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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bfdb683 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #69995 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69995) diff --git a/old/69995-0.txt b/old/69995-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7cabb0e..0000000 --- a/old/69995-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9591 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Report on the lands of the arid region -of the United States, with a more detailed account of the lands of Utah, -by John Wesley Powell - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Report on the lands of the arid region of the United States, with - a more detailed account of the lands of Utah - -Author: John Wesley Powell - -Release Date: February 9, 2023 [eBook #69995] - -Language: English - -Produced by: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REPORT ON THE LANDS OF THE -ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES, WITH A MORE DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE -LANDS OF UTAH *** - - - - - - REPORT - - ON THE - - LANDS OF THE ARID REGION - - OF THE - - UNITED STATES, - - WITH A - - MORE DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE LANDS OF UTAH. - - WITH MAPS. - - BY - - J. W. POWELL. - - - SECOND EDITION. - - - WASHINGTON: - GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. - 1879. - - - - - CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES (3D SESSION), - IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, - _March 3, 1879_. - -The following resolution, originating in the House of Representatives, -has this day been concurred in by the Senate: - -_Resolved, by the House of Representatives_ (_the Senate concurring_), -That there be printed five thousand copies of the Report on the Lands -of the Arid Region of the United States, by J. W. Powell; one thousand -for the use of the Senate, two thousand for the use of the House of -Representatives, and two thousand for the use of the Department of the -Interior. - -Attest: - - GEO. M. ADAMS, _Clerk_. - - - - -J. W. POWELL’S REPORT ON SURVEY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. - - - LETTER - - FROM - - THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR, - - TRANSMITTING - - _Report of J. W. Powell, geologist in charge of the United States - Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, upon - the lands of the Arid Region of the United States._ - - APRIL 3, 1878.--Referred to the Committee on Appropriations and - ordered to be printed. - - DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, - WASHINGTON, D. C., _April 3, 1878_. - -SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report from Maj. J. W. -Powell, geologist in charge of the United States Geographical and -Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, upon the lands of -the Arid Region of the United States, setting forth the extent of -said region, and making suggestions as to the conditions under which -the lands embraced within its limit may be rendered available for -agricultural and grazing purposes. With the report is transmitted a -statement of the rainfall of the western portion of the United States, -with reports upon the subject of irrigation by Capt. C. E. Dutton, U. -S. A., Prof. A. H. Thompson, and Mr. G. K. Gilbert. - -Herewith are also transmitted draughts of two bills, one entitled “A -bill to authorize the organization of pasturage districts by homestead -settlements on the public lands which are of value for pasturage -purposes only”, and the other “A bill to authorize the organization of -irrigation districts by homestead settlements upon the public lands -requiring irrigation for agricultural purposes”, intended to carry -into effect a new system for the disposal of the public lands of said -region, and to promote the settlement and development of that portion -of the country. - -In view of the importance of rendering the vast extent of country -referred to available for agricultural and grazing purposes, I have -the honor to commend the views set forth by Major Powell and the bills -submitted herewith to the consideration of Congress. - - Very respectfully, - - C. SCHURZ, - _Secretary_. - - Hon. SAMUEL J. RANDALL, - _Speaker of the House of Representatives_. - - DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, GENERAL LAND OFFICE, - WASHINGTON, D. C., _April 1, 1878_. - -SIR: I have the honor to submit herewith a report from Maj. J. W. -Powell, in charge of the Geographical and Geological Survey of the -Rocky Mountains, in regard to the Arid Region of the United States, -and draughts of two bills, one entitled “A bill to authorize the -organization of pasturage districts by homestead settlements on the -public lands which are of value for pasturage purposes only”, and the -other “A bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts by -homestead settlements upon the public lands requiring irrigation for -agricultural purposes”. - -Major Powell reviews at length the features of, and furnishes -statistics relative to, the Arid Region of the United States, which is -substantially the territory west of the one hundredth meridian and east -of the Cascade Range, and the bills named are intended, if passed, to -carry into effect the views expressed in his report for the settlement -and development of this region. - -He has, in the performance of his duties in conducting the geological -and geographical survey, been over much of the country referred to, -and is qualified by observation, research, and study to speak of the -topography, characteristics, and adaptability of the same. - -I have not been able, on account of more urgent official duties, to -give Major Powell’s report and proposed bills the careful investigation -necessary, in view of their great importance, to enable me to express -a decided opinion as to their merits. Some change is necessary in the -survey and disposal of the lands, and I think his views are entitled -to great weight, and would respectfully recommend that such action -be taken as will bring his report and bills before Congress for -consideration by that body. - - Very respectfully, - J. A. WILLIAMSON, - _Commissioner_. - - Hon. C. SCHURZ, - _Secretary of the Interior_. - - DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, - U. S. GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION, - WASHINGTON, D. C., _April 1, 1878_. - -SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the lands of the -Arid Region of the United States. After setting forth the general facts -relating to the conditions under which these lands must be utilized, I -have taken the liberty to suggest a system for their disposal which I -believe would be adapted to the wants of the country. - -I wish to express my sincere thanks for the assistance you have given -me in the collection of many of the facts necessary to the discussion, -and especially for the aid you have rendered in the preparation of the -maps. - -Permit me to express the hope that the great interest you take in the -public domain will be rewarded by the consciousness that you have -assisted many citizens in the establishment of farm homes thereon. - - I am, with great respect, your obedient servant, - J. W. POWELL, - _In charge U. S. G. and G. Survey Rocky Mountain Region_. - - Hon. J. A. WILLIAMSON, - _Commissioner General Land Office, Washington, D. C._ - - - - - PREFACE. - - -It was my intention to write a work on the Public Domain. The object -of the volume was to give the extent and character of the lands yet -belonging to the Government of the United States. Compared with the -whole extent of these lands, but a very small fraction is immediately -available for agriculture; in general, they require drainage or -irrigation for their redemption. - -It is true that in the Southern States there are some millions of -acres, chiefly timber lands, which at no remote time will be occupied -for agricultural purposes. Westward toward the Great Plains, the lands -in what I have, in the body of this volume, termed the Humid Region -have passed from the hands of the General Government. To this statement -there are some small exceptions here and there--fractional tracts, -which, for special reasons, have not been considered desirable by -persons in search of lands for purposes of investment or occupation. - -In the Sub-humid Region settlements are rapidly extending westward -to the verge of the country where agriculture is possible without -irrigation. - -In the Humid Region of the Columbia the agricultural lands are largely -covered by great forests, and for this reason settlements will progress -slowly, as the lands must be cleared of their timber. - -The redemption of the Arid Region involves engineering problems -requiring for their solution the greatest skill. In the present volume -only these lands are considered. Had I been able to execute the -original plan to my satisfaction, I should have treated of the coast -swamps of the South Atlantic and the Gulf slopes, the Everglade lands -of the Floridian Peninsula, the flood plain lands of the great rivers -of the south, which have heretofore been made available only to a -limited extent by a system of levees, and the lake swamp lands found -about the headwaters of the Mississippi and the region of the upper -Great Lakes. All of these lands require either drainage or protection -from overflow, and the engineering problems involved are of diverse -nature. These lands are to be redeemed from excessive humidity, -while the former are to be redeemed from excessive aridity. When -the excessively humid lands are redeemed, their fertility is almost -inexhaustible, and the agricultural capacity of the United States will -eventually be largely increased by the rescue of these lands from -their present valueless condition. In like manner, on the other hand, -the arid lands, so far as they can be redeemed by irrigation, will -perennially yield bountiful crops, as the means for their redemption -involves their constant fertilization. - -To a great extent, the redemption of all these lands will require -extensive and comprehensive plans, for the execution of which -aggregated capital or coöperative labor will be necessary. Here, -individual farmers, being poor men, cannot undertake the task. For -its accomplishment a wise prevision, embodied in carefully considered -legislation, is necessary. It was my purpose not only to consider the -character of the lands themselves, but also the engineering problems -involved in their redemption, and further to make suggestions for the -legislative action necessary to inaugurate the enterprises by which -these lands may eventually be rescued from their present worthless -state. When I addressed myself to the broader task as indicated above, -I found that my facts in relation to some of the classes of lands -mentioned, especially the coast swamps of the Gulf and some of the -flood plain lands of the southern rivers, were too meager for anything -more than general statements. There seemed to be no immediate necessity -for the discussion of these subjects; but to the Arid Region of the -west thousands of persons are annually repairing, and the questions -relating to the utilization of these lands are of present importance. -Under these considerations I have decided to publish that portion of -the volume relating to the arid lands, and to postpone to some future -time that part relating to the excessively humid lands. - -In the preparation of the contemplated volume I desired to give a -historical sketch of the legislation relating to swamp lands and -executive action thereunder; another chapter on bounty lands and land -grants for agricultural schools, and still another on land grants in -aid of internal improvements--chiefly railroads. The latter chapter has -already been prepared by Mr. Willis Drummond, jr., and as the necessary -map is ready I have concluded to publish it now, more especially as the -granted lands largely lie in the Arid Region. Mr. Drummond’s chapter -has been carefully prepared and finely written, and contains much -valuable information. - -To the late Prof. Joseph Henry, secretary of the Smithsonian -Institution, I am greatly indebted for access to the records of the -Institution relating to rainfall. Since beginning my explorations and -surveys in the far west, I have received the counsel and assistance -of the venerable professor on all important matters relating to my -investigations; and whatever of value has been accomplished is due in -no small part to his wisdom and advice. I cannot but express profound -sorrow at the loss of a counselor so wise, so patient, and so courteous. - -I am also indebted to Mr. Charles A. Schott, of the United States Coast -Survey, to whom the discussion of the rain gauge records has been -intrusted by the Smithsonian Institution, for furnishing to me the -required data in advance of publication by himself. - -Unfortunately, the chapters written by Messrs. Gilbert, Dutton, -Thompson, and Drummond have not been proof-read by themselves, by -reason of their absence during the time when the volume was going -through the press; but this is the less to be regretted from the fact -that the whole volume has been proof-read by Mr. J. C. Pilling, whose -critical skill is all that could be desired. - - J. W. P. - -AUGUST, 1878. - - - - - PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION - - -The first edition of this report having been exhausted in a few months -and without satisfying the demand which the importance of the subject -created, a second was ordered by Congress in March, 1879. The authors -were thus given an opportunity to revise their text and eliminate a -few formal errors which had crept in by reason of their absence while -the first edition was passing through the press. The substance of the -report is unchanged. - - J. W. P. - -JULY, 1879. - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION: Page. - - The Arid Region 5 - - Irrigable lands 6 - - Advantages of irrigation 10 - - Coöperative labor or capital necessary for the development of - irrigation 11 - - The use of smaller streams sometimes interferes with the use of the - larger 12 - - Increase of irrigable area by the storage of water 12 - - Timber lands 14 - - Agricultural and timber industries differentiated 18 - - Cultivation of timber 19 - - Pasturage lands 19 - - Pasturage farms need small tracts of irrigable land 21 - - The farm unit for pasturage lands 21 - - Regular division lines for pasturage farms not practicable 22 - - Farm residences should be grouped 22 - - Pasturage lands cannot be fenced 23 - - Recapitulation 23 - - Irrigable lands 23 - - Timber lands 23 - - Pasturage lands 24 - - - CHAPTER II. - - THE LAND-SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID REGION: - - Irrigable lands 27 - - Timber lands 27 - - Pasturage lands 28 - - A bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts 30 - - A bill to authorize the organization of pasturage districts 33 - - Water rights 40 - - The lands should be classified 43 - - - CHAPTER III. - - THE RAINFALL OF THE WESTERN PORTION OF THE UNITED STATES: - - Precipitation of the Sub-humid Region 47 - - Precipitation of the Arid Region 48 - - Precipitation of the San Francisco Region 49 - - Precipitation of the Region of the Lower Columbia 49 - - Distribution of rain through the year 50 - - Precipitation of Texas 50 - - Precipitation of Dakota 51 - - Seasonal precipitation in the Region of the Plains 52 - - Seasonal precipitation in the San Francisco Region 53 - - Mean temperature, by seasons, for the San Francisco Region 54 - - Seasonal precipitation and temperature on the Pacific Coast, etc. 55 - - Seasonal precipitation in Arizona and New Mexico 56 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - WATER SUPPLY.--BY G. K. GILBERT: - - Increase of streams 57 - - Rise of Great Salt Lake 58 - - Volcanic theory 67 - - Climatic theory 68 - - Theory of human agencies 71 - - Farming without irrigation 77 - - - CHAPTER V. - - CERTAIN IMPORTANT QUESTIONS RELATING TO IRRIGABLE LANDS: - - The unit of water used in irrigation 81 - - The quantitative value of water in irrigation 81 - - Area of irrigable land sometimes not limited by water supply 85 - - Method of determining the supply of water 85 - - Methods of determining the extent of irrigable land unlimited by - water supply 86 - - The selection of irrigable lands 87 - - Increase in the water supply 89 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE LANDS OF UTAH: - - Physical features 93 - - Timber 98 - - Irrigable and pasturage lands 103 - - Uinta-White Basin 103 - - The Cañon Lands 105 - - The Sevier Lake District 106 - - The Great Salt Lake District 106 - - Grasses 107 - - Table of Irrigable lands in Utah Territory 111 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE SALT LAKE DRAINAGE SYSTEM.--BY G. K. GILBERT: - - Irrigation by the larger streams 117 - - Bear River drainage basin 119 - - Weber River drainage basin 121 - - Jordan River drainage basin 124 - - Irrigation by smaller streams 126 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER RIVER.--BY CAPT. C. E. - DUTTON: - - Altitudes of the San Pete Valley 133 - - Volume of flowing water in San Pete Valley 140 - - Irrigable lands of the Sevier Lake District 144 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THAT PORTION OF UTAH DRAINED BY THE COLORADO RIVER - AND ITS TRIBUTARIES.--BY PROF. A. H. THOMPSON: - - The Virgin River 152 - - Kanab Creek 154 - - The Paria River 155 - - The Escalante River 156 - - The Fremont River 157 - - The San Rafael River 158 - - The Price River 159 - - Minnie Maud Creek 159 - - The Uinta River 160 - - Ashley Fork 161 - - Henrys Fork 161 - - The White River 161 - - The Green River 162 - - The Grand River 163 - - The San Juan River 163 - - Other streams 163 - - Irrigable lands of the Colorado drainage 164 - - - CHAPTER X. - - LAND GRANTS IN AID OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS.--BY WILLIS DRUMMOND, - JR. 165 - - - - - REPORT ON THE LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES. - - BY J. W. POWELL. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - - PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION. - - -The eastern portion of the United States is supplied with abundant -rainfall for agricultural purposes, receiving the necessary amount -from the evaporation of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico; but -westward the amount of aqueous precipitation diminishes in a general -way until at last a region is reached where the climate is so arid that -agriculture is not successful without irrigation. This Arid Region -begins about midway in the Great Plains and extends across the Rocky -Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. But on the northwest coast there is -a region of greater precipitation, embracing western Washington and -Oregon and the northwest corner of California. The winds impinging on -this region are freighted with moisture derived from the great Pacific -currents; and where this water-laden atmosphere strikes the western -coast in full force, the precipitation is excessive, reaching a maximum -north of the Columbia River of 80 inches annually. But the rainfall -rapidly decreases from the Pacific Ocean eastward to the summit of the -Cascade Mountains. It will be convenient to designate this humid area -as the Lower Columbia Region. Rain gauge records have not been made -to such an extent as to enable us to define its eastern and southern -boundaries, but as they are chiefly along high mountains, definite -boundary lines are unimportant in the consideration of agricultural -resources and the questions relating thereto. In like manner on the -east the rain gauge records, though more full, do not give all the -facts necessary to a thorough discussion of the subject; yet the -records are such as to indicate approximately the boundary between -the Arid Region, where irrigation is necessary to agriculture, and the -Humid Region, where the lands receive enough moisture from the clouds -for the maturing of crops. Experience teaches that it is not wise to -depend upon rainfall where the amount is less than 20 inches annually, -if this amount is somewhat evenly distributed throughout the year; -but if the rainfall is unevenly distributed, so that “rainy seasons” -are produced, the question whether agriculture is possible without -irrigation depends upon the time of the “rainy season” and the amount -of its rainfall. Any unequal distribution of rain through the year, -though the inequality be so slight as not to produce “rainy seasons”, -affects agriculture either favorably or unfavorably. If the spring and -summer precipitation exceeds that of the fall and winter, a smaller -amount of annual rain may be sufficient; but if the rainfall during the -season of growing crops is less than the average of the same length -of time during the remainder of the year, a greater amount of annual -precipitation is necessary. In some localities in the western portion -of the United States this unequal distribution of rainfall through the -seasons affects agriculture favorably, and this is true immediately -west of the northern portion of the line of 20 inches of rainfall, -which extends along the plains from our northern to our southern -boundary. - -The isohyetal or mean annual rainfall line of 20 inches, as indicated -on the rain chart accompanying this report, begins on the southern -boundary of the United States, about 60 miles west of Brownsville, -on the Rio Grande del Norte, and intersects the northern boundary -about 50 miles east of Pembina. Between these two points the line is -very irregular, but in middle latitudes makes a general curve to the -westward. On the southern portion of the line the rainfall is somewhat -evenly distributed through the seasons, but along the northern portion -the rainfall of spring and summer is greater than that of fall and -winter, and hence the boundary of what has been called the Arid Region -runs farther to the west. Again, there is another modifying condition, -namely, that of temperature. Where the temperature is greater, more -rainfall is needed; where the temperature is less, agriculture is -successful with a smaller amount of precipitation. But geographically -this temperature is dependent upon two conditions--altitude and -latitude. Along the northern portion of the line latitude is an -important factor, and the line of possible agriculture without -irrigation is carried still farther westward. This conclusion, based -upon the consideration of rainfall and latitude, accords with the -experience of the farmers of the region, for it is a well known fact -that agriculture without irrigation is successfully carried on in the -valley of the Red River of the North, and also in the southeastern -portion of Dakota Territory. A much more extended series of rain-gauge -records than we now have is necessary before this line constituting -the eastern boundary of the Arid Region can be well defined. It is -doubtless more or less meandering in its course throughout its whole -extent from south to north, being affected by local conditions of -rainfall, as well as by the general conditions above mentioned; but in -a general way it may be represented by the one hundredth meridian, in -some places passing to the east, in others to the west, but in the main -to the east. - -The limit of successful agriculture without irrigation has been set -at 20 inches, that the extent of the Arid Region should by no means -be exaggerated; but at 20 inches agriculture will not be uniformly -successful from season to season. Many droughts will occur; many -seasons in a long series will be fruitless; and it may be doubted -whether, on the whole, agriculture will prove remunerative. On this -point it is impossible to speak with certainty. A larger experience -than the history of agriculture in the western portion of the United -States affords is necessary to a final determination of the question. - -In fact, a broad belt separates the Arid Region of the west from the -Humid Region of the east. Extending from the one hundredth meridian -eastward to about the isohyetal line of 28 inches, the district of -country thus embraced will be subject more or less to disastrous -droughts, the frequency of which will diminish from west to east. -For convenience let this be called the Sub-humid Region. Its western -boundary is the line already defined as running irregularly along -the one hundredth meridian. Its eastern boundary passes west of -the isohyetal line of 28 inches of rainfall in Minnesota, running -approximately parallel to the western boundary line above described. -Nearly one-tenth of the whole area of the United States, exclusive -of Alaska, is embraced in this Sub-humid Region. In the western -portion disastrous droughts will be frequent; in the eastern portion -infrequent. In the western portion agriculturists will early resort to -irrigation to secure immunity from such disasters, and this event will -be hastened because irrigation when properly conducted is a perennial -source of fertilization, and is even remunerative for this purpose -alone; and for the same reason the inhabitants of the eastern part will -gradually develop irrigating methods. It may be confidently expected -that at a time not far distant irrigation will be practiced to a -greater or less extent throughout this Sub-humid Region. Its settlement -presents problems differing materially from those pertaining to the -region to the westward. Irrigation is not immediately necessary, and -hence agriculture does not immediately depend upon capital. The region -may be settled and its agricultural capacities more or less developed, -and the question of the construction of irrigating canals may be a -matter of time and convenience. For many reasons, much of the sub-humid -belt is attractive to settlers: it is almost destitute of forests, and -for this reason is more readily subdued, as the land is ready for the -plow. But because of the lack of forests the country is more dependent -upon railroads for the transportation of building and fencing materials -and for fuel. To a large extent it is a region where timber may be -successfully cultivated. As the rainfall is on a general average nearly -sufficient for continuous successful agriculture, the amount of water -to be supplied by irrigating canals will be comparatively small, so -that its streams can serve proportionally larger areas than the streams -of the Arid Region. In its first settlement the people will be favored -by having lands easily subdued, but they will have to contend against a -lack of timber. Eventually this will be a region of great agricultural -wealth, as in general the soils are good. From our northern to our -southern boundary no swamp lands are found, except to some slight -extent in the northeastern portion, and it has no excessively hilly or -mountainous districts. It is a beautiful prairie country throughout, -lacking somewhat in rainfall; but this want can be easily supplied by -utilizing the living streams; and, further, these streams will afford -fertilizing materials of great value. - -The Humid Region of the lower Columbia and the Sub-humid Region of the -Great Plains have been thus briefly indicated in order that the great -Arid Region, which is the subject of this paper, may be more clearly -defined. - - - THE ARID REGION. - -The Arid Region is the great Rocky Mountain Region of the United -States, and it embraces something more than four-tenths of the -whole country, excluding Alaska. In all this region the mean annual -rainfall is insufficient for agriculture, but in certain seasons some -localities, now here, now there, receive more than their average -supply. Under such conditions crops will mature without irrigation. -As such seasons are more or less infrequent even in the more favored -localities, and as the agriculturist cannot determine in advance -when such seasons may occur, the opportunities afforded by excessive -rainfall cannot be improved. - -In central and northern California an unequal distribution of rainfall -through the seasons affects agricultural interests favorably. A “rainy -season” is here found, and the chief precipitation occurs in the months -of December-April. The climate, tempered by mild winds from the broad -expanse of Pacific waters, is genial, and certain crops are raised by -sowing the seeds immediately before or during the “rainy season”, and -the watering which they receive causes the grains to mature so that -fairly remunerative crops are produced. But here again the lands are -subject to the droughts of abnormal seasons. As many of these lands can -be irrigated, the farmers of the country are resorting more and more -to the streams, and soon all the living waters of this region will be -brought into requisition. - -In the tables of a subsequent chapter this will be called the San -Francisco Region. - -Again in eastern Washington and Oregon, and perhaps in northern Idaho, -agriculture is practiced to a limited extent without irrigation. The -conditions of climate by which this is rendered possible are not yet -fully understood. The precipitation of moisture on the mountains is -greater than on the lowlands, but the hills and mesas adjacent to the -great masses of mountains receive a little of the supply condensed by -the mountains themselves, and it will probably be found that limited -localities in Montana, and even in Wyoming, will be favored by this -condition to an extent sufficient to warrant agricultural operations -independent of irrigation. These lands, however, are usually supplied -with living streams, and their irrigation can be readily effected, and -to secure greater certainty and greater yield of crops irrigation will -be practiced in such places. - - - IRRIGABLE LANDS. - -Within the Arid Region only a small portion of the country is -irrigable. These irrigable tracts are lowlands lying along the streams. -On the mountains and high plateaus forests are found at elevations so -great that frequent summer frosts forbid the cultivation of the soil. -Here are the natural timber lands of the Arid Region--an upper region -set apart by nature for the growth of timber necessary to the mining, -manufacturing, and agricultural industries of the country. Between the -low irrigable lands and the elevated forest lands there are valleys, -mesas, hills, and mountain slopes bearing grasses of greater or less -value for pasturage purposes. - -Then, in discussing the lands of the Arid Region, three great classes -are recognized--the irrigable lands below, the forest lands above, and -the pasturage lands between. In order to set forth the characteristics -of these lands and the conditions under which they can be most -profitably utilized, it is deemed best to discuss first a somewhat -limited region in detail as a fair type of the whole. The survey under -the direction of the writer has been extended over the greater part of -Utah, a small part of Wyoming and Colorado, the northern portion of -Arizona, and a small part of Nevada, but it is proposed to take up for -this discussion only the area embraced in Utah Territory. - -In Utah Territory agriculture is dependent upon irrigation. To this -statement there are some small exceptions. In the more elevated regions -there are tracts of meadow land from which small crops of hay can be -taken: such lands being at higher altitudes need less moisture, and -at the same time receive a greater amount of rainfall because of the -altitude; but these meadows have been, often are, and in future will -be, still more improved by irrigation. Again, on the belt of country -lying between Great Salt Lake and the Wasatch Mountains the local -rainfall is much greater than the general rainfall of the region. -The water evaporated from the lake is carried by the westerly winds -to the adjacent mountains on the east and again condensed, and the -rainfall thus produced extends somewhat beyond the area occupied by the -mountains, so that the foot hills and contiguous bench lands receive -a modicum of this special supply. In some seasons this additional -supply is enough to water the lands for remunerative agriculture, but -the crops grown will usually be very small, and they will be subject -to seasons of extreme drought, when all agriculture will result in -failure. Most of these lands can be irrigated, and doubtless will be, -from a consideration of the facts already stated, namely, that crops -will thereby be greatly increased and immunity from drought secured. -Perhaps other small tracts, on account of their subsoils, can be -profitably cultivated in favorable seasons, but all of these exceptions -are small, and the fact remains that agriculture is there dependent -upon irrigation. Only a small part of the territory, however, can be -redeemed, as high, rugged mountains and elevated plateaus occupy much -of its area, and these regions are so elevated that summer frosts -forbid their occupation by the farmer. Thus thermic conditions limit -agriculture to the lowlands, and here another limit is found in the -supply of water. Some of the large streams run in deep gorges so far -below the general surface of the country that they cannot be used; for -example, the Colorado River runs through the southeastern portion of -the Territory and carries a great volume of water, but no portion of -it can be utilized within the Territory from the fact that its channel -is so much below the adjacent lands. The Bear River, in the northern -part of the Territory, runs in a somewhat narrow valley, so that only -a portion of its waters can be utilized. Generally the smaller streams -can be wholly employed in agriculture, but the lands which might thus -be reclaimed are of greater extent than the amount which the streams -can serve; hence in all such regions the extent of irrigable land is -dependent upon the volume of water carried by the streams. - -In order to determine the amount of irrigable land in Utah it was -necessary to determine the areas to which the larger streams can be -taken by proper engineering skill, and the amount which the smaller -streams can serve. In the latter case it was necessary to determine -first the amount of land which a given amount or unit of water would -supply, and then the volume of water running in the streams; the -product of these factors giving the extent of the irrigable lands. A -continuous flow of one cubic foot of water per second was taken as the -unit, and after careful consideration it was assumed that this unit of -water will serve from 80 to 100 acres of land. Usually the computations -have been made on the basis of 100 acres. This unit was determined in -the most practical way--from the experience of the farmers of Utah who -have been practicing agriculture for the past thirty years. Many of -the farmers will not admit that so great a tract can be cultivated by -this unit. In the early history of irrigation in this country the lands -were oversupplied with water, but experience has shown that irrigation -is most successful when the least amount of water is used necessary to -a vigorous growth of the crops; that is, a greater yield is obtained -by avoiding both scanty and excessive watering; but the tendency to -overwater the lands is corrected only by extended experience. A great -many of the waterways are so rudely constructed that much waste ensues. -As irrigating methods are improved this wastage will be