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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4ad999a --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #69959 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69959) diff --git a/old/69959-0.txt b/old/69959-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 0cf9bbd..0000000 --- a/old/69959-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6582 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Your vote and how to use it, by Mrs. -Raymond Brown - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Your vote and how to use it - -Author: Mrs. Raymond Brown - -Contributor: Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt - -Release Date: February 5, 2023 [eBook #69959] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Bob Taylor, Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK YOUR VOTE AND HOW TO USE -IT *** - - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - Italic text displayed as: _italic_ - Bold text displayed as: =bold= - - - - - YOUR VOTE - AND HOW TO USE IT - -[Illustration: decoration] - - - - - YOUR VOTE - - _and_ - - HOW TO USE IT - - BY - - MRS. RAYMOND BROWN - - _Chairman of Organization of the New York State - Woman Suffrage Party_ - - _With a Foreword by_ - - MRS. CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT - - _President of the National American - Woman Suffrage Association_ - - [Illustration: decoration] - - HARPER _&_ BROTHERS PUBLISHERS - - NEW YORK AND LONDON - - - - - YOUR VOTE AND HOW TO USE IT - - Copyright, 1918, by Harper & Brothers - Printed in the United States of America - Published February, 1918 - - - - - _To - the Many Good Citizens - who have helped and advised - in the preparation of this book - it is gratefully dedicated_ - - - - - THIS BOOK IS OFFICIALLY - ENDORSED BY THE NEW - YORK STATE WOMAN - SUFFRAGE PARTY - - - - - CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - FOREWORD xv - - PREFACE xvii - - - CHAPTER I. POLITICS AND WOMAN’S INTERESTS 1 - - The Duties of Government—The Relation of - Government to the Home—Duties and Obligations - of Citizenship. - - - CHAPTER II. TOWN AND COUNTY GOVERNMENT 8 - - The Town Meeting—Officials, Duties, the Kind - of Men Needed—When and How Elected—Political - Honesty—The Relation of Country to - City, State, and Nation. - - - CHAPTER III. THE INCORPORATED VILLAGE AND - CITY GOVERNMENT 24 - - Classes, Charters—Officials, Duties—When Elected—Wards - and Election Districts—Franchise - Rights—Commission Form of Government—City - Manager. - - - CHAPTER IV. GREATER NEW YORK 37 - - Mayor, Comptroller, President of the Board of - Aldermen, Presidents of the Boroughs—The - Board of Aldermen—The Board of Estimate and - Apportionment—Corporation Counsel—City - Chamberlain—Taxes and Assessments—Board - of Education—Board of Elections—Local Improvement - Boards—County Government—Courts—Charities—Civil - Service—The Budget. - - - CHAPTER V. STATE GOVERNMENT 50 - - The Constitution, Constitutional Amendments—The - Legislature, Senate and Assembly—How to - Get a Law Passed—The Governor and Other - Officials—Appointive Offices—Public Service, - Health, Excise, Conservation, Civil Service, and - Other Commissions—State Employees. - - - CHAPTER VI. NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 62 - - The National Constitution—Congress, Its Powers—How - Constituted—Sessions of Congress—Congressional - Committees—The President, How - Elected, His Powers—The Cabinet—Centralized - Government. - - - CHAPTER VII. WHO CAN VOTE 72 - - Citizens—Aliens—How an Alien May Become a - Citizen—Naturalization Laws—A Married Woman, - an Unmarried Woman—Qualifications for - Voting—Who May Not Vote—The 14th and 15th - Amendments—The Woman Suffrage Amendment. - - - CHAPTER VIII. POLITICAL PARTIES 80 - - Republican, Democratic, Progressive, Prohibition, - and Socialist Platforms—Party Organization, - National, State, County, and City Committees, - Election District Captains—Party - Funds—The Use and Abuse of Party—The Independent - Vote. - - - CHAPTER IX. HOW CANDIDATES ARE NOMINATED 91 - - President and Vice-President—Enrolment of - Voters—Direct Primaries—Objections to Direct - Primaries—Nomination by Party Convention—Objections - to the Party Convention—Importance - of the Primary—Nomination by Petition. - - - CHAPTER X. ELECTIONS 98 - - Registration of Voters—Time of Elections—Election - Officials—How to Mark the Ballot—How - Ballots Are Counted—The Australian Ballot—The - Short Ballot—Corrupt Practices Act—Voting-machines—School-houses - for Polling-places—Cost of Elections. - - - CHAPTER XI. TAXATION 108 - - Direct and Indirect—Village and School Taxes—Town, - County, City, and State Taxes—Tax - Districts—How Taxes Are Assessed—County - Board of Equalization—The Collection of Taxes—State - Taxes: Corporation Tax, Inheritance - Tax, Other State Taxes—State Board of Equalization—Federal - Taxes: Custom Duties, Internal - Revenue and Excise Taxes, the Income Tax—Public - Debt, Bonds—Sinking Funds—The - Budget—The Pork-barrel. - - - CHAPTER XII. PUBLIC HIGHWAYS 121 - - State Roads, Their Cost and Maintenance—Town - and County Highways—Bond Issues—City - Streets—Street Cleaning—Parks—City - Planning—The Value of Beauty. - - - CHAPTER XIII. COURTS 130 - - Criminal and Civil Cases—Justices’ Courts—Police - and Magistrates’ Courts—County Courts—Surrogates’ - Courts—Court of Claims—Supreme - Courts, Appellate Divisions—Court of - Appeals—Courts of Record—Federal Courts: - United States District Courts, United States - Court of Claims, United States Circuit Court - of Appeals, United States Supreme Court—Constitutionality - of Laws—Injunctions. - - - CHAPTER XIV. THE PUNISHMENT OF CRIME 141 - - The Grand Jury—Trial by Jury—Jury Service—Women - Jurors—The Police—Prison Reform:—The - Indeterminate Sentence, Probation—Jails - and Prisons—City Farms—The Prevention - of Crime. - - - CHAPTER XV. WOMEN OFFENDERS AND THE LAW 150 - - Drunkenness—Prostitution—Night Courts—Fines—Delinquent - Girls—Girl Victims—Houses - of Detention—Women Judges—Policewomen. - - - CHAPTER XVI. PUBLIC EDUCATION 161 - - The School District—The Township Board of - Education—The Annual School Meeting—The - School Budget—The Supervisory District—The - District Superintendent—The Union - Free School District—Physical Training—School - Money—Normal Schools—University of - the State of New York—Board of Regents—National - Commissioner of Education—Agricultural - Colleges—Farmers’ Institutes—Vocational - Training—State Scholarships—Domestic Training—Schools - as Community Centers—Health—Co-operation. - - - CHAPTER XVII. HEALTH AND RECREATION 174 - - Housing—Tenement House Inspection—Dance-halls—Playgrounds—Vacation - Schools—Recreation - Centers—Municipal Dance-halls—Municipal - Bathing Beaches—The Movies—Causes of - Juvenile Crime—Rural Needs. - - - CHAPTER XVIII. THE CARE OF DEPENDENT AND - DELINQUENT CHILDREN 185 - - By County, City, and State—Institutional - versus Family Care—Lack of Definite Authority—Boarding - Out—Boards of Child Welfare—Widowed - Mothers’ Pensions—The Delinquent - Child—Children’s Courts—Feeble-minded Children. - - - CHAPTER XIX. CHILD WAGE-EARNERS 197 - - The Federal Child Labor Law—New York - State Child Labor Laws—Child Workers and - Delinquency—Street Trades—Night-messenger - Service—Rural Child Workers—War and Children. - - - CHAPTER XX. PUBLIC CHARITIES 209 - - State and Private Control of Charitable Institutions—State - Board of Charities, Duties, - Powers—Proposed Changes in the Reorganization - of the Board—County and City Institutions—Department - of State and Alien Poor—Local - Boards of Managers—State Department - of Inspection—Provision for the Feeble-minded—Recommendations - of the State Board—State - Commission in Lunacy—State Prison - Commission. - - - CHAPTER XXI. THE PROTECTION OF WORKING-WOMEN 221 - - Conditions Before the War—Number of Women - Wage-earners—Clothing Manufacturers, Laundries, - Restaurant Workers, Textile Operators—War - and Woman’s Work—The Eight-hour Day, - New Occupations, Messenger Service, Wages—Minimum - Wage—Protection Needed. - - - CHAPTER XXII. AMERICANIZATION 232 - - The Need of a United Country—The Immigrant - a National Asset—Housing Conditions—A - Common Language—Night Schools—Neighborhood - Classes for Women—Home Teaching - of Women—Naturalization—Uniform Laws for - Naturalization—Ignorance of Laws—The Study - of Citizenship. - - - CHAPTER XXIII. PATRIOTISM AND CITIZENSHIP 243 - - - APPENDIX 253 - - Some Definitions: Habeas Corpus—The Initiative - and Referendum—The Recall—Injunction - and Abatement Act—The Tin Plate Ordinance—Prohibition, - High License, Local Option, the - Guttenburg Method of Controlling the Liquor - Traffic—The Single Tax—The House of Governors—Proportional - Representation—Workmen’s - Compensation Laws. - - - CHART OF OFFICIALS FOR WHOM YOU CAN VOTE 261 - - When Elections Are Held. - - - - -FOREWORD - - -It is one thing for women to win the vote and a totally different one -for them to know how to use that vote so that it will count to the -greatest good of the state. The keynote of woman’s long struggle for -the ballot has been her ardent desire for service. Now that she has -been given the vote, she is eager to learn how she can best render -that service. - -Citizenship has been very lightly regarded by our country in the -past. It has been given to the immigrant without any ceremony, in the -midst of the sordid surroundings of a local court-room; it has come -to the boy of twenty-one without any special preparation on his part; -it has often been bought and sold. It remains now for women to treat -it with a new dignity and to give it the importance it deserves. - -Civics should be taught in every school in the land. The ballot -should be regarded as a sacred trust. Every man and woman who grows -up under the protection of our flag should feel the obligation to -give of his and her best to make our democracy a better expression of -our ideals. - -I hope that this book will help to start some new citizens in the -right way. - - CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT. - - - - -PREFACE - - -There never seems to be just the right book on a topic that one has -very much at heart. - -When the vote for New York women was an accomplished fact there came -a sudden and pressing need for a book on government that would give -the busy housewife or the overworked woman in the factory the simple -outline of her government and the officials for whom she was going -to vote, with the duties and requirements of their positions; but -that was not all. There are certain problems of government to-day -and certain departments of politics which have to do with things -which are of special interest to women. The protection and care of -human life has always been woman’s great business in life. So a book -on civics for women must include an outline of what the state is -doing for its children, for its poor, for working-women, for public -health and recreation; in short, for the same things in government -with which she is concerned in her individual capacity as a woman. -These are also the departments of government which seem to need her -attention the most. It is natural that men should have given the -greater care in government to business and material affairs. To -counterbalance this, woman’s work and votes are needed for the human -side. - -To be an intelligent voter some knowledge of the structure of -government is needed. Also one must know the duties of an office -in order to judge of the qualifications of would-be candidates, so -Chapters II to VII give an outline of the different divisions of -government, beginning with the local offices, for which women will -cast their first votes, and going through the State to the National -Government. Chapters VII to X, inclusive, deal with the actual -casting of the ballot in the elections, the organization of political -parties, and the management of elections. The major part of the book -is then given to those departments of political affairs in which -women are undoubtedly most deeply concerned. - -The substance of some of these chapters has been used as a -correspondence course in citizenship by the New York State Woman -Suffrage Party, and is published by special arrangement with them. -Through four years of continuous intensive educational work in the -State the Woman Suffrage Party has come closely in touch with many -thousands of women; it has learned to know their idealism, their -fervent belief in democracy, and their desire to make democracy more -effective. It knows also that there are many other women who have -never thought about voting, but who are equally conscientious and are -now eager to learn. It knows the problems of women as does probably -no other organization of women. - -It also has a deep feeling of responsibility. It feels its obligation -to furnish all the help possible to the new women voters to meet -their new duties wisely. It hopes to bring home to women the human -side of government, to arouse a desire for further study, and -especially to encourage them to regard their vote as a trust to be -used not to advance partisan politics, but to further human welfare. - -This is a book for amateur citizens written by an amateur citizen. -It may be found to differ from the others in that it deals with the -subject of civics from the standpoint of the woman voter. - - GERTRUDE FOSTER BROWN. - - - - -=YOUR VOTE AND HOW TO USE IT= - - - - -YOUR VOTE AND HOW TO USE IT - - - - -I - -POLITICS AND WOMAN’S INTERESTS - - -The average woman has never thought of politics as having an intimate -relation to her daily life. She has not realized that government has -a direct effect on the comfort and happiness of the family in the -home, on the successful upbringing of children, and on the health and -safety of men and women workers. - -She has known vaguely that government controls the fundamental -question of war or peace; that it has to do with taxation; that it -handles the mail, but that it also plays a large part in domestic and -social life is a fact that she has only recently been learning. - -With the rapid extension of the vote to women, especially the recent -granting of suffrage to the women of New York State, there is a new -and wide-spread interest in how government works, and a realization -of the importance of good government and the dire peril of bad -government. Women are conscientious; they are accepting their new -responsibilities with much seriousness. They are eager to learn how -to be good citizens. The war also has made everybody think. It has -made government seem a more personal affair. - - -WHAT IS GOVERNMENT? - -=Government is the management of those common affairs of a people -which can be handled in a more effective and more economical way by a -community acting together than by each individual acting for himself.= - -In a sparsely settled community government is less apparent than in -a city. Its functions are simple. Sometimes it does not seem very -important. But as people congregate closer together it becomes more -complicated and comes in closer and closer touch with the individual -and family life. - -For example, a man living in the country may rely on himself to -protect his home and property; but in the city life and property are -better protected by a police force than if each individual citizen -had to provide his own protection. A woman in a pioneer country may -bring up her child as she pleases. She may teach him when and how she -chooses. But as population increases and government is established, -a large part of the child’s training is dictated by it. He must go -to school at a certain age; he must stay there so many hours a day; -he must study certain things in a certain way. He cannot be put to -work until he has reached a certain age. If he contracts a contagious -disease the city takes control of the case. - -Directly and indirectly the government in a city affects a woman’s -life and interests in innumerable ways. - -She is dependent on it for the light and sunshine that comes into her -home. Laws concerning housing and building and tenement departments -of government are very important to the health, comfort, and even -decency of the family. She is dependent on government for the safety -of the milk she has to feed her baby. The health of the family -depends as much on the city department of health as on the mother’s -care. It is of the utmost importance to the city mother that the -streets be kept clean, because they are usually the only place that -her children have in which to play. The street cleaning department, -therefore, touches her closely. It is of vital moment to her that the -streets be kept free of criminal influence, therefore the management -of the police department is of great importance to her. If the town -is run “wide open” it may mean that her husband’s wages may be -dissipated. The way in which the excise law and the laws against -gambling are enforced is a matter which deeply concerns her. - -If she lives in the country the relation of government to her life -is not so varied, but she is still dependent on it for the education -of her child, for the socializing influences of the community, and -for much of the business prosperity of the farm. Are telephone -connections cheap, are the roads passable at all seasons, are good -market facilities provided? These are all questions that greatly -affect her welfare, and they depend largely on the government. - -=It is the business of government to maintain peace and to provide -for the common defense.= - -This is a function of government so fundamental as to need little -comment. It is the first essential to the safe existence of the home. - -=It is the business of government to assure justice and equality of -treatment to all citizens.= - -This becomes more difficult as population increases and life grows -more complicated. Nearly every human being to-day is dependent on -the work of other people for most of the necessities, as well as the -comforts and conveniences, of life. The food that we eat, the cotton -and wool in the garments we wear, the coal that heats our houses, we -owe to the toil of other people who in return may be dependent on us -for something that they use. It is a matter that concerns every one -of us that in producing these things that we use human life shall be -safeguarded, that living wages shall be paid, and that standards of -civilization shall be maintained and advanced. - -As individuals we cannot control conditions even for ourselves, -as individuals we cannot control them for other people; but all -of us working together in government can secure these fundamental -necessities for every one of us. - -Since government in a democracy is made by the people themselves, it -is a responsibility that every one should share to help secure these -common needs. - -=It is also a function of modern government to raise the standard of -health, education, and living.= - -Plato said, “Only that state is healthy and can thrive which -unceasingly endeavors to improve the individuals who constitute it.” - -Society must be protected from vicious and destructive influence; -the intelligence and knowledge of all the people are needed for the -common good. - -As human beings have become dependent on one another, the well-being -or the degradation of one individual or family does not stop there. -It strongly influences the welfare of other individuals and families. -For their own protection people have not only the right, but the -obligation to make a government that shall foster and advance the -common welfare. - -_The basis of good government is the golden rule._ To help secure -for others the protection that you demand for yourself is part of -the obligation of good citizenship. The honesty and efficiency of -government in a republic like the United States depend on the voters; -on their sense of responsibility, and on the intelligence with -which they use their power. The feeling of responsibility of each -individual, for the public welfare, cannot be too highly developed. - -Democracy can only be a success in the degree that the people who -make that democracy are determined that it shall deal with justice, -and that it shall offer opportunity to every one within its borders. -They must also be vigilant to see that it shall deal wisely with -their common problems as they develop. - -To be a citizen of such a democracy and to have the power to help it -grow along these lines, to be able to serve one’s country loyally in -the full efficiency of citizenship, are great privileges. - - - - -II - -TOWN AND COUNTY GOVERNMENT - - -=The United States is both a Democracy and a Republic.= - -=A Democracy= means, literally, a government by the people. - -=A Republic= is a democracy in which the people elect representatives -to carry on the government for them. - -The United States is a federation of forty-eight States. For -convenience of government each State is subdivided into smaller units. - -In every political division of the State there are three distinct -departments: - -=The Legislative=, the part that makes the law. - -=The Administrative=, the part that administers the law. - -=The Judicial=, the part that interprets the law. - -Even in a sparsely settled community people have certain interests in -common. Roads have to be made, schools established, the poor cared -for, and taxes levied. Who does these things? If a cow breaks into a -neighbor’s cornfield, or if there is an epidemic, whose business is -it to look after it? - - -THE TOWN GOVERNMENT - -With the exception of the school district, which has to do only with -the public schools, the town[1] or township is the smallest division -of the State for purposes of government. The government of the town -is the nearest approach we have to a direct government by the people -themselves. - -=The Town Meeting= brings people together to discuss their local -affairs, to elect officers, and to appropriate the money necessary to -carry out their plans. It is held in New York State every other year, -some time between February 1st and May 1st. - -The business of the town meeting includes the disposal of town -property, the care of bridges and roads, the care of the poor, the -number of constables, matters concerning public health, and the care -of stray animals. - -Any citizen has a right to bring up any suggestion he pleases for -the people to consider and debate in open meeting, and then to take -whatever action they choose. In a matter of taxation or incurring a -town debt, only taxpaying citizens can vote. - -Where it exists at its best, the town meeting has an admirable -effect in stimulating interest in local affairs and in developing -public spirit. A special town meeting can be called by a petition of -twenty-five taxpayers, or at the request of certain officials. - -The town meeting is a form of government particularly adapted to a -small community. With the increase in population it has been given up -in many counties, and the election of town officers now usually takes -place at the regular fall election. - -=Town Officers=: =The Supervisor= is the chief executive officer of -the town, and is elected for two years. He receives and pays out all -money except that raised for public roads and the care of the town -poor. If the town roads are in bad condition or if the poor are not -properly cared for, he is responsible. The honesty and efficiency of -the administration of town affairs are in his hands. He represents -the town on the county board of supervisors. - -=The Town Board= consists of the supervisor, town clerk, and at -least two justices of the peace. It meets regularly twice a year. -It is the business of the board to receive the accounts of the town -officers and examine them, to hear and decide claims against the -town. An appeal may be taken from their decision to the county board -of supervisors. They may also frame propositions to be submitted to -the voters, and may borrow money to meet appropriations made at the -town meeting. They may appoint a physician to aid as health officer -for the town. - -=The Town Clerk= is the general secretary and bookkeeper for the -town. He records births, marriages, and deaths, chattel mortgages -and property notes. He keeps the records of the town meetings. He -posts election notices. He issues marriage licenses, permissions for -burial, hunting licenses, etc. - -=The Superintendent of Roads= has charge of building and maintaining -the town highways, bridges, and culverts outside of the incorporated -villages. He is paid by the day, and may hire machines and horses or -purchase tools and material for road making. The opportunities for -dishonest money in this office have sometimes made it sought after. A -contract may contain a “rake-off,” bills may be padded, and materials -accepted which are different from specifications. - -=Three Assessors and a Collector=: The assessors determine the value -of taxable property in the town, and divide the amount of taxes to -be raised among the owners of the property. If a property-owner is -dissatisfied with his assessment he may appear in August before the -assessors and “swear off” what he considers an exorbitant amount. -Assessment rolls are made out, and it is the duty of the collector -to collect the money. Town collectors are paid 1 per cent. on taxes -collected within thirty days after due, with increasing fees for -collecting taxes after that time. This is an encouragement to the -collector to be dilatory in his collections, and is a disadvantage to -the town. It has been suggested that penalties for delinquent taxes -should go to the town and not to the collector. - -=The Town Constables= have the duty of keeping the peace and carrying -out the orders of the justice of the peace. They may arrest people -accused or suspected of crime. There may not be more than five in a -town. - -=The Overseers of the Poor= are charged with the duty of looking -after persons who are destitute and have no relative to support them. -They may assist such persons in their own homes or send them to the -county poorhouse. This office often conflicts with that of county -superintendent of the poor, and it has been recommended that it be -abolished. - -=The Justice of the Peace= is the judicial officer of the town. Each -town has four such officers, each elected for four years. The justice -of the peace may hear civil cases where the sum involved is not over -two hundred dollars. He may try petty offenses of all kinds, breaches -of the peace, drunkenness, and petty larceny. He may issue warrants -and may hold persons suspected of serious crime to await action by -the grand jury. - -=Terms of Town Officials=: Each official is elected for two years, -except the justices of the peace and sometimes one or two assessors, -who are elected for four years. - -=Pay of Town Officials=: Most of these officers are paid from two -to four dollars for every day of actual service. The town clerk, -justices of the peace, and constables are paid certain fees. - - -THE COUNTY - -The county comprises a number of townships. It is a political -division created by the State to administer certain local affairs, to -act as agent for the State, to collect State taxes, and to enforce -State law. The county owns the court-house and jail; it can sue or be -sued. - -In most of New York State the county has become more important -in administering local affairs than the town. New York State has -sixty-two counties, of which five are in Greater New York. They vary -in size from Richmond County (Staten Island), which has only 59 -square miles, to St. Lawrence County, which has 2,880 square miles. -They vary also in population from Hamilton County, with 2,000 people, -to New York County with two million. - -=Elected Officials=: =The Board of Supervisors= is the legislative -body of the county. This board is composed of the supervisors elected -by each township, and also one member from each ward of a city in the -county. They elect their own chairman. - -The board of supervisors have the custody and control of the -court-house, jail, poorhouse, and all county property; they receive -and decide claims against the county; they direct the raising of -money by taxation to meet the expenses of the county and the county’s -share in State taxes; they fix salaries for county officials; borrow -money for county needs; they regulate laws for the protection of -fish and game; they open county highways, erect bridges, and may -provide hospitals for tuberculosis. They also act as a board of -canvassers to canvass the returns after an election. - -=The Sheriff=, the executive officer of the county, is elected to -enforce the law. On him rests the security of life and property. He -must preserve the peace, arrest offenders against the law, and hold -them in custody. He must not allow fear or sympathy to interfere -with his enforcement of the law. He summons jurors and witnesses for -county lawsuits and executes the orders of the court. Until recently -the fees which he received made the sheriff’s office one much sought -after. These now go to the treasurer in many counties, and the -sheriff is paid a salary. He cannot serve two consecutive terms. He -may appoint an under-sheriff and deputy sheriffs. - -=The District Attorney= is the public prosecutor for the county, and -brings suit “in the name of the people of the State.” He is also -the legal adviser for county affairs. It is his business to protect -the public against crime of all kinds. If corruption exists in any -department, it is his duty to bring it to light. The good order of -the community and the efficiency of government in the county depend -much on him. He determines what cases shall come before the grand -jury. - -=The County Clerk= keeps all the important records for the county, -including deeds, mortgages, and maps, and makes out the election -certificates. Public documents must always be open for public -inspection. In some counties there is a recorder of deeds. The clerk -also acts as clerk of the county court. His office has an income -from fees which used to go to the clerk and made this office very -lucrative. In most counties the fees now go to the county treasurer, -and the clerk is paid a salary. - -=The County Treasurer= receives and disburses all public moneys for -the county. He receives money from the town supervisor, collected -for county and State taxes, the latter of which he pays to the State -treasurer. He receives from the State money for the public schools, -which he in turn passes on to the towns. He must give a bond for the -safe-keeping of these public funds. He also chooses the bank in which -public funds are kept, and ought to give a careful accounting of the -interest which must go into the county treasury. - -=The Superintendent of the Poor= disburses the money raised to -care for the poor of the county. The superintendents of all the -public charities in the county make their reports to him, and he is -responsible for them to the board of supervisors. He also makes an -annual report to the State Board of Charities. - -=Coroners=: From one to four coroners may be elected in each county, -except those in Greater New York. Their duty is to investigate sudden -and suspicious deaths, and sometimes the cause of a suspicious fire. -They are often practising physicians or they may employ physicians to -conduct inquests or autopsies. - -=The County Superintendent of Highways= is appointed by the board of -supervisors for four years. - -=The County Judge= presides over the county court. His salary -varies and is fixed by State law, although paid by the county. This -office should be most carefully filled. The county judge is not -only important because of his decisions, but he is one of the most -powerful men politically in the county. Only a man of strict probity -should be elected to this office. - -=The Surrogate= administers estates of persons deceased, controls the -probate of wills, and appoints guardians for the property of minors. -His term is six years. In counties with small populations the county -judge acts as surrogate. - -The term of office for county officials is three years, except that -of the supervisors elected by the towns for two years, and the judges -elected for six years. - -=Political Honesty=: The question is often asked, are these -local offices honestly managed? Are there possible loopholes for -corruption? The following answer to these questions was given -recently by one in a position to know: - -“The impelling motive of most politicians is the enjoyment of a -sense of power and influence. The day laborer who loafs through his -political job and the salaried higher officer who neglects his work -and engages in private business are examples of the most usual and -formidable class of political grafters. The heads of departments and -higher elected officers are apt to do their work as well as they -can, in order to qualify themselves for re-election. The days when a -man could dishonestly make a fortune in one political term are past -in this country, and waste, favoritism, and stupidity are the only -dangerous elements which we must look for. - -“The greatest waste in expenditure of moneys by boards of supervisors -is usually on county roads and highways, where in some years -hundreds of thousands of dollars are lost by unscientific building -and upkeep. This also is an easy way for a dishonest supervisor to -reward political supporters by paying them for work on the road which -they do not do. The same things obtain in the matter of purchase of -supplies and the county printing. The cure for this is to have all -expenditures beyond a nominal amount made on public bids. - -“Another opportunity of abuse is the payment of supervisors in fees. -Many counties still adhere to the old rule of fees: $4 per day for -attending board meetings; 8 cents per mile for going and returning; -$4 per day while actually engaged in any investigation or any other -lawful duty. For copying the assessment roll and extending taxes on -the tax roll supervisors receive commissions which, in some counties, -run into thousands of dollars. The remedy for the numberless evils -which accompany the fee system is to put the supervisors on a salary -basis. - -“The sheriff has charge of the prisoners in the jail. Therein lies -his opportunity for dishonesty and extortion. Sheriffs should -receive salaries and not fees, and every county should have a -well-organized board of women visitors to inspect the jails and -lockups at least every two weeks. - -“The district attorney has an opportunity for dishonesty in the -expenditure of the contingent fund, which is always provided for -him, and which he can pay out with little or no check. Fortunately, -however, most men elected to the office of district attorney are of -high enough caliber to make the percentage of dishonesty almost _nil_. - -“If the county clerk is paid by fees it is difficult to expect an -absolute, ethical fulfilment of his duty, and probable that he will -be working for himself rather than the county. - -“The duties of the county superintendent of the poor are in continual -conflict with those of the overseers of the poor. The opportunity to -waste and misappropriate county funds without detection is not as -great as it used to be, because of the close supervision of the State -Board of Charities; but the county superintendent has wide discretion -in giving alms and caring for the county poor, and the office is, -therefore, usually sought by a minor political leader, who, by virtue -of his office, can provide for his dependent supporters, which he -usually does in the sincere belief that he is properly dispensing -charity. In no case, however, is any great amount wasted, and on the -whole the work is fairly well done. - -“Justices of the peace and constables and town clerks usually receive -fees. They should be put on a salary basis. - -“Overseers of the poor have opportunities for fees and -misappropriation of small amounts because they are allowed liberal -discretion in selecting objects of the town’s bounty. The office -should be wiped out, the distinction between town and county -poor abolished; all the work should be done through the county -superintendent of the poor, who should be responsible to the State -Board of Charities.” - -=The Relation of Country to City, State, and Nation=: While the -problems of government in rural districts are simple and few, the -close relations of city and country have made the wise management -of country affairs of great importance to those who live in cities. -On the other hand, the handling of the more complex and difficult -city problems are of equally grave importance to country dwellers. -Comfortable, prosperous life in a rural community is dependent not -only on local conditions, but also on State and National government. - -Good roads are equally important to city and country, and they -depend largely on the State. The kind of education that the village -or country school gives will determine the intelligence and earning -capacity of many of the coming generations of city dwellers, and this -instruction is determined both by the State and by the local school -boards. - -Low telephone rates and good interurban car lines will put the woman -on the farm in close touch with her neighbors, and so will stimulate -her interest in outside affairs. Healthy community life and rural -amusements will keep the young people content at home and help -prevent the drift toward the city. The farmer’s produce is handled -by city shops and markets, and the manufactured articles of city -factories go into the homes of every rural district. - -Not only are city and country dependent on each other, but also one -part of the country is dependent on some other part, far distant, for -some of the necessities of life. Our cotton comes from the South, -wheat comes from the West, sugar may come from Colorado or Cuba. -The whole country is linked together in trade relationship, and -freight rates and interstate commerce are controlled by the Federal -government. - -The good citizen, then, has a vital interest not only in his -supervisor and local affairs, but in both State and National -government. When he realizes that the size of his income, the comfort -of his family life, the welfare of his children, and their getting on -in life, depend to an appreciable degree on government, he and she -will begin to take a livelier interest in politics. The discussion -of these affairs in the home will serve to stimulate the interest of -the entire family in what is, after all, an important part of their -business. - -A small community has one problem all its own. If there is some -offense against the public welfare, no one wants to complain. It -may be something merely disagreeable, or it may be a serious menace -to public health; but every one is slow to make a fuss about it -because he cannot hide his identity, and he is afraid he might become -unpopular. This fear is usually groundless because it is likely that -most of his neighbors agree with him in wanting to have the condition -changed. A country community needs fearless, public-spirited -citizens. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] The word town as used in New York does not mean a village or -city, but a political division. - - - - -III - -THE INCORPORATED VILLAGE AND CITY GOVERNMENT - - -As population grows government needs increase. When people establish -their homes close together and form a populous community within -a limited area, it becomes necessary to have streets opened up, -sidewalks made, the streets lighted, protection from fire, and other -things that the township does not provide. - -A territory of not over one square mile, having a population of -at least two hundred people, may be incorporated as a village. -On a petition of the taxpayers they may vote on the proposition, -whether or not they shall become an incorporated village, and have a -government of their own distinct from that of the town. Even if they -incorporate they still remain a part of the town, and take the same -part in town government as before. - -=There Are Four Classes of Villages=: First class, those with a -population of 5,000 or over; second class, with a population between -3,000 and 5,000; third class, with a population of between 1,000 and -3,000; fourth class, with a population of less than 1,000. In many -Western States a village of one or two thousand inhabitants usually -becomes a city. In New York State there are villages of more than -15,000 population. - -=The Village President=, who serves one year, is the chief executive, -and serves without pay. He is the head of the village board of -trustees, and in small villages is the head of the police. Local -order, peace, health, and sanitation depend on him. - -=The Board of Trustees= consists of from two to four men in villages -of the third and fourth class; from two to six men in villages of -the second class, and from two to eight men in villages of the first -class, elected for two years, half of them elected each year. They -serve without pay. They make ordinances for the government of the -village and administer its affairs. They decide where sidewalks -shall be built, whether streets shall be paved, how garbage shall -be handled; they provide light and a water-supply; they provide for -the raising of money by taxes; if a sewerage system is needed it -must be done under the supervision of the State Board of Health. -Propositions relating to the large expenditure of funds must be -submitted to the taxpayers. - -Questions of police, water-supply, fire protection, lights, sewers, -are sometimes handled by the board of trustees, or if the village -is large enough there may be separate boards or commissioners -established for some of these things. - -A Fire Department, with fire house, hose and wagon, exists in most -villages, voluntary in small places, and a paid force in the larger -villages. The fire company is a popular department of public service, -because of the social pleasure involved and because firemen are -exempt from jury duty. - -=A Treasurer, Assessors, a Collector, and a Village Clerk=, -are usually elected and sometimes =a Street Commissioner=. Not -infrequently the latter office is considered a sinecure, and streets -littered with waste paper and other refuse are common in the average -village. The commissioner should be held up to his duty by all the -voters. - -=A Board of Health= of from three to seven members must be appointed -by the trustees to work in connection with the State Board of Health. -This board elects a health officer, who must be a physician. The -business of the board is to watch over drains, cesspools, to prevent -nuisances and contagion from disease. Health officers should be -vigilant and morally courageous, otherwise the community will pay in -illness. - -=A Police Justice=, elected for four years, handles cases involving -violations of village ordinances. The board of trustees may appoint a -village attorney to represent them in case of lawsuits. - -=The Annual Village Election= usually takes place the third Tuesday -in March. A special village election, similar to a town meeting, may -be called for taxpaying citizens to vote on special questions, such -as the removal of garbage at public expense, or the purchase of water -or lighting plants. - -A water-supply is usually furnished by a village of any size. An -abundant supply is necessary, not only for homes, but for fire -protection and for any sewerage system. New York villages and cities -are very well lighted. Whether there should be public or private -ownership of public utilities is a question which is much discussed. -While the water-supply is usually owned by the municipality, the -lighting system more often belongs to a private company. - -Sewage disposal is a matter which has to be taken up sooner or later -by a village as it grows in population. For too long our villages -have polluted the convenient stream. They have been slow to study the -question, and to dispose of sewage and garbage in a way that is both -satisfactory and economical. Foreign cities often make a profit out -of the disposal of their refuse, whereas it usually costs us money. -These questions need more intelligent consideration than is usually -given them. - - * * * * * - -As a community grows larger it outgrows the simple form of village -government and needs one more adapted to its complex and growing -needs. - -The growth of cities in the past hundred years is phenomenal. In -1820, 83 per cent. of the people of the United States lived on farms; -in 1910 only 32 per cent. The problems that a city government has to -meet are many and difficult, especially in the cities of New York -State, where a large proportion of the people are foreign-born, and -where there is often a large floating population without civic pride -or interest. In smaller communities, where every one is known, the -fear of public opinion acts as a restraining influence which is not -felt in a city where the individual identity is often submerged. - -=A CITY GOVERNMENT= works under a charter granted by the State, which -limits its powers. These charters used to be made out separately for -each city, and the legislature interfered with the management of the -local affairs of a city in a way that caused a demand for “Home rule” -for cities. This has been partially granted, and cities in New York -State now have large power to provide public works and to control -public education, health, safety, recreation, and charities, although -they are still occasionally interfered with by the State legislature. - -The city is a direct agent of the State, and does not work as the -village does, through the town and county. - -=Three Classes of Cities=: First-class cities have a population of -175,000 or over. Second-class cities have a population of 50,000 -to 175,000; third-class cities are all those with a population of -less than 50,000. The object of this division is to enable the -State to legislate for the needs of groups of cities instead of -individual ones. The mayor of a city may veto a measure passed by the -legislature, but if approved by the legislature and signed by the -governor, it may become law in spite of his veto. - -The needs of government in a city are those of the village multiplied -in size; they include police protection, care of the public health, -a pure water-supply, inspection of food-supplies, supervision of -weights and measures, adequate housing inspection, economic and -satisfactory garbage and sewage disposal, fire protection, gas -and electric lighting, good paving, clean streets, the care of -dependents, maintenance of hospitals and libraries, good educational -facilities, transportation, and many other activities. - -The general plan of government for cities is the same in all the -classes. Cities of the first class are New York City, Buffalo, and -Rochester (see Greater New York). - -=Cities of the Second Class=: =The Mayor=, who is elected for two -years, is the chief executive officer. He has as important and -responsible a position as any man at the head of a big corporation. -The management of the city is in his hands. The health and welfare -of its dwellers depend on him. While the city council legislates -for the city, it is his business to see that laws and ordinances -are enforced. He may veto an ordinance passed by the city council, -although they may pass it over his veto by a two-thirds vote. The -mayor has the power of appointing the heads of most of the important -departments of the city’s business. Sometimes the city council has -to confirm an appointment, and an official can only be removed for -good cause, and he must be given a hearing and an opportunity to -answer charges. To elect to the position of mayor and to put the -entire responsibility of all the complex problems of city government -on a man of no training or fitness for the position, is to invite -extravagance, incompetence, and corruption. - -For purposes of convenience in government a city is divided into -subdivisions called _wards_, and for elections, into certain voting -precincts called _election districts_. - -=The Board of Aldermen or The Common Council= consists of one -alderman chosen from each ward and a president of the board. They -are elected for two years, and are to the city about the same -that the board of trustees are to the village. Their powers are -limited by the city charter. In general, they may pass ordinances -relating to streets, sewers, parks, public buildings, amusements, -grant franchises, regulate traffic, levy taxes, and borrow money -under certain restrictions for the use of the city. An alderman has -power over many local interests in his district. It is an important -position which in the main has been disregarded; it should be filled -by a man chosen for fitness as a local representative and not as a -reward for party service. No man should be elected to this board whom -you would not trust as the custodian of your own property or the -guardian of your children, because in a public sense that is what he -is. - -=The Board of Estimate and Apportionment= is one of the most -important departments of city government. It has large control over -the city’s finances, and determines its policies in all financial -matters, franchises, privileges and permits, and makes the city -budget. It consists of the mayor, comptroller, corporation counsel, -president of the common council, and the city engineer. - -=The Department of Contract and Supply= lets contracts for material -and work required by the city. With the constant growth of city -departments and city business, in which supplies and materials of -many kinds are needed, this is also an important committee. - -Other elected officers are comptroller, treasurer, president of the -common council, and assessors. - -The department of finance is managed by the comptroller and the -treasurer. - -The department of assessment and taxation, which makes the -assessment rolls, consists of four assessors, elected two at a time, -for four years each. - -The department of law is presided over by a corporation counsel, -appointed by the mayor. The mayor also appoints the city engineer and -the heads of the following departments: - -The department of public works, which controls the water-supply, -streets, sewers, buildings, and public markets; the department of -public safety, which includes the bureaus of gas and electricity; -departments of police, health, charities and correction, and the -board of education. - -Cities of the third class are not uniform in their government, but -the general outline is the same as for cities of the second class. - -=City Elections= are held in the odd-numbered years. State officials -are elected in the even-numbered years. The purpose of setting -a different time for these elections is to keep city politics -independent of State political machines. Party issues have little to -do with the problems of a city. It is evident that the government of -a large city is a very important and complicated business. There are -several offices which demand as great executive ability as would be -required of a man at the head of a large business corporation. But -city offices are usually given to men not for fitness, but because -of party affiliation. Public sentiment is beginning to ask why high -standards of competence and efficiency should not be as much demanded -in public as in private business. - -=The Budget=: The heads of the various departments decide how much -money will be required to run each department for the ensuing year. -The Board of Estimate and Apportionment considers these requests and -fixes the tax-rate necessary to raise the money needed (see Chapters -IV and XI). - -=Franchise Rights=: A city has many sources of revenue of its own. -Public utilities which furnish such necessities as transportation, -water, gas, and electric light, earn enormous profits. In some places -some of these things are owned by the city and the revenues go to -the city. In others, the right to build and operate such a public -business is given to a private corporation through a franchise. It is -evident that these franchise rights are extremely valuable and should -not be given away without adequate compensation to the city, as well -as the insuring of good service. The rates that are charged, and -the service rendered, are matters of vast importance to the people -of a city. Municipal ownership of such utilities has never been as -extensive in this country as abroad, but the sentiment in favor of it -is growing. Franchise rights used to be given for long terms, even in -perpetuity, but public sentiment now demands that they be subject to -revision at reasonable intervals. Most cities to-day own their own -water-supply, and some of them have their own lighting plants. - -=Commission Form of Government=: So many officials are needed to -manage the complex affairs of a city that even if well qualified -men are put up for office, with so many candidates to be elected, -it is impossible for the voters to know the merit of them all. -City government has been the weakest spot in our political life. -In an effort to meet its defects, a number of cities have adopted -the policy of doing away entirely with the form of government as -outlined, and electing on a non-partisan ticket several commissioners -(sometimes headed by a mayor), each one of whom is put in charge of a -division of the city’s administration, and made responsible for the -work of this department. - -The fact is being recognized that skill and expert training are -needed in public officials; that the power should be given to a few -men, and that they should be held responsible for the success of -their work. - -Buffalo now has a commission form of government. - -=The City Manager Plan= gives the management of a city to one man, -who is engaged by the city, and held responsible for the conduct of -city affairs, in the same way that a large business enterprise would -engage a manager. A city manager should be a man who has made a study -and profession of city government. - - - - -IV - -GREATER NEW YORK - - -The city of New York includes five counties: New York, Kings, Queens, -Bronx, and Richmond. In one hundred years, the population of New York -City grew from 50,000 to 4,000,000 people. It now has a population -of nearly 6,000,000, which is about one-half the population of the -State, and it is the second city in size in the world. - -The government of the city is strictly prescribed by its charter; for -any improvement that it desires outside of the provisions of that -charter, the city must go for permission to the State Legislature. - -For convenience in government the city is divided into five boroughs: -Manhattan, Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens, and Richmond (Staten Island). - -=The Mayor= is the chief executive of the city. He is elected for -four years and has a salary of $15,000. He has powers of appointment -and removal over a vast number of important positions, including the -heads of the big city departments. Like the Governor of the State -and the President of the United States, he initiates legislation by -sending once a year a message to the Board of Aldermen containing a -general statement of the government and financial condition of the -city, and recommending such measures as he deems advisable. He may -ask for special legislation at any time. - -All ordinances and by-laws passed by the Board of Aldermen go to the -Mayor for approval. If he vetoes a measure, the Board of Aldermen may -pass it over his veto by a two-thirds or three-fourths vote, with -the exception of the granting of franchise rights, where his veto is -absolute. - -=The Comptroller= is at the head of the financial affairs of the -city. His term of office is four years, and salary $15,000. He -may appoint three deputies at $7,500 each, an assistant deputy at -$3,000, besides other heads of the various divisions of the finance -department; but the minor positions are under the Civil Service. - -=The President of the Board of Aldermen= is elected for the same term -as the Mayor, and receives a salary of $7,500. He takes the Mayor’s -place in case of absence or death. - -=The Presidents of Manhattan, Bronx, and Brooklyn Boroughs= receive -$7,500 a year; of Queens and Richmond Boroughs, $5,000. They are -elected for four years, and each president has general oversight -over streets, bridges, sewers, and buildings in his borough. He may -appoint a commissioner of public works, and a superintendent of -buildings for his borough, and local school boards. In Queens and -Richmond the borough presidents have charge of street-cleaning. - -=The Board of Aldermen= is the legislative body of the city. It -consists of seventy-three men elected from Aldermanic districts. -They serve for a term of two years, and receive a salary of $2,000 -each. This board makes the ordinances for the government of the -city. It makes and enforces police, fire, building, health, and -park regulations; it makes by-laws for the regulation of public -markets, streets, public buildings, docks; for inspection of weights -and measures; regulating places of amusement, height of buildings; -licensing cabs, truckmen, and pawnbrokers, and regulations for the -suppression of vice. A city clerk and a clerk of the board at a -$7,000 salary each, are appointed by the board. - -=The Board of Estimate and Apportionment= is the most important of -the city boards. It frames the city budget, which has to be adopted -by the Board of Aldermen. It also passes on bills granting franchise -rights. It represents the whole city, and consists of the Mayor, -Comptroller, President of the Board of Aldermen, each with three -votes; Presidents of Manhattan and Brooklyn Boroughs, with two votes -each; and Presidents of Bronx, Richmond, and Queens Boroughs, with -one vote each. - -Among the important appointive positions of the city which are in the -hands of the Mayor are the following: - -=The Corporation Counsel=, with a salary of $15,000 a year, is the -head of the law department of the city, and is the city’s legal -adviser. He has over fifty assistant counsels to appoint, with -salaries ranging from $3,000 to $10,000 a year, and a host of deputy -and junior assistants. - -=The City Chamberlain= receives and pays out all moneys for the -city—salary $12,000. He may appoint a deputy at $5,000 a year. The -abolishment of the office of Chamberlain as being unnecessary was -recommended by a recent incumbent; but it is too large a plum to be -lightly discarded. - -=The President of the Department of Taxes and Assessments= receives -$8,000 a year. Six other tax commissioners are appointed with -salaries of $7,000 each, two of whom must be of the opposing party. - -The Commissioners of Accounts, of Correction, of Docks and Ferries, -and of Health, the Fire Commissioner, Police Commissioner, -Commissioner of Licenses, of Plants and Structures, of Public -Charities, the Street-cleaning and Tenement House Commissioners, -Commissioner of Water Supply, Gas and Electricity, and the chairman -of the Parole Commission, all receive $7,500 a year; the Commissioner -of Weights and Measures, $5,000 a year. - -There is a new Commissioner of Public Markets, and a Supervisor of -the _City Record_, a city publication which must print all ordinances -which involve the spending of city money, granting a franchise, or -making a specific improvement, before they are passed by the Board of -Aldermen. - -There are many other less important offices to be filled, and the -Borough Presidents have still further appointments. - -=The Board of Education= has been reduced from forty-six to seven -members, of whom two are now women. In addition there are forty-six -local school boards in the various school districts, each consisting -of five members appointed by the Borough President and the District -Superintendent of the local school district. These have now been -divided among the seven members of the new School Board. - -=The Board of Elections= consists of four commissioners, two -Republicans and two Democrats, appointed by the Board of Aldermen for -two years, with a salary of $5,000 each. This board determines the -election-district boundaries, chooses about 2,000 polling-places, -and appoints about 17,000 election officials. Since 1915 the city -has allowed school-houses and other public buildings to be used as -polling-places, and at the last election nearly 1,000 districts were -supplied in this way. - -=Local Improvement Boards=: The city is divided into twenty-five -districts, in each of which there is a Local Improvement Board, -consisting of the Borough President and the Aldermen of the -Aldermanic districts included in the local improvement district. - -=County Government Within the City=: Each county included in the -city of New York has a separate county government, independent of -the city, with its sheriff, county clerk, district attorney, and -its county court in every county but New York. The office of Sheriff -in New York County has been one of the highest paid offices in the -State, because of its fees. These have amounted to from $80,000 to -$100,000 or more a year, and the county and Sheriff have divided -them. The county now receives all the fees, and the Sheriff a salary -of $12,000 a year; but he cannot be re-elected, and the term of -office has been increased from two to four years. - -=Courts=—=Supreme Courts=: The first judicial department, and the -first judicial district of the State are formed by New York and Bronx -Counties. Brooklyn, Queens, and Richmond form the second. The Special -and Trial terms of the Supreme Court try both criminal and civil -cases with and without a jury, as in other counties. - -=County Courts= are held in Kings, Queens, Bronx, and Richmond -Counties, and each of them except Richmond has a _Surrogate’s Court_. -New York County elects two Surrogates, for a term of fourteen years -each, at a salary of $15,000 a year. In place of the County Court, -New York County has a _City Court_, which tries civil suits and is -a naturalization court, and a _Court of General Sessions_, which -tries criminal cases. The _Court of Special Sessions_, with a chief -justice and fifteen assistant justices appointed by the Mayor, -tries cases of misdemeanors, and offenders sent to them by the City -Magistrates. One division of this court is the Children’s Court, with -one presiding justice and five associate justices, with a court in -each borough. These justices hold office for a term of ten years. - -=Magistrates’ Courts= are held by a large number of magistrates, -appointed by the Mayor, and a chief magistrate who has general -supervision of them. _Municipal Courts_ are held in various parts of -the city to try small civil suits. There are forty-five Municipal -Court districts, in each of which there is a judge elected by the -people of the district for a term of ten years. - -There are separate Night Courts for both men and women, a Domestic -Relations Court, which deals with cases of non-support of wives and -children, and poor relations, and a Traffic Court, which deals solely -with violations of the traffic laws. - - * * * * * - -To even mention the various institutions in the city of New York -which are engaged in improving the health and social welfare of the -people would take many pages. There is great need among them of -a more clean-cut division of activities, and less overlapping of -authority. - -_The Commissioner of Public Charities_, appointed by the Mayor, is -responsible for the care of the city’s dependents. In 1915, 350,362 -free lodgings were given to dispossessed families and needy men and -women. There are 329 institutions receiving money from the city -for the care of dependent children, and 22,753 children were in -their charge on January 1, 1916. The care which these children have -received has been severely criticized. The conflicting authority of -the State Board of Charities and the City Board of Inspection of -Charitable Institutions, is said to be responsible for this. In the -future, the city is to conduct its own inspections. Widows’ pensions -are administered for all of Greater New York by one _Child Welfare -Board_ of nine members appointed by the Mayor, of whom two must be -women. They serve for a term of eight years without salary. - -_The Tenement House Department_ looks after the 103,882 tenement -buildings of the city, and has a force of 193 inspectors, of whom -eight are women. There are still about 9,000 dark rooms in the old -tenements, built before the law was passed requiring a certain -amount of light and air, which have not been made over to meet the -new requirements. - -_The Street-cleaning Department_ employs regularly about 5,400 men at -salaries ranging from $720 to $860 a year. - -_The Board of Inebriety_ was organized to take charge of persons who -are chronic addicts to alcohol or drugs, to treat them as victims -of disease, and send them to a farm where treatment looking toward -a cure is combined with farm work, truck gardening, etc. The great -needs of this work cannot be met until further accommodations are -made for patients. - -=The Municipal Civil Service Commission=, consisting of three members -appointed by the Mayor, maintains a regular staff of examiners of -applicants for city positions. The regular payroll of the city -includes nearly 85,000 persons, of whom about 30,000 are not under -the jurisdiction of the Civil Service. There are also about 20,000 -others who are employed part of the time. - -There is a free _public employment bureau_ which is growing -steadily and is placing over two thousand applicants a month, and a -Commissioner of Weights and Measures. - -The management of each one of the large departments of city -government requires special and technical training. A corporation -manager would search the country for the best man to be found for -each particular department. - -School-teachers and school superintendents are chosen because of -their training and experience. Minor city employees are appointed -from Civil Service lists; but the custom of American cities is to -appoint men at the heads of city departments who have distinguished -themselves for party service. - -=The Budget for Greater New York= is made up, beginning in June, -and being adopted November 1st. Estimates of the needs of each -department for the coming year are submitted to the Board of Estimate -and Apportionment, and are studied by sub-committees who conduct -public hearings, when the representatives of each department and -the official examiners report on their estimates and each item -may be examined and discussed. A tentative budget is printed for -public use and the last week in October public hearings are held. By -November 1st the budget must be adopted by the Board of Estimate and -Apportionment and sent to the Board of Aldermen for their approval. - -“Pay as you go” was a financial policy adopted in 1914 to relieve the -tremendous piling up of future indebtedness of the city for permanent -improvements of the non-revenue producing class. During the years -1914-1918 an annually increasing proportion of the cost of these -improvements was to be included in the tax budget, and by 1918 the -entire cost was to be met by taxation, and thereafter no bonds were -to be issued for this class of improvement. Every dollar borrowed at -4½ per cent. interest on a fifty-year bond costs $1.69 in interest -charges. While taxes are higher for a time under the pay-as-you-go -plan, the actual cost of improvements to the city is much less. - -The Mayor of New York City is the head of a corporation whose -budget of expenditure, in 1916, was $212,000,000. Before the war -the general expenses of the United States Steel Corporation were -about $34,000,000 a year. The salary of the president of the Steel -Corporation, or of any one of the largest business corporations of -the country, would be from $50,000 to $100,000 a year. The Mayor of -New York City receives $15,000 a year. But a business corporation -would insist on having for president a man whose training and -business experience had made him peculiarly fitted for the job, -while our practice in choosing a man for mayor is to give little -consideration to special training and experience in the work of city -administration. - - - - -V - -STATE GOVERNMENT - - -The State has such large powers over its people, and over all -political divisions within it, that it is often called the “Sovereign -State.” The State regulates the ownership and transfer of property; -it punishes murder and other crimes; it regulates business relations; -it prescribes the form of marriage and the reasons for divorce; it -authorizes the levying of taxes; it makes its own election laws and -provides for education; until recently it has controlled railroads -operating within its borders. - -=The State Constitution=, adopted by a majority of the voters of the -State, is the fundamental law of the State. It can only be changed by -a constitutional convention or by the adoption of a constitutional -amendment, which is done with considerable difficulty. - -A constitutional convention is an assemblage of men chosen by the -voters to revise the constitution. The result of their deliberation -is then submitted to the voters, who can accept or reject it. The -last revision took place in 1915 and was overwhelmingly defeated at -the polls. The law now provides for a revision every twenty years if -the voters desire it. - -An amendment to the constitution can be proposed in the Legislature. -It has to pass both houses of the Legislature during two different -but successive sessions (a new session of the Legislature comes only -every other year, when a new Senate is elected), and must then be -submitted to the voters of the State for their approval. A majority -vote makes it a law. - -=The Legislature= has authority under the State constitution to make -laws for the State. It meets every year on the first Wednesday in -January at the Capitol in Albany, and remains in session until its -business is completed, usually about April 1st. It is composed of two -divisions or “houses,” the Assembly and the Senate. - -Every ten years, in a year ending with the figure five, a census is -taken of the people of the State, and on this basis there is a new -apportionment of Senators and Assemblymen. - -=The Senate= at present is composed of fifty-two members, elected -from certain divisions of the State known as Senatorial Districts. In -general, each fiftieth of the population of the State is entitled to -one Senator. (This rule is not followed mathematically, for a county -may not be divided except to form two or more districts within it; -no one county may have more than one-third of all the Senators, and -no two counties may have more than one-half of the total number. -This is intended as a check to a congested district having an undue -representation.) - -If a county which already has three or more Senators shows a -sufficient increase in population to entitle it to another one, -the additional Senator adds one more to the fifty Senators already -provided for. - -=The Assembly= is composed of one hundred and fifty members, and, -roughly speaking, every one hundred and fiftieth part of the -population of the State is entitled to one Assemblyman. In practice -the rural county of small or medium size which does not contain -a large city is one Assembly District. Chautauqua, Dutchess, -Schenectady, Niagara, Orange, Rensselaer, St. Lawrence, Steuben, -Richmond, Suffolk, and Broome have each two Assembly Districts. -Albany, Oneida, and Onondaga have three each; Queens has six; -Westchester and Monroe, five; Bronx and Erie, eight; Kings and New -York, twenty-three each; Hamilton and Fulton counties have only -one between them. Nassau County has recently been divided into two -Assembly Districts. This division is made by the County Board of -Supervisors. - -The presiding officer of the Senate is the _Lieutenant Governor_. The -presiding officer of the Assembly is elected by its members, and is -called the _Speaker_. He appoints the standing committees, and has -much control over legislation. He usually belongs to the political -party which is in the majority in the Assembly. This party also -elects a majority leader to control legislation on the floor. The -choice of the other party is called the _leader of the minority_, and -he is recognized as the leader of this party in the Legislature. The -Senate also has majority and minority leaders. - -Assemblymen are elected for one year, and Senators for two years. -Both receive $1,500 salary and an allowance of ten cents a mile -traveling expenses once during the session. - -=How to Get a Law Passed by the Legislature=: A bill may be -introduced by any member, beginning, “The People of the State of New -York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact,” etc. - -It may be introduced into either the Senate or the Assembly, or it -can be introduced in both houses simultaneously. It has a first -reading and is referred to a committee. The committee may pigeonhole -it and never report, or it may report it too late in the session for -action by the Legislature, or it may report it favorably, or with a -recommendation that it be rejected. If it is reported favorably it -is put on the calendar to await its turn for consideration. It then -comes up for a second reading, when it may be amended and sent back -to the committee; after a third reading a vote is taken. If it is -passed in one house it then goes to the other house, where it goes -through the same procedure. If it is passed by the second house, -it then goes to the Governor for his signature. If it is a bill -concerning the government of a city it goes to the mayor of the city -for his approval. - -If either house changes the bill it has to go back to the first house -for action in its amended form. The Governor has the power to veto a -bill, but it can be repassed over his veto by a two-thirds vote. - -=The Governor= is the chief executive officer of the State. It is -his business to enforce the laws, through his appointive officers. -He has control of the military forces of the State, which must -consist of not less than twenty thousand men, of whom two thousand -must be a naval militia. He has the power to grant pardons. He is -elected for two years, and receives a salary of $10,000 and the use -of the Executive Mansion. He may also initiate legislation. At every -regular session of the Legislature his duty is to send a “message,” -telling the Legislature about the condition of public affairs and -recommending measures for their consideration. He may also, at any -time, ask for special legislation, and may call the Legislature -together in an extra session. He has the power of many important -appointments to State positions, but subject to the approval of the -Senate. - -=The Lieutenant Governor=, with a salary of $5,000 a year, takes the -Governor’s place in case of need. He presides over the Senate. - -=The Secretary of State= has charge of all public documents and -records. He grants certificates of incorporation, and has charge of -elections and the taking of the census. His salary is $6,000 a year. - -=The Comptroller= must sign every warrant for payment of State -funds. He acts as auditor for the State, reports to the Legislature -concerning State funds, and superintends the collection of State -taxes. He designates the banks in which State money shall be -deposited. His salary is $8,000 a year. - -=The State Treasurer= is the custodian of State funds, and pays them -out only on order of the Comptroller. His salary is $6,000 a year. - -=The Attorney-General= is the general legal adviser of the State. He -prosecutes and defends all actions in which the State is interested. -His salary is $10,000. - -=The State Engineer and Surveyor= must be a practical engineer. He -has charge of the canals, and the surveying and mapping of all the -public lands of the State. - -=Appointive Offices=: Among these are two _Public Service -Commissions_, each with five members. The first has jurisdiction -over Greater New York, and the second over the rest of the State. -In general, they have power to regulate railroads and street-cars, -to establish rates, and to compel adequate service. They also -control express companies, gas and electrical companies, telephone -and telegraph lines. No company can raise its rates without their -consent. Their business is to see that the needs of the public are -adequately served, and also to protect the companies from unjust -treatment. These commissions are considered so important that the -salary of each commissioner was made $15,000 a year. - -=The State Tax Commissioners= have general supervision of the methods -of raising taxes throughout the State. There are three of them -appointed for three years, and they must visit every county in the -State at least once in two years. Their salary is $6,000 a year each. - -=The State Board of Equalization=, which consists of the tax -commissioners and commissioners of the land office, has to equalize -the assessments in each county, and fix the amount on which the State -tax is to be levied. - -=The Superintendent of Banks= controls the banks, trust companies, -building and loan associations, which make reports to him quarterly, -from which he in turn makes a report to the Legislature annually. His -salary is $10,000, and his term three years. - -=The Superintendent of Insurance= has control over all the insurance -companies and reports annually to the Legislature. His salary is -$10,000, and term three years. - -=The Commissioner of Health= must be a physician. He has general -oversight of the health of the State, and supervises the registration -of births, marriages, and deaths in the towns and cities. His salary -is $8,000, and he has a four-year term. - -=The Commissioner of Excise= issues tax certificates for the sale of -liquor and collects the excise tax, of which the State gets one-half, -and the city or town in which the liquor is sold gets one-half. His -salary is $7,000, term five years. - -=The Commissioner of Agriculture= appoints the directors of farmers’ -institutes, watches over the sale of food products that might be -injurious to health, and has general care of the agricultural needs -of the State. His salary is $8,000, term three years. - -=The Commissioner of Highways=, who is in charge of State roads and -improvements, serves for two years with a salary of $12,000 a year. - -=The Department of Labor=, which is a very important branch of the -State government, works to improve the conditions of labor. There -are five commissioners who serve six years, each with a salary of -$8,000. In this department are several bureaus: _viz._, Inspection, -Employment, Workmen’s Compensation, Mediation and Arbitration, -Statistics and Information, Industries, and Immigration. - -=The Conservation Commissioner= controls departments for preserving -and propagating fish and game, for protecting lands and forests, and -the control of inland waters. He appoints a head for each division. -(Forests owned by the State must be kept wild. They may not be -loaned, sold, or exchanged, and no wood may be cut.) He serves six -years, with a salary of $8,000 a year. - -=The Civil Service Commission= consists of three commissioners who -have the duty of determining the rules with which to test the fitness -of applicants for employment under the civil service laws. The civil -service is intended to prevent the appointment of men to government -positions through partisan politics or personal “pull.” Positions are -classified, competitive examinations are held, and appointments made -in order of merit. The custom has usually been to have separate lists -made out of men and women, and it has been complained that preference -has been given to the men’s lists. - -There is a _Superintendent of Public Works_, with a salary of $8,000; -a _Superintendent of Prisons_, salary of $6,000, and a _State -Commission of Prisons_ of seven members who get $10 a day each for -each day of service; a _State Board of Charities_; a _State Hospital -Commission in Lunacy_ of three members, the president of which is -paid $7,000, and other members $5,000. - -There is also a _State Food Commission_ of three members who serve -without pay, appointed only for the period of the war, and a recently -created _Farms and Markets Council_. - -While most of the heads of the administrative departments of the -State government are appointed by the Governor, the terms of office -of many of them are longer than the term of the Governor who -appoints them. As a consequence, a Governor may be in office, and -important departments like the Excise Commission, the Public Health -and Public Service, and Industrial Commissions, may be in the hands -of appointees of a preceding Governor. They can be removed from -office only by preferring charges and after a hearing. Also certain -other important State officials, including the Comptroller and -the Secretary of State, are elected by the people, and may differ -radically from the Governor on questions of public policy. They may -even belong to a different political party. - -It is by some considered a weakness in the management of the affairs -of the State, that the conduct of some of the most important -departments of an administration may be out of the control of the -Governor who is responsible for them. - -The business of the State requires about 17,500 regular employees, -and the payroll is about $22,250,000. It is probable that some of -these public officials in the service of the State might be dispensed -with if they were required to work as many hours a day and as many -days a year as they would be obliged to do in any private business. - - - - -VI - -NATIONAL GOVERNMENT - - -The sovereign power of the United States is vested in the National -government, the federal union of all the States, each self-governing, -but all uniting for certain purposes. The Constitution of the United -States is the supreme law of the land. - -The National government, like that of the State and municipality, -has three distinct divisions: the legislative, the executive, and -the judicial. The legislative power rests with Congress, which is -composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate. - -=The House of Representatives= is elected every two years by the -voters of the States. After the census, which is taken every ten -years, Congress determines what the total number of Representatives -shall be. These are then apportioned among the States according to -population. After the census of 1910 the House of Representatives -was increased to 435 members, which gave one member for every -211,877 inhabitants. New York has 43 Representatives, the largest -number from any State in the Union. Every State is entitled to at -least one Representative, although it may not have the requisite -population. _The Congressional District_ from which a member is -elected is determined by the State Legislature. Greater New York has -23 Congressmen. - -=Qualifications for Representatives to Congress=: A man must be -twenty-five years old and have been a citizen of the United States -for at least seven years, and be a resident of the State from which -he is chosen. The salary is $7,500 a year, with an allowance for a -clerk, for stationery, and for traveling expenses. - -=The Senate= is composed of ninety-six members, two members from -every State in the Union, elected for a term of six years. In order -that there shall always be experienced men in the Senate, only -one-third of that body is elected at a time. The Senate is divided -into three classes, and the men belonging to one of the three classes -are elected every two years. - -A Senator may be re-elected as many times as a State chooses, and -many Senators have served twenty years or more. This makes the Upper -House of Congress a very conservative, stable body of men. Senators, -as well as Representatives, receive a salary of $7,500 a year. The -_Vice-President_ of the United States is the presiding officer of the -Senate. - -The election of Senators was formerly a prerogative of the State -Legislature. The Seventeenth Amendment to the National Constitution, -passed in 1913, provides that they shall be elected by direct voice -of the voters of the States. - -=Qualifications of Senators=: A candidate for the Senate must be -thirty years old and have been a citizen for at least nine years. - -=Sessions of Congress=: A new Congress comes into existence on the -fourth day of March every odd year, although it does not meet in -regular session until the following winter. The long session begins -the first Monday in December in the odd-numbered year, and usually -lasts until spring or summer. The short session begins the same time -in the even-numbered year and lasts until the following March 4th, -when the new Congress, elected the previous November, comes into -existence, although it does not meet until the following December, -unless the President calls an extraordinary session. A Congressman, -therefore, is elected more than a year before he takes his seat. The -Sixty-fifth Congress will end March 4, 1919. The members of the Lower -House of the Sixty-sixth Congress will be elected in November, 1918. - -=Congressional Committees=: The work of Congress is largely done -through committees. The House of Representatives, as constituted -to-day, is an unwieldy body. It is obvious that four hundred and -thirty-five men is too large a number to work effectively as a whole. -Every bill, even a recommendation from the President, is referred to -an appropriate committee. It is only because of these many committees -that it is possible to transact the very large amount of business -that comes before Congress every year. - -=How a Bill Is Passed=: The procedure in Congress is similar to that -in the State Legislature. A bill may be introduced by any member in -either house, and must pass through both houses. - -=Powers of Congress=: Congress has absolute power to levy and collect -taxes. Revenue bills must originate in the House of Representatives. -Congress has the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and -support an army and navy, and to regulate commerce. It controls -naturalization laws and immigration; it establishes post-offices; -grants patents and copyrights. It has the power to coin and to borrow -money. It also governs the District of Columbia and the Territories. - -=An Amendment to the Constitution of the United States= must be -passed by a majority of two-thirds of the votes cast in both houses -of Congress. It is then submitted to the States for ratification by -the State Legislatures. When the Legislatures of three-fourths of the -forty-eight States have ratified such an amendment by a majority vote -of their members it becomes law. - -=The Executive=: The President of the United States has greater -powers than have the heads of many other nations. He is the -Commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy; he conducts official -business with foreign nations and makes treaties with them, subject -to the approval of the Senate; he appoints, with the consent of the -Senate, ambassadors, ministers, high officials of Army and Navy, -justices of the Supreme Court, and a vast number of other officers. -He may veto measures passed by Congress, but they can be passed over -his veto by a two-thirds vote. - -The President has power to initiate legislation by sending a message -to Congress, giving them information about important affairs and -recommending legislative measures for their consideration. The degree -to which he can force legislation through Congress depends both on -the strength of the party in Congress to which he belongs, and on -the personal power and prestige of the President himself. President -Wilson is the first President, for more than a century, to appear in -person before a joint session of Congress and read his message. - -=Election of the President=: The President is chosen by presidential -electors, elected by the voters of the various States, the number -of electors for each State being the same as the total number of -Representatives and Senators in Congress from that State. The -electors of a State meet at the State Capitol on the second Monday of -January following the election, to cast their votes for President. -The electors are merely machines to register the vote of the State, -and usually the entire electoral vote of a State goes to one -candidate, although the majority of the popular vote for him may have -been small. This system makes the presidential election virtually -an election by States. A State “goes” Republican or Democratic. The -struggle is concentrated in a few doubtful States. To win or lose -them may mean to win or lose the election. It has happened that -one candidate has actually received a larger popular vote than his -opponent, and yet has not been elected, because the number of votes -in the electoral college from the States that gave him a majority was -smaller than the number of electoral votes from the other States. -There is a movement toward the abolition of the electoral college and -direct nomination and direct election of the President by the voters. - -=The Vice-President= must be eligible to the office of President. He -is elected for the same term, and his salary is $12,000 a year. His -only duty is to preside over the Senate and to succeed the President -in case of need. - -=The Cabinet= consists of ten officials appointed by the President -with the consent of the Senate to conduct for him certain departments -of public business. The salary of a Cabinet member is $12,000. - -Cabinet members have no vote in either House of Congress, and are not -responsible to it in any way. Like the President himself, they may -belong to the party which is in the minority in Congress. The Cabinet -is an advisory body to the President, but its members have no legal -standing in that way, and he may ignore them if he chooses. Each -Cabinet officer is the administrative head of his department. - -The Secretary of State heads the Department of State, and is -responsible for all official negotiations and relations with foreign -governments. He is the medium of communication between the President -and the Governors of the States. - -The Secretary of the Treasury manages national finances, administers -revenue, currency, and national banking laws. - -The Secretary of War has charge of all matters of national defense, -river and harbor improvements, and is responsible for the maintenance -of the Army. - -The Attorney-General is the legal adviser of the President and the -National government. - -The Postmaster-General conducts the affairs of the United States -Post-Office Department and the transportation of the mail. - -The Secretary of the Navy has charge of the Navy and its equipment, -yards, and docks. - -The Secretary of the Interior and his department have charge of -public lands and Indian affairs. He has the granting of pensions and -patents. - -The Secretary of Agriculture has for his business the improvement of -agriculture in the United States. He also has charge of the Weather -Bureau, animal and plant industry, and the forest service. - -The Secretary of Commerce must aid and develop the commercial -interests of the country, including mining and transportation. He -takes the census every ten years. - -The Secretary of Labor and the Department of Labor are designed to -protect the welfare of the wage earners. To this department belong -the Bureau of Immigration and the Children’s Bureau. - -The tendency of the past few years has been to enlarge the powers -of the National government. With the rapid increase of means of -transportation distant parts of the country have been brought close -together. Sectionalism is diminishing. To “States’ rights” is being -added a national pride. In the administration of the business of the -nation, State boundaries can often no longer be considered without -a distinct loss of economy and efficiency. To give one example: the -State control of railroads resulted in obstructive and entirely -different requirements being made by neighboring States, on the same -railroad passing through several of them. The power of separate -States to control, independent of each other, such things as marriage -and divorce laws, has resulted in the deplorable situation that a -couple may be legally married in one State and the marriage may not -be recognized in another. - -It is evident that with the growth in influence and importance of the -United States, the National government is gradually assuming many -functions which formerly were left to the separate States. - - - - -VII - -WHO CAN VOTE - - -There is one way in which the government of a republic like the -United States differs from other forms of government—_viz._, in -a republic _the source of all power rests with the people_. They -choose the men to whom they give the right to speak for them and to -represent them. - -The right to vote for the man who is to represent you, who is to make -the law for you and to enforce that law, is the most sacred right of -a free country. - -The success or failure of government in the United States, and in -every political division of the State, rests with the men and women -who have the power of the vote. - -One of the great dangers of a democracy is the carelessness and -indifference of the voter. If a government “by the people” is to -be a success, the people themselves must see to it that honest, -responsible, and efficient officials are chosen. - -=Every Person in the State Is Either a Citizen or an Alien. -Citizenship Is Conferred by the National Government and the State Has -No Power to Confer or Withhold It.