, to the northward of the Great -Slave Lake, and that the rest of the party -should follow in the spring. The place of -meeting was Fort Chepewyan, eight hundred -and fifty-seven miles from Cumberland House; -and, by the 20th August, they had advanced -to Fort Enterprise, five hundred and fifty miles -from Chepewyan. Here they wintered, and -were exposed to awful hardships; but, on the -arrival of the spring, they prosecuted their -journey down the Copper Mine River, reaching -the Polar Sea on the 18th July. They then -navigated the coast to the eastward, in their -canoes, exploring Coronation Gulf. They attempted -to return by Hood’s River, and across -the land to Point Lake. After being exposed -to the most dreadful sufferings, they regained -their winter-stations, at Fort Enterprise, and -returned to England.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the perils and hardships -which had already befallen them, captain -Franklin and his companions, Dr. Richardson -and lieutenant Back, undertook a second expedition -over the same country, and left Liverpool -16th February, 1825, arriving at Fort -Chepewyan as early as 15th July. They then -descended Mackenzie River to the sea. Dividing -themselves into two parties, they explored -the coast east and west, and the expedition -returned home 24th September, 1827.</p> - -<p>Other voyages are those of Ross, of Back, first -and second, and of Dease and Simpson, two -officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company, who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</span> -surveyed, in 1839, the remainder of the western -coast which had been left by Franklin. Dr. -John Rae was dispatched by the Hudson’s Bay -Company in July, 1846, to survey the unexplored -portion of the Arctic coast at the north-eastern -angle of the American continent, and -returned successfully in October, 1847.</p> - -<p>An important expedition for discovery in the -North Polar regions, the termination of which -is yet awaited with serious anxiety, left England -under sir John Franklin in July, 1845. The -ships were victualled for only three full years, -which expired during the summer of this year. -Three expeditions have been sent in search of -the lost travellers. One departed early in -February, 1848, for Behring’s Strait; a second, -which sailed in the spring, under sir J. Ross, has -been heard of as having reached Disco Island -on the 2nd July; and a third, under sir John -Richardson, accompanied by Dr. Rae, left in -March to proceed overland, and arrived at Lake -Superior on 29th of April. A report has very -recently come in from the Esquimaux of their -having seen “two large boats, full of white men, -to the east of the Mackenzie river;” and sir -J. Ross has been spoken with by a whaler on -the east side of Baffin’s Bay, in latitude 74° 20′; -but no tidings to relieve the public anxiety -have been received to the close of 1848, concerning -the fate of sir J. Franklin and his -companions.</p> - - -<p class="center">THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY: INSTITUTED 1799</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="transnote"> -<p> -Transcriber’s Note<br> -<br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hyphenation has been retained as published in the original publication.</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pg <a href="#Page_57">57</a> Changed Magdalena Bay to Magdalen Bay</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pg <a href="#Page_76">76</a> Removed quote before: From this remarkable sea</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pg <a href="#Page_156">156</a> Changed of La Cèpede, to Cepède</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pg <a href="#Page_158">158</a> Changed according to Egède, to Egedé</span><br> -</p> -</div> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARCTIC REGIONS AND THE NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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