avoided; so in -assuming that a cubic foot of water will irrigate from 80 to 100 acres -of land it is at the same time assumed that only the necessary amount -of water will be used, and that the waterways will eventually be so -constructed that the waste now almost universal will be prevented. - -In determining the volume of water flowing in the streams great -accuracy has not been attained. For this purpose it would be necessary -to make continuous daily, or even hourly, observations for a series of -years on each stream, but by the methods described in the following -chapters it will be seen that a fair approximation to a correct amount -has been made. For the degree of accuracy reached much is due to the -fact that many of the smaller streams are already used to their fullest -capacity, and thus experience has solved the problem. - -Having determined from the operations of irrigation that one cubic foot -per second of water will irrigate from 80 to 100 acres of land when the -greatest economy is used, and having determined the volume of water -or number of cubic feet per second flowing in the several streams of -Utah by the most thorough methods available under the circumstances, -it appears that within the territory, excluding a small portion in the -southeastern corner where the survey has not yet been completed, the -amount of land which it is possible to redeem by this method is about -2,262 square miles, or 1,447,920 acres. Of course this amount does not -lie in a continuous body, but is scattered in small tracts along the -water courses. For the purpose of exhibiting their situations a map -of the territory has been prepared, and will be found accompanying -this report, on which the several tracts of irrigable lands have been -colored. A glance at this map will show how they are distributed. -Excluding that small portion of the territory in the southeast corner -not embraced in the map, Utah has an area of 80,000 square miles, of -which 2,262 square miles are irrigable. That is, 2.8 per cent. of -the lands under consideration can be cultivated by utilizing all the -available streams during the irrigating season. - -In addition to the streams considered in this statement there are -numerous small springs on the mountain sides scattered throughout the -territory--springs which do not feed permanent streams; and if their -waters were used for irrigation the extent of irrigable land would be -slightly increased; to what exact amount cannot be stated, but the -difference would be so small as not to materially affect the general -statement, and doubtless these springs can be used in another way and -to a better purpose, as will hereafter appear. - -This statement of the facts relating to the irrigable lands of Utah -will serve to give a clearer conception of the extent and condition of -the irrigable lands throughout the Arid Region. Such as can be redeemed -are scattered along the water courses, and are in general the lowest -lands of the several districts to which they belong. In some of the -states and territories the percentage of irrigable land is less than in -Utah, in others greater, and it is probable that the percentage in the -entire region is somewhat greater than in the territory which we have -considered. - -The Arid Region is somewhat more than four-tenths of the total area of -the United States, and as the agricultural interests of so great an -area are dependent upon irrigation it will be interesting to consider -certain questions relating to the economy and practicability of -distributing the waters over the lands to be redeemed. - - - ADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION. - -There are two considerations that make irrigation attractive to -the agriculturist. Crops thus cultivated are not subject to the -vicissitudes of rainfall; the farmer fears no droughts; his labors -are seldom interrupted and his crops rarely injured by storms. This -immunity from drought and storm renders agricultural operations much -more certain than in regions of greater humidity. Again, the water -comes down from the mountains and plateaus freighted with fertilizing -materials derived from the decaying vegetation and soils of the upper -regions, which are spread by the flowing water over the cultivated -lands. It is probable that the benefits derived from this source alone -will be full compensation for the cost of the process. Hitherto these -benefits have not been fully realized, from the fact that the methods -employed have been more or less crude. When the flow of water over the -land is too great or too rapid the fertilizing elements borne in the -waters are carried past the fields, and a washing is produced which -deprives the lands irrigated of their most valuable elements, and -little streams cut the fields with channels injurious in diverse ways. -Experience corrects these errors, and the irrigator soon learns to -flood his lands gently, evenly, and economically. It may be anticipated -that all the lands redeemed by irrigation in the Arid Region will be -highly cultivated and abundantly productive, and agriculture will -be but slightly subject to the vicissitudes of scant and excessive -rainfall. - -A stranger entering this Arid Region is apt to conclude that the soils -are sterile, because of their chemical composition, but experience -demonstrates the fact that all the soils are suitable for agricultural -purposes when properly supplied with water. It is true that some of the -soils are overcharged with alkaline materials, but these can in time be -“washed out”. Altogether the fact suggests that far too much attention -has heretofore been paid to the chemical constitution of soils and -too little to those physical conditions by which moisture and air are -supplied to the roots of the growing plants. - - - COÖPERATIVE LABOR OR CAPITAL NECESSARY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF - IRRIGATION. - -Small streams can be taken out and distributed by individual -enterprise, but coöperative labor or aggregated capital must be -employed in taking out the larger streams. - -The diversion of a large stream from its channel into a system of -canals demands a large outlay of labor and material. To repay this all -the waters so taken out must be used, and large tracts of land thus -become dependent upon a single canal. It is manifest that a farmer -depending upon his own labor cannot undertake this task. To a great -extent the small streams are already employed, and but a comparatively -small portion of the irrigable lands can be thus redeemed; hence the -chief future development of irrigation must come from the use of the -larger streams. Usually the confluence of the brooks and creeks which -form a large river takes place within the mountain district which -furnishes its source before the stream enters the lowlands where -the waters are to be used. The volume of water carried by the small -streams that reach the lowlands before uniting with the great rivers, -or before they are lost in the sands, is very small when compared with -the volume of the streams which emerge from the mountains as rivers. -This fact is important. If the streams could be used along their upper -ramifications while the several branches are yet small, poor men could -occupy the lands, and by their individual enterprise the agriculture of -the country would be gradually extended to the limit of the capacity -of the region; but when farming is dependent upon larger streams such -men are barred from these enterprises until coöperative labor can be -organized or capital induced to assist. Before many years all the -available smaller streams throughout the entire region will be occupied -in serving the lands, and then all future development will depend on -the conditions above described. - -In Utah Territory coöperative labor, under ecclesiastical organization, -has been very successful. Outside of Utah there are but few instances -where it has been tried; but at Greeley, in the State of Colorado, this -system has been eminently successful. - - - THE USE OF SMALLER STREAMS SOMETIMES INTERFERES WITH THE USE OF THE - LARGER. - -A river emerging from a mountain region and meandering through a valley -may receive small tributaries along its valley course. These small -streams will usually be taken out first, and the lands which they will -be made to serve will often lie low down in the valley, because the -waters can be more easily controlled here and because the lands are -better; and this will be done without regard to the subsequent use of -the larger stream to which the smaller ones are tributary. But when the -time comes to take out the larger stream, it is found that the lands -which it can be made to serve lying adjacent on either hand are already -in part served by the smaller streams, and as it will not pay to take -out the larger stream without using all of its water, and as the people -who use the smaller streams have already vested rights in these lands, -a practical prohibition is placed upon the use of the larger river. -In Utah, church authority, to some extent at least, adjusts these -conflicting interests by causing the smaller streams to be taken out -higher up in their course. Such adjustment is not so easily attained -by the great body of people settling in the Rocky Mountain Region, and -some provision against this difficulty is an immediate necessity. It is -a difficulty just appearing, but in the future it will be one of great -magnitude. - - - INCREASE OF IRRIGABLE AREA BY THE STORAGE OF WATER. - -Within the Arid Region great deposits of gold, silver, iron, coal, -and many other minerals are found, and the rapid development of these -mining industries will demand _pari passu_ a rapid development of -agriculture. Thus all the lands that can be irrigated will be required -for agricultural products necessary to supply the local market created -by the mines. For this purpose the waters of the non-growing season -will be stored, that they may be used in the growing season. - -There are two methods of storing the waste waters. Reservoirs may be -constructed near the sources of the streams and the waters held in -the upper valleys, or the water may be run from the canals into ponds -within or adjacent to the district where irrigation is practiced. -This latter method will be employed first. It is already employed to -some extent where local interests demand and favorable opportunities -are afforded. In general, the opportunities for ponding water in this -way are infrequent, as the depressions where ponds can easily be made -are liable to be so low that the waters cannot be taken from them to -the adjacent lands, but occasionally very favorable sites for such -ponds may be found. This is especially true near the mountains where -alluvial cones have been formed at the debouchure of the streams -from the mountain cañons. Just at the foot of the mountains are many -places where ancient glaciation has left the general surface with many -depressions favorable to ponding. - -Ponding in the lower region is somewhat wasteful of water, as the -evaporation is greater than above, and the pond being more or less -shallow a greater proportional surface for evaporation is presented. -This wastage is apparent when it is remembered that the evaporation in -an arid climate may be from 60 to 80 inches annually, or even greater. - -Much of the waste water comes down in the spring when the streams are -high and before the growing crops demand a great supply. When this -water is stored the loss by evaporation will be small. - -The greater storage of water must come from the construction of great -reservoirs in the highlands where lateral valleys may be dammed and -the main streams conducted into them by canals. On most streams -favorable sites for such water works can be found. This subject cannot -be discussed at any length in a general way, from the fact that each -stream presents problems peculiar to itself. - -It cannot be very definitely stated to what extent irrigation can be -increased by the storage of water. The rainfall is much greater in -the mountain than in the valley districts. Much of this precipitation -in the mountain districts falls as snow. The great snow banks are the -reservoirs which hold the water for the growing seasons. Then the -streams are at flood tide; many go dry after the snows have been melted -by the midsummer sun; hence they supply during the irrigating time much -more water than during the remainder of the year. During the fall and -winter the streams are small; in late spring and early summer they are -very large. A day’s flow at flood time is greater than a month’s flow -at low water time. During the first part of the irrigating season less -water is needed, but during that same time the supply is greatest. The -chief increase will come from the storage of this excess of water in -the early part of the irrigating season. The amount to be stored will -then be great, and the time of this storage will be so short that it -will be but little diminished by evaporation. The waters of the fall -and winter are so small in amount that they will not furnish a great -supply, and the time for their storage will be so great that much will -be lost by evaporation. The increase by storage will eventually be -important, and it would be wise to anticipate the time when it will be -needed by reserving sites for principal reservoirs and larger ponds. - - - TIMBER LANDS. - -Throughout the Arid Region timber of value is found growing -spontaneously on the higher plateaus and mountains. These timber -regions are bounded above and below by lines which are very irregular, -due to local conditions. Above the upper line no timber grows because -of the rigor of the climate, and below no timber grows because of -aridity. Both the upper and lower lines descend in passing from south -to north; that is, the timber districts are found at a lower altitude -in the northern portion of the Arid Region than in the southern. The -forests are chiefly of pine, spruce, and fir, but the pines are of -principal value. Below these timber regions, on the lower slopes of -mountains, on the mesas and hills, low, scattered forests are often -found, composed mainly of dwarfed piñon pines and cedars. These stunted -forests have some slight value for fuel, and even for fencing, but the -forests of principal value are found in the Timber Region as above -described. - -Primarily the growth of timber depends on climatic conditions--humidity -and temperature. Where the temperature is higher, humidity must be -greater, and where the temperature is lower, humidity may be less. -These two conditions restrict the forests to the highlands, as above -stated. Of the two factors involved in the growth of timber, that -of the degree of humidity is of the first importance; the degree of -temperature affects the problem comparatively little, and for most of -the purposes of this discussion may be neglected. For convenience, all -these upper regions where conditions of temperature and humidity are -favorable to the growth of timber may be called the _timber regions_. - -Not all these highlands are alike covered with forests. The timber -regions are only in part _areas of standing timber_. This limitation -is caused by fire. Throughout the timber regions of all the arid land -fires annually destroy larger or smaller districts of timber, now -here, now there, and this destruction is on a scale so vast that the -amount taken from the lands for industrial purposes sinks by comparison -into insignificance. The cause of this great destruction is worthy -of careful attention. The conditions under which these fires rage -are climatic. Where the rainfall is great and extreme droughts are -infrequent, forests grow without much interruption from fires; but -between that degree of humidity necessary for their protection, and -that smaller degree necessary to growth, all lands are swept bare by -fire to an extent which steadily increases from the more humid to the -more arid districts, until at last all forests are destroyed, though -the humidity is still sufficient for their growth if immunity from -fire were secured. The amount of mean annual rainfall necessary to the -growth of forests if protected from fire is probably about the same as -the amount necessary for agriculture without irrigation; at any rate, -it is somewhere from 20 to 24 inches. All timber growth below that -amount is of a character so stunted as to be of little value, and the -growth is so slow that, when once the timber has been taken from the -country, the time necessary for a new forest growth is so great that no -practical purpose is subserved. - -The evidence that the growth of timber, if protected from fires, -might be extended to the limits here given is abundant. It is a -matter of experience that planted forests thus protected will thrive -throughout the prairie region and far westward on the Great Plains. -In the mountain region it may be frequently observed that forest -trees grow low down on the mountain slopes and in the higher valleys -wherever local circumstances protect them from fires, as in the case -of rocky lands that give insufficient footing to the grass and shrubs -in which fires generally spread. These cases must not be confounded -with those patches of forest that grow on alluvial cones where rivers -leave mountain cañons and enter valleys or plains. Here the streams, -clogged by the material washed from the adjacent mountains by storms, -are frequently turned from their courses and divided into many -channels running near the surface. Thus a subterranean watering is -effected favorable to the growth of trees, as their roots penetrate to -sufficient depth. Usually this watering is too deep for agriculture, so -that forests grow on lands that cannot be cultivated without irrigation. - -Fire is the immediate cause of the lack of timber on the prairies, -the eastern portion of the Great Plains, and on some portions of the -highlands of the Arid Region; but fires obtain their destructive force -through climatic conditions, so that directly and remotely climate -determines the growth of all forests. Within the region where prairies, -groves, and forests appear, the local distribution of timber growth is -chiefly dependent upon drainage and soil, a subject which needs not -be here discussed. Only a small portion of the Rocky Mountain Region -is protected by climatic conditions from the invasion of fires, and a -sufficiency of forests for the country depends upon the control which -can be obtained over that destructive agent. A glance at the map of -Utah will exhibit the extent and distribution of the forest region -throughout that territory, and also show what portions of it are in -fact occupied by standing timber. The _area of standing timber_, as -exhibited on the map, is but a part of the Timber Region as there -shown, and includes all of the timber, whether dense or scattered. - -Necessarily the area of standing timber has been generalized. It -was not found practicable to indicate the growth of timber in any -refined way by grading it, and by rejecting from the general area -the innumerable small open spaces. If the area of standing timber -were considered by acres, and all acres not having timber valuable -for milling purposes rejected, the extent would be reduced at least -to one-fourth of that colored. Within the territory represented on -the map the Timber Region has an extent of 18,500 square miles; that -is, 23 per cent. belongs to the Timber Region. The general area of -standing timber is about 10,000 square miles, or 12.5 per cent. of -the entire area. The area of milling timber, determined in the more -refined way indicated above, is about 2,500 square miles, or 3¹⁄₈ per -cent. of the area embraced on the map. In many portions of the Arid -Region these percentages are much smaller. This is true of southern -California, Nevada, southern Arizona, and Idaho. In other regions the -percentages are larger. Utah gives about a fair average. In general it -may be stated that the timber regions are fully adequate to the growth -of all the forests which the industrial interests of the country will -require if they can be protected from desolation by fire. No limitation -to the use of the forests need be made. The amount which the citizens -of the country will require will bear but a small proportion to the -amount which the fires will destroy; and if the fires are prevented, -the renewal by annual growth will more than replace that taken by -man. The protection of the forests of the entire Arid Region of the -United States is reduced to one single problem--Can these forests be -saved from fire? The writer has witnessed two fires in Colorado, each -of which destroyed more timber than all that used by the citizens of -that State from its settlement to the present day; and at least three -in Utah, each of which has destroyed more timber than that taken by -the people of the territory since its occupation. Similar fires have -been witnessed by other members of the surveying corps. Everywhere -throughout the Rocky Mountain Region the explorer away from the beaten -paths of civilization meets with great areas of dead forests; pines -with naked arms and charred trunks attesting to the former presence of -this great destroyer. The younger forests are everywhere beset with -fallen timber, attesting to the rigor of the flames, and in seasons of -great drought the mountaineer sees the heavens filled with clouds of -smoke. - -In the main these fires are set by Indians. Driven from the lowlands -by advancing civilization, they resort to the higher regions until -they are forced back by the deep snows of winter. Want, caused by -the restricted area to which they resort for food; the desire for -luxuries to which they were strangers in their primitive condition, and -especially the desire for personal adornment, together with a supply -of more effective instruments for hunting and trapping, have in late -years, during the rapid settlement of the country since the discovery -of gold and the building of railroads, greatly stimulated the pursuit -of animals for their furs--the wealth and currency of the savage. On -their hunting excursions they systematically set fire to forests for -the purpose of driving the game. This is a fact well known to all -mountaineers. Only the white hunters of the region properly understand -why these fires are set, it being usually attributed to a wanton -desire on the part of the Indians to destroy that which is of value to -the white man. The fires can, then, be very greatly curtailed by the -removal of the Indians. - -These forest regions are made such by inexorable climatic conditions. -They are high among the summer frosts. The plateaus are scored by deep -cañons, and the mountains are broken with crags and peaks. Perhaps at -some distant day a hardy people will occupy little glens and mountain -valleys, and wrest from an unwilling soil a scanty subsistence among -the rigors of a sub-arctic climate. Herdsmen having homes below may -in the summer time drive their flocks to the higher lands to crop the -scanty herbage. Where mines are found mills will be erected and little -towns spring up, but in general habitations will be remote. The forests -will be dense here or scattered there, as the trees may with ease or -difficulty gain a foothold, but the forest regions will remain such, to -be stripped of timber here and there from time to time to supply the -wants of the people who live below; but once protected from fires, the -forests will increase in extent and value. The first step to be taken -for their protection must be by prohibiting the Indians from resorting -thereto for hunting purposes, and then slowly, as the lower country -is settled, the grasses and herbage of the highlands, in which fires -generally spread, will be kept down by summer pasturage, and the dead -and fallen timber will be removed to supply the wants of people below. -This protection, though sure to come at last, will be tardy, for it -depends upon the gradual settlement of the country; and this again -depends upon the development of the agricultural and mineral resources -and the establishment of manufactories, and to a very important extent -on the building of railroads, for the whole region is so arid that its -streams are small, and so elevated above the level of the sea that its -few large streams descend too rapidly for navigation. - - - AGRICULTURAL AND TIMBER INDUSTRIES DIFFERENTIATED. - -It is apparent that the irrigable lands are more or less remote -from the timber lands; and as the larger streams are employed for -irrigation, in the future the extended settlements will be still -farther away. The pasturage lands that in a general way intervene -between the irrigable and timber lands have a scanty supply of -dwarfed forests, as already described, and the people in occupying -these lands will not resort, to any great extent, to the mountains for -timber; hence timber and agricultural enterprises will be more or less -differentiated; lumbermen and woodmen will furnish to the people below -their supply of building and fencing material and fuel. In some cases -it will be practicable for the farmers to own their timber lands, but -in general the timber will be too remote, and from necessity such a -division of labor will ensue. - - - CULTIVATION OF TIMBER. - -In the irrigable districts much timber will be cultivated along the -canals and minor waterways. It is probable that in time a sufficient -amount will thus be raised to supply the people of the irrigable -districts with fuel wherever such fuel is needed, but often such a -want will not exist, for in the Rocky Mountain Region there is a great -abundance of lignitic coals that may be cheaply mined. All these coals -are valuable for domestic purposes, and many superior grades are found. -These coals are not uniformly distributed, but generally this source of -fuel is ample. - - - PASTURAGE LANDS. - -The irrigable lands and timber lands constitute but a small fraction -of the Arid Region. Between the lowlands on the one hand and the -highlands on the other is found a great body of valley, mesa, hill, -and low mountain lands. To what extent, and under what conditions -can they be utilized? Usually they bear a scanty growth of grasses. -These grasses are nutritious and valuable both for summer and winter -pasturage. Their value depends upon peculiar climatic conditions; -the grasses grow to a great extent in scattered bunches, and mature -seeds in larger proportion perhaps than the grasses of the more humid -regions. In general the winter aridity is so great that the grasses -when touched by the frosts are not washed down by the rains and snows -to decay on the moist soil, but stand firmly on the ground all winter -long and “cure”, forming a _quasi_ uncut hay. Thus the grass lands are -of value both in summer and winter. In a broad way, the greater or -lesser abundance of the grasses is dependent on latitude and altitude; -the higher the latitude the better are the grasses, and they improve -as the altitude increases. In very low altitudes and latitudes the -grasses are so scant as to be of no value; here the true deserts are -found. These conditions obtain in southern California, southern Nevada, -southern Arizona, and southern New Mexico, where broad reaches of land -are naked of vegetation, but in ascending to the higher lands the grass -steadily improves. Northward the deserts soon disappear, and the grass -becomes more and more luxuriant to our northern boundary. In addition -to the desert lands mentioned, other large deductions must be made from -the area of the pasturage lands. There are many districts in which the -“country rock” is composed of incoherent sands and clays; sometimes -sediments of ancient Tertiary lakes; elsewhere sediments of more -ancient Cretaceous seas. In these districts perennial or intermittent -streams have carved deep waterways, and the steep hills are ever washed -naked by fierce but infrequent storms, as the incoherent rocks are -unable to withstand the beating of the rain. These districts are known -as the _mauvaises terres_ or bad lands of the Rocky Mountain Region. -In other areas the streams have carved labyrinths of deep gorges and -the waters flow at great depths below the general surface. The lands -between the streams are beset with towering cliffs, and the landscape -is an expanse of naked rock. These are the alcove lands and cañon lands -of the Rocky Mountain Region. Still other districts have been the -theater of late volcanic activity, and broad sheets of naked lava are -found; cinder cones are frequent, and scoria and ashes are scattered -over the land. These are the lava-beds of the Rocky Mountain Region. In -yet other districts, low broken mountains are found with rugged spurs -and craggy crests. Grasses and chaparral grow among the rocks, but such -mountains are of little value for pasturage purposes. - -After making all the deductions, there yet remain vast areas of -valuable pasturage land bearing nutritious but scanty grass. The lands -along the creeks and rivers have been relegated to that class which -has been described as irrigable, hence the lands under consideration -are away from the permanent streams. No rivers sweep over them and no -creeks meander among their hills. - -Though living water is not abundant, the country is partially supplied -by scattered springs, that often feed little brooks whose waters -never join the great rivers on their way to the sea, being able to -run but a short distance from their fountains, when they spread among -the sands to be reëvaporated. These isolated springs and brooks will -in many cases furnish the water necessary for the herds that feed on -the grasses. When springs are not found wells may be sometimes dug, -and where both springs and wells fail reservoirs may be constructed. -Wherever grass grows water may be found or saved from the rains in -sufficient quantities for all the herds that can live on the pasturage. - - - PASTURAGE FARMS NEED SMALL TRACTS OF IRRIGABLE LAND. - -The men engaged in stock raising need small areas of irrigable lands -for gardens and fields where agricultural products can be raised for -their own consumption, and where a store of grain and hay may be raised -for their herds when pressed by the severe storms by which the country -is sometimes visited. In many places the lone springs and streams are -sufficient for these purposes. Another and larger source of water for -the fertilization of the gardens and fields of the pasturage farms is -found in the smaller branches and upper ramifications of the larger -irrigating streams. These brooks can be used to better advantage for -the pasturage farms as a supply of water for stock gardens and small -fields than for farms where agriculture by irrigation is the only -industry. The springs and brooks of the permanent drainage can be -employed in making farms attractive and profitable where large herds -may be raised in many great districts throughout the Rocky Mountain -Region. - -The conditions under which these pasturage lands can be employed are -worthy of consideration. - - - THE FARM UNIT FOR PASTURAGE LANDS. - -The grass is so scanty that the herdsman must have a large area for the -support of his stock. In general a quarter section of land alone is of -no value to him; the pasturage it affords is entirely inadequate to the -wants of a herd that the poorest man needs for his support. - -Four square miles may be considered as the minimum amount necessary -for a pasturage farm, and a still greater amount is necessary for -the larger part of the lands; that is, pasturage farms, to be of -any practicable value, must be of at least 2,560 acres, and in many -districts they must be much larger.[1] - -[1] For the determination of the proper unit for pasturage farms the -writer has conferred with many persons living in the Rocky Mountain -Region who have had experience. His own observations have been -extensive, and for many years while conducting surveys and making long -journeys through the Arid Region this question has been uppermost in -his mind. He fears that this estimate will disappoint many of his -western friends, who will think he has placed the minimum too low, but -after making the most thorough examination of the subject possible he -believes the amount to be sufficient for the best pasturage lands, -especially such as are adjacent to the minor streams of the general -drainage, and when these have been taken by actual settlers the size of -the pasturage farms may be increased as experience proves necessary. - - - REGULAR DIVISION LINES FOR PASTURAGE FARMS NOT PRACTICABLE. - -Many a brook which runs but a short distance will afford sufficient -water for a number of pasturage farms; but if the lands are surveyed in -regular tracts as square miles or townships, all the water sufficient -for a number of pasturage farms may fall entirely within one division. -If the lands are thus surveyed, only the divisions having water will -be taken, and the farmer obtaining title to such a division or farm -could practically occupy all the country adjacent by owning the water -necessary to its use. For this reason divisional surveys should conform -to the topography, and be so made as to give the greatest number of -water fronts. For example, a brook carrying water sufficient for -the irrigation of 200 acres of land might be made to serve for the -irrigation of 20 acres to each of ten farms, and also supply the water -for all the stock that could live on ten pasturage farms, and ten small -farmers could have homes. But if the water was owned by one man, nine -would be excluded from its benefits and nine-tenths of the land remain -in the hands of the government. - - - FARM RESIDENCES SHOULD BE GROUPED. - -These lands will maintain but a scanty population. The homes must -necessarily be widely scattered from the fact that the farm unit -must be large. That the inhabitants of these districts may have the -benefits of the local social organizations of civilization--as schools, -churches, etc., and the benefits of coöperation in the construction of -roads, bridges, and other local improvements, it is essential that the -residences should be grouped to the greatest possible extent. This may -be practically accomplished by making the pasturage farms conform to -topographic features in such manner as to give the greatest possible -number of water fronts. - - - PASTURAGE LANDS CANNOT BE FENCED. - -The great areas over which stock must roam to obtain subsistence -usually prevents the practicability of fencing the lands. It will -not pay to fence the pasturage fields, hence in many cases the lands -must be occupied by herds roaming in common; for poor men coöperative -pasturage is necessary, or communal regulations for the occupancy of -the ground and for the division of the increase of the herds. Such -communal regulations have already been devised in many parts of the -country. - - - RECAPITULATION. - -The Arid Region of the United States is more than four-tenths of the -area of the entire country excluding Alaska. - -In the Arid Region there are three classes of lands, namely, irrigable -lands, timber lands, and pasturage lands. - - - IRRIGABLE LANDS. - -Within the Arid Region agriculture is dependent upon irrigation. - -The amount of irrigable land is but a small percentage of the whole -area. - -The chief development of irrigation depends upon the use of the large -streams. - -For the use of large streams coöperative labor or capital is necessary. - -The small streams should not be made to serve lands so as to interfere -with the use of the large streams. - -Sites for reservoirs should be set apart, in order that no hinderance -may be placed upon the increase of irrigation by the storage of water. - - - TIMBER LANDS. - -The timber regions are on the elevated plateaus and mountains. - -The timber regions constitute from 20 to 25 per cent. of the Arid -Region. - -The area of standing timber is much less than the timber region, as the -forests have been partially destroyed by fire. - -The timber regions cannot be used as farming lands; they are valuable -for forests only. - -To preserve the forests they must be protected from fire. This will be -largely accomplished by removing the Indians. - -The amount of timber used for economic purposes will be more than -replaced by the natural growth. - -In general the timber is too far from the agricultural lands to be -owned and utilized directly by those who carry on farming by irrigation. - -A division of labor is necessary, and special timber industries will be -developed, and hence the timber lands must be controlled by lumbermen -and woodmen. - - - PASTURAGE LANDS. - -The grasses of the pasturage lands are scant, and the lands are of -value only in large quantities. - -The farm unit should not be less than 2,560 acres. - -Pasturage farms need small tracts of irrigable land; hence the small -streams of the general drainage system and the lone springs and streams -should be reserved for such pasturage farms. - -The division of these lands should be controlled by topographic -features in such manner as to give the greatest number of water fronts -to the pasturage farms. - -Residences of the pasturage farms should be grouped, in order to secure -the benefits of local social organizations, and coöperation in public -improvements. - -The pasturage lands will not usually be fenced, and hence herds must -roam in common. - -As the pasturage lands should have water fronts and irrigable tracts, -and as the residences should be grouped, and as the lands cannot -be economically fenced and must be kept in common, local communal -regulations or coöperation is necessary. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - - THE LAND SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID REGION. - - -The growth and prosperity of the Arid Region will depend largely upon a -land system which will comply with the requirements of the conditions -and facts briefly set forth in the former chapter. - -Any citizen of the United States may acquire title to public lands by -purchase at public sale or by ordinary “private entry”, and in virtue -of preëmption, homestead, timber culture, and desert land laws. - -Purchase at public sale may be effected when the lands are offered at -public auction to the highest bidder, either pursuant to proclamation -by the President or public notice given in accordance with instructions -from the General Land Office. If the land is thus offered and -purchasers are not found, they are then subject to “private entry” at -the rate of $1.25 or $2.50 per acre. For a number of years it has not -been the practice of the Government to dispose of the public lands by -these methods; but the public lands of the southern states are now, or -soon will be, thus offered for sale. - -Any citizen may preëmpt 160 acres of land, and by settling thereon, -erecting a dwelling, and making other improvements, and by paying $1.25 -per acre in some districts, without the boundaries of railroad grants, -and $2.50 within the boundaries of railroad grants in others, may -acquire title thereto. The preëmption right can be exercised but once. -No person can exercise the preëmption right who is already the owner of -320 acres of land. - -Any citizen may, under the homestead privilege, obtain title to 160 -acres of land valued at $1.25 per acre, or 80 acres valued at the rate -of $2.50, by payment of $5 in the first case and $10 in the last, -and by residing on the land for the term of five years and by making -certain improvements. - -The time of residence is shortened for persons who have served in the -army or navy of the United States, and any such person may homestead -160 acres of land valued at $2.50 per acre. - -Any citizen may take advantage of both the homestead and preëmption -privileges. - -Under the timber culture act, any citizen who is the head of a family -may acquire title to 160 acres of land in the prairie region by -cultivating timber thereon in certain specific quantities; the title -can be acquired at the expiration of eight years from the date of entry. - -Any citizen may acquire title to one section of desert land (irrigable -lands as described in this paper) by the payment at the time of entry -of 25 cents per acre, and by redeeming the same by irrigation within -a period of three years and by the payment of $1 per acre at the -expiration of that time, and a patent will then issue. - -Provision is also made for the disposal of public lands as town sites. - -From time to time land warrants have been issued by the Government as -bounties to soldiers and sailors, and for other purposes. These land -warrants have found their way into the market, and the owners thereof -are entitled to enter Government lands in the quantities specified in -the warrants. - -Agricultural scrip has been issued for the purpose of establishing -and endowing agricultural schools. A part of this scrip has been used -by the schools in locating lands for investment. Much of the scrip -has found its way into the market and is used by private individuals. -Warrants and scrip can be used when lands have been offered for sale, -and preëmptors can use them in lieu of money. - -Grants of lands have been made to railroad and other companies, and as -these railroads have been completed in whole or in part, the companies -have obtained titles to the whole or proportional parts of the lands -thus granted. - -Where the railroads are unfinished the titles are inchoate to an extent -proportional to the incomplete parts. - -With small exceptions, the lands of the Arid Region have not been -offered for sale at auction or by private entry. - -The methods, then, by which the lands under consideration can be -obtained from the Government are by taking advantage of the preëmption, -homestead, timber culture, or desert land privileges. - - - IRRIGABLE LANDS. - -By these methods adequate provision is made for actual settlers on all -irrigable lands that are dependent on the waters of minor streams; but -these methods are insufficient for the settlement of the irrigable -lands that depend on the larger streams, and also for the pasturage -lands and timber lands, and in this are included nearly all the lands -of the Arid Region. If the irrigable lands are to be sold, it should -be in quantities to suit purchasers, and but one condition should be -imposed, namely, that the lands should be actually irrigated before -the title is transferred to the purchaser. This method would provide -for the redemption of these lands by irrigation through the employment -of capital. If these lands are to be reserved for actual settlers, -in small quantities, to provide homes for poor men, on the principle -involved in the homestead laws, a general law should be enacted under -which a number of persons would be able to organize and settle on -irrigable districts, and establish their own rules and regulations for -the use of the water and subdivision of the lands, but in obedience to -the general provisions of the law. - - - TIMBER LANDS. - -The timber lands cannot be acquired by any of the methods provided in -the preëmption, homestead, timber culture, and desert land laws, from -the fact that they are not agricultural lands. Climatic conditions -make these methods inoperative. Under these laws “dummy entries” are -sometimes made. A man wishing to obtain the timber from a tract of land -will make homestead or preëmption entries by himself or through his -employés without intending to complete the titles, being able thus to -hold these lands for a time sufficient to strip them of their timber. - -This is thought to be excusable by the people of the country, as -timber is necessary for their industries, and the timber lands cannot -honestly be acquired by those who wish to engage in timber enterprises. -Provision should be made by which the timber can be purchased by -persons or companies desiring to engage in the lumber or wood -business, and in such quantities as may be necessary to encourage the -construction of mills, the erection of flumes, the making of roads, and -other improvements necessary to the utilization of the timber for the -industries of the country. - - - PASTURAGE LANDS. - -If divisional surveys were extended over the pasturage lands, favorable -sites at springs and along small streams would be rapidly taken under -the homestead and preëmption privileges for the nuclei of pasturage -farms. - -Unentered lands contiguous to such pasturage farms could be controlled -to a greater or less extent by those holding the water, and in this -manner the pasturage of the country would be rendered practicable. -But the great body of land would remain in the possession of the -Government; the farmers owning the favorable spots could not obtain -possession of the adjacent lands by homestead or preëmption methods, -and if such adjacent lands were offered for sale, they could not afford -to pay the Government price. - -Certain important facts relating to the pasturage farms may be -advantageously restated. - -The farm unit should not be less than 2,560 acres; the pasturage farms -need small bodies of irrigable land; the division of these lands should -be controlled by topographic features to give water fronts; residences -of the pasturage lands should be grouped; the pasturage farms cannot be -fenced--they must be occupied in common. - -The homestead and preëmption methods are inadequate to meet these -conditions. A general law should be enacted to provide for the -organization of pasturage districts, in which the residents should have -the right to make their own regulations for the division of the lands, -the use of the water for irrigation and for watering the stock, and for -the pasturage of the lands in common or in severalty. But each division -or pasturage farm of the district should be owned by an individual; -that is, these lands could be settled and improved by the “colony” plan -better than by any other. It should not be understood that the colony -system applies only to such persons as migrate from the east in a body; -any number of persons already in this region could thus organize. In -fact very large bodies of these lands would be taken by people who are -already in the country and who have herds with which they roam about -seeking water and grass, and making no permanent residences and no -valuable improvements. Such a plan would give immediate relief to all -these people. - -This district or colony system is not untried in this country. It is -essentially the basis of all the mining district organizations of the -west. Under it the local rules and regulations for the division of -mining lands, the use of water, timber, etc., are managed better than -they could possibly be under specific statutes of the United States. -The association of a number of people prevents single individuals from -having undue control of natural privileges, and secures an equitable -division of mineral lands; and all this is secured in obedience to -statutes of the United States providing general regulations. - -Customs are forming and regulations are being made by common consent -among the people in some districts already; but these provide no means -for the acquirement of titles to land, no incentive is given to the -improvement of the country, and no legal security to pasturage rights. - -If, then, the irrigable lands can be taken in quantities to suit -purchasers, and the colony system provided for poor men who wish to -coöperate in this industry; if the timber lands are opened to timber -enterprises, and the pasturage lands offered to settlement under a -colony plan like that indicated above, a land system would be provided -for the Arid Region adapted to the wants of all persons desiring to -become actual settlers therein. Thousands of men who now own herds -and live a semi-nomadic life; thousands of persons who now roam from -mountain range to mountain range prospecting for gold, silver, and -other minerals; thousands of men who repair to that country and return -disappointed from the fact that they are practically debarred from the -public lands; and thousands of persons in the eastern states without -employment, or discontented with the rewards of labor, would speedily -find homes in the great Rocky Mountain Region. - -In making these recommendations, the wisdom and beneficence of the -homestead system have been recognized and the principles involved have -been considered paramount. - -To give more definite form to some of the recommendations for -legislation made above, two bills have been drawn, one relating to the -organization of irrigation districts, the other to pasturage districts. -These bills are presented here. It is not supposed that these forms are -the best that could be adopted; perhaps they could be greatly improved; -but they have been carefully considered, and it is believed they embody -the recommendations made above. - - -A BILL to authorize the organization of irrigation districts by -homestead settlements upon the public lands requiring irrigation for -agricultural purposes. - -_Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United -States of America in Congress assembled_, That it shall be lawful for -any nine or more persons who may be entitled to acquire a homestead -from the public lands, as provided for in sections twenty-two hundred -and eighty-nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen, inclusive, of -the Revised Statutes of the United States, to settle an irrigation -district and to acquire titles to irrigable lands under the limitations -and conditions hereinafter provided. - -SEC. 2. That it shall be lawful for the persons mentioned in section -one of this act to organize an irrigation district in accordance with -a form and general regulations to be prescribed by the Commissioner of -the General Land Office, which shall provide for a recorder; and said -persons may make such by-laws, not in conflict with said regulations, -as they may deem wise for the use of waters in such district for -irrigation or other purposes, and for the division of the lands into -such parcels as they may deem most convenient for irrigating purposes; -but the same must accord with the provisions of this act. - -SEC. 3. That all lands in those portions of the United States where -irrigation is necessary to agriculture, which can be redeemed by -irrigation and for which there is accessible water for such purpose, -not otherwise utilized or lawfully claimed, sufficient for the -irrigation of three hundred and twenty acres of land, shall, for the -purposes set forth in this act, be classed as irrigable lands. - -SEC. 4. That it shall be lawful for the requisite number of persons, -as designated in section one of this act, to select from the public -lands designated as irrigable lands in section three of this act, -for the purpose of settling thereon, an amount of land not exceeding -eighty acres to each person; but the lands thus selected by the persons -desiring to organize an irrigation district shall be in one continuous -tract, and the same shall be subdivided as the regulations and by-laws -of the irrigation district shall prescribe: _Provided_, That no one -person shall be entitled to more than eighty acres. - -SEC. 5. That whenever such irrigation district shall be organized the -recorder of such district shall notify the register and receiver of -the land district in which such irrigation district is situate, and -also the Surveyor-General of the United States, that such irrigation -district has been organized; and each member of the organization of -said district shall file a declaration with the register and receiver -of said land district that he has settled upon a tract of land within -such irrigation district, not exceeding the prescribed amount, with the -intention of residing thereon and obtaining a title thereto under the -provisions of this act. - -SEC. 6. That if within three years after the organization of the -irrigation district the claimants therein, in their organized capacity, -shall apply for a survey of said district to the Surveyor-General of -the United States, he shall cause a proper survey to be made, together -with a plat of the same; and on this plat each tract or parcel of -land into which the district is divided, such tract or parcel being -the entire claim of one person, shall be numbered, and the measure of -every angle, the length of every line in the boundaries thereof, and -the number of acres in each tract or parcel shall be inscribed thereon, -and the name of the district shall appear on the plat in full; and -this plat and the field-notes of such survey shall be submitted to the -Surveyor-General of the United States; and it shall be the duty of that -officer to examine the plat and notes therewith and prove the accuracy -of the survey in such manner as the Commissioner of the General Land -Office may prescribe; and if it shall appear after such examination -and proving that correct surveys have been made, and that the several -tracts claimed are within the provisions of this act, he shall certify -the same to the register of the land district, and shall thereupon -furnish to the said register of the land district, and to the recorder -of the irrigation district, and to the recorder or clerk of the county -in which the irrigation district is situate, and to the Commissioner -of the General Land Office, a copy thereof to each, and the original -shall be retained in the office of the Surveyor-General of the United -States for preservation. - -SEC. 7. That each person applying for the benefits of this act shall, -in addition to compliance therewith, conform to the methods provided -for the acquirement of a homestead in sections twenty-two hundred and -eighty-nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen, inclusive, of the -Revised Statutes of the United States, so far as they are applicable -and consistent with this act, and shall also furnish such evidence as -the Commissioner of the General Land Office may require that such land -has actually been redeemed by irrigation, and may thereupon obtain a -patent: _Provided_, That no person shall obtain a patent under this act -to any coal lands, town sites, or tracts of public lands on which towns -may have been built, or to any mine of gold, silver, cinnabar, copper, -or other mineral for the sale or disposal of which provision has been -made by law. - -SEC. 8. That the lands patented under the provisions of this act shall -be described as irrigation farms, and designated by the number of the -tract or parcel and the name of the irrigation district. - -SEC. 9. That the right to the water necessary to the redemption -of an irrigation farm shall inhere in the land from the time of -the organization of the irrigation district, and in all subsequent -conveyances the right to the water shall pass with the title to the -land. But if after the lapse of five years from the date of the -organization of the district the owner of any irrigation farm shall -have failed to irrigate the whole or any part of the same, the right to -the use of the necessary water to irrigate the unreclaimed lands shall -thereupon lapse, and any subsequent right to water necessary for the -cultivation of said unreclaimed land shall be acquired only by priority -of utilization. - -SEC. 10. That it shall be lawful for any person entitled to acquire -a homestead from the public lands as designated in section one of -this act to settle on an irrigation farm contiguous to any irrigation -district after such district has been organized by making the -notifications and declaration provided for in section five of this act, -and by notifying the recorder of such irrigation district, and also by -complying with the rules and regulations of such district; and such -person may thereupon become a member of the district and entitled to -the same privileges as the other members thereof; and it shall be the -duty of the recorder of the irrigation district to notify the register -and receiver of the land district, and also the Surveyor-General of -the United States, that such claim has been made; and such person may -obtain a patent to the same under the conditions and by conforming -to the methods prescribed in this act: _Provided_, That the water -necessary for the irrigation of such farm can be taken without injury -to the rights of any person who shall have entered an irrigation farm -in such district: _And provided further_, That the right to the water -necessary to the redemption of such irrigation farm shall inhere in the -land from the time when said person becomes a member of said district, -and in all subsequent conveyances the right to the water shall pass -with the title to the land; but if, after the lapse of five years from -the date of said notifications and declaration, the owner of said -irrigation farm shall have failed to irrigate the whole or any part of -the same, the right to the use of the necessary water to irrigate the -unreclaimed lands shall thereupon lapse, and any subsequent right to -the water necessary for the cultivation of the said unreclaimed land -shall be acquired only by priority of utilization. - - -A BILL to authorize the organization of pasturage districts by -homestead settlements on the public lands which are of value for -pasturage purposes only. - -_Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United -States of America in Congress assembled_, That it shall be lawful for -any nine or more persons who may be entitled to acquire a homestead -from the public lands, as provided for in section twenty-two hundred -and eighty-nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen, inclusive, -of the Revised Statutes of the United States, to settle a pasturage -district and to acquire titles to pasturage lands under the limitations -and conditions hereinafter provided. - -SEC. 2. That it shall be lawful for the persons mentioned in section -one of this act to organize a pasturage district in accordance with a -form and general regulations to be prescribed by the Commissioner of -the General Land Office, which shall provide for a recorder; and said -persons may make such by-laws, not in conflict with said regulations, -as they may deem wise for the use of waters in such district for -irrigation or other purposes, and for the pasturage of the lands -severally or conjointly; but the same must accord with the provisions -of this act. - -SEC. 3. That all lands in those portions of the United States where -irrigation is necessary to agriculture shall be, for the purposes set -forth in this act, classed as pasturage lands, excepting all tracts -of land of not less than three hundred and twenty acres which can be -redeemed by irrigation, and where there is sufficient accessible water -for such purpose not otherwise utilized or lawfully claimed, and all -lands bearing timber of commercial value. - -SEC. 4. That it shall be lawful for the requisite number of persons, -as designated in section one of this act, to select from the public -lands designated as pasturage lands in section three of this act, for -the purpose of settling thereon, an amount of land not exceeding two -thousand five hundred and sixty acres to each person; but the lands -thus selected by the persons desiring to organize a pasturage district -shall be in one continuous tract, and the same shall be subdivided -as the regulations and by-laws of the pasturage district shall -prescribe: _Provided_, That no one person shall be entitled to more -than two thousand five hundred and sixty acres, and this may be in one -continuous body, or it may be in two parcels, one for irrigation, the -other for pasturage purposes; but the parcel for irrigation shall not -exceed twenty acres: _And provided further_, That no tract or tracts -of land selected for any one person shall be entitled to a greater -amount of water for irrigating purposes than that sufficient for the -reclamation and cultivation of twenty acres of land; nor shall the -tract be selected in such a manner along a stream as to monopolize a -greater amount. - -SEC. 6. That whenever such pasturage district shall be organized, the -recorder of such district shall notify the register and receiver of the -land district in which such pasturage district is situate, and also the -Surveyor-General of the United States, that such pasturage district has -been organized; and each member of the organization of said district -shall file a declaration with the register and receiver of said land -district that he has settled upon a tract of land within such pasturage -district, not exceeding the prescribed amount, with the intention of -residing thereon and obtaining a title thereto under the provisions of -this act. - -SEC. 6. That if within three years after the organization of the -pasturage district the claimants therein, in their organized capacity, -shall apply for a survey of said district to the Surveyor-General of -the United States, he shall cause a proper survey to be made, together -with a plat of the same; and on this plat each tract or parcel of land -into which the district is divided shall be numbered, and the measure -of every angle, the length of every line in the boundaries thereof, -and the number of acres in each tract or parcel, shall be inscribed -thereon, and the name of the district shall appear on the plat in full; -and this plat and the field-notes of such survey shall be submitted to -the Surveyor-General of the United States; and it shall be the duty -of that officer to examine the plat and notes therewith and prove -the accuracy of the survey in such manner as the Commissioner of the -General Land Office may prescribe; and if it shall appear after such -examination and proving that correct surveys have been made, and that -the several tracts claimed are within the provisions of this act, he -shall certify the same to the register of the land district, and shall -furnish to the said register of the land district, and to the recorder -of the pasturage district, and to the recorder or clerk of the county -in which the pasturage district is situate, and to the Commissioner of -the General Land Office, a copy thereof to each; and the original shall -be retained in the office of the Surveyor-General of the United States -for preservation. - -SEC. 7. That each person applying for the benefits of this act shall, -in addition to compliance therewith, conform to the methods provided -for the acquirement of a homestead in sections twenty-two hundred and -eighty-nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen, inclusive, of the -Revised Statutes of the United States, so far as they are applicable -and consistent with this act, and may thereupon obtain a patent: -_Provided_, That no person shall obtain a patent under this act to any -coal lands, town sites, or tracts of public lands on which towns may -have been built, or to any mine of gold, silver, cinnabar, copper, or -other mineral for the sale or disposal of which provision has been made -by law. - -SEC. 8. That the lands patented under the provisions of this act shall -be described as pasturage farms, and designated by the number of the -tract or parcel and the name of the pasturage district. - -SEC. 9. That the right to the water necessary to the redemption of an -irrigation tract of a pasturage farm shall inhere in the land from -the time of the organization of the pasturage district, and in all -subsequent conveyances the right to the water shall pass with the title -to the tract; but if after a lapse of five years from the date of the -organization of the pasturage district the owner of any pasturage farm -shall have failed to irrigate the whole or any part of the irrigable -tract the right to the use of the necessary water to irrigate the -unreclaimed land shall thereupon lapse, and any subsequent right to -water necessary for the cultivation of such unreclaimed land shall be -acquired only by priority of utilization. - -SEC. 10. That it shall be lawful for any person entitled to acquire a -homestead from the public lands designated in section one of this act -to settle on a pasturage farm contiguous to any pasturage district -after such district has been organized, by making the notifications and -declaration provided for in section five of this act, and by notifying -the recorder of such pasturage district, and also by complying with the -rules and regulations of such district; and such person may thereupon -become a member of the district and entitled to the same privileges as -the other members thereof; and it shall be the duty of the recorder -of the pasturage district to notify the register and receiver of the -land district, and also the Surveyor-General of the United States, that -such claim has been made; and such person may obtain a patent to the -same under the conditions and by conforming to the methods prescribed -in this act: _Provided_, That the water necessary for such farm can be -taken without injury to the rights of any person who shall have entered -a pasturage farm in such district: _And provided further_, That the -right to the water necessary to the redemption of the irrigable tract -of such pasturage farm shall inhere in the land from the time when -said person becomes a member of said district, and in all subsequent -conveyances the right to the water shall pass with the title to the -land; but if, after the lapse of five years from the date of such -notifications and declaration, the owner of said irrigable tract shall -have failed to irrigate the whole or any part of the same, the right to -the use of the necessary water to irrigate the unreclaimed land shall -thereupon lapse, and any subsequent right to the water necessary to -the cultivation of the said unreclaimed land shall be acquired only by -priority of utilization. - - * * * * * - -The provisions in the submitted bills by which the settlers themselves -may parcel their lands may need further comment and elucidation. If -the whole of the Arid Region was yet unsettled, it might be wise for -the Government to undertake the parceling of the lands and employ -skilled engineers to do the work, whose duties could then be performed -in advance of settlement. It is manifest that this work cannot be -properly performed under the contract system; it would be necessary to -employ persons of skill and judgment under a salary system. The mining -industries which have sprung up in the country since the discovery of -gold on the Pacific coast, in 1849, have stimulated immigration, so -that settlements are scattered throughout the Arid Region; mining towns -have sprung up on the flanks of almost every great range of mountains, -and adjacent valleys have been occupied by persons desiring to engage -in agriculture. Many of the lands surveyed along the minor streams have -been entered, and the titles to these lands are in the hands of actual -settlers. Many pasturage farms, or ranches, as they are called locally, -have been established throughout the country. These remarks are true -of every state and territory in the Arid Region. In the main these -ranches or pasturage farms are on Government land, and the settlers are -squatters, and some are not expecting to make permanent homes. Many -other persons have engaged in pasturage enterprises without having -made fixed residences, but move about from place to place with their -herds. It is now too late for the Government to parcel the pasturage -lands in advance of the wants of settlers in the most available way, -so as to closely group residences and give water privileges to the -several farms. Many of the settlers are actually on the ground, and are -clamoring for some means by which they can obtain titles to pasturage -farms of an extent adequate to their wants, and the tens of thousands -of individual interests would make the problem a difficult one for -the officers of the Government to solve. A system less arbitrary -than that of the rectangular surveys now in vogue, and requiring -unbiased judgment, overlooking the interests of single individuals -and considering only the interests of the greatest number, would meet -with local opposition. The surveyors themselves would be placed under -many temptations, and would be accused--sometimes rightfully perhaps, -sometimes unjustly--of favoritism and corruption, and the service would -be subject to the false charges of disappointed men on the one hand, -and to truthful charges against corrupt men on the other. In many ways -it would be surrounded with difficulties and fall into disrepute. - -Under these circumstances it is believed that it is best to permit the -people to divide their lands for themselves--not in a way by which each -man may take what he pleases for himself, but by providing methods by -which these settlers may organize and mutually protect each other from -the rapacity of individuals. The lands, as lands, are of but slight -value, as they cannot be used for ordinary agricultural purposes, _i. -e._, the cultivation of crops; but their value consists in the scant -grasses which they spontaneously produce, and these values can be made -available only by the use of the waters necessary for the subsistence -of stock, and that necessary for the small amount of irrigable land -which should be attached to the several pasturage farms. Thus, -practically, all values inhere in the water, and an equitable division -of the waters can be made only by a wise system of parceling the lands; -and the people in organized bodies can well be trussed with this right, -while individuals could not thus be trusted. These considerations have -led to the plan suggested in the bill submitted for the organization of -pasturage districts. - -In like manner, in the bill designed for the purpose of suggesting a -plan for the organization of irrigation districts, the same principle -is involved, _viz_, that of permitting the settlers themselves to -subdivide the lands into such tracts as they may desire. - -The lands along the streams are not valuable for agricultural purposes -in continuous bodies or squares, but only in irrigable tracts governed -by the levels of the meandering canals which carry the water for -irrigation, and it would be greatly to the advantage of every such -district if the lands could be divided into parcels, governed solely by -the conditions under which the water could be distributed over them; -and such parceling cannot be properly done prior to the occupancy -of the lands, but can only be made pari passu with the adoption of a -system of canals; and the people settling on these lands should be -allowed the privilege of dividing the lands into such tracts as may be -most available for such purposes, and they should not be hampered with -the present arbitrary system of dividing the lands into rectangular -tracts. - -Those who are acquainted with the history of the land system of the -eastern states, and know the difficulty of properly identifying or -determining the boundaries of