= - -=A Citizen= is defined in the Constitution of the United States: “All -persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the -jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the -State in which they reside.” Native-born Indians who have had land -allotted them and have given up their tribal life are citizens. All -persons born out of the country of citizen parents are also citizens, -except where the father has never resided in the United States. - -=Naturalization=: Congress makes uniform laws of naturalization for -all the States. - -=An Alien= is a person born in a foreign country who lives here but -is still a subject of some other country. - -=An Alien May Become a Citizen= of the United States, and thus -of New York State, after he has lived in the country five years -continuously, and in the State one year. He must be able to write his -own language, to read and speak English, and be of moral character. -His first step is to go to a Federal court, or a court of record, -and swear that it is his intention to become a citizen and renounce -his allegiance to any foreign power. He is then given his “first -papers.” Not less than two years, or more than seven years later, he -must appear again with two witnesses to swear to his good character -and loyalty, and file a petition. After ninety days his application -is heard by the court and he is examined by the judge and renews -his oath of allegiance. If the judge is satisfied he is given his -certificate of naturalization which makes him a citizen. Fees -amounting to five dollars are now charged. - -=Only White Persons and Negroes May Become Naturalized=: Chinese, -Japanese and East Indians cannot become citizens unless born in the -United States. Polygamists are excluded. - -=An Unmarried Woman= can take out papers of naturalization and become -a citizen in the same way as does a man. - -=A Married Woman= is only a citizen if her husband is a citizen. -Under the present law, she cannot become naturalized by herself. -Also, under a strict interpretation of the law, she has the residence -of her husband and must vote from the same place. - -=A Woman Born= in the =United States= who =marries= an =alien=, -although she may never leave her own country, =ceases to be an -American citizen= and becomes a subject of the country to which -her husband belongs. Therefore, the wife of a man not a citizen of -the United States cannot vote in this country.[2] If a resident of -the United States, she resumes her citizenship at the death of her -husband, or if she is divorced. =A foreign-born woman= who =marries= -a =citizen becomes= a =citizen=. Children under age become citizens -with their parents. - -An American-born man may live abroad many years and not lose his -citizenship. - -A naturalized citizen is considered as losing his citizenship if he -returns to his native country and resides there two years. - -A citizen has the right to withdraw from the United States, renounce -his allegiance, and acquire citizenship in another country. - -An alien enjoys the same protection of the law as does the citizen. -The government extends its protection to the native-born and the -naturalized citizen alike. A naturalized citizen is protected while -abroad, even in his native country, by our government in exactly -the same degree as a native-born citizen would be. A naturalized -citizen may fill any office in the land with the exception of that of -President. - -=A Citizen Is Not Always a Voter=: Women were citizens of New York -State before they were given the right to vote, if (1) they were -born in the United States, (2) were married to citizens, or (3) if, -unmarried, they had taken out their own naturalization papers. - -=The State Confers the Right to Vote and Fixes the Qualifications for -Voters.= - -=Who May Vote=: “Every citizen of the age of twenty-one years who -shall have been a citizen for ninety days, an inhabitant of the State -for one year, and a resident of the county for four months, and a -resident of the election district for thirty days, has a right to -vote” (Act II, Sec. I, Constitution of New York State). Foreign-born -women whose husbands are citizens must live in the country five -years before they can vote. In time of war soldiers and sailors may -vote wherever they are, and their ballots are counted in their home -districts. - -It is reasonable that a certain length of residence should be -required before a person is permitted to vote, in order that he may -have a chance to become familiar with the interests of a community, -and acquainted with the qualifications of the candidates. - -=Who May Not Vote=: A naturalized citizen who has not been -naturalized for at least ninety days before election; a person whose -name and address is not registered with election officials at least -ten days before an election; a person convicted of bribery or an -infamous crime; a deserter from the Army or Navy. A person who bets -on an election is disqualified for voting at that election. - -The Governor may restore citizenship to a person who has lost it. - -=The State Cannot Interfere with the Rights of Citizens=: While -the State prescribes the qualifications for suffrage for its own -citizens, by the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the National -Constitution, the Federal government prohibits any State from -abridging the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United -States, and declares that the State in making the qualifications for -the suffrage cannot discriminate because of _color_ or _race_. - -The Fourteenth Amendment further provides that when the right to -vote is denied to any of the male citizens of a State, its basis of -representation shall be reduced in proportion. - -Several of the Southern States have restricted the suffrage by -educational and property qualifications, but have excluded from these -qualifications those who were voters in 1867 (before the negroes -were enfranchised) and their descendants. This discrimination of -the so-called “grandfather” clause was held unconstitutional by -the Supreme Court of the United States in 1915, but the reduction -in representation has never been enforced. Massachusetts has an -educational qualification and Pennsylvania a tax qualification, which -also exclude many male citizens; but the Fourteenth Amendment has -never been seriously enforced in either case. - -=The National Amendment for Woman Suffrage=: An amendment to the -Federal Constitution is pending which provides that the _right to -vote shall not be denied on account of sex_. - -While New York State has given the vote to its women, this permission -does not extend beyond its borders. New York women lose their vote -if they go to Pennsylvania, New Jersey, or any adjoining State. -Twelve States have given women full suffrage, and nineteen States -have given them the right to vote for President. The Woman Suffrage -Amendment, when passed by Congress and ratified by three-fourths of -all the States, will secure the right to vote to all the women of the -United States. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[2] A bill is now before Congress to change this law and make it -possible for a married woman to choose her country for herself, as a -man does, and to require that she be obliged to go through the same -process of naturalization that a man does, including the oath of -allegiance. It is only through a Federal law that this change can be -made. - - - - -VIII - -POLITICAL PARTIES - - -A political party is a group of voters organized for the purpose -of putting certain policies into effect, to elect certain men to -office, and to control the machinery of government. Under a popular -government, where public officials are chosen by the people and -political policies are formulated by them, political parties have -seemed the most expedient device as yet discovered to accomplish -these ends. - -The political party was not originally a part of the government; -but as the country developed and government needs and opportunities -multiplied, party machinery grew more complex, and its powers -increased to such a dangerous degree that for the sake of its own -integrity, the State was forced to regulate it. Party conventions, -primaries, and much of the party machinery are now controlled by law. - -=Two Parties=: The United States has always had two principal -parties. They have had different names, and under the same name they -have advocated different principles. The first parties were the -Federalists, who believed in a strong central government that should -exercise all the powers that the Constitution could be interpreted -to permit, and the Anti-Federalists, who believed in limiting the -functions of the Federal government and reserving as much power as -possible to the States. - -=The Republican and Democratic Parties=: It is difficult to define -the difference between the present principal parties. The Republican -party is the successor of the Federalists. It was formed shortly -before the Civil War to prevent the extension of slavery. In -general it has believed in a liberal interpretation of the Federal -Constitution, and has wished to see the powers of the National -government extended. The Democratic party has advocated “States’ -rights,” the right of the individual States to settle their own -affairs. It has held to a strict interpretation of the Constitution, -and has believed in limiting the power of the National government. -Besides the doctrine of States’ rights, the principal difference -between the Republican and Democratic parties has been the tariff. -The Republican party has advocated a high tariff, and the Democratic -party a tariff “for revenue only.” While these have been the two -issues most discussed between the two parties, even on these -questions the lines have often been confused. Democratic members -of Congress have advocated measures which distinctly contradicted -the principles of States’ rights, and the Republican party as often -has adopted them for its own purposes. The Democratic party has not -always stood on its low-tariff platform, and Republicans have often -been against protection. Even before the present war old party lines -had begun to fade. With the dangers threatening the country, which -war has brought, these lines have been almost obliterated. What they -will be when the war is over no one can predict with certainty. - -The Republican party came into power in 1860, when it elected -Abraham Lincoln President, and until 1913 it controlled the National -government, except for two terms of four years each when Grover -Cleveland was President. - -In general the Southern States are Democratic, preserving a “solid -South.” The Northern States are apt to be Republican. - -=The Progressive Party= was organized in 1912 as the result of a -split in the Republican ranks, by men who wanted more progressive -measures than those advocated by either the Republican or Democratic -party. It advocated public ownership of mines, forests, and water -power; a larger measure of justice for the working-classes and -suffrage for women. It has disintegrated, but it had a large effect -in liberalizing both the older parties, and many of its policies have -been adopted by them. - -=The Prohibition Party= was organized in 1872 to bring about complete -prohibition of alcoholic drinks. It has elected candidates to the -Legislature and has secured an ever larger measure of local option -and even State-wide prohibition. - -=The Socialist Party=, organized in 1900, advocates government -ownership of land, railroads, telegraph and telephones, mines, -and all vital industries. It has become largely the party of the -industrial workers. - -Minor parties have come and gone, but they have usually left a -lasting effect on the dominant parties. - -In New York State, any organization is considered “a party” which -polled at least 10,000 votes for Governor at the last election. - -=Party Organization=: The individual voter, or group of voters, is -helpless to change conditions or to elect a man. It is only through -the organization of many men who want the same thing that they become -effective. Political parties are organized for National, State, and -local campaigns. - -The great work of the political parties is the nomination and -election of a President every four years. For this purpose there must -be a national party organization. - -=The National Committee= of each party is composed of one member from -each State. It organizes the National Convention of the party, which -is held early in the summer before the presidential election, and at -which party policies are formulated, and candidates for President -and Vice-President are nominated. In the spring the chairman of the -National Committee calls a meeting of this committee to decide where -and when the convention shall meet. - -Besides nominating candidates for President and Vice-President, the -convention adopts a “platform” in which is set forth the principles -which the party holds and its attitude on important public questions. -A new National Committee is appointed to carry on the campaign and -to act until the next convention. - -The platform adopted by the party at its National convention is an -expression of the principles for which the party stands. A “plank” -may be put in simply to catch votes; on some question the plank may -not be explicit, but may “straddle” the issue. While in the main the -National platform sets forth the principles to which the party is -committed and its proposals for future action, the speech or letter -of acceptance of the candidate for the presidency usually contains a -more reliable statement of the policies which he would advocate if -elected. - -=The State Committee= is the party organization in control of the -party in the State. It is composed of one man from each of the one -hundred and fifty Assembly Districts in the State, who are elected by -the enrolled members of the party in each district. The chairman is -elected by the committee to serve for two years. - -Party members are all those who at the last registration, or last -general election, enrolled in the party. - -State platforms count for little. They usually “point with pride” to -things the party has done, and denounce the acts of the opposing -party. Most voters pay little attention to them. - -=The County Committee= consists of one man from every election -district in the county; the _City Committee_, one from each ward -or election district in the city. (New York County has its own -organization, different from the others.) The chairman of each of -these committees is elected at the party primaries. He is usually an -experienced politician, and each committee is the party authority -locally. - -=The Election District=: The election district captain, or county -committeeman, is the man who comes in direct personal touch with the -voter. His business is to deliver the vote of his election district -to his party. He must know every voter in his district, find out how -each one is going to vote, and keep track of new voters, especially -the first voter who has yet to choose his party. He is an inspector -at elections; he selects poll clerks and watchers, and handles the -money sent by his party to his district. The Assembly District -leader or County Chairman distributes the patronage and the election -district captain may recommend men to him. The more offices that can -be filled, and the greater the number of “the faithful” who can -be provided for, the stronger the party at the next election. The -one quality necessary for the election district captain is complete -loyalty to his chairman and party. - -If ordinary party members pay no attention to the organization -locally it is bound to fall into the hands of those who make their -living out of politics. - -=Party Funds= are contributed by members of the party, subscriptions -from interested men, from party candidates and interests which expect -to be benefited if a certain party comes into power. - -It is a crime to levy on the salary of any public official for -campaign expenses, but such contributions are often still expected. - -If a party elects its candidate, he has many officials to appoint, -and these offices are often unfortunately regarded as rewards for -party loyalty and work. The civil service was created to take offices -away from party control and prevent the “spoils system.” - -=The Use and Abuse of Party=: The political party has a very -definite place in popular government. In the conduct of a campaign -organization is indispensable. The danger lies in the difficulty -of sufficiently safeguarding the interests of the public from the -spoilsmen of either party. It is through the party that citizens -must work for political measures, but it is also through the party -machine that anti-social forces are able to successfully carry out -their plans. - -There is tremendous power for a party in its control of the -government of a city or a State. A multitude of offices have to -be filled, franchises to be granted, valuable contracts let, and -there are a thousand opportunities for public plunder and private -enrichment. The party in power nationally, has untold possibilities -in the control of the fabulous resources of the country. In order -that a party may come into power in the National government, it is -necessary for it to be in control in the State, and to control the -State it tries to hold minor political divisions. To gain control -locally it partitions out the offices where they will do the most -good; it gains support from every quarter through any means; it seeks -to have men in positions of authority who can be so controlled that -they will subordinate everything to the party welfare. - -The average voter not infrequently supports his party at all -elections, without regard for the merits of the candidates. He is -often a Republican or a Democrat, without any clear idea of the -different principles of the two parties. Or he may have become a -Republican or a Democrat because he agreed with the party in regard -to some National question. So he follows it blindly in State and city -elections, which have nothing to do with National questions. It is -seldom that important issues of party principles are involved in a -local election; but the tradition of party support is strong and the -temptation to hold party allegiance even at the expense of the public -is almost irresistible. - -=The Independent Voter=: Undoubtedly the number of independent voters -is growing. Whenever for any reason a group of non-partisan voters -abstain from party allegiance, are alert to the sincerity of party -promises, and are watchful of the qualifications of candidates, both -parties begin to clean house and put up as candidates the best men -available, in order to bid for the independent vote. Such a body -of non-partisan voters may be the decisive factor in an election, -especially if the two parties are about evenly divided. - -The independent voter is not popular with the machine politician. The -larger the number of non-partisan voters the more difficult it is for -him to perform his duties, and to control and deliver the vote. - -In city and village elections, party issues have no place, and there -is a growing feeling that qualification for office should be the only -consideration. - -It all comes back to the voting citizen. Politics and political -parties are what the people make them. - - - - -IX - -HOW CANDIDATES ARE NOMINATED - - -While any man’s name can be put in nomination for any office, he has -little chance of being elected in most elections without being the -candidate of a political party. For a long time parties were allowed -to nominate candidates as they chose, and party bosses dictated -nominations without regard for the wishes of the rest of the party -or for the interests of the public. For some time past the State has -regulated the methods of nominations. - -Candidates for all offices are nominated in one of three ways: (1) At -a party convention; (2) by direct primaries; (3) by petition. - -=Candidates for President and Vice-President= are nominated at -National conventions, which are the most spectacular events of our -political life. Delegates to the National convention are elected -at special party primaries held the first Tuesday in April of the -presidential year. Every State is allowed double as many delegates -as it has Senators and Representatives in Congress. The four men -corresponding to the representation of the State in the Senate are -delegates-at-large; the others are district delegates. The National -convention is, therefore, composed of about one thousand delegates, -and its meetings draw other thousands of spectators. There are few -auditoriums in the country big enough to house the convention. There -are usually several candidates, each one of whom is the choice of a -group of men in the party. The name of each candidate is presented to -the convention by a carefully selected orator, under circumstances -planned to arouse enthusiasm, and, if possible, to stampede the -convention. - -A majority vote is sufficient to nominate the candidate in the -Republican convention, but the Democratic party requires a two-thirds -vote. Sometimes not one of the candidates presented is able to secure -a majority. Days may be consumed in discussion and bargaining, and in -the end an unexpected candidate, a “dark horse,” may be nominated. -The members of the National Committee who are to serve during the -next four years are elected in the convention, one member from each -State. - -=How Candidates for Office in New York State Are Nominated=: The -direct primary is the method now used in New York State by which -candidates for all offices except those in towns and villages are -nominated, and the conduct of these “official primaries,” as they -are called to distinguish them from the unofficial primaries of the -party, is carefully prescribed by State law. A primary election is -held thirty days before the general election, and is conducted on the -same plan and in the same general way as the election. Candidates of -each party for all the elected offices are nominated by the enrolled -party members. At the same time leaders for the district of each -political party are elected. The ballots for each party are printed -by the State and differ in color. The candidates whose names are -printed on the primary ballot are designated by party committees, and -other persons may have their names added by petition. - -=Who May Vote at the Official Primaries—Enrolment of Voters=: -Only those who have enrolled themselves as members of the party -are permitted to vote at the official primaries. At the time of -the registration of voters in the cities, or at the last general -election in the country, voters are given a party enrolment blank to -fill out. These enrolments are placed in sealed envelopes and opened -a week after the regular election, when enrolment lists of each party -are made out. Such enrolment is not compulsory, but unless a voter -enrolls he is not able to take part in the nomination of candidates. -By enrolling he does not pledge himself to vote the party ticket at -the election (except in the case of the Socialist party); but he is -allowed to vote at the primary for candidates of the party in which -he enrolls. - -=Objections to Direct Primaries= are made that few voters take the -trouble to vote at them, and that the choice of candidates is very -limited and is still controlled by party leaders. They are also very -expensive for a candidate, especially if he is not backed by these -leaders. To stand any chance of nomination a candidate has to canvass -the voters and make himself known to them. A poor man cannot afford -to enter a contest in a direct primary unless funds are supplied him -or unless he expects to recoup himself later at the public expense. -Also, as that candidate wins the primary election who receives the -largest number of votes, the successful candidate may be one who -has had the votes of only a small proportion of the party which is -expected to support him later at the polls. - -So far in New York State the primaries, even in city elections, are -largely party affairs. The suggestion has been advanced that city -primaries should be strictly non-partisan, and that party emblems -should be eliminated from the primary ballots. - -=Nomination by a Convention= is a method still used in some States, -and until it was superseded by the direct primary it used to be -the manner of nominating candidates in New York. An official party -convention is made up of delegates elected by members of the party -from the different parts of the State. Names of possible candidates -are presented to the members in open convention, who express their -choice by ballot. - -=Objections to the Convention System= are based on the fact that the -regular party convention is usually controlled by a few leaders who -decide beforehand every detail of the business of the convention and -make up the slate. They may trade with another group and concede part -of the ticket to them in return for certain concessions which they -may obtain for themselves. The delegates are often there simply to -follow orders and to nominate the men agreed upon by the party bosses. - -The “slate” is the list of candidates for the various offices to be -filled. Nominations for these positions are usually influenced not -so much by the qualifications of the men proposed for office, as by -the ability of the proposed candidates to get out the vote and to add -strength to the ticket, also by geographical considerations, that -each part of the State or district may be represented on the ticket. - -Unofficial State conventions are still held by the leading parties -in New York. Their principal business is to frame a platform. This -convention also appoints the central committee. - -=The Primary Is Important to Every Voter= because it is there that -policies are determined and party leaders elected, as well as -candidates nominated for offices. Unless the members of the party -take the trouble to vote at the primary, the choice of candidates is -left to the few leaders who make a business of politics. This leaves -the field clear for “the boss” to put up candidates whom he can -control after election. - -The vote at the primary election is always small. The proportion of -voters who vote for the nomination of candidates is often as low as -18 or 20 per cent. of the vote cast at the election. The reason for -this is not difficult to understand. The primary election comes at a -time when little public interest has yet been aroused in the coming -election. By election-time the voters have been circularized and -canvassed and the newspapers have devoted much space to the subject. -Also much more effort is made by the party to get out the vote at -election-time than at the primary. Party leaders can count on the -faithful coming to the primary election without urging, and they are -the ones who often choose the candidates. - -=Nomination by Petition=: Most candidates on the ballot are nominated -by a party, but a man may also be nominated by a petition of -independent voters. The petition must contain the title of the office -to be filled, the name and address of the candidate, and be signed by -a certain number of voters. - - - - -X - -ELECTIONS - - -Laws concerning the holding of elections have grown much more -stringent in the last few years. Every detail of the casting of a -ballot is now prescribed by law and every precaution taken to insure -honesty of elections. The precautions apply more to cities than to -rural communities, with the result that more corruption may sometimes -be found to-day in country elections than in those in cities. - -=Registration of Voters=: In large places or densely populated -districts it is impossible for the election officials to know every -voter, therefore the law requires that in cities and villages of over -five thousand inhabitants every voter shall appear every year before -the board of registration and have his name put on the registration -list. He is required to answer certain questions as to his age, his -exact residence, his business, and where his last vote was cast, and -to sign his own name for purposes of identification and to prevent -fraud. - -In smaller places and in rural districts, the signature is not -required, and after a man’s name is once registered it remains on -the book as long as the voter remains in the district. In practice -it remains on the book until some one takes it off; and the names -of men who have died or moved away are frequently found in a rural -registration book. - -=Time of Elections=: The general elections take place in the fall, -on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. National -elections for President and Vice-President take place every four -years, in the year that ends with the figure four or its multiple. -Elections for representatives to Congress and State elections are -held the same day every two years, in the even-numbered years. City -elections are held the same day in the odd-numbered years. City -elections are held separate from State elections in order to keep -National and State issues from intruding in the election of municipal -officers. Local elections usually take place the same day, with the -exception of the spring village election and town meeting. - -=The Election District=: For convenience every county or city is -divided into election districts, each with one polling-place. The -average number of voters to an election district in New York State is -from two hundred and fifty to four hundred. When a district grows to -five hundred voters it is usually divided. In Chicago, since women -were given the vote, an election district contains from five to six -hundred voters. It has been found that the women vote at the hours -when men are busy, and that the same election officials can handle -many more votes than is customary in New York. - -=Election Officers=: Boards of elections, appointed by the county -board of supervisors, are in general charge of the elections in the -county, and there is a State Superintendent of Elections appointed -by the Governor. At each polling-place on Election Day there is an -election board consisting of four election inspectors, two ballot -clerks, and two poll clerks. The law provides that election boards -and boards of registration shall consist of equal representatives -from the two political parties that cast the highest number of -votes at the last election. This does not apply to town and village -elections. Each party also is allowed two watchers. A railing shuts -in the voting-booths and tables, and no one but the election board -and the official watchers is allowed under the law to be inside this -railing. - -The polls are open from six o’clock in the morning until five o’clock -in the afternoon. Before voting begins the ballot-boxes are opened -and inspected to see that they are empty. The official watchers -have a right to see everything that is done. Electioneering is -forbidden within one hundred feet of the polls. The voting-booths are -constructed so as to insure privacy while the voter is marking his -ballot, and the ballot is folded so that no one but the voter himself -knows how he has voted. - -=The Election=: When the voter appears to cast his ballot, he gives -his name and address, and the registration book is consulted to see -that he is registered, the number of the ballot given to him is -called out by the ballot clerk, and his name and the number of his -ballot are entered in the poll-book. - -Official ballots are provided for every polling-place, twice as many -as there are registered voters in the district. - -All the candidates for one office are grouped together on the ballot, -each name with a blank square beside it. To vote for a candidate the -voter must make a cross with a lead-pencil (not ink) inside of the -box beside the name of the candidate: [Illustration: X in box]. If -the cross extends beyond the box, or if the word “yes” is written, -if the ballot is erased or in any way defaced, it will be thrown out -at the count as void. If a voter spoils a ballot he should ask for -another one. An illiterate person is allowed assistance in marking -his ballot. - -When the voter comes out of the booth, where he has marked his ballot -in secret and folded it so it cannot be read, he gives the ballot -to an election official, who announces the name of the voter and -the number of his ballot, tears off the stub, and drops the ballot -unopened into the box. A person’s vote may be challenged by an -inspector or watcher, or at the written request of any voter. If, -under oath, he is questioned and swears that he is eligible, his vote -is recorded, but is marked challenged. - -=The Count=: At five o’clock the polls are closed and the ballots -are counted. They must not be handled by any one but the election -officials, although the watchers may see every ballot and watch the -count. The count for each office to be filled is made separately, -and if there are many candidates it may take many hours to complete -the count and know the result. Official tally sheets are provided. -The result is filed with the County Clerk. The board of supervisors -meet as a board of canvassers to canvass the result, and the returns -are sent to the State board of canvassers. - -=The Australian Ballot= is the only one used in New York State -elections. It has on one ballot the names of all candidates of all -parties for all the offices to be voted for. The names are grouped -by offices, and the first name in each group is the candidate of -the party that cast the largest vote at the last election. The only -ballots shown before Election Day are sample ballots printed on pink -paper, while the ballots used at the election are white. They are all -numbered, and every one must be accounted for. - -Until recently the ballot was printed with a column for each party, -so that the easiest thing the voter could do was to put a cross -within a circle at the head of the column, and thus vote for every -candidate of that party—what is called a “straight ticket.” The -ballot used at present requires a separate cross for every separate -candidate, and so encourages independence and intelligence on the -part of the voter. There are blank places so the voter may write in -any name he wishes for any office. - -=Short Ballot=: It is evident from the brief outline of the structure -of government contained in the earlier chapters, that there are a -great many officers to be elected. It is impossible for even the most -intelligent and most interested voter to know the merits of as many -candidates as often appear on one ballot. In some elections ballots -are used which can be measured only in feet, and sometimes even in -yards. To remedy this evil there is a strong movement toward a _short -ballot_. This would mean cutting down the number of elective offices. - -The tendency of government to-day is to concentrate the -responsibility on one man or a few men, to let them make -appointments, and to hold them accountable for results. - -=Corrupt Practices Act=: The cost of campaigns and elections to the -political parties and to many candidates is great. While there are -many legitimate expenses connected with an election, the uncontrolled -use of large funds leads to grave corruption and has brought about -careful regulation by the State of money used at election-time. -Contributions from corporations are prohibited. - -A public statement of campaign funds must be made by every candidate -and every organization taking part in a campaign, of all money -received for campaign purposes and how it has been expended. This -statement must be filed with the Secretary of State within twenty -days after the election, and be open to public inspection. Even these -precautions, while more severe than those found in most States, -have not succeeded in putting an end to the corrupt use of money in -elections. - -It has been proposed recently that an addition to the Corrupt -Practices Act should be made to require all candidates and campaign -managers to file, five days _before_ election, instead of twenty days -_after_, a list of receipts and expenditures, so that voters might -know before the election the sources of political contributions and -the use to which the money is put. - -A second proposal has been made in regard to the personnel of -the election officers, that instead of these boards being party -appointees they should be appointed from the civil service lists. -It is argued that with civil service appointees handling the count -of ballots there would be less likelihood of mistakes or deliberate -fraud. - -Oregon has adopted the plan of having a pamphlet printed by the State -for both the primaries and the elections, in which is set forth the -claims of candidates of all parties, and both sides of all public -questions to be voted on. This pamphlet is sent at public expense to -every voter in that State. - -=Voting-machines= are expensive, but they do away with the necessity -for voting-booths, and require fewer election officials. Perhaps -that is one reason they have not been more popular. They register -the number of votes cast for each candidate, and the result of the -election is known as soon as the polls are closed, and does not have -to await the long, tedious, and often incorrect count by hand. - -=The Use of School-houses= and other public buildings for -registration- and polling-places is growing more common. It not only -saves the large rent usually charged for the use of other buildings -for polling-places, but it also gives more room and more convenient -surroundings than are afforded by the kind of place often rented for -use on Election Day. Unless provision is made by a city charter or -some special permission school-houses may be used in this way only by -a vote of the people of the district. - -=The Cost of Elections= in proportion to other expenses of -government is small. In the budget for New York City it figures -less than 1 per cent. of the total budget. At the same time it -could undoubtedly be lowered by economy. High rent is paid for -polling-places, double the number of ballots necessary and liberal -supplies are given to each district. It was found in Chicago, when -women became voters, that the cost of elections was increased very -little. The supplies furnished, and the same number of election -officials, were found to be able to care for a large increase in the -number of voters. - - - - -XI - -TAXATION - - -It is evident that to carry on the necessary business of a city, -a county, the State, or the nation requires money. Also, since -everybody shares in the benefits of government, every one should help -pay the bill. - -One of the most difficult problems of government is to devise a -system of taxation that cannot be evaded, that will raise sufficient -money for expenses, and that will treat every one with equal justice. - -Taxation may be divided into two general classes, direct and -indirect. _Direct taxes_ are those imposed directly upon property -or persons; such as taxes imposed upon land, personal property, or -income. The term _indirect tax_ is applied to taxes upon activities -such as carrying on some business or upon buying, selling, -manufacturing, or importing certain articles. - -A direct tax, as a rule, cannot be evaded or shifted to some other -person. Indirect taxes can be evaded by abstaining from the activity -that is taxed. They can usually also be shifted to others, and are -generally paid by the consumer, or user of the article that is taxed. -In general, direct taxes are levied by the State and municipal -governments, while the National government derives its revenue (with -the exception of the income tax) mainly from indirect taxes. - -Taxes for local purposes are levied largely on houses and land, on -what is called _real property_. _Personal property_, which is movable -property, such as mortgages, live stock, furniture, etc., is also -subject to taxation, but it is assessed only upon the balance of its -value in excess of the indebtedness of the person taxed. It is a more -difficult tax to collect than the tax on real property, and is evaded -to such a large extent that many economists believe that it should be -abolished, and some tax substituted more possible to impose equally -and to collect. - -Village and school taxes are usually collected independently by -village and school officials.[A] Town, county, State, and city taxes -are assessed and collected at the same time. - -=Tax Districts=: The State is divided into tax districts which have -usually the boundaries of the township or city, and there are three -tax assessors in each tax district elected by the people in the town, -and usually appointed in the city. - -=How Taxes Are Assessed=: The State Legislature decides the amount -needed for carrying on the government of the State. The largest -part of these expenses are met by special indirect State taxes. -The remainder of the amount to be raised is apportioned among the -counties according to the value of taxable property in each (see -State Board of Equalization). - -The county board of supervisors decides how much is needed for county -affairs. The town meetings, or the town boards and the voters through -voting on propositions submitted by the town boards, decide how much -money is needed for the business of the towns. This sum is added to -the total amount of taxes necessary for the county government, and -to the county’s share of taxes for the State government, and the -combined sum is the amount that must be levied on the property in -that county. The amount needed to carry on the government of a city -in the county is reported to the county board of supervisors and to -this sum is added in the same way the proportion of county and State -taxes which the city must pay. - -Assessing the amount each taxpayer shall pay is the duty of the -assessors. They make up an _Assessment roll_ which must contain the -name of every person in the district who owns property, and the -assessed value of his property. The way the assessors do this work -varies largely. The policy governing assessments in rural districts -is to place as low a valuation on property as possible, in order -that the total assessed valuation for the county shall be kept down, -so that the apportionment given to the county for State taxes shall -be low, and the larger burden of taxation shall fall on the cities. -When the assessment roll is completed the assessors notify the public -that it is open for inspection, and a time and place are fixed for -a hearing, when any one who thinks he has been unfairly treated may -complain. If such a person is not satisfied with the decision of the -local assessors he may appear before the County Board of Equalization -with his complaint. - -=The County Board of Equalization= is the county board of -supervisors. They have power to equalize the assessed value of the -real property in any tax district in the county. They apportion the -amount of State and county tax due from each town or city, add the -town or city tax, then ascertain the amount each person shall pay -according to the assessed valuation of his property. This sum is -noted on the assessment roll opposite each person’s name and the roll -then becomes the tax roll of the district. - -_A practical example_: Suppose X owns a house and lot which the -assessors value at $5,000. The county board of equalization finds -that the city where X lives must raise $100,000 in taxes; $90,000 -is required for the city government; $9,000 is the sum the city is -required to contribute to the expenses of the county, and $1,000 is -the share the city has to pay toward the government of the State. The -value of taxable property in the city is $5,000,000. Every dollar of -assessed property in the city must therefore pay two cents in taxes, -and X’s taxes will be $100, of which $90 will go to the city, $9 to -the county, and $1 to the State. A mortgage on the property does not -decrease the amount to be paid. - -=Collecting Taxes=:[3] If a person fails to pay his real-estate -taxes the county treasurer is authorized to sell his property for the -unpaid taxes. The property may be redeemed by the former owner on -payment of back taxes with interest due and the cost and expenses of -the tax sale. - -Public buildings, religious and charitable institutions, are usually -free from taxation; they are for the benefit of the entire community. - -=State Taxes=: The ordinary expenses of the State government are met -by revenues derived from special indirect State taxes, so that for -years there was no direct State tax. State revenues are provided -through taxes on stock transfers, mortgage taxes, inheritance taxes, -excise, franchise, and corporation taxes. One-half the amount derived -from the excise tax goes to the State and one-half to the community -from which it comes. - -Every stock company incorporated under any law of the State must pay -a tax upon the amount of its capital stock and upon any subsequent -increase. The earnings of corporations doing business in the State -are also taxed. - -=An Inheritance Tax= is a tax imposed on the transfer of property at -death by will, or by operation of law in case of intestacy. The rate -of this tax varies according to the value of the property or share of -the recipient and his kinship to decedent. A higher rate is levied on -a large bequest or share than on a small one, and a larger percentage -is levied when the bequest or share goes to distant kin or to a -stranger than when it goes to a close relative. - -The direct property tax is now used to pay off the interest and -gradually the principal of the State debt. - -The estimated resources and revenues, not including the direct tax, -for the State for 1918 are: - - Cash balance, July 1st $11,084,423 - Stenographers’ tax 431,607 - Excise tax 5,750,000 - Corporation tax 20,000,000 - Incorporation tax 1,400,000 - Inheritance tax 14,000,000 - Stock transfer tax 6,100,000 - Investment tax 2,500,000 - Mortgage tax 1,180,000 - Motor Vehicle tax 2,375,000 - Canal maintenance receipts 150,000 - Other revenues 4,554,150 - ——————————— - Total $69,525,180 - -=The Board of Equalization= meets in Albany once a year to examine -the reports from the different counties of the value of their taxable -property, and to equalize the amount of their taxation. The State tax -commissioners, who must personally visit the counties and examine the -local rolls, and the land office commissioners form this board. - -=Federal Taxes=: The United States government even before the war -required an enormous amount of money with which to conduct its -business. In the past its chief sources of revenue have been custom -duties and internal-revenue taxes. - -=Custom Duties= are taxes levied on the importation of articles -into the United States from foreign countries. The tariff, which -fixes the rates of the impost taxes, has been a constant subject -for dispute between the major political parties. Whether the tariff -should be imposed “for revenue only,” or whether it should be “a -protective tariff” to protect American industries and American labor -from the cheap labor of other countries, has been the chief point of -difference between Republicans and Democrats at National elections. -Impost taxes are indirect taxes which eventually come out of the -pockets of the people in increased prices of the articles imported, -and incidentally they raise the prices of similar articles of -domestic manufacture. - -=Internal Revenue= or =Excise Taxes= are taxes imposed on business -or on the manufacture and sale of articles in the United States. -The most important taxes of this character are those on the -manufacture and sale of liquor and tobacco. The manufacture and sale -of cosmetics, perfumes, oleomargarine, and playing-cards are also -subject to internal-revenue taxes. In many cases these taxes are paid -by the sale of stamps to the manufacturer, who has to affix them to -the article before it is sold. As with many other kinds of taxation, -the public, the ultimate consumer, pays this tax. - -=The Income Tax= is a tax on the income of a person. Many who do not -own land or other tangible property enjoy an income. As a farmer has -to pay a tax on his farm, so a lawyer who has a lucrative practice, -but does not own land or stocks, and the man who has an income from -investments, are all required to pay their share of government -expenses. - -The income-tax law of 1916 taxes all incomes of married couples in -excess of $4,000, and all incomes of unmarried persons in excess of -$3,000. To provide further war revenue, an additional tax was imposed -in 1917 on the income of every unmarried person in excess of $1,000 -a year, and of every married couple in excess of $2,000 a year. -The rate of these taxes increases with the size of the income. The -combined income taxes may amount to as much as 67 per cent. in case -of the largest incomes. - -=Public Debt; Bonds=: If the government needs more money than it -wishes to raise by taxation, it can borrow it by issuing bonds. A -bond is a promise to pay a certain definite sum of money at a certain -time with a fixed rate of interest. United States government bonds -are the safest investment in the world. The State and municipalities -may also issue bonds, although the amount a city may borrow may be -limited by the value of its assessed property. The interest on bonds -and the payment of the principal must be met by taxation. - -Bonds should not be issued to pay for the running expenses of -government, because that is putting on future generations the unjust -burden of paying for something for which they receive no return. -Their legitimate use is to meet the cost of some improvement which -will continue to benefit those who go on paying for it. - -When bonds are issued provision should be made for the redemption of -their principal. This is done in New York State by raising annually -by direct taxation a fixed sum to be invested and kept as a separate -fund called a “sinking fund,” to be used only for this purpose. A -sinking fund for the payment of the interest and for the redemption -of the debt of the State is required by the State constitution. - -=The Budget=: Before undertaking an enterprise a wise man considers -how much it is going to cost, and where the money is coming from. A -budget is a summary of the estimated expenses for the following year -of the different departments of the government. It is a business-like -method of determining the amount of money which should be raised by a -State or municipality to meet its necessary expenses. The budget for -New York State is made by the Legislature from an estimate furnished -by each of the administrative departments of the State. It includes -in detail the amount of salaries, traveling expenses, and maintenance -of each department. - -The making of a budget for a city is of the greatest importance to -the taxpayers. Public hearings are held on it, when taxpayers may -be heard for or against the use of the money in the designated way, -and when they may ask for additional appropriations for some city -activity. Public servants in this, as in every other department of -service, work best under supervision. The taxpayer owes it to himself -to maintain adequate representation at these hearings. It is on the -basis of the budget as finally adopted that taxes are adjusted for -the following year. (See Chapter IV on Greater New York.) - -The National government has not yet adopted the budget plan, and the -President has not the power to veto any item of an appropriation bill -unless he vetoes the entire measure. - -This is a limitation which is greatly deplored, as it prevents -him from cutting out any provision in the bill which he may -think unwarranted or extravagant, or which has come out of the -“pork-barrel.” This is a term applied to appropriations given by -Congress to certain local communities for some Federal building or -for the development of some local resource which is not of advantage -to the National government, and which is given not because there is -any need for it, but because the representative from that district -in Congress wants to make himself popular with his constituents by -getting for them some public plunder. - -=Every Dollar That Is Spent in Any Department of Government Comes -Out of the Pockets of the People=: It is not easy for the public to -realize this. The Congressman who gets an extra appropriation for a -post-office or other public building that is not needed, in order -to please his home people, may get more votes, but he is adding to -the public burden. In return for a vote for his post-office he may -have to give his vote to a fellow-Congressman for an unnecessary -expenditure in another State. The chain so formed is practically -endless, and its inevitable effect is to raise the cost of government -unwarrantably. Every such expenditure, every unnecessary public -salary, every dishonest public official, every tax-dodger, every -incompetent piece of public work, adds to the burden of taxation -which the people have to pay. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[3] In some counties local arrangements make it difficult for absent -owners of property to know when and where taxes are due. Every -tax-collector should be obliged to follow the usage of any good -business house and mail a bill for taxes. - - - - -XII - -PUBLIC HIGHWAYS - - -Road-making has been a function of government since the early ages. -The old Roman roads still exist as evidence of the labor and care -that were put into them. - -Ease of communication, which permits people to journey from home and -see what the rest of the world is doing, is a great factor in binding -people together, and tends to promote progress. - -Good roads are important to every citizen, not only because of the -increased use of the automobile, but because they are a vital part of -the business life of the country. The farmer needs them to move his -crops to market. Without them he may be unable to sell his produce at -the time it is most needed and when he could get the best prices for -it. The merchant needs them to receive supplies and make deliveries; -the manufacturer needs them for the moving of his raw material; the -city-dweller needs them so that food may come into city markets. -Public highways are the connecting arteries between city and country. - -New York State has recognized the need of good roads, and has -spent an immense amount of money to secure them. Some years ago a -bond issue of $50,000,000 was authorized in the belief that such a -large sum of money would put the roads in a condition to meet all -requirements for many years. - -In 1907 the Legislature approved contracts for 8,300 miles of county -highways, believing that the money available would be sufficient. -The following year it approved contracts for 3,600 miles of State -highways and another bond issue of $50,000,000 was found necessary. -Not only had the cost of labor and material greatly increased, but in -addition the use of motor-trucks and motor-buses was beginning to put -a strain on roads and road-beds which had not been anticipated. - -Old roads began to go to pieces rapidly and needed constant repair -and often replacing. Even the new roads, where the road-beds were -of stone only six inches deep, soon spread and disintegrated under -trucks weighing from one to fifteen tons. This use of motor-trucks -is increasing, and is necessary for the traffic requirements of the -State, but highways are being subject to a strain hitherto unknown, -and this strain will increase in both quantity and severity. - -How to meet the requirements and maintain and repair roads built for -light traffic which are giving way under the new demands, and how -to build new roads strong enough to stand up under the strain, are -problems the State finds it difficult to meet. New road-beds are now -required of stone from nine to twelve inches deep. - -Some roads are built by the State, some by the county, and some by -the town. In many cases the cost of the work is divided between -county and town, or between county and State. The State may help a -town build a road, but it can only contribute the same amount or less -than the town appropriates. - -All material that is used in road-building must be tested in the -laboratories maintained by the State Highway Department, and constant -experiments are being made to test materials and specifications to -find out what will stand the hardest wear. - -All roads must be built and repaired under the direction of the State -Highway Commissioner, but whether these instructions are carried -out often depends on local officials. The public believes that there -has been no part of government in New York State more honeycombed -with fraud than the one of road-building and maintaining; that -specifications have been skimped or ignored, different materials have -been substituted from those prescribed, cheaper construction of every -kind passed by inspectors, and that the result has been that many -roads of the State have cost vast sums of money for which the State -is in debt and have not lasted even a few years. - -In 1916 the State had a total of 4,027 miles of macadam roads and -5,836 miles of gravel town roads, and more than half of all the -improved roads in the State had been constructed within five years. -There were 728 patrolmen employed looking after repairs. - -The entire cost of bridges is met by the towns with occasional aid -from the county. If a State road goes through a village, the same -amount is allowed as for the rest of the construction, and if the -village wants another kind of a paving or a wider road it must -pay the difference in cost. The State Highway Department gives as -averages of cost: for macadam roads $10,000 a mile; first-class -concrete, $15,000 a mile; and brick paving, $25,000 a mile. - -The State highway law provides that all construction must be done by -contract. Prison labor is not employed on State and county roads as -in some States, but it has been used on roads built by towns. - -In spite of the huge appropriations, the State roads are far from -complete as planned. Nearly $750,000 will be available in 1918 from -the National government as part of New York State’s share in the -Federal appropriation for roads. - -“Working out” a road tax was never a method which contributed to good -roads. The earth roads on which the taxpayer puts his unskilled labor -are usually impassable many months of the year. - -=City Streets=: The local government decides where a road or street -is needed, and with the consent of a sufficient proportion of the -property-owners may purchase or condemn the necessary property. If -the owner is not satisfied with the payment offered, appraisers must -be appointed to decide the amount that should be paid. - -City streets must be maintained by the city government. If a person -is injured by the failure of the government to keep sidewalks -in repair he has a right to sue the government for damages. The -municipal government, on the other hand, may require property-owners -to keep their sidewalks in good condition. - -=Street-cleaning=: Since many thousands of children have no -playground but the street, the condition in which city streets are -kept is of great importance to their health and general welfare. -Disease germs are heavy and are most numerous near the ground. If -playgrounds could be arranged on the roofs of high buildings the -children would be the gainers from the pure air. Unfortunately, the -streets in which they play are not usually the ones which are cleaned -most frequently by the street-cleaning department. Old and young are -disorderly—newspapers, cigarette-butts, and fruit-skins are thrown -down anywhere. Streets littered with papers, with dust-laden pieces -blowing back and forth, increase the dangers from disease. - -Carelessness on the part of the public in throwing things into the -streets adds many thousands of dollars to the cost of street-cleaning -departments. Every time that a person throws a paper or any object -into the street eventually some one else must be paid to pick it up. - -Most municipalities have ordinances against littering the streets, -but they are often dead letters. - -The cleanliness and good order of city streets pay in dollars and -cents, in public comfort and convenience, and in a lowered death-rate. - -=Parks=: With the congestion of population that is not confined to -New York City or any one part of the State, parks large and small -have become a necessity not only for pleasure and beauty, but for -the health of the community. In the country people can be out of -doors as much as they please, but when families are obliged to live -close together, “breathing-places” are of actual physical benefit, -especially if they can be green with grass and trees. Communities -often awaken to the need of parks too late, after all available -places are occupied, when in order to provide the necessary oasis -property has to be condemned and often enormous sums of money paid -for it. - -=City Planning=: Most of our cities have grown up haphazard without -any definite plan of development. As new industries have come in -they have brought in large numbers of employees, who have had to be -provided with living-places, and a new section of the city has been -started. Or a real-estate boom, fostered by some private enterprise, -will develop another quarter without consideration for the welfare -of the incoming population. As land values advance, in order to -squeeze all the profit possible out of this increase, high crowded -buildings spring up, planned to house as many people as possible in a -restricted area. New York City and many other places are continuing -to create new tenement districts in outlying quarters of the city -where land is still plentiful. - -It is not easy to change congested areas built up in the past, but it -is a wrong to coming generations to continue to allow considerations -of health and decency to be ignored in the future growth of cities. -Haphazard growth has cost the public dearly in actual money values. -Unrestricted crowded living conditions have cost still more dearly -in the moral and physical vitality of the people who have had to put -up with them. These mistakes of the past cannot be remedied, but -cities and villages are still growing, and the wise community is -now developing a plan in advance for its future growth, which will -safeguard public health and welfare, and the convenience as well as -the beauty of the city. - -=The Value of Beauty=: Streets and roads do not need to be bare and -ugly. Some attention paid to appearance costs very little and is a -distinct benefit to the public. Weeds are usually cut down along the -roadside, but so, too often, are the trees. When one thinks of the -many years it takes for a tree to attain a fine growth, one wonders -at the carelessness with which they are sacrificed. A well-shaded -road bordered by trees, or a shaded city street, testifies to the -intelligence and thrift of the people responsible for them. Such care -is apt to be repaid by increased property values. - - - - -XIII - -COURTS - - -In the United States there are two classes of courts—State courts -and United States or Federal courts. The State courts of each State -derive their jurisdiction and powers from the constitution and laws -of the State. The United States courts derive their jurisdiction and -powers from the Constitution and laws of the United States. - -The functions of the courts are to hear and decide criminal and civil -cases. - -=Criminal Cases= are prosecutions or proceedings by the State or -Federal government to enforce the laws made for the preservation -of peace, law, and order in the community, by the imposition of -fines, or imprisonment, or the punishment of death, in case of their -violation. - -=Civil Cases= are suits or proceedings brought for the enforcement -or protection of personal or property rights; as, for example, suits -to recover compensation or damages for personal injuries, or the -destruction of property, or for breaches of contract, or to recover -property wrongfully taken, or to restrain by injunction threatened -wrongful acts for which a suit for money damages would not be an -adequate remedy. - -At the trial of a criminal or civil case, the judge supervises and -directs the proceedings, and decides any question of law which may -arise. Questions of fact, arising in criminal cases, and in most -civil cases, are decided by a jury of twelve qualified citizens drawn -from a panel or list; but in certain classes of civil cases the judge -decides questions of fact as well as questions of law. - -Civil as well as criminal cases must be commenced and carried on in -a manner prescribed by law or by rules of the courts. In New York -the laws of procedure are commonly believed to be unnecessarily -complicated and technical. Innumerable controversies have arisen as -to their meaning and effect. They have been amended and supplemented -by many statutes, and there is a strong movement among lawyers -to secure the adoption of a simpler and more workable system of -procedure. - -In New York State the courts are of the following classes: _Justices -of the Peace, or Justices’ Courts_, try petty criminal cases -involving small thefts, drunkenness, disorderly conduct, and breach -of the peace, and certain ordinary civil suits involving sums of not -over $200. A person accused of serious crime before a justice of the -peace may be held to await action of a grand jury. - -In New York City, and in various other cities of the State, the -functions of the justices’ courts are performed by courts called -_Municipal Courts_, _City Courts_, _Magistrates_ or _Police Courts_, -the latter having jurisdiction only over petty criminal cases. The -powers and duties, as well as the names of these lower courts, vary -in the different cities. - -It is most important that honest, sympathetic men should preside over -these lower courts, for in them are tried the small offenses which -may be due to ignorance of law, and a large number of people come in -contact with government in no other way. - -Most arrests are for minor offenses such as drunkenness, disorderly -conduct, etc. They are tried here, and many of them bring first -offenders into court, where the treatment received by the person -accused may determine whether he will become a habitual offender -or whether he will be set straight. Many foreigners come into these -courts, and receive in them their first impression of justice as -administered in this country. Oftentimes the offense is committed -through ignorance or stupidity. A kind word or a helping hand may -make all the difference between a future good citizen or a crook. In -these courts, as in the justices courts of the town or village, there -is great need of a careful choice of magistrates. - -=County Courts=: In every county except New York there is a county -court presided over by the elected county judge. In these county -courts may be tried civil suits in which the sum involved is not over -$2,000 and all crimes except those punishable by death. They also -hear appeals from the justices’ courts. The county courts in Queens, -Bronx, Richmond, Kings, Ulster, and Albany counties may try cases -involving the death penalty. - -=Surrogates’ Courts=: In each county there is a surrogate court, -held by a judge called “the Surrogate,” who is elected by the voters -of the county for a term of six years (except in the county of New -York). In this court wills are probated, the estates of persons -deceased are settled, and guardians for minors and executors or -administrators for estates of decedents are appointed. It is evident -that a county surrogate should be a man of strictest probity as well -as good business sense. - -=Court of Claims=: Any one who has a claim against the State may take -it to the Court of Claims, which consists of three judges appointed -by the governor with the approval of the Senate. Appeals from its -decisions may be taken to the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court. - -=The Supreme Court=: Above the county courts are the Supreme Courts, -which, however, are not really supreme, as their decisions are -subject to review, and may be reversed upon appeal by the Appellate -Division or the Court of Appeals. The Supreme Courts may try any -civil or criminal cases, including prosecutions for murder. There are -more than one hundred Supreme Court justices in the State, elected by -the voters of the various districts, and the entire State is divided -into nine judicial districts, in which certain of these Supreme Court -justices sit. In every county, at a certain time, a Supreme Court -justice holds a _trial court_, where both civil and criminal cases -are heard before a trial jury. He also holds a _special term_, where -he hears and decides motions and civil cases in which no jury trial -is required. - -=Appellate Divisions of the Supreme Court=: As judges are human -and may make mistakes, the law provides a right of appeal from the -court in which a case is tried. The whole State is divided into four -judicial departments, in each of which there is an Appellate Division -of the Supreme Court. From the Supreme Court justices the governor -chooses the justices for the Appellate Divisions. These Appellate -Divisions hear appeals from decisions of the county courts and of -the Supreme Courts, and they may sit wherever the public interest -demands. They do not try cases originally, but only hear appeals. - -=The Court of Appeals= is composed of a chief judge and nine -associate judges, but only seven judges sit at one time. This court -is the State court of last resort, and it may reverse a decision of -an Appellate Division of the Supreme Court. In most cases no appeal -lies to the Court of Appeals from a decision of a question of fact -by a lower court, but only questions of law can be reviewed; but in -criminal cases where the sentence is death the entire case may be -reviewed. - -=Courts of Record= are those courts that have an official seal and -keep an official record of all proceedings. The Surrogate’s Court, -the County Court, the Supreme Court and its appellate divisions, -and the Court of Appeals are courts of record. Justices’ Courts and -Magistrates’ Courts are not courts of record. - -=Federal Courts=: The jurisdiction of the United States or Federal -courts extends to all cases in law and equity arising under the -Constitution and laws of the United States, to all cases affecting -ambassadors and other public ministers and consuls, to admiralty -and maritime cases, and to controversies between States or between -citizens of different States. Federal courts are organized in a -similar way to State courts. - -=The United States District Courts= hear, in the first instance, -all classes of cases over which the United States courts have -jurisdiction, except the cases mentioned below. The entire country is -divided into ninety judicial districts, and each State has at least -one district. - -=The United States Court of Claims=, which is located in Washington, -has jurisdiction over claims against the United States government. - -=The Circuit Court of Appeals= is an appellate court by which -decisions of the United States district courts may be reviewed. - -=The United States Supreme Court= is the highest tribunal in the -land. In cases affecting ambassadors and consuls, and those to which -the State is a party, the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction. -Other cases can come before it only upon an appeal, or writ of error, -to review a decision of a lower United States court or a decision of -the highest State court involving a question of Federal law. There is -a chief justice and eight associate justices of the Supreme Court, -who are appointed for life. To be a justice of the Supreme Court of -the United States is considered one of the highest honors in the land. - -The judges of all the Federal courts are appointed by the President -with the consent of the Senate. - -=Constitutionality of the Law=: One important power which the courts -have is to interpret the meaning of the Constitution and laws, -but they have no power to do so except so far as necessary to the -disposal of cases before them. - -The constitution of the State is its fundamental law, as that of -the United States (together with the laws made by Congress under it -and treaties made by the United States) is the supreme law of the -entire United States. A question may arise as to the precise meaning -and scope of a constitutional provision. In this case the court -may interpret its meaning, and may declare void a law because in -violation of the constitution. - -=An Injunction= is an order or decree issued by a court, restraining -some person or persons or corporation from performing certain acts, -on the ground that such acts would cause an injury or loss, for which -a suit to recover money damages would not furnish adequate redress. -A temporary injunction, or restraining order, may be issued upon -affidavits, in advance of the final trial of a case, when it may -either be dissolved or be made permanent. An injunction may also -command the performance of some act. In such cases it is called -a mandatory injunction. If an injunction is violated, the person -disobeying can be arrested and sent to jail or fined “for contempt of -court” without trial by jury. Many efforts have been made to limit -this power of the courts. In Oklahoma, the law provides for jury -trial in case of contempt of court for violation of an injunction. - -Judges are elected for a longer term of years than are other public -officials. County judges have a six-year term. Supreme Court justices -and judges of the Court of Appeals are elected for a term of fourteen -years. The reason for the longer term of service is that the -increased experience is supposed to make a judge more valuable to the -State; also, on account of the long term, he is supposed to be less -affected by political considerations. - -Whether _judges_ should be _appointed or elected_ has been a matter -of considerable controversy. It is argued that if they are appointed, -the appointment may be a reward for political service instead of -because of fitness for the position. On the other hand, if judges -are elected, it is objected that they must take part in political -contests, and are apt to give decisions more with regard to popular -favor than to actual justice. Many persons think that in practice -better judges are obtained by appointment than by popular election. -State judges are usually elected, but the Federal judges are -appointed. - -The election of proper men for the position of judge is one of the -most important duties of an electorate. Whether the process of the -law insures justice and increases public security depends often more -on the judge than on the letter of the law. Decisions involving the -happiness, rights, and lives of countless people go through the -courts of the State. These decisions should not be in the hands of -men to whom the office has been given as a reward for party service, -or who have been put in the position by prejudiced interests. A wise, -intelligent, public-spirited judge has enormous opportunity to add to -the sum of public welfare. - - - - -XIV - -THE PUNISHMENT OF CRIME - - -A crime is an offense against the people of the State. Also every -action that is brought before a court costs the State money and adds -to the burden of taxation borne by the people. - -A free government carefully guards the rights of an accused person. -He must be told of the charges against him and be given every chance -to answer them. He is presumed by the law to be innocent until he -is proved guilty, and is not obliged to answer any questions that -may incriminate himself. He may be examined at once by a magistrate, -or, if he prefers, may be committed to jail to await a future -examination. If held for any except the most serious crime he may -be allowed his liberty by some one “giving bail”—that is, giving a -pledge of money or property to insure his appearance in court at a -certain date. If he “jumps his bail” the money is forfeited to the -State, although that does not protect him if he can be found. If the -charge of which he is accused is a serious one, it must come before a -grand jury. - -=The Grand Jury= is a body of men chosen from the taxpayers of a -county to inquire into alleged crimes during a particular term of -court. The supervisors or the commissioner of jurors makes out a -list of three hundred names of men of integrity and sound judgment, -from which the names of twenty-four men are drawn by lot.