many of the parcels or tracts of land -into which the country is divided, and who appreciate the cumbrous -method of describing such lands by metes and bounds in conveyances, may -at first thought object to the plan of parceling lands into irregular -tracts. They may fear that if the system of parceling the lands into -townships and sections, and describing the same in conveyances by -reference to certain great initial points in the surveys of the lands, -is abandoned, it will lead to the uncertainties and difficulties that -belonged to the old system. But the evils of that system did not belong -to the shape into which the lands were divided. The lands were often -not definitely and accurately parceled; actual boundary lines were -not fixed on the ground and accurate plats were not made, and the -description of the boundary lines was usually vague and uncertain. -It matters not what the shape of tracts or parcels may be; if these -parcels are accurately defined by surveys on the ground and plotted for -record, none of these uncertainties will arise, and if these tracts or -parcels are lettered or numbered on the plats, they may be very easily -described in conveyances without entering into a long and tedious -description of metes and bounds. - -In most of our western towns and cities lots are accurately surveyed -and plotted and described by number of lot, number of block, etc., -etc., and such a simple method should be used in conveying the -pasturage lands. While the system of parceling and conveying by -section, township, range, etc., was a very great improvement on the -system which previously existed, the much more simple method used in -most of our cities and towns would be a still further improvement. - -The title to no tract of land should be conveyed from the Government -to the individual until the proper survey of the same is made and the -plat prepared for record. With this precaution, which the Government -already invariably takes in disposing of its lands, no fear of -uncertainty of identification need be entertained. - - - WATER RIGHTS. - -In each of the suggested bills there is a clause providing that, with -certain restrictions, the right to the water necessary to irrigate -any tract of land shall inhere in the land itself from the date of -the organization of the district. The object of this is to give -settlers on pasturage or irrigation farms the assurance that their -lands shall not be made worthless by taking away the water to other -lands by persons settling subsequently in adjacent portions of the -country. The men of small means who under the theory of the bill are to -receive its benefits will need a few years in which to construct the -necessary waterways and bring their lands under cultivation. On the -other hand, they should not be permitted to acquire rights to water -without using the same. The construction of the waterways necessary to -actual irrigation by the land owners may be considered as a sufficient -guarantee that the waters will subsequently be used. - -The general subject of water rights is one of great importance. In many -places in the Arid Region irrigation companies are organized who obtain -vested rights in the waters they control, and consequently the rights -to such waters do not inhere in any particular tracts of land. - -When the area to which it is possible to take the water of any given -stream is much greater than the stream is competent to serve, if the -land titles and water rights are severed, the owner of any tract of -land is at the mercy of the owner of the water right. In general, the -lands greatly exceed the capacities of the streams. Thus the lands -have no value without water. If the water rights fall into the hands -of irrigating companies and the lands into the hands of individual -farmers, the farmers then will be dependent upon the stock companies, -and eventually the monopoly of water rights will be an intolerable -burden to the people. - -The magnitude of the interests involved must not be overlooked. All the -present and future agriculture of more than four-tenths of the area -of the United States is dependent upon irrigation, and practically -all values for agricultural industries inhere, not in the lands but -in the water. Monopoly of land need not be feared. The question for -legislators to solve is to devise some practical means by which water -rights may be distributed among individual farmers and water monopolies -prevented. - -The pioneers in the “new countries” in the United States have -invariably been characterized by enterprise and industry and an -intense desire for the speedy development of their new homes. These -characteristics are no whit less prominent in the Rocky Mountain Region -than in the earlier “new countries”; but they are even more apparent. -The hardy pioneers engage in a multiplicity of industrial enterprises -surprising to the people of long established habits and institutions. -Under the impetus of this spirit irrigation companies are organized and -capital invested in irrigating canals, and but little heed is given -to philosophic considerations of political economy or to the ultimate -condition of affairs in which their present enterprises will result. -The pioneer is fully engaged in the present with its hopes of immediate -remuneration for labor. The present development of the country fully -occupies him. For this reason every effort put forth to increase the -area of the agricultural land by irrigation is welcomed. Every man who -turns his attention to this department of industry is considered a -public benefactor. But if in the eagerness for present development a -land and water system shall grow up in which the practical control of -agriculture shall fall into the hands of water companies, evils will -result therefrom that generations may not be able to correct, and the -very men who are now lauded as benefactors to the country will, in the -ungovernable reaction which is sure to come, be denounced as oppressors -of the people. - -_The right to use water should inhere in the land to be irrigated, and -water rights should go with land titles._ - -Those unacquainted with the industrial institutions of the far west, -involving the use of lands and waters, may without careful thought -suppose that the long recognized principles of the common law are -sufficient to prevent the severance of land and water rights; but -other practices are obtaining which have, or eventually will have, -all the force of common law, because the necessities of the country -require the change, and these practices are obtaining the color of -right from state and territorial legislation, and to some extent by -national legislation. In all that country the natural channels of the -streams cannot be made to govern water rights without great injury -to its agricultural and mining industries. For the great purposes of -irrigation and hydraulic mining the water has no value in its natural -channel. In general the water cannot be used for irrigation on the -lands immediately contiguous to the streams--_i. e._, the flood plains -or bottom valleys--for reasons more fully explained in a subsequent -chapter. The waters must be taken to a greater or less extent on the -bench lands to be used in irrigation. All the waters of all the arid -lands will eventually be taken from their natural channels, and they -can be utilized only to the extent to which they are thus removed, and -water rights must of necessity be severed from the natural channels. -There is another important factor to be considered. The water when used -in irrigation is absorbed by the soil and reëvaporated to the heavens. -It cannot be taken from its natural channel, used, and returned. Again, -the water cannot in general be properly utilized in irrigation by -requiring it to be taken from its natural channel within the limits -ordinarily included in a single ownership. In order to conduct the -water on the higher bench lands where it is to be used in irrigation, -it is necessary to go up the stream until a level is reached from which -the waters will flow to the lands to be redeemed. The exceptions to -this are so small that the statement scarcely needs qualification. -Thus, to use the water it must be diverted from its natural course -often miles or scores of miles from where it is to be used. - -The ancient principles of common law applying to the use of natural -streams, so wise and equitable in a humid region, would, if applied to -the Arid Region, practically prohibit the growth of its most important -industries. Thus it is that a custom is springing up in the Arid -Region which may or may not have color of authority in statutory or -common law; on this I do not wish to express an opinion; but certain -it is that water rights are practically being severed from the natural -channels of the streams; and this must be done. In the change, it is -to be feared that water rights will in many cases be separated from -all land rights as the system is now forming. If this fear is not -groundless, to the extent that such a separation is secured, water -will become a property independent of the land, and this property will -be gradually absorbed by a few. Monopolies of water will be secured, -and the whole agriculture of the country will be tributary thereto--a -condition of affairs which an American citizen having in view the -interests of the largest number of people cannot contemplate with favor. - -Practically, in that country the right to water is acquired by priority -of utilization, and this is as it should be from the necessities of -the country. But two important qualifications are needed. The _user -right_ should attach to the _land_ where used, not to the individual or -company constructing the canals by which it is used. The right to the -water should inhere in the land where it is used; the priority of usage -should secure the right. But this needs some slight modification. A -farmer settling on a small tract, to be redeemed by irrigation, should -be given a reasonable length of time in which to secure his water right -by utilization, that he may secure it by his own labor, either directly -by constructing the waterways himself, or indirectly by coöperating -with his neighbors in constructing systems of waterways. Without -this provision there is little inducement for poor men to commence -farming operations, and men of ready capital only will engage in such -enterprises. - -The tentative bills submitted have been drawn on the theory thus -briefly enunciated. - -If there be any doubt of the ultimate legality of the practices of the -people in the arid country relating to water and land rights, all such -doubts should be speedily quieted through the enactment of appropriate -laws by the national legislature. Perhaps an amplification by the -courts of what has been designated as the _natural right_ to the use of -water may be made to cover the practices now obtaining; but it hardly -seems wise to imperil interests so great by intrusting them to the -possibility of some future court made law. - - - THE LANDS SHOULD BE CLASSIFIED. - -Such a system of disposing of the public lands in the Arid Region will -necessitate an authoritative classification of the same. The largest -amount of land that it is possible to redeem by irrigation, excepting -those tracts watered by lone springs, brooks, and the small branches, -should be classed as irrigable lands, to give the greatest possible -development to this industry. The limit of the timber lands should -be clearly defined, to prevent the fraudulent acquirement of these -lands as pasturage lands. The irrigable and timber lands are of small -extent, and their boundaries can easily be fixed. All of the lands -falling without these boundaries would be relegated to the greater -class designated as pasturage lands. It is true that all such lands -will not be of value for pasturage purposes, but in general it would be -difficult to draw a line between absolutely desert lands and pasturage -lands, and no practical purposes would be subserved thereby. Fix the -boundaries of the timber lands that they may be acquired by proper -methods; fix the boundaries of the irrigable lands that they may also -be acquired by proper methods, and then permit the remaining lands to -be acquired by settlers as pasturage lands, to the extent that they may -be made available, and there will be no fear of settlers encroaching on -the desert or valueless lands. - -Heretofore we have been considering only three great classes of -lands--namely, irrigable, timber, and pasturage lands, although -practically and under the laws there are two other classes of lands -to be recognized--namely, mineral lands, _i. e._, lands bearing lodes -or placers of gold, silver, cinnabar, etc., and coal lands. Under the -law these lands are made special. Mineral lands are withheld from -general sale, and titles to the mines are acquired by the investment -of labor and capital to an amount specified in the law. Coal lands -are sold for $20 per acre. The mineral lands proper, though widely -scattered, are of small extent. Where the mines are lodes, the lands -lie along the mountains, and are to a greater or less extent valueless -for all other purposes. Where the mines are placers, they may also be -agricultural lands, but their extent is very limited. To withhold these -lands from purchase and settlement as irrigable, timber, and pasturage -lands will in no material way affect the interests of the industries -connected with the last mentioned lands. The General Government -cannot reasonably engage in the research necessary to determine the -mineral lands, but this is practically done by the miners themselves. -Thousands of hardy, skilful men are vigorously engaged in this work, -and as mines are discovered mining districts are organized, and on the -proper representation of these interested parties the mineral lands -are withheld from general sale by the Land Department. Thus, proper -provision is already made for this branch of the work of classification. - -In many parts of the Arid Region there are extensive deposits of -coal. These coal fields are inexhaustible by any population which the -country can support for any length of time that human prevision can -contemplate. To withhold from general settlement the entire area of the -workable coal fields would be absurd. Only a small fraction will be -needed for the next century. Only those lands should be classed as coal -lands that contain beds of coal easily accessible, and where there is -a possibility of their being used as such within the next generation -or two. To designate or set apart these lands will require the highest -geological skill; a thorough geological survey is necessary. - -In providing for a general classification of the lands of the Arid -Region, it will, then, be necessary to recognize the following classes, -namely: mineral lands, coal lands, irrigable lands, timber lands, -and pasturage lands. The mineral lands are practically classified by -the miners themselves, and for this no further legal provision is -necessary. The coal lands must be determined by geological survey. -The work of determining the areas which should be relegated to the -other classes--namely, irrigable, timber, and pasturage lands--will be -comparatively inexpensive. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - - THE RAINFALL OF THE WESTERN PORTION OF THE UNITED STATES. - - -The Smithsonian Institution conducted for a number of years an -extensive system of measurements of rainfall in the United States, -and at the same time diligently collected pluvial records from every -possible source. The accumulated data thus collected were placed in the -hands of Mr. Charles A. Schott for reduction and discussion, and he -prepared the “Smithsonian Tables of Precipitation in Rain and Snow”, -which appeared in 1868. Since that time much additional material has -been acquired by the continuation of the work to the present time, -and also by a great increase in the number of observation stations, -and so valuable is this new material that it has been determined to -recompile the tables and issue a second edition. By the time the -present report was called for, the preliminary computations for the -tables had developed an important body of facts bearing on the climate -of the Arid Region, and through the courtesy of Prof. Joseph Henry, -Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and of Mr. Schott, they were -placed at my disposal. Mr. Schott also made such a change in the order -of computation as to give precedence to the states and territories -which form the subject of this investigation, and by this timely favor -made it possible to base the following discussion on the very latest -determinations of rainfall. - -The results thus made available exhibit the mean precipitation at -each station of observation west of the Mississippi River for each -month, for each season, and for the year. A number of other data -are also tabulated, including the latitude, longitude, and altitude -of each station, and the extent of each series of observations in -years and months. In selecting material for the present purpose the -shorter records were ignored. The variations from year to year are -so great that an isolated record of a single year is of no value -as an indication of the average rainfall. The mean of two or three -years is almost equally liable to mislead, and only a long series of -observations can afford accurate results. In the following tables no -stations are included (with one exception) which show records of less -than five years’ extent. - -Table I shows the precipitation of the Sub-humid Region; Table II, of -the Arid Region; Table III, of the San Francisco Region; and Table IV, -of the Region of the Lower Columbia. The limits of each region have -been given in a former chapter, and need not be repeated. In each table -the first column contains the names of the stations of observation; -the second, their latitudes; the third, their longitudes (west from -Greenwich); and the fourth, their altitudes in feet above the level -of the sea. The next four columns show for each season of the year -the mean observed rainfall in inches, and their sum appears in the -following column as the mean yearly rainfall. In the last column the -extent of each series of observations is given in years and months. In -Table I the stations are arranged by latitudes, in Tables II, III, and -IV, alphabetically. - - - TABLE I.--_Precipitation of Sub-humid Region._ - - +----------------------+----------+-----------+--------+ - | Station. | Latitude.| Longitude.| Height.| - +----------------------+----------+-----------+--------+ - | | ° ´ | ° ´ | Feet. | - |Pembina, Dak | 48 57 | 97 03 | 768 | - |Fort Totten, Dak | 47 56 | 99 16 | 1,480 | - |Fort Abercrombie, Dak | 46 27 | 96 21 | -- | - |Fort Wadsworth, Dak | 45 43 | 97 10 | 1,650 | - |Omaha Agency, Nebr | 42 07 | 96 22 | -- | - |Fort Kearney, Nebr | 40 38 | 98 57 | 2,360 | - |Fort Riley, Kans | 39 03 | 96 35 | 1,300 | - |Fort Hays, Kans | 38 59 | 99 20 | 2,107 | - |Fort Larned, Kans | 38 10 | 98 57 | 1,932 | - |Fort Belknap, Tex | 33 08 | 98 46 | 1,600 | - |Fort Griffin, Tex | 32 54 | 99 14 | -- | - |Fort Chadbourne, Tex | 31 58 |100 15 | 2,020 | - |Fort McKavett, Tex | 30 48 |100 08 | 2,060 | - |New Braunfels, Tex | 29 42 | 98 15 | 720 | - |Fort Clark, Tex | 29 17 |100 25 | 1,000 | - |Fort Inge, Tex | 29 10 | 99 50 | 845 | - |Fort Duncan, Tex | 28 39 |100 30 | 1,460 | - |Fort Brown, Tex | 25 50 | 97 37 | 50 | - +----------------------+----------+-----------+--------+ - - +----------------------+--------------------------------------+-------+ - | | Mean precipitation, in inches. |Extent | - | +-------+-------+-------+-------+------+ of | - | Station. |Spring.|Summer.|Autumn.|Winter.| Year.|record.| - +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------+-------+ - | | | | | | | Y. M.| - |Pembina, Dak | 4.02 | 7.24 | 2.71 | 1.53 | 15.50| 4 8 | - |Fort Totten, Dak | 5.18 | 7.17 | 2.50 | 1.59 | 16.44| 5 5 | - |Fort Abercrombie, Dak | 4.80 | 8.67 | 3.46 | 1.85 | 18.78| 13 6 | - |Fort Wadsworth, Dak | 7.00 | 10.25 | 3.98 | 2.92 | 24.15| 6 5 | - |Omaha Agency, Nebr | 8.21 | 8.70 | 5.77 | 2.90 | 25.58| 5 2 | - |Fort Kearney, Nebr | 7.81 | 11.13 | 4.83 | 1.45 | 25.22| 14 4 | - |Fort Riley, Kans | 5.49 | 10.48 | 5.92 | 2.63 | 24.52| 20 10 | - |Fort Hays, Kans | 6.93 | 6.23 | 5.77 | 3.77 | 22.70| 6 11 | - |Fort Larned, Kans | 5.17 | 9.63 | 4.95 | 1.67 | 21.42| 10 9 | - |Fort Belknap, Tex | 6.41 | 9.44 | 8.34 | 3.86 | 28.05| 5 10 | - |Fort Griffin, Tex | 4.95 | 6.25 | 6.14 | 4.17 | 21.51| 5 3 | - |Fort Chadbourne, Tex | 5.77 | 6.53 | 7.06 | 3.52 | 22.88| 8 7 | - |Fort McKavett, Tex | 5.21 | 6.71 | 7.81 | 4.22 | 23.95| 9 7 | - |New Braunfels, Tex | 7.60 | 6.90 | 8.83 | 4.25 | 27.58| 5 1 | - |Fort Clark, Tex | 4.14 | 7.57 | 6.55 | 4.35 | 22.61| 12 5 | - |Fort Inge, Tex | 5.38 | 9.67 | 6.88 | 3.53 | 25.46| 7 4 | - |Fort Duncan, Tex | 3.56 | 8.60 | 6.54 | 2.63 | 21.33| 11 7 | - |Fort Brown, Tex | 3.18 | 7.64 | 13.02 | 4.04 | 27.88| 15 0 | - +----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------+-------+ - - - TABLE II.--_Precipitation of the Arid Region._ - - +---------------------------------------------------+ - | |Latitude. | - | | |Longitude. | - | | | |Height.| - | Station. | | | | - | | | | | - +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+ - | | ° ´ | ° ´ | Feet. | - |Albuquerque, N. Mex |35 06 |106 38 | 5,032 | - |Camp Bowie, Ariz |32 10 |109 30 | 4,872 | - |Camp Douglas, Utah |40 46 |111 50 | 5,024 | - |Camp Grant, Ariz |32 54 |110 40 | 4,833 | - |Camp Halleck, Nev |40 49 |115 20 | 5,790 | - |Camp Harney, Oreg |43 00 |119 00 | -- | - |Camp Independence, Cal |36 50 |118 11 | 4,800 | - |Camp McDermitt, Nev |41 58 |117 40 | 4,700 | - |Camp McDowell, Ariz |33 46 |111 36 | -- | - |Camp Mohave, Ariz |35 02 |114 36 | 604 | - |Camp Verde, Ariz |34 34 |111 54 | 3,160 | - |Camp Warner, Oreg |42 28 |119 42 | -- | - |Camp Whipple, Ariz |34 27 |112 20 | 5,700 | - |Cantonment Burgwin, N. Mex |36 26 |105 30 | 7,900 | - |Drum Barracks, Cal |33 47 |118 17 | 32 | - |Denver, Colo |39 45 |105 01 | 5,250 | - |Fort Bayard, N. Mex |32 46 |108 30 | 4,450 | - |Fort Benton, Mont |47 50 |110 39 | 2,730 | - |Fort Bidwell, Cal |41 50 |120 10 | 4,680 | - |Fort Bliss (El Paso), Tex |31 47 |106 30 | 3,830 | - |Fort Boisé, Idaho |43 40 |116 00 | 1,998 | - |Fort Bridger, Wyo |41 20 |110 23 | 6,656 | - |Fort Buford, Dak |48 01 |103 58 | 1,900 | - |Fort Colville, Wash |48 42 |118 02 | 1,963 | - |Fort Craig, N. Mex |33 38 |107 00 | 4,619 | - |Fort D. A. Russell, Wyo |41 12 |104 50 | -- | - |Fort Davis, Tex |30 40 |104 07 | 4,700 | - |Fort Defiance, Ariz |35 43 |109 10 | 6,500 | - |Fort Fetterman, Wyo |42 50 |105 29 | 4,973 | - |Fort Fillmore, N. Mex |32 14 |106 42 | 3,937 | - |Fort F. Steele, Wyo |41 47 |106 57 | 6,841 | - |Fort Garland, Colo |37 25 |105 40 | 7,864 | - |Fort Lapwai, Idaho |46 18 |116 54 | 2,000 | - |Fort Laramie, Wyo |42 12 |104 31 | 4,472 | - |Fort Lyon, Colo |38 08 |102 05 | 4,000 | - |Fort Massachusetts, Colo |37 32 |105 23 | 8,365 | - |Fort McPherson, Nebr |41 00 |100 30 | 3,726 | - |Fort McIntosh, Tex |27 35 | 99 48 | 806 | - |Fort McRae, N. Mex |33 18 |107 03 | 4,500 | - |Fort Randall, Dak |43 01 | 98 37 | 1,245 | - |Fort Rice, Dak |46 32 |100 33 | -- | - |Fort Sanders, Wyo |41 17 |105 36 | 7,161 | - |Fort Selden, N. Mex |32 23 |106 55 | -- | - |Fort Shaw, Mont |47 30 |111 42 | 6,000 | - |Fort Stanton, N. Mex |33 29 |105 38 | 5,000 | - |Fort Stevenson, Dak |47 36 |101 10 | -- | - |Fort Stockton, Tex |30 20 |102 30 | 4,950 | - |Fort Sully, Dak |44 50 |100 35 | 1,672 | - |Fort Union, N. Mex |35 54 |104 57 | 6,670 | - |Fort Walla Walla, Wash |46 03 |118 20 | 800 | - |Fort Wingate, N. Mex |35 29 |107 45 | 6,982 | - |Fort Yuma, Cal |32 44 |114 36 | 200 | - |Ringgold Barracks, Tex |26 23 | 99 00 | 521 | - |Salt Lake City, Utah |40 46 |111 54 | 4,534 | - |San Diego, Cal |32 42 |117 14 | 150 | - |Santa Fé, N. Mex |35 41 |106 02 | 6,846 | - +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+ - - +----------------------------+------------------------------+-------+ - | | Mean precipitation, | | - | | in inches. | | - | +------------------------------+ | - | |Spring. | | - | | |Summer. |Extent | - | | | |Autumn. | of | - | Station. | | | |Winter. |record.| - | | | | | |Year. | | - +----------------------------+-----+-----+----+------+------+-------+ - | | | | | | | Y. M.| - |Albuquerque, N. Mex | 0.83| 4.35|2.04| 0.89 | 8.11 | 12 2| - |Camp Bowie, Ariz | 1.29| 7.35|2.03| 4.59 |15.26 | 6 8| - |Camp Douglas, Utah | 7.20| 2.18|3.24| 6.20 |18.82 | 10 3| - |Camp Grant, Ariz | 2.08| 6.25|3.27| 3.48 |15.08 | 6 10| - |Camp Halleck, Nev | 3.66| 1.19|2.31| 3.82 |10.98 | 5 8| - |Camp Harney, Oreg | 2.29| 1.09|1.59| 3.79 | 8.76 | 6 0| - |Camp Independence, Cal | 1.09| 0.35|0.62| 4.54 | 6.60 | 8 2| - |Camp McDermitt, Nev | 3.02| 0.72|1.13| 3.66 | 8.53 | 6 4| - |Camp McDowell, Ariz | 1.11| 4.79|1.73| 3.82 |11.45 | 8 2| - |Camp Mohave, Ariz | 0.81| 1.27|0.93| 1.64 | 4.65 | 9 1| - |Camp Verde, Ariz | 1.25| 4.65|2.41| 2.54 |10.85 | 6 1| - |Camp Warner, Oreg | 4.31| 1.10|2.53| 6.47 |14.41 | 5 3| - |Camp Whipple, Ariz | 3.88| 8.07|2.15| 5.18 |19.28 | 7 5| - |Cantonment Burgwin, N. Mex | 1.57| 2.92|2.42| 1.74 | 8.65 | 5 9| - |Drum Barracks, Cal | 2.26| 0.26|0.35| 5.87 | 8.74 | 5 5| - |Denver, Colo | 5.02| 3.69|3.16| 1.90 |13.77 | 5 1| - |Fort Bayard, N. Mex | 1.54| 7.22|2.28| 3.28 |14.32 | 7 6| - |Fort Benton, Mont | 5.34| 4.48|1.65| 1.79 |13.26 | 7 1| - |Fort Bidwell, Cal | 4.95| 1.54|3.03|10.71 |20.23 | 8 3| - |Fort Bliss (El Paso), Tex | 0.43| 3.49|3.38| 1.23 | 8.53 | 14 3| - |Fort Boisé, Idaho | 5.16| 1.15|2.50| 6.67 |15.48 | 9 5| - |Fort Bridger, Wyo | 2.99| 2.05|1.68| 1.71 | 8.43 | 12 10| - |Fort Buford, Dak | 3.76| 4.06|2.01| 2.01 |11.84 | 7 10| - |Fort Colville, Wash | 3.63| 3.04|2.56| 4.83 |14.06 | 11 0| - |Fort Craig, N. Mex | 0.70| 5.87|3.43| 1.06 |11.06 | 15 9| - |Fort D. A. Russell, Wyo | 4.76| 4.56|3.27| 1.50 |14.09 | 5 1| - |Fort Davis, Tex | 1.84| 8.76|4.72| 1.80 |17.12 | 8 11| - |Fort Defiance, Ariz | 2.03| 5.91|3.72| 2.55 |14.21 | 8 5| - |Fort Fetterman, Wyo | 4.48| 4.12|2.99| 3.51 |15.10 | 5 7| - |Fort Fillmore, N. Mex | 0.48| 4.16|3.02| 0.76 | 8.42 | 8 3| - |Fort F. Steele, Wyo | 4.57| 3.48|3.05| 4.28 |15.38 | 5 5| - |Fort Garland, Colo | 3.28| 6.70|2.37| 2.51 |14.86 | 13 1| - |Fort Lapwai, Idaho | 4.11| 2.41|3.38| 4.99 |14.89 | 9 8| - |Fort Laramie, Wyo | 5.35| 4.40|2.73| 1.97 |14.45 | 17 8| - |Fort Lyon, Colo | 4.33| 5.44|2.30| 0.49 |12.56 | 7 9| - |Fort Massachusetts, Colo | 3.12| 5.56|6.28| 2.27 |17.23 | 5 1| - |Fort McPherson, Nebr | 6.90| 7.56|3.25| 1.25 |18.96 | 6 9| - |Fort McIntosh, Tex | 3.22| 6.56|5.38| 2.35 |17.51 | 14 7| - |Fort McRae, N. Mex | 2.43| 6.15|2.32| 0.69 |11.59 | 5 0| - |Fort Randall, Dak | 4.72| 6.22|3.40| 1.18 |15.52 | 15 6| - |Fort Rice, Dak | 3.63| 4.87|1.54| 1.35 |11.39 | 6 1| - |Fort Sanders, Wyo | 3.55| 4.15|2.33| 1.43 |11.46 | 6 10| - |Fort Selden, N. Mex | 0.58| 4.83|1.86| 1.22 | 8.49 | 8 5| - |Fort Shaw, Mont | 2.18| 2.30|1.34| 1.13 | 6.95 | 7 3| - |Fort Stanton, N. Mex | 3.03|10.61|4.86| 2.44 |20.94 | 7 9| - |Fort Stevenson, Dak | 3.41| 4.97|2.15| 1.31 |11.84 | 6 2| - |Fort Stockton, Tex | 1.24| 5.66|3.31| 1.29 |11.50 | 5 8| - |Fort Sully, Dak | 6.52| 7.18|1.70| 1.14 |16.54 | 7 8| - |Fort Union, N. Mex | 2.12|11.92|3.79| 1.32 |19.15 | 17 5| - |Fort Walla Walla, Wash | 4.69| 2.07|4.98| 7.62 |19.36 | 8 8| - |Fort Wingate, N. Mex | 1.96| 6.50|3.42| 5.44 |17.32 | 9 1| - |Fort Yuma, Cal | 0.27| 1.30|1.36| 0.98 | 3.91 | 16 6| - |Ringgold Barracks, Tex | 3.71| 7.00|6.31| 2.58 |19.60 | 14 2| - |Salt Lake City, Utah | 6.25| 6.28|4.71| 7.57 |24.81 | 9 2| - |San Diego, Cal | 1.89| 0.36|1.89| 5.17 | 9.31 | 24 2| - |Santa Fé, N. Mex | 2.17| 6.82|3.45| 2.47 |14.91 | 19 10| - +----------------------------+-----+-----+----+------+------+-------+ - - - TABLE III.--_Precipitation of the San Francisco Region._ - - +---------------------------------------------------+ - | |Latitude. | - | | |Longitude. | - | | | |Height.| - | Station. | | | | - | | | | | - +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+ - | | ° ´ | ° ´ | Feet.| - |Alcatraz Island |37 49 |122 25 | -- | - |Angel Island |37 51 |122 26 | 30 | - |Benicia Barracks |38 03 |122 09 | 64 | - |Fort Miller |37 00 |119 40 | 402 | - |Fort Point |37 48 |122 29 | 27 | - |Monterey |36 37 |121 52 | 40 | - |Sacramento |38 34 |121 26 | 81 | - |San Francisco; Presidio |37 47 |122 28 | 150 | - |San Francisco |37 48 |122 25 | 130 | - +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+ - - +----------------------------+------------------------------+-------+ - | | Mean precipitation, | | - | | in inches. | | - | +------------------------------+ | - | |Spring. | | - | | |Summer. |Extent | - | | | |Autumn. | of | - | Station. | | | |Winter. |record.| - | | | | | |Year. | | - +----------------------------+-----+-----+----+------+------+-------+ - | | | | | | | Y. M.| - |Alcatraz Island | 2.59| 0.01|1.85|12.04 |16.49 | 9 5| - |Angel Island | 3.52| 0.02|2.75|12.29 |18.58 | 5 11| - |Benicia Barracks | 4.10| 0.13|2.28| 8.39 |14.90 | 18 3| - |Fort Miller | 7.25| 0.00|2.94| 8.81 |19.00 | 6 9| - |Fort Point | 3.66| 0.03|2.28|11.39 |17.36 | 14 11| - |Monterey | 4.43| 0.26|2.24| 8.78 |15.71 | 12 3| - |Sacramento | 5.55| 0.09|2.76|10.84 |19.24 | 18 3| - |San Francisco; Presidio | 4.80| 0.49|2.68|12.32 |20.29 | 20 2| - |San Francisco | 5.03| 0.22|3.05|13.19 |21.49 | 24 4| - +----------------------------+-----+-----+----+------+------+-------+ - - - TABLE IV.--_Precipitation of the Region of the Lower Columbia._ - - +---------------------------------------------------+ - | |Latitude. | - | | |Longitude. | - | | | |Height.| - | Station. | | | | - | | | | | - +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+ - | | ° ´ | ° ´ | Feet. | - |Astoria, Oreg |46 11 |123 48 | 52 | - |Cape Disappointment, Wash |46 17 |124 03 | 30 | - |Fort Dalles, Oreg |45 33 |120 50 | 350 | - |Camp Gaston, Cal |41 01 |123 34 | -- | - |Camp Wright, Cal |39 48 |123 17 | -- | - |Fort Crook, Cal |41 07 |121 29 | 3,390 | - |Fort Hoskins, Oreg |45 06 |123 26 | -- | - |Fort Humboldt, Cal |40 45 |124 10 | 50 | - |Fort Jones, Cal |41 36 |122 52 | 2,570 | - |Fort Steilacoom, Wash |47 11 |122 34 | 300 | - |Fort Stevens, Oreg |46 12 |123 57 | -- | - |Fort Umpqua, Oreg |43 42 |124 10 | 8 | - |Fort Vancouver, Wash |45 40 |122 30 | 50 | - |Fort Yamhill, Oreg |45 21 |123 15 | -- | - |Portland, Oreg |45 30 |122 36 | 45 | - |Port Townsend, Wash |48 07 |122 45 | 8 | - |San Juan Island, Wash |48 28 |123 01 | 150 | - +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+ - - +----------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+ - | | Mean precipitation, | | - | | in inches. | | - | +-------------------------------+ | - | |Spring. | | - | | |Summer. |Extent | - | | | |Autumn. | of | - | Station. | | | |Winter. |record.| - | | | | | |Year. | | - +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-------+ - | | | | | | | Y. M.| - |Astoria, Oreg |18.90| 5.72|18.19| 34.80| 77.61| 22 4| - |Cape Disappointment, Wash |14.97| 5.97|20.46| 29.84| 71.24| 5 9| - |Fort Dalles, Oreg | 3.91| 1.16| 5.78| 11.27| 22.12| 12 8| - |Camp Gaston, Cal |14.76| 1.15| 9.92| 31.56| 57.39| 12 0| - |Camp Wright, Cal | 8.26| 0.27| 8.17| 27.27| 43.97| 9 8| - |Fort Crook, Cal | 6.37| 0.97| 4.55| 11.29| 23.18| 9 0| - |Fort Hoskins, Oreg |14.69| 2.65|14.88| 34.48| 66.70| 6 9| - |Fort Humboldt, Cal | 9.36| 0.73| 6.49| 18.73| 35.31| 11 2| - |Fort Jones, Cal | 5.23| 0.91| 4.19| 11.37| 21.70| 5 0| - |Fort Steilacoom, Wash | 8.98| 2.81|10.12| 17.01| 38.92| 12 9| - |Fort Stevens, Oreg |17.67| 7.88|18.21| 34.81| 78.57| 6 5| - |Fort Umpqua, Oreg |16.83| 2.86|15.64| 32.08| 67.41| 5 10| - |Fort Vancouver, Wash | 8.70| 3.78| 9.17| 16.72| 38.37| 16 11| - |Fort Yamhill, Oreg |13.10| 2.39|13.20| 26.90| 55.59| 9 3| - |Portland, Oreg |13.75| 2.50|11.31| 19.64| 47.20| 7 0| - |Port Townsend, Wash | 5.45| 4.22| 2.31| 4.07| 16.05| 5 6| - |San Juan Island, Wash | 5.01| 4.60| 7.89| 10.84| 28.34| 9 4| - +----------------------------+-----+-----+ ----+------+------+-------+ - - - DISTRIBUTION OF RAIN THROUGH THE YEAR. - -In a general way the limit of agriculture without irrigation, or “dry -farming”, is indicated by the curve of 20 inches rainfall, and where -the rainfall is equally distributed through the year this limitation -is without exception. But in certain districts the rainfall is -concentrated in certain months so as to produce a “rainy season”, and -wherever the temperature of the rainy season is adapted to the raising -of crops it is found that “dry farming” can be carried on with less -than 20 inches of annual rain. There are two such districts upon the -borders of the Arid Region, and within its limits there may be a third. - -_First District._--Along the eastern border of the Arid Region a -contrast has been observed between the results obtained at the north -and at the south. In Texas 20 inches of rain are not sufficient for -agriculture, while in Dakota and Minnesota a less amount is sufficient. -The explanation is clearly developed by a comparison of the tables -of rainfall with reference to the distribution of rain in different -seasons. - - - TABLE V.--_Precipitation of Texas._ - - +---------------------------------------------------+ - | |Latitude. | - | | |Longitude. | - | | | |Height.| - | Station. | | | | - | | | | | - +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+ - | | ° ´ | ° ´ | Feet. | - |Austin |30 17 | 97 44 | 650 | - |Camp Verde |30 00 | 99 10 | 1,400 | - |Fort Belknap |33 08 | 98 46 | 1,600 | - |Fort Bliss (El Paso) |31 47 |106 30 | 3,830 | - |Fort Brown |25 50 | 97 37 | 50 | - |Fort Chadbourne |31 58 |100 15 | 2,020 | - |Fort Clark |29 17 |100 25 | 1,000 | - |Fort Davis |30 40 |104 07 | 4,700 | - |Fort Duncan |28 39 |100 30 | 1,460 | - |Fort Griffin |32 54 | 99 14 | -- | - |Fort Inge |29 10 | 99 50 | 845 | - |Fort Mason |30 40 | 99 15 | 1,200 | - |Fort McIntosh |27 35 | 99 48 | 806 | - |Fort McKavett |30 48 |100 08 | 2,060 | - |Fort Stockton |30 20 |102 30 | 4,950 | - |Galveston |29 18 | 94 47 | 30 | - |Gilmer (near) |32 40 | 94 59 | 950 | - |New Braunfels |29 42 | 98 15 | 720 | - |Ringgold Barracks |26 33 | 99 00 | 521 | - |San Antonio |29 25 | 98 25 | 600 | - +---------------------------------------------------+ - - +----------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+ - | | Mean precipitation, | | - | | in inches. | | - | +-------------------------------+ | - | |Spring. | | - | | |Summer. |Extent | - | | | |Autumn. | of | - | Station. | | | |Winter. |record.| - | | | | | |Year. | | - +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-------+ - | | | | | | | Y. M.| - |Austin | 8.61| 7.94|10.74| 6.23| 33.52| 18 8| - |Camp Verde | 6.11| 9.81| 8.30| 5.05| 29.27| 5 9| - |Fort Belknap | 6.41| 9.44| 8.34| 3.86| 28.05| 5 10| - |Fort Bliss (El Paso) | 0.43| 3.49| 3.38| 1.23| 8.53| 14 3| - |Fort Brown | 3.18| 7.64|13.02| 4.04| 27.88| 15 0| - |Fort Chadbourne | 5.77| 6.53| 7.06| 3.52| 22.88| 8 7| - |Fort Clark | 4.14| 7.57| 6.55| 4.35| 22.61| 12 5| - |Fort Davis | 1.84| 8.76| 4.72| 1.80| 17.12| 8 11| - |Fort Duncan | 3.56| 8.60| 6.54| 2.63| 21.33| 11 7| - |Fort Griffin | 4.95| 6.25| 6.14| 4.17| 21.51| 5 3| - |Fort Inge | 5.38| 9.67| 6.88| 3.53| 25.46| 7 4| - |Fort Mason | 6.36|10.44| 8.22| 3.96| 28.98| 5 1| - |Fort McIntosh | 3.22| 6.56| 5.38| 2.35| 17.51| 14 7| - |Fort McKavett | 5.21| 6.71| 7.81| 4.22| 23.95| 9 7| - |Fort Stockton | 1.24| 5.66| 3.31| 1.29| 11.50| 5 8| - |Galveston |13.15|14.90|16.83| 12.19| 57.07| 6 1| - |Gilmer (near) |13.36| 9.93|11.77| 10.93| 45.99| 7 9| - |New Braunfels | 7.60| 6.90| 8.83| 4.25| 27.58| 5 1| - |Ringgold Barracks | 3.71| 7.00| 6.31| 2.58| 19.60| 14 2| - |San Antonio | 6.77| 8.91| 9.30| 6.32| 31.30| 10 2| - | +-----+-----+-----+------+------+-------+ - | Means | 4.62| 6.78| 6.64| 3.69| 21.73| -- --| - +----------------------------+-----+-----+ ----+------+------+-------+ - - - TABLE VI.--_Precipitation of Dakota._ - - +---------------------------------------------------+ - | |Latitude. | - | | |Longitude. | - | | | |Height.| - | Station. | | | | - | | | | | - +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+ - | | ° ´ | ° ´ | Feet. | - | Fort Abercrombie |46 27 | 96 21 | -- | - | Fort Buford |48 01 |103 58 | 1,900 | - | Fort Randall |43 01 | 98 37 | 1,245 | - | Fort Rice |46 32 |100 33 | -- | - | Fort Stevenson |47 36 |101 10 | -- | - | Fort Sully |44 50 |100 35 | 1,672 | - | Fort Totten |47 56 | 99 16 | 1,480 | - | Fort Wadsworth |45 43 | 97 10 | 1,650 | - | Pembina |48 57 | 97 03 | 768 | - +---------------------------------------------------+ - - +----------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+ - | | Mean precipitation, | | - | | in inches. | | - | +-------------------------------+ | - | |Spring. | | - | | |Summer. |Extent | - | | | |Autumn. | of | - | Station. | | | |Winter. |record.| - | | | | | |Year. | | - +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-------+ - | | | | | | | Y. M.| - | Fort Abercrombie | 4.80| 8.67| 3.46| 1.85 |18.78 | 13 6 | - | Fort Buford | 3.76| 4.06| 2.01| 2.01 |11.84 | 7 10 | - | Fort Randall | 4.72| 6.22| 3.40| 1.18 |15.52 | 15 6 | - | Fort Rice | 3.63| 4.87| 1.54| 1.35 |11.39 | 6 1 | - | Fort Stevenson | 3.41| 4.97| 2.15| 1.31 |11.84 | 6 2 | - | Fort Sully | 6.52| 7.18| 1.70| 1.14 |16.54 | 7 8 | - | Fort Totten | 5.18| 7.17| 2.50| 1.59 |16.44 | 5 5 | - | Fort Wadsworth | 7.00|10.25| 3.98| 2.92 |24.15 | 6 5 | - | Pembina | 4.02| 7.24| 2.71| 1.53 |15.50 | 4 8 | - | +-----+-----+-----+------+------+-------+ - | Means | 4.78| 6.74| 2.61| 1.65 | 15.78| -- | - +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+-------+ - -Table V includes every station in Texas that has a record of five -years or more, in all twenty stations. If the means of rainfall for -the state be compared with the means for single stations, it will be -seen that there is a general correspondence in the ratios pertaining -to the different seasons, so that the former can fairly be considered -to represent for the state the distribution through the year. Table VI -presents the data for Dakota in the same way, and the correspondence -between the general mean and the station mean is here exceedingly -close. At each of the nine stations, the greatest rainfall is recorded -in summer, the next greatest in spring, and the least in winter. -Placing the two series of results in the form of percentages, they show -a decided contrast: - - +-------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-------+ - | | Spring. | Summer. | Autumn. | Winter. | Year. | - +-------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-------+ - | Dakota | 30 | 43 | 17 | 10 | 100 | - | Texas | 21 | 31 | 31 | 17 | 100 | - +-------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-------+ - -In Dakota a rainy season is well marked, and 73 per cent. of the rain -falls in spring and summer, or at the time when it is most needed -by the farmer. In Texas only 52 per cent. of the rain falls in the -season of agriculture. The availability of rain in the two regions is -therefore in the ratio of 73 to 52, and for agricultural purposes 20 -inches of rainfall in Texas is equivalent to about 15 inches in Dakota. - -For the further exhibition of the subject, Table VII has been -prepared, comprising stations in the Region of the Plains all the -way from our northern to our southern boundary. By way of restricting -attention to the practical problem of the limit of “dry farming”, only -those stations are admitted which exhibit a mean annual rainfall of -more than 15 and less than 25 inches. The order of arrangement is by -latitudes, and in the columns at the right the seasonal rainfalls are -expressed in percentages of the yearly. The column at the extreme right -gives the sum of the spring and summer quotas, and is taken to express -the availability of the rainfall. - - - TABLE VII.--_Seasonal precipitation in the Region of the Plains._ - - +---------------------------------------------------+ - | |Latitude. | Mean | - | | |Extent |yearly | - | Station. | | of | rain- | - | | |Record.| fall. | - +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+ - | | ° ´ | Y. M. |Inches.| - |Pembina, Dak. |48 57 | 4 8 | 15.50 | - |Fort Totten, Dak. |47 56 | 5 5 | 16.44 | - |Fort Abercrombie, Dak. |46 27 |13 6 | 18.78 | - |Fort Wadsworth, Dak. |45 43 | 6 5 | 24.15 | - |Fort Sully, Dak. |44 50 | 7 8 | 16.54 | - |Sibley, Minn. |44 30 | 7 11 | 24.74 | - |Fort Randall, Dak. |43 01 |15 6 | 15.52 | - |Fort McPherson, Nebr. |41 00 | 6 9 | 18.96 | - +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+ - |Fort Riley, Kans. |39 03 |20 10 | 24.52 | - |Fort Hays, Kans. |38 59 | 6 11 | 22.70 | - |Fort Larned, Kans. |38 10 |10 9 | 21.42 | - +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+ - |Fort Griffin, Tex. |32 54 | 5 3 | 21.51 | - |Fort Chadbourne, Tex. |31 58 | 8 7 | 22.88 | - |Fort McKavett, Tex. |30 48 | 9 7 | 23.95 | - |Fort Davis, Tex. |30 40 | 8 11 | 17.12 | - |Fort Clark, Tex. |29 17 |12 5 | 22.61 | - |Fort Duncan, Tex. |28 39 |11 7 | 21.33 | - |Fort McIntosh, Tex. |27 35 |14 7 | 17.51 | - |Ringgold Barracks, Tex. |26 23 |14 2 | 19.60 | - +----------------------------+------+-------+-------+ - - +----------------------------+---------------------------------+ - | | Percentage of annual rainfall. | - | +---------------------------------+ - | |Spring. | | - | | |Summer. |Spring | - | Station. | | |Autumn. | and | - | | | | |Winter.|summer.| - +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+ - | | | | | | | - |Pembina, Dak. | 26 | 47 | 17 | 10 | 73 | - |Fort Totten, Dak. | 31 | 44 | 15 | 10 | 75 | - |Fort Abercrombie, Dak. | 26 | 46 | 18 | 10 | 72 | - |Fort Wadsworth, Dak. | 29 | 42 | 17 | 12 | 71 | - |Fort Sully, Dak. | 39 | 44 | 10 | 7 | 83 | - |Sibley, Minn. | 21 | 40 | 29 | 10 | 61 | - |Fort Randall, Dak. | 30 | 40 | 22 | 8 | 70 | - |Fort McPherson, Nebr. | 36 | 40 | 17 | 7 | 76 | - +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+ - |Fort Riley, Kans. | 22 | 43 | 24 | 11 | 65 | - |Fort Hays, Kans. | 31 | 27 | 25 | 17 | 58 | - |Fort Larned, Kans. | 24 | 45 | 23 | 8 | 69 | - +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+ - |Fort Griffin, Tex. | 23 | 29 | 29 | 19 | 52 | - |Fort Chadbourne, Tex. | 25 | 29 | 31 | 15 | 54 | - |Fort McKavett, Tex. | 22 | 28 | 32 | 18 | 50 | - |Fort Davis, Tex. | 11 | 51 | 28 | 10 | 62 | - |Fort Clark, Tex. | 18 | 34 | 29 | 19 | 52 | - |Fort Duncan, Tex. | 17 | 40 | 31 | 12 | 57 | - |Fort McIntosh, Tex. | 18 | 38 | 31 | 13 | 56 | - |Ringgold Barracks, Tex. | 19 | 36 | 32 | 13 | 55 | - +----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+ - -The graduation of the ratios from north to south is apparent to -inspection, but is somewhat irregular. The irregularity, however, is -not greater than should be anticipated from the shortness of the terms -of observation at the several stations, and it disappears when the -stations are combined in natural groups. Dividing the whole series -into three groups, as indicated by the cross lines in Table VII, and -computing weighted means of the seasonal ratios, we have-- - - - TABLE VII (_a_).[2] - -[2] In computing the several means of Table VII (_a_) from the seasonal -means of Table VII, the latter were weighted according to the lengths -of the records by which they had been obtained. - - +------------------+--------+-------+---------------------------------+ - | | | | Percentage of annual rainfall. | - | | | +---------------------------------+ - | | Mean |Total |Spring. | | - | Groups of |latitude|years | |Summer. |Spring | - | stations. | of | of | | |Autumn. | and | - | | group. |record.| | | |Winter.|summer.| - +------------------+--------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+ - | | ° ´ | | | | | | | - |Eight stations in | | | | | | | | - |Dakota, Minnesota,| | | | | | | | - | and Nebraska | 45 20 | 67 | 29 | 43 | 19 | 9 | 72 | - |Three stations | | | | | | | | - | in Kansas | 38 45 | 38 | 24 | 41 | 24 | 11 | 65 | - |Eight stations | | | | | | | | - | in Texas | 29 45 | 85 | 19 | 36 | 31 | 14 | 55 | - +------------------+--------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+ - - -A moment’s inspection will show that the middle group is intermediate -between the northern and southern in all its characters. The spring -quota of rainfall progressively diminishes from north to south, and -so does the summer, while the fall and winter quotas increase. What -is lost in summer is gained in winter, and thereby the inequality of -rainfall from season to season is diminished, so that a rainy season is -not so well defined in Texas as in Dakota. What is lost in spring is -gained in autumn, and thereby the place of the rainy season in the year -is shifted. In Dakota the maximum of rain is earlier than in Texas, and -corresponds more nearly with the maximum of temperature. - - - TABLE VIII.--_Seasonal precipitation in the San Francisco Region._ - - +-----------------+-------+-------+---------------------------------+ - | | | | Percentage of annual rainfall. | - | | | +---------------------------------+ - | |Extent | Mean |Spring. | | - | Station. | of |annual | |Summer. |Winter | - | |record.| rain- | | |Autumn. | and | - | | | fall. | | | |Winter.|spring.| - +-----------------+-------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+ - | | Y. M. |Inches.| | | | | | - |Alcatraz Island | 9 5 | 16.49 | 16 | 0 | 11 | 73 | 89 | - |Angel Island | 5 11 | 18.58 | 19 | 0 | 15 | 66 | 85 | - |Benicia Barracks | 18 3 | 14.90 | 28 | 1 | 15 | 56 | 84 | - |Fort Miller | 6 9 | 19.00 | 38 | 0 | 16 | 46 | 84 | - |Fort Point | 14 11 | 17.36 | 21 | 0 | 13 | 66 | 87 | - |Monterey | 12 3 | 15.71 | 28 | 2 | 14 | 56 | 84 | - |Sacramento | 18 3 | 19.24 | 29 | 1 | 14 | 56 | 85 | - |San Francisco; | 20 2 | 20.29 | 24 | 2 | 13 | 61 | 85 | - | Presidio | 20 2 | 20.29 | 24 | 2 | 13 | 61 | 85 | - |San Francisco | 24 4 | 21.49 | 24 | 1 | 14 | 61 | 85 | - | +-------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+ - | Weighted means | -- | -- | 25 | 1 | 14 | 60 | 85 | - +-----------------+-------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-------+-------+ - Total extent of record = 130 years. Mean of yearly rainfalls = 15.90. - -_Second District._--In the San Francisco Region a rainy season is still -more definitely marked, but occurs at a different time of year. It will -be seen by Tables III and VIII that no rain falls in summer, while the -winter months receive 60 per cent. of the annual precipitation, and -the spring 25 per cent. The general yearly rainfall of the district is -only about 16 inches, but by this remarkable concentration a period of -five months is made to receive 13 inches. The winter temperature of the -district is no less remarkable, and supplies the remaining condition -essential to agriculture. Frosts are rare, and in the valleys all the -precipitation has the form of rain. The nine stations which afford the -rainfall records given above show a mean spring temperature of 57° (see -Table IX). Thirteen inches of rain coming in a frostless winter and -spring have been found sufficient for remunerative agriculture. - - - TABLE IX.--_Mean temperatures, by seasons, for the San Francisco - Region._ - - +-----------------+-------+------------------------------------------+ - | |Extent | Mean temperatures, in degrees Fahr. | - | Station. | of +------------------------------------------+ - | |record.| Spring.| Summer.| Autumn.| Winter.| Year.| - +-----------------+-------+---------+--------+-------+--------+------+ - | | Y. M. | | | | | | - |Alcatraz Island | 8 6 | 55 | 57 | 60 | 54 | 57 | - |Angel Island | 3 1 | 58 | 63 | 61 | 52 | 58 | - |Benicia Barracks | 15 7 | 58 | 67 | 62 | 49 | 59 | - |Fort Miller | 7 6 | 64 | 86 | 67 | 49 | 67 | - |Fort Point | 10 11 | 55 | 59 | 58 | 52 | 56 | - |Monterey | 12 5 | 55 | 60 | 57 | 50 | 55 | - |Sacramento | 14 0 | 59 | 71 | 62 | 48 | 60 | - |San Francisco; | 19 0 | 54 | 57 | 57 | 50 | 55 | - | Presidio | 19 0 | 54 | 57 | 57 | 50 | 55 | - |San Francisco | 11 2 | 55 | 58 | 58 | 50 | 55 | - | +-------+---------+--------+-------+--------+------+ - | Means | -- | 57 | 64 | 60 | 50 | 58 | - +-----------------+-------+---------+--------+-------+--------+------+ - -The same winter maximum of rainfall is characteristic of the whole -Pacific coast. The Region of the Lower Columbia, with an average -rainfall of 46 inches, receives 47 per cent. of it in winter and 24 -per cent. in spring. Southward on the coast, Drum Barracks (near Los -Angeles) and San Diego receive more than half their rain in winter, -but as the whole amount is only 9 inches agriculture is not benefited. -The eastern bases of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range exhibit the -winter maximum of rainfall, and this feature can be traced eastward -in Idaho and Nevada, but in these districts it is accompanied by no -amelioration of winter temperature. (See Table X.) - - - TABLE X.--_Seasonal precipitation and temperatures on the Pacific - coast, etc._ - - +------------------------+-------+----------------------+-------------+ - | | | Percentage of | Mean | - | | | rainfall. | temperature.| - | | Mean +----------------------+-----+-------+ - | |annual |Spring. | | - | Station. | rain- | |Summer. |Spring. | - | | fall. | | |Autumn. | |Winter.| - | | | | | |Winter.| | | - +------------------------+-------+----+----+----+-------+-----+-------+ - | |Inches.| | | | | | | - |San Francisco Region | 15.90 | 25 | 1 | 14 | 60 | 57 | 50 | - |Region of Lower Columbia| 46.45 | 24 | 6 | 23 | 47 | 51 | 40 | - |Drum Barracks, Cal | 8.74 | 26 | 3 | 4 | 67 | 60 | 56 | - |San Diego, Cal | 9.31 | 20 | 4 | 20 | 56 | 60 | 54 | - |Camp Independence, Cal | 6.60 | 17 | 5 | 9 | 69 | 57 | 39 | - |Fort Bidwell, Cal | 20.23 | 24 | 8 | 15 | 53 | 48 | 32 | - |Camp Warner, Oreg | 14.41 | 30 | 8 | 17 | 45 | 42 | 29 | - |Camp Harney, Oreg | 8.76 | 26 | 13 | 18 | 43 | 47 | 27 | - |Fort Colville, Wash | 14.06 | 26 | 22 | 18 | 34 | 45 | 24 | - |Fort Walla Walla, Wash | 19.36 | 24 | 11 | 26 | 39 | 52 | 34 | - |Camp McDermitt, Nev | 8.53 | 35 | 9 | 13 | 43 | 46 | 29 | - |Camp Halleck, Nev | 10.98 | 33 | 11 | 21 | 35 | 45 | 28 | - |Fort Lapwai, Idaho | 14.89 | 28 | 16 | 23 | 33 | 53 | 33 | - |Fort Boisé, Idaho | 15.48 | 33 | 8 | 16 | 43 | 52 | 30 | - +------------------------+-------+----+----+----+-------+-----+-------+ - -_Third District._--In Arizona and New Mexico there is a general -maximum of rainfall in summer, and a restricted maximum in winter. The -principal minimum is in spring. In Table XI the stations are arranged -according to longitudes, a disposition well suited to exhibit their -relations. In eastern New Mexico the distribution of rainfall has the -same character as in adjacent Texas, but with a more decided maximum. -Half of the total rainfall is in summer and half of the remainder in -autumn. Westward the maximum diminishes slightly, but it appears in -every station of the two territories. In western Arizona the winter -maximum of the Pacific coast asserts itself, and it can be traced -eastward as far as Fort Wingate, New Mexico. Except at Camp Mohave, on -the western border of Arizona, it is inferior in amount to the summer -maximum. - - - TABLE XI.--_Seasonal precipitation in Arizona and New Mexico._ - - +----------------------+--------+-------+---------------------------+ - | | | Mean | Percentage of | - | | |annual | annual rainfall. | - | Station. | Longi- | rain- +---------------------------+ - | | tude. | fall. |Spring. | Autumn. | - | | | | |Summer. |Winter.| - +----------------------+--------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+ - | | ° ´ |Inches.| | | | | - |Western Texas | -- | -- | 19 | 36 | 31 | 14 | - +----------------------+--------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+ - |Fort Union, N. Mex | 104 57 | 19.15 | 11 | 62 | 20 | 7 | - |Cantonment Burgwin, | | | | | | | - | N. Mex | 105 30 | 8.65 | 18 | 34 | 28 | 20 | - |Fort Stanton, N. Mex | 105 38 | 20.94 | 14 | 51 | 23 | 12 | - |Santa Fé, N. Mex | 106 02 | 14.91 | 14 | 46 | 23 | 17 | - |Albuquerque, N. Mex | 106 38 | 8.11 | 10 | 54 | 25 | 11 | - |Fort Fillmore, N. Mex | 106 42 | 8.42 | 5 | 50 | 36 | 9 | - |Fort Selden, N. Mex | 106 55 | 8.49 | 7 | 57 | 22 | 14 | - |Fort Craig, N. Mex | 107 00 | 11.06 | 6 | 53 | 31 | 10 | - |Fort McRae, N. Mex | 107 03 | 11.59 | 21 | 53 | 20 | 6 | - |Fort Wingate, N. Mex | 107 45 | 17.32 | 11 | 38 | 20 | 31 | - |Fort Bayard, N. Mex | 108 30 | 14.32 | 11 | 50 | 16 | 23 | - |Fort Defiance, Ariz | 109 10 | 14.21 | 14 | 42 | 26 | 18 | - |Camp Bowie, Ariz | 109 30 | 15.26 | 9 | 48 | 13 | 30 | - |Camp Grant, Ariz | 110 40 | 15.08 | 14 | 41 | 22 | 23 | - |Camp McDowell, Ariz | 111 36 | 11.45 | 10 | 42 | 15 | 33 | - |Camp Verde, Ariz | 111 54 | 10.85 | 12 | 43 | 22 | 23 | - |Camp Whipple, Ariz | 112 20 | 19.28 | 20 | 42 | 11 | 27 | - |Camp Mohave, Ariz | 114 36 | 4.65 | 18 | 27 | 20 | 35 | - +----------------------+--------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+ - |San Francisco Region | -- | -- | 25 | 1 | 14 | 60 | - +----------------------+--------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+ - -In all this region the daily range of temperature is great, and frosts -occur so early in autumn that no use can be made of the autumnal -rainfall. The yearly precipitation is very small, and the summer quota -rarely exceeds seven or eight inches. Nevertheless the Pueblo Indians -have succeeded, in a few localities, and by a unique method, in raising -maize without irrigation. The yield is too meagre to tempt the white -man to follow their example, and for his use the region is agricultural -only where it can be watered artificially. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - - WATER SUPPLY. - - BY G. K. GILBERT. - - -The following discussion is based upon a special study of the -drainage-basin of Great Salt Lake. - - - INCREASE OF STREAMS. - -The residents of Utah who practice irrigation have observed that many -of the streams have increased in volume since the settlement of the -country. Of the actuality of this increase there can be no question. -A popular impression in regard to the fluctuations of an unmeasured -element of climate may be very erroneous, as, for example, the -impression that the rainfall of the timbered states has been diminished -by the clearing of the land, but in the case of these streams relative -measurements have practically been made. Some of them were so fully -in use twenty years ago that all of their water was diverted from -its channels at the “critical period”, and yet the dependent fields -suffered from drought in the drier years. Afterward, it was found that -in all years there was enough water and to spare, and operations were -extended. Additional canals were dug and new lands were added to the -fields; and this was repeated from time to time, until in many places -the service of a stream was doubled, and in a few it was increased -tenfold, or even fiftyfold. It is a matter of great importance to the -agricultural interests, not only of Utah but of the whole district -dependent on irrigation, that the cause or causes of this change shall -be understood. Until they are known we cannot tell whether the present -gain is an omen of future gain or of future loss, nor whether the -future changes are within or beyond our control. I shall therefore take -the liberty to examine somewhat at length the considerations which are -supposed by myself or others to bear upon the problem. - -Fortunately we are not compelled to depend on the incidental -observations of the farming community for the amount of the increase -of the streams, but merely for the fact of their increase. The amount -is recorded in an independent and most thorough manner, by the -accumulation of the water in Great Salt Lake. - - - RISE OF GREAT SALT LAKE. - -A lake with an outlet has its level determined by the height of the -outlet. Great Salt Lake, having no outlet, has its level determined by -the relation of evaporation to inflow. On one hand the drainage of a -great basin pours into it a continuous though variable tribute; on the -other, there is a continuous absorption of its water by the atmosphere -above it. The inflow is greatest in the spring time, while the snows -are melting in the mountains, and least in the autumn after the melting -has ceased, but before the cooling of the air has greatly checked -evaporation on the uplands. The lake evaporation is greatest in summer, -while the air is warm, and least in winter. Through the winter and -spring the inflow exceeds the evaporation, and the lake rises. In the -latter part of the summer and in autumn the loss is greater than the -gain, and the lake falls. The maximum occurs in June or July, and the -minimum probably in November. The difference between the two, or the -height of the annual tide, is about 20 inches. - -But it rarely happens that the annual evaporation is precisely equal -to the annual inflow, and each year the lake gains or loses an amount -which depends upon the climate of the year. If the air which crosses -the drainage basin of the lake in any year is unusually moist, there -is a twofold tendency to raise the mean level. On one hand there -is a greater precipitation, whereby the inflow is increased, and -on the other hand there is a less evaporation. So, too, if the air -is unusually dry, the inflow is correspondingly small, the loss by -evaporation is correspondingly great, and the contents of the lake -diminish. This annual gain or loss is an expression, and a very -delicate expression, of the mean annual humidity of a large district of -country, and as such is more trustworthy than any result which might -be derived from local observations with psychrometer and rain gauge. -A succession of relatively dry years causes a progressive fall of the -lake, and a succession of moist years a progressive rise. As the water -falls it retires from its shore, and the slopes being exceedingly -gentle the area of the lake is rapidly contracted. The surface for -evaporation diminishes and its ratio to the inflow becomes less. As the -water rises the surface of the lake rapidly increases, and the ratio of -evaporation to inflow becomes greater. In this way a limit is set to -the oscillation of the lake as dependent on the ordinary fluctuations -of climate, and the cumulation of results is prevented. Whenever the -variation of the water level from its mean position becomes great, -the resistance to its further advance in that direction becomes -proportionally great. For the convenience of a name, I shall speak of -this oscillation of the lake as the _limited oscillation_. It depends -on an oscillation of climate which is universally experienced, but -which has not been found to exhibit either periodicity, or synchrony -over large areas, or other features of regularity. - -Beside the annual tide and the limited oscillation, the lake has been -found to exhibit a third change, and this third or _abnormal_ change -seems to be connected with the increase of the tributary streams. In -order to exhibit it, it will be necessary to discuss somewhat fully the -history of the rise and fall of the lake, and I shall take occasion at -the same time to call attention to the preparations that have recently -been made for future observations. - -Previous to the year 1875 no definite record was made. In 1874 Prof. -Joseph Henry, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, began a -correspondence with Dr. John R. Park, of Salt Lake City, in regard to -the fluctuations and other peculiarities of the lake, and as a chief -result a systematic record was begun. With the coöperation of Mr. J. -L. Barfoot and other citizens of Utah, Dr. Park erected a graduated -pillar at Black Rock, a point on the southern shore which was then a -popular summer resort. It consisted of a granite block cut in the form -of an obelisk and engraved on one side with a scale of feet and inches. -It was set in gravel beneath shallow water, with the zero of its scale -near the surface. The water level was read on the pillar by Mr. John -T. Mitchell at frequent intervals from September 14, 1875, to October -9, 1876, when the locality ceased to be used as a watering place, and -the systematic record was discontinued. Two observations were made by -the writer in 1877, and it was found in making the second that the -shifting gravel of the beach had buried the column so deeply as to -conceal half the graduation. - -Dr. Park has kindly furnished me a copy of Mr. Mitchell’s record. -The observer was instructed to choose such times of observation that -the influence of wind storms upon the level of the lake would be -eliminated, and the work appears to have been faithfully performed. - - -_Record of the height of Great Salt Lake above the zero of the granite - pillar at Black Rock._ - - +----------------------+-------------+-------------------+ - | Date. | Reading. | Wind. | - +------+----------+----+-----+-------+----------+--------+ - | | | | | | | | - | Year.| Month. |Day.|Feet.|Inches.|Direction.| Force. | - +------+----------+----+-----+-------+----------+--------+ - |1875 |September | 14 | 0 | 6 | N. |Gentle. | - | | | 22 | 0 | 5¹⁄₂ | N. E. |Quiet. | - | | | 25 | 0 | 5 | N. E. |Quiet. | - | |October | 6 | 0 | 4¹⁄₂ | N. |Quiet. | - | | | 12 | 0 | 4 | N. E. |Quiet. | - | | | 18 | 0 | 3¹⁄₂ | N. E. |Quiet. | - | | | 26 | 0 | 3 | N. E. |Quiet. | - | |November | 9 | 0 | 2 | W. |Quiet. | - | | | 16 | 0 | 1¹⁄₂ | N. |Quiet. | - | | | 23 | 0 | 4 | N. E. |Quiet. | - | | | 29 | 0 | 5¹⁄₂ | E. |Quiet. | - | |December | 7 | 0 | 5 | E. |Quiet. | - | | | 14 | 0 | 5¹⁄₂ | E. |Quiet. | - | | | 21 | 0 | 6 | N. E. |Quiet. | - |1876 |January | 5 | 0 | 8 | N. E. |Quiet. | - | | | 11 | 0 | 8¹⁄₂ | N. E. |Quiet. | - | | | 29 | 0 | 9 | E. |Quiet. | - | |February | 1 | 0 | 9 | S. E. |Quiet. | - | | | 15 | 0 | 9¹⁄₂ | -- |Calm. | - | | | 22 | 0 | 9¹⁄₂ | N. E. |Quiet. | - | |March | 15 | 0 | 11 | N. E. |Quiet. | - | | | 22 | 1 | 0 | N. E. |Quiet. | - | | | 28 | 1 | ¹⁄₂ | N. E. |Quiet. | - | |April | 17 | 1 | 2 | -- |Calm. | - | | | 25 | 1 | 3 | N. E. |Quiet. | - | |May | 2 | 1 | 4 | N. E. |Quiet. | - | | | 22 | 1 | 9 | N. |Quiet. | - | |June | 2 | 1 | 11 | W. |Quiet. | - | | | 8 | 2 | 0 | -- |Calm. | - | | | 13 | 2 | 2 | N. E. |Quiet. | - | | | 23 | 2 | 4 | N. E. |Quiet. | - | | | 30 | 2 | 6 | S. |Quiet. | - | |July | 18 | 2 | 3 | N. E. |Quiet. | - | | | 25 | 2 | 4 | N. E. |Quiet. | - | |August | 1 | 2 | 3 | N. E. |Quiet. | - | | | 10 | 2 | 2 | N. E. |Quiet. | - | | | 22 | 1 | 9 | N. E. |Quiet. | - | | | 29 | 1 | 8 | S. E. |Strong. | - | | | 30 | 1 | 8 | N. |Quiet. | - | |September | 14 | 1 | 7 | -- |Calm. | - | | | 19 | 1 | 6¹⁄₂ | N. |Quiet. | - | | | 26 | 1 | 6 | -- |Calm. | - | |October | 9 | 1 | 5¹⁄₂ | N. E. |Quiet. | - |1877 |July | 12 | 2 | 0 | -- |Calm. | - | |October | 19 | 0 | 10 | -- |Calm. | - +------+----------+----+-----+-------+----------+--------+ - -Comparing the October observations for three years, it appears that the -lake rose 13 inches from 1875 to 1876, and fell in the next year 6¹⁄₂ -inches. - -[Illustration: SKETCH OF BLACK ROCK AND VICINITY, UTAH TERRITORY. - -_Prepared to show the position of the graduated pillar erected by Dr. -John Park for observations on the water-level of Great Salt Lake, and -the position of the granite bench-mark._] - -The Black Rock pillar has not the permanence that is desirable. -Although it has thus far been only the more firmly established by the -action of the waves, it is still true that the lake is encroaching -on the land in this part of the coast, and a storm may at any time -undermine and overthrow the pillar. To provide for such a contingency -it was determined to establish a bench mark out of reach of the waves, -and connect it with the pillar by leveling, so that if the existing -standard should be destroyed its record would still have a definite -meaning, and the relative height of a new standard could be ascertained -with precision. In this undertaking I was joined by Mr. Jesse W. Fox, -a gentleman who has long held the office of territorial surveyor of -Utah. A suitable stone was furnished by the Hon. Brigham Young, and was -carried to Black Rock without charge through the courtesy of Mr. Heber -P. Kimball, superintendent of the Utah Western Railroad. The block is -of granite, and is three feet in length. It was sunk in the earth, all -but a few inches, on the northern slope of a small limestone knoll just -south of the railroad track at Black Rock. Its top is dressed square, -about 10 × 10 inches, and is marked with a +. It will be convenient to -speak of the top of this monument as the _Black Rock bench_. On the -11th of July, 1877, the surface of the lake was 34.5 feet below the -bench, and it then marked 2.0 feet on the pillar erected by Dr. Park. -The zero of the observation pillar is therefore 36.5 feet below the -bench. - -The accompanying topographic sketch will serve at any time to identify -the position of the bench. - -After consultation with Dr. Park, I concluded that it would be -better not to depend on the Black Rock station for observations in -the future--at least in the immediate future--and other points were -discussed. Eventually it was determined to establish a new station near -Farmington, on the eastern shore of the lake. The point selected is in -an inlet so sheltered that a heavy swell in the lake will not interfere -with accurate observation. At the present stage of water the spot is -well adapted to the purpose, and it can be used with the water 2 feet -lower or 5 feet higher. I was not able to attend personally to the -erection of the pillar, but left the matter in the hands of Mr. Jacob -Miller, of Farmington, who writes me that it was placed in position and -the record begun on the 24th of November, 1877. The pillar is of wood, -and is graduated to inches for 9 feet of its length. - -On the day of its establishment the reading of the water surface was 2 -feet 1 inch. On the 21st of January, 1878, the reading was 2 feet 1¹⁄₂ -inches. - -The Farmington and Black Rock pillars are 23 miles apart. The relative -height of their zeros will be ascertained as soon as practicable by -making coincident readings, during still weather, of the water surface -at the two stations. It is already known that the Farmington zero is -_approximately_ 16 inches lower than the Black Rock. - -A stone “bench” or monument for permanent reference has also been -placed on rising ground near the observation pillar, and the two will -be connected by spirit level. The Farmington bench is of gneiss, and -is marked with a + in the same manner as the Black Rock. The stone was -contributed by Mr. Abbott, of Farmington, and was gratuitously shaped -and placed by Mr. Miller. - -Mr. Miller has also voluntarily assumed charge of the record, and will -make or superintend the observations. It will not be practicable to -visit the pillar daily, nor even at _regular_ intervals, but it is -expected that the record will be as full as the one tabulated above. -The following items are to be noted: - -1. Time of observation, including year, month, day, and hour. - -2. Reading of water surface in feet and inches. - -3. Direction and force of wind. - -4. Account of wind for the preceding 24 hours. - -5. Name of observer. - -These observations will not only determine the annual gain or loss of -the lake, but will in a few years give data to construct the curve of -the annual tide. - -The history of past changes not having been the subject of record, -it became necessary to compile it from such collateral data as were -attainable. The enquiries inaugurated by Professor Henry have been -prosecuted, and have resulted in a tolerably definite determination of -the principal changes since 1847, together with the indication of a -superior limit to earlier oscillations. - -Ever since the settlement of Salt Lake City, in 1847, the islands of -the lake have been used as herd grounds. Fremont and Carrington islands -have been reached by boat, and Antelope and Stansbury islands partly -by boat, partly by fording, and partly by land communication. A large -share of the navigation has been performed by citizens of Farmington, -and the shore is in that neighborhood so flat that the changes of -water level have necessitated frequent changes of landing place. The -pursuits of the boatmen have been so greatly affected that all of the -more important fluctuations were impressed upon their memories, and -most of the changes were so associated with features of the topography -that some estimate of their quantitative values could be made. The -data which became thus available were collated for Professor Henry by -Mr. Miller, a gentleman who himself took part in the navigation, and -of whom I have already had occasion to speak. His results agree very -closely with those derived from an independent investigation of my own, -to which I will now proceed. - -Antelope Island is connected with the delta of the Jordan River by a -broad, flat sand bar that has been usually submerged but occasionally -exposed. It slopes very gently toward the island, and just where it -joins it is interrupted by a narrow channel a few inches in depth. -For a number of years this bar afforded the means of access to the -island, and many persons traversed it. By combining the evidence of -such persons it has been practicable to learn the condition of the ford -up to the time of its final abandonment. From 1847 to 1850 the bar was -dry during the low stage of each winter, and in summer covered by not -more than 20 inches of water. Then began a rise which continued until -1855 or 1856. At that time a horseman could with difficulty ford in the -winter, but all communication was by boat in summer. Then the water -fell for a series of years until in 1860 and 1861 the bar was again dry -in winter. The spring of 1862 was marked by an unusual fall of rain and -snow, whereby the streams were greatly flooded and the lake surface was -raised several feet. In subsequent years the rise continued, until in -1865 the ford became impassable. According to Mr. Miller the present -height was attained in about 1868, and there have since occurred only -minor fluctuations. - -For the purpose of connecting the traditional history as derived from -the ford with the systematic record that has now been inaugurated, I -visited the bar in company with Mr. Miller on the 19th of October, -1877, and made careful soundings. The features of the ford had -been minutely described, and there was no uncertainty as to the -identification of the locality. We found 9 feet of water on the sand -flat, and 9 feet 6 inches in the little channel at its edge. The -examination was completed at 11 a. m.; at 5 p. m. the water stood at 0 -feet 10 inches on the Black Rock pillar; and on the following day at 8 -a. m. we marked its level at the place where the Farmington pillar now -stands, our mark being 2 feet 2 inches above the zero of the pillar. - -The Antelope Island bar thus affords a tolerably complete record from -1847 to 1865, but fails to give any later details. It happens, however, -that the hiatus is filled at another