[B] From -sixteen to twenty-three of these men sit in secret session, and hear -the presentment of a case, and decide by a vote of at least twelve -members whether the evidence is sufficient to warrant holding the -accused for trial. - -The necessity of a case coming before the grand jury often causes -much delay in a trial, as the jury can only be called when court -is in session, and there are often long periods of time between -courts. On the other hand, the fact that the grand jury is made up -of a man’s neighbors and friends, who would be disposed to give him -fair treatment, is a safeguard to his interests. If “a true bill” -is found, the accused person comes before the court and the charge -against him is read to him. If he pleads guilty the judge imposes a -sentence. If he pleads “not guilty” the trial proceeds. - -If the accused has no lawyer, the court must appoint one for him. -While a man so appointed must defend the case, the best lawyers are -not secured in this way. There has been considerable demand for the -creation of the office of public defender for accused persons. The -State employs public prosecutors, and it is argued that it should be -as much interested in proving a man’s innocence as in proving his -guilt. - -=Trial by Jury= is a right guaranteed by the constitutions of both -the State and the nation. A trial jury is composed of twelve men -chosen from a list of qualified men in the county where the crime is -committed, or is being tried. After the evidence in the case has been -presented and the judge makes his charge as to the law applicable to -the case, the jury retires to a secret session, where they are kept -in confinement until they reach a unanimous verdict. In England it -requires only a majority of the jury to render a verdict. - -=Jury Service= is one of the important duties of a citizen. It is not -required of certain classes of men—_viz._, clergymen, physicians, -druggists, lawyers, and newspaper-men, among others—and judges have -the power to excuse men on whom jury service would entail special -hardship. Jurors are paid a small sum by the day, and to many men -jury service means serious inconvenience and financial loss. But -to leave the settlement of cases which involve the serious welfare -of both individuals and the public, to professional jurors, the -hangers-on of a court-room, is a great wrong to the community. - -=Women Jurors=[C] have not yet been permitted in New York State, -although in some Western States they have served with much success. -There are certain cases involving young girls and children where it -would seem that only women should be allowed on the jury. Cases of -murder committed by a woman might be treated with more impartial -justice if women served on such juries. Sentimental considerations -would not influence them as they do some men in such cases. - -=The Police=: Much of the public welfare and safety of a city -depends on its police force. A modern police is organized on a -military basis. The men hold their positions for life or during -good behavior. Promotions are based on merit, and pensions are -paid men who have served a certain term of years. This plan has -improved conditions by taking the police out of politics to a large -degree. The policy of the head of the department is of the greatest -importance to the public. The temptations for graft and corruption -in a police department are enormous, but the assurance of a square -deal all up and down the line, strict orders to uphold the law, and -a well-defined policy against graft of every description, will do -wonders to keep a department honest and efficient. - -In recent years the plan has been developed of making the police -helpful in many ways in the life of the city. The uniformed officer -has many opportunities to help and direct children, especially the -boys on the streets, to prevent violations of the city’s ordinances, -the littering of the streets, and in many ways to prevent before the -act, rather than to arrest after it has been committed. - -This helpful spirit has been adopted by the police of New York City, -to the great good of the city. It is exemplified in the Christmas -trees in the station-houses for the poorer children of a neighborhood -at Christmas-time. - -=Prison Reform=: Modern government is learning not to avenge -itself on a criminal, but to impose a sentence which will tend to -reform him. Instead of sentencing a person to a definite term of -imprisonment, an indeterminate sentence may be given him, the length -of which will be determined by his behavior, and by the promise he -may show of leading a better life if set free. If he is released he -may be put on probation. This means that he is required to report -at regular intervals to the court, or to a probation officer, to -show that his conduct is law-abiding. If he goes wrong again, he is -remanded to serve out his sentence. - -Men and women, wherever confined, must be given employment. Idleness -is bad for even an educated person. Imposed on one who has no -resources within himself, it becomes a source of demoralization -scarcely to be measured. The old custom was to hire prisoners out to -contractors at low wages. This brought goods manufactured by prison -labor into unfair competition with honest labor. - -The modern idea is to teach the prisoner a useful occupation and to -pay the wages to his family. It is not common-sense to support a man -in prison at the expense of the State, and to allow his family to -suffer from having his support taken away from them. - -=Probation=: First offenders, or persons committing minor offenses, -are often put at once on probation, with the sentence suspended -during good behavior. This has proved of great value in saving many -from a criminal career. It is far less costly to the State than -keeping them in prison, and often leads to the establishment of an -honest life.[4] - -=Jails and Prisons=: Every community has some kind of jail for the -detention of offenders. Those who come in contact with the law are -often the poor and the friendless who cannot get bail. Even innocent -persons may be held some time awaiting trial, or the action of the -grand jury. Young girls are often detained, sometimes as witnesses, -sometimes pending investigation of their own cases, sometimes as -runaways from home. In such a case there is no place of detention but -the local jail. These jails are often filthy and unsanitary, unfit -for human habitation. Their surroundings, and the character of the -sheriff or constable, and jail officials, must inevitably have an -effect on the prisoners, especially on the younger women. It is most -important to the community that a woman shall not be sent out from -jail a more hardened criminal because of her confinement there. It is -a wrong, the responsibility for which every woman in the neighborhood -must share, that there is no better place of detention for young -girls. Women matrons in all prisons where women are held and women -probation officers are now recognized as essential. - -It is unintelligent to allow a man to leave jail penniless far -from his home and friends, to become a tramp or to be tempted to a -new offense to get money. The modern ideal of criminology is that -his stay in prison should teach a man an honest way of earning his -living; also that he should be given some supervision after he has -left the prison doors, to help him to lead an honest life. - -=City Farms= for the detention of offenders are a great improvement -on indoor prisons, and the open-air occupation both saves the State -money and is beneficial to the prisoner. - -=The Prevention of Crime=: If as much money and organized effort -could be put on the prevention of crime as is given to its -punishment, the need of jails and prisons would be greatly lessened. -The chief causes of crime are drunkenness, feeble-mindedness, -overcrowded living conditions, low wages, and insufficient -education and recreation. Drunkenness is now known to be a disease; -feeble-minded persons should not be allowed freedom of action; the -State may prevent congested living, it may establish a living wage, -and it has the power to provide proper vocational training and -sufficient facilities for healthful recreation. It tries to separate -the young offenders from the older ones, and the first offenders -from the hardened ones. It has not succeeded very well in preventing -inequalities before the law. The rich man has the advantage of being -able to employ the most skilful lawyers and to appeal his case to -court after court and drag it out over a number of years. When a fine -is imposed he can pay it and so sometimes escape punishment. The poor -man may have to go to jail because he cannot pay his fine and he is -often unable to fight a suit. - -To lessen the hardships and secure equality of treatment for all -alike should be the endeavor of the State. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[4] The last report of the New York State Probation Commission shows -that on September 30, 1916, there were 13,433 persons on probation, -and that the number of inmates of the penal and reformatory -institutions in the State was decreasing. Probation officers had -themselves collected $139,000 for cases of non-support, and had -caused to be paid another sum of $206,000 for these cases. They had -assisted men to pay, in instalments, fines amounting to $30,000, -which meant that these men were kept out of jail and at work, and had -helped men who had stolen something or had done material damage to -some one to repay those they had injured the sum of $39,000. It is -evident that there is a saving of hard cash to the State in this work -as well as much of social value. - - - - -XV - -WOMEN OFFENDERS AND THE LAW - - -The Constitution of the United States guarantees to a person accused -of crime a trial by an impartial jury, or by a jury of one’s peers. -The handling of cases against women offenders has little regard -for that guarantee. Discriminations against women who have come in -contact with the law are the custom. - -If any one is inclined to doubt this, let him imagine the case -reversed and applied to himself. Suppose a man accused of an offense -against the law should be accused by a woman, arrested by a woman, -held in jail by a woman, tried in a court-room filled with women, -before a jury composed only of women, and sentenced by a woman judge. -Would such a man feel that he was getting impartial justice given him -by his peers? - -Also in the treatment of cases involving sex, the penalty of the -law rests heavily on the woman and the man usually goes free. Sex -immorality is a crime for a woman, but the man, the partner in the -crime, is rarely touched by the law. Until recently in New York -State, even pandering, or living off the earnings of a prostitute, -was classed, as it still is in some other States, as disorderly -conduct, in the same class of offenses as selling a street-car -transfer. In some States adultery is still a misdemeanor. It did -not become a criminal offense in New York until 1907, and it is -still almost impossible to obtain a conviction unless there are -some unusually revolting circumstances. Many cases have come into -the courts of the State where women have been arrested in a raid -on a disorderly house, and where the men found with them have been -released, and the women held. - -The large majority of the arrests of women are for the two offenses -of intoxication, and prostitution or street-walking. The usual -sentence for both of these offenses is commitment to the workhouse -for from eleven to sixty days. Nearly half the cases of intoxication -are of old offenders who are sentenced over and over again. Some -years ago the Legislature passed a measure making provision for a -State farm where these women could be sent for care and treatment, -and where they could have useful occupation; but it has not yet been -established. - -=Prostitution=: The same sentence to the workhouse for varying -periods of from five to ninety days, or even six months, is the -common one for prostitution. It is doubtful if a sentence of -this kind has ever been of the slightest benefit to any woman so -sentenced. The usual court procedure is a mill through which this -class of unhappy beings goes, without either their reformation being -accomplished, or their danger being lessened to the community. When -it is realized also, that a considerable percentage of these women -are feeble-minded or at least sub-normal, the necessity of facilities -for examination and classification and proper segregation are -apparent. - -The entire process of dealing with the problem of public prostitution -in New York City is one that is revolting from a woman’s viewpoint. -To rid the streets of street-walkers and to keep them “clean,” a -force of police in plain clothes patrols the streets. These police -are usually the new men on the force selected for their youth and -good looks. Promotion often rests on the number of arrests that they -make. A smile or a nod, and a girl may respond. If she speaks, an -arrest can and often does follow. - -This kind of training for the young men of the police force is -degrading to them. Also, the fact that arrests in nine cases out -of ten are those of women of the street, does not preclude the -possibility of the arrest of a silly, ignorant, but innocent girl. -Brought into court, the presumption is that she is guilty. - -There is always a first arrest for any offender against the law. -The records of the magistrates’ courts show that nearly one-third -of the women’s cases brought into court are first offenders. Called -for the first time before a judge in an open court-room, incoherent -with fright, the girl is often unable to say a word for herself. If -she is fined, or sentenced to the workhouse, or held in detention -pending investigation, and is kept in association with other women of -degraded lives, the chances of her being reclaimed are practically -gone. - -The law holds an accused person innocent until proved guilty, but a -woman accused of a crime against morality has to prove that she is -innocent. Under the usual court procedure, a prostitute is outside -the protection of the law and her word has no value in the court. - -=Night Courts= have been established in order that offenders arrested -at night, after the day courts have closed, may come immediately -before a magistrate, without having to spend the night in jail -awaiting trial. There are separate night courts for women in New York -City, and all arrests for prostitution or loitering are tried in -these courts. - -The motive behind the establishment of the Women’s Night Court is -humanitarian, but it is there that one sees the discrimination -against women as the fundamental of the proceedings. - -Women are sentenced to terms in prison for offenses far less -serious than those for which men are discharged. The discrimination -against women, and in favor of men, even extends to the cadet, who -pursues the most shameful business in the world, that of exploiting -unfortunate women. Until a few years ago the maximum penalty for such -a man was six months in the workhouse. - -The law now permits a sentence of from two to twenty years, but -convictions are rare. Nearly every prostitute is exploited by some -man who takes her earnings, and on whom she relies to protect her -from the police. If these cadets and procurers could be eliminated -it would greatly diminish professional prostitution, but they are -most difficult to reach. The women they exploit will often perjure -themselves to save these men from the vengeance of the law. Also, -the fact that no conviction can be had on the testimony of the woman -unless supported by corroborative evidence, makes her afraid to -testify against one of them. - -=The Penalty of Fines=: Imposing a fine as a punishment for -prostitution should be absolutely prohibited. It does not act as a -restraint, and simply means that the woman must go out on the street -to earn her fine, and it makes the State a partner to her crime. It -has been abolished in practice by some judges; but it is still the -custom in some courts in New York State, and is even imposed by some -judges in New York City. A bill to abolish fines throughout the State -was introduced in the Legislature of 1916, but failed to pass. - -=Young Girls=: Girls between the ages of sixteen and eighteen are -in the most dangerous period of life. Figures show that the great -majority of girls who become prostitutes are ruined before they reach -seventeen years of age. - -A girl of sixteen in New York State is too old for the Children’s -Court. She may therefore be held in jail with the hardened -street-walker and the habitual drinker. If she is without the -protection of home or family, she may be left alone, for the State -makes no provision for a guardian for her unless she has property, -when the State is required to provide one for her. - -Delinquency, thefts, and misdemeanors on the part of young girls are -often the results of natural instincts gone wrong. Love of pleasure, -a desire for pretty things, and a wish to be attractive is common to -all girls. A false step, a yielding to temptation, followed by an -arrest and a trial in an open court-room, often mean an ordeal which -leaves an indelible mark on the girl’s soul, and a disgrace which it -is almost impossible for her to live down. - -=Girl Victims=: The most pitiful cases are those of very young girls -brought into court as the victims of crime. It is difficult to get -conviction in these cases, as corroborative evidence is necessary. -The shock to the sensibilities of such a girl at having to tell her -story to men and having to answer questions in an open court-room can -scarcely be exaggerated. The need of women in places of authority, to -help in cases of such crimes, is great. Women probation officers are -only the first step in the right direction, but there are too few of -them, and whenever a movement is made toward economy, they are the -first to be dismissed. - -=Houses of Detention=: A great need of New York City, and a need -shared by every city in the State, is a proper place of detention for -women. As delinquent children are now separated from older offenders, -so delinquent girls, first offenders and old offenders, and other -classes of women who are held awaiting trial, or for investigation, -or as witnesses, should not be obliged to associate indiscriminately -with one another while awaiting the disposition of their cases. - -The need of a building large enough to provide for the separate -detention of the various classes of women who are in the care of the -court has been recognized, but so far little provision has been made -to meet it. In other places in the State, wherever there is a court, -there is need of a place of detention for women where they will be -safe from degrading influences, and where they will be under the care -of other women. - -=Women Judges or Judges’ Assistants=: The system which has been -instituted in Chicago since women were given the vote, of a quiet -talk with a woman assistant in the Court of Special Sessions, in -her own private office, instead of an open trial, has resulted in -saving many a girl who otherwise would have become an outcast. In -certain intimate matters it is a woman’s task to question girls. -Contrast the picture of an open court-room: the judge on the bench, -the jury, if there is one, composed of men, the room filled with men -of all descriptions, and the frightened, trembling child, with this -private room with the young offender telling her story alone to an -experienced woman. Which offers the best chance for saving the girl -from a ruined life? - -Frequently the girl comes from a family where crowded living -conditions make decent living almost impossible. Instead of her first -offense coming up for inevitable punishment, it is treated with the -sole object of prevention and cure. - -Judges in New York State cannot appoint women assistants without -authority from the Legislature, and that authority the Legislature -has always refused to give. - -=Policewomen=, or =Women Protective Officers=, are now recognized -as a necessary part of the correctional work of a city. The work -of the woman protective officer is very different from that of the -policeman. The policewoman protects and controls, rather than -arrests. In protecting children, in caring for lost children, in -acting as mother to the motherless, in watching over young girls, in -getting evidence against cadets, she does an invaluable work. The -disorderly saloon, the dance-hall, and the moving-picture theater are -all hunting-grounds for the white-slaver. In getting evidence in this -sort of crime she is more effective than the policeman. There are -policewomen now in fifty cities of the United States. - - * * * * * - -That the whole subject of prostitution and the law is a most -difficult one to deal with, there can be no question. It needs the -combined intelligence of both men and women engaged not only in -theorizing over the problem, but in actual efforts to grapple with -it. Until public opinion supports the single standard of morality, -the courts will continue to discriminate against women. - -Unfortunately, women of all ages, even very young girls, are -arrested. Sometimes they are guilty, sometimes innocent, sometimes -sinned against, sometimes only the victims of circumstances, but -always unfortunate. Their misfortune and its results on their lives -are more terrible than they need be, because they are usually -deprived of the help of women in places of authority. - -In the Chicago Court of Morals women are welcome, and there are women -court officers, women police, and women probation officers who create -an atmosphere entirely different from the usual court-room. There is -also no division of sex; when it is a question of morality, the man -and woman are both held. A physical examination is made by a woman -physician. When a woman is found to be diseased she is sent to a -hospital to be cured. - -Some of the most progressive magistrates and judges are endeavoring -to improve the methods of handling cases of women offenders, but it -would seem that wherever the welfare and disposition of women are -involved other women should be part of the machinery which deals with -them. This is not so much because of sentimental considerations, for -in some cases women would be less influenced by sentiment than men, -but there are certain peculiarities, tendencies, and experiences -common to each sex which only those of that sex can understand. In -all cases of women offenders against the law other women must be -concerned, and should be equally responsible with men for their -handling and disposition. - - - - -XVI - -PUBLIC EDUCATION - - -The best foundation for a democracy rests on free educational -facilities for all the people. An ideal school system is one that -reaches out to every child and prepares him for a useful occupation, -that is also available for the further development of every member -of the State, and that will give every individual the knowledge -necessary for him to do his part in government. A self-governing -people cannot afford a class too ignorant to vote. - -In New York State, school attendance is compulsory for children -between the ages of seven and sixteen years. An exception is made of -children between fourteen and sixteen, who have completed the first -six years of school, and have been to school 130 days since their -fourteenth birthday. Such children may be employed if they have a -duly signed work certificate. In cities of the first and second -classes, boys between fourteen and sixteen who are employed during -the day, who do not hold certain certificates, must attend night -school sixteen weeks in the year. Truant officers must be appointed -in every city, town, and village to enforce the law. Parents who fail -to send their children to school are guilty of a misdemeanor. - -=The School District= is the smallest division of the State, and must -maintain a free common school at least thirty-six weeks in the year. -In 1917, an amendment to the school law was passed which abolished -the old school-district system, that dated from 1795, and which makes -it possible for the children of the rural districts to have some -of the facilities for modern education which have heretofore been -confined to larger communities. - -In place of the former school trustees for the separate school -districts, there is now one board of education for each town, and -this board has charge of all the schools in the town. There are 4,000 -schools in the State which have less than ten pupils each. The value -of taxable property in many of these school districts is very small. -The school tax has been the only State tax which has been assessed -in such small units. The needs of each school district had to be met -by the taxation of that one district. For all other State expenses -the county is the unit of taxation and taxes are assessed equally all -over the county, and the apportionment made according to the needs of -each district. Under the present law, by treating the town as a unit -for school taxes, all property in the town is assessed equally, and -the money raised is used for the benefit of all the town. - -In this way the rich and poor districts share more equally in school -facilities. - -The initial expenses of making the change have increased school taxes -in some places for the first year, but the change will undoubtedly -work to the great benefit of the children of the State, and is -along the lines adopted some years ago by most of the other States. -Villages of over 1,500 people are outside the provision of the -new town law. If the people of two or more school districts wish -to combine, they may vote to consolidate and establish a central -school.[D] - -=The Town Board of Education= consists of from three to five members -who are elected for a term of three years each and who appoint their -own clerk and treasurer. - -They have larger power than was given to the former school trustee. -They have charge of all school property; they determine the kind of -schools that are needed; they may establish high schools, vocational, -industrial, agricultural, and night schools; they determine the -number of teachers to be employed, and their salaries; they may -employ medical inspectors and nurses, and may provide transportation -for children attending school. - -=The Annual School Meeting= to elect the Board of Education is held -the first Tuesday in May. - -Qualifications for Voters: At this meeting any one living in the -district can vote who is a citizen twenty-one years old, a resident -in the district for thirty days, who owns or rents or has under -contract of purchase taxable property in the district; or has had a -child, either his own or residing with him, in school for at least -eight weeks during the year preceding; or who owns personal property -exceeding $50 which was assessed on the last assessment roll. - -Candidates for the board of education may be nominated on petition of -twenty-five voters. Men and women who are duly qualified electors are -eligible to the board. - -=Annual School Budget=: The board of education must prepare an -itemized budget of the amount necessary to be raised for school -purposes, and must publish it in July for public consideration. -Additional money may only be raised by a vote of the school district -indorsed by the district superintendent. The building of a school, -or repairs costing over $5,000, must be submitted to a vote of the -school electors. - -A board of school directors is elected in each town, consisting of -two men, each with a term of five years, but elected in different -years. - -=The Supervisory District=: Each county, except those in Greater -New York, is divided into from one to eight supervisory districts. -(Villages and cities of over 5,000 people are not included, as they -make their own provisions. Each of these has a board of education.) - -=The District Superintendent= is the director of a supervisory -district. He is chosen by the board of school directors and is -engaged for a term of five years and paid $1,200 a year by the State, -with an additional allowance of $300 for traveling expenses. The -supervisors of the towns in his district may vote to increase his -salary, the increase to come out of the taxes raised in the towns in -the district. - -A man or a woman twenty-one years of age, and a citizen and resident -of the State, is eligible for the office, provided he or she has -a State teacher’s certificate and can pass an examination in the -teaching of agriculture. - -The District Superintendent has the general supervision of the -schools in his district. He is responsible for the instruction -given in them and the discipline that is maintained. He examines -candidates for teachers’ positions, under the direction of the State -Commissioner of Education. - -=Union Free School Districts= have been permitted under State law -for many years in cities and villages. Some years ago this law -was extended to include rural districts, and during the past few -years about 500 rural school districts have been discontinued and -consolidated with adjoining districts. Many of the discontinued -schools had only a handful of pupils, the buildings and equipment -were primitive and inadequate, and the small amount of money -available made it impossible for the school to offer any advantages. -The union of school districts has given better educational facilities -to the rural districts. The children have been taken to school by -wagons provided for their transportation, and have had the advantages -of a larger school, a higher grade of teachers, and better -facilities of all kinds for modern education. The new educational law -provides still greater development in this direction. - -=Physical Training= is compulsory in all schools, public and private, -for children over eight years of age for at least twenty minutes a -day. The State gives financial aid in the training. - -Military training is compulsory for boys between the ages of sixteen -and nineteen in public and private secondary schools and colleges. -The name “military” is misleading, for the law provides that the -development of “correct bearing, mental and physical alertness, -disciplined initiative, sense of duty, self-control, and a spirit of -co-operation under leadership” is to be given special attention. - -=School Money=: For many years it has been recognized that sufficient -educational facilities could not be provided for every part of the -State through local taxation. - -Besides the money raised by the school districts, the State -contributes large sums of money for the support of public schools. -Part of this money is the income from certain educational funds -belonging to the State which cannot be used for any other purpose, -and part is money appropriated by the State Legislature. This money -is distributed by the State Commissioner of Education according to -the needs of the school districts. - -City schools are subject to the same general supervision of the State -Commissioner of Education, but are under the direction of local -boards of education, and local superintendents of schools. - -=Normal Schools= for training teachers are maintained by the -State out of school funds, and teachers’ meetings are held in the -supervisory districts to help and improve teachers. - -=The University of the State of New York=, which is at the head of -the entire educational system of the State, is not a university in -the ordinary sense of the word. It is a combination of all of the -colleges and secondary schools of the State. It is governed by a -Board of Regents, twelve men elected by the State Legislature for -twelve years each, but whose terms begin in different years, who -have large powers of control over all the higher institutions in the -State, universities, colleges, technical and professional schools. -They have the management of the State Library and Museum. They -prepare Regents’ examinations and grant Regents’ certificates, and -supervise the granting of degrees. - -The president of the University of the State of New York is elected -by the Regents. He is also the _State Commissioner of Education_, -and as such is the head of the State Department of Education which -supervises the free public schools and normal schools of the State -and apportions the State school funds. - -=The National Commissioner of Education= is at the head of the -National Bureau of Education in Washington. The work of this bureau -is largely to collect and publish information about educational -conditions and progress in the United States. - -=Agricultural Help=: There are four free agricultural schools besides -the State College of Agriculture in Ithaca. Much assistance is given -by the government to the agricultural needs of the State. Special -courses are provided at many colleges for the various departments of -agricultural work. Short courses are arranged for those who can only -attend a few weeks, and at times in the year when farm work is slack. - -=Farmers’ Institutes= are organized, at which experts discuss the -best way of doing the varied work of the farm, especially how to -increase production and to make the farm more profitable. - -=Vocational Training=:[5] If the public school is going to prepare -young people for their work in the world, some guidance in the -selection of an occupation, and some practical training in a trade or -profession, must be included in their school work. - -The great majority of children leave school at an early age to go -to work. Without specialized training they have little chance for -advancement, but fill the ranks of untrained labor, to the great loss -of the world and their own disadvantage. - -=State Scholarships=: Each of the 150 Assembly districts of the State -has five free scholarships valued at $400 each. The scholarships are -awarded by the Commissioner of Education and the holder may attend -any college in the State, and receive $100 for each of the four years -he or she attends. - -=Domestic Training=: The majority of girls, even though they are -wage-earners for a time, sooner or later marry, and have children -and a household to take care of. In the olden days, when the home -was a workshop, girls were taught cooking at home; they learned -to care for babies through taking care of the little ones in the -family. Now they often leave school to go to the factory, and only -leave the factory when they marry. They have no knowledge of cooking, -housekeeping, or the care of children. Unless domestic economy of -the most practical kind is taught in the school-room, there is no -way they can be prepared for the important business of housekeeper -and mother. If every girl were taught to cook and were trained in -the proper care of an infant, it would add immeasurably to the sum -total of the comfort and health of family life. It would be an -advantage to every boy, likewise, if he were taught to use his hands -in carpentering or other manual work. Whatever comes in later life, -hands that have been trained to be useful are a great asset to any -man or woman. - -=Schools as Community Centers=: Education does not stop at any age. -Public free lectures, mothers’ meetings, and the use of schools for -community recreation are helping to make the school-house 100 per -cent. efficient as an educational center. The school plant that is -closed when school is not in session is an extravagance which no -community can afford. - -The demand for the use of the school-house for political meetings, -and as polling-places at election-time, is growing. Outside of New -York City school-buildings may only be so used by special permission -of the voters. Since one of the purposes of education is to train -people in citizenship, the use of the school-house as the center of -everything that pertains to the people’s part in government seems -legitimate. - -=Health=: Compulsory education is futile unless at the same time -the health of children is maintained. It is as much the duty of -government to watch over the proper development of the body as of the -mind, yet more attention is often given to decoration of schoolrooms -than to matters of health. - -An appallingly large number of children have defective teeth, poor -eyes, or obstructed breathing. Neglected teeth mean an undernourished -body and are a common source of disease. - -Periodic medical examinations are required by State law, and -school nurses may be engaged as part of the regular school force. -The value of the law depends on the way it is enforced by local -school authorities, and this is often far from satisfactory. These -provisions are found to repay their cost in the added strength and -productive powers that they give to the community. - -=Co-operation=: The greatest of all needs in connection with our -schools is a lively interest in them on the part of women. The woman -who cares about the future of her child must be interested in school -meetings and the election of school-boards, who should be carefully -chosen. Frequent visits to the school in city and country are a help -and inspiration to both teachers and parents. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[5] Under a provision of a recent Federal law, a certain sum of money -is available for use in any State for the teaching of home economics, -industrial training, or for any vocational work, provided that the -State appropriates an equal amount for the purpose, which New York -State has done. - - - - -XVII - -HEALTH AND RECREATION - - -The great majority of men and women, and even many children, have to -work for a living. To keep healthy they need time and opportunity for -wholesome recreation. - -Recreation is as much a necessary part of normal life as food or -drink; a fact that has been partially lost sight of in this economic -age, but throughout the world’s history there have been frequent -examples of governments which made careful provision to supply -necessary amusements for their citizens. In Greece great stadiums -were erected for games and contests; in medieval times the knights -held tournaments, even the churches celebrated their saints’ days -with gay street processions. - -The need for recreation is particularly great to-day because the -congestion of population of our cities has left few open spaces for -leisure time, and crowded living and small, dark rooms where all the -work of the household must be done, preclude any social life in the -homes of many families. Many young girls who crave companionship and -social intercourse with friends have to go outside their homes to -find it. - -Crowded tenements without light or air, dirty streets with no -provision for wholesome recreation, are proofs of poor government and -inefficient democracy, no matter how prosperous and contented a city -may look in its richer quarters. - -People who are obliged to live in the crowded districts have a -lowered vitality and a lessened value to the world; and the same -natural impulses which, rightly directed, lead to an orderly, -useful, contented life, may be the causes of delinquency if stunted -or misdirected. The slum is an economic crime, condoned by a public -which pays the penalty in contamination and contagion thrust back -upon itself. - -=Housing=: Air and sunshine are the first requisites of healthy life. -The government recognizes a certain responsibility in insuring these -necessities, and prescribes by law regulations for the construction -and inspection of living accommodations. Many families cannot choose -their homes, but are obliged to live in the kind of buildings that -are to be found near their work. Inside rooms without windows, rooms -into which a ray of sunshine has never penetrated, are common in -every city in the State. The law prohibits, in cities of the first -class, the building of new tenements with inside rooms without -windows, but many old ones are in existence, and two-family houses -may still be built with inside rooms. In other cities there are -practically no restrictions, except by occasional ineffectual city -ordinances. Sanitary arrangements, and the water-supply in many -tenement-houses, are insufficient for health or even decency. - -Tenement-house inspection is a part of city government in which women -are particularly fitted to serve. In New York City, there are 103,688 -tenement-houses and 193 inspectors. Only eight of these are women. - -The war has greatly intensified the housing problem. With the -tremendous increase in certain industries which has brought thousands -of people to work in new factories, there is a corresponding demand -for living accommodations near their work. These factories may not -be permanent, and so private capital hesitates to build houses near -them. The result is a terrible crowding of people in unsanitary and -unfit buildings. The consequences of such overcrowding is seen in the -increase of child delinquency, immorality and disease, an increased -death-rate, and the inevitable unrest from such unhappiness which -results in strikes and labor troubles. - -=Recreation=: The modern city so far has made little provision for -the natural irresistible desire of youth for play. - -This is all the more dangerous because young men and women are being -drawn in great numbers from the protection of the home, for work -in factories and shops. They have a freedom from restraint such as -they have never had before. They have money which they have earned; -they are eager for amusement. When they come to the end of a day of -exhausting work their love of pleasure will not be denied. If they -are not given the right kind of amusement, they will take the wrong -kind. - -Instead of recognizing this natural instinct for play, and providing -safe channels for its expression, all provisions for recreation are -usually left to commercial interests, to be used for their own gain, -without supervision or control. Vice is often deliberately disguised -as pleasure, and the most normal and healthy impulses of young men -and women, that, properly directed, lead to happy married life, are -frequently used as a means to their downfall. - -Loneliness also plays a part. Many a young man or girl comes to -the city to find work. Where can they find the social intercourse -and companionship necessary to normal life? The homeless boy often -stands around the edge of the dance-hall, vainly hoping to make -the acquaintance of some “nice girl.” The lonely girl, living in -a cheerless hall bedroom, turns to the dance-hall as a place to -find companionship. Proper provision for public recreation, well -supervised, would help to bring this boy and girl together in decent, -wholesome surroundings. - -=The Dance=: In young girls, the social instinct, the desire to meet -and know other people, and especially those of the opposite sex, -becomes a dominant factor between the ages of fifteen and twenty. - -The most natural expression of youthful spirits is the dance. To -allow it to become a snare to spoil the lives of young people is one -of the great deficiencies of city life. In every city dance-halls, -ranging from the back room of a saloon to the casino or “gin-palace,” -hold out temptations to young people. - -In New York City there are over five hundred licensed dance-halls. -This means, at a moderate estimate, one-quarter of a million young -people every night in these public dance-halls, most of which are run -in connection with the liquor trade. - -The obligation to regulate places of public amusement, and to provide -good amusement in place of bad, rests with the community. - -The minute you begin to regulate the dance-hall you are interfering -with many kinds of business; first and foremost the liquor trade -and all the interests it involves; then, with the business of those -whose livelihood depends upon the vile trade that is stimulated by -the usual dance-hall; and behind these groups, an unknown number of -perfectly respectable businesses whose trade is increased by the -conditions which characterize a “wide open” town. All these manifold -interests are rooted deep in the fabric of the government of most of -our American cities, and, because their connections are in so many -instances seemingly innocent, are all the more difficult to defeat -and dislodge. - -=Playgrounds=: The need of organized recreation facilities for -children has become pressing, as congestion of population has left -no place, not even the streets, in which they can play. - -There are many blocks in New York City where the population is -greater than in any other place of like area in the world. Where can -the great throng of children go to find innocent amusement? Where -shall they go out of school hours? - -In 1915 it was estimated that there were 734,000 children between -five and fourteen years of age who had to play away from home. To -provide for them, the city furnished school and park playgrounds for -from 100,000 to 185,000, leaving at least half a million children -with no provision of any kind for play, except the already crowded -city streets. - -=Vacation Schools=: Keeping the schools and playgrounds open during -the summer months takes the children away from the hot, crowded -streets, at least part of the time. Like public playgrounds, the -number of vacation schools is always dependent on appropriations. -The makers of the city budget find a greater pressure exerted from -the multitude of business interests that want consideration, than -they do in support of appropriations for public health and comfort. -It will be necessary for women to be as alive in supporting such -measures, as men are in demanding that their interests shall be -considered. Also facts must be given to prove that the cost of such -appropriations is saved in the increased productive powers of a -healthier people. It has been stated that a healthy laborer increases -the wealth of the country by some $30,000 during a normal lifetime. -If this is true, it should be merely intelligent business on the part -of the commonwealth to expend a reasonable pro rata of this sum, when -necessary, to insure that a child when full grown is healthy. - -=Recreation Centers= have been established in some of the Western -cities. Chicago has a series of small parks in various parts of the -city, with outdoor playgrounds, and in each one a large building -where there is a gymnasium, swimming-pool, and assembly-rooms, large -and small. On a Saturday or Sunday afternoon, these places show many -happy pictures of thousands of families, with both the old and young -spending their leisure in a way that increases their own happiness, -and their value to the world. - -=Municipal Dance-halls= have also been tried. In the recreation -centers of Chicago there are dance-halls under careful supervision. -But whether the city provides municipal dance-halls or not, public -dance-halls should be divorced from the liquor business, and there -should be careful policing and supervision of private halls, and for -this work women police officials are necessary. - -=Municipal Bathing Beaches= are also possible for any community with -a water-front. They are one of the great attractions of Chicago, -where a large part of the lakefront draws hundreds of thousands -of men, women, and children, who may easily reach these public -beaches from any part of the city. The New York State law makes the -construction of free baths obligatory in cities of 50,000 or more -population. - -=The “Movies”=: Millions of children attend moving-picture theaters -every day of the year. In New York City alone, the daily attendance -of children is estimated at 200,000. The pictures impress the minds -of children like scenes in real life. For good or for evil, moving -pictures are the great teachers of the youth of to-day. - -Many of the lessons taught on the screen are not suitable for -children. They give intimate views of the underworld, of assault and -infidelity, and barroom brawls. They show fair heroines and gallant -heroes committing crimes, and being pardoned and living happily ever -after. They show picture after picture that tends to destroy moral -standards that home and school have tried to teach. - -=Causes for Juvenile Crime=: The natural craving for excitement and -love of adventure, with no provision for its legitimate expression, -is responsible for much of the crime of our cities. Some years ago, -it was estimated that of the 15,000 young people under twenty years -of age who were arrested in Chicago during a year, most of them had -broken the law in their blundering efforts to find adventure. It is -said that the machinery of the grand juries and criminal courts is -maintained, in a large measure, for the benefit of youths between -the ages of thirteen and twenty-five. The so-called “gangs” of our -cities are an expression of the recklessness and bravado, common to -boys, which, well-directed, is of great service to the world, and, -misdirected, is responsible for much misery. - -=The Use of School-buildings as Social Centers= meets a very real -problem. Halls for dancing and for entertainments, lectures and -debates, rooms for games, even gymnasiums, could easily be brought -within the reach of most of the people. Grown-ups, as well as young -people, would find them of value. This use of the schools, outside of -the regular school hours, has greatly increased in the West, and the -school plant has become an increased factor for good in the life of -the community. - -=Rural Needs=: Some of our indifference in regard to proper -provisions for recreation may be due to the fact that we were so -long a rural nation. The boy who lived on a farm or in a village, -who had the swimming-hole in summer, the farm with its hay-loft, -and in winter sledding and skating, was able to satisfy his love of -adventure. To-day, even rural conditions have changed, and there -is as much need of decent and wholesome recreation in the country -and small villages as in cities. Churches are open only on Sunday, -schools are closed two days in the week, the only meeting-place is -the corner store, or the saloons, and the streets. The use of the -school-building and grounds when school is not in session and on -Saturdays and Sundays, would take many boys off the streets. - - - - -XVIII - -THE CARE OF DEPENDENT AND DELINQUENT CHILDREN - - -=The State of New York has the largest actual number of dependent -children, and the largest number in proportion to population, of any -State in the Union.= - -In the early days it was the women who cared for the neglected -children of a neighborhood, and children left homeless were usually -taken into some one’s home. This care has gradually gone into the -hands of the town, the county, or the State, and has become a -department of government. - -There are two ways of caring for homeless children: one is to place -them in institutions, the other is to place them in private families. -In both cases the State usually has to pay for their support. If -the right kind of a home can be found for a child it seems to have -a much better chance for a healthy, happy childhood, and for a -useful future when placed with a family, than when placed in an -institution. The custom in New York State has been to place children -in institutions. - -It is the business of each local official, town overseer of the -poor, county superintendent of the poor, and city commissioner of -charities, to provide for destitute children. In the early days he -used to provide for them by giving what was called “outdoor relief” -to the parent, if either parent was living; if the child was homeless -it was sent to the almshouse. For many years past, children between -the ages of three and sixteen have not been allowed in almshouses, -but have been committed to institutions. - -Besides this public care, private charitable agencies began to -establish orphan asylums, and homes for friendless children. These -institutions often developed from small beginnings into large -establishments, and began to draw on the public funds for at least -a part of the maintenance of their inmates, and sometimes for their -entire support. It was argued that if the State did not pay for the -support of the children in the orphan asylum it would have to take -care of them elsewhere. - -=No Definite Authority=: For many years the authority between State -and local governing boards has been divided. As a consequence, -inspection of children’s institutions has amounted to very little, or -has been, at least, ineffectual. - -This inadequate inspection, in addition to divided authority, -encouraged neglect and abuse. The report of conditions in private -institutions in New York City, made in 1916 as the result of an -official investigation, showed that dirt, insufficient food, vermin, -disease, and lack of common sanitary precautions were common. -Education was so much below the standard of the public school, with -little or no vocational training, that children were discharged with -no preparation for earning a living. There was not only an utter -absence of home atmosphere, but methods and restrictions were used -like a prison or reformatory. So little care was given when the -children left the institution, that they often went out entirely -friendless, with no one to call upon for council or advice, and -utterly unprepared for independent life. - -These conditions were allowed to exist, partly because of the divided -authority and responsibility, largely because those in authority -were not deeply interested. As the report said, “the committing -authorities have not looked upon the problem as of sufficient moment -to make it any part of their business to formulate and promulgate any -competent standard to govern the service maintained in children’s -institutions.” - -New York City has tried the experiment of “boarding out” all -dependent children between two and seven years of age, taking care to -place Catholic children in Catholic homes, Jewish children in Jewish -homes, and so forth. In some respects, this is a better method than -committing children to institutions, but it is only successful if -the child is carefully placed, and its welfare watched by appointed -visitors. - -In New York State, 1900-1913, the average infant mortality-rate -of children under two years of age was 86.4 per 1,000, while the -death-rate in eleven large infant asylums was 422.5 per 1,000. That -is, under the care of the mother, even including the ignorant mother, -only one-fifth as many babies died as when the children were cared -for by the State. - -Experience shows that children are not only safer and healthier -with their own mothers than in institutions, but that they have a -better chance with foster mothers than in asylums. In 1914, the New -York City Health Department, as an experiment, placed seventy-five -infants to board with foster mothers, with the result that the infant -death-rate dropped forty-eight per cent. - -=Boards of Child Welfare=: In 1915, the Legislature authorized -the appointment of boards of child welfare in each county. These -boards were to investigate needy cases and had the power to grant an -allowance to a destitute mother for the care of her children.[6] This -work is dependent on the appropriations granted by the county. County -authorities are slow to act in matters that require appropriations. -At the end of the first year, fifty-seven counties had organized -boards, but only thirty-four had made appropriations; 6,014 children -had been kept from asylums and 1,969 homes had been saved from being -broken up. In New York City, the number of children in institutions -has decreased 3,000 since the Child Welfare Board began its work. In -1917 New York City appropriated $1,250,000 for widowed mothers. The -_average monthly allowance_, the first year of the Welfare Board’s -work, for each child under sixteen, was _$7.99_, which is _$3 less_ -than it would have cost to keep the child in an institution. - -It is now admitted that everything possible should be done to -prevent a home from being broken up by poverty; that if the mother -is living, and is a fit person to bring up her children, it should -be made possible for her to keep them. That the mother is usually a -fit person to bring up her child, is proved by the experience of the -Board of Child Welfare of New York City, which examined four thousand -cases of mothers who applied for pensions, and found only in fourteen -cases that the mother was not to be so trusted. - -In many of the Western States the widowed mothers’ compensation, or -pension laws, have been extended to cover children of delinquent, -injured, or crippled fathers, and sometimes even of fathers -imprisoned in penal institutions. - -Some States also have other provisions which reduce the number of -dependent children. In Washington a man who deserts his family is -put to work and his wages are paid to his wife and children. This -seems more sensible than the law which imprisons the man, and lets -the State support him, while his wife has to support herself and -children. In Kansas, the wages of a prisoner are given to his -family. In California and Illinois, the father must help support the -illegitimate child. - -The care of dependent children is work for which women are especially -fitted by both training and inclination. In Colorado, the State Home -for Dependent Children must have two women on its board of five -members. In the State Industrial Home for Girls, three of the five -members of the board must be women. - -=The Problem of the Delinquent Child= is one that needs the greatest -care and expert attention. If the dependent child is an appealing -figure, the delinquent child is an indictment of a community. He -is usually the product of neglect, of overcrowding, of bad living -conditions, and of defects in the educational system. - -To treat the child offender as if he were grown up and responsible, -and to punish him in the same way as an adult, is to make a criminal -of him. The manner in which his first offense against the law is -handled, often determines the future of such a child. - -=Children’s Courts=: It used to be common for children of all ages to -be detained with older, hardened criminals indiscriminately, exposed -to contamination and disease, and to try them in an open court-room -with all other cases. The modern policy is to try all cases against -children, with the exception of murder, in special courts. - -The entire policy of a children’s court is based on prevention -instead of punishment, to make friends with a delinquent child, to -show him the danger ahead of him, to watch over him like an older, -wiser friend, and to help him to keep straight. The terror and -disgrace of an open court-room are replaced by a quiet, friendly talk -in the judge’s room. - -A large number of all children who are arrested are ungovernable -or disorderly, children who have run away from home, or who are -associating with dissolute or vicious persons. Another large class -comes into the courts because of improper guardianship; neglected -children, or those exposed to physical or moral danger. These cases -are not classed technically as delinquents, but are tried by what are -known as special proceedings. - -The total number of children arraigned in the children’s courts of -New York City in 1916 for delinquency was: boys, 5,929; girls, 150; -in special proceedings, boys, 3,893; girls, 2,972, a total of 12,944. -The largest percentage of cases for any offense for boys was petty -larceny, and for girls was sex offenses and incorrigibility. - -In 1916 the Police Department of New York City made in its report -an analysis of juvenile arrests, showing the nature of the offense, -the age, sex, nativity, occupation, and employment of the child. -The largest number of arrests were for offenses against property. -Practically half of all the delinquents were native-born children of -foreign-born parents. - -The attitude of the police force of New York City during the last -few years has been helpful in handling the problem of juvenile -delinquency. The police are now instructed to try to prevent small -infringements of the law by children, and many trivial offenses are -adjusted out of court. - -A considerable proportion of the children who come repeatedly into -the children’s courts are feeble-minded. During 1917, the children’s -court of New York City, for the first time, had a clinic attached -to the court, where children suspected of being mentally deficient -could be examined. There is still, however, no place where they can -be committed temporarily for observation, and there is great need of -a graded institution that will provide for the treatment and care of -the different classes of mentally deficient children. - -The system of probation for child offenders is of the greatest -possible assistance in reclaiming the child; it also decreases the -number of children who are committed to institutions, thus saving the -State money. To make probation effective, children must be visited -frequently in their homes, and be kept on probation long enough to -make probable a complete reformation. Women, and not men, should be -appointed as probation officers for delinquent girls, but, as the -appointments are often political, men are given the preference, and -are even put in charge of girls. - -The present Children’s Court in Greater New York dates from 1915, and -under the presiding justice of the court has been brought to a high -state of intelligent and sympathetic handling. The city of Buffalo -also makes special provision for delinquent children. In most of the -cities of the State, the judges of the court of special sessions set -certain days for children’s cases. - -Among the improvements needed in the New York State law is a -provision to give the children’s court jurisdiction over children -of sixteen and seventeen years of age. This is especially needed -in cases of wayward girls. In Colorado the juvenile court handles -cases of offenders under eighteen. Also, it is a criminal offense -in Colorado to contribute to the delinquency of a child, and the -children’s court has jurisdiction over adults contributing to such -delinquency. This is a provision needed in the New York State law. -Colorado also has a law prohibiting the publication of the name or -picture of a girl under eighteen in a case of delinquency. This is -important, as procurers and other men who have been the cause of a -girl’s delinquency often go free, because the girl and her family -wish to avoid publicity. - -The children’s courts in New York State should also have the power to -appoint legal guardians for children in case of need. - -To be a judge of a juvenile court requires exceptional -qualifications: quick sympathy, and intelligent understanding of the -many causes which contribute to child delinquency. - -A large part of the problem comes back to the environment of the -child, to crowded living conditions, deficient education, lack of -vocational training, and absence of opportunities for recreation. -The pitiful striving of children for pleasure and play, and the -inadequate provisions of our cities to meet this need, are often -responsible for the first delinquent step. Many improvements in this -direction, as well as improvements in the law, are needed to bring -the protection that New York State gives its children up to the level -of the best found in other States. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[6] Unfortunately, the law expressly excludes in its provisions for -relief families with alien fathers. - - - - -XIX - -CHILD WAGE-EARNERS - - -=Children are the most important assets of a nation.= - -While every one, individually, would admit this statement, it is not -easy to persuade the government that the protection and development -of child life cannot be left safely to private initiative, any more -than can animal or plant life; that, in addition to the protection -of the individual family, children need the fostering care of the -organized government. For many years, the government, both State and -National, has dealt generously with the agricultural interests of the -country. When disease has broken out among either animals or plants, -it has had its experts ready to send out at a moment’s notice to any -part of the country. It has spent vast sums of money to investigate -and eradicate boll-weevil in cotton, and hoof-and-mouth disease among -cattle, and to develop a better strain in many animals and plants, -but it is only very recently that it has been willing to investigate -the needs of the children of the nation. - -The appropriations of the Federal government for animal life, in -1915, were over $5,000,000; for child life, $164,000. In 1917, an -additional appropriation of $150,000 was made for the enforcement of -the Federal Child Labor Law. - -=Federal Child Labor Law=: For fourteen years, the National Child -Labor Committee has tried to get laws passed which would limit the -hours of work for children, the kind of work they might do, and the -age at which they might be put to work. Discouraged by the State by -State method, the committee inaugurated a campaign for a Federal -child labor law, and after three years of effort succeeded in getting -it passed. - -Men have an eight-hour day in many States. Women have an eight-hour -day in a few States. Until the Federal bill was passed, children of -tender years in a number of States could be employed almost unlimited -hours and all night. - -At the time the bill was passed three States permitted children -under fourteen to work ten and eleven hours a day, and two States -permitted them to work at night. Nineteen mining States permitted -children under sixteen to work in mines. - -Nine States permitted children under sixteen to do night work. In -three Southern States, one-fifth of all the cotton-mill workers, in -1913, were children less than sixteen years of age. - -The Federal Child Labor Bill, which went into effect September 1, -1917, was declared unconstitutional by a United States District -Court in North Carolina, and is now before the Supreme Court of the -United States. This law prohibits the interstate commerce of articles -which children have helped to make. It does not control the labor -of children in local occupations. Street trades, messenger service, -agricultural work, and housework are not touched by it. This law is a -great step in advance for the protection of children, but there are -still 1,859,000 children, from ten to sixteen years old, at work in -the United States whom the Federal law does not touch. - -=New York State Laws=: For many years New York State has been -building up a code of protection for the children of the State. -Children under sixteen years of age are not permitted to work unless -they have a special permit, and they must have completed the sixth -grade in school. A physical examination of the child is required to -see that he is able to stand the strain of the industry in which he -is about to engage, and proof of age is required. To sell newspapers, -boys from twelve to fourteen must have a permit and a badge. Boys -of fourteen and fifteen are required to have badges if they have a -prescribed route for the delivery of newspapers, but not if they are -selling for themselves. Children under sixteen are not allowed to -work more than eight hours a day. To enforce these laws adequately, -many inspectors are needed and unceasing vigilance on the part of the -public. While the provisions of the law concerning newsboys are very -clear, and are generally obeyed in New York City, they are seldom -enforced elsewhere in the State. - -To allow children to enter the industrial world at an early age, -without preparation, and with no guidance as to the sort of work -for which they are best fitted, is unfair to them. The boy or girl -who gets a job at fourteen, without any vocational training, is apt -to remain an unskilled worker all his or her life. The range of -occupations open to such children is small. The largest number of -boys who go to work at an early age become delivery boys, errand -or wagon boys, or newsboys. There is little chance among these -employments for real training or for any future advancement. - -A careful study, by the National Child Labor Committee, of certain -cases brought into the Children’s Court, has established the fact -that a large proportion of the boys and girls who come into the -court come from the ranks of child workers. This investigation has -also proved the need of adequate vocational guidance. The present -school course gives little help in this direction to children who -are leaving school at fourteen or fifteen, and parents are often as -ignorant of industrial conditions as the children. After a few years -in an occupation that offers no opportunity for development, the boy -or girl who went to work so young is often left stranded, not only -untrained, but demoralized. - -There is need also of making parents understand that better -opportunities are open to children who have had education beyond the -elementary grades. - -=Street Trades= of all kinds are regarded by social experts as unsafe -for children. Some authorities recommend the absolute prohibition of -all street trading for boys under seventeen. These trades, including -selling newspapers, appeal to boys because they like the excitement -of street life, and the spending-money which they give them. - -A judge of the Detroit Juvenile Court says, “At least fifty per cent. -of the boys brought into the juvenile court are newsboys.” An old -newsboy, when asked what night work on the streets had done for him, -said: “When I was a kid, it wasn’t like it is now. They didn’t have -no midnight edition—I always had to be home by eight o’clock. When I -got to selling at night I started in high school, but when it came -time for the first examination, I said, ‘Oh, I’ll just quit. I’d -rather be out on the streets, anyway.’” In Baltimore it is estimated -that 45 per cent. of all the children in the near-by reform school -have been street workers. - -Investigations have proved the theory is false that a child is -usually put to work “to support a widowed mother.” More often the -child in a street trade is found to come from a home where there is -no need of his work, and in these trades the earnings of children are -very small. In a recent investigation, in Seattle, the earnings of -newsboys were found in 46 per cent. of the cases of the elementary -school paper-sellers to be less than $5 a month. - -The night messenger service is known to be a demoralizing occupation, -unfit for any small boy, and in New York it is prohibited to all boys -under twenty-one. The same protection of the law is now needed for -girls. - -Many parents do not realize the serious results of letting their -children go to work too young, or the bad effects of over-work -on them. The tendency of over-fatigue is to break down the moral -resistance. The release from supervision which is brought about by -their wage-earning, and the danger of their having money of their own -to spend, added to the interruption of their education, cannot help -but have a demoralizing effect on them. - -=Rural Child Workers= are quite as common as city workers, but they -are not so often wage-earners. Their labor is usually taken by -parents as a matter of course, and they are not paid. Farming and -housework are two occupations which engage many children, and there -is almost a complete absence of laws regulating them. - -A distinction should be made between the farmer lad who does -“chores” night and morning, and the boy who is kept out of school -most of the year to be a farm-hand; and between the girl who helps -her mother out of school hours, and the girl who is kept at work -in a canning-factory, and goes from one to another as fruits and -vegetables ripen; but neither the chores nor the housework should be -allowed to interfere with the regularity of school attendance. The -boy who is kept at farm labor, without education, and the girl who is -kept at work in the canning industry at the expense of her schooling, -are as much in the ranks of child laborers as the cotton-mill -workers, and they suffer in the same way from lack of training for a -useful future. - -Experiments have been made in combining the work that the boy does -night and morning on the farm, with the school work. Under proper -guidance, the chores that the boy has to do at home can be made a -means of education. For example: a pupil who assists at home in the -milking might be required to keep a daily record of each cow, with -the fluctuations in the yield of milk, due to weather and food. This -combining of the necessary home work with the instruction of the -school has been made a success in some of the Western States, where -county superintendents supervise the home-school work and make it of -the greatest possible educational value. - -Rural school terms are usually shorter than city terms, and irregular -attendance is more frequent. Only 68 per cent. of the pupils enrolled -in rural schools attend daily, while in cities the percentage is 80. -The absences of girls are caused largely by housework. - -The results of child labor in the country are seen in the high -percentage of rejections from military service on account of physical -defects in men from rural districts, and the larger percentage of -illiteracy in country communities compared with that in cities. -Better and more adequate education for the thousands of children on -the farms of the State is one of our immediate needs. - -It is the right of every child to be given enough education to give -him a good start in life. The child-labor problem is largely a school -problem. Keep the children in school, and there will be no child -labor. - -=War and Children=: The war has brought a new demand for the labor -of children, and new evidence of the serious consequences of using -this labor. In England and France, juvenile delinquency due to the -breaking down of educational facilities, and the exploitation of -children in shops and factories, has increased to a point where both -nations are aroused by a new national danger. To meet the sudden -great need for munitions, and the speeding up of all industry, -children of all ages, and women of all classes, went into the -factories. In England, it is estimated that 200,000 children from -eleven to thirteen years of age left school to go to work. Abnormally -high wages were paid them. With fathers at the front and mothers away -from home in munition factories, these children roamed the streets -after their work was done, with pockets filled with money to spend, -and no one to exercise a restraining hand. - -Streets are unlighted, the police force has been decreased, churches, -schools, and settlement work are interrupted. Is it any wonder that -since the war began juvenile delinquency has increased 46 per cent. -in Edinburgh, 56 per cent. in Manchester, and thefts 50 per cent.? - -The same demand for child labor has begun to be manifest in this -country. The United States is being called on to feed the world, and -to make supplies of all kinds for our allies, besides the tremendous -need of supplies for our own armies. Millions of men are being drawn -from the ranks of producers, and have become consumers. The world is -consuming and destroying on a scale never known before in history. -The demand for more and more labor is becoming ever more insistent. - -In spite of the warnings which have come to us from England and -France, of the necessity of guarding against the exploitation of our -children during the war, New York State was one of the first to try -to break down the restrictions built up during many years of the past -with such infinite labor. - -The Brown bills, which passed the Legislature last winter, were -a frank attempt to utilize the labor of children. They made it -possible, at the discretion of the State Labor Commission, to -abrogate every law that has been passed in New York State to -safeguard its children. One bill would have made it possible to -utilize the labor of children unlimited hours, seven days in the -week, including night labor. This was vetoed by the Governor. -The other, which makes possible the suspension of the compulsory -education law, in order that children may work on the farms, has -become a law. Other attempts will undoubtedly be made to exploit -children. - -It will require unceasing vigilance on the part of the people of -the State to see that measures detrimental to children shall not be -successful. Attempts are being made to remove the limit of hours, and -to abolish the requirement that children between fourteen and sixteen -shall have working papers. Such measures mean that the physical -examination now required would not be made, and that the necessity -of furnishing proof of the age of the applicant would be eliminated. -The first would permit weak, sickly children to go to work in the -factories, and the second would encourage the employment of children -under fourteen. - -The need for increased labor is a real one, and as long as the war -lasts it will continue to grow. But the nation that exploits its -children while at war is bleeding at both ends. It is the province of -women to watch over and guard all children. Now that they have the -vote, the responsibility has been put directly on them, and they have -the power to meet it. - -Because of the tremendous cost of war in human life itself, it -becomes doubly important to safeguard human life at its source, and -that is our job. - - NOTE.—The material used in this chapter is largely taken from - publications of the National Child Labor Committee. - - - - -XX - -PUBLIC CHARITIES - - -The public institutions of the State are grouped under three heads: -the State Commission in Lunacy, the Prison Commission, and the State -Board of Charities. - -=The State Board of Charities=, which has general supervision of the -charitable institutions of the State, consists of twelve members, of -whom nine must be appointed as commissioners from the nine judicial -districts of the State, and three from New York City. The law -prescribes otherwise no qualifications for membership on this board. -(A recent innovation has been made in the appointment of a woman on -the board.) The commissioners serve without salary, but each one is -paid his expenses and $10 for each day’s attendance at meetings, not -to exceed $500 a year. - -=Partly State, Partly Private=: Some charitable institutions in the -State are wholly controlled by the State or one of its subdivisions; -others are controlled by private corporations, but are maintained -either wholly, or in part, by State funds. There are over six hundred -and forty charitable institutions which receive money from the State. -There are still other institutions which are entirely supported by -private funds. The State Board of Charities has not the authority -at present to inspect organized charities which do not receive -public money, so there are many institutions which are without the -protection of State inspection, and the total amount of dependency in -the State is not known officially. - -=Duties of the Board=: Besides its duties of inspection and general -supervision of charitable institutions, the board has the control of -the incorporation of charitable institutions, and must approve of -an application for a certificate of incorporation before it can be -granted. It also issues licenses for medical dispensaries, and makes -rules and regulations under which they must work. - -=The Powers of the Board Are Limited=, as the carrying out of its -recommendations often depends on action by the State Legislature, -and especially on the amount of the appropriations granted for the -work. The powers originally given the board have also been greatly -impaired by the action of the Legislature from time to time in -creating other agencies, which have resulted in a duplication of -work and an overlapping of authority. There is much complaint of -institutions being overrun by official visitors, and inspectors with -conflicting authority, who are said to interfere with the work of the -institutions without accomplishing adequate results. - -The powers of the board have been especially curtailed since the -office of _Fiscal Supervisor of State Charities_ was created in 1902. -When decisions are to be made concerning appropriations for State -charities, in making up the legislative budget, the Fiscal Supervisor -is consulted to the exclusion of the State Board. In reality the -Fiscal Supervisor has far greater powers than the State Board of -Charities, as no appropriations can be made unless approved by him. -His effort is to keep down appropriations wherever possible, and he -does not come in direct personal touch with the needs of the work. - -The power to fix salaries and establish positions has been given to -the _Salary Classification Commission_, and to locate new buildings -to the _Commission on Sites, Grounds, and Buildings_. - -The general dissatisfaction with the confused and conflicting -authority, which had come with different legislative enactments, led -to the appointment in 1916, of a commissioner to investigate State -charities and to report to the Governor, with recommendations of -changes he deemed advisable. - -Among the changes recommended were: - -(1) That instead of an unpaid board of twelve members, appointed from -the judicial districts, there should be a board of nine, of whom -one should be a woman; three members should be paid and should give -all their time to the work, one of the three to be president of the -board, one the chairman of a bureau for mental deficiency, and the -third, chairman of a bureau for dependent children; the six unpaid -members were to be specialists in the special classes of work which -is supervised by the board. - -The present State Board of Charities objects to this change on the -ground that a board so organized would become political. They also -feel that the appointments should continue to be made from the -judicial districts, in order that every part of the State should have -a resident member of the State Board. - -The report further recommended: (2) Prompt provision for defective -delinquents; (3) a careful revision of the State charities and -poor law; (4) that power should be given the State Board to -inspect private charitable institutions; (5) the creation of a new -bureau for dependent children; (6) the abolition of the office -of Fiscal Supervisor of Charities, in order that recommendations -for appropriations should come directly from the State Board of -Charities; (7) the abolition of other conflicting authorities, and -restoring the authority of the State Board. - -None of these recommendations have been acted upon as yet. - -The State institutions that are under the State are the following: -State Agricultural and Industrial School, Industry; Syracuse State -Institution for Feeble-minded Children, Syracuse; New York State -School for the Blind, Batavia; Thomas Indian School, Iroquois; State -Custodial Asylum for Feeble-minded Women, Newark; New York State -Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Home, Bath; New York State Training School -for Girls, Hudson; Western House of Refuge for Women, Albion; New -York State Reformatory for Women, Bedford Hills; Rome Custodial State -Asylum, Rome; Craig Colony for Epileptics, Sonyea; New York State -Woman’s Relief Corps Home, Oxford; New York State Hospital for the -Care of Crippled and Deformed Children, West Haverstraw; New York -State Hospital for the Treatment of Incipient Pulmonary Tuberculosis, -Raybrook; New York State Training School for Boys, established by -law in 1904, not yet ready to receive inmates; Letchworth Village -for Feeble-minded, Rockland County; and authorized in 1911-12, but -not yet open: The State Industrial Farm Colony, Green Haven; and the -State Reformatory for Misdemeanants. - -Private institutions supported mainly by State appropriations are: -New York Institution for the Instruction of Deaf and Dumb; New York -Society for the Reformation of Juvenile Delinquents in the City -of New York; New York Institute for the Education of the Blind; -Institutions for Deaf Mutes in New York City, Buffalo, Westchester, -Rome, Rochester; Malone and Albany Home Schools for the Oral -Instruction of the Deaf. - -=County and City Institutions=: County and city almshouses are -under the supervision of the State Board of Charities, and also the -recently established county sanatoria for tuberculosis, of which -there are about thirty. The small number of patients in these county -hospitals for tuberculosis makes it impossible for some of them to -give as expert and efficient care as a larger and better equipped -hospital might offer.[7] - -=The Department of State and Alien Poor=, of the State Board of -Charities, has the supervision of the State poor, and of alien and -Indian dependents. It also has the power to transfer aliens, or -non-residents, who have become public charges, to their home county -or State, or, in co-operation with the United States Immigration -authorities, to return them to their home countries. This department -has saved the State large sums of money. - -In 1916, 810 persons were returned to their homes in other States or -countries, by this department, of whom 250 were alien poor. - -=Local Boards of Managers=: Each State charitable and reformatory -institution is administered and controlled by a board of local -managers, appointed by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate. -These boards usually consist of seven persons who serve without pay, -for their expenses only. There are some women on these local boards, -but not nearly as many as there might be, considering the number of -institutions which have women in their charge. - -The superintendents of State institutions are all carefully selected -from the civil service lists. - -The employees of these institutions form a difficult problem. The old -conception of an attendant for a public institution was exceedingly -low; the standard is still far from good. The salaries paid are -insufficient to attract intelligent service. - -=The Department of Inspection=: There are over six hundred -institutions in the State which come under the Department of -Inspection. To handle them there are eight inspectors, and one -superintendent of inspection. - -=Almshouses= are inspected and graded in three classes. Of the -counties that were reported in 1917 as first class in both -administration and plant are: Allegany, Chautauqua, Genesee, -Jefferson, Lewis, Monroe, Niagara, Saratoga, Schenectady, and Wayne -counties. Those second class in both administration and plant -were: Dutchess, Herkimer, Madison, Rockland, Schoharie, and Ulster -counties. The only one third class in both plant and administration -was in Sullivan County. - -=Provision for the Feeble-minded= is the greatest present need of the -charities of the State. Mental defectives are at large all over the -State, and they are found in all institutions. They are a source of -trouble in the public schools, and are a constant danger to the State. - -It is estimated that there are not less than 30,000 of these -unfortunates. The State institutions have room for about 5,700, but -they are actually caring for 6,700. For years efforts have been -made to get the Legislature to make adequate provision for their -segregation. The report of one institution for feeble-minded women -says, “nine of the women admitted were married and had given birth -to thirty-seven children; twenty-six of those admitted had borne -forty-three illegitimate children; making a total of eighty children -born to those unfortunate women.” - -Letchworth Village, in Rockland County, a plot of 2,000 acres, -was planned to provide for 2,500 to 3,000 feeble-minded. It was -established in 1907, and in 1916 still had a capacity of only 330. - -The failure of the State to complete a project it had undertaken is -shown also in the New York State Training School for Boys at Yorktown -Heights. This was planned to be a reformatory of the modern cottage -type to take the place of the very old one on Randall’s Island, and -was greatly needed for delinquent boys. After twelve years of delay, -and after $800,000 had been appropriated by the State and most of it -expended, this project has been abandoned. The reason given for the -final decision to abandon the site, was the possible contamination -of the Croton water supply by the institution. With modern methods -of sewage disposal it seems as if it would have been possible to -guard against this danger. It would have been easier to insure proper -treatment of the sewage from such an institution than from the towns -and villages which exist in the Croton watershed. The State Board of -Charities recommends now an appropriation of $150,000 for a new site -and plans. - -=Recommendations of the State Board=: Intelligent handling of the -problem of dependency must deal with causes. Probably the major part -could be done away with if the State would adopt adequate preventive -measures. The board recommends as an aid to this end: (1) Industrial -insurance; (2) better housing, including the destruction of the worst -congested areas in cities, and the prevention of further congestion; -(3) vocational training for children; (4) improved labor laws, -restricting the hours of labor, and compensation for accidents to -employees; (5) adequate pensions to widowed mothers. - -They also recommend: That further provision be made for tuberculosis, -which the records of the State Health Department show is increasing; -that the office of County Superintendent of the Poor should be -appointive and be included in the Civil Service. The frequent -changing of poor-law officials, and their lack of knowledge of the -subject, are drawbacks in the discharge of their duties. - -=The State Commission in Lunacy= has charge of the hospitals for the -insane. All the insane come under the direct charge of the State. -This is a salaried commission consisting of three members. There are -local boards of managers for these insane asylums as for the other -charitable institutions, and a majority of the members of these local -boards are required to visit the hospitals at least once a month for -inspection.[8] - -=The State Prison Commission=, like the State Board of Charities, -is an unpaid board, but the Superintendent of Prisons is a State -official with a salary. - -There has been for years a provision of the State law which gives one -scale of salaries for men employed in these institutions and a lower -one for women. - - Pay of Stenographers (male) $70-80 a month - ” ” (female) 50-68 ” - Chief Supervisors (male) 55-68 ” - ” ” (female) 50-62 ” - -Since women have been given the vote, it is probable that this law -will be changed and equal pay given for equal work. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[7] It is hoped that when the Boards of Managers for these county -tuberculosis hospitals are appointed, local women will be placed on -them. - -[8] The number of insane in the State is increasing far more rapidly -than the provision which is being made for them. The last report of -the State Hospital Commission shows that in hospitals for the insane, -planned to accommodate 27,890 patients, there were in June, 1916, -33,873 patients, an overcrowding of 21.5 per cent. The State Hospital -Commission urgently requests a bond issue to provide immediately for -the construction of new buildings. - - - - -XXI - -THE PROTECTION OF WORKING-WOMEN - - -The war has brought a revolution in woman’s work. - -Because of the increased demand for labor, trades and all kinds of -employment that have been considered exclusively the province of -men, have been opened to women. The universal verdict is that they -have everywhere made good. Work that demands the greatest exactness -and care, specialized technical operations that have been supposed -to require a man’s brain, have been done by them quite as well as by -men. But their employment in many of the new industries has brought -new industrial problems, and they have gone into many new occupations -which are not included in the protection extended by existing labor -laws. - -Even before the war New York State was the greatest industrial State -in the Union. More women were at work here than in any other State, -and more women were at work in New York City than in any entire State -except Pennsylvania. - -There were 248 separate manufacturing industries in this State, and -women worked in all trades in which over 1,000 workers were employed, -except in the manufacture of bricks, tiles, fertilizers, and ice. - -They were doing everything, from making cores in foundries, sausages -in packing-houses, pickles and candies, to working in human hair, -chemicals, and rags. - -Women have always done their share of the world’s work, but in the -past their labor was in the home. During the early years of our -nation there were very few women who did not work or supervise work, -but they did this in their homes for their homes, and they were not -paid in money. - -When the cotton-gin was invented and the use of steam was discovered, -it was the dream of the inventors that their machines should be -really labor-saving, and that people would have leisure for the -development of the wider and deeper things of life. This became true -for some people, and to-day there are many women of comparative -leisure who can do as they please with their time. But on the other -hand, undreamed-of evils and dangers have come to women who toil, -and necessity compels women by the millions to seek work in the -industrial world. In spite of the fact that the wages of women have -been appallingly low, the woman who must earn money in order to live -has had to find work outside of her own home. - -=Number of Women Wage-earners=: In 1910, according to the census, -there were in New York State 3,291,714 women over fifteen years of -age; only 1,793,558 were married, and 1,498,156 were unmarried or -widowed; 983,686 of these had to work in order to live, or to support -some members of their families. This number did not include the great -mass of women who work in their homes. - -=Clothing Manufacturers=: Before the United States entered the war, -184,691 women were working in New York State making every conceivable -garment for people to wear. The work is subdivided so that one worker -does one thing all day long. There are sixty-five operations in -the making of trousers. Twenty to sixty different operations take -place in the making of men’s shirts. Women tuck or hem materials for -women’s wear hour by hour, driven by the juggernaut electric machine -which knows no fatigue and needs no rest. - -=Laundries=: Ten thousand women worked in laundries in this State, -where the washing and ironing are done usually by machines. They -stand and push down a treadle of the ironing-machine with their feet, -making as many as sixty-three to eighty-one foot pressures a minute. -In this action a bad twist of the body is necessary, which may -result in permanent injury. Clouds of steam rise from the mangles, -and when no exhaust hoods are used, the room is filled with steam. -Tuberculosis is a common disease among laundry workers. Unprotected -machinery is a constant danger. - -=Restaurant Workers=: There were fifteen thousand restaurant workers, -waitresses, cooks, kitchen girls, and pantry hands. Until 1917, -they were without any protection by law. They worked any number of -hours, and seven days a week. They now come under the fifty-four-hour -law, in first and second class cities, but the law is difficult to -enforce. They often walk five miles a day carrying heavy trays; and -varicose veins, flat feet, and pelvic disorders are common. - -=Textile Operators=: In New York State 35,168 women worked in -textile-mills making silks, woolens, cottons, carpets, knit -underwear, etc. The din of machinery is deafening in many of these -factories, and often the machinery is so closely placed that there is -difficulty in passing without danger of skirts catching. - -The whole development of machinery in industry has been worked out -for the purpose of extending trade and output, without consideration -of the human factor involved. Machines have been watched so they did -not wear out or break, and they have been carefully repaired. Girls -and women, the human factor, have been discarded if they wore out; -they are of less worth to the employer and can be easily replaced -without cost to him. But the cost to the State has been heavy in -the toll of hospitals, insane asylums, and homes for destitutes and -delinquents. - -There is hardly a trade which has not some elements of danger or -unhealthfulness in it. Women working in meat-packing plants in -sausage-making rooms stand all day at their work on water- and -slime-soaked floors. Women work in industries where industrial -poisons are used or where they are generated in the process of -manufacturing. The pressure of piece-work, the monotony of one single -operation, are nerve-racking and nerve-exhausting. - -The health of women who spend hours a day in factories depends -largely upon factory laws and sanitary codes. Light, air, sanitation, -overcrowding in factories, mills, and shops, all vitally affect the -health of the workers. No one can measure the cost of industry in -the life of women. The strength and vitality taken from them will -show in the lowered vitality of their children. A low birth-rate, a -high death-rate, and an impaired second generation are the inevitable -results. Infant mortality where the mothers work in factories is -notoriously high.[9] - -=War and Woman’s Work=: With the insistent demand for increased -production occasioned by the war, women have been brought into -many new positions formerly held only by men. They have gone -into the steel-mills; they are employed in large numbers in the -munition-factories; they are working on the railroads, in railroad -yards, and inspecting tracks, as well as in the ticket-offices and -baggage-rooms. The Pennsylvania Railroad has 2,300 women employed as -car-cleaners, track-walkers, upholsterers, locomotive despatchers, -and machine-hands. Some are operating trains. They are engaged as -conductors on street-cars and subways, and as elevator operators. - -These new industries are not included in the provisions for women of -the State labor laws. - -New York State has a nine-hour day for women working in factories -and mercantile occupations, and night work is prohibited in -these industries; but this protection does not extend into other -occupations. - -An eight-hour working-day has been given to men in many States and -in many occupations, but in only a few of the Western States has it -been given to women. After three or four years in most industries, -young women begin to wear out, the speeding up and the strain put -on their youth begin to tell, their capacity lessens, and their -output diminishes. Although the effect of long hours and monotonous -occupation is harder on them than it is on men, the protection of -the law has been extended to them to a far less extent. In these -new industries there is none. Women may work in them twelve hours a -day and all night. The demand of some of the street railways is for -a twelve-hour night for women conductors (with two hours off for -supper). Elevator operators work twelve hours a day, in day and -night shifts, and girls employed all night are subject to insult if -not actual danger. - -Since boys have been difficult to get, girls, including some under -sixteen, have been delivering letters and packages in messenger -service. The State law prohibits boys under twenty-one being employed -as messengers at night, because of the dangers of contamination from -the night life of a city. Under present conditions a girl employed -as messenger has no protection, and may even be sent to houses of -doubtful character. - -The new industries for women also include manual work that has -heretofore been considered too heavy for them. The high wages paid -them, while lower than would have to be paid now to men for the same -work, are still high enough to attract women from other occupations -where wages have not had the same advance. - -While there is an increasing demand that women shall be paid the -same wages as a man would be paid for exactly the same work, the -idea still prevails that it is only fair to pay men more than women -because they have families to support, while women support only -themselves. =This is not true.= On the backs of many women rests the -sole support of aged parents, or of younger brothers and sisters. A -large proportion of them give up all their earnings to the family -needs. - -It is no longer a question of the ability of women to do many kinds -of work formerly held to be the exclusive province of men; but of the -effect of her so doing on the future health and welfare of the race. - -Women, like men, must work in order to live, but society and the -State owe it to themselves, as a vital matter of self-protection, to -safeguard that work, so that future generations shall not suffer from -its effects. - -The whir of machinery, the noise, the constant standing or the -close bending over work, the meager wages, have been the conditions -woman has had to meet for years in her struggle for a livelihood; -to them are now added the dangers and excessive hours of these new -occupations, with their further call on her strength and endurance. - -These new industries for women should be included in the laws -regulating the hours and condition of women’s work. Public messenger -service is too dangerous for young girls to be employed in it. - -If the eight-hour working-day is right for men, it is even more -needed by women. Laws regulating factory conditions are of little -value unless there is sufficient inspection to enforce them, and the -number of inspectors employed is always inadequate. Women inspectors -are needed for factories in which women are employed; but there are -only four women factory inspectors in the entire State. - -Several years ago the New York State Factory Investigating Commission -made an exhaustive investigation of women’s wages, and found that -women and girls were so underpaid as to endanger their health -and productiveness. Since then the cost of living has advanced -prodigiously, with no corresponding increase in wages, especially -among young unorganized women. - -A minimum wage bill, similar to the one in force in Oregon, which has -been declared constitutional by the United States Supreme Court, is -now before the Legislature, drawn on the recommendation of the State -Factory Investigating Commission. - -If the war continues, the demand, not for more protection, but -for the suspension of existing labor laws, will become more -insistent. The needs of the country for increased production will be -irresistible and will not be satisfied for many years. - -The test which the government should insist shall be applied to every -occupation in which women engage is this: What effect will it have on -the one business in life which is especially theirs, the production -and conservation of human life? How can it be safeguarded so it shall -not exact too great a toll from their health and vitality? - -Every consideration that individuals and the State can give must be -engaged in the study of this question. With the vote in her hands, -the woman in industry will be able to protect herself better than -before, but the responsibility for her welfare rests not on herself -alone, but on other women, especially on those who are free from -the grinding struggle themselves, and can do as they choose with -their time. It is part of their responsibility to see that the most -conscientious and careful consideration be given to this question. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[9] Thanks are due Miss Mary Dreier, a member of the recent New York -State Factory Investigating Commission, for this picture of the work -which women are doing. - - - - -XXII - -AMERICANIZATION - - -The United States is still a medley of foreign nationalities, -representing all the races of the world, with their social -characteristics, customs, prejudices, and even language unchanged. -No one need be disconcerted by this fact, for the people who came -over in the _Mayflower_ were foreign-born, the founders of the city -of New York were of foreign birth, and so were the first families of -Virginia. - -In New York State only 35 per cent. of the population is of native -birth and descent. Almost one-third is foreign-born; one-third of the -children born here have one or both parents of foreign birth. Even -with all the resources at our command it would have been a giant task -to have assimilated such huge numbers of such divergent races. - -The United States was established as a nation where justice, freedom, -and opportunity were to be assured to all the people. For over a -century it has been a refuge for men and women of foreign lands, who -have been oppressed and have longed for freedom, and who have sought -wider opportunity for themselves and their children. - -Native-born Americans have accepted their privileges as a matter of -course, and without feeling the obligations they imply. They have -demanded justice and opportunity for themselves, but they have not -felt the responsibility of seeing that it was extended in equal -measure to those who come to our shores. They have not realized -that it is the obligation of every one enjoying the privileges and -benefits of a democracy to see that these are shared and safeguarded -by all the people. - -The war has brought home to the nation the stern necessity of a -united country. For the safety of the nation our ideals of freedom, -justice, and opportunity must be put into practice for all the people -of the nation. The “square deal” that we stand for must be given -at home, the opportunity for better living and the development of -character must not be denied any of our people. Only in this way -shall we have loyal American citizens who value their allegiance and -who feel the obligation to uphold our national ideals. - -=The Immigrant Is a Great National Asset=: The country has been -built up largely by his work. The railroads, the mines, the great -buildings, the subways, waterworks, steel-mills, sugar-refining, -clothes, cigars, furniture, most of the products of our factories, -are made by immigrants. The great industries of the country would -stop without the millions of hands that they supply. - -The immigrant often comes here with high hopes of improving his -condition, and he finds himself looked down on with contempt by the -native American, exploited at every turn, and every advantage taken -of his ignorance. After an alien is once admitted, there has been -relatively little attempt made to protect him, to see that he is -helped to settle where his skill can best be utilized, or even to aid -him in learning our language and customs. - -Many foreigners were skilled farmers before they came to this -country, but although there is great need for such labor on the farms -here, little provision is made to use their skill in that way. The -immigrant often has to pay to get a chance to earn his living. When -he gets a job his labor is exploited; he has to accept lower wages -than an American would take; the living-quarters provided for him may -not be fit for human habitation. - -Here is a recent picture of a suburb of New York City, a community of -16,000 foreign-born workers: The married workman pays from fifteen to -twenty dollars a month rent for a three- or four-room flat, the rooms -about ten feet square, with no light but kerosene-lamps. The average -family has four children, and each family takes from two to six -boarders to help pay the rent. The only running water is on the first -floor, and there is one out-of-door toilet. Is it any wonder that the -children, the younger generation, are both sickly and lawless? - -The factory buildings are large and well lighted, but in many -communities of foreign-born unskilled workmen the housing provisions -allow for no privacy and are a detriment to family life and morality. -Such conditions are particularly bad for the immigrant woman whose -work confines her indoors. - -It is natural that the foreigner should settle with others of his -own nationality, so almost every city and village in the State has -a colony “across the track.” In the native section there will be -police protection, paved streets, running water, sewage and garbage -disposal, but this protection often does not extend “across the -track.” There, disorder and filth abound and the death-rate is much -higher. - -=Every injustice to the immigrant reacts on us as a people.= He must -be given a square deal before he can be made into a loyal American. - -A common language is the first essential of a united nation. There -are solid blocks in New York and other cities where not a word of -English is spoken or understood. It is hopeless to try to make -Americans of persons who do not understand our language. Speaking -English is the first step in citizenship, and the public schools are -the logical centers in which to make loyal Americans of our alien -population. - -=Night Schools= are sometimes provided, but there are many localities -still without them; and, after all, it is difficult for a man who -has been at manual labor all day to study at night. They are most -successful when they are made interesting with stories and games. -Experiments have been made with classes held from five to seven -o’clock in the afternoon in the factory buildings, and employers -often welcome them. - -=Neighborhood Classes for Women= are being held in the afternoon in -some localities. In this case the babies must be included. Provision -is made for them in a separate room with a nurse or kindergartner -to take charge of them. The best lessons for the mothers are not -found in books, but are based on the interests connected with their -daily lives and their domestic duties. Paper patterns and a lesson -in how to make garments for her baby will chain her attention, and -the English names of articles used will be learned unconsciously. -“Playing store” with the articles she depends on to feed her family -will fascinate her and teach her more practical English. - -The immigrant woman is often keen to learn American ways and customs. -She is eager to know how to take better care of her family. When the -public schools of New York City give away pamphlets about economical -cooking, the call for them from the mothers of the pupils is so great -that the supply is soon exhausted. - -The need for some special help for the foreign woman was never -as great as it is to-day. There are about four hundred thousand -of them in New York State who have become citizens because their -husbands are citizens. They are going to vote. Many of them cannot -speak English. In the course of time the law providing that a woman -shall take the citizenship of her husband without qualifying for it -herself, may be changed, but meanwhile these women are voters. They -need help and education, and for the protection of the State the -community must give it to them. - -=Home Teaching= of women in the tenements as part of the regular -school system is being tried in California. Teachers are sent into -the homes to show by practical demonstration economical cooking, how -to improve sanitary conditions, and to teach the mother how to care -for her children. - -=Naturalization= would do more to arouse a sense of responsibility -in the alien if it were conferred with a ceremony which would appeal -to the imagination. Many of the people who come to our shores come -from countries where beauty and ceremonial are part of the national -life. The process of naturalization, as conducted in many courts, is -usually perfunctory and often sordid. If the courts are crowded, an -applicant may have to come six or eight times with his witnesses, -losing not only time, but being in danger of losing his job. He is -often ignorant of the whole subject of government; he may know -nothing of the questions involved in an election, but there is -rarely an effort made to teach him anything of American ideals. The -political club that wants his vote is the only thing connected with -government that pays any attention to him, or offers him help. Often -he finds that his vote has a market value. So the ballot, the symbol -of freedom and self-government, becomes to him only a bit of graft. -Definite standards of citizenship that apply to all alike, better -tests of their knowledge of English and of our government, would help -to impress on aliens the meaning of the oath of allegiance. - -=Uniform Naturalization Laws=: In New York State an alien has to wait -five years to become a citizen with a vote. In Nebraska, a Turk or a -Greek or an Armenian who landed six months before, if he has taken -out his citizenship papers, is permitted to vote, although he may -have no educational qualifications of any kind, and know no English -nor anything about our government. In seven other States a man can -vote simply by declaring his intention of becoming a citizen. - -=Ignorance of Laws=: Besides the lack of provision for learning the -duties of citizenship, there is little opportunity for the immigrant -either to become familiar with our laws or to learn respect for -the law. He gets his knowledge of the vote from the ward boss, and -he learns contempt for the law when he sees the curtains of the -saloons pulled down in front, and the back door open. As he sees the -constant disregard for law all around him, liberty becomes license in -his mind. Then as he prospers and grows well-to-do, building laws, -factory inspection, fire protection, and other attempts at government -regulations, often seem to him restrictions which are to be evaded as -much as possible. - -Sweatshops and the padrone system are to his mind part of the -American system for getting rich. In taking advantage of them for -his own profit he feels that he is only following the custom of the -country. A contempt for law and opposition to any attempt of the -law to interfere with what he considers his rights are the natural -results. - -The study of civics[10] in the public schools should begin not in -the high schools and colleges, but in the lower grades. A majority -of children leave school before they reach the grammar school. A -practical course in government may be made simple and interesting -even for them. - -The idea has been seriously advanced that the oath of allegiance, -accompanied by a dignified and beautiful ceremony, might be -administered to groups of boys and girls as they reach twenty-one -years of age, in a manner to impress on the public mind the value of -citizenship. The “citizen receptions” which have been given monthly -in Cleveland and Los Angeles, to the new citizens of that period, -have done this. After a patriotic program, with the judge of the -court presiding, each successful applicant is very proud when he -receives his naturalization papers like a diploma, awarded before -his family and friends. Such a ceremonial cannot fail to carry home -the conviction of the value of the citizenship so conferred, and the -importance of living up to the responsibility imposed by it. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[10] The study of citizenship in the public schools may be made a -vigorous aid to Americanization. Many foreign parents depend on their -children for their knowledge of the customs of the new country. What -the children learn in the public schools has its influence on the -life of the family at home. If the children are taught orderliness, -consideration for others, and respect for authority, they carry those -qualities home. If they are undisciplined, they take home disregard -for parental authority, and a lack of consideration for the rights of -others, that will stand in the way of their comprehending the first -principles of good citizenship. - - - - -XXIII - -PATRIOTISM AND CITIZENSHIP - - -From the beginning of history there have always been individuals who -have chosen death rather than slavery. As intelligence has grown and -has displaced ignorance, their number has increased, but it is only -within the last century and a half that people have demanded liberty -in sufficient numbers to make it the fundamental principle in the -forming of great nations. - -We, in the United States, are the inheritors of the most courageous -and forward thinking of the men and women of all nations who cared -enough for human liberty to break all ties of home and country -in order that they might “establish justice, insure domestic -tranquillity, provide for the common defense, and secure the -blessings of liberty” for themselves and for us. - -These phrases from the Constitution of the United States have -usually been only words to us. We have been safe, our homes have -been secure, our loved ones have been protected. Most of us have not -personally been conscious of any overwhelming injustices, and those -that we have heard of have been far enough away not to be disturbing. -We have come and gone as we chose; we have thought and spoken as we -pleased; we have worshiped as we would; our property has been safe; -we have damned the government or any man in any public office without -thought of danger to ourselves; we have feared no man. Why should we -have talked about liberty or human freedom—it has been secure enough. -So the call to defend liberty to some has fallen on dull ears, -and the demand for an awakened patriotism in some places has gone -unheeded. As a people, we have forgotten about the long centuries of -fighting for freedom, the tremendous cost that has been paid, and the -blood that has been shed. - -Think what those words, “safety, defense, tranquillity, justice,” -must have meant throughout the centuries when no man’s life was safe, -when not only his welfare, but that of his family, was subject to the -whim of the government, when he could be thrown into prison without -knowing the reason why, when the honor of his wife or daughter could -be taken without his being able to protest. Read your history again, -of the middle ages, of England in the seventeenth century, of France -before the Revolution, of Germany in the eighteenth century. Then -read of the early struggles in America. It was nature and the Indians -that man was fighting then. For personal safety he fought to make -war and raiding unprofitable; he had to meet brute force with brute -force, to prove his mastery over nature and savagery, and to gain -peace and safety for himself and his home. - -It is the untold sacrifices of countless men and women that have made -liberty possible. That it shall be maintained, and that the world -shall not be allowed to slip back, is a debt that every man and woman -owes to the past. - -Those who inherit the fruits of this age-long struggle must be ready -to pay their part, for themselves and for the sake of those they -love, for the sake of those who won it for them, and for those who -shall come after them. The duty which rests on them is as great as -the duty that was on the men of the Revolution, and on those who won -the Magna Charta. If they do not, they are weakening the forces of -civilization. - -For liberty is not yet complete. There may be as great a struggle -ahead of the world as lies in the past. Before the tremendous -upheaval of the war, we took it for granted that the liberties we -possess were common, more or less, in most of the civilized world. -Since then the horrors, the unbelievable human suffering, the -suspension of all human rights, in the region of the great struggle, -we have laid to the war, and have not realized that in many parts of -civilized Europe, before the war, human freedom as we know it did -not exist, and that the denial of certain rights which we claim as -fundamental, was common. - -At the foundation of our national existence has been that belief -in the principles of liberty, justice, and opportunity which the -Constitution expresses. The rights given us by the founders of our -nation have been the ideals which other democratic governments have -sought to follow. They have been sufficiently elastic to meet the -growth of the world’s belief in democracy, and to provide for all -new developments in the ideals of human liberty. If these ideals -have been denied to any of our people, it has been the fault of us -as citizens. The degree in which they are maintained depends on us. -Instead of denying the liberties that we actually enjoy, would we -not do better to advance them and add to them? In place of tearing -down the great structure already erected, is it not wiser to help to -correct its imperfections and to continue to build on it? - -There is an intelligent part of the public that desires good -government and will help to maintain our ideals of justice, but they -are in the minority. There is also a part that sees in government -only their own selfish profit, but they are also a minority. The -great mass of people are indifferent until something arouses them. -They would rather be left alone by bad government than be bothered -by good government. That is the great problem of democracy—to arouse -all the people to a realization of the necessity of their active -interest in and support of that democracy, to increase their sense -of individual responsibility; and that is the reason for universal -suffrage—to put yeast into a people and to ferment their dormant -interest. Democracy is not static. It exists only as it is upheld. - -We hear about the denials of justice and the failures of democracy -more than we do about its blessings. Our sense of perspective is -often wrong. We talk about an act of lawlessness in the United -States, even if it is being prosecuted with energy by the government, -and class it with a deliberate attempt by a government to crush a -people. We make no distinction between a State with deficient labor -laws and a country where the laboring classes have no right to make -themselves heard. We see no difference between a suppression of -disloyal utterances in time of war and a people that is never allowed -to speak freely, or a censoring of papers in war-time and a press -that never prints anything but what it is told to print. - -We are apt to magnify the evils of democracy at home, and to forget -the magnificent heritage of liberty that belongs to us. - -What are the special privileges which we enjoy? - -_First._—_Personal Security_, the right to live our daily lives -without fear of personal danger, the right of being secure from -unwarrantable seizure of person. This right has been ours so long -that we do not know how precious a right it is. It is difficult even -to conjure up in imagination an idea of what it would mean to be in -daily fear of one’s safety. - -_Second._—_Personal Liberty: Freedom of Thought and Speech._ Life -would be unthinkable to us without this liberty. To stifle one’s -thought, to be afraid to let a suspicion of it leak out would mean to -make life unbearable. _Freedom of the Press_ is a right that we enjoy -more than any other nation. _Freedom of Worship_ has so long been -unquestioned that we forget that it has been little more than a short -century since it was established. _Freedom of Assembly_ is a right -which we accept without question. - -_The Right of Petition_ was won by a bitter struggle. We can scarcely -imagine that there was ever a time when it was denied. - -_Third._—_Equality before the Law_ is a right that is guaranteed by -the Constitution of the United States, the right to a fair trial by -jury, of habeas corpus, and due process of the law. - -_Fourth._—_Security of Property_ is guaranteed by our Constitution. -Private property may not be taken even by the government without a -fair price being paid for it. - -_Fifth._—_Political Rights_ are guaranteed to our people, universal -suffrage, complete political liberty. This is the most valuable -of all rights, because it is the right that secures all other -rights.[11] - -These rights are not absolute; they are dependent on public opinion -as well as on the law. They are imperfectly administered. To the -extent that they are denied, we must each one of us accept part -of the blame, because liberty of action is ours. In time of war -public safety may demand their suspension, and the people may give -permission that this may be done temporarily. - -The privilege of citizenship brings with it the obligation to defend -the government of which that citizenship is a part. The right to -vote is a right which might well be dependent on the loyalty of the -citizen, and on his willingness to defend and maintain his country. - -Men say even to-day that the vote has no value, that they do not care -about it. Let them live for a time in a country where they would not -be allowed to vote, where the people are governed by an autocratic -power, and how long before they would be willing to sacrifice -anything, even life itself, for political liberty? - -The citizen of a democracy has not only the duty to defend his -country, but is bound to transmit to future generations something -better than he inherited from the past. As it is his part in time of -war to defend the liberties that he enjoys, so it is his duty in time -of peace to do his best to develop and strengthen liberty and justice. - -That is a task even more difficult than to fight in time of war. The -discouragements, the disappointments, are many. - -Women are bound to meet these disappointments. The vote for which -they have worked so hard and so long will not accomplish what they -wish. Often it will seem to accomplish very little. The machinery of -democracy is cumbersome and very imperfect. It is often heartbreaking -to try to move it. It does not easily register the popular will. -But in spite of the imperfections, and the discouragements, and -the downright corruption, the foundation on which it is built is -the best that the world has yet found. There are many labor-saving -devices still to be invented for the bettering of the machinery -of government—protective measures to be found against political -corruption and to safeguard the interests of the people. - -Side by side with the improvement in the mechanism of government must -come a quickening of the public conscience. The yeast of universal -suffrage is already working toward that end. The golden rule as the -standard of action in government will make few mistakes. The prospect -for an improved democracy in New York State is bright. The war has -swept away many prejudices and has clarified many problems. Men and -women are working together as never before, whole-heartedly, for -the benefit of the State. To adapt the words of President Wilson, -“the climax of the culminating and final war for human liberty has -come, and we must be ready to put our own strength, our own highest -purpose, our own integrity and devotion to the test,” and we must do -this not only now in time of war, but also after peace has come, in -the dedication of ourselves to the service of justice, freedom, and -opportunity for all in our nation. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[11] Universal suffrage has meant in the past only manhood suffrage. -With the ratification of the woman suffrage amendment to the National -Constitution, universal suffrage will become for the first time a -fact. - - - - -APPENDIX - -SOME DEFINITIONS - - -=Habeas Corpus=: Both the Federal and State constitutions guarantee -to the people the right to the writ of habeas corpus, “unless where -in cases of rebellion or invasion, public safety may require its -suspension.” This is an order that may be obtained from a certain -judge commanding that a prisoner shall be brought into court without -delay. This writ secures to any person imprisoned for any cause the -right to be heard immediately, in order that the purpose of his -detention may be made known, the facts be examined, and the prisoner -either released or remanded for trial. This is one of our most highly -prized rights, and is based on a promise contained in the Magna -Charta. - -=The Initiative and Referendum= give to the voters the power to -initiate legislation, and the right to compel a referendum on any -legislative act. - -=The Initiative= enables the people to enact some measure that they -may desire, when it has been ignored, or defeated, or amended out -of shape by the Legislature. The initiative may be used to pass a -new law, or to amend or repeal existing laws. If a group of citizens -can get a certain percentage of the voters to sign the requisite -petition to a measure, it then goes to the Legislature, and if it is -not adopted by that body, the measure must be given to the people for -their decision by popular vote. If a majority of the voters indorse -the measure it becomes a law without waiting for action by the -Legislature. In Oregon, initiative measures go directly to the people -without being submitted to the Legislature. - -=The Referendum= provides that a certain percentage of voters may -demand that any statute passed by the Legislature must be submitted -to the voters, and approved by them before it becomes a law. - -The existence of a provision for the initiative and referendum -is said to reduce the need of interference with the work of the -Legislature, and the actual number of measures coming to a popular -vote is very small. - -=The Recall= provides that the voters who put an official into office -may vote to remove him before his term of office is over. If people -are dissatisfied with the conduct of a public official, on petition -of a certain number of voters, he may be compelled to submit to a new -election so that the voters may pass judgment on his conduct of his -office. - -=The Red-light Injunction and Abatement Act= is recognized as the -most effective way yet found of minimizing the social evil. The -usual method of handling such offenses is to arrest the woman and -fine her. The injunction and abatement act puts the responsibility on -the owner of the property used for this business. If it can be proved -that it is used for immoral purposes, the house is closed, and the -owner fined and put under heavy bond to insure its not being used -again in this way. Property used for this purpose brings much higher -rent than when used for legitimate business, so that this procedure -strikes at one root of the evil. New York State has an abatement act, -but it is not well enforced. It is not easy in many cases to find the -owner of a piece of property. - -=The Tin Plate Ordinance= puts the name of the owner of a building -on a plate outside the building, and thus prevents the concealment -of his or her identity. It was first put into operation in Portland, -Oregon. - -=Prohibition=, =High License=, =Local Option=, and the =Guttenburg -System= are all ways of dealing with the liquor traffic. - -=Prohibition= has been of many different degrees in various places in -the United States. A complete National prohibition measure has now -been passed by Congress, and is before the States for ratification. - -=High License= is intended to decrease the number of places where -liquor is sold by placing a tax on them so large that it will be -impossible for many of them to pay it. - -=Local Option=, which allows communities of various sizes to decide -for themselves whether the sale of liquor shall be licensed or not, -has been fought step by step by the liquor trade. - -=The Scandinavian or Guttenburg System= of controlling the liquor -business, in general, provides for eliminating all private profit -from the business, but there are many variations of details in -different places in carrying out the system. The Scandinavian idea -is that if the money profit is done away with the business will -take care of itself. A few licenses are given for short periods to -companies formed for manufacturing wines and liquors, and 5 per -cent. interest is allowed on the capital invested. All remaining -profits go to the State. The government has the right to withdraw the -license without compensation. Retail shops are open only from eight -in the morning until seven-thirty in the evening; they are closed -on holidays, and from one on Saturday until eight A.M. on Monday. -Bartenders are under the civil service and are given bonuses for -selling soft drinks. - -=The Single Tax= is a proposal to place the entire burden of taxation -on land alone, without regard for the value of its improvements. -Land which is not improved, and is entirely non-productive, often -increases in value with the growth of population and the improvements -made on neighboring property, without any effort on the part of the -owner, or any service rendered by him in return. Improvements on -property increase the taxes on that property, while the owner of -the unimproved property escapes the same increase as long as his -land remains unimproved. In other words, the improvements which add -to public prosperity are made to pay an increase which the stagnant -property escapes. The proposal of the single-taxers is that the -“unearned increment” on such land should go into the public treasury. - -=The House of Governors= originated when President Roosevelt, in -1908, invited the Governors of all the States to meet in Washington -to confer over important matters. Several times since then this -“House of Governors” has met together to discuss questions of mutual -interest which are important to the welfare of the several States. - -=Proportional Representation= would give representation in Congress -to each party, in proportion to its membership in the State. At -present the representation of each party is based on its comparative -strength in each congressional district. The division of the State -into congressional districts is made by the State Legislature. The -political party in control of the Legislature may divide the State -in such a way that it may be able to elect an unfair number of -representatives. It may put counties, or assembly districts which -have a large majority of voters belonging to the opposite party, in -one congressional district, and economize its own voting strength -by spreading it over as many congressional districts as possible, -where it can be sure of electing its candidates by small majorities. -This is known as “gerrymandering.” In New York State, instead of the -division of the State into congressional districts being based fairly -on population, districts have been created by the party in control -of the Legislature which contain more than twice as many voters as -some other districts.[12] It is said that proportional representation -would also tend to make Congressmen so elected work for the service -of the State as a whole instead of for one local district. - -=Workmen’s Compensation Laws= are designed to provide for the -compensation of employees when they are injured at their work. More -working-men are injured in the industries of the United States, in -proportion to the number employed, than in any other country in the -world. To let the working-man and his family alone bear the burden of -injury or death is recognized as an injustice. For such an injured -person, or his family, to be obliged to sue through the courts is -usually a long and expensive process. Years may be consumed in such -litigation, and meanwhile the family may be without the support of -the breadwinner. Compensation laws require employers, regardless of -fault, to pay injured workmen certain amounts for injuries resulting -from accidents, without the workmen being obliged to go to court and -sue for damages. - -The State Federation of Labor is working to have all compensation -insurance placed in the State fund, to eliminate direct settlement -of damages between the workers and the employer, and to have all -occupational diseases included in the provision of the law. - - -ADDITIONAL NOTES - - Page 109: School taxes under the new Township law are collected by - Town authorities. - - Page 142: In New York County the Grand Jury is composed of - thirty-six men. - - Page 144: A bill to make women eligible for jury service is before - the Legislature of New York State. - - Page 163: Efforts are being made to repeal the Township school law - and to go back to the School District system of 1795. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[12] Also under our present system a large minority of voters may -be without representation. A third party in the State may have a -considerable membership, but its numbers may not be large enough in -any one district to elect a representative over either of the other -parties. - - - - -CHART OF OFFICIALS FOR WHOM YOU CAN VOTE - - - ELECTIONS WHEN HELD TERM SALARY - - =School Elections.= School-meeting annually - first Tuesday in May. - Board of Education, ” ” 3 years. - 3-5 in each town. - School directors, ” ” 5 ” - 2 in each town. - - =Village Elections.= Annually, usually in the - spring, the third - Tuesday in March. - President. ” ” 1 ” - Trustees (2 to 8). ” ” 2 ” - Clerk (sometimes 1 year. varies. - appointed). - Treasurer. ” ” 1 ” ” - Assessors. ” ” 1 ” ” - Collector. ” ” 1 ” percentage. - Police justice. ” ” 4 years. varies. - Special elections may be called to decide special questions. - - =Town Elections.= Biennially, either in the - spring or at the - general election in - November. - Supervisor. ” ” 2 years. by the day - or salary. - Town clerk. ” ” 2 ” fees. - Assessors. ” ” 2 ” by the day. - Collector. ” ” 2 ” percentage. - Overseer of the Poor. ” ” 2 ” by the day. - Supt. of Highways. ” ” 2 ” ” ” - Constables. ” ” 2 ” fees. - Just. of the Peace. ” ” 4 ” ” - - =County Elections.= At the general election - in November. - Sheriff. ” ” 3 ” fees or sal’y. - County clerk. ” ” 3 ” ” ” - Treasurer. ” ” 3 ” fixed by b’rd - of supervisors. - - District attorney. At the general election 3 years. sal’y varies. - in November. - Supt. of the poor. ” ” 3 ” by the day - or salary. - County judge. ” ” 6 ” sal’y varies. - Surrogate. ” ” 6 ” ” ” - Coroners. ” ” 3 ” fees or sal’y. - - =City Elections.= - - Cities of the first and second class and usually those of the third - class hold elections biennially, in the odd-numbered years. - - =New York City.= - Mayor. Elected every four years 4 years. $15,000 - at the general election - in November. Next - mayor elected in 1921. - Comptroller. ” ” 4 ” 15,000 - Borough presidents. Elected by the people of 4 ” 7,500 - each borough. to 5,000 - Aldermen. In odd-numbered years. 2 ” 2,000 - Judges, City Courts. At any general election. 10 ” 12,000 - Judges, Muni. Courts. ” ” 10 ” 7,000 - to 8,000 - - =New York County.= At the general election. - Sheriff. 4 ” 12,000 - District attorney. 4 ” 15,000 - County clerk. 4 ” 15,000 - Register. 2 ” 12,000 - Judges of the Court of General Sessions. 14 ” 17,500 - Surrogates (2). 14 ” 15,000 - - =Bronx County.= At the general election. - Sheriff. 4 ” 10,000 - District attorney. 4 ” 10,000 - County clerk. 4 ” 10,000 - Register. 4 ” 10,000 - County judge. 6 ” 10,000 - Surrogate. 6 ” 10,000 - - =Kings County.= At the general election. - Sheriff. 2 ” 15,000 - District attorney. 3 ” 10,000 - County clerk. 4 ” 12,000 - Register. 2 ” 12,000 - County judges (5). 6 ” 12,500 - Surrogate. 6 ” 15,000 - - =Queens County.= At the general election. - Sheriff. 3 ” 10,000 - District attorney. 3 ” 8,000 - County clerk. 3 ” 8,000 - County judge. 6 ” 12,500 - Surrogate. 6 ” 10,000 - - =Richmond County.= At the general election. - Sheriff. 3 years. 6,000 - District attorney. 3 ” 5,000 - County clerk. 3 ” 5,000 - County judge and surrogate. 6 ” 10,000 - - =State Elections.= Biennially, at the general - election in even-numbered - years. - Governor. 2 ” 10,000 - Lieutenant-Governor. 2 ” 5,000 - Secretary of State. 2 ” 6,000 - Comptroller. 2 ” 8,000 - Treasurer. 2 ” 6,000 - Attorney-General. 2 ” 10,000 - State Engineer. 2 ” 8,000 - State Senators. 2 ” 1,500 - Assemblymen. 1 year. 1,500 - Judges of the Court of Appeals. 14 years. 13,700 - to 14,200 - Judges of the Supreme Court. 14 ” 10,000 - to 17,500 - - =National Elections.= At the general election. - President. Elected by presidential 4 ” 75,000 - electors who are elected - by the people every - four years. - Vice-President. ” ” 4 ” 12,000 - U. S. Senators. At different general elec. 6 ” 7,500 - Representatives in Biennially, in even-numbered 2 ” 7,500 - Congress. years. - - -THE END - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - pg 204 Added space between: acanning-factory in: who is kept at work - in acanning-factory, - pg 259 Removed repeated word to from: workmen being obliged to to go - to court - pg 259 Changed A bill to make women elegible to: eligible - pg 262 Added period after: fees or sal’y - for Coroners line - pg 262 Added period after: City Elections - pg 262 Added period after: in the odd-numbered years - pg 262 Added period after: At any general election (2 locations) - Many hyphenated and non-hyphenated word combinations left as written. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK YOUR VOTE AND HOW TO USE -IT *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Your vote and how to use it</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Mrs. Raymond Brown</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Contributor: Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: February 5, 2023 [eBook #69959]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Bob Taylor, Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK YOUR VOTE AND HOW TO USE IT ***</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover"> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<h1>YOUR VOTE<br> -AND HOW TO USE IT -</h1> - -<figure class="figcenter illowp10" id="decoration1" style="max-width: 10.9375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/decoration1.jpg" alt="decoration"> -</figure> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center fs200 wsp">YOUR VOTE</p> -<p class="center fs120"><em>and</em></p> -<p class="center fs150 wsp">HOW TO USE IT</p> -<br> -<p class="center fs80">BY</p> - -<p class="center wsp">MRS. RAYMOND BROWN</p> - -<p class="center fs80 wsp"><em>Chairman of Organization of the New York State<br> -Woman Suffrage Party</em></p> -<br> -<p class="center fs80 wsp"><em>With a Foreword by</em></p> - -<p class="center wsp">MRS. CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT</p> -<p class="center fs80 wsp"><em>President of the National American<br> -Woman Suffrage Association</em></p> -<br> -<figure class="figcenter illowp15" id="decoration2" style="max-width: 18.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/decoration2.jpg" alt="decoration"> -</figure> -<br> -<br> -<p class="center wsp">HARPER <em>&</em> BROTHERS PUBLISHERS</p> - -<p class="center fs80 wsp">NEW YORK AND LONDON</p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center no-indent fs80"> -<span class="smcap">Your Vote and How to Use It</span></p> - -<hr class="r5"> - -<p class="center no-indent fs80">Copyright, 1918, by Harper & Brothers<br> -Printed in the United States of America<br> -Published February, 1918<br> -</p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center fs120 no-indent wsp"> -<em>To<br> -the Many Good Citizens<br> -who have helped and advised<br> -in the preparation of this book<br> -it is gratefully dedicated</em><br> -</p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center no-indent fs150 wsp"> -THIS BOOK IS OFFICIALLY<br> -ENDORSED BY THE NEW<br> -YORK STATE WOMAN<br> -SUFFRAGE PARTY<br> -</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" style="width:7%"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr">PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Foreword</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:20px"><a href="#Page_xv">xv</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Preface</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:20px"><a href="#Page_xvii">xvii</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter I. Politics and Woman’s Interests</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">The Duties of Government—The Relation of Government to the -Home—Duties and Obligations of Citizenship.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter II. Town and County Government</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">The Town Meeting—Officials, Duties, the Kind of Men Needed—When -and How Elected—Political Honesty—The Relation of Country to City, State, and Nation.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter III. The Incorporated Village and City Government</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Classes, Charters—Officials, Duties—When Elected—Wards -and Election Districts—Franchise -Rights—Commission Form of Government—City Manager.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter IV. Greater New York</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Mayor, Comptroller, President of the Board of Aldermen, Presidents of the Boroughs—The -Aldermen, Presidents of the Boroughs—The -Board of Aldermen—The Board of Estimate and -Apportionment—Corporation Counsel—City -Chamberlain—Taxes and Assessments—Board of Education—Board of Elections—Local -Improvement Boards—County Government—Courts—Charities—Civil Service—The Budget.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter V. State Government</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">The Constitution, Constitutional Amendments—The -Legislature, Senate and Assembly—How to -Get a Law Passed—The Governor and Other -Officials—Appointive Offices—Public Service, -Health, Excise, Conservation, Civil Service, and -Other Commissions—State Employees.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter VI. National Government</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">The National Constitution—Congress, Its Powers—How -Constituted—Sessions of Congress—Congressional -Committees—The President, How -Elected, His Powers—The Cabinet—Centralized Government.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter VII. Who Can Vote</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Citizens—Aliens—How an Alien May Become a -Citizen—Naturalization Laws—A Married Woman, -an Unmarried Woman—Qualifications for -Voting—Who May Not Vote—The 14th and 15th -Amendments—The Woman Suffrage Amendment.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter VIII. Political Parties</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Republican, Democratic, Progressive, Prohibition, -and Socialist Platforms—Party Organization, -National, State, County, and City Committees, -Election District Captains—Party -Funds—The Use and Abuse of Party—The Independent Vote.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter IX. How Candidates Are Nominated</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">President and Vice-President—Enrolment of -Voters—Direct Primaries—Objections to Direct -Primaries—Nomination by Party Convention—Objections -to the Party Convention—Importance -of the Primary—Nomination by Petition.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter X. Elections</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Registration of Voters—Time of Elections—Election -Officials—How to Mark the Ballot—How -Ballots Are Counted—The Australian Ballot—The -Short Ballot—Corrupt Practices Act—Voting-machines—School-houses -for Polling-places—Cost of Elections.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter XI. Taxation</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Direct and Indirect—Village and School Taxes—Town, -County, City, and State Taxes—Tax -Districts—How Taxes Are Assessed—County -Board of Equalization—The Collection of Taxes—State -Taxes: Corporation Tax, Inheritance -Tax, Other State Taxes—State Board of Equalization—Federal -Taxes: Custom Duties, Internal -Revenue and Excise Taxes, the Income Tax—Public -Debt, Bonds—Sinking Funds—The -Budget—The Pork-barrel.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter XII. Public Highways</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">State Roads, Their Cost and Maintenance—Town -and County Highways—Bond Issues—City -Streets—Street Cleaning—Parks—City -Planning—The Value of Beauty.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter XIII. Courts</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Criminal and Civil Cases—Justices’ Courts—Police -and Magistrates’ Courts—County Courts—Surrogates’ -Courts—Court of Claims—Supreme -Courts, Appellate Divisions—Court of -Appeals—Courts of Record—Federal Courts: -United States District Courts, United States -Court of Claims, United States Circuit Court -of Appeals, United States Supreme Court—Constitutionality -of Laws—Injunctions.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter XIV. The Punishment of Crime</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">The Grand Jury—Trial by Jury—Jury Service—Women -Jurors—The Police—Prison Reform:—The -Indeterminate Sentence, Probation—Jails -and Prisons—City Farms—The Prevention -of Crime.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter XV. Women Offenders and the Law</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Drunkenness—Prostitution—Night Courts—Fines—Delinquent -Girls—Girl Victims—Houses -of Detention—Women Judges—Policewomen.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter XVI. Public Education</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">The School District—The Township Board of -Education—The Annual School Meeting—The -School Budget—The Supervisory District—The -District Superintendent—The Union -Free School District—Physical Training—School -Money—Normal Schools—University of -the State of New York—Board of Regents—National -Commissioner of Education—Agricultural -Colleges—Farmers’ Institutes—Vocational -Training—State Scholarships—Domestic Training—Schools -as Community Centers—Health—Co-operation.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter XVII. Health and Recreation</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Housing—Tenement House Inspection—Dance-halls—Playgrounds—Vacation -Schools—Recreation Centers—Municipal Dance-halls—Municipal -Bathing Beaches—The Movies—Causes of Juvenile Crime—Rural Needs.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter XVIII. The Care of Dependent and Delinquent Children</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">By County, City, and State—Institutional -versus Family Care—Lack of Definite Authority—Boarding -Out—Boards of Child Welfare—Widowed Mothers’ Pensions—The Delinquent -Child—Children’s Courts—Feeble-minded Children.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter XIX. Child Wage-earners</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">The Federal Child Labor Law—New York -State Child Labor Laws—Child Workers and -Delinquency—Street Trades—Night-messenger -Service—Rural Child Workers—War and Children.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter XX. Public Charities</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">State and Private Control of Charitable Institutions—State -Board of Charities, Duties, Powers—Proposed Changes in the Reorganization -of the Board—County and City Institutions—Department of State and Alien Poor—Local -Boards of Managers—State Department -of Inspection—Provision for the Feeble-minded—Recommendations -of the State Board—State Commission in Lunacy—State Prison Commission.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter XXI. The Protection of Working-women</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Conditions Before the War—Number of Women -Wage-earners—Clothing Manufacturers, Laundries, -Restaurant Workers, Textile Operators—War -and Woman’s Work—The Eight-hour Day, -New Occupations, Messenger Service, Wages—Minimum -Wage—Protection Needed.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter XXII. Americanization</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">The Need of a United Country—The Immigrant -a National Asset—Housing Conditions—A -Common Language—Night Schools—Neighborhood -Classes for Women—Home Teaching -of Women—Naturalization—Uniform Laws for -Naturalization—Ignorance of Laws—The Study -of Citizenship.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chapter XXIII. Patriotism and Citizenship</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Appendix</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Some Definitions: Habeas Corpus—The Initiative -and Referendum—The Recall—Injunction -and Abatement Act—The Tin Plate Ordinance—Prohibition, -High License, Local Option, the -Guttenburg Method of Controlling the Liquor -Traffic—The Single Tax—The House of Governors—Proportional -Representation—Workmen’s Compensation Laws.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Chart of Officials for Whom You Can Vote</td> -<td class="tdr" style="height:30px"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">When Elections Are Held.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOREWORD">FOREWORD</h2> -</div> - - -<p>It is one thing for women to win the vote -and a totally different one for them to know -how to use that vote so that it will count to -the greatest good of the state. The keynote -of woman’s long struggle for the ballot -has been her ardent desire for service. Now -that she has been given the vote, she is eager -to learn how she can best render that service.</p> - -<p>Citizenship has been very lightly regarded -by our country in the past. It has been -given to the immigrant without any ceremony, -in the midst of the sordid surroundings -of a local court-room; it has come to the -boy of twenty-one without any special preparation -on his part; it has often been bought -and sold. It remains now for women to treat -it with a new dignity and to give it the importance -it deserves.</p> - -<p>Civics should be taught in every school in -the land. The ballot should be regarded as -a sacred trust. Every man and woman who -grows up under the protection of our flag<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</span> -should feel the obligation to give of his and -her best to make our democracy a better -expression of our ideals.</p> - -<p>I hope that this book will help to start -some new citizens in the right way.</p> - -<p class="right"> -<span class="smcap">Carrie Chapman Catt. </span><br> -</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>There never seems to be just the right -book on a topic that one has very much at -heart.</p> - -<p>When the vote for New York women was -an accomplished fact there came a sudden -and pressing need for a book on government -that would give the busy housewife or the -overworked woman in the factory the simple -outline of her government and the officials -for whom she was going to vote, with the -duties and requirements of their positions; -but that was not all. There are certain -problems of government to-day and certain -departments of politics which have to do -with things which are of special interest to -women. The protection and care of human -life has always been woman’s great business -in life. So a book on civics for women must -include an outline of what the state is doing -for its children, for its poor, for working-women, -for public health and recreation; in -short, for the same things in government<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</span> -with which she is concerned in her individual -capacity as a woman. These are also the -departments of government which seem to -need her attention the most. It is natural -that men should have given the greater care -in government to business and material -affairs. To counterbalance this, woman’s -work and votes are needed for the human -side.</p> - -<p>To be an intelligent voter some knowledge -of the structure of government is needed. -Also one must know the duties of an office -in order to judge of the qualifications of -would-be candidates, so Chapters II to VII -give an outline of the different divisions of -government, beginning with the local offices, -for which women will cast their first votes, -and going through the State to the National -Government. Chapters VII to X, inclusive, -deal with the actual casting of the ballot in -the elections, the organization of political -parties, and the management of elections. -The major part of the book is then given to -those departments of political affairs in -which women are undoubtedly most deeply -concerned.</p> - -<p>The substance of some of these chapters -has been used as a correspondence course in -citizenship by the New York State Woman<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xix">[Pg xix]</span> -Suffrage Party, and is published by special -arrangement with them. Through four years -of continuous intensive educational work in -the State the Woman Suffrage Party has -come closely in touch with many thousands -of women; it has learned to know their idealism, -their fervent belief in democracy, and -their desire to make democracy more effective. -It knows also that there are many -other women who have never thought about -voting, but who are equally conscientious -and are now eager to learn. It knows the -problems of women as does probably no -other organization of women.</p> - -<p>It also has a deep feeling of responsibility. -It feels its obligation to furnish all the help -possible to the new women voters to meet -their new duties wisely. It hopes to bring -home to women the human side of government, -to arouse a desire for further study, and -especially to encourage them to regard their -vote as a trust to be used not to advance partisan -politics, but to further human welfare.</p> - -<p>This is a book for amateur citizens written -by an amateur citizen. It may be found to -differ from the others in that it deals with -the subject of civics from the standpoint of -the woman voter.</p> - -<p class="right"> -<span class="smcap">Gertrude Foster Brown. </span><br> -</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p> -<p class="center fs200 no-indent">YOUR VOTE<br> -AND HOW TO USE IT</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center no-indent fs150"><b>YOUR VOTE<br> -AND HOW TO USE IT</b></p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="I">I<br> -POLITICS AND WOMAN’S INTERESTS</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The average woman has never thought -of politics as having an intimate relation -to her daily life. She has not realized -that government has a direct effect on the -comfort and happiness of the family in the -home, on the successful upbringing of children, -and on the health and safety of men -and women workers.</p> - -<p>She has known vaguely that government -controls the fundamental question of war or -peace; that it has to do with taxation; that -it handles the mail, but that it also plays a -large part in domestic and social life is a -fact that she has only recently been learning.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span></p> - -<p>With the rapid extension of the vote to -women, especially the recent granting of suffrage -to the women of New York State, there -is a new and wide-spread interest in how -government works, and a realization of the -importance of good government and the dire -peril of bad government. Women are conscientious; -they are accepting their new -responsibilities with much seriousness. They -are eager to learn how to be good citizens. -The war also has made everybody think. -It has made government seem a more personal -affair.</p> - - -<h3>WHAT IS GOVERNMENT?</h3> - -<p><b>Government is the management of those -common affairs of a people which can be -handled in a more effective and more economical -way by a community acting together -than by each individual acting for himself.</b></p> - -<p>In a sparsely settled community government -is less apparent than in a city. Its -functions are simple. Sometimes it does not -seem very important. But as people congregate -closer together it becomes more complicated -and comes in closer and closer touch -with the individual and family life.</p> - -<p>For example, a man living in the country -may rely on himself to protect his home and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span> -property; but in the city life and property -are better protected by a police force than -if each individual citizen had to provide his -own protection. A woman in a pioneer -country may bring up her child as she pleases. -She may teach him when and how she chooses. -But as population increases and government -is established, a large part of the child’s -training is dictated by it. He must go to -school at a certain age; he must stay there -so many hours a day; he must study certain -things in a certain way. He cannot be put -to work until he has reached a certain age. -If he contracts a contagious disease the city -takes control of the case.</p> - -<p>Directly and indirectly the government in -a city affects a woman’s life and interests in -innumerable ways.</p> - -<p>She is dependent on it for the light and -sunshine that comes into her home. Laws -concerning housing and building and tenement -departments of government are very -important to the health, comfort, and even -decency of the family. She is dependent on -government for the safety of the milk she has -to feed her baby. The health of the family -depends as much on the city department of -health as on the mother’s care. It is of the -utmost importance to the city mother that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span> -the streets be kept clean, because they are -usually the only place that her children have -in which to play. The street cleaning department, -therefore, touches her closely. It -is of vital moment to her that the streets -be kept free of criminal influence, therefore -the management of the police department -is of great importance to her. If the town -is run “wide open” it may mean that her -husband’s wages may be dissipated. The -way in which the excise law and the laws -against gambling are enforced is a matter -which deeply concerns her.</p> - -<p>If she lives in the country the relation of -government to her life is not so varied, but -she is still dependent on it for the education -of her child, for the socializing influences of -the community, and for much of the business -prosperity of the farm. Are telephone connections -cheap, are the roads passable at all -seasons, are good market facilities provided? -These are all questions that greatly affect her -welfare, and they depend largely on the -government.