locality. Stansbury Island is -joined to the mainland by a similar bar, which was entirely above -water at the time of Captain Stansbury’s survey, and so continued for -many years. In 1866, the year following that in which the Antelope bar -became unfordable, the water for the first time covered the Stansbury -bar, and its subsequent advance and recession have so affected the -pursuits of the citizens of Grantsville, who used the island for a -winter herd ground, that it will not be difficult to obtain a full -record by compiling their forced observations. Since undertaking the -inquiry I have had no opportunity to visit that town, but the following -facts have been elicited by correspondence. Since the first flooding of -the bar the depth of water has never been less than 1 foot, and it has -never been so great as to prevent fording in winter. But in the summers -of 1872, 1873, and 1874, during the flood stage of the annual tide, -there was no access except by boat, and in those years the lake level -attained its greatest height. In the spring of 1869 the depth was 4¹⁄₂ -feet, and in the autumn of 1877, 2¹⁄₂ feet. - -The last item shows that the Stansbury bar is 7 feet higher than the -Antelope, and serves to connect the two series of observations. - -[Illustration: _Diagram showing the rise and fall of Great Salt Lake -from 1847 to 1877._ - - N. S. = Level of new storm line. - O. S. = Level of old storm line. - S. B. = Level of Stansbury Island bar. - A. B. = Level of Antelope Island bar.] - -Further inquiries will probably render the record more complete -and exact, but, as it now stands, all the general features of the -fluctuations are clearly indicated. In the accompanying diagram -the horizontal spaces represent years, and the vertical, feet. The -irregular curve shows the height of the lake in different years. Where -it is drawn as a full line the data are definite; the dotted portions -are interpolated. - -Upon the same diagram are indicated the levels of two storm lines. The -upper is the limit of wave action at the present time, and is 3 feet -above the winter stage (October, 1877). It is everywhere marked by -drift wood, and in many places by a ridge of sand. Above it there is -a growth, on all steep shores, of sage and other bushes, but those in -immediate proximity are dead, having evidently been killed by the salt -spray. Below the line are still standing the stumps of similar bushes, -and the same can be found 2 or 3 feet below the surface of the water. - -The lower storm line was observed by Captain Stansbury in 1850, and -has been described to me by a number of citizens of Utah to whom it -was familiar at that time and subsequently. Like the line now visible, -it was marked by drift wood, and a growth of bushes, including the -sage, extended down to it; but below it there were seen no stumps. Its -position is now several feet under water, and it is probable that the -advancing waves destroyed most of its features, but the vestiges of the -bushy growth above it remain. - -The peculiarities of the two storm lines have an important bearing on -the history of the lake. The fact that the belt of land between them -supported sage bushes shows that previous to its present submergence -the lake had not covered it for many years. Lands washed by the brine -of the lake become saturated with salt to such extent that even -salt-loving plants cannot live upon them, and it is a familiar fact -that the sage (_Artemisia sempervirens_) never grows in Utah upon soil -so saline as to be unfavorable for grain. The rains of many years, and -perhaps even of centuries, would be needed to cleanse land abandoned by -the lake so that it could sustain the salt-hating bushes, and we cannot -avoid the conclusion that the ancient storm line had been for a long -period the superior limit of the fluctuations of the lake surface. - -To avoid misapprehension, it should be stated that the storm lines -have been described as they appear on the eastern shore of Antelope -Island, a locality where the slope of the ground amounts to three or -four degrees. The circumstances are different at the margin of the -mainland, and especially where the slopes are very gentle. The lake is -so shallow that its equilibrium is greatly disturbed by strong winds. -Its waves are small, but in storms the water is pushed high up on the -land toward which the wind blows, the extreme effects being produced -where the inclination is most gentle. The islands, however, are little -flooded; the water does not accumulate against them, but is driven -past; and the easterly gales that produced the present storm line on -the east shore of Antelope Island may have driven so much water to -the westward as even to have depressed the level in that locality. -Moreover, where the land surface is nearly level, the cleansing by rain -of portions once submerged is indefinitely retarded. On all the flatter -shores the lake is bordered by tracts too saline for reclamation by -the farmer, and either bare of vegetation or scantily covered by -salt-loving shrubs. These tracts are above the modern storm line, and -they acquired their salt during some flood too remote to be considered -in this connection. The largest of them is called the Great Salt Lake -Desert, and has a greater area than the lake itself. - -Thus it appears that in recent times the lake has overstepped a bound -to which it had long been subject. Previous to the year 1865, and for -a period of indefinite duration, it rose and fell with the limited -oscillation and with the annual tide, but was never carried above a -certain limiting line. In that year, or the one following, it passed -the line, and it has not yet returned. The annual tide and the limited -oscillation are continued as before, but the lowest stage of the new -regime is higher than the highest stage of the old. The mean stage of -the new regime is 7 or 8 feet higher than the mean stage of the old. -The mean area of the water surface is a sixth part greater under the -new regime than under the old. - -The last statement is based on the United States surveys of Captain -Stansbury and Mr. King. The former gathered the material for his map -in 1850, when the water was at its lowest stage, and the latter in the -spring of 1869, when the water was near its highest stage. The one map -shows an area of 1,750 and the other of 2,166 square miles. From these -I estimate the old mean area at 1,820 miles, the new at 2,125 miles, -and the increase at 305 miles, or 17 per cent. - - [Illustration: COMPARATIVE MAP - - OF - - GREAT SALT LAKE, UTAH - - COMPILED TO SHOW ITS INCREASE OF AREA - - _The topography and later shore-line are taken from the Survey of Mr. - Clarence King, U.S. Geologist; the earlier shore-line from the Survey - of Capt. Howard Stansbury, U.S.A._] - -The “abnormal change” of the lake may then be described as an infilling -or rise of the water whereby its ordinary level has been raised 7 or 8 -feet and its ordinary area has been increased a sixth part; and this -appears to be distinct from the limited oscillation and annual tide, -which may be regarded as comparatively normal. To account for it a -number of theories have been proposed, and three of them seem worthy -of consideration. They appeal respectively to volcanic, climatic, and -human agencies. - - - VOLCANIC THEORY. - -It has been surmised that upheavals of the land, such as sometimes -accompany earthquakes, might have changed the form of the lake bed -and displaced from some region the water that has overflowed others. -This hypothesis acquires a certain plausibility from the fact that -the series of uplifts and downthrows by which the mountains of the -region were formed have been traced down to a very recent date, but -it is negatived by such an array of facts that it cannot be regarded -as tenable. In the first place, the water has risen against _all_ the -shores and about every island of which we have account. The farmers -of the eastern and southern margins have lost pastures and meadows by -submergence. At the north, Bear River Bay has advanced several miles -upon the land. At the west, a boat has recently sailed a number of -miles across tracts that were traversed by Captain Stansbury’s land -parties. That officer has described and mapped Strong’s Knob and -Stansbury Island as peninsulas, but they have since become islands. -Antelope Island is no longer accessible by ford, and Egg Island, the -nesting ground of the gulls and pelicans, has become a reef. Springs -that supplied Captain Stansbury with fresh water near Promontory Point -are now submerged and inaccessible; and other springs have been covered -on the shores of Antelope, Stansbury, and Fremont islands. - -In the second place, the rise of the lake is correlated in time with -the increase of the inflowing streams, which has been everywhere -observed by irrigators, and it is logical to refer the two phenomena to -the same cause. - -And, finally, if upheaval could account for the enlargement of the -lake, it would still be inadequate to account for the maintenance -of its increased size, in the face of an evaporation that yearly -removes a layer several feet in depth. The same compensatory principle -that restricts the “limited oscillation” would quickly restore the -equilibrium between inflow and evaporation, in whatever manner it was -disturbed. - - - CLIMATIC THEORY. - -It is generally supposed that the change is a phenomenon of climate, -and this hypothesis includes harmoniously the increase of streams with -the increase of lake surface. By some it is thought that the climate of -the district is undergoing, or has undergone, a permanent change; and -by others that the series of oscillations about a mean condition which -characterizes every climate has in this case developed a moist phase -of exceptional degree and duration. The latter view was my own before -I became aware of the features of the ancient storm line, but it now -appears to me untenable. That a variable surface of evaporation, which -had for a long period recognized a limit to its expansion, should not -merely exceed that limit, but should maintain an abnormal extent for -more than a decade, is in a high degree improbable. - -It is far more probable that one of those gradual climatic changes, of -which geology has shown the magnitude and meteorology has illustrated -the slowness, here finds a manifestation. The observed change is -apparently abrupt, and even saltatory; but of this we cannot be -certain, since it is impossible from a record of only thirty years -to eliminate the limited oscillation. It is quite conceivable that -were such elimination effected, the residual change would appear as a -continuous and equable increase of the lake. However that may be, a -certain degree of rapidity of change is necessarily involved, for the -climatic change which is able in a decade to augment by a sixth part -the mean area of evaporation cannot be of exceeding slowness. If we -can ascertain how great a change would be demanded, it will be well to -compare it with such changes as have been observed in other parts of -the country, and see whether its magnitude is such as to interfere with -its assumption. - -The prevailing winds of Utah are westerly, and it may be said in a -general way that the atmosphere of the drainage basin of Great Salt -Lake is part of an air current moving from west to east. The basin -having no outlet, the precipitation of rain and snow within its limits -must be counter-balanced by the evaporation. The air current must on -the average absorb the same quantity of moisture that it discharges. -Part of the absorption is from land surfaces and part from water, the -latter being the more rapid. - -If, now, the equilibrium be disturbed by an augmented humidity of the -inflowing air, two results ensue. On the one hand the precipitation -is increased, and on the other, the absorbent power of the air being -less, the rate of evaporation is diminished. In so dry a climate the -precipitation is increased in greater ratio than the humidity, and the -rate of evaporation is diminished in less ratio; while of the increased -precipitation an increased percentage gathers in streams and finds its -way to the lake. That reservoir, having its inflow augmented and its -rate of evaporation decreased, gains in volume and grows in breadth -until the evaporation from the added expanse is sufficient to restore -the equilibrium. Giving attention to the fact that the lake receives -a greater percentage of the total downfall than before, and to the -fact that its rate of evaporation is at the same time diminished it is -evident that the resultant augmentation of the lake surface is more -than proportional to the augmentation of the precipitation. - -We are therefore warranted in assuming that an increase of humidity -sufficient to account for the observed increase of 17 per cent. in the -size of the lake would modify the rainfall by less than 17 per cent. -The actual change of rainfall cannot be estimated with any degree of -precision, but from a review of such data as are at my command I am led -to the opinion that an allowance of 10 per cent. would be as likely to -exceed as to fall short, while an allowance of 7 per cent. would be at -the verge of possibility. - -The rainfall of some other portions of the continent has been recorded -with such a degree of thoroughness and for such a period that a term -of comparison is afforded. In his discussion of the precipitation of -the United States, Mr. Schott has grouped the stations by climatic -districts, and deduced the annual means for the several districts. -Making use of his table on page 154 (Smithsonian Contributions, No. -222), and restricting my attention to the results derived from five -or more stations, I select the following extreme cases of variation -between the mean annual rainfalls of consecutive decades. District I -comprises the sea coast from Maine to Virginia, and the record includes -five or more stations from 1827 to 1867. From the decade 1831-’40 to -the decade 1841-’50 the rainfall increased 6 per cent. District II -comprises the state of New York and adjacent regions, and includes -five or more stations from 1830 to 1866. From the decade 1847-’56 to -the decade 1857-’66 the rainfall increased 9 per cent. District IV -comprises the Ohio Valley and adjacent regions, and includes five -or more stations from 1837 to 1866. From decade 1841-’50 to decade -1851-’60 the rainfall diminished 8 per cent. - -The case, then, stands that the best comparable districts and epochs -exhibit extreme fluctuations from decade to decade of from 6 to 9 per -cent, while the rise of Great Salt Lake implies a fluctuation of about -10 per cent. But before deciding that the hypothetical fluctuation -in Utah is extraordinary, consideration should be given to the fact -that in the dry climate of that region a given change in humidity will -produce a relatively great change in rainfall, while an identical -change of rainfall, measured in inches, acquires an exaggerated -importance when expressed as the percentage of a small total rainfall. -Giving due weight to these considerations, I am led to conclude -that the assumed increase of rainfall in Utah is not of incredible -magnitude, and consequently that the hypothesis which ascribes the rise -of the lake to a change of climate should be regarded as tenable. It -by no means follows that it is proven, and so long as it depends on an -assumption the truth of which is merely possible, but not established, -it can claim no more than a provisional acceptance. - -It is proper to add that, so far as I entertain the idea of a change of -climate, I do so without referring the change to any local cause. It is -frequently asserted that the cultivated lands of Utah “draw the rain”; -or that the prayers of the religious community inhabiting the territory -have brought water to their growing crops; or that the telegraph -wires and iron rails which gird the country have in some way caused -electricity to induce precipitation; but none of these agencies seem to -be competent. The weather of the globe is a complex whole, each part of -which reacts on every other, and each part of which depends on every -other. The weather of Utah is an interdependent part of the whole, and -cannot be referred to its causes until the entire subject is mastered. -The simpler and more immediate meteoric reactions have been so far -analyzed that their results are daily predicted; but the remote sources -of our daily changes, as well as the causes of the greater cycles of -change, are still beyond our reach. Although withdrawn from the domain -of the unknowable, they remain within that of the unknown. - - - THEORY OF HUMAN AGENCIES. - -The only remaining theory of value is the one advocated by Professor -Powell: that the phenomena are to be ascribed to the modification of -the surface of the earth by the agency of man. The rise of the lake -and the increase of streams have been observed since the settlement of -the country by the white man, and the sage brush on the old storm line -shows that they had not been carried to the same extent at any previous -period in the century. They have coincided in time with the extension -of the operations of civilization; and the settlers attach this idea to -the facts in detail as well as in general. They have frequently told me -that wherever and whenever a settlement was established, there followed -in a few years an increase of the water supply, and these statements -have been supported by such enumerations of details that they seem -worthy of consideration. If they are well founded, the secret of the -change will surely be found among the modifications incident to the -operations of the settler. - -Similar testimony was gathered by Prof. Cyrus Thomas in 1869 in regard -to the increase of water supply at the western edge of the plains, and -the following conclusion appears in his report to Dr. Hayden (page 237 -of the reprint of Dr. Hayden’s reports for 1867, 1868, and 1869): - - All this, it seems to me, must lead to the conclusion that since the - territory [Colorado] has begun to be settled, towns and cities built - up, farms cultivated, mines opened, and roads made and travelled, - there has been a gradual increase of moisture. Be the cause what it - may, unless it is assumed that there is a cycle of years through which - there is an increase, and that there will be a corresponding decrease, - the fact must be admitted upon this accumulated testimony. I therefore - give it as my firm conviction that this increase is of a permanent - nature, and not periodical, and that it has commenced within eight - years past, and that it is in some way connected with the settlement - of the country, and that as the population increases the moisture will - increase. - -Notwithstanding the confidence of Professor Thomas’s conclusions, he -appears to have reached them by a leap, for he makes no attempt to -analyze the influence of civilized man on nature to which he appeals. -Before we accept his results, it will be necessary to inquire in what -way the white man has modified the conditions by which the water supply -is controlled. - -To facilitate this inquiry, an attempt will be made to give a new and -more convenient form to our expression of the amount of change for -which it is necessary to account in the basin of Great Salt Lake. - -The inflow of the lake is derived chiefly from three rivers, and is -susceptible of very exact determination. Thorough measurement has not -yet been made, but there has been a single determination of each river -and minor stream, and a rough estimate can be based on them. The Bear -and the Weber were measured in October, 1877, and I am led by the -analogy of other streams and by the characters of the river channels -to judge that the mean volume of the Bear for the year was twice its -volume at the date of measurement, and that of the Weber four times. -The mean flow of the Jordan can be estimated with more confidence, for -reasons which will appear in a following chapter. The “supply from -other sources” mentioned in the table includes all the creeks that flow -from the Wasatch Mountains, between Draper and Hampden, together with -the Malade River, Blue Creek, the creeks of Skull and Tooele Valleys, -and the line of springs that encircles the lake. - - +---------------------------------------------+----------+-----------+ - | | Measured | Estimated | - | |volume in |mean volume| - | Rivers, etc. | feet per | in feet | - | | second. |per second.| - +---------------------------------------------+----------+-----------+ - |Bear River, measured October 4, 1877, | | | - | at Hampden Bridge | 2,600 | 5,200 | - |Weber River, measured October 11, near Ogden | 500 | 2,000 | - |Jordan River, measured July 8, near Draper | 1,275 | 1,000 | - |Supply from other sources | -- | 1,800 | - | +----------+-----------+ - | Total | -- | 10,000 | - |Deduct the water used in irrigation | -- | 600 | - | +----------+-----------+ - | Remainder | -- | 9,400 | - +---------------------------------------------+----------+-----------+ - -The result expresses the mean inflow to the lake in 1877, and is -probably not more than 25 per cent. in error. The total inflow for the -year would suffice to cover the lake to a depth of 60 inches. In the -same year (or from October, 1876, to October, 1877) the lake fell 6¹⁄₂ -inches, showing that the loss by evaporation was by so much greater -than the gain by inflow. The total annual evaporation of inflowing -water may therefore be placed provisionally at 66¹⁄₂ inches. If we add -to this the rain and snow which fall on the lake, we deduce a total -annual evaporation of about 80 inches of water; but for the present -purpose it will be more convenient to consider the former figure. - -The extent of the Salt Lake basin is about 28,500 square miles. The -western portion, amounting to 12,500 miles, sends no water to the -lake, yielding all its rainfall to evaporation within its own limits. -The remaining 16,000 miles includes both plains and mountains, and -its tribute is unequal. To supply 66¹⁄₂ inches annually to the whole -area of the lake, 2,125 miles, it must yield a sheet of water with an -average thickness of 8.83 inches. In former times, when the lake had an -area of only 1,820 miles, the yield of the same area was 7.43 inches. -The advance from 7.43 to 8.83, or the addition of 1 inch and 4 tenths -to the mean outflow of the district, is the phenomenon to be accounted -for. - -All the water that is precipitated within the district as rain or snow -returns eventually to the air, but different portions are returned -in different ways. Of the snow, a portion is melted and a portion is -evaporated without melting. Of the melted snow and the rain, a part is -absorbed by vegetation and soil, and is afterward reabsorbed by the -air; another part runs from the surface in rills, and a third part -sinks into the underlying formations and afterward emerges in springs. -The streams which arise from springs and rills are again divided. Part -of the water is evaporated from the surfaces of the streams and of -fresh water lakes interrupting their courses. Another part enters the -adjacent porous soils, and either meets in them the air by which it is -slowly absorbed, or else so saturates them as to produce marshes from -which evaporation progresses rapidly at the surface. The remainder -flows to Great Salt Lake, and is in time evaporated from its surface. -The lesser portion of the precipitation enters the lake; the greater -is intercepted on the way and turned back to the air. Whatever man -has done to clear the way for the flowing water has diminished local -evaporation and helped to fill the lake. Whatever he has done to -increase local evaporation has tended to empty the lake. - -The white man has modified the conditions of drainage, first, by the -cultivation of the soil; second, by the raising of herds; and, third, -by the cutting of trees. - -1. By plowing the earth the farmer has rendered it more porous and -absorbent, so that a smaller percentage of the passing shower runs off. -He has destroyed the native vegetation, and replaced it by another -that may or may not increase the local evaporation; but this is of -little moment, because his operations have been conducted on gentle -slopes which in their natural condition contributed very little to the -streams. It is of greater import that he has diverted water already -accumulated in streams, and for the purposes of irrigation has spread -it broadly upon the land, whence it is absorbed by the air. In this way -he has diminished the inflow of the lake. - -Incidental to the work of irrigation has been what is known as the -“opening out” of springs. Small springs are apt to produce bogs from -which much water is evaporated, and it has been found that by running -ditches through them the water can be gathered into streams instead. -The streams of water thus rescued from local dissipation are consumed -in irrigation during a few months of the year, but for the remainder -go to swell the rivers, and the general tendency of the work is to -increase the inflow of the lake. A similar and probably greater result -has been achieved by the cutting of beaver dams. In its natural -condition every stream not subject to violent floods was ponded from -end to end by the beaver. Its water surface was greatly expanded, -and its flood plains were converted into marshes. The irrigator has -destroyed the dams and drained the marshes. - -There are a few localities where drainage has been resorted to for the -reclamation of wet hay lands, and that work has the same influence on -the discharge to the lake. - -2. The area affected by grazing is far greater than that affected by -farming. Cattle, horses, and sheep have ranged through all the valleys -and upon all the mountains. Over large areas they have destroyed the -native grasses, and they have everywhere reduced them. Where once the -water from rain was entangled in a mesh of vegetation and restrained -from gathering into rills, there is now only an open growth of bushes -that offer no obstruction. Where once the snows of autumn were spread -on a non-conducting mat of hay, and wasted by evaporation until the -sunshine came to melt them, they now fall upon naked earth and are -melted at once by its warmth. - -The treading of many feet at the boggy springs compacts the spongy mold -and renders it impervious. The water is no longer able to percolate, -and runs away in streams. The porous beds of brooklets are in the same -way tramped and puddled by the feet of cattle, and much water that -formerly sank by the way is now carried forward. - -In all these ways the herds tend to increase the inflow of the lake, -and there is perhaps no way in which they have lessened it. - -3. The cutting of trees for lumber and fence material and fuel has -further increased the streams. By the removal of foliage, that share -of the rain and snow which was formerly caught by it and thence -evaporated, is now permitted to reach the ground, and some part of it -is contributed to the streams. Snow beds that were once shaded are -now exposed to the sun, and their melting is so accelerated that a -comparatively small proportion of their contents is wasted by the wind. -Moreover, that which is melted is melted more rapidly, and a larger -share of it is formed into rills. - -On the whole, it appears that the white man causes a greater percentage -of the precipitation in snow to be melted and a less percentage to be -evaporated directly. This follows from the destruction of trees and of -grass. By reducing the amount of vegetation he gives a freer flow to -the water from rain and melting snow and carries a greater percentage -of it to streams, while a smaller percentage reaches the air by -evaporation from the soil. By the treading of his cattle he diminishes -the leakage of the smaller water channels, and conserves the streams -gathered there. By the same means and by the digging of drains he -dries the marshes and thereby enlarges the streams. In all these ways -he increases the outflow of the land and the inflow of the lake. He -diminishes the inflow in a notable degree only by irrigation. - -The direct influence of irrigation upon the inflow is susceptible of -quantitative statement. Four hundred square miles of land in Utah and -Idaho are fertilized by water that would otherwise flow to the lake, -and they dissipate annually a layer of about 20 inches. To supply these -20 inches the drainage district of 16,000 miles yields an average layer -of 0.5 inch, and this yield is in addition to the 1.4 inches required -to maintain the increase of lake surface. The total augmentation of the -annual water supply is therefore represented by a sheet 1.9 inches in -depth covering the entire district. - -The indirect influence of irrigation, and the influences exerted by the -grazier and the woodman, cannot be estimated from any existing data, -but of their tendencies there can be no question. To some extent they -diminish local evaporation, and induce a larger share of the rainfall -to gather in the streams; and to one who has contrasted the district in -question with similar districts in their virgin condition, there seems -no extravagance in ascribing to them the whole of the observed change. - -In the valley of the Mississippi and on the Atlantic coast, it has been -observed that the floods of rivers are higher than formerly, and that -the low stages are lower, and the change has been ascribed by Ellet -and others to the destruction of the native vegetation. The removal -of forests and of prairie grasses is believed to facilitate the rapid -discharge from the land of the water from rain and melted snow, and to -diminish the amount stored in the soil to maintain springs. In an arid -country like Utah, where the thirst of the air is not satisfied by the -entire rainfall, any influence that will increase the rapidity of the -discharge must also increase the amount of the discharge. The moisture -that lingers on the surface is lost. - -On the whole, it may be most wise to hold the question an open one -whether the water supply of the lake has been increased by a climatic -change or by human agency. So far as we now know, neither theory is -inconsistent with the facts, and it is possible that the truth includes -both. The former appeals to a cause that may perhaps be adequate, but -is not independently known to exist. The latter appeals to causes known -to exist but quantitatively undetermined. - -It is gratifying to turn to the economic bearings of the question, for -the theories best sustained by facts are those most flattering to the -agricultural future of the Arid Region. If the filling of the streams -and the rise of the lake were due to a transient extreme of climate, -that extreme would be followed by a return to a mean condition, or -perhaps by an oscillation in the opposite direction, and a large share -of the fields now productive would be stricken by drought and returned -to the desert. - -If the increase of water supply is due to a progressive change of -climate forming part of a long cycle, it is practically permanent, and -future changes are more likely to be in the same advantageous direction -than in the opposite. The lands now reclaimed are assured for years to -come, and there is every encouragement for the work of utilizing the -existing streams to the utmost. - -And finally, if the increase of water supply is due to the changes -wrought by the industries of the white man, the prospect is even -better. Not only is every gain of the present assured for the future, -but future gain may be predicted. Not alone are the agricultural -facilities of this district improving, but the facilities in the whole -Rocky Mountain Region are improving and will improve. Not only does the -settler incidentally and unconsciously enhance his natural privilege, -but it is possible, by the aid of a careful study of the subject, to -devise such systematic methods as shall render his work still more -effectual. - - - FARMING WITHOUT IRRIGATION. - -The general rule that agriculture in Utah is dependent on artificial -irrigation finds exception in two ways. First, there are some -localities naturally irrigated; and, second, there is at least one -locality of which the local climate permits dry farming. - -Along the low banks of many streams there are fertile strips of -land. The soil is in every such case of a porous nature, and water -from the stream percolates laterally and rises to the roots of the -plants. Nearly all such lands are flooded in spring time, and they -are usually devoted to hay as an exclusive crop; but some of them are -above ordinary floods and are suited for other uses. It rarely happens, -however, that they are farmed without some irrigation, for the reason -that the use of the convenient water render the harvest more secure and -abundant. - -The same fertility is sometimes induced by subterranean waters which -have no connection with surface streams. In such cases there is -usually, and perhaps always, an impervious subsoil which retains -percolating water near the surface. A remarkable instance of this sort -is known at the western base of the Wasatch Mountains. A strip of land -from 20 to 40 rods broad, and marking the junction of the mountain -slope with the plain, has been found productive from Hampton’s Bridge -to Brigham City, a distance of 18 miles. In some parts it has been -irrigated, with the result of doubling or trebling the yield, but where -water has not been obtained, the farmer has nevertheless succeeded in -extracting a living. A similar but narrower belt of land lies at the -eastern base of the Promontory range, and a few others have been found. -In each locality the proximity of subterranean water to the surface is -shown by the success of shallow wells, and there is evidently a natural -irrigation. - -There is one region, however, where natural irrigation is out of the -question, but where crops have nevertheless been secured. Bear River -“City” was founded by a company of Danes, who brought the water of the -Malade River to irrigate their fields. After repeated experiment they -became satisfied that the water was so brackish as to be injurious -instead of beneficial, and ceased to use it; and for a number of years -they have obtained a meagre subsistence by dry farming. A district -lying south of Ogden and east of Great Salt Lake, and known as “the -Sand Ridge”, has recently been brought in use, and in 1876 and 1877 -winter wheat was harvested with a yield variously reported as from 10 -to 15 bushels per acre. This success is regarded by some of the older -settlers as temporary and delusive, for it is said to have depended on -exceptional spring rains; but the majority of the community have faith -in its permanence, and the experiment is being pushed in many valleys. -In Bear River City and on the Sand Ridge water is not found by shallow -wells, and the land is naturally dry. In these localities, and, so -far as I am aware, in all others where dry land has been successfully -farmed, the soil is sandy, and this appears to be an essential -condition. Success has moreover been restricted to the line of valleys -which lie at the western base of the Wasatch Mountains and near Great -Salt Lake. - -This last feature depends, as I conceive, on a local peculiarity of -climate. The general movement of the atmosphere is from west to east, -and the air which crosses the lake is immediately lifted from its level -to the crest of the Wasatch. Having acquired from the lake an addition -to its quota of moisture, it has less power of absorption and a greater -tendency to precipitation than the atmosphere in general, and it -confers on the eastern shore of the lake a climate of exceptional -humidity. - -The character of this climate is clearly indicated by the assemblage of -the observed facts in regard to precipitation. Through the kindness of -Prof. Joseph Henry I have been permitted to examine the rain records -accumulated by the Smithsonian Institution, including not only those -which have been embodied in the published “Tables,” but the more recent -data to be included in the forthcoming second edition. The following -table shows the mean annual precipitation for all stations in Utah, -Nevada, Wyoming, and Colorado, which have a record two years or more -in extent, together with certain other facts for comparison. The -temperature means are taken from the Smithsonian Temperature Tables and -the United States Signal Service Reports. - - +-------------------------+-------+------------+------+-----+---------+ - | | | Mean | | | | - | | Annual|Temperature.