</p> - -<p><b>It is the business of government to maintain -peace and to provide for the common -defense.</b></p> - -<p>This is a function of government so fundamental -as to need little comment. It is the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span> -first essential to the safe existence of the -home.</p> - -<p><b>It is the business of government to assure -justice and equality of treatment to all -citizens.</b></p> - -<p>This becomes more difficult as population -increases and life grows more complicated. -Nearly every human being to-day is dependent -on the work of other people for most of -the necessities, as well as the comforts and -conveniences, of life. The food that we eat, -the cotton and wool in the garments we wear, -the coal that heats our houses, we owe to the -toil of other people who in return may be -dependent on us for something that they use. -It is a matter that concerns every one of us -that in producing these things that we use -human life shall be safeguarded, that living -wages shall be paid, and that standards of -civilization shall be maintained and advanced.</p> - -<p>As individuals we cannot control conditions -even for ourselves, as individuals we -cannot control them for other people; but -all of us working together in government can -secure these fundamental necessities for -every one of us.</p> - -<p>Since government in a democracy is made -by the people themselves, it is a responsibility<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span> -that every one should share to help -secure these common needs.</p> - -<p><b>It is also a function of modern government -to raise the standard of health, education, -and living.</b></p> - -<p>Plato said, “Only that state is healthy and -can thrive which unceasingly endeavors to -improve the individuals who constitute it.”</p> - -<p>Society must be protected from vicious and -destructive influence; the intelligence and -knowledge of all the people are needed for -the common good.</p> - -<p>As human beings have become dependent -on one another, the well-being or the degradation -of one individual or family does not stop -there. It strongly influences the welfare of -other individuals and families. For their -own protection people have not only the -right, but the obligation to make a government -that shall foster and advance the -common welfare.</p> - -<p><em>The basis of good government is the golden -rule.</em> To help secure for others the protection -that you demand for yourself is part of -the obligation of good citizenship. The -honesty and efficiency of government in a -republic like the United States depend on -the voters; on their sense of responsibility, -and on the intelligence with which they use<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span> -their power. The feeling of responsibility of -each individual, for the public welfare, cannot -be too highly developed.</p> - -<p>Democracy can only be a success in the -degree that the people who make that -democracy are determined that it shall deal -with justice, and that it shall offer opportunity -to every one within its borders. They -must also be vigilant to see that it shall deal -wisely with their common problems as they -develop.</p> - -<p>To be a citizen of such a democracy and -to have the power to help it grow along these -lines, to be able to serve one’s country loyally -in the full efficiency of citizenship, are great -privileges.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="II">II<br> -TOWN AND COUNTY GOVERNMENT</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap"><b>The United States is both a Democracy -and a Republic.</b></p> - -<p><b>A Democracy</b> means, literally, a government -by the people.</p> - -<p><b>A Republic</b> is a democracy in which the -people elect representatives to carry on the -government for them.</p> - -<p>The United States is a federation of forty-eight -States. For convenience of government -each State is subdivided into smaller units.</p> - -<p>In every political division of the State -there are three distinct departments:</p> - -<p><b>The Legislative</b>, the part that makes the law.</p> - -<p><b>The Administrative</b>, the part that administers -the law.</p> - -<p><b>The Judicial</b>, the part that interprets the -law.</p> - -<p>Even in a sparsely settled community people -have certain interests in common. Roads -have to be made, schools established, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span> -poor cared for, and taxes levied. Who does -these things? If a cow breaks into a neighbor’s -cornfield, or if there is an epidemic, -whose business is it to look after it?</p> - - -<h3>THE TOWN GOVERNMENT</h3> - -<p>With the exception of the school district, -which has to do only with the public schools, -the town<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> or township is the smallest division -of the State for purposes of government. -The government of the town is the nearest -approach we have to a direct government by -the people themselves.</p> - -<p><b>The Town Meeting</b> brings people together -to discuss their local affairs, to elect officers, -and to appropriate the money necessary to -carry out their plans. It is held in New York -State every other year, some time between -February 1st and May 1st.</p> - -<p>The business of the town meeting includes -the disposal of town property, the care of -bridges and roads, the care of the poor, the -number of constables, matters concerning -public health, and the care of stray animals.</p> - -<p>Any citizen has a right to bring up any suggestion -he pleases for the people to consider<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> -and debate in open meeting, and then to take -whatever action they choose. In a matter of -taxation or incurring a town debt, only taxpaying -citizens can vote.</p> - -<p>Where it exists at its best, the town meeting -has an admirable effect in stimulating interest -in local affairs and in developing public spirit. -A special town meeting can be called by a -petition of twenty-five taxpayers, or at the -request of certain officials.</p> - -<p>The town meeting is a form of government -particularly adapted to a small community. -With the increase in population it has been -given up in many counties, and the election -of town officers now usually takes place at -the regular fall election.</p> - -<p><b>Town Officers</b>: <b>The Supervisor</b> is the chief -executive officer of the town, and is elected -for two years. He receives and pays out all -money except that raised for public roads -and the care of the town poor. If the town -roads are in bad condition or if the poor are -not properly cared for, he is responsible. -The honesty and efficiency of the administration -of town affairs are in his hands. He -represents the town on the county board of -supervisors.</p> - -<p><b>The Town Board</b> consists of the supervisor, -town clerk, and at least two justices of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> -the peace. It meets regularly twice a year. -It is the business of the board to receive the -accounts of the town officers and examine -them, to hear and decide claims against the -town. An appeal may be taken from their -decision to the county board of supervisors. -They may also frame propositions to be submitted -to the voters, and may borrow money -to meet appropriations made at the town -meeting. They may appoint a physician to -aid as health officer for the town.</p> - -<p><b>The Town Clerk</b> is the general secretary -and bookkeeper for the town. He records -births, marriages, and deaths, chattel mortgages -and property notes. He keeps the -records of the town meetings. He posts -election notices. He issues marriage licenses, -permissions for burial, hunting licenses, etc.</p> - -<p><b>The Superintendent of Roads</b> has charge -of building and maintaining the town highways, -bridges, and culverts outside of the incorporated -villages. He is paid by the day, -and may hire machines and horses or purchase -tools and material for road making. -The opportunities for dishonest money in this -office have sometimes made it sought after. -A contract may contain a “rake-off,” bills -may be padded, and materials accepted -which are different from specifications.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span></p> - -<p><b>Three Assessors and a Collector</b>: The -assessors determine the value of taxable -property in the town, and divide the amount -of taxes to be raised among the owners of -the property. If a property-owner is dissatisfied -with his assessment he may appear in -August before the assessors and “swear off” -what he considers an exorbitant amount. -Assessment rolls are made out, and it is the -duty of the collector to collect the money. -Town collectors are paid 1 per cent. on -taxes collected within thirty days after due, -with increasing fees for collecting taxes after -that time. This is an encouragement to -the collector to be dilatory in his collections, -and is a disadvantage to the town. It has -been suggested that penalties for delinquent -taxes should go to the town and not to the -collector.</p> - -<p><b>The Town Constables</b> have the duty of -keeping the peace and carrying out the orders -of the justice of the peace. They may arrest -people accused or suspected of crime. -There may not be more than five in a town.</p> - -<p><b>The Overseers of the Poor</b> are charged -with the duty of looking after persons who -are destitute and have no relative to support -them. They may assist such persons in -their own homes or send them to the county<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> -poorhouse. This office often conflicts with -that of county superintendent of the poor, -and it has been recommended that it be -abolished.</p> - -<p><b>The Justice of the Peace</b> is the judicial -officer of the town. Each town has four such -officers, each elected for four years. The -justice of the peace may hear civil cases where -the sum involved is not over two hundred -dollars. He may try petty offenses of all -kinds, breaches of the peace, drunkenness, -and petty larceny. He may issue warrants -and may hold persons suspected of serious -crime to await action by the grand jury.</p> - -<p><b>Terms of Town Officials</b>: Each official is -elected for two years, except the justices of -the peace and sometimes one or two assessors, -who are elected for four years.</p> - -<p><b>Pay of Town Officials</b>: Most of these -officers are paid from two to four dollars -for every day of actual service. The town -clerk, justices of the peace, and constables -are paid certain fees.</p> - - -<h3>THE COUNTY</h3> - -<p>The county comprises a number of townships. -It is a political division created by -the State to administer certain local affairs, -to act as agent for the State, to collect State<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> -taxes, and to enforce State law. The county -owns the court-house and jail; it can sue -or be sued.</p> - -<p>In most of New York State the county -has become more important in administering -local affairs than the town. New York -State has sixty-two counties, of which five -are in Greater New York. They vary in -size from Richmond County (Staten Island), -which has only 59 square miles, to St. -Lawrence County, which has 2,880 square -miles. They vary also in population from -Hamilton County, with 2,000 people, to -New York County with two million.</p> - -<p><b>Elected Officials</b>: <b>The Board of Supervisors</b> -is the legislative body of the county. -This board is composed of the supervisors -elected by each township, and also one member -from each ward of a city in the county. -They elect their own chairman.</p> - -<p>The board of supervisors have the custody -and control of the court-house, jail, poorhouse, -and all county property; they receive -and decide claims against the county; they -direct the raising of money by taxation to -meet the expenses of the county and the -county’s share in State taxes; they fix salaries -for county officials; borrow money for -county needs; they regulate laws for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> -protection of fish and game; they open -county highways, erect bridges, and may -provide hospitals for tuberculosis. They -also act as a board of canvassers to canvass -the returns after an election.</p> - -<p><b>The Sheriff</b>, the executive officer of the -county, is elected to enforce the law. On -him rests the security of life and property. -He must preserve the peace, arrest offenders -against the law, and hold them in custody. -He must not allow fear or sympathy to interfere -with his enforcement of the law. He -summons jurors and witnesses for county -lawsuits and executes the orders of the -court. Until recently the fees which he received -made the sheriff’s office one much -sought after. These now go to the treasurer -in many counties, and the sheriff is paid a -salary. He cannot serve two consecutive -terms. He may appoint an under-sheriff and -deputy sheriffs.</p> - -<p><b>The District Attorney</b> is the public prosecutor -for the county, and brings suit “in the -name of the people of the State.” He is -also the legal adviser for county affairs. -It is his business to protect the public against -crime of all kinds. If corruption exists in -any department, it is his duty to bring it to -light. The good order of the community<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> -and the efficiency of government in the -county depend much on him. He determines -what cases shall come before the grand -jury.</p> - -<p><b>The County Clerk</b> keeps all the important -records for the county, including deeds, -mortgages, and maps, and makes out the -election certificates. Public documents must -always be open for public inspection. In -some counties there is a recorder of deeds. -The clerk also acts as clerk of the county -court. His office has an income from fees -which used to go to the clerk and made this -office very lucrative. In most counties the -fees now go to the county treasurer, and the -clerk is paid a salary.</p> - -<p><b>The County Treasurer</b> receives and disburses -all public moneys for the county. -He receives money from the town supervisor, -collected for county and State taxes, the -latter of which he pays to the State treasurer. -He receives from the State money for the -public schools, which he in turn passes on -to the towns. He must give a bond for the -safe-keeping of these public funds. He also -chooses the bank in which public funds are -kept, and ought to give a careful accounting -of the interest which must go into the county -treasury.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span></p> - -<p><b>The Superintendent of the Poor</b> disburses -the money raised to care for the poor of the -county. The superintendents of all the public -charities in the county make their reports -to him, and he is responsible for them to the -board of supervisors. He also makes an annual -report to the State Board of Charities.</p> - -<p><b>Coroners</b>: From one to four coroners may -be elected in each county, except those in -Greater New York. Their duty is to investigate -sudden and suspicious deaths, and sometimes -the cause of a suspicious fire. They -are often practising physicians or they may -employ physicians to conduct inquests or -autopsies.</p> - -<p><b>The County Superintendent of Highways</b> -is appointed by the board of supervisors for -four years.</p> - -<p><b>The County Judge</b> presides over the county -court. His salary varies and is fixed by -State law, although paid by the county. -This office should be most carefully filled. -The county judge is not only important because -of his decisions, but he is one of the -most powerful men politically in the county. -Only a man of strict probity should be elected -to this office.</p> - -<p><b>The Surrogate</b> administers estates of persons -deceased, controls the probate of wills,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> -and appoints guardians for the property of -minors. His term is six years. In counties -with small populations the county judge acts -as surrogate.</p> - -<p>The term of office for county officials is -three years, except that of the supervisors -elected by the towns for two years, and the -judges elected for six years.</p> - -<p><b>Political Honesty</b>: The question is often -asked, are these local offices honestly managed? -Are there possible loopholes for corruption? -The following answer to these -questions was given recently by one in a position -to know:</p> - -<p>“The impelling motive of most politicians -is the enjoyment of a sense of power and influence. -The day laborer who loafs through -his political job and the salaried higher officer -who neglects his work and engages in private -business are examples of the most usual and -formidable class of political grafters. The -heads of departments and higher elected -officers are apt to do their work as well as -they can, in order to qualify themselves for -re-election. The days when a man could dishonestly -make a fortune in one political term -are past in this country, and waste, favoritism, -and stupidity are the only dangerous -elements which we must look for.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span></p> - -<p>“The greatest waste in expenditure of -moneys by boards of supervisors is usually -on county roads and highways, where in -some years hundreds of thousands of dollars -are lost by unscientific building and upkeep. -This also is an easy way for a dishonest -supervisor to reward political supporters -by paying them for work on the road -which they do not do. The same things obtain -in the matter of purchase of supplies -and the county printing. The cure for this -is to have all expenditures beyond a nominal -amount made on public bids.</p> - -<p>“Another opportunity of abuse is the payment -of supervisors in fees. Many counties -still adhere to the old rule of fees: $4 per -day for attending board meetings; 8 cents -per mile for going and returning; $4 per -day while actually engaged in any investigation -or any other lawful duty. For copying -the assessment roll and extending taxes -on the tax roll supervisors receive commissions -which, in some counties, run into -thousands of dollars. The remedy for the -numberless evils which accompany the fee -system is to put the supervisors on a salary -basis.</p> - -<p>“The sheriff has charge of the prisoners in -the jail. Therein lies his opportunity for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> -dishonesty and extortion. Sheriffs should receive -salaries and not fees, and every county -should have a well-organized board of women -visitors to inspect the jails and lockups at -least every two weeks.</p> - -<p>“The district attorney has an opportunity -for dishonesty in the expenditure of the contingent -fund, which is always provided for -him, and which he can pay out with little -or no check. Fortunately, however, most -men elected to the office of district attorney -are of high enough caliber to make the percentage -of dishonesty almost <em>nil</em>.</p> - -<p>“If the county clerk is paid by fees it is -difficult to expect an absolute, ethical fulfilment -of his duty, and probable that he will -be working for himself rather than the -county.</p> - -<p>“The duties of the county superintendent of -the poor are in continual conflict with those of -the overseers of the poor. The opportunity -to waste and misappropriate county funds -without detection is not as great as it used -to be, because of the close supervision of the -State Board of Charities; but the county -superintendent has wide discretion in giving -alms and caring for the county poor, and the -office is, therefore, usually sought by a minor -political leader, who, by virtue of his office,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> -can provide for his dependent supporters, -which he usually does in the sincere belief -that he is properly dispensing charity. In -no case, however, is any great amount -wasted, and on the whole the work is fairly -well done.</p> - -<p>“Justices of the peace and constables and -town clerks usually receive fees. They -should be put on a salary basis.</p> - -<p>“Overseers of the poor have opportunities -for fees and misappropriation of small -amounts because they are allowed liberal -discretion in selecting objects of the town’s -bounty. The office should be wiped out, the -distinction between town and county poor -abolished; all the work should be done -through the county superintendent of the -poor, who should be responsible to the State -Board of Charities.”</p> - -<p><b>The Relation of Country to City, State, -and Nation</b>: While the problems of government -in rural districts are simple and few, -the close relations of city and country have -made the wise management of country affairs -of great importance to those who live in -cities. On the other hand, the handling of -the more complex and difficult city problems -are of equally grave importance to country -dwellers. Comfortable, prosperous life in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span> -rural community is dependent not only on -local conditions, but also on State and -National government.</p> - -<p>Good roads are equally important to city -and country, and they depend largely on the -State. The kind of education that the village -or country school gives will determine -the intelligence and earning capacity of many -of the coming generations of city dwellers, -and this instruction is determined both by -the State and by the local school boards.</p> - -<p>Low telephone rates and good interurban -car lines will put the woman on the farm in -close touch with her neighbors, and so will -stimulate her interest in outside affairs. -Healthy community life and rural amusements -will keep the young people content -at home and help prevent the drift toward -the city. The farmer’s produce is handled -by city shops and markets, and the manufactured -articles of city factories go into the -homes of every rural district.</p> - -<p>Not only are city and country dependent -on each other, but also one part of the -country is dependent on some other part, far -distant, for some of the necessities of life. -Our cotton comes from the South, wheat -comes from the West, sugar may come from -Colorado or Cuba. The whole country is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> -linked together in trade relationship, and -freight rates and interstate commerce are -controlled by the Federal government.</p> - -<p>The good citizen, then, has a vital interest -not only in his supervisor and local affairs, -but in both State and National government. -When he realizes that the size of his income, -the comfort of his family life, the welfare of -his children, and their getting on in life, depend -to an appreciable degree on government, -he and she will begin to take a livelier -interest in politics. The discussion of these -affairs in the home will serve to stimulate -the interest of the entire family in what is, -after all, an important part of their business.</p> - -<p>A small community has one problem all -its own. If there is some offense against the -public welfare, no one wants to complain. -It may be something merely disagreeable, or -it may be a serious menace to public health; -but every one is slow to make a fuss about -it because he cannot hide his identity, and he -is afraid he might become unpopular. This -fear is usually groundless because it is likely -that most of his neighbors agree with him -in wanting to have the condition changed. -A country community needs fearless, public-spirited -citizens.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span></p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> The word town as used in New York does not mean -a village or city, but a political division.</p> - -</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="III">III<br> -THE INCORPORATED VILLAGE AND CITY<br> -GOVERNMENT</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">As population grows government needs -increase. When people establish their -homes close together and form a populous -community within a limited area, it becomes -necessary to have streets opened up, sidewalks -made, the streets lighted, protection -from fire, and other things that the township -does not provide.</p> - -<p>A territory of not over one square mile, -having a population of at least two hundred -people, may be incorporated as a village. -On a petition of the taxpayers they may vote -on the proposition, whether or not they shall -become an incorporated village, and have a -government of their own distinct from that -of the town. Even if they incorporate they -still remain a part of the town, and take the -same part in town government as before.</p> - -<p><b>There Are Four Classes of Villages</b>: First -class, those with a population of 5,000 or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> -over; second class, with a population between -3,000 and 5,000; third class, with a population -of between 1,000 and 3,000; fourth -class, with a population of less than 1,000. -In many Western States a village of one or -two thousand inhabitants usually becomes a -city. In New York State there are villages -of more than 15,000 population.</p> - -<p><b>The Village President</b>, who serves one -year, is the chief executive, and serves without -pay. He is the head of the village -board of trustees, and in small villages is the -head of the police. Local order, peace, -health, and sanitation depend on him.</p> - -<p><b>The Board of Trustees</b> consists of from -two to four men in villages of the third and -fourth class; from two to six men in villages -of the second class, and from two to eight -men in villages of the first class, elected for -two years, half of them elected each year. -They serve without pay. They make ordinances -for the government of the village and -administer its affairs. They decide where -sidewalks shall be built, whether streets shall -be paved, how garbage shall be handled; -they provide light and a water-supply; they -provide for the raising of money by taxes; -if a sewerage system is needed it must be -done under the supervision of the State<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> -Board of Health. Propositions relating to -the large expenditure of funds must be submitted -to the taxpayers.</p> - -<p>Questions of police, water-supply, fire protection, -lights, sewers, are sometimes handled -by the board of trustees, or if the village is -large enough there may be separate boards -or commissioners established for some of -these things.</p> - -<p>A Fire Department, with fire house, hose -and wagon, exists in most villages, voluntary -in small places, and a paid force in the larger -villages. The fire company is a popular department -of public service, because of the -social pleasure involved and because firemen -are exempt from jury duty.</p> - -<p><b>A Treasurer, Assessors, a Collector, and a -Village Clerk</b>, are usually elected and sometimes -<b>a Street Commissioner</b>. Not infrequently -the latter office is considered a sinecure, -and streets littered with waste paper and -other refuse are common in the average village. -The commissioner should be held up to his -duty by all the voters.</p> - -<p><b>A Board of Health</b> of from three to seven -members must be appointed by the trustees -to work in connection with the State Board -of Health. This board elects a health officer, -who must be a physician. The business of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> -the board is to watch over drains, cesspools, -to prevent nuisances and contagion -from disease. Health officers should be -vigilant and morally courageous, otherwise -the community will pay in illness.</p> - -<p><b>A Police Justice</b>, elected for four years, -handles cases involving violations of village -ordinances. The board of trustees may appoint -a village attorney to represent them -in case of lawsuits.</p> - -<p><b>The Annual Village Election</b> usually takes -place the third Tuesday in March. A special -village election, similar to a town meeting, -may be called for taxpaying citizens to vote -on special questions, such as the removal of -garbage at public expense, or the purchase -of water or lighting plants.</p> - -<p>A water-supply is usually furnished by a -village of any size. An abundant supply is -necessary, not only for homes, but for fire -protection and for any sewerage system. -New York villages and cities are very well -lighted. Whether there should be public or -private ownership of public utilities is a -question which is much discussed. While the -water-supply is usually owned by the municipality, -the lighting system more often -belongs to a private company.</p> - -<p>Sewage disposal is a matter which has to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> -be taken up sooner or later by a village as it -grows in population. For too long our villages -have polluted the convenient stream. -They have been slow to study the question, -and to dispose of sewage and garbage in a -way that is both satisfactory and economical. -Foreign cities often make a profit out of the -disposal of their refuse, whereas it usually costs -us money. These questions need more intelligent -consideration than is usually given them.</p> - -<hr class="tb"> - -<p>As a community grows larger it outgrows -the simple form of village government and -needs one more adapted to its complex and -growing needs.</p> - -<p>The growth of cities in the past hundred -years is phenomenal. In 1820, 83 per cent. -of the people of the United States lived on -farms; in 1910 only 32 per cent. The problems -that a city government has to meet are -many and difficult, especially in the cities -of New York State, where a large proportion -of the people are foreign-born, and where -there is often a large floating population -without civic pride or interest. In smaller -communities, where every one is known, the -fear of public opinion acts as a restraining -influence which is not felt in a city where -the individual identity is often submerged.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span></p> - -<p><b>A CITY GOVERNMENT</b> works under a -charter granted by the State, which limits its -powers. These charters used to be made out -separately for each city, and the legislature -interfered with the management of the local -affairs of a city in a way that caused a demand -for “Home rule” for cities. This has -been partially granted, and cities in New -York State now have large power to provide -public works and to control public -education, health, safety, recreation, and -charities, although they are still occasionally -interfered with by the State legislature.</p> - -<p>The city is a direct agent of the State, and -does not work as the village does, through -the town and county.</p> - -<p><b>Three Classes of Cities</b>: First-class cities -have a population of 175,000 or over. Second-class -cities have a population of 50,000 to -175,000; third-class cities are all those with a -population of less than 50,000. The object -of this division is to enable the State to -legislate for the needs of groups of cities -instead of individual ones. The mayor of a -city may veto a measure passed by the legislature, -but if approved by the legislature -and signed by the governor, it may become -law in spite of his veto.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span></p> - -<p>The needs of government in a city are -those of the village multiplied in size; they -include police protection, care of the public -health, a pure water-supply, inspection of -food-supplies, supervision of weights and -measures, adequate housing inspection, economic -and satisfactory garbage and sewage -disposal, fire protection, gas and electric lighting, -good paving, clean streets, the care of -dependents, maintenance of hospitals and libraries, -good educational facilities, transportation, -and many other activities.</p> - -<p>The general plan of government for cities -is the same in all the classes. Cities of the -first class are New York City, Buffalo, and -Rochester (see Greater New York).</p> - -<p><b>Cities of the Second Class</b>: <b>The Mayor</b>, -who is elected for two years, is the chief -executive officer. He has as important and -responsible a position as any man at the head -of a big corporation. The management of -the city is in his hands. The health and welfare -of its dwellers depend on him. While -the city council legislates for the city, it is -his business to see that laws and ordinances -are enforced. He may veto an ordinance -passed by the city council, although they may -pass it over his veto by a two-thirds vote. -The mayor has the power of appointing the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> -heads of most of the important departments -of the city’s business. Sometimes the city -council has to confirm an appointment, and -an official can only be removed for good -cause, and he must be given a hearing and -an opportunity to answer charges. To elect -to the position of mayor and to put the entire -responsibility of all the complex problems of -city government on a man of no training or -fitness for the position, is to invite extravagance, -incompetence, and corruption.</p> - -<p>For purposes of convenience in government -a city is divided into subdivisions called -<em>wards</em>, and for elections, into certain voting -precincts called <em>election districts</em>.</p> - -<p><b>The Board of Aldermen or The Common -Council</b> consists of one alderman chosen -from each ward and a president of the -board. They are elected for two years, and -are to the city about the same that the -board of trustees are to the village. Their -powers are limited by the city charter. In -general, they may pass ordinances relating to -streets, sewers, parks, public buildings, amusements, -grant franchises, regulate traffic, levy -taxes, and borrow money under certain restrictions -for the use of the city. An alderman -has power over many local interests -in his district. It is an important position<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> -which in the main has been disregarded; it -should be filled by a man chosen for fitness -as a local representative and not as a reward -for party service. No man should be elected -to this board whom you would not trust as the -custodian of your own property or the guardian -of your children, because in a public -sense that is what he is.</p> - -<p><b>The Board of Estimate and Apportionment</b> -is one of the most important departments -of city government. It has large control -over the city’s finances, and determines -its policies in all financial matters, franchises, -privileges and permits, and makes the -city budget. It consists of the mayor, comptroller, -corporation counsel, president of the -common council, and the city engineer.</p> - -<p><b>The Department of Contract and Supply</b> -lets contracts for material and work required -by the city. With the constant growth of -city departments and city business, in which -supplies and materials of many kinds are -needed, this is also an important committee.</p> - -<p>Other elected officers are comptroller, -treasurer, president of the common council, -and assessors.</p> - -<p>The department of finance is managed by -the comptroller and the treasurer.</p> - -<p>The department of assessment and taxation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> -which makes the assessment rolls, consists -of four assessors, elected two at a time, -for four years each.</p> - -<p>The department of law is presided over -by a corporation counsel, appointed by the -mayor. The mayor also appoints the city -engineer and the heads of the following -departments:</p> - -<p>The department of public works, which -controls the water-supply, streets, sewers, -buildings, and public markets; the department -of public safety, which includes the -bureaus of gas and electricity; departments -of police, health, charities and correction, and -the board of education.</p> - -<p>Cities of the third class are not uniform -in their government, but the general outline -is the same as for cities of the second class.</p> - -<p><b>City Elections</b> are held in the odd-numbered -years. State officials are elected in the -even-numbered years. The purpose of setting -a different time for these elections is to -keep city politics independent of State political -machines. Party issues have little to do -with the problems of a city. It is evident -that the government of a large city is a very -important and complicated business. There -are several offices which demand as great -executive ability as would be required of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> -man at the head of a large business corporation. -But city offices are usually given to -men not for fitness, but because of party -affiliation. Public sentiment is beginning to -ask why high standards of competence and -efficiency should not be as much demanded -in public as in private business.</p> - -<p><b>The Budget</b>: The heads of the various -departments decide how much money will -be required to run each department for the -ensuing year. The Board of Estimate and -Apportionment considers these requests and -fixes the tax-rate necessary to raise the -money needed (see Chapters <a href="#Page_37">IV</a> and <a href="#Page_108">XI</a>).</p> - -<p><b>Franchise Rights</b>: A city has many sources -of revenue of its own. Public utilities which -furnish such necessities as transportation, -water, gas, and electric light, earn enormous -profits. In some places some of these things -are owned by the city and the revenues go -to the city. In others, the right to build -and operate such a public business is given -to a private corporation through a franchise. -It is evident that these franchise rights are -extremely valuable and should not be given -away without adequate compensation to the -city, as well as the insuring of good service. -The rates that are charged, and the service -rendered, are matters of vast importance to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> -the people of a city. Municipal ownership -of such utilities has never been as extensive -in this country as abroad, but the sentiment -in favor of it is growing. Franchise rights -used to be given for long terms, even in perpetuity, -but public sentiment now demands -that they be subject to revision at reasonable -intervals. Most cities to-day own their own -water-supply, and some of them have their -own lighting plants.</p> - -<p><b>Commission Form of Government</b>: So -many officials are needed to manage the complex -affairs of a city that even if well qualified -men are put up for office, with so many -candidates to be elected, it is impossible for -the voters to know the merit of them all. -City government has been the weakest spot -in our political life. In an effort to meet its -defects, a number of cities have adopted the -policy of doing away entirely with the form -of government as outlined, and electing on a -non-partisan ticket several commissioners -(sometimes headed by a mayor), each one of -whom is put in charge of a division of the -city’s administration, and made responsible -for the work of this department.</p> - -<p>The fact is being recognized that skill and -expert training are needed in public officials; -that the power should be given to a few men,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> -and that they should be held responsible for -the success of their work.</p> - -<p>Buffalo now has a commission form of -government.</p> - -<p><b>The City Manager Plan</b> gives the management -of a city to one man, who is engaged -by the city, and held responsible for the conduct -of city affairs, in the same way that a -large business enterprise would engage a -manager. A city manager should be a man -who has made a study and profession of city -government.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="IV">IV<br> -GREATER NEW YORK</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The city of New York includes five -counties: New York, Kings, Queens, -Bronx, and Richmond. In one hundred -years, the population of New York City grew -from 50,000 to 4,000,000 people. It now has -a population of nearly 6,000,000, which is -about one-half the population of the State, -and it is the second city in size in the world.</p> - -<p>The government of the city is strictly prescribed -by its charter; for any improvement -that it desires outside of the provisions of -that charter, the city must go for permission -to the State Legislature.</p> - -<p>For convenience in government the city is -divided into five boroughs: Manhattan, -Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens, and Richmond -(Staten Island).</p> - -<p><b>The Mayor</b> is the chief executive of the -city. He is elected for four years and has -a salary of $15,000. He has powers of appointment<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> -and removal over a vast number -of important positions, including the heads -of the big city departments. Like the Governor -of the State and the President of the -United States, he initiates legislation by -sending once a year a message to the Board -of Aldermen containing a general statement -of the government and financial condition of -the city, and recommending such measures -as he deems advisable. He may ask for -special legislation at any time.</p> - -<p>All ordinances and by-laws passed by the -Board of Aldermen go to the Mayor for approval. -If he vetoes a measure, the Board -of Aldermen may pass it over his veto by -a two-thirds or three-fourths vote, with the -exception of the granting of franchise rights, -where his veto is absolute.</p> - -<p><b>The Comptroller</b> is at the head of the -financial affairs of the city. His term of -office is four years, and salary $15,000. He -may appoint three deputies at $7,500 each, -an assistant deputy at $3,000, besides other -heads of the various divisions of the finance -department; but the minor positions are -under the Civil Service.</p> - -<p><b>The President of the Board of Aldermen</b> -is elected for the same term as the Mayor, -and receives a salary of $7,500. He takes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> -the Mayor’s place in case of absence or -death.</p> - -<p><b>The Presidents of Manhattan, Bronx, and -Brooklyn Boroughs</b> receive $7,500 a year; -of Queens and Richmond Boroughs, $5,000. -They are elected for four years, and each -president has general oversight over streets, -bridges, sewers, and buildings in his borough. -He may appoint a commissioner of public -works, and a superintendent of buildings for -his borough, and local school boards. In -Queens and Richmond the borough presidents -have charge of street-cleaning.</p> - -<p><b>The Board of Aldermen</b> is the legislative -body of the city. It consists of seventy-three -men elected from Aldermanic districts. -They serve for a term of two years, and receive -a salary of $2,000 each. This board -makes the ordinances for the government of -the city. It makes and enforces police, fire, -building, health, and park regulations; it -makes by-laws for the regulation of public -markets, streets, public buildings, docks; for -inspection of weights and measures; regulating -places of amusement, height of buildings; -licensing cabs, truckmen, and pawnbrokers, -and regulations for the suppression of vice. A -city clerk and a clerk of the board at a $7,000 -salary each, are appointed by the board.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span></p> - -<p><b>The Board of Estimate and Apportionment</b> -is the most important of the city -boards. It frames the city budget, which -has to be adopted by the Board of Aldermen. -It also passes on bills granting franchise -rights. It represents the whole city, and -consists of the Mayor, Comptroller, President -of the Board of Aldermen, each with -three votes; Presidents of Manhattan and -Brooklyn Boroughs, with two votes each; -and Presidents of Bronx, Richmond, and -Queens Boroughs, with one vote each.</p> - -<p>Among the important appointive positions -of the city which are in the hands of the -Mayor are the following:</p> - -<p><b>The Corporation Counsel</b>, with a salary -of $15,000 a year, is the head of the law -department of the city, and is the city’s legal -adviser. He has over fifty assistant counsels -to appoint, with salaries ranging from $3,000 -to $10,000 a year, and a host of deputy and -junior assistants.</p> - -<p><b>The City Chamberlain</b> receives and pays -out all moneys for the city—salary $12,000. -He may appoint a deputy at $5,000 a year. -The abolishment of the office of Chamberlain -as being unnecessary was recommended by a -recent incumbent; but it is too large a plum -to be lightly discarded.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span></p> - -<p><b>The President of the Department of Taxes -and Assessments</b> receives $8,000 a year. Six -other tax commissioners are appointed with -salaries of $7,000 each, two of whom must -be of the opposing party.</p> - -<p>The Commissioners of Accounts, of Correction, -of Docks and Ferries, and of Health, -the Fire Commissioner, Police Commissioner, -Commissioner of Licenses, of Plants and -Structures, of Public Charities, the Street-cleaning -and Tenement House Commissioners, -Commissioner of Water Supply, -Gas and Electricity, and the chairman of the -Parole Commission, all receive $7,500 a -year; the Commissioner of Weights and -Measures, $5,000 a year.</p> - -<p>There is a new Commissioner of Public -Markets, and a Supervisor of the <em>City Record</em>, -a city publication which must print all ordinances -which involve the spending of city -money, granting a franchise, or making a -specific improvement, before they are passed -by the Board of Aldermen.</p> - -<p>There are many other less important offices -to be filled, and the Borough Presidents have -still further appointments.</p> - -<p><b>The Board of Education</b> has been reduced -from forty-six to seven members, of whom -two are now women. In addition there are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> -forty-six local school boards in the various -school districts, each consisting of five members -appointed by the Borough President -and the District Superintendent of the local -school district. These have now been divided -among the seven members of the new -School Board.</p> - -<p><b>The Board of Elections</b> consists of four -commissioners, two Republicans and two -Democrats, appointed by the Board of Aldermen -for two years, with a salary of $5,000 -each. This board determines the election-district -boundaries, chooses about 2,000 -polling-places, and appoints about 17,000 -election officials. Since 1915 the city has -allowed school-houses and other public buildings -to be used as polling-places, and at the -last election nearly 1,000 districts were supplied -in this way.</p> - -<p><b>Local Improvement Boards</b>: The city is -divided into twenty-five districts, in each of -which there is a Local Improvement Board, -consisting of the Borough President and the -Aldermen of the Aldermanic districts included -in the local improvement district.</p> - -<p><b>County Government Within the City</b>: -Each county included in the city of New -York has a separate county government, independent -of the city, with its sheriff, county<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> -clerk, district attorney, and its county court -in every county but New York. The office -of Sheriff in New York County has been one -of the highest paid offices in the State, because -of its fees. These have amounted to -from $80,000 to $100,000 or more a year, and -the county and Sheriff have divided them. -The county now receives all the fees, and the -Sheriff a salary of $12,000 a year; but he -cannot be re-elected, and the term of office -has been increased from two to four years.</p> - -<p><b>Courts</b>—<b>Supreme Courts</b>: The first judicial -department, and the first judicial district -of the State are formed by New York and -Bronx Counties. Brooklyn, Queens, and -Richmond form the second. The Special -and Trial terms of the Supreme Court try -both criminal and civil cases with and without -a jury, as in other counties.</p> - -<p><b>County Courts</b> are held in Kings, Queens, -Bronx, and Richmond Counties, and each of -them except Richmond has a <em>Surrogate’s Court</em>. -New York County elects two Surrogates, -for a term of fourteen years each, at a salary -of $15,000 a year. In place of the County -Court, New York County has a <em>City Court</em>, -which tries civil suits and is a naturalization -court, and a <em>Court of General Sessions</em>, -which tries criminal cases. The <em>Court of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> -Special Sessions</em>, with a chief justice and -fifteen assistant justices appointed by the -Mayor, tries cases of misdemeanors, and offenders -sent to them by the City Magistrates. -One division of this court is the Children’s -Court, with one presiding justice and five -associate justices, with a court in each -borough. These justices hold office for a -term of ten years.</p> - -<p><b>Magistrates’ Courts</b> are held by a large -number of magistrates, appointed by the -Mayor, and a chief magistrate who has general -supervision of them. <em>Municipal Courts</em> are -held in various parts of the city to try small -civil suits. There are forty-five Municipal -Court districts, in each of which there is a -judge elected by the people of the district -for a term of ten years.</p> - -<p>There are separate Night Courts for both -men and women, a Domestic Relations Court, -which deals with cases of non-support of -wives and children, and poor relations, and a -Traffic Court, which deals solely with violations -of the traffic laws.</p> - -<hr class="tb"> - -<p>To even mention the various institutions -in the city of New York which are engaged -in improving the health and social welfare -of the people would take many pages. There<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> -is great need among them of a more clean-cut -division of activities, and less overlapping -of authority.</p> - -<p><em>The Commissioner of Public Charities</em>, appointed -by the Mayor, is responsible for the -care of the city’s dependents. In 1915, -350,362 free lodgings were given to dispossessed -families and needy men and women. -There are 329 institutions receiving money -from the city for the care of dependent children, -and 22,753 children were in their charge -on January 1, 1916. The care which these -children have received has been severely -criticized. The conflicting authority of the -State Board of Charities and the City Board -of Inspection of Charitable Institutions, is -said to be responsible for this. In the future, -the city is to conduct its own inspections. -Widows’ pensions are administered for all of -Greater New York by one <em>Child Welfare -Board</em> of nine members appointed by the -Mayor, of whom two must be women. They -serve for a term of eight years without salary.</p> - -<p><em>The Tenement House Department</em> looks after -the 103,882 tenement buildings of the city, -and has a force of 193 inspectors, of whom -eight are women. There are still about 9,000 -dark rooms in the old tenements, built before -the law was passed requiring a certain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> -amount of light and air, which have not been -made over to meet the new requirements.</p> - -<p><em>The Street-cleaning Department</em> employs -regularly about 5,400 men at salaries ranging -from $720 to $860 a year.</p> - -<p><em>The Board of Inebriety</em> was organized to -take charge of persons who are chronic addicts -to alcohol or drugs, to treat them as -victims of disease, and send them to a farm -where treatment looking toward a cure is -combined with farm work, truck gardening, -etc. The great needs of this work cannot be -met until further accommodations are made -for patients.</p> - -<p><b>The Municipal Civil Service Commission</b>, -consisting of three members appointed by the -Mayor, maintains a regular staff of examiners -of applicants for city positions. The regular -payroll of the city includes nearly 85,000 -persons, of whom about 30,000 are not under -the jurisdiction of the Civil Service. There -are also about 20,000 others who are employed -part of the time.</p> - -<p>There is a free <em>public employment bureau</em> -which is growing steadily and is placing over -two thousand applicants a month, and a -Commissioner of Weights and Measures.</p> - -<p>The management of each one of the large -departments of city government requires<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> -special and technical training. A corporation -manager would search the country for -the best man to be found for each particular -department.</p> - -<p>School-teachers and school superintendents -are chosen because of their training and experience. -Minor city employees are appointed -from Civil Service lists; but the -custom of American cities is to appoint -men at the heads of city departments who -have distinguished themselves for party service.</p> - -<p><b>The Budget for Greater New York</b> is made -up, beginning in June, and being adopted -November 1st. Estimates of the needs of -each department for the coming year are -submitted to the Board of Estimate and -Apportionment, and are studied by sub-committees -who conduct public hearings, -when the representatives of each department -and the official examiners report on their -estimates and each item may be examined -and discussed. A tentative budget is printed -for public use and the last week in October -public hearings are held. By November -1st the budget must be adopted by the -Board of Estimate and Apportionment and -sent to the Board of Aldermen for their -approval.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span></p> - -<p>“Pay as you go” was a financial policy -adopted in 1914 to relieve the tremendous -piling up of future indebtedness of the city -for permanent improvements of the non-revenue -producing class. During the years -1914-1918 an annually increasing proportion -of the cost of these improvements was to -be included in the tax budget, and by 1918 -the entire cost was to be met by taxation, -and thereafter no bonds were to be issued -for this class of improvement. Every dollar -borrowed at 4½ per cent. interest on a fifty-year -bond costs $1.69 in interest charges. -While taxes are higher for a time under the -pay-as-you-go plan, the actual cost of improvements -to the city is much less.</p> - -<p>The Mayor of New York City is the head -of a corporation whose budget of expenditure, -in 1916, was $212,000,000. Before the war -the general expenses of the United States -Steel Corporation were about $34,000,000 a -year. The salary of the president of the -Steel Corporation, or of any one of the largest -business corporations of the country, would -be from $50,000 to $100,000 a year. The -Mayor of New York City receives $15,000 a -year. But a business corporation would insist -on having for president a man whose -training and business experience had made<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> -him peculiarly fitted for the job, while our -practice in choosing a man for mayor is to -give little consideration to special training -and experience in the work of city administration.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="V">V<br> -STATE GOVERNMENT</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The State has such large powers over its -people, and over all political divisions -within it, that it is often called the “Sovereign -State.” The State regulates the ownership -and transfer of property; it punishes -murder and other crimes; it regulates business -relations; it prescribes the form of marriage -and the reasons for divorce; it authorizes -the levying of taxes; it makes its -own election laws and provides for education; -until recently it has controlled railroads -operating within its borders.</p> - -<p><b>The State Constitution</b>, adopted by a -majority of the voters of the State, is the -fundamental law of the State. It can only -be changed by a constitutional convention -or by the adoption of a constitutional -amendment, which is done with considerable -difficulty.</p> - -<p>A constitutional convention is an assemblage<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> -of men chosen by the voters to revise -the constitution. The result of their deliberation -is then submitted to the voters, who -can accept or reject it. The last revision -took place in 1915 and was overwhelmingly -defeated at the polls. The law now provides -for a revision every twenty years if the voters -desire it.</p> - -<p>An amendment to the constitution can be -proposed in the Legislature. It has to pass -both houses of the Legislature during two -different but successive sessions (a new -session of the Legislature comes only every -other year, when a new Senate is elected), -and must then be submitted to the voters of -the State for their approval. A majority -vote makes it a law.</p> - -<p><b>The Legislature</b> has authority under the -State constitution to make laws for the -State. It meets every year on the first -Wednesday in January at the Capitol in -Albany, and remains in session until its -business is completed, usually about April -1st. It is composed of two divisions or -“houses,” the Assembly and the Senate.</p> - -<p>Every ten years, in a year ending with -the figure five, a census is taken of the people -of the State, and on this basis there is a new -apportionment of Senators and Assemblymen.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span></p> - -<p><b>The Senate</b> at present is composed of -fifty-two members, elected from certain divisions -of the State known as Senatorial -Districts. In general, each fiftieth of the -population of the State is entitled to one -Senator. (This rule is not followed mathematically, -for a county may not be divided -except to form two or more districts within -it; no one county may have more than one-third -of all the Senators, and no two counties -may have more than one-half of the total -number. This is intended as a check to a -congested district having an undue representation.)</p> - -<p>If a county which already has three or -more Senators shows a sufficient increase in -population to entitle it to another one, the -additional Senator adds one more to the -fifty Senators already provided for.</p> - -<p><b>The Assembly</b> is composed of one hundred -and fifty members, and, roughly speaking, -every one hundred and fiftieth part of the -population of the State is entitled to one -Assemblyman. In practice the rural county -of small or medium size which does not contain -a large city is one Assembly District. -Chautauqua, Dutchess, Schenectady, Niagara, -Orange, Rensselaer, St. Lawrence, Steuben, -Richmond, Suffolk, and Broome have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> -each two Assembly Districts. Albany, Oneida, -and Onondaga have three each; Queens -has six; Westchester and Monroe, five; -Bronx and Erie, eight; Kings and New -York, twenty-three each; Hamilton and -Fulton counties have only one between -them. Nassau County has recently been divided -into two Assembly Districts. This division -is made by the County Board of -Supervisors.</p> - -<p>The presiding officer of the Senate is the -<em>Lieutenant Governor</em>. The presiding officer -of the Assembly is elected by its members, -and is called the <em>Speaker</em>. He appoints the -standing committees, and has much control -over legislation. He usually belongs to the -political party which is in the majority in -the Assembly. This party also elects a majority -leader to control legislation on the -floor. The choice of the other party is -called the <em>leader of the minority</em>, and he is -recognized as the leader of this party in the -Legislature. The Senate also has majority -and minority leaders.</p> - -<p>Assemblymen are elected for one year, -and Senators for two years. Both receive -$1,500 salary and an allowance of ten cents -a mile traveling expenses once during the -session.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span></p> - -<p><b>How to Get a Law Passed by the Legislature</b>: -A bill may be introduced by any -member, beginning, “The People of the State -of New York, represented in Senate and -Assembly, do enact,” etc.</p> - -<p>It may be introduced into either the -Senate or the Assembly, or it can be introduced -in both houses simultaneously. It -has a first reading and is referred to a committee. -The committee may pigeonhole it -and never report, or it may report it too late -in the session for action by the Legislature, -or it may report it favorably, or with a -recommendation that it be rejected. If it is -reported favorably it is put on the calendar -to await its turn for consideration. It then -comes up for a second reading, when it may -be amended and sent back to the committee; -after a third reading a vote is taken. -If it is passed in one house it then goes to -the other house, where it goes through the -same procedure. If it is passed by the second -house, it then goes to the Governor for -his signature. If it is a bill concerning the -government of a city it goes to the mayor of -the city for his approval.</p> - -<p>If either house changes the bill it has to -go back to the first house for action in its -amended form. The Governor has the power<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> -to veto a bill, but it can be repassed over his -veto by a two-thirds vote.</p> - -<p><b>The Governor</b> is the chief executive officer -of the State. It is his business to enforce -the laws, through his appointive officers. -He has control of the military forces of the -State, which must consist of not less than -twenty thousand men, of whom two thousand -must be a naval militia. He has the -power to grant pardons. He is elected for -two years, and receives a salary of $10,000 -and the use of the Executive Mansion. He -may also initiate legislation. At every regular -session of the Legislature his duty is to -send a “message,” telling the Legislature -about the condition of public affairs and -recommending measures for their consideration. -He may also, at any time, ask for -special legislation, and may call the Legislature -together in an extra session. He has -the power of many important appointments -to State positions, but subject to the approval -of the Senate.</p> - -<p><b>The Lieutenant Governor</b>, with a salary of -$5,000 a year, takes the Governor’s place in -case of need. He presides over the Senate.</p> - -<p><b>The Secretary of State</b> has charge of all -public documents and records. He grants -certificates of incorporation, and has charge<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> -of elections and the taking of the census. -His salary is $6,000 a year.</p> - -<p><b>The Comptroller</b> must sign every warrant -for payment of State funds. He acts as -auditor for the State, reports to the Legislature -concerning State funds, and superintends -the collection of State taxes. He designates -the banks in which State money shall -be deposited. His salary is $8,000 a year.</p> - -<p><b>The State Treasurer</b> is the custodian of -State funds, and pays them out only on order -of the Comptroller. His salary is $6,000 a -year.</p> - -<p><b>The Attorney-General</b> is the general legal -adviser of the State. He prosecutes and -defends all actions in which the State is -interested. His salary is $10,000.</p> - -<p><b>The State Engineer and Surveyor</b> must be -a practical engineer. He has charge of the -canals, and the surveying and mapping of -all the public lands of the State.</p> - -<p><b>Appointive Offices</b>: Among these are two -<em>Public Service Commissions</em>, each with five -members. The first has jurisdiction over -Greater New York, and the second over the -rest of the State. In general, they have power -to regulate railroads and street-cars, to establish -rates, and to compel adequate service. -They also control express companies, gas and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> -electrical companies, telephone and telegraph -lines. No company can raise its -rates without their consent. Their business -is to see that the needs of the public are adequately -served, and also to protect the companies -from unjust treatment. These commissions -are considered so important that -the salary of each commissioner was made -$15,000 a year.</p> - -<p><b>The State Tax Commissioners</b> have general -supervision of the methods of raising -taxes throughout the State. There are three -of them appointed for three years, and they -must visit every county in the State at least -once in two years. Their salary is $6,000 a -year each.</p> - -<p><b>The State Board of Equalization</b>, which -consists of the tax commissioners and commissioners -of the land office, has to equalize -the assessments in each county, and fix the -amount on which the State tax is to be -levied.</p> - -<p><b>The Superintendent of Banks</b> controls the -banks, trust companies, building and loan -associations, which make reports to him -quarterly, from which he in turn makes a -report to the Legislature annually. His -salary is $10,000, and his term three years.</p> - -<p><b>The Superintendent of Insurance</b> has control<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> -over all the insurance companies and -reports annually to the Legislature. His -salary is $10,000, and term three years.</p> - -<p><b>The Commissioner of Health</b> must be a -physician. He has general oversight of the -health of the State, and supervises the registration -of births, marriages, and deaths in -the towns and cities. His salary is $8,000, -and he has a four-year term.</p> - -<p><b>The Commissioner of Excise</b> issues tax -certificates for the sale of liquor and collects -the excise tax, of which the State gets one-half, -and the city or town in which the liquor -is sold gets one-half. His salary is $7,000, -term five years.</p> - -<p><b>The Commissioner of Agriculture</b> appoints -the directors of farmers’ institutes, watches -over the sale of food products that might -be injurious to health, and has general care -of the agricultural needs of the State. His -salary is $8,000, term three years.</p> - -<p><b>The Commissioner of Highways</b>, who is -in charge of State roads and improvements, -serves for two years with a salary of $12,000 -a year.</p> - -<p><b>The Department of Labor</b>, which is a very -important branch of the State government, -works to improve the conditions of labor. -There are five commissioners who serve six<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> -years, each with a salary of $8,000. In -this department are several bureaus: <em>viz.</em>, -Inspection, Employment, Workmen’s Compensation, -Mediation and Arbitration, Statistics -and Information, Industries, and -Immigration.</p> - -<p><b>The Conservation Commissioner</b> controls -departments for preserving and propagating -fish and game, for protecting lands and forests, -and the control of inland waters. He -appoints a head for each division. (Forests -owned by the State must be kept wild. They -may not be loaned, sold, or exchanged, and -no wood may be cut.) He serves six years, -with a salary of $8,000 a year.</p> - -<p><b>The Civil Service Commission</b> consists of -three commissioners who have the duty of -determining the rules with which to test the -fitness of applicants for employment under -the civil service laws. The civil service is -intended to prevent the appointment of men -to government positions through partisan -politics or personal “pull.” Positions are -classified, competitive examinations are held, -and appointments made in order of merit. -The custom has usually been to have separate -lists made out of men and women, and -it has been complained that preference has -been given to the men’s lists.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span></p> - -<p>There is a <em>Superintendent of Public Works</em>, -with a salary of $8,000; a <em>Superintendent of -Prisons</em>, salary of $6,000, and a <em>State Commission -of Prisons</em> of seven members who get -$10 a day each for each day of service; a -<em>State Board of Charities</em>; a <em>State Hospital -Commission in Lunacy</em> of three members, the -president of which is paid $7,000, and other -members $5,000.</p> - -<p>There is also a <em>State Food Commission</em> of -three members who serve without pay, appointed -only for the period of the war, and a -recently created <em>Farms and Markets Council</em>.</p> - -<p>While most of the heads of the administrative -departments of the State government -are appointed by the Governor, the terms of -office of many of them are longer than the -term of the Governor who appoints them. -As a consequence, a Governor may be in -office, and important departments like the -Excise Commission, the Public Health and -Public Service, and Industrial Commissions, -may be in the hands of appointees of a preceding -Governor. They can be removed -from office only by preferring charges and -after a hearing. Also certain other important -State officials, including the Comptroller -and the Secretary of State, are elected -by the people, and may differ radically from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> -the Governor on questions of public policy. -They may even belong to a different political -party.</p> - -<p>It is by some considered a weakness in -the management of the affairs of the State, -that the conduct of some of the most important -departments of an administration -may be out of the control of the Governor -who is responsible for them.</p> - -<p>The business of the State requires about -17,500 regular employees, and the payroll is -about $22,250,000. It is probable that some -of these public officials in the service of the -State might be dispensed with if they were -required to work as many hours a day and -as many days a year as they would be -obliged to do in any private business.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="VI">VI<br> -NATIONAL GOVERNMENT</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The sovereign power of the United States -is vested in the National government, the -federal union of all the States, each self-governing, -but all uniting for certain purposes. -The Constitution of the United States is the -supreme law of the land.</p> - -<p>The National government, like that of the -State and municipality, has three distinct -divisions: the legislative, the executive, and -the judicial. The legislative power rests -with Congress, which is composed of the -House of Representatives and the Senate.</p> - -<p><b>The House of Representatives</b> is elected -every two years by the voters of the States. -After the census, which is taken every ten -years, Congress determines what the total -number of Representatives shall be. These -are then apportioned among the States according -to population. After the census of -1910 the House of Representatives was increased<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span> -to 435 members, which gave one member -for every 211,877 inhabitants. New -York has 43 Representatives, the largest -number from any State in the Union. -Every State is entitled to at least one Representative, -although it may not have the -requisite population. <em>The Congressional District</em> -from which a member is elected is determined -by the State Legislature. Greater -New York has 23 Congressmen.</p> - -<p><b>Qualifications for Representatives to Congress</b>: -A man must be twenty-five years old -and have been a citizen of the United States -for at least seven years, and be a resident of -the State from which he is chosen. The salary -is $7,500 a year, with an allowance for a -clerk, for stationery, and for traveling expenses.</p> - -<p><b>The Senate</b> is composed of ninety-six members, -two members from every State in the -Union, elected for a term of six years. In -order that there shall always be experienced -men in the Senate, only one-third of that -body is elected at a time. The Senate is -divided into three classes, and the men belonging -to one of the three classes are elected -every two years.</p> - -<p>A Senator may be re-elected as many times -as a State chooses, and many Senators have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> -served twenty years or more. This makes -the Upper House of Congress a very conservative, -stable body of men. Senators, as well -as Representatives, receive a salary of $7,500 -a year. The <em>Vice-President</em> of the United -States is the presiding officer of the Senate.</p> - -<p>The election of Senators was formerly a -prerogative of the State Legislature. The -Seventeenth Amendment to the National -Constitution, passed in 1913, provides that -they shall be elected by direct voice of the -voters of the States.</p> - -<p><b>Qualifications of Senators</b>: A candidate -for the Senate must be thirty years old and -have been a citizen for at least nine years.</p> - -<p><b>Sessions of Congress</b>: A new Congress comes -into existence on the fourth day of March -every odd year, although it does not meet in -regular session until the following winter. -The long session begins the first Monday in -December in the odd-numbered year, and -usually lasts until spring or summer. The -short session begins the same time in the -even-numbered year and lasts until the following -March 4th, when the new Congress, -elected the previous November, comes into -existence, although it does not meet until -the following December, unless the President -calls an extraordinary session. A Congressman,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span> -therefore, is elected more than a year -before he takes his seat. The Sixty-fifth -Congress will end March 4, 1919. The members -of the Lower House of the Sixty-sixth -Congress will be elected in November, 1918.</p> - -<p><b>Congressional Committees</b>: The work of -Congress is largely done through committees. -The House of Representatives, as constituted -to-day, is an unwieldy body. It is obvious -that four hundred and thirty-five men is -too large a number to work effectively as a -whole. Every bill, even a recommendation -from the President, is referred to an appropriate -committee. It is only because of -these many committees that it is possible to -transact the very large amount of business -that comes before Congress every year.</p> - -<p><b>How a Bill Is Passed</b>: The procedure in -Congress is similar to that in the State Legislature. -A bill may be introduced by any -member in either house, and must pass -through both houses.</p> - -<p><b>Powers of Congress</b>: Congress has absolute -power to levy and collect taxes. Revenue -bills must originate in the House of Representatives. -Congress has the exclusive power -to declare war, to raise and support an army -and navy, and to regulate commerce. It -controls naturalization laws and immigration;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span> -it establishes post-offices; grants -patents and copyrights. It has the power to -coin and to borrow money. It also governs -the District of Columbia and the Territories.</p> - -<p><b>An Amendment to the Constitution of the -United States</b> must be passed by a majority -of two-thirds of the votes cast in both houses -of Congress. It is then submitted to the -States for ratification by the State Legislatures. -When the Legislatures of three-fourths -of the forty-eight States have ratified such -an amendment by a majority vote of their -members it becomes law.</p> - -<p><b>The Executive</b>: The President of the -United States has greater powers than have -the heads of many other nations. He is the -Commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy; -he conducts official business with foreign -nations and makes treaties with them, subject -to the approval of the Senate; he appoints, -with the consent of the Senate, ambassadors, -ministers, high officials of Army -and Navy, justices of the Supreme Court, -and a vast number of other officers. He may -veto measures passed by Congress, but they -can be passed over his veto by a two-thirds -vote.</p> - -<p>The President has power to initiate legislation -by sending a message to Congress,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span> -giving them information about important -affairs and recommending legislative measures -for their consideration. The degree to -which he can force legislation through Congress -depends both on the strength of the -party in Congress to which he belongs, and on -the personal power and prestige of the President -himself. President Wilson is the first -President, for more than a century, to appear -in person before a joint session of Congress -and read his message.</p> - -<p><b>Election of the President</b>: The President is -chosen by presidential electors, elected by -the voters of the various States, the number -of electors for each State being the same as -the total number of Representatives and -Senators in Congress from that State. The -electors of a State meet at the State Capitol -on the second Monday of January following -the election, to cast their votes for President. -The electors are merely machines to register -the vote of the State, and usually the entire -electoral vote of a State goes to one candidate, -although the majority of the popular -vote for him may have been small. This -system makes the presidential election virtually -an election by States. A State “goes” -Republican or Democratic. The struggle is -concentrated in a few doubtful States. To<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> -win or lose them may mean to win or lose -the election. It has happened that one candidate -has actually received a larger popular -vote than his opponent, and yet has not been -elected, because the number of votes in the -electoral college from the States that gave -him a majority was smaller than the number -of electoral votes from the other States. -There is a movement toward the abolition -of the electoral college and direct nomination -and direct election of the President by the -voters.</p> - -<p><b>The Vice-President</b> must be eligible to the -office of President. He is elected for the -same term, and his salary is $12,000 a year. -His only duty is to preside over the Senate -and to succeed the President in case of need.</p> - -<p><b>The Cabinet</b> consists of ten officials appointed -by the President with the consent -of the Senate to conduct for him certain departments -of public business. The salary -of a Cabinet member is $12,000.</p> - -<p>Cabinet members have no vote in either -House of Congress, and are not responsible -to it in any way. Like the President himself, -they may belong to the party which is -in the minority in Congress. The Cabinet -is an advisory body to the President, but its -members have no legal standing in that way,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span> -and he may ignore them if he chooses. -Each Cabinet officer is the administrative -head of his department.</p> - -<p>The Secretary of State heads the Department -of State, and is responsible for all -official negotiations and relations with foreign -governments. He is the medium of -communication between the President and -the Governors of the States.</p> - -<p>The Secretary of the Treasury manages -national finances, administers revenue, currency, -and national banking laws.</p> - -<p>The Secretary of War has charge of all -matters of national defense, river and harbor -improvements, and is responsible for the -maintenance of the Army.</p> - -<p>The Attorney-General is the legal adviser -of the President and the National government.</p> - -<p>The Postmaster-General conducts the affairs -of the United States Post-Office Department -and the transportation of the mail.</p> - -<p>The Secretary of the Navy has charge of -the Navy and its equipment, yards, and -docks.</p> - -<p>The Secretary of the Interior and his department -have charge of public lands and Indian -affairs. He has the granting of pensions -and patents.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span></p> - -<p>The Secretary of Agriculture has for his -business the improvement of agriculture in -the United States. He also has charge of -the Weather Bureau, animal and plant industry, -and the forest service.</p> - -<p>The Secretary of Commerce must aid and -develop the commercial interests of the -country, including mining and transportation. -He takes the census every ten years.</p> - -<p>The Secretary of Labor and the Department -of Labor are designed to protect the welfare -of the wage earners. To this department -belong the Bureau of Immigration and -the Children’s Bureau.</p> - -<p>The tendency of the past few years has -been to enlarge the powers of the National -government. With the rapid increase of -means of transportation distant parts of the -country have been brought close together. -Sectionalism is diminishing. To “States’ -rights” is being added a national pride. In -the administration of the business of the -nation, State boundaries can often no longer -be considered without a distinct loss of -economy and efficiency. To give one example: -the State control of railroads resulted -in obstructive and entirely different requirements -being made by neighboring States, on -the same railroad passing through several of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span> -them. The power of separate States to control, -independent of each other, such things -as marriage and divorce laws, has resulted in -the deplorable situation that a couple may be -legally married in one State and the marriage -may not be recognized in another.</p> - -<p>It is evident that with the growth in influence -and importance of the United States, -the National government is gradually assuming -many functions which formerly were -left to the separate States.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="VII">VII<br> -WHO CAN VOTE</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">There is one way in which the government -of a republic like the United -States differs from other forms of government—<em>viz.</em>, -in a republic <em>the source of all power -rests with the people</em>. They choose the men -to whom they give the right to speak for -them and to represent them.</p> - -<p>The right to vote for the man who is to -represent you, who is to make the law for -you and to enforce that law, is the most -sacred right of a free country.</p> - -<p>The success or failure of government in -the United States, and in every political division -of the State, rests with the men and -women who have the power of the vote.</p> - -<p>One of the great dangers of a democracy -is the carelessness and indifference of the -voter. If a government “by the people” is -to be a success, the people themselves must<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span> -see to it that honest, responsible, and efficient -officials are chosen.</p> - -<p><b>Every Person in the State Is Either a Citizen -or an Alien. Citizenship Is Conferred -by the National Government and the State -Has No Power to Confer or Withhold It.</b></p> - -<p><b>A Citizen</b> is defined in the Constitution of -the United States: “All persons born or -naturalized in the United States and subject -to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of -the United States and of the State in which -they reside.” Native-born Indians who have -had land allotted them and have given up -their tribal life are citizens. All persons -born out of the country of citizen parents are -also citizens, except where the father has -never resided in the United States.</p> - -<p><b>Naturalization</b>: Congress makes uniform -laws of naturalization for all the States.</p> - -<p><b>An Alien</b> is a person born in a foreign -country who lives here but is still a subject -of some other country.</p> - -<p><b>An Alien May Become a Citizen</b> of the -United States, and thus of New York State, -after he has lived in the country five years -continuously, and in the State one year. -He must be able to write his own language, -to read and speak English, and be of moral -character. His first step is to go to a Federal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span> -court, or a court of record, and swear -that it is his intention to become a citizen -and renounce his allegiance to any foreign -power. He is then given his “first papers.” -Not less than two years, or more than seven -years later, he must appear again with two -witnesses to swear to his good character and -loyalty, and file a petition. After ninety -days his application is heard by the court -and he is examined by the judge and renews -his oath of allegiance. If the judge is satisfied -he is given his certificate of naturalization -which makes him a citizen. Fees -amounting to five dollars are now charged.</p> - -<p><b>Only White Persons and Negroes May -Become Naturalized</b>: Chinese, Japanese and -East Indians cannot become citizens unless -born in the United States. Polygamists are -excluded.</p> - -<p><b>An Unmarried Woman</b> can take out papers -of naturalization and become a citizen in the -same way as does a man.</p> - -<p><b>A Married Woman</b> is only a citizen if her -husband is a citizen. Under the present law, -she cannot become naturalized by herself. -Also, under a strict interpretation of the law, -she has the residence of her husband and -must vote from the same place.</p> - -<p><b>A Woman Born</b> in the <b>United States</b> who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span> -<b>marries</b> an <b>alien</b>, although she may never -leave her own country, <b>ceases to be an -American citizen</b> and becomes a subject of -the country to which her husband belongs. -Therefore, the wife of a man not a citizen -of the United States cannot vote in this -country.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> If a resident of the United States, -she resumes her citizenship at the death of -her husband, or if she is divorced. <b>A foreign-born -woman</b> who <b>marries</b> a <b>citizen becomes</b> -a <b>citizen</b>. Children under age become -citizens with their parents.</p> - -<p>An American-born man may live abroad -many years and not lose his citizenship.</p> - -<p>A naturalized citizen is considered as losing -his citizenship if he returns to his native -country and resides there two years.</p> - -<p>A citizen has the right to withdraw from -the United States, renounce his allegiance, -and acquire citizenship in another country.</p> - -<p>An alien enjoys the same protection of the -law as does the citizen. The government -extends its protection to the native-born and -the naturalized citizen alike. A naturalized<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> -citizen is protected while abroad, even in his -native country, by our government in exactly -the same degree as a native-born citizen -would be. A naturalized citizen may fill any -office in the land with the exception of that -of President.</p> - -<p><b>A Citizen Is Not Always a Voter</b>: Women -were citizens of New York State before they -were given the right to vote, if (1) they were -born in the United States, (2) were married -to citizens, or (3) if, unmarried, they had -taken out their own naturalization papers.</p> - -<p><b>The State Confers the Right to Vote and -Fixes the Qualifications for Voters.</b></p> - -<p><b>Who May Vote</b>: “Every citizen of the age -of twenty-one years who shall have been a -citizen for ninety days, an inhabitant of the -State for one year, and a resident of the -county for four months, and a resident of -the election district for thirty days, has a -right to vote” (Act II, Sec. I, Constitution -of New York State). Foreign-born women -whose husbands are citizens must live in the -country five years before they can vote. In -time of war soldiers and sailors may vote -wherever they are, and their ballots are -counted in their home districts.</p> - -<p>It is reasonable that a certain length of -residence should be required before a person<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> -is permitted to vote, in order that he may -have a chance to become familiar with the -interests of a community, and acquainted -with the qualifications of the candidates.</p> - -<p><b>Who May Not Vote</b>: A naturalized citizen -who has not been naturalized for at least -ninety days before election; a person whose -name and address is not registered with election -officials at least ten days before an -election; a person convicted of bribery or an -infamous crime; a deserter from the Army -or Navy. A person who bets on an election -is disqualified for voting at that election.</p> - -<p>The Governor may restore citizenship to a -person who has lost it.</p> - -<p><b>The State Cannot Interfere with the -Rights of Citizens</b>: While the State prescribes -the qualifications for suffrage for its -own citizens, by the Fourteenth and Fifteenth -Amendments to the National Constitution, -the Federal government prohibits any State -from abridging the privileges and immunities -of citizens of the United States, and declares -that the State in making the qualifications -for the suffrage cannot discriminate because -of <em>color</em> or <em>race</em>.</p> - -<p>The Fourteenth Amendment further provides -that when the right to vote is denied -to any of the male citizens of a State, its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span> -basis of representation shall be reduced in -proportion.</p> - -<p>Several of the Southern States have restricted -the suffrage by educational and property -qualifications, but have excluded from -these qualifications those who were voters -in 1867 (before the negroes were enfranchised) -and their descendants. This discrimination -of the so-called “grandfather” -clause was held unconstitutional by the -Supreme Court of the United States in 1915, -but the reduction in representation has never -been enforced. Massachusetts has an educational -qualification and Pennsylvania a -tax qualification, which also exclude many -male citizens; but the Fourteenth Amendment -has never been seriously enforced in -either case.</p> - -<p><b>The National Amendment for Woman -Suffrage</b>: An amendment to the Federal -Constitution is pending which provides that -the <em>right to vote shall not be denied on account -of sex</em>.</p> - -<p>While New York State has given the vote -to its women, this permission does not extend -beyond its borders. New York women -lose their vote if they go to Pennsylvania, -New Jersey, or any adjoining State. Twelve -States have given women full suffrage, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> -nineteen States have given them the right -to vote for President. The Woman Suffrage -Amendment, when passed by Congress -and ratified by three-fourths of all the States, -will secure the right to vote to all the women -of the United States.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span></p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> A bill is now before Congress to change this law and -make it possible for a married woman to choose her country -for herself, as a man does, and to require that she be -obliged to go through the same process of naturalization -that a man does, including the oath of allegiance. It is -only through a Federal law that this change can be made.</p> - -</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="VIII">VIII<br> -POLITICAL PARTIES</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">A political party is a group of voters -organized for the purpose of putting -certain policies into effect, to elect certain -men to office, and to control the machinery -of government. Under a popular government, -where public officials are chosen by the -people and political policies are formulated by -them, political parties have seemed the most -expedient device as yet discovered to accomplish -these ends.</p> - -<p>The political party was not originally a -part of the government; but as the country -developed and government needs and opportunities -multiplied, party machinery grew -more complex, and its powers increased to -such a dangerous degree that for the sake -of its own integrity, the State was forced to -regulate it. Party conventions, primaries, -and much of the party machinery are now -controlled by law.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span></p> - -<p><b>Two Parties</b>: The United States has always -had two principal parties. They have -had different names, and under the same -name they have advocated different principles. -The first parties were the Federalists, -who believed in a strong central government -that should exercise all the powers that -the Constitution could be interpreted to permit, -and the Anti-Federalists, who believed -in limiting the functions of the Federal -government and reserving as much power as -possible to the States.</p> - -<p><b>The Republican and Democratic Parties</b>: -It is difficult to define the difference between -the present principal parties. The Republican -party is the successor of the Federalists. It -was formed shortly before the Civil War to -prevent the extension of slavery. In general it -has believed in a liberal interpretation of the -Federal Constitution, and has wished to see the -powers of the National government extended. -The Democratic party has advocated “States’ -rights,” the right of the individual States to -settle their own affairs. It has held to a -strict interpretation of the Constitution, and -has believed in limiting the power of the -National government. Besides the doctrine -of States’ rights, the principal difference between -the Republican and Democratic parties<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span> -has been the tariff. The Republican party -has advocated a high tariff, and the Democratic -party a tariff “for revenue only.” -While these have been the two issues most -discussed between the two parties, even on -these questions the lines have often been confused. -Democratic members of Congress -have advocated measures which distinctly -contradicted the principles of States’ rights, -and the Republican party as often has adopted -them for its own purposes. The Democratic -party has not always stood on its low-tariff -platform, and Republicans have often -been against protection. Even before the -present war old party lines had begun to fade. -With the dangers threatening the country, -which war has brought, these lines have been -almost obliterated. What they will be when -the war is over no one can predict with certainty.</p> - -<p>The Republican party came into power in -1860, when it elected Abraham Lincoln President, -and until 1913 it controlled the National -government, except for two terms of -four years each when Grover Cleveland was -President.</p> - -<p>In general the Southern States are Democratic, -preserving a “solid South.” The -Northern States are apt to be Republican.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span></p> - -<p><b>The Progressive Party</b> was organized in -1912 as the result of a split in the Republican -ranks, by men who wanted more progressive -measures than those advocated by -either the Republican or Democratic party. -It advocated public ownership of mines, -forests, and water power; a larger measure -of justice for the working-classes and suffrage -for women. It has disintegrated, but -it had a large effect in liberalizing both the -older parties, and many of its policies have -been adopted by them.</p> - -<p><b>The Prohibition Party</b> was organized in -1872 to bring about complete prohibition of -alcoholic drinks. It has elected candidates -to the Legislature and has secured an ever -larger measure of local option and even -State-wide prohibition.</p> - -<p><b>The Socialist Party</b>, organized in 1900, -advocates government ownership of land, -railroads, telegraph and telephones, mines, -and all vital industries. It has become -largely the party of the industrial workers.</p> - -<p>Minor parties have come and gone, but they -have usually left a lasting effect on the dominant -parties.</p> - -<p>In New York State, any organization is -considered “a party” which polled at least -10,000 votes for Governor at the last election.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span></p> - -<p><b>Party Organization</b>: The individual voter, -or group of voters, is helpless to change conditions -or to elect a man. It is only through -the organization of many men who want the -same thing that they become effective. Political -parties are organized for National, State, -and local campaigns.</p> - -<p>The great work of the political parties -is the nomination and election of a President -every four years. For this purpose -there must be a national party organization.</p> - -<p><b>The National Committee</b> of each party is -composed of one member from each State. -It organizes the National Convention of the -party, which is held early in the summer before -the presidential election, and at which -party policies are formulated, and candidates -for President and Vice-President are nominated. -In the spring the chairman of the -National Committee calls a meeting of this -committee to decide where and when the -convention shall meet.</p> - -<p>Besides nominating candidates for President -and Vice-President, the convention -adopts a “platform” in which is set forth -the principles which the party holds and its -attitude on important public questions. A -new National Committee is appointed to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span> -carry on the campaign and to act until the -next convention.</p> - -<p>The platform adopted by the party at its -National convention is an expression of the -principles for which the party stands. A -“plank” may be put in simply to catch -votes; on some question the plank may not -be explicit, but may “straddle” the issue. -While in the main the National platform sets -forth the principles to which the party is -committed and its proposals for future action, -the speech or letter of acceptance of the -candidate for the presidency usually contains -a more reliable statement of the policies -which he would advocate if elected.</p> - -<p><b>The State Committee</b> is the party organization -in control of the party in the -State. It is composed of one man from -each of the one hundred and fifty Assembly -Districts in the State, who are elected by the -enrolled members of the party in each district. -The chairman is elected by the committee -to serve for two years.</p> - -<p>Party members are all those who at the -last registration, or last general election, enrolled -in the party.</p> - -<p>State platforms count for little. They -usually “point with pride” to things the -party has done, and denounce the acts of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span> -opposing party. Most voters pay little attention -to them.</p> - -<p><b>The County Committee</b> consists of one -man from every election district in the -county; the <em>City Committee</em>, one from each -ward or election district in the city. (New -York County has its own organization, different -from the others.) The chairman of -each of these committees is elected at the -party primaries. He is usually an experienced -politician, and each committee is the -party authority locally.</p> - -<p><b>The Election District</b>: The election district -captain, or county committeeman, is -the man who comes in direct personal touch -with the voter. His business is to deliver -the vote of his election district to his party. -He must know every voter in his district, -find out how each one is going to vote, and -keep track of new voters, especially the first -voter who has yet to choose his party. He -is an inspector at elections; he selects poll -clerks and watchers, and handles the money -sent by his party to his district. The Assembly -District leader or County Chairman -distributes the patronage and the election -district captain may recommend men to him. -The more offices that can be filled, and the -greater the number of “the faithful” who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span> -can be provided for, the stronger the party -at the next election. The one quality necessary -for the election district captain is complete -loyalty to his chairman and party.</p> - -<p>If ordinary party members pay no attention -to the organization locally it is bound -to fall into the hands of those who make -their living out of politics.</p> - -<p><b>Party Funds</b> are contributed by members -of the party, subscriptions from interested -men, from party candidates and interests -which expect to be benefited if a certain -party comes into power.</p> - -<p>It is a crime to levy on the salary of any -public official for campaign expenses, but -such contributions are often still expected.</p> - -<p>If a party elects its candidate, he has many -officials to appoint, and these offices are often -unfortunately regarded as rewards for party -loyalty and work. The civil service was -created to take offices away from party control -and prevent the “spoils system.”</p> - -<p><b>The Use and Abuse of Party</b>: The political -party has a very definite place in popular -government. In the conduct of a campaign -organization is indispensable. The danger -lies in the difficulty of sufficiently safeguarding -the interests of the public from the spoilsmen -of either party. It is through the party<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> -that citizens must work for political measures, -but it is also through the party machine -that anti-social forces are able to successfully -carry out their plans.</p> - -<p>There is tremendous power for a party in -its control of the government of a city or a -State. A multitude of offices have to be -filled, franchises to be granted, valuable -contracts let, and there are a thousand opportunities -for public plunder and private -enrichment. The party in power nationally, -has untold possibilities in the control of the -fabulous resources of the country. In order -that a party may come into power in the -National government, it is necessary for it -to be in control in the State, and to control -the State it tries to hold minor political divisions. -To gain control locally it partitions -out the offices where they will do the most -good; it gains support from every quarter -through any means; it seeks to have men in -positions of authority who can be so controlled -that they will subordinate everything -to the party welfare.</p> - -<p>The average voter not infrequently supports -his party at all elections, without regard -for the merits of the candidates. He is -often a Republican or a Democrat, without -any clear idea of the different principles of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span> -the two parties. Or he may have become -a Republican or a Democrat because he -agreed with the party in regard to some -National question. So he follows it blindly -in State and city elections, which have nothing -to do with National questions. It is seldom -that important issues of party principles -are involved in a local election; but the -tradition of party support is strong and the -temptation to hold party allegiance even at -the expense of the public is almost irresistible.</p> - -<p><b>The Independent Voter</b>: Undoubtedly the -number of independent voters is growing. -Whenever for any reason a group of non-partisan -voters abstain from party allegiance, -are alert to the sincerity of party promises, -and are watchful of the qualifications of candidates, -both parties begin to clean house -and put up as candidates the best men available, -in order to bid for the independent -vote. Such a body of non-partisan voters -may be the decisive factor in an election, -especially if the two parties are about evenly -divided.</p> - -<p>The independent voter is not popular with -the machine politician. The larger the number -of non-partisan voters the more difficult -it is for him to perform his duties, and to -control and deliver the vote.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span></p> - -<p>In city and village elections, party issues -have no place, and there is a growing feeling -that qualification for office should be the only -consideration.</p> - -<p>It all comes back to the voting citizen. -Politics and political parties are what the -people make them.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="IX">IX<br> -HOW CANDIDATES ARE NOMINATED</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">While any man’s name can be put in -nomination for any office, he has little -chance of being elected in most elections -without being the candidate of a political -party. For a long time parties were allowed -to nominate candidates as they chose, and -party bosses dictated nominations without -regard for the wishes of the rest of the party -or for the interests of the public. For some -time past the State has regulated the methods -of nominations.</p> - -<p>Candidates for all offices are nominated in -one of three ways: (1) At a party convention; -(2) by direct primaries; (3) by petition.</p> - -<p><b>Candidates for President and Vice-President</b> -are nominated at National conventions, -which are the most spectacular events of our -political life. Delegates to the National -convention are elected at special party<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span> -primaries held the first Tuesday in April of -the presidential year. Every State is allowed -double as many delegates as it has Senators -and Representatives in Congress. The four -men corresponding to the representation of -the State in the Senate are delegates-at-large; -the others are district delegates. -The National convention is, therefore, composed -of about one thousand delegates, and -its meetings draw other thousands of spectators. -There are few auditoriums in the -country big enough to house the convention. -There are usually several candidates, each -one of whom is the choice of a group of men -in the party. The name of each candidate -is presented to the convention by a carefully -selected orator, under circumstances planned -to arouse enthusiasm, and, if possible, to stampede -the convention.</p> - -<p>A majority vote is sufficient to nominate -the candidate in the Republican convention, -but the Democratic party requires a two-thirds -vote. Sometimes not one of the candidates -presented is able to secure a majority. Days -may be consumed in discussion and bargaining, -and in the end an unexpected candidate, -a “dark horse,” may be nominated. The -members of the National Committee who are -to serve during the next four years are elected<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span> -in the convention, one member from each -State.</p> - -<p><b>How Candidates for Office in New York -State Are Nominated</b>: The direct primary is -the method now used in New York State by -which candidates for all offices except those -in towns and villages are nominated, and the -conduct of these “official primaries,” as they -are called to distinguish them from the unofficial -primaries of the party, is carefully -prescribed by State law. A primary election -is held thirty days before the general election, -and is conducted on the same plan and in -the same general way as the election. Candidates -of each party for all the elected -offices are nominated by the enrolled party -members. At the same time leaders for the -district of each political party are elected. -The ballots for each party are printed by -the State and differ in color. The candidates -whose names are printed on the primary -ballot are designated by party committees, -and other persons may have their -names added by petition.</p> - -<p><b>Who May Vote at the Official Primaries—Enrolment -of Voters</b>: Only those who -have enrolled themselves as members of the -party are permitted to vote at the official -primaries. At the time of the registration<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span> -of voters in the cities, or at the last general -election in the country, voters are given a -party enrolment blank to fill out. These enrolments -are placed in sealed envelopes and -opened a week after the regular election, when -enrolment lists of each party are made out. -Such enrolment is not compulsory, but unless -a voter enrolls he is not able to take -part in the nomination of candidates. By -enrolling he does not pledge himself to vote -the party ticket at the election (except in the -case of the Socialist party); but he is allowed -to vote at the primary for candidates of the -party in which he enrolls.</p> - -<p><b>Objections to Direct Primaries</b> are made -that few voters take the trouble to vote at -them, and that the choice of candidates is -very limited and is still controlled by party -leaders. They are also very expensive for -a candidate, especially if he is not backed by -these leaders. To stand any chance of -nomination a candidate has to canvass the -voters and make himself known to them. -A poor man cannot afford to enter a contest -in a direct primary unless funds are supplied -him or unless he expects to recoup himself -later at the public expense. Also, as that -candidate wins the primary election who -receives the largest number of votes, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span> -successful candidate may be one who has -had the votes of only a small proportion of -the party which is expected to support him -later at the polls.</p> - -<p>So far in New York State the primaries, -even in city elections, are largely party affairs. -The suggestion has been advanced -that city primaries should be strictly non-partisan, -and that party emblems should be -eliminated from the primary ballots.</p> - -<p><b>Nomination by a Convention</b> is a method -still used in some States, and until it was -superseded by the direct primary it used to -be the manner of nominating candidates in -New York. An official party convention is -made up of delegates elected by members of -the party from the different parts of the State. -Names of possible candidates are presented -to the members in open convention, who express -their choice by ballot.</p> - -<p><b>Objections to the Convention System</b> are -based on the fact that the regular party convention -is usually controlled by a few -leaders who decide beforehand every detail -of the business of the convention and make -up the slate. They may trade with another -group and concede part of the ticket to them -in return for certain concessions which they -may obtain for themselves. The delegates<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span> -are often there simply to follow orders and -to nominate the men agreed upon by the -party bosses.</p> - -<p>The “slate” is the list of candidates for -the various offices to be filled. Nominations -for these positions are usually influenced not -so much by the qualifications of the men proposed -for office, as by the ability of the proposed -candidates to get out the vote and to -add strength to the ticket, also by geographical -considerations, that each part of -the State or district may be represented on -the ticket.</p> - -<p>Unofficial State conventions are still held -by the leading parties in New York. Their -principal business is to frame a platform. -This convention also appoints the central -committee.</p> - -<p><b>The Primary Is Important to Every Voter</b> -because it is there that policies are determined -and party leaders elected, as well as -candidates nominated for offices. Unless the -members of the party take the trouble to -vote at the primary, the choice of candidates -is left to the few leaders who make a business -of politics. This leaves the field clear for -“the boss” to put up candidates whom he -can control after election.</p> - -<p>The vote at the primary election is always<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span> -small. The proportion of voters who vote for -the nomination of candidates is often as low -as 18 or 20 per cent. of the vote cast at the -election. The reason for this is not difficult -to understand. The primary election comes -at a time when little public interest has yet -been aroused in the coming election. By -election-time the voters have been circularized -and canvassed and the newspapers -have devoted much space to the subject. -Also much more effort is made by the party -to get out the vote at election-time than at -the primary. Party leaders can count on the -faithful coming to the primary election without -urging, and they are the ones who often -choose the candidates.</p> - -<p><b>Nomination by Petition</b>: Most candidates -on the ballot are nominated by a party, but -a man may also be nominated by a petition -of independent voters. The petition must -contain the title of the office to be filled, the -name and address of the candidate, and be -signed by a certain number of voters.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="X">X<br> -ELECTIONS</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">Laws concerning the holding of elections -have grown much more stringent -in the last few years. Every detail of the -casting of a ballot is now prescribed by law -and every precaution taken to insure honesty -of elections. The precautions apply -more to cities than to rural communities, -with the result that more corruption may -sometimes be found to-day in country elections -than in those in cities.</p> - -<p><b>Registration of Voters</b>: In large places or -densely populated districts it is impossible -for the election officials to know every voter, -therefore the law requires that in cities and -villages of over five thousand inhabitants -every voter shall appear every year before -the board of registration and have his name -put on the registration list. He is required -to answer certain questions as to his age, his -exact residence, his business, and where his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span> -last vote was cast, and to sign his own -name for purposes of identification and to -prevent fraud.</p> - -<p>In smaller places and in rural districts, -the signature is not required, and after a -man’s name is once registered it remains on -the book as long as the voter remains in -the district. In practice it remains on the -book until some one takes it off; and the -names of men who have died or moved away -are frequently found in a rural registration -book.</p> - -<p><b>Time of Elections</b>: The general elections -take place in the fall, on the first Tuesday -after the first Monday in November. National -elections for President and Vice-President -take place every four years, in the year -that ends with the figure four or its multiple. -Elections for representatives to Congress -and State elections are held the same day -every two years, in the even-numbered -years. City elections are held the same day -in the odd-numbered years. City elections -are held separate from State elections in -order to keep National and State issues from -intruding in the election of municipal officers. -Local elections usually take place the same -day, with the exception of the spring village -election and town meeting.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span></p> - -<p><b>The Election District</b>: For convenience -every county or city is divided into election -districts, each with one polling-place. The -average number of voters to an election district -in New York State is from two hundred -and fifty to four hundred. When a district -grows to five hundred voters it is usually divided. -In Chicago, since women were given -the vote, an election district contains from -five to six hundred voters. It has been -found that the women vote at the hours -when men are busy, and that the same election -officials can handle many more votes -than is customary in New York.</p> - -<p><b>Election Officers</b>: Boards of elections, appointed -by the county board of supervisors, -are in general charge of the elections in the -county, and there is a State Superintendent -of Elections appointed by the Governor. -At each polling-place on Election Day there -is an election board consisting of four election -inspectors, two ballot clerks, and two -poll clerks. The law provides that election -boards and boards of registration shall consist -of equal representatives from the two -political parties that cast the highest number -of votes at the last election. This does -not apply to town and village elections. -Each party also is allowed two watchers.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span> -A railing shuts in the voting-booths and -tables, and no one but the election board -and the official watchers is allowed under -the law to be inside this railing.</p> - -<p>The polls are open from six o’clock in the -morning until five o’clock in the afternoon. -Before voting begins the ballot-boxes are -opened and inspected to see that they are -empty. The official watchers have a right -to see everything that is done. Electioneering -is forbidden within one hundred feet of -the polls. The voting-booths are constructed -so as to insure privacy while the voter is -marking his ballot, and the ballot is folded -so that no one but the voter himself knows -how he has voted.</p> - -<p><b>The Election</b>: When the voter appears -to cast his ballot, he gives his name and -address, and the registration book is consulted -to see that he is registered, the number -of the ballot given to him is called out by -the ballot clerk, and his name and the -number of his ballot are entered in the poll-book.</p> - -<p>Official ballots are provided for every -polling-place, twice as many as there are -registered voters in the district.</p> - -<p>All the candidates for one office are grouped -together on the ballot, each name with a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span> -blank square beside it. To vote for a candidate -the voter must make a cross with a -lead-pencil (not ink) inside of the box beside -the name of the candidate: <img style="width: 3%" src="images/124.jpg" alt="X in box">. If the -cross extends beyond the box, or if the -word “yes” is written, if the ballot is erased -or in any way defaced, it will be thrown out -at the count as void. If a voter spoils a -ballot he should ask for another one. An -illiterate person is allowed assistance in -marking his ballot.</p> - -<p>When the voter comes out of the booth, -where he has marked his ballot in secret -and folded it so it cannot be read, he gives -the ballot to an election official, who announces -the name of the voter and the number -of his ballot, tears off the stub, and drops -the ballot unopened into the box. A person’s -vote may be challenged by an inspector -or watcher, or at the written request of any -voter. If, under oath, he is questioned and -swears that he is eligible, his vote is recorded, -but is marked challenged.</p> - -<p><b>The Count</b>: At five o’clock the polls are -closed and the ballots are counted. They -must not be handled by any one but the -election officials, although the watchers may -see every ballot and watch the count. The -count for each office to be filled is made<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span> -separately, and if there are many candidates -it may take many hours to complete the count -and know the result. Official tally sheets -are provided. The result is filed with the -County Clerk. The board of supervisors -meet as a board of canvassers to canvass the -result, and the returns are sent to the State -board of canvassers.</p> - -<p><b>The Australian Ballot</b> is the only one used -in New York State elections. It has on -one ballot the names of all candidates of -all parties for all the offices to be voted for. -The names are grouped by offices, and the -first name in each group is the candidate of -the party that cast the largest vote at the -last election. The only ballots shown before -Election Day are sample ballots printed -on pink paper, while the ballots used at the -election are white. They are all numbered, -and every one must be accounted for.</p> - -<p>Until recently the ballot was printed with -a column for each party, so that the easiest -thing the voter could do was to put a cross -within a circle at the head of the column, -and thus vote for every candidate of that -party—what is called a “straight ticket.” -The ballot used at present requires a separate -cross for every separate candidate, and so -encourages independence and intelligence on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span> -the part of the voter. There are blank places -so the voter may write in any name he -wishes for any office.</p> - -<p><b>Short Ballot</b>: It is evident from the brief -outline of the structure of government contained -in the earlier chapters, that there are -a great many officers to be elected. It is impossible -for even the most intelligent and -most interested voter to know the merits of -as many candidates as often appear on one -ballot. In some elections ballots are used -which can be measured only in feet, and -sometimes even in yards. To remedy this -evil there is a strong movement toward a -<em>short ballot</em>. This would mean cutting down -the number of elective offices.</p> - -<p>The tendency of government to-day is to -concentrate the responsibility on one man or -a few men, to let them make appointments, -and to hold them accountable for results.</p> - -<p><b>Corrupt Practices Act</b>: The cost of campaigns -and elections to the political parties -and to many candidates is great. While -there are many legitimate expenses connected -with an election, the uncontrolled use -of large funds leads to grave corruption and -has brought about careful regulation by the -State of money used at election-time. Contributions -from corporations are prohibited.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span></p> - -<p>A public statement of campaign funds must -be made by every candidate and every organization -taking part in a campaign, of all money -received for campaign purposes and how it -has been expended. This statement must be -filed with the Secretary of State within -twenty days after the election, and be open -to public inspection. Even these precautions, -while more severe than those found in -most States, have not succeeded in putting -an end to the corrupt use of money in elections.</p> - -<p>It has been proposed recently that an addition -to the Corrupt Practices Act should be -made to require all candidates and campaign -managers to file, five days <em>before</em> election, instead -of twenty days <em>after</em>, a list of receipts -and expenditures, so that voters might know -before the election the sources of political -contributions and the use to which the money -is put.</p> - -<p>A second proposal has been made in regard -to the personnel of the election officers, that -instead of these boards being party appointees -they should be appointed from the -civil service lists. It is argued that with -civil service appointees handling the count -of ballots there would be less likelihood of -mistakes or deliberate fraud.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span></p> - -<p>Oregon has adopted the plan of having a -pamphlet printed by the State for both the -primaries and the elections, in which is set -forth the claims of candidates of all parties, -and both sides of all public questions to be -voted on. This pamphlet is sent at public -expense to every voter in that State.</p> - -<p><b>Voting-machines</b> are expensive, but they -do away with the necessity for voting-booths, -and require fewer election officials. Perhaps -that is one reason they have not been more -popular. They register the number of votes -cast for each candidate, and the result of the -election is known as soon as the polls are -closed, and does not have to await the long, -tedious, and often incorrect count by hand.</p> - -<p><b>The Use of School-houses</b> and other public -buildings for registration- and polling-places is -growing more common. It not only saves -the large rent usually charged for the use of -other buildings for polling-places, but it also -gives more room and more convenient surroundings -than are afforded by the kind of -place often rented for use on Election Day. -Unless provision is made by a city charter -or some special permission school-houses may -be used in this way only by a vote of the -people of the district.</p> - -<p><b>The Cost of Elections</b> in proportion to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span> -other expenses of government is small. In -the budget for New York City it figures less -than 1 per cent. of the total budget. At the -same time it could undoubtedly be lowered -by economy. High rent is paid for polling-places, -double the number of ballots necessary -and liberal supplies are given to each -district. It was found in Chicago, when -women became voters, that the cost of elections -was increased very little. The supplies -furnished, and the same number of election -officials, were found to be able to care for a -large increase in the number of voters.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XI">XI<br> -TAXATION</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">It is evident that to carry on the necessary -business of a city, a county, the State, or -the nation requires money. Also, since -everybody shares in the benefits of government, -every one should help pay the bill.</p> - -<p>One of the most difficult problems of government -is to devise a system of taxation -that cannot be evaded, that will raise sufficient -money for expenses, and that will treat -every one with equal justice.</p> - -<p>Taxation may be divided into two general -classes, direct and indirect. <em>Direct taxes</em> are -those imposed directly upon property or persons; -such as taxes imposed upon land, personal -property, or income. The term <em>indirect -tax</em> is applied to taxes upon activities such as -carrying on some business or upon buying, -selling, manufacturing, or importing certain -articles.</p> - -<p>A direct tax, as a rule, cannot be evaded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> -or shifted to some other person. Indirect -taxes can be evaded by abstaining from the -activity that is taxed. They can usually -also be shifted to others, and are generally -paid by the consumer, or user of the article -that is taxed. In general, direct taxes are -levied by the State and municipal governments, -while the National government derives -its revenue (with the exception of the -income tax) mainly from indirect taxes.</p> - -<p>Taxes for local purposes are levied largely -on houses and land, on what is called <em>real -property</em>. <em>Personal property</em>, which is movable -property, such as mortgages, live stock, -furniture, etc., is also subject to taxation, -but it is assessed only upon the balance of -its value in excess of the indebtedness of the -person taxed. It is a more difficult tax to -collect than the tax on real property, and is -evaded to such a large extent that many -economists believe that it should be abolished, -and some tax substituted more possible to -impose equally and to collect.</p> - -<p>Village and school taxes are usually collected -independently by village and school -officials.<a id="FNanchor_a" href="#Footnote_a" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> Town, county, State, and city -taxes are assessed and collected at the same -time.</p> - -<p><b>Tax Districts</b>: The State is divided into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span> -tax districts which have usually the boundaries -of the township or city, and there are -three tax assessors in each tax district elected -by the people in the town, and usually appointed -in the city.</p> - -<p><b>How Taxes Are Assessed</b>: The State Legislature -decides the amount needed for carrying -on the government of the State. The -largest part of these expenses are met by -special indirect State taxes. The remainder -of the amount to be raised is apportioned -among the counties according to the value -of taxable property in each (see State Board -of Equalization).</p> - -<p>The county board of supervisors decides -how much is needed for county affairs. The -town meetings, or the town boards and the -voters through voting on propositions submitted -by the town boards, decide how much -money is needed for the business of the towns. -This sum is added to the total amount of taxes -necessary for the county government, and to -the county’s share of taxes for the State -government, and the combined sum is the -amount that must be levied on the property -in that county. The amount needed to -carry on the government of a city in the -county is reported to the county board of -supervisors and to this sum is added in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span> -same way the proportion of county and State -taxes which the city must pay.</p> - -<p>Assessing the amount each taxpayer shall -pay is the duty of the assessors. They make -up an <em>Assessment roll</em> which must contain -the name of every person in the district who -owns property, and the assessed value of -his property. The way the assessors do this -work varies largely. The policy governing -assessments in rural districts is to place as -low a valuation on property as possible, in -order that the total assessed valuation for -the county shall be kept down, so that the -apportionment given to the county for State -taxes shall be low, and the larger burden of -taxation shall fall on the cities. When the -assessment roll is completed the assessors -notify the public that it is open for inspection, -and a time and place are fixed for a -hearing, when any one who thinks he has -been unfairly treated may complain. If -such a person is not satisfied with the decision -of the local assessors he may appear -before the County Board of Equalization -with his complaint.</p> - -<p><b>The County Board of Equalization</b> is the -county board of supervisors. They have -power to equalize the assessed value of the -real property in any tax district in the county.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span> -They apportion the amount of State and -county tax due from each town or city, add -the town or city tax, then ascertain the -amount each person shall pay according to -the assessed valuation of his property. This -sum is noted on the assessment roll opposite -each person’s name and the roll then becomes -the tax roll of the district.</p> - -<p><em>A practical example</em>: Suppose X owns a -house and lot which the assessors value at -$5,000. The county board of equalization -finds that the city where X lives must raise -$100,000 in taxes; $90,000 is required for the -city government; $9,000 is the sum the city -is required to contribute to the expenses of -the county, and $1,000 is the share the city -has to pay toward the government of the -State. The value of taxable property in the -city is $5,000,000. Every dollar of assessed -property in the city must therefore pay two -cents in taxes, and X’s taxes will be $100, of -which $90 will go to the city, $9 to the -county, and $1 to the State. A mortgage on -the property does not decrease the amount -to be paid.</p> - -<p><b>Collecting Taxes</b>:<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> If a person fails to pay<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span> -his real-estate taxes the county treasurer is -authorized to sell his property for the unpaid -taxes. The property may be redeemed by -the former owner on payment of back taxes -with interest due and the cost and expenses -of the tax sale.</p> - -<p>Public buildings, religious and charitable -institutions, are usually free from taxation; -they are for the benefit of the entire community.</p> - -<p><b>State Taxes</b>: The ordinary expenses of the -State government are met by revenues derived -from special indirect State taxes, so -that for years there was no direct State -tax. State revenues are provided through -taxes on stock transfers, mortgage taxes, inheritance -taxes, excise, franchise, and corporation -taxes. One-half the amount derived -from the excise tax goes to the State -and one-half to the community from which -it comes.</p> - -<p>Every stock company incorporated under -any law of the State must pay a tax upon -the amount of its capital stock and upon any -subsequent increase. The earnings of corporations -doing business in the State are -also taxed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span></p> - -<p><b>An Inheritance Tax</b> is a tax imposed on -the transfer of property at death by will, -or by operation of law in case of intestacy. -The rate of this tax varies according -to the value of the property or share of -the recipient and his kinship to decedent. -A higher rate is levied on a large bequest or -share than on a small one, and a larger percentage -is levied when the bequest or share -goes to distant kin or to a stranger than -when it goes to a close relative.</p> - -<p>The direct property tax is now used to pay -off the interest and gradually the principal -of the State debt.</p> - -<p>The estimated resources and revenues, not -including the direct tax, for the State for -1918 are:</p> - -<table class="autotable fs80"> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" style="width:75%">Cash balance, July 1st</td> -<td class="tdr">$11,084,423</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Stenographers’ tax</td> -<td class="tdr">431,607</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Excise tax</td> -<td class="tdr">5,750,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Corporation tax</td> -<td class="tdr">20,000,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Incorporation tax</td> -<td class="tdr">1,400,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Inheritance tax</td> -<td class="tdr">14,000,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Stock transfer tax</td> -<td class="tdr">6,100,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Investment tax</td> -<td class="tdr">2,500,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Mortgage tax</td> -<td class="tdr">1,180,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Motor Vehicle tax</td> -<td class="tdr">2,375,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Canal maintenance receipts</td> -<td class="tdr">150,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Other revenues</td> -<td class="tdr bb">4,554,150</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Total</td> -<td class="tdr">$69,525,180</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span></p> - -<p><b>The Board of Equalization</b> meets in Albany -once a year to examine the reports from the -different counties of the value of their taxable -property, and to equalize the amount of -their taxation. The State tax commissioners, -who must personally visit the counties and -examine the local rolls, and the land office -commissioners form this board.</p> - -<p><b>Federal Taxes</b>: The United States government -even before the war required an -enormous amount of money with which to -conduct its business. In the past its chief -sources of revenue have been custom duties -and internal-revenue taxes.</p> - -<p><b>Custom Duties</b> are taxes levied on the importation -of articles into the United States -from foreign countries. The tariff, which -fixes the rates of the impost taxes, has been -a constant subject for dispute between the -major political parties. Whether the tariff -should be imposed “for revenue only,” or -whether it should be “a protective tariff” to -protect American industries and American -labor from the cheap labor of other countries, -has been the chief point of difference -between Republicans and Democrats at -National elections. Impost taxes are indirect -taxes which eventually come out of -the pockets of the people in increased prices<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span> -of the articles imported, and incidentally -they raise the prices of similar articles of -domestic manufacture.</p> - -<p><b>Internal Revenue</b> or <b>Excise Taxes</b> are taxes -imposed on business or on the manufacture -and sale of articles in the United States. -The most important taxes of this character -are those on the manufacture and sale of -liquor and tobacco. The manufacture and -sale of cosmetics, perfumes, oleomargarine, -and playing-cards are also subject to internal-revenue -taxes. In many cases these taxes -are paid by the sale of stamps to the manufacturer, -who has to affix them to the article -before it is sold. As with many other kinds -of taxation, the public, the ultimate consumer, -pays this tax.</p> - -<p><b>The Income Tax</b> is a tax on the income of -a person. Many who do not own land or -other tangible property enjoy an income. -As a farmer has to pay a tax on his farm, -so a lawyer who has a lucrative practice, -but does not own land or stocks, and the -man who has an income from investments, -are all required to pay their share of government -expenses.</p> - -<p>The income-tax law of 1916 taxes all incomes -of married couples in excess of $4,000, -and all incomes of unmarried persons in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span> -excess of $3,000. To provide further war -revenue, an additional tax was imposed in -1917 on the income of every unmarried person -in excess of $1,000 a year, and of every -married couple in excess of $2,000 a year. -The rate of these taxes increases with the -size of the income. The combined income -taxes may amount to as much as 67 per cent. -in case of the largest incomes.</p> - -<p><b>Public Debt; Bonds</b>: If the government -needs more money than it wishes to raise by -taxation, it can borrow it by issuing bonds. -A bond is a promise to pay a certain definite -sum of money at a certain time with a fixed -rate of interest. United States government -bonds are the safest investment in the world. -The State and municipalities may also issue -bonds, although the amount a city may borrow -may be limited by the value of its assessed -property. The interest on bonds and the payment -of the principal must be met by taxation.</p> - -<p>Bonds should not be issued to pay for the -running expenses of government, because -that is putting on future generations the -unjust burden of paying for something for -which they receive no return. Their legitimate -use is to meet the cost of some improvement -which will continue to benefit those -who go on paying for it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span></p> - -<p>When bonds are issued provision should be -made for the redemption of their principal. -This is done in New York State by raising -annually by direct taxation a fixed sum to -be invested and kept as a separate fund -called a “sinking fund,” to be used only for -this purpose. A sinking fund for the payment -of the interest and for the redemption -of the debt of the State is required by the -State constitution.</p> - -<p><b>The Budget</b>: Before undertaking an enterprise -a wise man considers how much it is -going to cost, and where the money is coming -from. A budget is a summary of the estimated -expenses for the following year of the -different departments of the government. -It is a business-like method of determining -the amount of money which should be -raised by a State or municipality to meet its -necessary expenses. The budget for New -York State is made by the Legislature from -an estimate furnished by each of the administrative -departments of the State. It includes -in detail the amount of salaries, -traveling expenses, and maintenance of each -department.</p> - -<p>The making of a budget for a city is of -the greatest importance to the taxpayers. -Public hearings are held on it, when taxpayers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span> -may be heard for or against the use -of the money in the designated way, and -when they may ask for additional appropriations -for some city activity. Public servants -in this, as in every other department of -service, work best under supervision. The -taxpayer owes it to himself to maintain adequate -representation at these hearings. It is -on the basis of the budget as finally adopted -that taxes are adjusted for the following -year. (See Chapter IV on Greater New -York.)</p> - -<p>The National government has not yet -adopted the budget plan, and the President -has not the power to veto any item of an -appropriation bill unless he vetoes the entire -measure.</p> - -<p>This is a limitation which is greatly deplored, -as it prevents him from cutting out -any provision in the bill which he may think -unwarranted or extravagant, or which has -come out of the “pork-barrel.” This is a -term applied to appropriations given by -Congress to certain local communities for -some Federal building or for the development -of some local resource which is not of -advantage to the National government, and -which is given not because there is any need -for it, but because the representative from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span> -that district in Congress wants to make himself -popular with his constituents by getting -for them some public plunder.</p> - -<p><b>Every Dollar That Is Spent in Any Department -of Government Comes Out of the -Pockets of the People</b>: It is not easy for the -public to realize this. The Congressman -who gets an extra appropriation for a post-office -or other public building that is not -needed, in order to please his home people, -may get more votes, but he is adding to the -public burden. In return for a vote for his -post-office he may have to give his vote to -a fellow-Congressman for an unnecessary expenditure -in another State. The chain so -formed is practically endless, and its inevitable -effect is to raise the cost of government -unwarrantably. Every such expenditure, -every unnecessary public salary, every -dishonest public official, every tax-dodger, -every incompetent piece of public work, adds -to the burden of taxation which the people -have to pay.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span></p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> In some counties local arrangements make it difficult -for absent owners of property to know when and where -taxes are due. Every tax-collector should be obliged to -follow the usage of any good business house and mail a -bill for taxes.</p> - -</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XII">XII<br> -PUBLIC HIGHWAYS</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">Road-making has been a function of -government since the early ages. The -old Roman roads still exist as evidence of -the labor and care that were put into them.</p> - -<p>Ease of communication, which permits people -to journey from home and see what the -rest of the world is doing, is a great factor -in binding people together, and tends to promote -progress.</p> - -<p>Good roads are important to every citizen, -not only because of the increased use of the -automobile, but because they are a vital -part of the business life of the country. The -farmer needs them to move his crops to -market. Without them he may be unable -to sell his produce at the time it is most -needed and when he could get the best prices -for it. The merchant needs them to receive -supplies and make deliveries; the manufacturer -needs them for the moving of his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span> -raw material; the city-dweller needs them -so that food may come into city markets. -Public highways are the connecting arteries -between city and country.</p> - -<p>New York State has recognized the need -of good roads, and has spent an immense -amount of money to secure them. Some -years ago a bond issue of $50,000,000 was -authorized in the belief that such a large -sum of money would put the roads in a -condition to meet all requirements for many -years.</p> - -<p>In 1907 the Legislature approved contracts -for 8,300 miles of county highways, believing -that the money available would be sufficient. -The following year it approved contracts for -3,600 miles of State highways and another -bond issue of $50,000,000 was found necessary. -Not only had the cost of labor and -material greatly increased, but in addition -the use of motor-trucks and motor-buses -was beginning to put a strain on roads and -road-beds which had not been anticipated.</p> - -<p>Old roads began to go to pieces rapidly -and needed constant repair and often replacing. -Even the new roads, where the road-beds -were of stone only six inches deep, soon -spread and disintegrated under trucks weighing -from one to fifteen tons. This use of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span> -motor-trucks is increasing, and is necessary -for the traffic requirements of the State, but -highways are being subject to a strain hitherto -unknown, and this strain will increase in -both quantity and severity.</p> - -<p>How to meet the requirements and maintain -and repair roads built for light traffic -which are giving way under the new demands, -and how to build new roads strong enough -to stand up under the strain, are problems -the State finds it difficult to meet. New -road-beds are now required of stone from -nine to twelve inches deep.</p> - -<p>Some roads are built by the State, some -by the county, and some by the town. In -many cases the cost of the work is divided -between county and town, or between county -and State. The State may help a town -build a road, but it can only contribute the -same amount or less than the town appropriates.</p> - -<p>All material that is used in road-building -must be tested in the laboratories maintained -by the State Highway Department, and -constant experiments are being made to test -materials and specifications to find out what -will stand the hardest wear.</p> - -<p>All roads must be built and repaired under -the direction of the State Highway Commissioner,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span> -but whether these instructions are -carried out often depends on local officials. -The public believes that there has been no -part of government in New York State more -honeycombed with fraud than the one of -road-building and maintaining; that specifications -have been skimped or ignored, different -materials have been substituted from -those prescribed, cheaper construction of -every kind passed by inspectors, and that -the result has been that many roads of the -State have cost vast sums of money for which -the State is in debt and have not lasted -even a few years.</p> - -<p>In 1916 the State had a total of 4,027 miles -of macadam roads and 5,836 miles of gravel -town roads, and more than half of all the -improved roads in the State had been constructed -within five years. There were 728 -patrolmen employed looking after repairs.</p> - -<p>The entire cost of bridges is met by the -towns with occasional aid from the county. -If a State road goes through a village, the -same amount is allowed as for the rest of -the construction, and if the village wants -another kind of a paving or a wider road it -must pay the difference in cost. The State -Highway Department gives as averages of -cost: for macadam roads $10,000 a mile;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span> -first-class concrete, $15,000 a mile; and brick -paving, $25,000 a mile.</p> - -<p>The State highway law provides that all -construction must be done by contract. -Prison labor is not employed on State and -county roads as in some States, but it has -been used on roads built by towns.</p> - -<p>In spite of the huge appropriations, the -State roads are far from complete as planned. -Nearly $750,000 will be available in 1918 -from the National government as part of -New York State’s share in the Federal appropriation -for roads.</p> - -<p>“Working out” a road tax was never a -method which contributed to good roads. -The earth roads on which the taxpayer puts -his unskilled labor are usually impassable -many months of the year.</p> - -<p><b>City Streets</b>: The local government decides -where a road or street is needed, and with -the consent of a sufficient proportion of the -property-owners may purchase or condemn -the necessary property. If the owner is not -satisfied with the payment offered, appraisers -must be appointed to decide the amount that -should be paid.</p> - -<p>City streets must be maintained by the -city government. If a person is injured by -the failure of the government to keep sidewalks<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span> -in repair he has a right to sue the -government for damages. The municipal -government, on the other hand, may require -property-owners to keep their sidewalks in -good condition.</p> - -<p><b>Street-cleaning</b>: Since many thousands of -children have no playground but the street, -the condition in which city streets are kept -is of great importance to their health and -general welfare. Disease germs are heavy -and are most numerous near the ground. -If playgrounds could be arranged on the -roofs of high buildings the children would -be the gainers from the pure air. Unfortunately, -the streets in which they play are -not usually the ones which are cleaned most -frequently by the street-cleaning department. -Old and young are disorderly—newspapers, -cigarette-butts, and fruit-skins are -thrown down anywhere. Streets littered with -papers, with dust-laden pieces blowing back -and forth, increase the dangers from disease.</p> - -<p>Carelessness on the part of the public in -throwing things into the streets adds many -thousands of dollars to the cost of street-cleaning -departments. Every time that a -person throws a paper or any object into the -street eventually some one else must be paid -to pick it up.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span></p> - -<p>Most municipalities have ordinances -against littering the streets, but they are -often dead letters.</p> - -<p>The cleanliness and good order of city -streets pay in dollars and cents, in public -comfort and convenience, and in a lowered -death-rate.</p> - -<p><b>Parks</b>: With the congestion of population -that is not confined to New York City or -any one part of the State, parks large and -small have become a necessity not only for -pleasure and beauty, but for the health of -the community. In the country people can -be out of doors as much as they please, but -when families are obliged to live close together, -“breathing-places” are of actual -physical benefit, especially if they can be -green with grass and trees. Communities -often awaken to the need of parks too late, -after all available places are occupied, when -in order to provide the necessary oasis -property has to be condemned and often -enormous sums of money paid for it.</p> - -<p><b>City Planning</b>: Most of our cities have -grown up haphazard without any definite -plan of development. As new industries -have come in they have brought in large -numbers of employees, who have had to -be provided with living-places, and a new<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span> -section of the city has been started. Or a -real-estate boom, fostered by some private -enterprise, will develop another quarter without -consideration for the welfare of the incoming -population. As land values advance, -in order to squeeze all the profit possible out -of this increase, high crowded buildings -spring up, planned to house as many people -as possible in a restricted area. New York -City and many other places are continuing to -create new tenement districts in outlying quarters -of the city where land is still plentiful.</p> - -<p>It is not easy to change congested areas -built up in the past, but it is a wrong to -coming generations to continue to allow considerations -of health and decency to be -ignored in the future growth of cities. Haphazard -growth has cost the public dearly -in actual money values. Unrestricted -crowded living conditions have cost still -more dearly in the moral and physical vitality -of the people who have had to put up with -them. These mistakes of the past cannot -be remedied, but cities and villages are still -growing, and the wise community is now -developing a plan in advance for its future -growth, which will safeguard public health -and welfare, and the convenience as well as -the beauty of the city.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span></p> - -<p><b>The Value of Beauty</b>: Streets and roads -do not need to be bare and ugly. Some attention -paid to appearance costs very little -and is a distinct benefit to the public. Weeds -are usually cut down along the roadside, -but so, too often, are the trees. When one -thinks of the many years it takes for a tree -to attain a fine growth, one wonders at the -carelessness with which they are sacrificed. -A well-shaded road bordered by trees, or a -shaded city street, testifies to the intelligence -and thrift of the people responsible for them. -Such care is apt to be repaid by increased -property values.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XIII">XIII<br> -COURTS</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">In the United States there are two classes -of courts—State courts and United States -or Federal courts. The State courts of -each State derive their jurisdiction and -powers from the constitution and laws of -the State. The United States courts derive -their jurisdiction and powers from the -Constitution and laws of the United States.</p> - -<p>The functions of the courts are to hear -and decide criminal and civil cases.</p> - -<p><b>Criminal Cases</b> are prosecutions or proceedings -by the State or Federal government to -enforce the laws made for the preservation of -peace, law, and order in the community, by -the imposition of fines, or imprisonment, or -the punishment of death, in case of their -violation.</p> - -<p><b>Civil Cases</b> are suits or proceedings brought -for the enforcement or protection of personal -or property rights; as, for example, suits to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span> -recover compensation or damages for personal -injuries, or the destruction of property, -or for breaches of contract, or to recover -property wrongfully taken, or to restrain by -injunction threatened wrongful acts for which -a suit for money damages would not be an -adequate remedy.</p> - -<p>At the trial of a criminal or civil case, the -judge supervises and directs the proceedings, -and decides any question of law which -may arise. Questions of fact, arising in -criminal cases, and in most civil cases, are -decided by a jury of twelve qualified citizens -drawn from a panel or list; but in -certain classes of civil cases the judge decides -questions of fact as well as questions -of law.</p> - -<p>Civil as well as criminal cases must be -commenced and carried on in a manner prescribed -by law or by rules of the courts. In -New York the laws of procedure are commonly -believed to be unnecessarily complicated -and technical. Innumerable controversies -have arisen as to their meaning and -effect. They have been amended and supplemented -by many statutes, and there is -a strong movement among lawyers to secure -the adoption of a simpler and more workable -system of procedure.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span></p> - -<p>In New York State the courts are of the -following classes: <em>Justices of the Peace, or -Justices’ Courts</em>, try petty criminal cases involving -small thefts, drunkenness, disorderly -conduct, and breach of the peace, and certain -ordinary civil suits involving sums of not -over $200. A person accused of serious -crime before a justice of the peace may be -held to await action of a grand jury.</p> - -<p>In New York City, and in various other -cities of the State, the functions of the justices’ -courts are performed by courts called -<em>Municipal Courts</em>, <em>City Courts</em>, <em>Magistrates</em> -or <em>Police Courts</em>, the latter having jurisdiction -only over petty criminal cases. The -powers and duties, as well as the names of -these lower courts, vary in the different -cities.</p> - -<p>It is most important that honest, sympathetic -men should preside over these lower -courts, for in them are tried the small offenses -which may be due to ignorance of -law, and a large number of people come in -contact with government in no other way.</p> - -<p>Most arrests are for minor offenses such -as drunkenness, disorderly conduct, etc. -They are tried here, and many of them bring -first offenders into court, where the treatment -received by the person accused may<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span> -determine whether he will become a habitual -offender or whether he will be set straight. -Many foreigners come into these courts, and -receive in them their first impression of justice -as administered in this country. Oftentimes -the offense is committed through -ignorance or stupidity. A kind word or a -helping hand may make all the difference -between a future good citizen or a crook. -In these courts, as in the justices courts of -the town or village, there is great need of -a careful choice of magistrates.</p> - -<p><b>County Courts</b>: In every county except -New York there is a county court presided -over by the elected county judge. In -these county courts may be tried civil suits -in which the sum involved is not over $2,000 -and all crimes except those punishable by -death. They also hear appeals from the justices’ -courts. The county courts in Queens, -Bronx, Richmond, Kings, Ulster, and Albany -counties may try cases involving the -death penalty.</p> - -<p><b>Surrogates’ Courts</b>: In each county there -is a surrogate court, held by a judge called -“the Surrogate,” who is elected by the -voters of the county for a term of six years -(except in the county of New York). In this -court wills are probated, the estates of persons<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span> -deceased are settled, and guardians for -minors and executors or administrators for -estates of decedents are appointed. It is -evident that a county surrogate should be a -man of strictest probity as well as good -business sense.</p> - -<p><b>Court of Claims</b>: Any one who has a -claim against the State may take it to the -Court of Claims, which consists of three -judges appointed by the governor with the -approval of the Senate. Appeals from its -decisions may be taken to the Appellate -Division of the Supreme Court.</p> - -<p><b>The Supreme Court</b>: Above the county -courts are the Supreme Courts, which, however, -are not really supreme, as their decisions -are subject to review, and may be -reversed upon appeal by the Appellate Division -or the Court of Appeals. The Supreme -Courts may try any civil or criminal cases, -including prosecutions for murder. There -are more than one hundred Supreme Court -justices in the State, elected by the voters -of the various districts, and the entire State -is divided into nine judicial districts, in which -certain of these Supreme Court justices sit. -In every county, at a certain time, a Supreme -Court justice holds a <em>trial court</em>, where both -civil and criminal cases are heard before a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span> -trial jury. He also holds a <em>special term</em>, -where he hears and decides motions and -civil cases in which no jury trial is required.</p> - -<p><b>Appellate Divisions of the Supreme Court</b>: -As judges are human and may make mistakes, -the law provides a right of appeal -from the court in which a case is tried. -The whole State is divided into four judicial -departments, in each of which there is an -Appellate Division of the Supreme Court. -From the Supreme Court justices the governor -chooses the justices for the Appellate -Divisions. These Appellate Divisions hear -appeals from decisions of the county courts -and of the Supreme Courts, and they may sit -wherever the public interest demands. They -do not try cases originally, but only hear -appeals.</p> - -<p><b>The Court of Appeals</b> is composed of a -chief judge and nine associate judges, but -only seven judges sit at one time. This -court is the State court of last resort, -and it may reverse a decision of an Appellate -Division of the Supreme Court. In -most cases no appeal lies to the Court of -Appeals from a decision of a question of fact -by a lower court, but only questions of law -can be reviewed; but in criminal cases<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span> -where the sentence is death the entire case -may be reviewed.</p> - -<p><b>Courts of Record</b> are those courts that have -an official seal and keep an official record of all -proceedings. The Surrogate’s Court, the -County Court, the Supreme Court and its -appellate divisions, and the Court of Appeals -are courts of record. Justices’ Courts -and Magistrates’ Courts are not courts of -record.</p> - -<p><b>Federal Courts</b>: The jurisdiction of the -United States or Federal courts extends to -all cases in law and equity arising under -the Constitution and laws of the United -States, to all cases affecting ambassadors and -other public ministers and consuls, to admiralty -and maritime cases, and to controversies -between States or between citizens -of different States. Federal courts are organized -in a similar way to State courts.</p> - -<p><b>The United States District Courts</b> hear, in -the first instance, all classes of cases over -which the United States courts have jurisdiction, -except the cases mentioned below. -The entire country is divided into ninety -judicial districts, and each State has at least -one district.</p> - -<p><b>The United States Court of Claims</b>, -which is located in Washington, has jurisdiction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span> -over claims against the United -States government.</p> - -<p><b>The Circuit Court of Appeals</b> is an appellate -court by which decisions of the United -States district courts may be reviewed.</p> - -<p><b>The United States Supreme Court</b> is the -highest tribunal in the land. In cases affecting -ambassadors and consuls, and those to -which the State is a party, the Supreme -Court has original jurisdiction. Other cases -can come before it only upon an appeal, or -writ of error, to review a decision of a lower -United States court or a decision of the -highest State court involving a question of -Federal law. There is a chief justice and -eight associate justices of the Supreme Court, -who are appointed for life. To be a justice -of the Supreme Court of the United States is -considered one of the highest honors in the -land.</p> - -<p>The judges of all the Federal courts are -appointed by the President with the consent -of the Senate.</p> - -<p><b>Constitutionality of the Law</b>: One important -power which the courts have is to -interpret the meaning of the Constitution -and laws, but they have no power to do so -except so far as necessary to the disposal of -cases before them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span></p> - -<p>The constitution of the State is its fundamental -law, as that of the United States -(together with the laws made by Congress -under it and treaties made by the United -States) is the supreme law of the entire -United States. A question may arise as to -the precise meaning and scope of a constitutional -provision. In this case the court -may interpret its meaning, and may declare -void a law because in violation of the constitution.</p> - -<p><b>An Injunction</b> is an order or decree issued -by a court, restraining some person or persons -or corporation from performing certain -acts, on the ground that such acts would -cause an injury or loss, for which a suit to -recover money damages would not furnish -adequate redress. A temporary injunction, -or restraining order, may be issued upon affidavits, -in advance of the final trial of a case, -when it may either be dissolved or be made -permanent. An injunction may also command -the performance of some act. In such -cases it is called a mandatory injunction. If -an injunction is violated, the person disobeying -can be arrested and sent to jail or fined -“for contempt of court” without trial by -jury. Many efforts have been made to -limit this power of the courts. In Oklahoma,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span> -the law provides for jury trial in case -of contempt of court for violation of an -injunction.</p> - -<p>Judges are elected for a longer term of -years than are other public officials. County -judges have a six-year term. Supreme Court -justices and judges of the Court of Appeals -are elected for a term of fourteen years. -The reason for the longer term of service is -that the increased experience is supposed to -make a judge more valuable to the State; -also, on account of the long term, he is supposed -to be less affected by political considerations.</p> - -<p>Whether <em>judges</em> should be <em>appointed or -elected</em> has been a matter of considerable controversy. -It is argued that if they are appointed, -the appointment may be a reward -for political service instead of because of -fitness for the position. On the other hand, -if judges are elected, it is objected that they -must take part in political contests, and are -apt to give decisions more with regard to -popular favor than to actual justice. Many -persons think that in practice better judges -are obtained by appointment than by popular -election. State judges are usually elected, -but the Federal judges are appointed.</p> - -<p>The election of proper men for the position<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span> -of judge is one of the most important duties -of an electorate. Whether the process of -the law insures justice and increases public -security depends often more on the judge -than on the letter of the law. Decisions involving -the happiness, rights, and lives of -countless people go through the courts of -the State. These decisions should not be in -the hands of men to whom the office has been -given as a reward for party service, or who -have been put in the position by prejudiced -interests. A wise, intelligent, public-spirited -judge has enormous opportunity to add to -the sum of public welfare.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XIV">XIV<br> -THE PUNISHMENT OF CRIME</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">A crime is an offense against the people -of the State. Also every action that -is brought before a court costs the State -money and adds to the burden of taxation -borne by the people.</p> - -<p>A free government carefully guards the -rights of an accused person. He must be -told of the charges against him and be given -every chance to answer them. He is presumed -by the law to be innocent until he is -proved guilty, and is not obliged to answer -any questions that may incriminate himself. -He may be examined at once by a magistrate, -or, if he prefers, may be committed -to jail to await a future examination. If -held for any except the most serious crime -he may be allowed his liberty by some one -“giving bail”—that is, giving a pledge of -money or property to insure his appearance -in court at a certain date. If he “jumps his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span> -bail” the money is forfeited to the State, although -that does not protect him if he can -be found. If the charge of which he is accused -is a serious one, it must come before -a grand jury.</p> - -<p><b>The Grand Jury</b> is a body of men chosen -from the taxpayers of a county to inquire -into alleged crimes during a particular term -of court. The supervisors or the commissioner -of jurors makes out a list of three -hundred names of men of integrity and sound -judgment, from which the names of twenty-four -men are drawn by lot.<a id="FNanchor_b" href="#Footnote_b" class="fnanchor">[B]</a> From sixteen to -twenty-three of these men sit in secret -session, and hear the presentment of a case, -and decide by a vote of at least twelve -members whether the evidence is sufficient -to warrant holding the accused for trial.</p> - -<p>The necessity of a case coming before the -grand jury often causes much delay in a -trial, as the jury can only be called when -court is in session, and there are often long -periods of time between courts. On the other -hand, the fact that the grand jury is made -up of a man’s neighbors and friends, who -would be disposed to give him fair treatment, -is a safeguard to his interests. If “a true -bill” is found, the accused person comes before -the court and the charge against him<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span> -is read to him. If he pleads guilty the judge -imposes a sentence. If he pleads “not -guilty” the trial proceeds.</p> - -<p>If the accused has no lawyer, the court -must appoint one for him. While a man so -appointed must defend the case, the best -lawyers are not secured in this way. There -has been considerable demand for the creation -of the office of public defender for -accused persons. The State employs public -prosecutors, and it is argued that it should -be as much interested in proving a man’s -innocence as in proving his guilt.</p> - -<p><b>Trial by Jury</b> is a right guaranteed by the -constitutions of both the State and the -nation. A trial jury is composed of twelve -men chosen from a list of qualified men in -the county where the crime is committed, or -is being tried. After the evidence in the case -has been presented and the judge makes his -charge as to the law applicable to the case, -the jury retires to a secret session, where -they are kept in confinement until they reach -a unanimous verdict. In England it requires -only a majority of the jury to render a verdict.</p> - -<p><b>Jury Service</b> is one of the important duties -of a citizen. It is not required of certain -classes of men—<em>viz.</em>, clergymen, physicians, -druggists, lawyers, and newspaper-men,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span> -among others—and judges have the power -to excuse men on whom jury service would -entail special hardship. Jurors are paid a -small sum by the day, and to many men jury -service means serious inconvenience and -financial loss. But to leave the settlement of -cases which involve the serious welfare of both -individuals and the public, to professional -jurors, the hangers-on of a court-room, is -a great wrong to the community.</p> - -<p><b>Women Jurors</b><a id="FNanchor_c" href="#Footnote_c" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> have not yet been permitted -in New York State, although in some -Western States they have served with much -success. There are certain cases involving -young girls and children where it would seem -that only women should be allowed on the -jury. Cases of murder committed by a -woman might be treated with more impartial -justice if women served on such juries. -Sentimental considerations would not influence -them as they do some men in such cases.</p> - -<p><b>The Police</b>: Much of the public welfare -and safety of a city depends on its police force. -A modern police is organized on a military -basis. The men hold their positions for life -or during good behavior. Promotions are -based on merit, and pensions are paid men -who have served a certain term of years. -This plan has improved conditions by taking<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span> -the police out of politics to a large degree. -The policy of the head of the department is -of the greatest importance to the public. -The temptations for graft and corruption in -a police department are enormous, but the -assurance of a square deal all up and down -the line, strict orders to uphold the law, -and a well-defined policy against graft of -every description, will do wonders to keep -a department honest and efficient.</p> - -<p>In recent years the plan has been developed -of making the police helpful in many -ways in the life of the city. The uniformed -officer has many opportunities to help and -direct children, especially the boys on the -streets, to prevent violations of the city’s -ordinances, the littering of the streets, and in -many ways to prevent before the act, rather -than to arrest after it has been committed.</p> - -<p>This helpful spirit has been adopted by -the police of New York City, to the great -good of the city. It is exemplified in the -Christmas trees in the station-houses for the -poorer children of a neighborhood at Christmas-time.</p> - -<p><b>Prison Reform</b>: Modern government is -learning not to avenge itself on a criminal, -but to impose a sentence which will tend to -reform him. Instead of sentencing a person<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span> -to a definite term of imprisonment, an indeterminate -sentence may be given him, the -length of which will be determined by his -behavior, and by the promise he may show -of leading a better life if set free. If he is -released he may be put on probation. This -means that he is required to report at regular -intervals to the court, or to a probation officer, -to show that his conduct is law-abiding. If -he goes wrong again, he is remanded to serve -out his sentence.</p> - -<p>Men and women, wherever confined, must -be given employment. Idleness is bad for -even an educated person. Imposed on one -who has no resources within himself, it becomes -a source of demoralization scarcely -to be measured. The old custom was to hire -prisoners out to contractors at low wages. -This brought goods manufactured by prison -labor into unfair competition with honest -labor.</p> - -<p>The modern idea is to teach the prisoner -a useful occupation and to pay the wages to -his family. It is not common-sense to support -a man in prison at the expense of the -State, and to allow his family to suffer from -having his support taken away from them.</p> - -<p><b>Probation</b>: First offenders, or persons committing -minor offenses, are often put at once<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span> -on probation, with the sentence suspended -during good behavior. This has proved of -great value in saving many from a criminal -career. It is far less costly to the State than -keeping them in prison, and often leads to -the establishment of an honest life.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> - -<p><b>Jails and Prisons</b>: Every community has -some kind of jail for the detention of offenders. -Those who come in contact with the -law are often the poor and the friendless who -cannot get bail. Even innocent persons -may be held some time awaiting trial, or the -action of the grand jury. Young girls are -often detained, sometimes as witnesses, sometimes -pending investigation of their own -cases, sometimes as runaways from home. -In such a case there is no place of detention -but the local jail. These jails are often filthy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span> -and unsanitary, unfit for human habitation. -Their surroundings, and the character of the -sheriff or constable, and jail officials, must -inevitably have an effect on the prisoners, -especially on the younger women. It is most -important to the community that a woman -shall not be sent out from jail a more hardened -criminal because of her confinement -there. It is a wrong, the responsibility for -which every woman in the neighborhood -must share, that there is no better place of -detention for young girls. Women matrons -in all prisons where women are held and -women probation officers are now recognized -as essential.</p> - -<p>It is unintelligent to allow a man to leave -jail penniless far from his home and friends, to -become a tramp or to be tempted to a new -offense to get money. The modern ideal of -criminology is that his stay in prison should -teach a man an honest way of earning his -living; also that he should be given some -supervision after he has left the prison doors, -to help him to lead an honest life.</p> - -<p><b>City Farms</b> for the detention of offenders -are a great improvement on indoor prisons, -and the open-air occupation both saves the -State money and is beneficial to the prisoner.</p> - -<p><b>The Prevention of Crime</b>: If as much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span> -money and organized effort could be put on -the prevention of crime as is given to its -punishment, the need of jails and prisons -would be greatly lessened. The chief causes -of crime are drunkenness, feeble-mindedness, -overcrowded living conditions, low wages, -and insufficient education and recreation. -Drunkenness is now known to be a disease; -feeble-minded persons should not be allowed -freedom of action; the State may prevent -congested living, it may establish a living -wage, and it has the power to provide proper -vocational training and sufficient facilities -for healthful recreation. It tries to separate -the young offenders from the older ones, and -the first offenders from the hardened ones. -It has not succeeded very well in preventing -inequalities before the law. The rich man -has the advantage of being able to employ -the most skilful lawyers and to appeal his -case to court after court and drag it out -over a number of years. When a fine is imposed -he can pay it and so sometimes escape -punishment. The poor man may have to -go to jail because he cannot pay his fine and -he is often unable to fight a suit.</p> - -<p>To lessen the hardships and secure equality -of treatment for all alike should be the endeavor -of the State.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span></p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> The last report of the New York State Probation -Commission shows that on September 30, 1916, there -were 13,433 persons on probation, and that the number -of inmates of the penal and reformatory institutions in -the State was decreasing. Probation officers had themselves -collected $139,000 for cases of non-support, and -had caused to be paid another sum of $206,000 for these -cases. They had assisted men to pay, in instalments, fines -amounting to $30,000, which meant that these men were -kept out of jail and at work, and had helped men who -had stolen something or had done material damage to -some one to repay those they had injured the sum of -$39,000. It is evident that there is a saving of hard cash -to the State in this work as well as much of social value.</p> - -</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XV">XV<br> -WOMEN OFFENDERS AND THE LAW</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The Constitution of the United States -guarantees to a person accused of crime -a trial by an impartial jury, or by a jury of -one’s peers. The handling of cases against -women offenders has little regard for that -guarantee. Discriminations against women -who have come in contact with the law are -the custom.</p> - -<p>If any one is inclined to doubt this, let -him imagine the case reversed and applied -to himself. Suppose a man accused of an -offense against the law should be accused -by a woman, arrested by a woman, held in -jail by a woman, tried in a court-room filled -with women, before a jury composed only -of women, and sentenced by a woman judge. -Would such a man feel that he was getting -impartial justice given him by his peers?</p> - -<p>Also in the treatment of cases involving -sex, the penalty of the law rests heavily on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span> -the woman and the man usually goes free. -Sex immorality is a crime for a woman, but -the man, the partner in the crime, is rarely -touched by the law. Until recently in New -York State, even pandering, or living off the -earnings of a prostitute, was classed, as it still -is in some other States, as disorderly conduct, -in the same class of offenses as selling -a street-car transfer. In some States adultery -is still a misdemeanor. It did not become -a criminal offense in New York until -1907, and it is still almost impossible to obtain -a conviction unless there are some unusually -revolting circumstances. Many cases -have come into the courts of the State where -women have been arrested in a raid on a disorderly -house, and where the men found with -them have been released, and the women -held.</p> - -<p>The large majority of the arrests of women -are for the two offenses of intoxication, and -prostitution or street-walking. The usual -sentence for both of these offenses is commitment -to the workhouse for from eleven -to sixty days. Nearly half the cases of intoxication -are of old offenders who are sentenced -over and over again. Some years ago -the Legislature passed a measure making provision -for a State farm where these women<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span> -could be sent for care and treatment, and -where they could have useful occupation; -but it has not yet been established.</p> - -<p><b>Prostitution</b>: The same sentence to the -workhouse for varying periods of from five -to ninety days, or even six months, is the -common one for prostitution. It is doubtful -if a sentence of this kind has ever been -of the slightest benefit to any woman so -sentenced. The usual court procedure is a -mill through which this class of unhappy -beings goes, without either their reformation -being accomplished, or their danger being -lessened to the community. When it is -realized also, that a considerable percentage -of these women are feeble-minded or at least -sub-normal, the necessity of facilities for -examination and classification and proper -segregation are apparent.</p> - -<p>The entire process of dealing with the problem -of public prostitution in New York City -is one that is revolting from a woman’s viewpoint. -To rid the streets of street-walkers -and to keep them “clean,” a force of police -in plain clothes patrols the streets. These -police are usually the new men on the force -selected for their youth and good looks. -Promotion often rests on the number of arrests -that they make. A smile or a nod, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span> -a girl may respond. If she speaks, an arrest -can and often does follow.</p> - -<p>This kind of training for the young men -of the police force is degrading to them. Also, -the fact that arrests in nine cases out of ten -are those of women of the street, does not preclude -the possibility of the arrest of a silly, -ignorant, but innocent girl. Brought into -court, the presumption is that she is guilty.</p> - -<p>There is always a first arrest for any offender -against the law. The records of the -magistrates’ courts show that nearly one-third -of the women’s cases brought into -court are first offenders. Called for the first -time before a judge in an open court-room, -incoherent with fright, the girl is often unable -to say a word for herself. If she is fined, or -sentenced to the workhouse, or held in detention -pending investigation, and is kept -in association with other women of degraded -lives, the chances of her being reclaimed are -practically gone.</p> - -<p>The law holds an accused person innocent -until proved guilty, but a woman accused -of a crime against morality has to -prove that she is innocent. Under the usual -court procedure, a prostitute is outside the -protection of the law and her word has no -value in the court.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span></p> - -<p><b>Night Courts</b> have been established in -order that offenders arrested at night, after -the day courts have closed, may come immediately -before a magistrate, without having -to spend the night in jail awaiting trial. -There are separate night courts for women -in New York City, and all arrests for prostitution -or loitering are tried in these courts.</p> - -<p>The motive behind the establishment of -the Women’s Night Court is humanitarian, -but it is there that one sees the discrimination -against women as the fundamental of -the proceedings.</p> - -<p>Women are sentenced to terms in prison -for offenses far less serious than those for -which men are discharged. The discrimination -against women, and in favor of men, -even extends to the cadet, who pursues the -most shameful business in the world, that of -exploiting unfortunate women. Until a few -years ago the maximum penalty for such a -man was six months in the workhouse.</p> - -<p>The law now permits a sentence of from -two to twenty years, but convictions are -rare. Nearly every prostitute is exploited -by some man who takes her earnings, and on -whom she relies to protect her from the -police. If these cadets and procurers could -be eliminated it would greatly diminish professional<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span> -prostitution, but they are most -difficult to reach. The women they exploit -will often perjure themselves to save these -men from the vengeance of the law. Also, -the fact that no conviction can be had on -the testimony of the woman unless supported -by corroborative evidence, makes her afraid -to testify against one of them.</p> - -<p><b>The Penalty of Fines</b>: Imposing a fine as -a punishment for prostitution should be absolutely -prohibited. It does not act as a restraint, -and simply means that the woman -must go out on the street to earn her fine, -and it makes the State a partner to her -crime. It has been abolished in practice by -some judges; but it is still the custom in -some courts in New York State, and is even -imposed by some judges in New York City. -A bill to abolish fines throughout the State -was introduced in the Legislature of 1916, -but failed to pass.</p> - -<p><b>Young Girls</b>: Girls between the ages of -sixteen and eighteen are in the most dangerous -period of life. Figures show that the -great majority of girls who become prostitutes -are ruined before they reach seventeen -years of age.</p> - -<p>A girl of sixteen in New York State is too -old for the Children’s Court. She may<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span> -therefore be held in jail with the hardened -street-walker and the habitual drinker. If -she is without the protection of home or -family, she may be left alone, for the State -makes no provision for a guardian for her -unless she has property, when the State is -required to provide one for her.</p> - -<p>Delinquency, thefts, and misdemeanors on -the part of young girls are often the results -of natural instincts gone wrong. Love of -pleasure, a desire for pretty things, and a -wish to be attractive is common to all girls. -A false step, a yielding to temptation, followed -by an arrest and a trial in an open -court-room, often mean an ordeal which -leaves an indelible mark on the girl’s soul, -and a disgrace which it is almost impossible -for her to live down.</p> - -<p><b>Girl Victims</b>: The most pitiful cases are -those of very young girls brought into court -as the victims of crime. It is difficult to -get conviction in these cases, as corroborative -evidence is necessary. The shock to the sensibilities -of such a girl at having to tell her -story to men and having to answer questions -in an open court-room can scarcely be exaggerated. -The need of women in places of -authority, to help in cases of such crimes, is -great. Women probation officers are only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span> -the first step in the right direction, but there -are too few of them, and whenever a movement -is made toward economy, they are the -first to be dismissed.</p> - -<p><b>Houses of Detention</b>: A great need of -New York City, and a need shared by every -city in the State, is a proper place of detention -for women. As delinquent children are -now separated from older offenders, so delinquent -girls, first offenders and old offenders, -and other classes of women who are -held awaiting trial, or for investigation, or -as witnesses, should not be obliged to associate -indiscriminately with one another while -awaiting the disposition of their cases.</p> - -<p>The need of a building large enough to -provide for the separate detention of the -various classes of women who are in the care -of the court has been recognized, but so far -little provision has been made to meet it. -In other places in the State, wherever there -is a court, there is need of a place of detention -for women where they will be safe from -degrading influences, and where they will be -under the care of other women.</p> - -<p><b>Women Judges or Judges’ Assistants</b>: The -system which has been instituted in Chicago -since women were given the vote, of a quiet -talk with a woman assistant in the Court<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span> -of Special Sessions, in her own private office, -instead of an open trial, has resulted in saving -many a girl who otherwise would have -become an outcast. In certain intimate matters -it is a woman’s task to question girls. -Contrast the picture of an open court-room: -the judge on the bench, the jury, if there is -one, composed of men, the room filled with -men of all descriptions, and the frightened, -trembling child, with this private room with -the young offender telling her story alone to -an experienced woman. Which offers the -best chance for saving the girl from a ruined -life?</p> - -<p>Frequently the girl comes from a family -where crowded living conditions make decent -living almost impossible. Instead of her -first offense coming up for inevitable punishment, -it is treated with the sole object of -prevention and cure.</p> - -<p>Judges in New York State cannot appoint -women assistants without authority from the -Legislature, and that authority the Legislature -has always refused to give.</p> - -<p><b>Policewomen</b>, or <b>Women Protective Officers</b>, -are now recognized as a necessary part -of the correctional work of a city. The work -of the woman protective officer is very different -from that of the policeman. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span> -policewoman protects and controls, rather -than arrests. In protecting children, in caring -for lost children, in acting as mother to -the motherless, in watching over young girls, -in getting evidence against cadets, she does -an invaluable work. The disorderly saloon, -the dance-hall, and the moving-picture theater -are all hunting-grounds for the white-slaver. -In getting evidence in this sort of -crime she is more effective than the policeman. -There are policewomen now in fifty -cities of the United States.</p> - -<hr class="tb"> - -<p>That the whole subject of prostitution and -the law is a most difficult one to deal with, -there can be no question. It needs the combined -intelligence of both men and women -engaged not only in theorizing over the problem, -but in actual efforts to grapple with it. -Until public opinion supports the single -standard of morality, the courts will continue -to discriminate against women.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately, women of all ages, even -very young girls, are arrested. Sometimes -they are guilty, sometimes innocent, sometimes -sinned against, sometimes only the -victims of circumstances, but always unfortunate. -Their misfortune and its results on -their lives are more terrible than they need<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span> -be, because they are usually deprived of the -help of women in places of authority.</p> - -<p>In the Chicago Court of Morals women are -welcome, and there are women court officers, -women police, and women probation officers -who create an atmosphere entirely different -from the usual court-room. There is also -no division of sex; when it is a question of -morality, the man and woman are both held. -A physical examination is made by a woman -physician. When a woman is found to be -diseased she is sent to a hospital to be cured.</p> - -<p>Some of the most progressive magistrates -and judges are endeavoring to improve the -methods of handling cases of women offenders, -but it would seem that wherever the -welfare and disposition of women are involved -other women should be part of the -machinery which deals with them. This is -not so much because of sentimental considerations, -for in some cases women would -be less influenced by sentiment than men, -but there are certain peculiarities, tendencies, -and experiences common to each sex which -only those of that sex can understand. In -all cases of women offenders against the law -other women must be concerned, and should -be equally responsible with men for their -handling and disposition.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XVI">XVI<br> -PUBLIC EDUCATION</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The best foundation for a democracy -rests on free educational facilities for all -the people. An ideal school system is one -that reaches out to every child and prepares -him for a useful occupation, that is also -available for the further development of -every member of the State, and that will -give every individual the knowledge necessary -for him to do his part in government. -A self-governing people cannot afford a class -too ignorant to vote.</p> - -<p>In New York State, school attendance is -compulsory for children between the ages of -seven and sixteen years. An exception is -made of children between fourteen and sixteen, -who have completed the first six years -of school, and have been to school 130 days -since their fourteenth birthday. Such children -may be employed if they have a duly -signed work certificate. In cities of the first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span> -and second classes, boys between fourteen -and sixteen who are employed during the -day, who do not hold certain certificates, -must attend night school sixteen weeks in -the year. Truant officers must be appointed -in every city, town, and village to enforce -the law. Parents who fail to send their -children to school are guilty of a misdemeanor.</p> - -<p><b>The School District</b> is the smallest division -of the State, and must maintain a free -common school at least thirty-six weeks in -the year. In 1917, an amendment to the -school law was passed which abolished the -old school-district system, that dated from -1795, and which makes it possible for the -children of the rural districts to have some -of the facilities for modern education which -have heretofore been confined to larger -communities.</p> - -<p>In place of the former school trustees for -the separate school districts, there is now one -board of education for each town, and this -board has charge of all the schools in the -town. There are 4,000 schools in the State -which have less than ten pupils each. The -value of taxable property in many of these -school districts is very small. The school tax -has been the only State tax which has been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span> -assessed in such small units. The needs of -each school district had to be met by the -taxation of that one district. For all other -State expenses the county is the unit of taxation -and taxes are assessed equally all -over the county, and the apportionment -made according to the needs of each district. -Under the present law, by treating the town -as a unit for school taxes, all property in the -town is assessed equally, and the money -raised is used for the benefit of all the town.</p> - -<p>In this way the rich and poor districts -share more equally in school facilities.</p> - -<p>The initial expenses of making the change -have increased school taxes in some places -for the first year, but the change will undoubtedly -work to the great benefit of the -children of the State, and is along the lines -adopted some years ago by most of the other -States. Villages of over 1,500 people are -outside the provision of the new town law. -If the people of two or more school districts -wish to combine, they may vote to consolidate -and establish a central school.<a id="FNanchor_d" href="#Footnote_d" class="fnanchor">[D]</a></p> - -<p><b>The Town Board of Education</b> consists of -from three to five members who are elected -for a term of three years each and who appoint -their own clerk and treasurer.</p> - -<p>They have larger power than was given to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span> -the former school trustee. They have charge -of all school property; they determine the -kind of schools that are needed; they may -establish high schools, vocational, industrial, -agricultural, and night schools; they determine -the number of teachers to be employed, -and their salaries; they may employ -medical inspectors and nurses, and may provide -transportation for children attending -school.</p> - -<p><b>The Annual School Meeting</b> to elect the -Board of Education is held the first Tuesday -in May.</p> - -<p>Qualifications for Voters: At this meeting -any one living in the district can vote who -is a citizen twenty-one years old, a resident -in the district for thirty days, who owns -or rents or has under contract of purchase -taxable property in the district; or has had -a child, either his own or residing with him, -in school for at least eight weeks during the -year preceding; or who owns personal property -exceeding $50 which was assessed on -the last assessment roll.</p> - -<p>Candidates for the board of education may -be nominated on petition of twenty-five -voters. Men and women who are duly qualified -electors are eligible to the board.</p> - -<p><b>Annual School Budget</b>: The board of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span> -education must prepare an itemized budget -of the amount necessary to be raised for -school purposes, and must publish it in July -for public consideration. Additional money -may only be raised by a vote of the school -district indorsed by the district superintendent. -The building of a school, or repairs -costing over $5,000, must be submitted to a -vote of the school electors.</p> - -<p>A board of school directors is elected in each -town, consisting of two men, each with a term -of five years, but elected in different years.</p> - -<p><b>The Supervisory District</b>: Each county, -except those in Greater New York, is divided -into from one to eight supervisory -districts. (Villages and cities of over 5,000 -people are not included, as they make their -own provisions. Each of these has a board -of education.)</p> - -<p><b>The District Superintendent</b> is the director -of a supervisory district. He is chosen by -the board of school directors and is engaged -for a term of five years and paid $1,200 a -year by the State, with an additional allowance -of $300 for traveling expenses. The -supervisors of the towns in his district may -vote to increase his salary, the increase to -come out of the taxes raised in the towns in -the district.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span></p> - -<p>A man or a woman twenty-one years of -age, and a citizen and resident of the State, -is eligible for the office, provided he or she -has a State teacher’s certificate and can pass -an examination in the teaching of agriculture.</p> - -<p>The District Superintendent has the general -supervision of the schools in his district. -He is responsible for the instruction given in -them and the discipline that is maintained. -He examines candidates for teachers’ positions, -under the direction of the State Commissioner -of Education.</p> - -<p><b>Union Free School Districts</b> have been permitted -under State law for many years in -cities and villages. Some years ago this law -was extended to include rural districts, and -during the past few years about 500 rural -school districts have been discontinued and -consolidated with adjoining districts. Many -of the discontinued schools had only a handful -of pupils, the buildings and equipment -were primitive and inadequate, and the small -amount of money available made it impossible -for the school to offer any advantages. -The union of school districts has given better -educational facilities to the rural districts. -The children have been taken to school by -wagons provided for their transportation, and -have had the advantages of a larger school,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span> -a higher grade of teachers, and better facilities -of all kinds for modern education. The -new educational law provides still greater development -in this direction.</p> - -<p><b>Physical Training</b> is compulsory in all -schools, public and private, for children over -eight years of age for at least twenty minutes -a day. The State gives financial aid -in the training.</p> - -<p>Military training is compulsory for boys -between the ages of sixteen and nineteen in -public and private secondary schools and colleges. -The name “military” is misleading, -for the law provides that the development of -“correct bearing, mental and physical alertness, -disciplined initiative, sense of duty, -self-control, and a spirit of co-operation under -leadership” is to be given special attention.</p> - -<p><b>School Money</b>: For many years it has -been recognized that sufficient educational -facilities could not be provided for every -part of the State through local taxation.</p> - -<p>Besides the money raised by the school -districts, the State contributes large sums of -money for the support of public schools. -Part of this money is the income from certain -educational funds belonging to the State -which cannot be used for any other purpose, -and part is money appropriated by the State<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span> -Legislature. This money is distributed by -the State Commissioner of Education according -to the needs of the school districts.</p> - -<p>City schools are subject to the same general -supervision of the State Commissioner -of Education, but are under the direction of -local boards of education, and local superintendents -of schools.</p> - -<p><b>Normal Schools</b> for training teachers are -maintained by the State out of school funds, -and teachers’ meetings are held in the supervisory -districts to help and improve teachers.</p> - -<p><b>The University of the State of New York</b>, -which is at the head of the entire educational -system of the State, is not a university in -the ordinary sense of the word. It is a combination -of all of the colleges and secondary -schools of the State. It is governed by a -Board of Regents, twelve men elected by the -State Legislature for twelve years each, but -whose terms begin in different years, who -have large powers of control over all the -higher institutions in the State, universities, -colleges, technical and professional schools. -They have the management of the State -Library and Museum. They prepare Regents’ -examinations and grant Regents’ certificates, -and supervise the granting of -degrees.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span></p> - -<p>The president of the University of the -State of New York is elected by the Regents. -He is also the <em>State Commissioner of Education</em>, -and as such is the head of the State -Department of Education which supervises -the free public schools and normal schools of -the State and apportions the State school -funds.</p> - -<p><b>The National Commissioner of Education</b> -is at the head of the National Bureau of -Education in Washington. The work of this -bureau is largely to collect and publish information -about educational conditions and -progress in the United States.</p> - -<p><b>Agricultural Help</b>: There are four free -agricultural schools besides the State College -of Agriculture in Ithaca. Much assistance is -given by the government to the agricultural -needs of the State. Special courses are provided -at many colleges for the various departments -of agricultural work. Short courses -are arranged for those who can only attend -a few weeks, and at times in the year when -farm work is slack.</p> - -<p><b>Farmers’ Institutes</b> are organized, at which -experts discuss the best way of doing the -varied work of the farm, especially how to -increase production and to make the farm -more profitable.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span></p> - -<p><b>Vocational Training</b>:<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> If the public school -is going to prepare young people for their -work in the world, some guidance in the -selection of an occupation, and some practical -training in a trade or profession, must be -included in their school work.</p> - -<p>The great majority of children leave school -at an early age to go to work. Without -specialized training they have little chance -for advancement, but fill the ranks of untrained -labor, to the great loss of the world -and their own disadvantage.</p> - -<p><b>State Scholarships</b>: Each of the 150 Assembly -districts of the State has five free -scholarships valued at $400 each. The -scholarships are awarded by the Commissioner -of Education and the holder may attend any -college in the State, and receive $100 for -each of the four years he or she attends.</p> - -<p><b>Domestic Training</b>: The majority of girls, -even though they are wage-earners for a time, -sooner or later marry, and have children and -a household to take care of. In the olden -days, when the home was a workshop, girls<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span> -were taught cooking at home; they learned -to care for babies through taking care of the -little ones in the family. Now they often -leave school to go to the factory, and only -leave the factory when they marry. They -have no knowledge of cooking, housekeeping, -or the care of children. Unless domestic -economy of the most practical kind is taught -in the school-room, there is no way they -can be prepared for the important business -of housekeeper and mother. If every girl -were taught to cook and were trained in the -proper care of an infant, it would add immeasurably -to the sum total of the comfort -and health of family life. It would be an -advantage to every boy, likewise, if he were -taught to use his hands in carpentering or -other manual work. Whatever comes in later -life, hands that have been trained to be useful -are a great asset to any man or woman.</p> - -<p><b>Schools as Community Centers</b>: Education -does not stop at any age. Public free lectures, -mothers’ meetings, and the use of -schools for community recreation are helping -to make the school-house 100 per cent. -efficient as an educational center. The school -plant that is closed when school is not in -session is an extravagance which no community -can afford.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span></p> - -<p>The demand for the use of the school-house -for political meetings, and as polling-places -at election-time, is growing. Outside of New -York City school-buildings may only be so -used by special permission of the voters. -Since one of the purposes of education is to -train people in citizenship, the use of the -school-house as the center of everything that -pertains to the people’s part in government -seems legitimate.</p> - -<p><b>Health</b>: Compulsory education is futile -unless at the same time the health of children -is maintained. It is as much the duty -of government to watch over the proper -development of the body as of the mind, yet -more attention is often given to decoration of -schoolrooms than to matters of health.</p> - -<p>An appallingly large number of children -have defective teeth, poor eyes, or obstructed -breathing. Neglected teeth mean an undernourished -body and are a common source of -disease.</p> - -<p>Periodic medical examinations are required -by State law, and school nurses may be engaged -as part of the regular school force. -The value of the law depends on the way it is -enforced by local school authorities, and this -is often far from satisfactory. These provisions -are found to repay their cost in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span> -added strength and productive powers that -they give to the community.</p> - -<p><b>Co-operation</b>: The greatest of all needs in -connection with our schools is a lively interest -in them on the part of women. The -woman who cares about the future of her -child must be interested in school meetings -and the election of school-boards, who should -be carefully chosen. Frequent visits to the -school in city and country are a help and -inspiration to both teachers and parents.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span></p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Under a provision of a recent Federal law, a certain -sum of money is available for use in any State for the -teaching of home economics, industrial training, or for -any vocational work, provided that the State appropriates -an equal amount for the purpose, which New York State -has done.</p> - -</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XVII">XVII<br> -HEALTH AND RECREATION</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The great majority of men and women, -and even many children, have to work -for a living. To keep healthy they need -time and opportunity for wholesome recreation.</p> - -<p>Recreation is as much a necessary part of -normal life as food or drink; a fact that has -been partially lost sight of in this economic -age, but throughout the world’s history there -have been frequent examples of governments -which made careful provision to supply -necessary amusements for their citizens. In -Greece great stadiums were erected for games -and contests; in medieval times the knights -held tournaments, even the churches celebrated -their saints’ days with gay street -processions.</p> - -<p>The need for recreation is particularly -great to-day because the congestion of population -of our cities has left few open spaces<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span> -for leisure time, and crowded living and small, -dark rooms where all the work of the household -must be done, preclude any social life -in the homes of many families. Many young -girls who crave companionship and social -intercourse with friends have to go outside -their homes to find it.</p> - -<p>Crowded tenements without light or air, -dirty streets with no provision for wholesome -recreation, are proofs of poor government -and inefficient democracy, no matter -how prosperous and contented a city may -look in its richer quarters.</p> - -<p>People who are obliged to live in the -crowded districts have a lowered vitality -and a lessened value to the world; and the -same natural impulses which, rightly directed, -lead to an orderly, useful, contented -life, may be the causes of delinquency if -stunted or misdirected. The slum is an -economic crime, condoned by a public which -pays the penalty in contamination and contagion -thrust back upon itself.</p> - -<p><b>Housing</b>: Air and sunshine are the first -requisites of healthy life. The government -recognizes a certain responsibility in insuring -these necessities, and prescribes by law regulations -for the construction and inspection -of living accommodations. Many families<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span> -cannot choose their homes, but are obliged -to live in the kind of buildings that are to be -found near their work. Inside rooms without -windows, rooms into which a ray of sunshine -has never penetrated, are common in -every city in the State. The law prohibits, -in cities of the first class, the building of new -tenements with inside rooms without windows, -but many old ones are in existence, -and two-family houses may still be built -with inside rooms. In other cities there are -practically no restrictions, except by occasional -ineffectual city ordinances. Sanitary -arrangements, and the water-supply in many -tenement-houses, are insufficient for health -or even decency.</p> - -<p>Tenement-house inspection is a part of -city government in which women are particularly -fitted to serve. In New York City, -there are 103,688 tenement-houses and 193 -inspectors. Only eight of these are women.</p> - -<p>The war has greatly intensified the housing -problem. With the tremendous increase -in certain industries which has brought -thousands of people to work in new factories, -there is a corresponding demand for living -accommodations near their work. These factories -may not be permanent, and so private -capital hesitates to build houses near them.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span> -The result is a terrible crowding of people -in unsanitary and unfit buildings. The consequences -of such overcrowding is seen in -the increase of child delinquency, immorality -and disease, an increased death-rate, and the -inevitable unrest from such unhappiness -which results in strikes and labor troubles.</p> - -<p><b>Recreation</b>: The modern city so far has -made little provision for the natural irresistible -desire of youth for play.</p> - -<p>This is all the more dangerous because -young men and women are being drawn in -great numbers from the protection of the -home, for work in factories and shops. They -have a freedom from restraint such as they -have never had before. They have money -which they have earned; they are eager -for amusement. When they come to the end -of a day of exhausting work their love of -pleasure will not be denied. If they are not -given the right kind of amusement, they will -take the wrong kind.</p> - -<p>Instead of recognizing this natural instinct -for play, and providing safe channels for its -expression, all provisions for recreation are -usually left to commercial interests, to be -used for their own gain, without supervision -or control. Vice is often deliberately disguised -as pleasure, and the most normal and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span> -healthy impulses of young men and women, -that, properly directed, lead to happy married -life, are frequently used as a means to their -downfall.</p> - -<p>Loneliness also plays a part. Many a -young man or girl comes to the city to find -work. Where can they find the social intercourse -and companionship necessary to normal -life? The homeless boy often stands -around the edge of the dance-hall, vainly -hoping to make the acquaintance of some -“nice girl.” The lonely girl, living in a cheerless -hall bedroom, turns to the dance-hall as -a place to find companionship. Proper -provision for public recreation, well supervised, -would help to bring this boy and girl -together in decent, wholesome surroundings.</p> - -<p><b>The Dance</b>: In young girls, the social instinct, -the desire to meet and know other -people, and especially those of the opposite -sex, becomes a dominant factor between the -ages of fifteen and twenty.</p> - -<p>The most natural expression of youthful -spirits is the dance. To allow it to become -a snare to spoil the lives of young people is -one of the great deficiencies of city life. In -every city dance-halls, ranging from the back -room of a saloon to the casino or “gin-palace,” -hold out temptations to young people.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span></p> - -<p>In New York City there are over five hundred -licensed dance-halls. This means, at a -moderate estimate, one-quarter of a million -young people every night in these public -dance-halls, most of which are run in connection -with the liquor trade.</p> - -<p>The obligation to regulate places of public -amusement, and to provide good amusement -in place of bad, rests with the community.</p> - -<p>The minute you begin to regulate the dance-hall -you are interfering with many kinds of -business; first and foremost the liquor trade -and all the interests it involves; then, with -the business of those whose livelihood depends -upon the vile trade that is stimulated -by the usual dance-hall; and behind these -groups, an unknown number of perfectly -respectable businesses whose trade is increased -by the conditions which characterize -a “wide open” town. All these manifold interests -are rooted deep in the fabric of the -government of most of our American cities, -and, because their connections are in so many -instances seemingly innocent, are all the -more difficult to defeat and dislodge.</p> - -<p><b>Playgrounds</b>: The need of organized recreation -facilities for children has become -pressing, as congestion of population has left<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span> -no place, not even the streets, in which they -can play.</p> - -<p>There are many blocks in New York City -where the population is greater than in any -other place of like area in the world. Where -can the great throng of children go to find -innocent amusement? Where shall they go -out of school hours?</p> - -<p>In 1915 it was estimated that there were -734,000 children between five and fourteen -years of age who had to play away from -home. To provide for them, the city furnished -school and park playgrounds for from -100,000 to 185,000, leaving at least half a -million children with no provision of any -kind for play, except the already crowded -city streets.</p> - -<p><b>Vacation Schools</b>: Keeping the schools -and playgrounds open during the summer -months takes the children away from the -hot, crowded streets, at least part of the -time. Like public playgrounds, the number -of vacation schools is always dependent on -appropriations. The makers of the city budget -find a greater pressure exerted from the -multitude of business interests that want -consideration, than they do in support of -appropriations for public health and comfort. -It will be necessary for women to be as alive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span> -in supporting such measures, as men are in -demanding that their interests shall be considered. -Also facts must be given to prove -that the cost of such appropriations is saved -in the increased productive powers of a -healthier people. It has been stated that a -healthy laborer increases the wealth of the -country by some $30,000 during a normal -lifetime. If this is true, it should be merely -intelligent business on the part of the commonwealth -to expend a reasonable pro rata -of this sum, when necessary, to insure that a -child when full grown is healthy.</p> - -<p><b>Recreation Centers</b> have been established -in some of the Western cities. Chicago has -a series of small parks in various parts of -the city, with outdoor playgrounds, and in -each one a large building where there is a -gymnasium, swimming-pool, and assembly-rooms, -large and small. On a Saturday or -Sunday afternoon, these places show many -happy pictures of thousands of families, with -both the old and young spending their leisure -in a way that increases their own happiness, -and their value to the world.</p> - -<p><b>Municipal Dance-halls</b> have also been -tried. In the recreation centers of Chicago -there are dance-halls under careful supervision. -But whether the city provides municipal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span> -dance-halls or not, public dance-halls -should be divorced from the liquor business, -and there should be careful policing and -supervision of private halls, and for this -work women police officials are necessary.</p> - -<p><b>Municipal Bathing Beaches</b> are also possible -for any community with a water-front. -They are one of the great attractions of -Chicago, where a large part of the lakefront -draws hundreds of thousands of men, -women, and children, who may easily reach -these public beaches from any part of the -city. The New York State law makes the -construction of free baths obligatory in -cities of 50,000 or more population.</p> - -<p><b>The “Movies”</b>: Millions of children attend -moving-picture theaters every day of -the year. In New York City alone, the daily -attendance of children is estimated at 200,000. -The pictures impress the minds of children -like scenes in real life. For good or for evil, -moving pictures are the great teachers of the -youth of to-day.</p> - -<p>Many of the lessons taught on the screen -are not suitable for children. They give intimate -views of the underworld, of assault -and infidelity, and barroom brawls. They -show fair heroines and gallant heroes committing -crimes, and being pardoned and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span> -living happily ever after. They show picture -after picture that tends to destroy moral -standards that home and school have tried -to teach.</p> - -<p><b>Causes for Juvenile Crime</b>: The natural -craving for excitement and love of adventure, -with no provision for its legitimate expression, -is responsible for much of the crime -of our cities. Some years ago, it was estimated -that of the 15,000 young people under -twenty years of age who were arrested in -Chicago during a year, most of them had -broken the law in their blundering efforts -to find adventure. It is said that the machinery -of the grand juries and criminal -courts is maintained, in a large measure, for -the benefit of youths between the ages of -thirteen and twenty-five. The so-called -“gangs” of our cities are an expression of -the recklessness and bravado, common to -boys, which, well-directed, is of great service -to the world, and, misdirected, is responsible -for much misery.</p> - -<p><b>The Use of School-buildings as Social -Centers</b> meets a very real problem. Halls -for dancing and for entertainments, lectures -and debates, rooms for games, even gymnasiums, -could easily be brought within the -reach of most of the people. Grown-ups, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</span> -well as young people, would find them of -value. This use of the schools, outside of the -regular school hours, has greatly increased -in the West, and the school plant has become -an increased factor for good in the life of the -community.</p> - -<p><b>Rural Needs</b>: Some of our indifference in -regard to proper provisions for recreation -may be due to the fact that we were so long -a rural nation. The boy who lived on a -farm or in a village, who had the swimming-hole -in summer, the farm with its hay-loft, -and in winter sledding and skating, was able -to satisfy his love of adventure. To-day, -even rural conditions have changed, and -there is as much need of decent and wholesome -recreation in the country and small -villages as in cities. Churches are open -only on Sunday, schools are closed two days -in the week, the only meeting-place is the -corner store, or the saloons, and the streets. -The use of the school-building and grounds -when school is not in session and on Saturdays -and Sundays, would take many boys off -the streets.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XVIII">XVIII<br> -THE CARE OF DEPENDENT AND DELINQUENT<br> -CHILDREN</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap"><b>The State of New York has the largest -actual number of dependent children, -and the largest number in proportion to -population, of any State in the Union.</b></p> - -<p>In the early days it was the women who -cared for the neglected children of a neighborhood, -and children left homeless were -usually taken into some one’s home. This -care has gradually gone into the hands of -the town, the county, or the State, and has -become a department of government.</p> - -<p>There are two ways of caring for homeless -children: one is to place them in institutions, -the other is to place them in private -families. In both cases the State usually has -to pay for their support. If the right kind -of a home can be found for a child it seems to -have a much better chance for a healthy, -happy childhood, and for a useful future<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span> -when placed with a family, than when placed -in an institution. The custom in New York -State has been to place children in institutions.</p> - -<p>It is the business of each local official, -town overseer of the poor, county superintendent -of the poor, and city commissioner of -charities, to provide for destitute children. -In the early days he used to provide for them -by giving what was called “outdoor relief” -to the parent, if either parent was living; -if the child was homeless it was sent to the -almshouse. For many years past, children -between the ages of three and sixteen have -not been allowed in almshouses, but have -been committed to institutions.</p> - -<p>Besides this public care, private charitable -agencies began to establish orphan asylums, -and homes for friendless children. These -institutions often developed from small beginnings -into large establishments, and began -to draw on the public funds for at least -a part of the maintenance of their inmates, -and sometimes for their entire support. It -was argued that if the State did not pay for -the support of the children in the orphan -asylum it would have to take care of them -elsewhere.</p> - -<p><b>No Definite Authority</b>: For many years<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span> -the authority between State and local governing -boards has been divided. As a consequence, -inspection of children’s institutions -has amounted to very little, or has been, at -least, ineffectual.</p> - -<p>This inadequate inspection, in addition to -divided authority, encouraged neglect and -abuse. The report of conditions in private -institutions in New York City, made in 1916 -as the result of an official investigation, -showed that dirt, insufficient food, vermin, -disease, and lack of common sanitary precautions -were common. Education was so -much below the standard of the public -school, with little or no vocational training, -that children were discharged with no preparation -for earning a living. There was -not only an utter absence of home atmosphere, -but methods and restrictions were -used like a prison or reformatory. So little -care was given when the children left the -institution, that they often went out entirely -friendless, with no one to call upon for council -or advice, and utterly unprepared for independent -life.</p> - -<p>These conditions were allowed to exist, -partly because of the divided authority and -responsibility, largely because those in authority -were not deeply interested. As the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</span> -report said, “the committing authorities have -not looked upon the problem as of sufficient -moment to make it any part of their business -to formulate and promulgate any competent -standard to govern the service maintained in -children’s institutions.”</p> - -<p>New York City has tried the experiment of -“boarding out” all dependent children between -two and seven years of age, taking care -to place Catholic children in Catholic homes, -Jewish children in Jewish homes, and so -forth. In some respects, this is a better -method than committing children to institutions, -but it is only successful if the child is -carefully placed, and its welfare watched by -appointed visitors.</p> - -<p>In New York State, 1900-1913, the average -infant mortality-rate of children under -two years of age was 86.4 per 1,000, while -the death-rate in eleven large infant asylums -was 422.5 per 1,000. That is, under the -care of the mother, even including the ignorant -mother, only one-fifth as many babies -died as when the children were cared for by -the State.</p> - -<p>Experience shows that children are not -only safer and healthier with their own -mothers than in institutions, but that they -have a better chance with foster mothers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</span> -than in asylums. In 1914, the New York -City Health Department, as an experiment, -placed seventy-five infants to board with -foster mothers, with the result that the infant -death-rate dropped forty-eight per -cent.</p> - -<p><b>Boards of Child Welfare</b>: In 1915, the -Legislature authorized the appointment of -boards of child welfare in each county. -These boards were to investigate needy cases -and had the power to grant an allowance to -a destitute mother for the care of her children.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> -This work is dependent on the appropriations -granted by the county. County -authorities are slow to act in matters that -require appropriations. At the end of the -first year, fifty-seven counties had organized -boards, but only thirty-four had made appropriations; -6,014 children had been kept -from asylums and 1,969 homes had been -saved from being broken up. In New York -City, the number of children in institutions -has decreased 3,000 since the Child Welfare -Board began its work. In 1917 New York -City appropriated $1,250,000 for widowed -mothers. The <em>average monthly allowance</em>, the -first year of the Welfare Board’s work, for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</span> -each child under sixteen, was <em>$7.99</em>, which is -<em>$3 less</em> than it would have cost to keep the -child in an institution.</p> - -<p>It is now admitted that everything possible -should be done to prevent a home from being -broken up by poverty; that if the mother -is living, and is a fit person to bring up her -children, it should be made possible for her -to keep them. That the mother is usually -a fit person to bring up her child, is proved by -the experience of the Board of Child Welfare -of New York City, which examined four -thousand cases of mothers who applied for -pensions, and found only in fourteen cases -that the mother was not to be so trusted.</p> - -<p>In many of the Western States the widowed -mothers’ compensation, or pension laws, -have been extended to cover children of delinquent, -injured, or crippled fathers, and -sometimes even of fathers imprisoned in -penal institutions.</p> - -<p>Some States also have other provisions -which reduce the number of dependent children. -In Washington a man who deserts his -family is put to work and his wages are paid -to his wife and children. This seems more -sensible than the law which imprisons the -man, and lets the State support him, while -his wife has to support herself and children.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</span> -In Kansas, the wages of a prisoner are given -to his family. In California and Illinois, -the father must help support the illegitimate -child.</p> - -<p>The care of dependent children is work -for which women are especially fitted by -both training and inclination. In Colorado, -the State Home for Dependent Children -must have two women on its board of five -members. In the State Industrial Home for -Girls, three of the five members of the board -must be women.</p> - -<p><b>The Problem of the Delinquent Child</b> is -one that needs the greatest care and expert -attention. If the dependent child is an -appealing figure, the delinquent child is an -indictment of a community. He is usually -the product of neglect, of overcrowding, of -bad living conditions, and of defects in the -educational system.</p> - -<p>To treat the child offender as if he were -grown up and responsible, and to punish him -in the same way as an adult, is to make a -criminal of him. The manner in which his -first offense against the law is handled, often -determines the future of such a child.</p> - -<p><b>Children’s Courts</b>: It used to be common -for children of all ages to be detained with -older, hardened criminals indiscriminately,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</span> -exposed to contamination and disease, and -to try them in an open court-room with all -other cases. The modern policy is to try -all cases against children, with the exception -of murder, in special courts.</p> - -<p>The entire policy of a children’s court is -based on prevention instead of punishment, -to make friends with a delinquent child, to -show him the danger ahead of him, to watch -over him like an older, wiser friend, and to -help him to keep straight. The terror and -disgrace of an open court-room are replaced -by a quiet, friendly talk in the judge’s room.</p> - -<p>A large number of all children who are -arrested are ungovernable or disorderly, children -who have run away from home, or who -are associating with dissolute or vicious persons. -Another large class comes into the -courts because of improper guardianship; -neglected children, or those exposed to physical -or moral danger. These cases are not -classed technically as delinquents, but are -tried by what are known as special proceedings.</p> - -<p>The total number of children arraigned in -the children’s courts of New York City in -1916 for delinquency was: boys, 5,929; -girls, 150; in special proceedings, boys, -3,893; girls, 2,972, a total of 12,944. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</span> -largest percentage of cases for any offense -for boys was petty larceny, and for girls was -sex offenses and incorrigibility.</p> - -<p>In 1916 the Police Department of New -York City made in its report an analysis of -juvenile arrests, showing the nature of the -offense, the age, sex, nativity, occupation, -and employment of the child. The largest -number of arrests were for offenses against -property. Practically half of all the delinquents -were native-born children of foreign-born -parents.</p> - -<p>The attitude of the police force of New -York City during the last few years has -been helpful in handling the problem of -juvenile delinquency. The police are now -instructed to try to prevent small infringements -of the law by children, and many -trivial offenses are adjusted out of court.</p> - -<p>A considerable proportion of the children -who come repeatedly into the children’s -courts are feeble-minded. During 1917, the -children’s court of New York City, for the -first time, had a clinic attached to the court, -where children suspected of being mentally -deficient could be examined. There is still, -however, no place where they can be committed -temporarily for observation, and there -is great need of a graded institution that will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</span> -provide for the treatment and care of the -different classes of mentally deficient children.</p> - -<p>The system of probation for child offenders -is of the greatest possible assistance in -reclaiming the child; it also decreases the -number of children who are committed to -institutions, thus saving the State money. -To make probation effective, children must -be visited frequently in their homes, and -be kept on probation long enough to make -probable a complete reformation. Women, -and not men, should be appointed as probation -officers for delinquent girls, but, as the -appointments are often political, men are -given the preference, and are even put in -charge of girls.</p> - -<p>The present Children’s Court in Greater -New York dates from 1915, and under the -presiding justice of the court has been -brought to a high state of intelligent and -sympathetic handling. The city of Buffalo -also makes special provision for delinquent -children. In most of the cities of the State, -the judges of the court of special sessions -set certain days for children’s cases.</p> - -<p>Among the improvements needed in the -New York State law is a provision to give -the children’s court jurisdiction over children<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</span> -of sixteen and seventeen years of age. -This is especially needed in cases of wayward -girls. In Colorado the juvenile court handles -cases of offenders under eighteen. Also, it is -a criminal offense in Colorado to contribute -to the delinquency of a child, and the children’s -court has jurisdiction over adults contributing -to such delinquency. This is a -provision needed in the New York State law. -Colorado also has a law prohibiting the publication -of the name or picture of a girl under -eighteen in a case of delinquency. This is important, -as procurers and other men who have -been the cause of a girl’s delinquency often -go free, because the girl and her family wish -to avoid publicity.</p> - -<p>The children’s courts in New York State -should also have the power to appoint legal -guardians for children in case of need.</p> - -<p>To be a judge of a juvenile court requires -exceptional qualifications: quick sympathy, -and intelligent understanding of the many -causes which contribute to child delinquency.</p> - -<p>A large part of the problem comes back -to the environment of the child, to crowded -living conditions, deficient education, lack -of vocational training, and absence of opportunities -for recreation. The pitiful striving -of children for pleasure and play, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</span> -inadequate provisions of our cities to meet -this need, are often responsible for the first -delinquent step. Many improvements in -this direction, as well as improvements in -the law, are needed to bring the protection -that New York State gives its children up -to the level of the best found in other States.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</span></p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> Unfortunately, the law expressly excludes in its provisions -for relief families with alien fathers.</p> - -</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XIX">XIX<br> -CHILD WAGE-EARNERS</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap"><b>Children are the most important assets -of a nation.</b></p> - -<p>While every one, individually, would admit -this statement, it is not easy to persuade -the government that the protection and development -of child life cannot be left safely -to private initiative, any more than can animal -or plant life; that, in addition to the protection -of the individual family, children need -the fostering care of the organized government. -For many years, the government, -both State and National, has dealt generously -with the agricultural interests of the -country. When disease has broken out -among either animals or plants, it has had -its experts ready to send out at a moment’s -notice to any part of the country. It has -spent vast sums of money to investigate -and eradicate boll-weevil in cotton, and -hoof-and-mouth disease among cattle, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</span> -to develop a better strain in many animals -and plants, but it is only very recently that -it has been willing to investigate the needs -of the children of the nation.</p> - -<p>The appropriations of the Federal government -for animal life, in 1915, were over -$5,000,000; for child life, $164,000. In 1917, -an additional appropriation of $150,000 -was made for the enforcement of the Federal -Child Labor Law.</p> - -<p><b>Federal Child Labor Law</b>: For fourteen -years, the National Child Labor Committee -has tried to get laws passed which would -limit the hours of work for children, the -kind of work they might do, and the age at -which they might be put to work. Discouraged -by the State by State method, the -committee inaugurated a campaign for a -Federal child labor law, and after three years -of effort succeeded in getting it passed.</p> - -<p>Men have an eight-hour day in many -States. Women have an eight-hour day in -a few States. Until the Federal bill was -passed, children of tender years in a number -of States could be employed almost unlimited -hours and all night.</p> - -<p>At the time the bill was passed three -States permitted children under fourteen to -work ten and eleven hours a day, and two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</span> -States permitted them to work at night. -Nineteen mining States permitted children -under sixteen to work in mines.</p> - -<p>Nine States permitted children under sixteen -to do night work. In three Southern -States, one-fifth of all the cotton-mill workers, -in 1913, were children less than sixteen -years of age.</p> - -<p>The Federal Child Labor Bill, which went -into effect September 1, 1917, was declared -unconstitutional by a United States District -Court in North Carolina, and is now before -the Supreme Court of the United States. -This law prohibits the interstate commerce -of articles which children have helped to -make. It does not control the labor of children -in local occupations. Street trades, -messenger service, agricultural work, and -housework are not touched by it. This law -is a great step in advance for the protection -of children, but there are still 1,859,000 children, -from ten to sixteen years old, at work -in the United States whom the Federal law -does not touch.</p> - -<p><b>New York State Laws</b>: For many years -New York State has been building up a -code of protection for the children of the -State. Children under sixteen years of age -are not permitted to work unless they have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</span> -a special permit, and they must have completed -the sixth grade in school. A physical -examination of the child is required to see -that he is able to stand the strain of the -industry in which he is about to engage, and -proof of age is required. To sell newspapers, -boys from twelve to fourteen must have a -permit and a badge. Boys of fourteen and -fifteen are required to have badges if they -have a prescribed route for the delivery of -newspapers, but not if they are selling for -themselves. Children under sixteen are not -allowed to work more than eight hours a -day. To enforce these laws adequately, -many inspectors are needed and unceasing -vigilance on the part of the public. While -the provisions of the law concerning newsboys -are very clear, and are generally obeyed -in New York City, they are seldom enforced -elsewhere in the State.</p> - -<p>To allow children to enter the industrial -world at an early age, without preparation, -and with no guidance as to the sort of work -for which they are best fitted, is unfair to -them. The boy or girl who gets a job at -fourteen, without any vocational training, is -apt to remain an unskilled worker all his or -her life. The range of occupations open to -such children is small. The largest number<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</span> -of boys who go to work at an early age become -delivery boys, errand or wagon boys, -or newsboys. There is little chance among -these employments for real training or for -any future advancement.</p> - -<p>A careful study, by the National Child -Labor Committee, of certain cases brought -into the Children’s Court, has established -the fact that a large proportion of the boys -and girls who come into the court come -from the ranks of child workers. This investigation -has also proved the need of adequate -vocational guidance. The present -school course gives little help in this direction -to children who are leaving school at -fourteen or fifteen, and parents are often -as ignorant of industrial conditions as the -children. After a few years in an occupation -that offers no opportunity for development, -the boy or girl who went to work so -young is often left stranded, not only untrained, -but demoralized.</p> - -<p>There is need also of making parents understand -that better opportunities are open to -children who have had education beyond the -elementary grades.</p> - -<p><b>Street Trades</b> of all kinds are regarded by -social experts as unsafe for children. Some -authorities recommend the absolute prohibition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</span> -of all street trading for boys under -seventeen. These trades, including selling -newspapers, appeal to boys because they -like the excitement of street life, and the -spending-money which they give them.</p> - -<p>A judge of the Detroit Juvenile Court -says, “At least fifty per cent. of the boys -brought into the juvenile court are newsboys.” -An old newsboy, when asked what night work -on the streets had done for him, said: “When -I was a kid, it wasn’t like it is now. They -didn’t have no midnight edition—I always -had to be home by eight o’clock. When I -got to selling at night I started in high -school, but when it came time for the first -examination, I said, ‘Oh, I’ll just quit. I’d -rather be out on the streets, anyway.’” In -Baltimore it is estimated that 45 per cent. -of all the children in the near-by reform school -have been street workers.</p> - -<p>Investigations have proved the theory is -false that a child is usually put to work “to -support a widowed mother.” More often -the child in a street trade is found to come -from a home where there is no need of his -work, and in these trades the earnings of -children are very small. In a recent investigation, -in Seattle, the earnings of newsboys -were found in 46 per cent. of the cases<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</span> -of the elementary school paper-sellers to be -less than $5 a month.</p> - -<p>The night messenger service is known to -be a demoralizing occupation, unfit for any -small boy, and in New York it is prohibited -to all boys under twenty-one. The same -protection of the law is now needed for girls.</p> - -<p>Many parents do not realize the serious -results of letting their children go to work -too young, or the bad effects of over-work -on them. The tendency of over-fatigue is -to break down the moral resistance. The -release from supervision which is brought -about by their wage-earning, and the danger -of their having money of their own to -spend, added to the interruption of their -education, cannot help but have a demoralizing -effect on them.</p> - -<p><b>Rural Child Workers</b> are quite as common -as city workers, but they are not so -often wage-earners. Their labor is usually -taken by parents as a matter of course, and -they are not paid. Farming and housework -are two occupations which engage many children, -and there is almost a complete absence -of laws regulating them.</p> - -<p>A distinction should be made between the -farmer lad who does “chores” night and -morning, and the boy who is kept out of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</span> -school most of the year to be a farm-hand; -and between the girl who helps her mother -out of school hours, and the girl who is kept at -work in a canning-factory, and goes from one -to another as fruits and vegetables ripen; but -neither the chores nor the housework should -be allowed to interfere with the regularity -of school attendance. The boy who is kept -at farm labor, without education, and the -girl who is kept at work in the canning industry -at the expense of her schooling, are -as much in the ranks of child laborers as the -cotton-mill workers, and they suffer in the -same way from lack of training for a useful -future.</p> - -<p>Experiments have been made in combining -the work that the boy does night and morning -on the farm, with the school work. Under -proper guidance, the chores that the boy -has to do at home can be made a means of -education. For example: a pupil who assists -at home in the milking might be required to -keep a daily record of each cow, with the -fluctuations in the yield of milk, due to -weather and food. This combining of the -necessary home work with the instruction of -the school has been made a success in some -of the Western States, where county superintendents -supervise the home-school work and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</span> -make it of the greatest possible educational -value.</p> - -<p>Rural school terms are usually shorter than -city terms, and irregular attendance is more -frequent. Only 68 per cent. of the pupils -enrolled in rural schools attend daily, while -in cities the percentage is 80. The absences -of girls are caused largely by housework.</p> - -<p>The results of child labor in the country -are seen in the high percentage of rejections -from military service on account of physical -defects in men from rural districts, and the -larger percentage of illiteracy in country -communities compared with that in cities. -Better and more adequate education for the -thousands of children on the farms of the -State is one of our immediate needs.</p> - -<p>It is the right of every child to be given -enough education to give him a good start -in life. The child-labor problem is largely a -school problem. Keep the children in school, -and there will be no child labor.</p> - -<p><b>War and Children</b>: The war has brought -a new demand for the labor of children, and -new evidence of the serious consequences of -using this labor. In England and France, -juvenile delinquency due to the breaking -down of educational facilities, and the exploitation -of children in shops and factories,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</span> -has increased to a point where both nations -are aroused by a new national danger. To -meet the sudden great need for munitions, -and the speeding up of all industry, children -of all ages, and women of all classes, went -into the factories. In England, it is estimated -that 200,000 children from eleven to -thirteen years of age left school to go to -work. Abnormally high wages were paid -them. With fathers at the front and mothers -away from home in munition factories, these -children roamed the streets after their work -was done, with pockets filled with money to -spend, and no one to exercise a restraining -hand.</p> - -<p>Streets are unlighted, the police force has -been decreased, churches, schools, and settlement -work are interrupted. Is it any wonder -that since the war began juvenile delinquency -has increased 46 per cent. in -Edinburgh, 56 per cent. in Manchester, and -thefts 50 per cent.?</p> - -<p>The same demand for child labor has begun -to be manifest in this country. The -United States is being called on to feed the -world, and to make supplies of all kinds for -our allies, besides the tremendous need of -supplies for our own armies. Millions of -men are being drawn from the ranks of producers,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</span> -and have become consumers. The -world is consuming and destroying on a -scale never known before in history. The -demand for more and more labor is becoming -ever more insistent.</p> - -<p>In spite of the warnings which have come -to us from England and France, of the necessity -of guarding against the exploitation of -our children during the war, New York State -was one of the first to try to break down the -restrictions built up during many years of -the past with such infinite labor.</p> - -<p>The Brown bills, which passed the Legislature -last winter, were a frank attempt to -utilize the labor of children. They made it -possible, at the discretion of the State Labor -Commission, to abrogate every law that has -been passed in New York State to safeguard -its children. One bill would have made it -possible to utilize the labor of children unlimited -hours, seven days in the week, including -night labor. This was vetoed by -the Governor. The other, which makes possible -the suspension of the compulsory education -law, in order that children may work -on the farms, has become a law. Other attempts -will undoubtedly be made to exploit -children.</p> - -<p>It will require unceasing vigilance on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</span> -part of the people of the State to see that -measures detrimental to children shall not -be successful. Attempts are being made to -remove the limit of hours, and to abolish -the requirement that children between fourteen -and sixteen shall have working papers. -Such measures mean that the physical examination -now required would not be made, and -that the necessity of furnishing proof of the -age of the applicant would be eliminated. -The first would permit weak, sickly children -to go to work in the factories, and the second -would encourage the employment of children -under fourteen.</p> - -<p>The need for increased labor is a real one, -and as long as the war lasts it will continue -to grow. But the nation that exploits its children -while at war is bleeding at both ends. -It is the province of women to watch over -and guard all children. Now that they have -the vote, the responsibility has been put -directly on them, and they have the power -to meet it.</p> - -<p>Because of the tremendous cost of war in -human life itself, it becomes doubly important -to safeguard human life at its source, -and that is our job.</p> - -<div class="blockquot fs80"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The material used in this chapter is largely taken -from publications of the National Child Labor Committee.</p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XX">XX<br> -PUBLIC CHARITIES</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The public institutions of the State are -grouped under three heads: the State -Commission in Lunacy, the Prison Commission, -and the State Board of Charities.</p> - -<p><b>The State Board of Charities</b>, which has -general supervision of the charitable institutions -of the State, consists of twelve members, -of whom nine must be appointed as -commissioners from the nine judicial districts -of the State, and three from New York -City. The law prescribes otherwise no qualifications -for membership on this board. (A -recent innovation has been made in the appointment -of a woman on the board.) The -commissioners serve without salary, but -each one is paid his expenses and $10 for -each day’s attendance at meetings, not to -exceed $500 a year.</p> - -<p><b>Partly State, Partly Private</b>: Some charitable -institutions in the State are wholly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</span> -controlled by the State or one of its subdivisions; -others are controlled by private -corporations, but are maintained either wholly, -or in part, by State funds. There are over -six hundred and forty charitable institutions -which receive money from the State. There -are still other institutions which are entirely -supported by private funds. The State -Board of Charities has not the authority at -present to inspect organized charities which -do not receive public money, so there are -many institutions which are without the -protection of State inspection, and the total -amount of dependency in the State is not -known officially.</p> - -<p><b>Duties of the Board</b>: Besides its duties -of inspection and general supervision of -charitable institutions, the board has the -control of the incorporation of charitable institutions, -and must approve of an application -for a certificate of incorporation before -it can be granted. It also issues licenses for -medical dispensaries, and makes rules and -regulations under which they must work.</p> - -<p><b>The Powers of the Board Are Limited</b>, as -the carrying out of its recommendations -often depends on action by the State Legislature, -and especially on the amount of the -appropriations granted for the work. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</span> -powers originally given the board have also -been greatly impaired by the action of the -Legislature from time to time in creating -other agencies, which have resulted in a -duplication of work and an overlapping of -authority. There is much complaint of institutions -being overrun by official visitors, -and inspectors with conflicting authority, -who are said to interfere with the work of the -institutions without accomplishing adequate -results.</p> - -<p>The powers of the board have been especially -curtailed since the office of <em>Fiscal -Supervisor of State Charities</em> was created in -1902. When decisions are to be made concerning -appropriations for State charities, in -making up the legislative budget, the Fiscal -Supervisor is consulted to the exclusion of -the State Board. In reality the Fiscal -Supervisor has far greater powers than the -State Board of Charities, as no appropriations -can be made unless approved by him. His -effort is to keep down appropriations wherever -possible, and he does not come in -direct personal touch with the needs of the -work.</p> - -<p>The power to fix salaries and establish positions -has been given to the <em>Salary Classification -Commission</em>, and to locate new buildings<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</span> -to the <em>Commission on Sites, Grounds, and -Buildings</em>.</p> - -<p>The general dissatisfaction with the confused -and conflicting authority, which had -come with different legislative enactments, led -to the appointment in 1916, of a commissioner -to investigate State charities and to report -to the Governor, with recommendations of -changes he deemed advisable.</p> - -<p>Among the changes recommended were:</p> - -<p>(1) That instead of an unpaid board of -twelve members, appointed from the judicial -districts, there should be a board of nine, -of whom one should be a woman; three members -should be paid and should give all their -time to the work, one of the three to be -president of the board, one the chairman of -a bureau for mental deficiency, and the -third, chairman of a bureau for dependent -children; the six unpaid members were to -be specialists in the special classes of work -which is supervised by the board.</p> - -<p>The present State Board of Charities objects -to this change on the ground that a -board so organized would become political. -They also feel that the appointments should -continue to be made from the judicial districts, -in order that every part of the State should -have a resident member of the State Board.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</span></p> - -<p>The report further recommended: (2) -Prompt provision for defective delinquents; -(3) a careful revision of the State charities -and poor law; (4) that power should be given -the State Board to inspect private charitable -institutions; (5) the creation of a new bureau -for dependent children; (6) the abolition of -the office of Fiscal Supervisor of Charities, -in order that recommendations for appropriations -should come directly from the State -Board of Charities; (7) the abolition of other -conflicting authorities, and restoring the authority -of the State Board.</p> - -<p>None of these recommendations have been -acted upon as yet.</p> - -<p>The State institutions that are under the -State are the following: State Agricultural -and Industrial School, Industry; Syracuse -State Institution for Feeble-minded Children, -Syracuse; New York State School for -the Blind, Batavia; Thomas Indian School, -Iroquois; State Custodial Asylum for Feeble-minded -Women, Newark; New York State -Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Home, Bath; New York -State Training School for Girls, Hudson; -Western House of Refuge for Women, Albion; -New York State Reformatory for -Women, Bedford Hills; Rome Custodial -State Asylum, Rome; Craig Colony for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</span> -Epileptics, Sonyea; New York State Woman’s -Relief Corps Home, Oxford; New York -State Hospital for the Care of Crippled and -Deformed Children, West Haverstraw; New -York State Hospital for the Treatment of -Incipient Pulmonary Tuberculosis, Raybrook; -New York State Training School for -Boys, established by law in 1904, not yet -ready to receive inmates; Letchworth Village -for Feeble-minded, Rockland County; and -authorized in 1911-12, but not yet open: -The State Industrial Farm Colony, Green -Haven; and the State Reformatory for Misdemeanants.</p> - -<p>Private institutions supported mainly by -State appropriations are: New York Institution -for the Instruction of Deaf and Dumb; -New York Society for the Reformation of -Juvenile Delinquents in the City of New -York; New York Institute for the Education -of the Blind; Institutions for Deaf -Mutes in New York City, Buffalo, Westchester, -Rome, Rochester; Malone and Albany -Home Schools for the Oral Instruction -of the Deaf.</p> - -<p><b>County and City Institutions</b>: County -and city almshouses are under the supervision -of the State Board of Charities, and -also the recently established county sanatoria<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</span> -for tuberculosis, of which there are about -thirty. The small number of patients in -these county hospitals for tuberculosis makes -it impossible for some of them to give as -expert and efficient care as a larger and -better equipped hospital might offer.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> - -<p><b>The Department of State and Alien Poor</b>, -of the State Board of Charities, has the supervision -of the State poor, and of alien and Indian -dependents. It also has the power to -transfer aliens, or non-residents, who have -become public charges, to their home county -or State, or, in co-operation with the United -States Immigration authorities, to return -them to their home countries. This department -has saved the State large sums of -money.</p> - -<p>In 1916, 810 persons were returned to their -homes in other States or countries, by this -department, of whom 250 were alien poor.</p> - -<p><b>Local Boards of Managers</b>: Each State -charitable and reformatory institution is administered -and controlled by a board of -local managers, appointed by the Governor -and confirmed by the Senate. These boards -usually consist of seven persons who serve<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</span> -without pay, for their expenses only. There -are some women on these local boards, but -not nearly as many as there might be, considering -the number of institutions which -have women in their charge.</p> - -<p>The superintendents of State institutions -are all carefully selected from the civil -service lists.</p> - -<p>The employees of these institutions form -a difficult problem. The old conception of -an attendant for a public institution was -exceedingly low; the standard is still far -from good. The salaries paid are insufficient -to attract intelligent service.</p> - -<p><b>The Department of Inspection</b>: There are -over six hundred institutions in the State -which come under the Department of Inspection. -To handle them there are eight -inspectors, and one superintendent of inspection.</p> - -<p><b>Almshouses</b> are inspected and graded in -three classes. Of the counties that were reported -in 1917 as first class in both administration -and plant are: Allegany, Chautauqua, -Genesee, Jefferson, Lewis, Monroe, Niagara, -Saratoga, Schenectady, and Wayne counties. -Those second class in both administration -and plant were: Dutchess, Herkimer, Madison, -Rockland, Schoharie, and Ulster counties.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</span> -The only one third class in both -plant and administration was in Sullivan -County.</p> - -<p><b>Provision for the Feeble-minded</b> is the greatest -present need of the charities of the State. -Mental defectives are at large all over the -State, and they are found in all institutions. -They are a source of trouble in the public -schools, and are a constant danger to the -State.</p> - -<p>It is estimated that there are not less than -30,000 of these unfortunates. The State institutions -have room for about 5,700, but -they are actually caring for 6,700. For -years efforts have been made to get the -Legislature to make adequate provision for -their segregation. The report of one institution -for feeble-minded women says, -“nine of the women admitted were married -and had given birth to thirty-seven children; -twenty-six of those admitted had borne -forty-three illegitimate children; making a -total of eighty children born to those unfortunate -women.”</p> - -<p>Letchworth Village, in Rockland County, -a plot of 2,000 acres, was planned to provide -for 2,500 to 3,000 feeble-minded. It was -established in 1907, and in 1916 still had a -capacity of only 330.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</span></p> - -<p>The failure of the State to complete a -project it had undertaken is shown also in -the New York State Training School for -Boys at Yorktown Heights. This was planned -to be a reformatory of the modern cottage -type to take the place of the very old -one on Randall’s Island, and was greatly -needed for delinquent boys. After twelve -years of delay, and after $800,000 had been -appropriated by the State and most of it -expended, this project has been abandoned. -The reason given for the final decision to -abandon the site, was the possible contamination -of the Croton water supply by the institution. -With modern methods of sewage -disposal it seems as if it would have been -possible to guard against this danger. It -would have been easier to insure proper -treatment of the sewage from such an institution -than from the towns and villages -which exist in the Croton watershed. The -State Board of Charities recommends now an -appropriation of $150,000 for a new site and -plans.</p> - -<p><b>Recommendations of the State Board</b>: -Intelligent handling of the problem of dependency -must deal with causes. Probably -the major part could be done away with if -the State would adopt adequate preventive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</span> -measures. The board recommends as an aid -to this end: (1) Industrial insurance; (2) -better housing, including the destruction of -the worst congested areas in cities, and the -prevention of further congestion; (3) vocational -training for children; (4) improved -labor laws, restricting the hours of labor, -and compensation for accidents to employees; -(5) adequate pensions to widowed -mothers.</p> - -<p>They also recommend: That further provision -be made for tuberculosis, which the -records of the State Health Department show -is increasing; that the office of County -Superintendent of the Poor should be appointive -and be included in the Civil Service. -The frequent changing of poor-law officials, -and their lack of knowledge of the subject, -are drawbacks in the discharge of their -duties.</p> - -<p><b>The State Commission in Lunacy</b> has -charge of the hospitals for the insane. All -the insane come under the direct charge of -the State. This is a salaried commission -consisting of three members. There are -local boards of managers for these insane -asylums as for the other charitable institutions, -and a majority of the members of -these local boards are required to visit the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</span> -hospitals at least once a month for inspection.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> - -<p><b>The State Prison Commission</b>, like the -State Board of Charities, is an unpaid board, -but the Superintendent of Prisons is a State -official with a salary.</p> - -<p>There has been for years a provision of the -State law which gives one scale of salaries -for men employed in these institutions and -a lower one for women.</p> - -<table class="autotable fs80"> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" style="width:60%">Pay of Stenographers (male)</td> -<td class="tdr" style="width:20%">$70-80</td> -<td class="tdc" style="width:20%">a month</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> ”    ”  (female)</td> -<td class="tdr">50-68</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Chief Supervisors (male)</td> -<td class="tdr">55-68</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> ”    ”  (female)</td> -<td class="tdr">50-62</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Since women have been given the vote, it -is probable that this law will be changed and -equal pay given for equal work.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</span></p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> It is hoped that when the Boards of Managers for -these county tuberculosis hospitals are appointed, local -women will be placed on them.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> The number of insane in the State is increasing far -more rapidly than the provision which is being made for -them. The last report of the State Hospital Commission -shows that in hospitals for the insane, planned to accommodate -27,890 patients, there were in June, 1916, 33,873 -patients, an overcrowding of 21.5 per cent. The State -Hospital Commission urgently requests a bond issue to -provide immediately for the construction of new buildings.</p> - -</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXI">XXI<br> -THE PROTECTION OF WORKING-WOMEN</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The war has brought a revolution in -woman’s work.</p> - -<p>Because of the increased demand for labor, -trades and all kinds of employment that have -been considered exclusively the province of -men, have been opened to women. The universal -verdict is that they have everywhere -made good. Work that demands the greatest -exactness and care, specialized technical -operations that have been supposed to require -a man’s brain, have been done by them -quite as well as by men. But their employment -in many of the new industries has -brought new industrial problems, and they -have gone into many new occupations which -are not included in the protection extended -by existing labor laws.</p> - -<p>Even before the war New York State was -the greatest industrial State in the Union. -More women were at work here than in any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</span> -other State, and more women were at work -in New York City than in any entire State -except Pennsylvania.</p> - -<p>There were 248 separate manufacturing -industries in this State, and women worked -in all trades in which over 1,000 workers -were employed, except in the manufacture -of bricks, tiles, fertilizers, and ice.</p> - -<p>They were doing everything, from making -cores in foundries, sausages in packing-houses, -pickles and candies, to working in -human hair, chemicals, and rags.</p> - -<p>Women have always done their share of -the world’s work, but in the past their labor -was in the home. During the early years of -our nation there were very few women who -did not work or supervise work, but they -did this in their homes for their homes, and -they were not paid in money.</p> - -<p>When the cotton-gin was invented and the -use of steam was discovered, it was the dream -of the inventors that their machines should -be really labor-saving, and that people would -have leisure for the development of the wider -and deeper things of life. This became true -for some people, and to-day there are many -women of comparative leisure who can do -as they please with their time. But on the -other hand, undreamed-of evils and dangers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</span> -have come to women who toil, and necessity -compels women by the millions to seek work -in the industrial world. In spite of the fact -that the wages of women have been appallingly -low, the woman who must earn money -in order to live has had to find work outside -of her own home.</p> - -<p><b>Number of Women Wage-earners</b>: In 1910, -according to the census, there were in New -York State 3,291,714 women over fifteen -years of age; only 1,793,558 were married, -and 1,498,156 were unmarried or widowed; -983,686 of these had to work in order -to live, or to support some members of their -families. This number did not include the -great mass of women who work in their -homes.</p> - -<p><b>Clothing Manufacturers</b>: Before the United -States entered the war, 184,691 women were -working in New York State making every -conceivable garment for people to wear. The -work is subdivided so that one worker does -one thing all day long. There are sixty-five -operations in the making of trousers. Twenty -to sixty different operations take place in the -making of men’s shirts. Women tuck or hem -materials for women’s wear hour by hour, -driven by the juggernaut electric machine -which knows no fatigue and needs no rest.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</span></p> - -<p><b>Laundries</b>: Ten thousand women worked -in laundries in this State, where the washing -and ironing are done usually by machines. -They stand and push down a treadle of the -ironing-machine with their feet, making as -many as sixty-three to eighty-one foot -pressures a minute. In this action a bad -twist of the body is necessary, which may -result in permanent injury. Clouds of steam -rise from the mangles, and when no exhaust -hoods are used, the room is filled with steam. -Tuberculosis is a common disease among -laundry workers. Unprotected machinery is -a constant danger.</p> - -<p><b>Restaurant Workers</b>: There were fifteen -thousand restaurant workers, waitresses, -cooks, kitchen girls, and pantry hands. -Until 1917, they were without any protection -by law. They worked any number of hours, -and seven days a week. They now come -under the fifty-four-hour law, in first and -second class cities, but the law is difficult to -enforce. They often walk five miles a day -carrying heavy trays; and varicose veins, -flat feet, and pelvic disorders are common.</p> - -<p><b>Textile Operators</b>: In New York State -35,168 women worked in textile-mills making -silks, woolens, cottons, carpets, knit underwear, -etc. The din of machinery is deafening<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</span> -in many of these factories, and often the -machinery is so closely placed that there is -difficulty in passing without danger of skirts -catching.</p> - -<p>The whole development of machinery in -industry has been worked out for the purpose -of extending trade and output, without consideration -of the human factor involved. -Machines have been watched so they did not -wear out or break, and they have been carefully -repaired. Girls and women, the human -factor, have been discarded if they -wore out; they are of less worth to the employer -and can be easily replaced without -cost to him. But the cost to the State has -been heavy in the toll of hospitals, insane -asylums, and homes for destitutes and -delinquents.</p> - -<p>There is hardly a trade which has not -some elements of danger or unhealthfulness -in it. Women working in meat-packing -plants in sausage-making rooms stand all -day at their work on water- and slime-soaked -floors. Women work in industries where industrial -poisons are used or where they are -generated in the process of manufacturing. -The pressure of piece-work, the monotony -of one single operation, are nerve-racking -and nerve-exhausting.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</span></p> - -<p>The health of women who spend hours a -day in factories depends largely upon factory -laws and sanitary codes. Light, air, sanitation, -overcrowding in factories, mills, and -shops, all vitally affect the health of the -workers. No one can measure the cost of -industry in the life of women. The strength -and vitality taken from them will show in the -lowered vitality of their children. A low -birth-rate, a high death-rate, and an impaired -second generation are the inevitable results. -Infant mortality where the mothers work in -factories is notoriously high.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> - -<p><b>War and Woman’s Work</b>: With the insistent -demand for increased production occasioned -by the war, women have been -brought into many new positions formerly -held only by men. They have gone into the -steel-mills; they are employed in large numbers -in the munition-factories; they are -working on the railroads, in railroad yards, -and inspecting tracks, as well as in the ticket-offices -and baggage-rooms. The Pennsylvania -Railroad has 2,300 women employed as -car-cleaners, track-walkers, upholsterers, locomotive -despatchers, and machine-hands.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</span> -Some are operating trains. They are engaged -as conductors on street-cars and subways, -and as elevator operators.</p> - -<p>These new industries are not included in -the provisions for women of the State labor -laws.</p> - -<p>New York State has a nine-hour day for -women working in factories and mercantile -occupations, and night work is prohibited in -these industries; but this protection does -not extend into other occupations.</p> - -<p>An eight-hour working-day has been given -to men in many States and in many occupations, -but in only a few of the Western -States has it been given to women. After -three or four years in most industries, young -women begin to wear out, the speeding up -and the strain put on their youth begin to -tell, their capacity lessens, and their output -diminishes. Although the effect of long -hours and monotonous occupation is harder -on them than it is on men, the protection of -the law has been extended to them to a far -less extent. In these new industries there is -none. Women may work in them twelve -hours a day and all night. The demand of -some of the street railways is for a twelve-hour -night for women conductors (with two -hours off for supper). Elevator operators<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</span> -work twelve hours a day, in day and night -shifts, and girls employed all night are subject -to insult if not actual danger.</p> - -<p>Since boys have been difficult to get, girls, -including some under sixteen, have been delivering -letters and packages in messenger -service. The State law prohibits boys under -twenty-one being employed as messengers -at night, because of the dangers of contamination -from the night life of a city. -Under present conditions a girl employed as -messenger has no protection, and may even -be sent to houses of doubtful character.</p> - -<p>The new industries for women also include -manual work that has heretofore been considered -too heavy for them. The high wages -paid them, while lower than would have to -be paid now to men for the same work, are -still high enough to attract women from -other occupations where wages have not had -the same advance.</p> - -<p>While there is an increasing demand that -women shall be paid the same wages as a -man would be paid for exactly the same work, -the idea still prevails that it is only fair to -pay men more than women because they -have families to support, while women support -only themselves. <b>This is not true.</b> -On the backs of many women rests the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</span> -sole support of aged parents, or of younger -brothers and sisters. A large proportion of -them give up all their earnings to the family -needs.</p> - -<p>It is no longer a question of the ability of -women to do many kinds of work formerly -held to be the exclusive province of men; -but of the effect of her so doing on the future -health and welfare of the race.</p> - -<p>Women, like men, must work in order to -live, but society and the State owe it to -themselves, as a vital matter of self-protection, -to safeguard that work, so that future -generations shall not suffer from its effects.</p> - -<p>The whir of machinery, the noise, the constant -standing or the close bending over work, -the meager wages, have been the conditions -woman has had to meet for years in her -struggle for a livelihood; to them are now -added the dangers and excessive hours of -these new occupations, with their further call -on her strength and endurance.</p> - -<p>These new industries for women should be -included in the laws regulating the hours and -condition of women’s work. Public messenger -service is too dangerous for young -girls to be employed in it.</p> - -<p>If the eight-hour working-day is right for -men, it is even more needed by women.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</span> -Laws regulating factory conditions are of -little value unless there is sufficient inspection -to enforce them, and the number of inspectors -employed is always inadequate. -Women inspectors are needed for factories -in which women are employed; but there -are only four women factory inspectors in -the entire State.</p> - -<p>Several years ago the New York State -Factory Investigating Commission made an -exhaustive investigation of women’s wages, -and found that women and girls were so -underpaid as to endanger their health and -productiveness. Since then the cost of living -has advanced prodigiously, with no corresponding -increase in wages, especially among -young unorganized women.</p> - -<p>A minimum wage bill, similar to the one -in force in Oregon, which has been declared -constitutional by the United States Supreme -Court, is now before the Legislature, drawn -on the recommendation of the State Factory -Investigating Commission.</p> - -<p>If the war continues, the demand, not for -more protection, but for the suspension of -existing labor laws, will become more insistent. -The needs of the country for increased -production will be irresistible and -will not be satisfied for many years.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</span></p> - -<p>The test which the government should -insist shall be applied to every occupation -in which women engage is this: What effect -will it have on the one business in life which -is especially theirs, the production and conservation -of human life? How can it be -safeguarded so it shall not exact too great a -toll from their health and vitality?</p> - -<p>Every consideration that individuals and -the State can give must be engaged in -the study of this question. With the vote in -her hands, the woman in industry will be -able to protect herself better than before, -but the responsibility for her welfare rests -not on herself alone, but on other women, -especially on those who are free from the -grinding struggle themselves, and can do as -they choose with their time. It is part of -their responsibility to see that the most conscientious -and careful consideration be given -to this question.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</span></p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Thanks are due Miss Mary Dreier, a member of the -recent New York State Factory Investigating Commission, -for this picture of the work which women are doing.</p> - -</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXII">XXII<br> -AMERICANIZATION</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The United States is still a medley of -foreign nationalities, representing all the -races of the world, with their social characteristics, -customs, prejudices, and even -language unchanged. No one need be disconcerted -by this fact, for the people who -came over in the <em>Mayflower</em> were foreign-born, -the founders of the city of New York -were of foreign birth, and so were the first -families of Virginia.</p> - -<p>In New York State only 35 per cent. of -the population is of native birth and descent. -Almost one-third is foreign-born; -one-third of the children born here have one -or both parents of foreign birth. Even with -all the resources at our command it would -have been a giant task to have assimilated -such huge numbers of such divergent races.</p> - -<p>The United States was established as a -nation where justice, freedom, and opportunity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</span> -were to be assured to all the people. -For over a century it has been a refuge for -men and women of foreign lands, who have -been oppressed and have longed for freedom, -and who have sought wider opportunity for -themselves and their children.</p> - -<p>Native-born Americans have accepted their -privileges as a matter of course, and without -feeling the obligations they imply. They -have demanded justice and opportunity for -themselves, but they have not felt the responsibility -of seeing that it was extended in -equal measure to those who come to our -shores. They have not realized that it is -the obligation of every one enjoying the -privileges and benefits of a democracy to -see that these are shared and safeguarded -by all the people.</p> - -<p>The war has brought home to the nation -the stern necessity of a united country. -For the safety of the nation our ideals of -freedom, justice, and opportunity must be -put into practice for all the people of the -nation. The “square deal” that we stand -for must be given at home, the opportunity -for better living and the development of -character must not be denied any of our -people. Only in this way shall we have loyal -American citizens who value their allegiance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</span> -and who feel the obligation to uphold our -national ideals.</p> - -<p><b>The Immigrant Is a Great National -Asset</b>: The country has been built up largely -by his work. The railroads, the mines, the -great buildings, the subways, waterworks, -steel-mills, sugar-refining, clothes, cigars, furniture, -most of the products of our factories, -are made by immigrants. The great industries -of the country would stop without -the millions of hands that they supply.</p> - -<p>The immigrant often comes here with -high hopes of improving his condition, and -he finds himself looked down on with contempt -by the native American, exploited at -every turn, and every advantage taken of -his ignorance. After an alien is once admitted, -there has been relatively little attempt -made to protect him, to see that he is -helped to settle where his skill can best be -utilized, or even to aid him in learning our -language and customs.</p> - -<p>Many foreigners were skilled farmers before -they came to this country, but although -there is great need for such labor on the -farms here, little provision is made to use -their skill in that way. The immigrant often -has to pay to get a chance to earn his living. -When he gets a job his labor is exploited;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</span> -he has to accept lower wages than an American -would take; the living-quarters provided -for him may not be fit for human habitation.</p> - -<p>Here is a recent picture of a suburb of -New York City, a community of 16,000 foreign-born -workers: The married workman -pays from fifteen to twenty dollars a month -rent for a three- or four-room flat, the rooms -about ten feet square, with no light but -kerosene-lamps. The average family has -four children, and each family takes from -two to six boarders to help pay the rent. -The only running water is on the first floor, -and there is one out-of-door toilet. Is it -any wonder that the children, the younger -generation, are both sickly and lawless?</p> - -<p>The factory buildings are large and well -lighted, but in many communities of foreign-born -unskilled workmen the housing provisions -allow for no privacy and are a detriment -to family life and morality. Such -conditions are particularly bad for the immigrant -woman whose work confines her -indoors.</p> - -<p>It is natural that the foreigner should settle -with others of his own nationality, so -almost every city and village in the State has -a colony “across the track.” In the native -section there will be police protection, paved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</span> -streets, running water, sewage and garbage -disposal, but this protection often does not -extend “across the track.” There, disorder -and filth abound and the death-rate is much -higher.</p> - -<p><b>Every injustice to the immigrant reacts -on us as a people.</b> He must be given a -square deal before he can be made into a -loyal American.</p> - -<p>A common language is the first essential -of a united nation. There are solid blocks -in New York and other cities where not a -word of English is spoken or understood. -It is hopeless to try to make Americans of -persons who do not understand our language. -Speaking English is the first step in citizenship, -and the public schools are the logical -centers in which to make loyal Americans of -our alien population.</p> - -<p><b>Night Schools</b> are sometimes provided, -but there are many localities still without -them; and, after all, it is difficult for a man -who has been at manual labor all day to -study at night. They are most successful -when they are made interesting with stories -and games. Experiments have been made -with classes held from five to seven o’clock -in the afternoon in the factory buildings, and -employers often welcome them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</span></p> - -<p><b>Neighborhood Classes for Women</b> are being -held in the afternoon in some localities. In -this case the babies must be included. Provision -is made for them in a separate room -with a nurse or kindergartner to take charge -of them. The best lessons for the mothers -are not found in books, but are based on -the interests connected with their daily lives -and their domestic duties. Paper patterns -and a lesson in how to make garments for -her baby will chain her attention, and the -English names of articles used will be learned -unconsciously. “Playing store” with the -articles she depends on to feed her family -will fascinate her and teach her more practical -English.</p> - -<p>The immigrant woman is often keen to -learn American ways and customs. She is -eager to know how to take better care of her -family. When the public schools of New -York City give away pamphlets about -economical cooking, the call for them from -the mothers of the pupils is so great that -the supply is soon exhausted.</p> - -<p>The need for some special help for the foreign -woman was never as great as it is to-day. -There are about four hundred thousand -of them in New York State who have -become citizens because their husbands are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</span> -citizens. They are going to vote. Many -of them cannot speak English. In the -course of time the law providing that a -woman shall take the citizenship of her husband -without qualifying for it herself, may -be changed, but meanwhile these women are -voters. They need help and education, and -for the protection of the State the community -must give it to them.</p> - -<p><b>Home Teaching</b> of women in the tenements -as part of the regular school system -is being tried in California. Teachers are -sent into the homes to show by practical -demonstration economical cooking, how to -improve sanitary conditions, and to teach -the mother how to care for her children.</p> - -<p><b>Naturalization</b> would do more to arouse -a sense of responsibility in the alien if it -were conferred with a ceremony which would -appeal to the imagination. Many of the -people who come to our shores come from -countries where beauty and ceremonial are -part of the national life. The process of -naturalization, as conducted in many courts, -is usually perfunctory and often sordid. If -the courts are crowded, an applicant may -have to come six or eight times with his witnesses, -losing not only time, but being in -danger of losing his job. He is often ignorant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</span> -of the whole subject of government; he -may know nothing of the questions involved -in an election, but there is rarely an effort -made to teach him anything of American -ideals. The political club that wants his -vote is the only thing connected with government -that pays any attention to him, or offers -him help. Often he finds that his vote -has a market value. So the ballot, the -symbol of freedom and self-government, becomes -to him only a bit of graft. Definite -standards of citizenship that apply to all -alike, better tests of their knowledge of English -and of our government, would help to -impress on aliens the meaning of the oath of -allegiance.</p> - -<p><b>Uniform Naturalization Laws</b>: In New -York State an alien has to wait five years -to become a citizen with a vote. In Nebraska, -a Turk or a Greek or an Armenian -who landed six months before, if he has -taken out his citizenship papers, is permitted -to vote, although he may have no -educational qualifications of any kind, and -know no English nor anything about our -government. In seven other States a man -can vote simply by declaring his intention -of becoming a citizen.</p> - -<p><b>Ignorance of Laws</b>: Besides the lack of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</span> -provision for learning the duties of citizenship, -there is little opportunity for the immigrant -either to become familiar with -our laws or to learn respect for the law. -He gets his knowledge of the vote from the -ward boss, and he learns contempt for the -law when he sees the curtains of the saloons -pulled down in front, and the back door -open. As he sees the constant disregard for -law all around him, liberty becomes license -in his mind. Then as he prospers and grows -well-to-do, building laws, factory inspection, -fire protection, and other attempts -at government regulations, often seem to him -restrictions which are to be evaded as much -as possible.</p> - -<p>Sweatshops and the padrone system are -to his mind part of the American system for -getting rich. In taking advantage of them for -his own profit he feels that he is only following -the custom of the country. A contempt for -law and opposition to any attempt of the -law to interfere with what he considers his -rights are the natural results.</p> - -<p>The study of civics<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> in the public schools<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</span> -should begin not in the high schools and -colleges, but in the lower grades. A -majority of children leave school before -they reach the grammar school. A practical -course in government may be -made simple and interesting even for -them.</p> - -<p>The idea has been seriously advanced -that the oath of allegiance, accompanied by -a dignified and beautiful ceremony, might -be administered to groups of boys and girls -as they reach twenty-one years of age, in a -manner to impress on the public mind the -value of citizenship. The “citizen receptions” -which have been given monthly in -Cleveland and Los Angeles, to the new citizens -of that period, have done this. After -a patriotic program, with the judge of the -court presiding, each successful applicant is -very proud when he receives his naturalization -papers like a diploma, awarded before<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</span> -his family and friends. Such a ceremonial -cannot fail to carry home the conviction of -the value of the citizenship so conferred, and -the importance of living up to the responsibility -imposed by it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</span></p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> The study of citizenship in the public schools may be -made a vigorous aid to Americanization. Many foreign -parents depend on their children for their knowledge of -the customs of the new country. What the children learn -in the public schools has its influence on the life of the -family at home. If the children are taught orderliness, -consideration for others, and respect for authority, they -carry those qualities home. If they are undisciplined, -they take home disregard for parental authority, and a -lack of consideration for the rights of others, that will -stand in the way of their comprehending the first principles -of good citizenship.</p> - -</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXIII">XXIII<br> -PATRIOTISM AND CITIZENSHIP</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">From the beginning of history there -have always been individuals who have -chosen death rather than slavery. As intelligence -has grown and has displaced ignorance, -their number has increased, but it -is only within the last century and a half -that people have demanded liberty in sufficient -numbers to make it the fundamental -principle in the forming of great nations.</p> - -<p>We, in the United States, are the inheritors -of the most courageous and forward thinking -of the men and women of all nations who -cared enough for human liberty to break all -ties of home and country in order that they -might “establish justice, insure domestic -tranquillity, provide for the common defense, -and secure the blessings of liberty” -for themselves and for us.</p> - -<p>These phrases from the Constitution of the -United States have usually been only words<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</span> -to us. We have been safe, our homes have -been secure, our loved ones have been protected. -Most of us have not personally been -conscious of any overwhelming injustices, and -those that we have heard of have been far -enough away not to be disturbing. We have -come and gone as we chose; we have thought -and spoken as we pleased; we have worshiped -as we would; our property has been -safe; we have damned the government or -any man in any public office without thought -of danger to ourselves; we have feared no -man. Why should we have talked about -liberty or human freedom—it has been -secure enough. So the call to defend liberty -to some has fallen on dull ears, and the demand -for an awakened patriotism in some -places has gone unheeded. As a people, we -have forgotten about the long centuries of -fighting for freedom, the tremendous cost -that has been paid, and the blood that has -been shed.</p> - -<p>Think what those words, “safety, defense, -tranquillity, justice,” must have meant -throughout the centuries when no man’s -life was safe, when not only his welfare, but -that of his family, was subject to the whim -of the government, when he could be thrown -into prison without knowing the reason<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</span> -why, when the honor of his wife or daughter -could be taken without his being able to -protest. Read your history again, of the -middle ages, of England in the seventeenth -century, of France before the Revolution, -of Germany in the eighteenth century. -Then read of the early struggles in America. -It was nature and the Indians that man was -fighting then. For personal safety he fought -to make war and raiding unprofitable; he -had to meet brute force with brute force, to -prove his mastery over nature and savagery, -and to gain peace and safety for himself and -his home.</p> - -<p>It is the untold sacrifices of countless men -and women that have made liberty possible. -That it shall be maintained, and that the -world shall not be allowed to slip back, is -a debt that every man and woman owes to -the past.</p> - -<p>Those who inherit the fruits of this age-long -struggle must be ready to pay their -part, for themselves and for the sake of -those they love, for the sake of those who -won it for them, and for those who shall -come after them. The duty which rests on -them is as great as the duty that was on the -men of the Revolution, and on those who -won the Magna Charta. If they do not,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</span> -they are weakening the forces of civilization.</p> - -<p>For liberty is not yet complete. There -may be as great a struggle ahead of the -world as lies in the past. Before the tremendous -upheaval of the war, we took it -for granted that the liberties we possess were -common, more or less, in most of the civilized -world. Since then the horrors, the unbelievable -human suffering, the suspension of -all human rights, in the region of the great -struggle, we have laid to the war, and have -not realized that in many parts of civilized -Europe, before the war, human freedom as -we know it did not exist, and that the denial -of certain rights which we claim as fundamental, -was common.</p> - -<p>At the foundation of our national existence -has been that belief in the principles of liberty, -justice, and opportunity which the -Constitution expresses. The rights given -us by the founders of our nation have been -the ideals which other democratic governments -have sought to follow. They have -been sufficiently elastic to meet the growth -of the world’s belief in democracy, and to -provide for all new developments in the ideals -of human liberty. If these ideals have been -denied to any of our people, it has been the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</span> -fault of us as citizens. The degree in which -they are maintained depends on us. Instead -of denying the liberties that we actually -enjoy, would we not do better to advance -them and add to them? In place of tearing -down the great structure already erected, is -it not wiser to help to correct its imperfections -and to continue to build on it?</p> - -<p>There is an intelligent part of the public -that desires good government and will help -to maintain our ideals of justice, but they -are in the minority. There is also a part that -sees in government only their own selfish -profit, but they are also a minority. The -great mass of people are indifferent until -something arouses them. They would rather -be left alone by bad government than be -bothered by good government. That is the -great problem of democracy—to arouse all -the people to a realization of the necessity -of their active interest in and support of that -democracy, to increase their sense of individual -responsibility; and that is the reason -for universal suffrage—to put yeast into a -people and to ferment their dormant interest. -Democracy is not static. It exists only as it -is upheld.</p> - -<p>We hear about the denials of justice and -the failures of democracy more than we do<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</span> -about its blessings. Our sense of perspective -is often wrong. We talk about an act of -lawlessness in the United States, even if it -is being prosecuted with energy by the -government, and class it with a deliberate -attempt by a government to crush a people. -We make no distinction between a State -with deficient labor laws and a country -where the laboring classes have no right to -make themselves heard. We see no difference -between a suppression of disloyal utterances -in time of war and a people that is -never allowed to speak freely, or a censoring -of papers in war-time and a press that never -prints anything but what it is told to print.</p> - -<p>We are apt to magnify the evils of democracy -at home, and to forget the magnificent -heritage of liberty that belongs to us.</p> - -<p>What are the special privileges which we -enjoy?</p> - -<p><em>First.</em>—<em>Personal Security</em>, the right to live -our daily lives without fear of personal danger, -the right of being secure from unwarrantable -seizure of person. This right has -been ours so long that we do not know how -precious a right it is. It is difficult even to -conjure up in imagination an idea of what it -would mean to be in daily fear of one’s safety.</p> - -<p><em>Second.</em>—<em>Personal Liberty: Freedom of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</span> -Thought and Speech.</em> Life would be unthinkable -to us without this liberty. To stifle -one’s thought, to be afraid to let a suspicion -of it leak out would mean to make life unbearable. -<em>Freedom of the Press</em> is a right -that we enjoy more than any other nation. -<em>Freedom of Worship</em> has so long been unquestioned -that we forget that it has been -little more than a short century since it was -established. <em>Freedom of Assembly</em> is a right -which we accept without question.</p> - -<p><em>The Right of Petition</em> was won by a bitter -struggle. We can scarcely imagine that -there was ever a time when it was denied.</p> - -<p><em>Third.</em>—<em>Equality before the Law</em> is a right -that is guaranteed by the Constitution of the -United States, the right to a fair trial by jury, -of habeas corpus, and due process of the law.</p> - -<p><em>Fourth.</em>—<em>Security of Property</em> is guaranteed -by our Constitution. Private property may -not be taken even by the government without -a fair price being paid for it.</p> - -<p><em>Fifth.</em>—<em>Political Rights</em> are guaranteed to -our people, universal suffrage, complete political -liberty. This is the most valuable -of all rights, because it is the right that -secures all other rights.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</span></p> - -<p>These rights are not absolute; they are dependent -on public opinion as well as on the -law. They are imperfectly administered. -To the extent that they are denied, we must -each one of us accept part of the blame, -because liberty of action is ours. In time -of war public safety may demand their suspension, -and the people may give permission -that this may be done temporarily.</p> - -<p>The privilege of citizenship brings with it -the obligation to defend the government of -which that citizenship is a part. The right -to vote is a right which might well be dependent -on the loyalty of the citizen, and on -his willingness to defend and maintain his -country.</p> - -<p>Men say even to-day that the vote has -no value, that they do not care about it. -Let them live for a time in a country where -they would not be allowed to vote, where -the people are governed by an autocratic -power, and how long before they would be -willing to sacrifice anything, even life itself, -for political liberty?</p> - -<p>The citizen of a democracy has not only -the duty to defend his country, but is bound -to transmit to future generations something<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</span> -better than he inherited from the past. As -it is his part in time of war to defend the -liberties that he enjoys, so it is his duty in -time of peace to do his best to develop and -strengthen liberty and justice.</p> - -<p>That is a task even more difficult than to -fight in time of war. The discouragements, -the disappointments, are many.</p> - -<p>Women are bound to meet these disappointments. -The vote for which they have -worked so hard and so long will not accomplish -what they wish. Often it will seem to -accomplish very little. The machinery of -democracy is cumbersome and very imperfect. -It is often heartbreaking to try to -move it. It does not easily register the -popular will. But in spite of the imperfections, -and the discouragements, and the downright -corruption, the foundation on which it -is built is the best that the world has yet -found. There are many labor-saving devices -still to be invented for the bettering of the -machinery of government—protective measures -to be found against political corruption -and to safeguard the interests of the people.</p> - -<p>Side by side with the improvement in the -mechanism of government must come a -quickening of the public conscience. The -yeast of universal suffrage is already working<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</span> -toward that end. The golden rule as -the standard of action in government will -make few mistakes. The prospect for an -improved democracy in New York State is -bright. The war has swept away many prejudices -and has clarified many problems. -Men and women are working together as -never before, whole-heartedly, for the benefit -of the State. To adapt the words of President -Wilson, “the climax of the culminating -and final war for human liberty has come, and -we must be ready to put our own strength, -our own highest purpose, our own integrity -and devotion to the test,” and we must do -this not only now in time of war, but also -after peace has come, in the dedication of -ourselves to the service of justice, freedom, -and opportunity for all in our nation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</span></p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> Universal suffrage has meant in the past only manhood -suffrage. With the ratification of the woman suffrage -amendment to the National Constitution, universal -suffrage will become for the first time a fact.</p> - -</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="APPENDIX">APPENDIX<br> -SOME DEFINITIONS</h2> -</div> - -<p><b>Habeas Corpus</b>: Both the Federal and State -constitutions guarantee to the people the right -to the writ of habeas corpus, “unless where in -cases of rebellion or invasion, public safety may -require its suspension.” This is an order that -may be obtained from a certain judge commanding -that a prisoner shall be brought into court -without delay. This writ secures to any person -imprisoned for any cause the right to be heard -immediately, in order that the purpose of his -detention may be made known, the facts be -examined, and the prisoner either released or -remanded for trial. This is one of our most -highly prized rights, and is based on a promise -contained in the Magna Charta.</p> - -<p><b>The Initiative and Referendum</b> give to the -voters the power to initiate legislation, and the -right to compel a referendum on any legislative -act.</p> - -<p><b>The Initiative</b> enables the people to enact some -measure that they may desire, when it has been -ignored, or defeated, or amended out of shape by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</span> -the Legislature. The initiative may be used to -pass a new law, or to amend or repeal existing -laws. If a group of citizens can get a certain -percentage of the voters to sign the requisite petition -to a measure, it then goes to the Legislature, -and if it is not adopted by that body, the measure -must be given to the people for their decision by -popular vote. If a majority of the voters indorse -the measure it becomes a law without waiting -for action by the Legislature. In Oregon, initiative -measures go directly to the people without -being submitted to the Legislature.</p> - -<p><b>The Referendum</b> provides that a certain percentage -of voters may demand that any statute -passed by the Legislature must be submitted to -the voters, and approved by them before it becomes -a law.</p> - -<p>The existence of a provision for the initiative -and referendum is said to reduce the need of -interference with the work of the Legislature, and -the actual number of measures coming to a -popular vote is very small.</p> - -<p><b>The Recall</b> provides that the voters who put -an official into office may vote to remove him -before his term of office is over. If people are -dissatisfied with the conduct of a public official, -on petition of a certain number of voters, he may -be compelled to submit to a new election so that -the voters may pass judgment on his conduct of -his office.</p> - -<p><b>The Red-light Injunction and Abatement Act</b> -is recognized as the most effective way yet found<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</span> -of minimizing the social evil. The usual method -of handling such offenses is to arrest the woman -and fine her. The injunction and abatement act -puts the responsibility on the owner of the property -used for this business. If it can be proved -that it is used for immoral purposes, the house -is closed, and the owner fined and put under -heavy bond to insure its not being used again -in this way. Property used for this purpose brings -much higher rent than when used for legitimate -business, so that this procedure strikes at one -root of the evil. New York State has an abatement -act, but it is not well enforced. It is not -easy in many cases to find the owner of a piece -of property.</p> - -<p><b>The Tin Plate Ordinance</b> puts the name of the -owner of a building on a plate outside the building, -and thus prevents the concealment of his -or her identity. It was first put into operation -in Portland, Oregon.</p> - -<p><b>Prohibition</b>, <b>High License</b>, <b>Local Option</b>, and -the <b>Guttenburg System</b> are all ways of dealing -with the liquor traffic.</p> - -<p><b>Prohibition</b> has been of many different degrees -in various places in the United States. A -complete National prohibition measure has now -been passed by Congress, and is before the States -for ratification.</p> - -<p><b>High License</b> is intended to decrease the number -of places where liquor is sold by placing a -tax on them so large that it will be impossible -for many of them to pay it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</span></p> - -<p><b>Local Option</b>, which allows communities of -various sizes to decide for themselves whether -the sale of liquor shall be licensed or not, has -been fought step by step by the liquor trade.</p> - -<p><b>The Scandinavian or Guttenburg System</b> of -controlling the liquor business, in general, provides -for eliminating all private profit from the -business, but there are many variations of details -in different places in carrying out the system. -The Scandinavian idea is that if the money profit -is done away with the business will take care of -itself. A few licenses are given for short periods -to companies formed for manufacturing wines -and liquors, and 5 per cent. interest is allowed on -the capital invested. All remaining profits go -to the State. The government has the right to -withdraw the license without compensation. -Retail shops are open only from eight in the -morning until seven-thirty in the evening; they -are closed on holidays, and from one on Saturday -until eight <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> on Monday. Bartenders are -under the civil service and are given bonuses for -selling soft drinks.</p> - -<p><b>The Single Tax</b> is a proposal to place the entire -burden of taxation on land alone, without -regard for the value of its improvements. Land -which is not improved, and is entirely non-productive, -often increases in value with the growth -of population and the improvements made on -neighboring property, without any effort on the -part of the owner, or any service rendered by -him in return. Improvements on property increase<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</span> -the taxes on that property, while the owner -of the unimproved property escapes the same increase -as long as his land remains unimproved. -In other words, the improvements which add to -public prosperity are made to pay an increase -which the stagnant property escapes. The proposal -of the single-taxers is that the “unearned -increment” on such land should go into the public -treasury.</p> - -<p><b>The House of Governors</b> originated when -President Roosevelt, in 1908, invited the Governors -of all the States to meet in Washington -to confer over important matters. Several -times since then this “House of Governors” -has met together to discuss questions of mutual -interest which are important to the welfare of -the several States.</p> - -<p><b>Proportional Representation</b> would give representation -in Congress to each party, in proportion -to its membership in the State. At present the -representation of each party is based on its comparative -strength in each congressional district. -The division of the State into congressional districts -is made by the State Legislature. The political -party in control of the Legislature may -divide the State in such a way that it may be -able to elect an unfair number of representatives. -It may put counties, or assembly districts which -have a large majority of voters belonging to the -opposite party, in one congressional district, and -economize its own voting strength by spreading -it over as many congressional districts as possible,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</span> -where it can be sure of electing its candidates by -small majorities. This is known as “gerrymandering.” -In New York State, instead of the -division of the State into congressional districts -being based fairly on population, districts have -been created by the party in control of the Legislature -which contain more than twice as many -voters as some other districts.<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> It is said that -proportional representation would also tend to -make Congressmen so elected work for the service -of the State as a whole instead of for one -local district.</p> - -<p><b>Workmen’s Compensation Laws</b> are designed -to provide for the compensation of employees -when they are injured at their work. More -working-men are injured in the industries of the -United States, in proportion to the number employed, -than in any other country in the world. -To let the working-man and his family alone -bear the burden of injury or death is recognized -as an injustice. For such an injured person, -or his family, to be obliged to sue through the -courts is usually a long and expensive process. -Years may be consumed in such litigation, and -meanwhile the family may be without the support -of the breadwinner. Compensation laws require -employers, regardless of fault, to pay injured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</span> -workmen certain amounts for injuries resulting -from accidents, without the workmen being obliged -to go to court and sue for damages.</p> - -<p>The State Federation of Labor is working to -have all compensation insurance placed in the -State fund, to eliminate direct settlement of -damages between the workers and the employer, -and to have all occupational diseases included in -the provision of the law.</p> - - -<p class="center">ADDITIONAL NOTES</p> - -<div class="blockquot fs80"> - -<p>Page <a id="Footnote_a" href="#FNanchor_a" class="label">109</a>: School taxes under the new Township law are collected -by Town authorities.</p> - -<p>Page <a id="Footnote_b" href="#FNanchor_b" class="label">142</a>: In New York County the Grand Jury is composed of -thirty-six men.</p> - -<p>Page <a id="Footnote_c" href="#FNanchor_c" class="label">144</a>: A bill to make women eligible for jury service is before -the Legislature of New York State.</p> - -<p>Page <a id="Footnote_d" href="#FNanchor_d" class="label">163</a>: Efforts are being made to repeal the Township school -law and to go back to the School District system of 1795.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> Also under our present system a large minority of -voters may be without representation. A third party in -the State may have a considerable membership, but its -numbers may not be large enough in any one district to -elect a representative over either of the other parties.</p> - -</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHART_OF_OFFICIALS_FOR_WHOM_YOU">CHART OF OFFICIALS FOR WHOM YOU<br> -CAN VOTE</h2> -</div> - - -<table class="autotable fs80"> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" style="width:35%">ELECTIONS</td> -<td class="tdc" style="width:40%">WHEN HELD</td> -<td class="tdc" style="width:10%">TERM</td> -<td class="tdc" style="width:15%">SALARY</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><b>School Elections.</b></td> -<td class="tdl">School-meeting annually first Tuesday in May.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Board of Education, 3-5 in each town.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">3 years.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">School directors, 2 in each town.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">5 ”</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><b>Village Elections.</b></td> -<td class="tdl">Annually, usually in the spring, the third Tuesday in March.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">President.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">1 ”</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Trustees (2 to 8).</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Clerk (sometimes appointed).</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">1 year.</td> -<td class="tdl">varies.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Treasurer.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">1 ”</td> -<td class="tdl"> ”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Assessors.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">1 ”</td> -<td class="tdl"> ”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Collector.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">1 ”</td> -<td class="tdl">percentage.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Police justice.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">4 years.</td> -<td class="tdl">varies.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Special elections may be called to decide special questions.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><b>Town Elections.</b></td> -<td class="tdl">Biennially, either in the spring or at the general election in November.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Supervisor.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">2 years.</td> -<td class="tdl">by the day or salary.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Town clerk.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdl">fees.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Assessors.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdl">by the day.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Collector.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdl">percentage.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Overseer of the Poor.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdl">by the day.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Supt. of Highways.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Constables.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdl">fees.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Just. of the Peace.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">4 ”</td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><b>County Elections.</b></td> -<td class="tdl">At the general election in November.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sheriff.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">3 ”</td> -<td class="tdl">fees or sal’y.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">County clerk.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">3 ”</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Treasurer.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">3 ”</td> -<td class="tdl">fixed by b’rd of supervisors.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">District attorney.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</span></td> -<td class="tdl">At the general election in November.</td> -<td class="tdl">3 years.</td> -<td class="tdl">sal’y varies.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Supt. of the poor.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">3 ”</td> -<td class="tdl">by the day or salary.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">County judge.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">6 ”</td> -<td class="tdl">sal’y varies.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Surrogate.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">6 ”</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Coroners.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">3 ”</td> -<td class="tdl">fees or sal’y.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><b>City Elections.</b></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Cities of the first and second class and usually those of the third class -hold elections biennially, in the odd-numbered years.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><b>New York City.</b></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Mayor.</td> -<td class="tdl">Elected every four years at the general election in November. Next mayor elected in 1921.</td> -<td class="tdl">4 years.</td> -<td class="tdr">$15,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Comptroller.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">4 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">15,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Borough presidents.</td> -<td class="tdl">Elected by the people of each borough.</td> -<td class="tdl">4 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">7,500 to 5,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Aldermen.</td> -<td class="tdl">In odd-numbered years.</td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">2,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Judges, City Courts.</td> -<td class="tdl">At any general election. 10</td> -<td class="tdl">10 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">12,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Judges, Muni. Courts.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">10 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">7,000 to 8,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><b>New York County.</b></td> -<td class="tdl">At the general election.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sheriff.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">4 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">12,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">District attorney.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">4 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">15,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">County clerk.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">4 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">15,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Register.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">12,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Judges of the Court of General Sessions.</td> -<td class="tdl">14 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">17,500</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Surrogates (2).</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">14 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">15,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><b>Bronx County.</b></td> -<td class="tdl">At the general election.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sheriff.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">4 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">10,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">District attorney.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">4 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">10,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">County clerk.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">4 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">10,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Register.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">4 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">10,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">County judge.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">6 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">10,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Surrogate.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">6 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">10,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><b>Kings County.</b></td> -<td class="tdl">At the general election.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sheriff.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">15,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">District attorney.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">3 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">10,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">County clerk.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">4 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">12,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Register.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">12,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">County judges (5).</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">6 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">12,500</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Surrogate.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">6 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">15,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><b>Queens County.</b></td> -<td class="tdl">At the general election.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sheriff.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">3 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">10,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">District attorney.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">3 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">8,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">County clerk.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">3 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">8,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">County judge.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">6 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">12,500</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Surrogate.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">6 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">10,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><b>Richmond County.</b></td> -<td class="tdl">At the general election.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sheriff.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">3 years.</td> -<td class="tdr">6,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">District attorney.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">3 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">5,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">County clerk.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">3 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">5,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">County judge and surrogate.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">6 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">10,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><b>State Elections.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</span></b></td> -<td class="tdl">Biennially, at the general election in even-numbered years.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Governor.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">10,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Lieutenant-Governor.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">5,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Secretary of State.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">6,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Comptroller.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">8,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Treasurer.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">6,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Attorney-General.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">10,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">State Engineer.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">8,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">State Senators.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">1,500</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Assemblymen.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">1 year.</td> -<td class="tdr">1,500</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Judges of the Court of Appeals.</td> -<td class="tdl">14 years.</td> -<td class="tdr">13,700 to 14,200</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Judges of the Supreme Court.</td> -<td class="tdl">14 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">10,000 to 17,500</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><b>National Elections.</b></td> -<td class="tdl">At the general election.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">President.</td> -<td class="tdl">Elected by presidential electors who are elected by the people every four years.</td> -<td class="tdl">4 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">75,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Vice-President.</td> -<td class="tdl">  ”  ”</td> -<td class="tdl">4 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">12,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">U. S. Senators.</td> -<td class="tdl">At different general elec.</td> -<td class="tdl">6 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">7,500</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Representatives in Congress.</td> -<td class="tdl">Biennially, in even-numbered years.</td> -<td class="tdl">2 ”</td> -<td class="tdr">7,500</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<br><br> -<p class="center">THE END</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<div class="transnote"> - -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<ul> -<li>pg 204 Added space between: acanning-factory in: who is kept at work in acanning-factory,</li> -<li>pg 259 Removed repeated word to from: workmen being obliged to to go to court</li> -<li>pg 259 Changed A bill to make women elegible to: eligible</li> -<li>pg 262 Added period after: fees or sal’y - for Coroners line</li> -<li>pg 262 Added period after: City Elections</li> -<li>pg 262 Added period after: in the odd-numbered years</li> -<li>pg 262 Added period after: At any general election (2 locations)</li> -<li>Many hyphenated and non-hyphenated word combinations left as written.</li> -</ul> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK YOUR VOTE AND HOW TO USE IT ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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