|Height| | Length | - | Station. |precip-|------+-----|above |Lati-| of | - | | ita- |Spr- |Sum- | sea. |tude.| record. | - | | tion. | ing. | mer.| | | | - +-------------------------+-------+------+-----+------+-----+---------+ - | |Inches.| Deg. F. | Feet.| ° ´|Yrs. Mos.| - |Salt Lake City, Utah | 24.81 | 50 | 74 | 4,354|40 46| 9 2 | - |Camp Douglas, Utah | 18.82 | 49 | 73 | 5,024|40 46| 10 3 | - |Colorado Springs, Colo | 17.59 | 44 | 68 | 5,970|38 49| 3 0 | - |Camp Winfield Scott, Nev | 17.33 | 47 | 74 | -- |41 34| 2 8 | - |Fort Massachusetts, Colo | 17.23 | -- | -- | 8,365|37 32| 5 1 | - |Golden City, Colo | 17.01 | -- | 72 | 5,240|39 44| 2 3 | - |Fort Sedgwick, Colo | 15.44 | 47 | 74 | 3,600|40 58| 2 1 | - |Fort Fred. Steele, Wyo | 15.38 | 41 | 66 | 6,845|41 47| 5 5 | - |Fort Fetterman, Wyo | 15.10 | 41 | 67 | 5,012|42 50| 5 7 | - |Fort Garland, Colo | 14.86 | 43 | 64 | 7,864|37 25| 13 1 | - |Fort Laramie, Wyo | 14.45 | 47 | 73 | 4,472|42 12| 17 8 | - |Fort D. A, Russell, Wyo | 14.09 | 36 | 64 | 6,000|41 12| 5 1 | - |Denver, Colo | 13.77 | 46 | 69 | 5,250|39 45| 5 1 | - |Harrisburg, Utah | 13.74 | -- | -- | 3,275|37 10| 2 2 | - |Fort Reynolds, Colo | 13.26 | 52 | 75 | 4,300|38 12| 2 8 | - |Fort Lyon, Colo | 12.56 | 51 | 77 | 4,000|38 08| 7 9 | - |Fort Sanders, Wyo | 11.46 | 38 | 62 | 7,161|41 17| 6 10 | - |Saint George, Utah | 11.39 | -- | -- | 2,800|37 13| 2 11 | - |Camp Halleck, Nev | 10.98 | 45 | 68 | 5,790|40 49| 5 8 | - |Cheyenne, Wyo | 10.14 | 40 | 66 | 6,075|41 08| 3 9 | - |Camp McDermitt, Nev | 8.53 | 46 | 70 | 4,700|41 58| 6 4 | - |Fort Bridger, Wyo | 8.43 | 39 | 63 | 6,656|41 20| 12 10 | - |Fort Churchill, Nev | 7.43 | 52 | 75 | 4,284|39 17| 3 9 | - |Camp Floyd, Utah | 7.33 | 49 | 74 | 4,867|40 16| 2 6 | - | +-------+------+-----+------+-----+---------+ - | Means | 13.80 | 45 | 70 | 5,300|40 05| -- | - +-------------------------+-------+------+-----+------+-----+---------+ - -Two of the stations, Salt Lake City and Camp Douglas, lie within the -zone of climate modified by Great Salt Lake, and a brief inspection -of the table will show how greatly their climate is influenced. As a -general rule, the localities of greatest precipitation in the Rocky -Mountain Region have so great altitude that their summer temperature -does not permit agriculture, but Salt Lake City, with an altitude -1,000 feet below the average of the 24 stations, and a temperature 4° -above the average, has a rainfall 11 inches greater than the average; -and Camp Douglas, 3° warmer than the average and 250 feet lower, has -a rainfall 5 inches greater. If the two stations are compared with -those which lie nearest them, the contrast is still more striking. Camp -Halleck, 130 miles west of the lake, and 600 feet higher than Camp -Douglas, has a rainfall of 11 inches only. Fort Bridger, 90 miles east -of the lake and 1,600 feet higher than Camp Douglas, has a rainfall of -8 inches. Camp Floyd, 30 miles south of the lake and sheltered from its -influence by mountains, receives only 7¹⁄₃ inches. But Salt Lake City -and Camp Douglas, lying between the lake and the Wasatch Range, record -respectively 24.8 and 18.8 inches. - -In fine, it appears that the climate of the eastern shore of Great Salt -Lake is decidedly exceptional and approximates in humidity to that of -Central Kansas. The fact that it admits of dry farming gives no warrant -for the belief that large areas in the Arid Region can be cultivated -without irrigation, but serves rather to confirm the conclusion that -the limit to remunerative dry farming is practically drawn by the -isohyetal line of 22 inches. Even in this most favored district the -yield is so small that it can be doubled by irrigation, and eventually -water ditches will be carried to nearly all the land that has yet been -plowed. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - - - CERTAIN IMPORTANT QUESTIONS RELATING TO IRRIGABLE LANDS. - - - THE UNIT OF WATER USED IN IRRIGATION. - -The unit of water employed in mining as well as manufacturing -enterprises in the west is usually the inch, meaning thereby the amount -of water which will flow through an orifice one inch square. But in -practice this quantity is very indefinite, due to the “head” or amount -of pressure from above. In some districts this latter is taken at six -inches. Another source of uncertainty exists in the fact that increase -in the size of the orifice and increase in the amount of flow do not -progress in the same ratio. An orifice of one square inch will not -admit of a discharge one-tenth as great as an orifice of ten square -inches. An inch of water, therefore, is variable with the size of the -stream as well as with the head or pressure. For these reasons it -seemed better to take a more definite quantity of water, and for this -purpose the _second-foot_ has been adopted. By its use the volume of -a stream will be given by stating the number of cubic feet which the -stream will deliver per second. - - - THE QUANTITATIVE VALUE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION. - -In general, throughout the Arid Region the extent of the irrigable land -is limited by the water supply; the arable lands are much greater than -the irrigable. Hence it becomes necessary, in determining the amount of -irrigable lands with reasonably approximate accuracy, to determine the -value of water in irrigation; that is, the amount of land which a given -amount of water will serve. - -All questions of concrete or applied science are more or less complex -by reason of the multifarious conditions found in nature, and this is -eminently true of the problem we are now to solve, namely, how much -water must an acre of land receive by irrigation to render agriculture -thereon most successful; or, how much land will a given amount of water -adequately supply. This will be affected by the following general -conditions, namely, the amount of water that will be furnished by -rainfall, for if there is rainfall in the season of growing crops, -irrigation is necessary only to supply the deficiency; second, the -character of the soil and subsoil. If the conditions of soil are -unfavorable, the water supply may be speedily evaporated on the one -hand, or quickly lost by subterranean drainage on the other; but if -there be a soil permitting the proper permeation of water downward and -upward, and an impervious subsoil, the amount furnished by artificial -irrigation will be held in such a manner as to serve the soil bearing -crops to the greatest extent; and, lastly, there is a great difference -in the amount of water needed for different crops, some requiring less, -others more. - -Under these heads come the general complicating conditions. In the -mountainous country the areal distribution of rainfall is preëminently -variable, as the currents of air which carry the water are deflected in -various ways by diverse topographic inequalities. The rainfall is also -exceedingly irregular, varying from year to year, and again from season -to season. - -But in all these varying conditions of time and space there is one -fact which must control our conclusions in considering most of the -lands of the Arid Region, namely: any district of country which we may -be studying is liable for many seasons in a long series to be without -rainfall, when the whole supply must be received from irrigation. -Safety in agricultural operations will be secured by neglecting the -rainfall and considering only the supply of water to be furnished by -artificial methods; the less favorable seasons must be considered; -in the more favorable there will be a surplus. In general, this -statement applies throughout the Arid Region, but there are some -limited localities where a small amount of rainfall in the season of -growing crops seems to be constant from year to year. In such districts -irrigation will only be used to supply deficiencies. - -The complicating conditions arising from soil and subsoil are many. -Experience has already shown that there are occasional conditions of -soil and subsoil so favorable that the water may be supplied before the -growing season, and the subsoil will hold it for weeks, or even months, -and gradually yield the moisture to the overlying soil by slow upward -percolation or capillary attraction during the season when growing -crops require its fertilizing effect. When such conditions of soil and -subsoil obtain, the construction of reservoirs is unnecessary, and the -whole annual supply of the streams may be utilized. On the other hand, -there are extremely pervious soils underlaid by sands and gravels, -which speedily carry away the water by a natural under drainage. Here -a maximum supply by irrigation is necessary, as the soils must be kept -moist by frequent flowing. Under such conditions the amount of water to -be supplied is many fold greater than under the conditions previously -mentioned, and between these extremes almost infinite variety prevails. - -Practical agriculture by irrigation has also demonstrated the fact -that the wants of different crops are exceedingly variable, some -requiring many fold the amount of others. This is due in part to the -length of time necessary to the maturing of the crops, in part to the -amount of constant moisture necessary to their successful growth. But -by excluding the variability due to rainfall, and considering only -that due to differences of soils and crops, and by taking advantage -of a wide experience, a general average may be obtained of sufficient -accuracy for the purposes here in view. - -In examining the literature of this subject it was found that the -experience in other countries could not be used as a guide in -considering our problems. In general, irrigation in Europe and Asia -is practiced only to supply deficiencies, and the crops there raised -are only in part the same as with us, and the variation on account of -the crops is very great. Certain statements of Marsh in his “Man and -Nature” have been copied into the journals and reports published in -the United States, and made to do duty on many occasions; but these -statements are rather misleading, as the experience of farmers in the -Arid Region has abundantly demonstrated. The writers who have used -them have in general overestimated the quantitative value of water in -irrigation. The facts in Italy, in Spain, in Grenada, and India are -valuable severally for discussion in the countries named, but must be -used in a discussion of the arid lands of the United States with much -care. It seemed better, under these circumstances, to determine the -quantitative value of water in irrigation in Utah from the experience -of the farmers of Utah. Irrigation has there been practiced for about -thirty years, and gradually during that time the area of land thus -redeemed has been increased, until at present about 325,000 acres -of land are under cultivation. A great variety of crops have been -cultivated--corn, wheat, oats, rye, garden vegetables, orchard trees, -fruits, vines, etc., etc.; and even the fig tree and sugar cane are -there raised. - -During the past six or seven years I have from time to time, as -occasion was afforded, directed my attention to this problem, but being -exceedingly complex, a very wide range of facts must be considered in -order to obtain a reasonably approximate average. During the past year -the task of more thoroughly investigating this subject was delegated -to Mr. Gilbert. The results of his studies appear in a foregoing -chapter, written by him; but it may be stated here that he has reached -the conclusion that a continuous flow of one cubic foot of water -per second, _i. e._, a _second-foot_ of water, will, in most of the -lands of Utah, serve about 100 acres for the general average of crops -cultivated in that country; but to secure that amount of service from -the water very careful and economic methods of irrigation must be -practiced. At present, there are few instances where such economic -methods are used. In general, there is a great wastage, due to badly -constructed canals, from which the water either percolates away or -breaks away from time to time; due, also, to too rapid flow, and also -to an excessive use of the water, as there is a tendency among the -farmers to irrigate too frequently and too copiously, errors corrected -only by long experience. - -The studies of Mr. Gilbert, under the circumstances, were quite -thorough, and his conclusions accord with my own, derived from a more -desultory but longer study of the subject. - - - AREA OF IRRIGABLE LAND SOMETIMES NOT LIMITED BY WATER SUPPLY. - -While, as a general fact, the area of arable land is greater than the -area of irrigable land, by reason of the insufficient supply of water, -yet in considering limited tracts it may often be found that the supply -of water is so great that only a part of it can be used thereon. In -such cases the area of irrigable land is limited by the extent to which -the water can be used by proper engineering skill. This is true in -considering some portions of Utah, where the waters of the Green and -Colorado cannot all be used within that territory. Eventually these -surplus waters will be used in southern California. - - - METHOD OF DETERMINING THE SUPPLY OF WATER. - -To determine the amount of irrigable land in Utah, it was necessary to -consider the supply; that is, to determine the amount of water flowing -in the several streams. Again, this quantity is variable in each stream -from season to season and from year to year. The irrigable season is -but a small portion of the year. To utilize the entire annual discharge -of the water, it would be necessary to hold the surplus flowing in the -non-growing season in reservoirs, and even by this method the whole -amount could not be utilized, as a great quantity would be lost by -evaporation. As the utilization of the water by reservoirs will be to -a great extent postponed for many years, the question of immediate -practical importance is resolved into a consideration of the amount of -water that the streams will afford during the irrigating season. But -in the earlier part of the season the flow in most of the streams in -this western region is great, and it steadily diminishes to the end of -the summer. Earlier in the season there is more water, while for the -average of crops the greater amount is needed later. - -The practical capacity of a stream will then be determined by its flow -at the time when that is least in comparison with the demands of the -growing crops. This will be called the critical period, and the volume -of water of the critical period will determine the capacity of the -stream. The critical period will vary in different parts of the region -from the latter part of June until the first part of August. For the -purposes of this discussion it was only necessary to determine the -flow of the water during the critical period. This has been done by -very simple methods. Usually in each case a section of the stream has -been selected having the least possible variation of outline and flow. -A cross-section of the stream has been measured, and the velocity of -flow determined. With these factors the capacity of the streams has -been obtained. In some cases single measurements have been made; in -others several at different seasons, rarely in different years. The -determination of the available volume of the several streams by such -methods is necessarily uncertain, especially from the fact that it has -not always been possible to gauge the streams exactly at the critical -period; and, again, the flow in one season may differ materially from -that in another. But as the capacity of a stream should never be rated -by its volume in seasons of abundant flow, we have endeavored as far -as possible to determine the capacity of the streams in low water -years. Altogether the amount of water in the several streams has been -determined crudely, and at best the data given must be considered -tolerable approximations. In considering the several streams experience -may hereafter discover many errors, but as the number of determinations -is great, the average may be considered good. - - -METHODS OF DETERMINING THE EXTENT OF IRRIGABLE LAND UNLIMITED BY WATER - SUPPLY. - -In the few cases where the water supply is more than sufficient to -serve the arable lands, the character of the problem is entirely -changed, and it becomes necessary then to determine the area to which -the waters can be carried. These problems are hypsometric; relative -altitudes are the governing conditions. The hypsometric methods -were barometric and angular; that is, from the barometric stations -vertical angles were taken and recorded to all the principal points -in the topography of the country; mercurial and aneroid barometers -were used, chiefly the former; the latter to a limited extent, for -subsidiary work. Angular measurements were made with gradientors to a -slight extent, but chiefly with the orograph, an instrument by which a -great multiplicity of angles are observed and recorded by mechanical -methods. This instrument was devised by Professor Thompson for the use -of the survey, and has been fully described in the reports on the -geographical operations. To run hypsometric lines with spirit levels -would have involved a great amount of labor and been exceedingly -expensive, and such a method was entirely impracticable with the means -at command, but the methods used give fairly approximate results, and -perhaps all that is necessary for the purposes to be subserved. - - - THE SELECTION OF IRRIGABLE LANDS. - -From the fact that the area of arable lands greatly exceeds the -irrigable, or the amount which the waters of the streams will serve, -a wide choice in the selection of the latter is permitted. The -considerations affecting the choice are diverse, but fall readily -into two classes, viz: physical conditions and artificial conditions. -The mountains and high plateaus are the great aqueous condensers; the -mountains and high plateaus are also the reservoirs that hold the water -fed to the streams in the irrigating season, for the fountains from -which the rivers flow are the snow fields of the highlands. After the -streams leave the highlands they steadily diminish in volume, the loss -being due in part to direct evaporation, and in part to percolation -in the sands from which the waters are eventually evaporated. In like -manner irrigating canals starting near the mountains and running -far out into the valleys and plains rapidly diminish in the volume -of flowing water. Looking to the conservation of water, it is best -to select lands as high along the streams as possible. But this -consideration is directly opposed by considerations relating to -temperature; the higher the land the colder the climate. Where the -great majority of streams have their sources, agriculture is impossible -on account of prevailing summer frosts; the lower the altitude the more -genial the temperature; the lower the land the greater the variety of -crops which can be cultivated; and to the extent that the variety of -crops is multiplied the irrigating season is lengthened, until the -maximum is reached in low altitudes and low latitudes where two crops -can be raised annually on the same land. In the selection of lands, -as governed by these conditions, the higher lands will be avoided on -the one hand because of the rigor of the climate; if these conditions -alone governed, no settlement should be made in Utah above 6,500 feet -above the level of the sea, and in general still lower lands should be -used; on the other hand the irrigable lands should not be selected at -such a distance from the source of the stream as to be the occasion of -a great loss of water by direct and indirect evaporation. For general -climatic reasons, the lands should be selected as low as possible; -for economy of water as high as possible; and these conditions in the -main will cause the selections to be made along the middle courses of -the streams. But this general rule will be modified by minor physical -conditions relating to soil and slope--soils that will best conserve -the water will be selected, and land with the gentlest slopes will be -taken. - -In general, the descent of the streams in the arid land is very great; -for this reason the flood plains are small, that is, the extent of -the lands adjacent to the streams which are subject to overflow at -high water is limited. In general, these flood-plain lands should not -be chosen for irrigation, from the fact that the irrigating canals -are liable to be destroyed during flood seasons. Where the plan of -irrigation includes the storage of the water of the non-growing season, -by which all the waters of the year are held under control, the -flood-plain lands can be used to advantage, from the fact that they -lie in such a way as to be easily irrigated and their soils possess -elements and conditions of great fertility. - -Other locally controlling conditions are found in selecting the most -advantageous sites for the necessary water works. - -These are the chief physical factors which enter into the problem, and -in general it will be solved by considering these factors only; but -occasionally artificial conditions will control. - -The mining industries of the Arid Region are proportionately greater -than in the more humid country. Where valuable mines are discovered -towns spring up in their immediate vicinity, and they must be served -with water for domestic purposes and for garden culture. When possible, -agriculture will be practiced in the immediate vicinity for the purpose -of taking advantage of the local market. In like manner towns spring -up along the railroads, and agriculture will be carried on in their -vicinity. For this and like reasons the streams of the Arid Region will -often be used on lands where they cannot be made the most available -under physical conditions, and yet under such circumstances artificial -conditions must prevail. - -In the indication of specific areas as irrigable on the accompanying -map of Utah, it must be considered that the selections made are -but tentative; the areas chosen are supposed to be, under all the -circumstances, the most available; but each community will settle -this problem for itself, and the circumstances which will control -any particular selection cannot be foretold. It is believed that the -selections made will be advantageous to the settler, by giving him the -opinions of men who have made the subject a study, and will save many -mistakes. - -The history of this subject in Utah is very instructive. The greater -number of people in the territory who engage in agriculture are -organized into ecclesiastical bodies, trying the experiment of communal -institutions. In this way the communal towns are mobile. This mobility -is increased by the fact that the towns are usually laid out on -Government lands, and for a long time titles to the land in severalty -are not obtained by the people. It has been the custom of the church -to send a number of people, organized as a community, to a town site -on some stream to be used in the cultivation of the lands, and rarely -has the first selection made been final. Luxuriant vegetation has -often tempted the settlers to select lands at too great an altitude, -and many towns have been moved down stream. Sometimes selections have -been made too far away from the sources of the streams, and to increase -the supply of water, towns have been moved up stream. Sometimes lands -of too great slope have been chosen, and here the waters have rapidly -cut deep channels and destroyed the fields. Sometimes alkaline lands -are selected and abandoned, and sometimes excessively sandy lands have -caused a change to be made; but the question of the best sites for the -construction of works for controlling and distributing the water has -usually determined the selection of lands within restricted limits. - -To a very slight extent indeed have artificial conditions controlled -in Utah; the several problems have generally been solved by the -consideration of physical facts. - - - INCREASE IN THE WATER SUPPLY. - -Irrigation has been practiced in different portions of the Arid Region -for the last twenty-five or thirty years, and the area cultivated -by this means has been steadily increasing during that time. In -California and New Mexico irrigation has been practiced to a limited -extent for a much longer time at the several Catholic missions under -the old Spanish regime. In the history of the settlement of the several -districts an important fact has been uniformly observed--in the first -years of settlement the streams have steadily increased in volume. -This fact has been observed alike in California, Utah, Colorado, and -wherever irrigation has been practiced. As the chief development of -this industry has been within the last fifteen years, it has been a -fact especially observed during that time. An increase in the water -supply, so universal of late years, has led to many conjectures and -hypotheses as to its origin. It has generally been supposed to result -from increased rainfall, and this increased rainfall now from this, now -from that, condition of affairs. Many have attributed the change to the -laying of railroad tracks and construction of telegraph lines; others -to the cultivation of the soil, and not a few to the interposition of -Divine Providence in behalf of the Latter Day Saints. - -If each physical cause was indeed a _vera causa_, their inability to -produce the results is quite manifest. A single railroad line has -been built across the Arid Region from east to west, and a short -north and south line has been constructed in Colorado, another in -Utah, and several in California. But an exceedingly small portion of -the country where increase of water supply has been noticed has been -reached by the railroads, and but a small fraction of one per cent. of -the lands of the Arid Region have been redeemed by irrigation. This -fully demonstrates their inadequacy. In what manner rainfall could be -affected through the cultivation of the land, building of railroads, -telegraph lines, etc., has not been shown. Of course such hypotheses -obtain credence because of a lack of information relating to the laws -which govern aqueous precipitation. The motions of the earth on its -axis and about the sun; the unequal heating of the atmosphere, which -decreases steadily from equator to poles; the great ocean currents -and air currents; the distribution of land and water over the earth; -the mountain systems--these are all grand conditions affecting the -distribution of rainfall. Many minor conditions also prevail in -topographic reliefs, and surfaces favorable to the absorption or -reflection of the sun’s heat, etc., etc., affecting in a slight degree -the general results. But the operations of man on the surface of the -earth are so trivial that the conditions which they produce are of -minute effect, and in presence of the grand effects of nature escape -discernment. Thus the alleged causes for the increase of rainfall fail. -The rain gauge records of the country have been made but for a brief -period, and the stations have been widely scattered, so that no very -definite conclusions can be drawn from them, but so far as they are of -value they fail to show any increase. But if it be true that increase -of the water supply is due to increase in precipitation, as many have -supposed, the fact is not cheering to the agriculturist of the Arid -Region. The permanent changes of nature are secular; any great sudden -change is ephemeral, and usually such changes go in cycles, and the -opposite or compensating conditions may reasonably be anticipated. - -For the reasons so briefly stated, the question of the origin and -permanence of the increase of the water supply is one of prime -importance to the people of the country. If it is due to a temporary -increase of rainfall, or any briefly cyclic cause, we shall have to -expect a speedy return to extreme aridity, in which case a large -portion of the agricultural industries of the country now growing up -would be destroyed. - -The increase is abundantly proved; it is a matter of universal -experience. The observations of the writer thereon have been widely -extended. Having examined as far as possible all the facts seeming -to bear on the subject, the theory of the increase of rainfall was -rejected, and another explanation more flattering to the future of -agriculture accepted. - -The amount of water flowing in the streams is but a very small part of -that which falls from the heavens. The greater part of the rainfall -evaporates from the surfaces which immediately receive it. The -exceedingly dry atmosphere quickly reabsorbs the moisture occasionally -thrown down by a conjunction of favoring conditions. Any changes in -the surfaces which receive the precipitation favorable to the rapid -gathering of the rain into rills and brooks and creeks, while taking -to the streams but a small amount of that precipitated, will greatly -increase the volume of the streams themselves, because the water in the -streams bears so small a proportion to the amount discharged from the -clouds. The artificial changes wrought by man on the surface of the -earth appear to be adequate to the production of the observed effects. -The destruction of forests, which has been immense in this country for -the past fifteen years; the cropping of the grasses, and the treading -of the soil by cattle; the destruction of the beaver dams, causing a -drainage of the ponds; the clearing of drift wood from stream channels; -the draining of upland meadows, and many other slight modifications, -all conspire to increase the accumulation of water in the streams, and -all this is added to the supply of water to be used in irrigation. - -Students of geology and physical geography have long been aware of -these facts. It is well known that, under the modifying influences -of man, the streams of any region redeemed from the wilderness are -changed in many important characteristics. In flood times their volumes -are excessively increased and their powers of destruction multiplied. -In seasons of drought, some streams that were perennial before man -modified the surface of the country become entirely dry; the smaller -navigable streams have their periods of navigation shortened, and the -great rivers run so low at times that navigation becomes more and -more difficult during dry seasons; in multiplied ways these effects -are demonstrated. While in the main the artificial changes wrought by -man on the surface are productive of bad results in humid regions, -the changes are chiefly advantageous to man in arid regions where -agriculture is dependent upon irrigation, for here the result is to -increase the supply of water. Mr. Gilbert, while engaged during the -past season in studying the lands of Utah, paid especial attention to -this subject, and in his chapter has more thoroughly discussed the -diverse special methods by which increase in the flow of the streams is -caused by the changes wrought by man upon the surface of the earth. His -statement of facts is clear, and his conclusions are deemed valid. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE LANDS OF UTAH - - - PHYSICAL FEATURES. - -A zone of mountains and high plateaus extends from the northern nearly -to the southern boundary of Utah Territory. The Wasatch Mountains -constitute the northern portion of this zone, the High Plateaus the -southern. This central zone has a general altitude above the sea -of from nine to eleven thousand feet. Many peaks are higher, a few -reaching an altitude of about twelve thousand feet. On the other hand -many cañons and valleys have been excavated by the running waters far -below the general level thus indicated. - -The Uinta Mountains stretch eastward from the midst of the Wasatch. -This region is a lofty table land carrying many elevated peaks whose -summits are from twelve to nearly fourteen thousand feet above the -level of the sea. This is the highest portion of Utah, and among its -peaks are the culminating points. - -South from the Uinta Region, and from the southern extremity of the -Wasatch Mountains, another elevated district extends east-southeast -beyond the borders of Utah. This table land is cut in twain by two -great gorges of the Green River--the Cañon of Desolation and Gray -Cañon. The eastern portion is called East Tavaputs Plateau, the western -West Tavaputs Plateau. - -Between the Uinta Mountains and the Tavaputs table land is the -Uinta-White Basin, a low synclinal valley, drained by the Uinta and its -ramifications on the west, and the lower portion of the White River on -the east. - -The district of country lying south of the Tavaputs table land, and -east and south of the High Plateaus, is traversed by many deep cañons. -This is the Cañon Land of Utah. In its midst the Green and Grand unite -to form the Colorado. The Price and San Rafael are tributary to the -Green. The Fremont, Escalante, Paria, Kanab, and Virgin are directly -tributary to the Colorado from the north and west. From the east the -San Juan flows to the Colorado, but its drainage area is not included -in our present discussion. - -West of the lofty zone lie low, arid valleys, interrupted by short -and abrupt ranges of mountains whose naked cliffs and desolate peaks -overlook the still more desolate valleys. These short longitudinal -ranges are but a part of the Basin Ranges, a mountain system extending -through Nevada and northward into Idaho and Oregon. That portion of -the Basin Range System which lies in Utah, and which we now have under -consideration, is naturally divided into two parts, the northern -embracing the drainage area of Great Salt Lake, the southern embracing -the drainage area of Sevier Lake, giving the Great Salt Lake District -and the Sevier Lake District. - -To recapitulate, the grand districts into which Utah is naturally -divided are as follows: The Wasatch Mountains and the High Plateaus, -constituting the lofty zone above mentioned; the Uinta Mountains, the -Tavaputs table lands, the Uinta-White Basin, the Cañon Lands, the -Sevier Lake Basin, and the Great Salt Lake Basin, the two latter being -fragments of the great Basin Range Province. - - * * * * * - -The eastern portion of the Territory of Utah is drained by the Colorado -River by the aid of a number of important tributaries. The western -portion is drained by streams that, heading in the mountains and high -plateaus of the central portion, find their way by many meanderings -into the salt lakes and desert sands to the westward. - -Considered with reference to its drainage, Utah may thus be divided -into two parts--the Colorado drainage area and the Desert drainage -area; the former is about two-fifths, the latter three-fifths of the -area of the territory. - -All of the Wasatch Mountains lie west of the drainage crest; a part of -the High Plateaus are drained to the Colorado, a part to the deserts. -This great water divide, commencing north of the Pine Valley Mountains -in the southwest corner of the territory, runs north of the Colob -Plateau and enters the district of the High Plateaus. It first runs -eastward along the crest or brink of the Pink Cliffs that bound the -Markagunt and Pauns-a-gunt Plateaus, and then north and east in many -meandering ways, now throwing a plateau into the western drainage, and -now another into the eastern, until it reaches the western extremity of -the Tavaputs table lands. Thence it runs around the western end of the -Uinta Valley, throwing the Tavaputs table lands, the Uinta Valley, and -Uinta Mountains into the Colorado drainage, and the Wasatch Mountains -into the Desert drainage. - -These two regions are highly differentiated in orographic structure -and other geological characteristics. The sedimentary formations of -the eastern region are in large part of Cenozoic and Mesozoic age, -though Paleozoic rocks appear in some localities. The Cenozoic and -Mesozoic formations are largely composed of incoherent sands and shales -with intercalated beds of indurated sandstone and limestone. The -great geological displacements are chiefly by faults and monoclinal -flexures, by which the whole country has been broken up into many broad -blocks, so that the strata are horizontal or but slightly inclined, -except along the zones of displacement by which the several blocks are -bounded. Here the strata, when not faulted, are abruptly flexed, and -the rocks dip at high angles. - -The Uinta Mountains are storm carved from an immense uplifted block. -The mountains of the Cañon Lands are isolated and volcanic. In the -High Plateaus sedimentary beds are covered by vast sheets of lava. -The sedimentary beds exposed in the mountains of the Desert region -are of Paleozoic age, and many crystalline schists appear, while -the sedimentary beds exposed in the valleys are Post-Tertiary. The -crystalline schists and ancient sedimentaries of the mountains are -often extensive masses of extravasated rocks. The prevailing type of -orographic structure is that of monoclinal ridges of displacement. -Blocks of strata have been turned up so as to incline at various -angles, and from their upturned edges the mountains have been carved. -But these monoclinal ridges are much complicated by mountain masses -having an eruptive origin. - -In the eastern districts the materials denuded from the mountains and -plateaus have been carried to the sea, but in the western districts -the materials carried from the mountains are deposited in the adjacent -valleys, so that while the mountains are composed of rocks of great -age, the rocks of the valleys are of recent origin. In that geological -era known as the Glacial epoch the waters of a great lake spread over -these valleys, and the mountains stood as islands in the midst of a -fresh-water sea. For the history of this lake we are indebted to the -researches of Mr. Gilbert. It had its outlet to the north by way of the -Shoshoni River and the Columbia to the North Pacific. These later beds -of the valleys are in part the sediments of Lake Bonneville, the great -lake above mentioned, and in part they are subaërial gravels and sands. - - * * * * * - -The Wasatch system of mountains is composed of abrupt ranges crowned -with sharp peaks. The several minor ranges and groups of peaks -into which it is broken are separated only in part by structural -differences, since ridges with homogeneous structure are severed by -transverse valleys. The drainage of the whole area occupied by the -Wasatch Mountains is westward to the Great Salt Lake. The streams -that head in the western end of the Uinta Mountains and West Tavaputs -Plateau cut through the Wasatch Mountains. - -Great Salt Lake and its upper tributary, Utah Lake, exist by virtue of -the presence of the Wasatch Mountains, for the mountains wring from the -clouds the waters with which the lakes are supplied. - -Walled by high ridges and peaks, many elevated valleys are found. -In the midsummer months these valleys are favored with a pleasant, -invigorating climate. Occasionally showers of rain fall. Vegetation is -vigorous. The distant mountain slopes bear forests of spruce, pine, -and fir; the broken foot hills are often covered by low, ragged piñon -pines and cedars; and the flood plains of the streams are natural -meadows. About the springs and streamlets groves of aspen stand, and -the streams are bordered with willows, box elders, and cottonwoods. Now -and then a midsummer storm comes, bringing hail, and even snow. When -the short summer ends, the aspen and box elder foliage turns to gold -flecked with scarlet; the willows to crimson and russet; the meadows -are quickly sered, and soon the autumn verdure presents only the somber -tints of the evergreens; early snows fall, and the whole land is soon -covered with a white mantle, except that here and there bleak hills -and rugged peaks are swept bare by the winds. The brief, beautiful -summer is followed by a long, dreary winter, and during this winter of -snowfall are accumulated the waters that are to be used in fertilizing -the valleys away below in the border region between the mountains and -the desert basins. - -From the Wasatch on the north to the Colob on the south are elevated -tables, in general bounded by bold, precipitous escarpments. The lands -above are highly and sharply differentiated from the lands below in -climate, vegetation, soil, and other physical characters. These high -plateaus are covered with sheets and beds of lava, and over the lava -sheets are scattered many volcanic cinder cones. The higher plateaus -bear heavy forests of evergreens, and scattered through the forests are -many little valleys or meadow glades. The gnarled, somber forests are -often beset with fallen timber and a vigorous second growth, forming -together a dead and living tangle difficult to penetrate. But often the -forest aisles are open from glade to glade, or from border cliff to -border cliff. In the midst of the glades are many beautiful lakelets, -and from the cliffs that bound the plateaus on every hand the waters -break out in innumerable springs. - -Here, also, a brief summer is followed by a long winter, and through -its dreary days the snow is gathered which fills the lakelets above and -feeds the springs along the bordering cliffs. The springs of the cliffs -are the fountains of the rivers that are to fertilize the valleys lying -to the east, south, and west. - -The Uinta Mountains constitute an east and west range. From a single -great uplift, nearly 200 miles long and from 40 to 50 miles wide, -valleys and cañons have been carved by rains and rivers, and table -lands and peaks have been left embossed on the surface. Along its -middle belt from east to west the peaks are scattered in great -confusion, but in general the highest peaks are near the center of the -range. The general elevation descends abruptly both on the north and -south margins of the uplift, and at the crest of each abrupt descent -there are many limestone ridges and crags. Between these ridges and -crags that stand along the bordering crests, and the peaks that stand -along the meandering watershed, there are broad tables, some times -covered with forests, sometimes only with grass. - -This is a third region of short summers and long winters, where the -waters are collected to fertilize the valleys to the north and south. - -Away to the southward are the twin plateaus, East and West Tavaputs, -severed by the Green River. These plateaus culminate at the Brown -Cliffs, where bold escarpments are presented southward. - -Outlying the Brown Cliffs are the Book Cliffs. These, also, are -escarpments of naked rock, with many salient and reëntrant angles and -outlying buttes. The beds of which they are composed are shales and -sandstones of many shades of blue, gray, and buff. In the distance, -and softly blended by atmospheric haze, the towering walls have an -azure hue. Everywhere they are elaborately water carved, and the bold -battlements above are buttressed with sculptured hills. In 1869, when -the writer first saw this great escarpment, he gave it the name of -the Azure Cliffs, but an earlier traveler, passing by another route -across the country, had seen them in the distance, and, seizing -another characteristic feature, had called them the Book Mountains. -Gunnison saw, however, not a range of mountains, but the escarped edge -of a plateau, and this escarpment we now call the Book Cliffs. From -the Brown Cliffs northward these plateaus dip gently north to the -Uinta-White Basin. From the very crest of the Brown Cliffs the drainage -is northward. - -This is a fourth region of short summers and long winters, where the -moisture is collected to fertilize adjacent lands; but the altitude -is not great enough nor the area large enough to accumulate a large -supply of water, and the amount furnished by the Tavaputs Plateaus is -comparatively small. - -Such are the lofty regions of Utah that furnish water to irrigate the -lowlands. - - - TIMBER. - -In these elevated districts is found all the timber of commercial -value. This is well shown on the map. The map also exhibits the fact -that many portions of the elevated districts are devoid of timber, -it having been destroyed by fire, as explained in a former chapter. -Doubtless, if fires could be prevented, the treeless areas would in -due time be again covered with forests, but in such a climate forest -growth is slow. At present, the treeless areas will afford valuable -summer pasturage for cattle, and doubtless such pasturage would be -advantageous to the growth of new forests, by keeping down the grasses -in which in part the fires spread. It has already been shown that, to -a great extent, the fires which destroy the forests are set by Indians -while on their hunting excursions. The removal of the Indians from the -country will further protect the forests. Eventually, the better class -of timber lands will fall into the hands of individual owners, who -will be interested in protecting their property from devastation by -this fierce element. By all of these means the standing timber will be -preserved for economic uses; but it will be a long time before complete -immunity from fires will be secured. - -The demand for lumber will never be very great. A variety of causes -conspire to this end. The adjacent country will sustain but a small -agricultural population, because the irrigable lands are of limited -extent. The people of the lowlands will eventually supply themselves -with fuel by cultivating timber along the water courses and by using -the coal so abundant in some portions of Utah. The lumber will never be -carried to a foreign market because of the expense of transportation: -first, it will be expensive to get it down from the highlands to the -lowlands, and, second, there are no navigable streams by which lumber -may be cheaply transported from the country. In general, the lumber is -of inferior quality, and cannot successfully compete for a permanent -place in the markets of the world. But there will be a demand for -lumber for building and fencing purposes in the valleys, and for mining -purposes in the mountains. - -If the timber region can be protected from fire, the supply of timber -will equal the demand. - -From the brief description given above, it will be seen that the timber -region will never support agriculture. Much of it is mountainous and -inhospitable, and the climate is cold. The timber region is ever to be -such; mining industries will slightly encroach on it on the one hand, -and pasturage industries on the other, but lumbermen will control the -country. - -The forests of these upper regions are monotonous, as the variety of -tree life is very small. All of the timber trees proper are coniferous, -and belong to the pine, fir, and juniper families. The pine of chief -value is _Pinus ponderosa_, locally distinguished as the “Long leaved -pine”; the wood is very heavy and coarse grained, but is suitable for -the ruder building and mining purposes. It is usually found on the -slopes between eight and nine thousand feet above the level of the sea. -It attains a large size, and is a stately tree, contrasting grandly -with the darker and smaller firs that usually keep it company. - -_Pinus aristata_ is of no commercial value, as it is much branched -and spreading with limbs near the base; it grows on the crags at an -altitude of from nine to eleven thousand feet. - -_Pinus flexilis_ grows at the same altitude as the last mentioned, and -often shows a similar habit of growth. On the southern plateaus it is -less branched and has a tolerably straight trunk, but it is too small -and scarce to be important as timber. It is highly resinous, and is -called “Pitch pine.” - -_Pinus monticola_, or Sugar pine, is found on the southern plateaus, -but is not abundant, and rarely attains milling size. - -_Pinus edulis_ is the well known “Piñon pine”. It covers the foot -hills and less elevated slopes adjacent to the river valleys. The -tree is low, diffusely branched and scrubby, and is of no use for -lumber; but the wood is well supplied with resin and makes an excellent -fuel, for which purpose it is extensively used in consequence of its -accessibility. - -There are three valuable species of Abies, namely: _A. Douglasii_, _A. -concolor_, and _A. Engelmanni_. _Abies Douglasii_, or Douglas’ spruce, -bears some resemblance to the eastern spruce, _A. Canadensis_, but it -is a finer tree, and the wood is much superior. Though rather light, -it is tough and exceedingly durable. The heart wood is red, from which -circumstance lumbermen distinguish it as the “Red pine”. In building -it is used for all the heavier parts, as frames, joists, rafters, -etc., and it makes excellent flooring. Its value is still further -enhanced from the fact that it occupies a belt of from seven to nine -thousand feet altitude, and thus is easily obtained. It may readily be -distinguished by its cones, the bracts of which are trifurcate, sharp, -pointed, and conspicuously exserted, and they are unlike those of any -other species. - -_Abies concolor_, known in Utah as the “Black balsam”, grows at about -the same altitude as the last mentioned species, and though rather -cross-grained makes good lumber, being quite durable and strong. From -its silvery foliage, the leaves being glaucous on both sides, this tree -is known to tourists as the “White silver fir”. Lumbermen sometimes -call it the “Black gum”, the wood being very dark colored. - -_Abies Engelmanni_, or Engelmann’s spruce, occupies the highest -elevations, and constitutes the only timber above 11,000 feet in -altitude. Above 11,500 feet it is reduced to a dwarf. On the terraces -of the high plateaus, at about 10,000 feet altitude, it appears to -flourish best, and here it becomes a large, beautiful tree. The leaves -are needle shaped, and thus differ from both the preceding species. The -trunks are straight and free from limbs or knots, making fine saw logs. -The wood is white and soft, but fine grained and durable, and being -easily worked is held in high esteem for all the lighter uses, such as -sash, doors, etc. Its place in the lumber industries of Utah is about -the same as that of the “White pine” (_Pinus Strobus_) in the east. -Lumbermen usually call it “White pine”. Because of the altitude of its -habitat it is difficult to obtain, yet it is systematically sought, and -large amounts are yearly manufactured into lumber; it also makes good -shingles. - -_Abies Menziesii_, or Menzies’s spruce, usually called “Spruce” by -lumbermen of the country, is botanically very similar to the species -last described, but the cones are larger and the leaves sharper -pointed. It bears a large quantity of cones, which are generally -aggregated near the top, obscuring the foliage, and giving the trees a -peculiar tawny appearance. The wood is light, white, and fine grained, -and would rival that of the last named species but for the fact that -the trunk has a number of slight curves, so that it is impossible to -obtain good saw logs of sufficient length from it. Its habitat is along -the cañons from seven to nine thousand feet altitude, and seems to end -about where _A. Engelmanni_ begins. It is, however, a smaller tree, and -less abundant. - -_Abies subalpina_ is of little value as a timber tree; the wood is -soft and spongy, from which circumstance it is locally known as -“Pumpkin pine”, but the more appropriate name of “White balsam” is also -applied to distinguish it from _A. concolor_, which is called “Black -balsam”. This species grows high up on the mountains and plateaus, -generally from nine to eleven thousand feet. It is very tall, often -attaining a height of 80 or 90 feet. Its trunk is straight and limbless -for a great distance. This species has been but little known to -botanists heretofore, from the fact that it has been confounded with -_A. grandis_, but Mr. Engelmann decides, from specimens collected by -Mr. L. F. Ward, that it must be considered as a new species. - -_Abies amabilis_ and _Abies grandis_, spruces resembling the “White -balsam” in their general appearance, occur in the Wasatch Mountains, -but are not abundant. - -_Juniperus Californicus_, var. _Utahensis_, or White cedar, is very -abundant over the foot hills and lower mountain slopes, and, like the -piñon pine, is much used for fire wood. It has also the characteristic -durability of the junipers, and makes excellent fence posts. It grows -low, is diffusely branched, and is valueless for milling purposes. - -_Juniperus Virginiana_, or Red cedar, is also found in this region. Its -habitat is near the streams and at moderate altitudes. It is said to -lack the durable qualities for which it is noted at the east, and which -seem to be transferred to the other species. - -_Populus angustifolia_, or Cottonwood, is the chief representative of -the poplar family in this region. The people of the country distinguish -two varieties or species, the Black cottonwood and Yellow cottonwood. -The former is said to be useless for lumber, while the latter has some -slight value. It forms no part of the forest proper, but fringes the -lower reaches of the streams, rarely occurring higher in altitude than -6,000 feet. Its rapid growth and its proximity to the irrigable lands -make it valuable for fuel, although it is not of superior quality. - -_Populus monilifera_, the Cottonwood of the Mississippi Valley, grows -with the above in the southern part of the Territory, and has about the -same value. - -_Populus tremuloides_, or Aspen, is found about the moist places on -the mountain sides, and often borders the glades of the plateaus. The -long poles which it furnishes are sometimes used for fencing purposes; -it makes a fair fuel; the quantity found is small. - -_Acer grandidentata_, a species of Maple, abounds at the north as a -bush, and rare individuals attain the rank of small trees. Its wood is -highly prized for the repair of machinery, but is too scarce to be of -great service. - -_Negundo aceroides_, or Box elder, is found along the water courses in -many places. Sometimes along the larger streams it attains a height -of 25 or 30 feet. It makes a good fuel, but is found in such small -quantities as to be scarcely worthy of mention. - -_Quercus undulata_, or White oak, is very abundant as a bush, and -sometimes attains a diameter of six or eight inches. It is too rare as -a tree to deserve more than mere mention. - -_Betula occidentalis_, a species of Birch, grows about the upland -springs and creeks. Its habit is bushlike, but it often has a height of -20 feet, and it makes a tolerable fuel. - -The Hackberry (_Celtis occidentalis_) and two species of Ash (_Fraxinus -coriacea_ and _F. anomala_) grow as small trees, but are exceedingly -rare. - -The above is a nearly complete list of the forest trees of Utah. The -number of species is very small; aridity on the one hand, and cold on -the other, successfully repel the deciduous trees. The oak, hickory, -ash, etc., necessary to such a variety of industries, especially the -manufacture of agricultural machinery, must all be imported from more -humid regions. The coniferous trees, growing high among the rocks of -the upper regions and beaten by the cold storms of a long winter, are -ragged and gnarled, and the lumber they afford is not of the finest -quality; and the finishing lumber for architectural purposes and -furniture must also be imported from more humid regions. - - - IRRIGABLE AND PASTURE LANDS. - - - UINTA-WHITE BASIN. - -The Uinta-White Valley is a deep basin inclosed by the Uinta Mountains -on the north and the Tavaputs highlands on the south. Eastward the -basin extends beyond the limits of Utah; westward the Uinta Mountains -and West Tavaputs Plateau nearly inclose the head of the Uinta -Valley, but the space between is filled with a section of the Wasatch -Mountains. From the north, west, and south the Uinta Valley inclines -gently toward the Duchesne River. Many streams come down from the north -and from the south. In the midst of the valley there are some small -stretches of bad lands. - -Along the lower part of the Uinta and the Duchesne, and the lower -courses of nearly all the minor streams, large tracts of arable land -are found, and from these good selections can be made, sufficient to -occupy in their service all the water of the Uinta and its numerous -branches. The agricultural portion of the valley is sufficiently low to -have a genial climate, and all the crops of the northern States can be -cultivated successfully. - -Stretching back on every hand from the irrigable districts, the little -hills, valleys, and slopes are covered with grasses, which are found -more and more luxuriant in ascending the plateaus and mountains, until -the peaks are reached, and these are naked. - -On the north of the Uinta, and still west of the Green, the basin is -drained by some small streams, the chief of which is Ashley Fork. -Except near the lower course of Ashley Fork, this section of country -is exceedingly broken; the bad lands and hogbacks are severed by deep, -precipitous cañons. - -From the east the White River enters the Green. Some miles up the -White, a cañon is reached, and the country on either hand, stretching -back for a long distance, is composed of rugged barren lands. But -between the highlands and the Green, selections of good land can be -made, and the waters of the White can be used to serve them. From the -White, south to the East Tavaputs Plateau, the grass lands steadily -increase in value to the summit of the Brown Cliffs. Many good springs -are found in this region, and eventually this will be a favorite -district for pasturage farms. - -Fine pasturage farms may be made on the southern slope of the Yampa -Plateau, with summer pasturage above and winter pasturage below. -Altogether, the Uinta-White Basin is one of the favored districts of -the west, with great numbers of cool springs issuing from the mountains -and hills; many beautiful streams of clear, cold water; a large amount -of arable land from which irrigable tracts may be selected; an -abundance of fuel in the piñon pines and cedars of the foot hills; and -building timber farther back on the mountains and plateaus. - -The whole amount of irrigable land is estimated at 280,320 acres. - - - THE CAÑON LANDS. - -South of the Tavaputs highlands, and east and south of the High -Plateaus, the Cañon Lands of Utah are found. The lower course of the -Grand, the lower course of the Green, and a large section of the -Colorado cuts through them, and the streams that head in the High -Plateaus run across them. All the rivers, all the creeks, all the -brooks, run in deep gorges--narrow, winding cañons, with their floors -far below the general surface of the country. Many long lines of cliffs -are found separating higher from lower districts. The hills are bad -lands and alcove lands. - -The Sierra la Sal and Henry Mountains are great masses of lava, wrapped -in sedimentary beds, which are cut with many dikes. South of the High -Plateaus great numbers of cinder cones are found. - -On the Grand River there are some patches of land which can be served -by the waters of that river. On the Green, in what is known as Gunnison -Valley, patches of good land can be selected and redeemed by the waters -of that river. - -Castle Valley is abruptly walled on the west, north, and northeast -by towering cliffs. East of its southern portion a region of towers, -buttes, crags, and rocklands is found, known as the San Rafael Swell. -In this valley there is a large amount of good land, and the numerous -streams which run across it can all be used in irrigation. Farther -south, on the Fremont, Escalante, and Paria, some small tracts of -irrigable land are found, and on the Kanab and Virgin there are limited -areas which can be used for agricultural purposes. But all that portion -of the cañon country south of Castle Valley and westward to the Beaver -Dam Mountains is exceedingly desolate; naked rocks are found, refusing -footing even to dwarfed cedars and piñon pines; the springs are -infrequent and yield no bountiful supply of water; its patches of grass -land are widely scattered, and it has but little value for agricultural -purposes. - -A broad belt of coal land extends along the base of the cliffs from -the Tavaputs Plateau on the northeast to the Colob Plateau on the -southwest. At the foot of the cliffs which separate the lowlands -from the highlands, many pasturage farms may be made; the grass of -the lowlands can be used in the winter, and that of the highlands in -summer, and everywhere good springs of water may be found. - -The extent of the irrigable lands in this district is estimated at -213,440 acres. - - - THE SEVIER LAKE DISTRICT. - -This district embraces all the country drained by the waters which flow -into the Sevier Lake, and the areas drained by many small streams which -are quickly lost in the desert. The greater part of the irrigable land -lies in the long, narrow valleys walled by the plateaus, especially -along the Sevier, Otter Creek, and the San Pete. The arable lands -greatly exceed the irrigable, and good selections may be made. Most of -the irrigable lands are already occupied by farmers, and the waters -are used in their service. In the valleys among the high plateaus, and -along their western border, the grasses are good, and many pasturage -farms may be selected, and the springs and little streams that come -from the plateau cliffs will afford an abundant supply of water. The -summits of the plateaus will afford an abundant summer pasturage. - -Westward among the Basin Ranges feeble and infrequent springs are -found; there is little timber of value, but the lower mountains and -foot hills have cedars and piñon pines that would be valuable for fuel -if nearer to habitations. The cedar and piñon hills bear scant grasses. -The valleys are sometimes covered with sage, sometimes with grease -wood, sometimes quite naked. - -The amount of irrigable land in this district is estimated at 101,700 -acres. - - - THE GREAT SALT LAKE DISTRICT. - -This district has already become famous in the history of western -agriculture, for here the Latter Day Saints first made “a home in the -valleys among the mountains”. - -The rivers and creeks bring the waters down from the Wasatch Mountains -on the east. The high valleys among the mountains have to some extent -been cultivated, and will hereafter be used more than at present for -meadow purposes. In general the people have selected their lands low -down, in order to obtain a more genial climate. Yet the irrigable -lands are not very far from the mountains, as a glance at the map will -reveal. Utah Lake constitutes a fine natural reservoir and discharges -its waters into Salt Lake by the Jordan, and from its channel the -waters may be conducted over a large area of country. The waters of -the Weber and Bear Rivers, now flowing idly into the lake, will soon -be spread over extensive valleys, and the area of agricultural lands -be greatly increased. Westward the influence of the mountains in -the precipitation of moisture is soon lost, and beyond the lake an -irreclaimable desert is found. - -Near to the mountains the grass lands are fair but they have been -overpastured and greatly injured. Out among the Basin Ranges little -grass land of value is found. - -The amount of irrigable land in this district is estimated at 837,660 -acres. - -The lofty zone of mountains and table lands with arms stretching -eastward, with its culminating points among summer frosts and winter -storms, is the central region about which the human interests of the -country gather. The timber, the water, the agricultural lands, the -pasturage lands, to a large extent the coal and iron mines, and to -some extent the silver mines, are all found in these higher regions or -clinging closely to them. - - - GRASSES. - -While the forests present but a few species of trees, the pasturage -lands present a great variety of grasses. Between fifty and sixty -species have been collected by parties connected with the survey -under the direction of the writer, and these are distributed among -twenty-six or twenty-seven genera. Most of them belong to the mountains -or highlands, and are rich and sweet. Nearly all of them are bunch -grasses. The spaces by which the bunches are separated are bare or -occupied with weeds and shrubs. This is often the case on the mountains -and high plateaus. A continuous turf is never seen. Where a sward is -seen in moist places, about springs and in glades, the verdure consists -in chief part of other plants, sedges and reeds. - -Of the bunch grasses the _Poas_ are by far the most abundant. Of this -genus nine species were obtained, but this gives an inadequate idea -of the variety. Of one species alone Dr. Vasey has enumerated nine -varieties, and advances the opinion that several will be eventually -considered as species. They are found at all altitudes, mostly on -the slopes. Perhaps the most important single species in that region -is the _Bouteloua oligostachya_, the so called “Circle grass”. It -has a peculiar habit of forming partial or complete circles on the -ground, with areas of bare ground in the center. These turfy rings -are comparatively narrow, often not more than three or four inches -in width, while the circles are from two to four feet in diameter. -The form is not always circular, but often assumes irregular shapes. -The grass is sweet and nutritious, but its chief value consists in -its power to resist inclement seasons, as it cures standing, like the -“Buffalo grass” of the Great Plains. - -Another very valuable grass is the _Eriocoma cuspidata_, which is known -by the name of “Sand grass”. It grows at much lower altitudes, and is -properly a valley grass. It has a solitary, scattering habit, or at -least the bunches are small and turfless. Horses and cattle select it -with care from among other species, and it seems especially nutritious. -It has a large black grain, which is often collected by the Indians for -food. - -A remarkable lowland grass is the Vilfa (_Sporobolis airoides_). It has -something of the appearance of “Hair grass”, with a widely spreading -purple panicle and large perennial roots. The old culms persist at -the base, and with the new ones form thick and almost woody tufts. -These tufts are scattered about in the strongly alkaline soils of the -river bottoms, and are extensively pastured by large herds of cattle. -A marked characteristic of this grass, common, however, to several -others, is its power to take up saline matter, which gives to the whole -plant a salty taste. The effect of this upon the stock feeding upon it -is doubtful, judging from the conflicting reports of the inhabitants; -but it seems that when cattle are first pastured upon it they are -injured by the excess of salt, but that after a time they cease to be -injured by it. All of the so called “Salt grasses” are cropped to a -greater or less extent by stock. - -The chief grasses of the elevated timber tracts belong to the genus -_Bromus_. When young they are good, but they become stale and valueless -with age. The only grass that can compare with those of the eastern -meadows, and which forms a continuous sod and covers the ground with a -uniform growth, is a variety of _Aira cæspitosa_, a red topped grass, -which was found surrounding the small lakes of the mountains and -plateaus, at elevations of 11,000 feet and over. This is an exceedingly -beautiful grass as it waves in the gentle breezes that fan the lakelets -of the upper regions. - -_Phragmites communis_, the so called “Cane”, is common in the glades -and sloughs; and, though large and rather dry, it furnishes the only -verdure obtainable for months in severe seasons. - -Much of the hay and pasturage of the country, which is there called -grass, consists of plants of different families. Notable among these -are several species of _Carex_ (sedges), particularly _Carex Jamesii_, -which springs up wherever artificial meadows are made by the system -of flooding commonly practiced. The plants have large, strong, -subterranean root-stocks, forming a tangled mass which, when once -established, cannot easily be eradicated. The leaves are broad and -grasslike, and, though coarse and comparatively insipid, form a good -sward which can be mowed--a rare condition in that country; and hence -such meadows are highly prized. - -_Juncus Balticus_, var. _montanus_, which has a blue color, terete -culms, and tough fiber, and which the settlers call “Wire grass”, is -very abundant. It is cut for hay, and is said to serve a good purpose -as such. - -There are some shrubs that furnish excellent browsing, among which, -perhaps, the grease wood takes the first rank. The sage brush, -_Artemisia_, on the contrary, is seldom resorted to. There is one shrub -to which great virtues are ascribed which may be mentioned in this -connection. This is the _Cercocarpus parvifolius_, which occupies the -mountain sides for a wide zone of altitude. The foliage, though not -strictly evergreen, remains most of the winter, and is said to afford -the only food for horses and cattle that can be obtained during some -seasons of deep snows. This shrub is a congener of the well known -mountain mahogany, _C. ledifolius_, which grows at higher altitudes, -and has truly evergreen foliage. - -The small perennial plant _Eurotia lanata_, or “White sage”, found -growing in the valleys and plains, is held in high esteem as winter -food for stock. - -The growth of grass, even on the plateaus, is often scant; on the foot -hills it becomes less, and farther away from the highlands it still -diminishes in quantity until absolute deserts are found. Most of the -grasses seem to protect themselves from the great aridity by growing -in bunches. They appear to produce proportionately a greater amount -of seeds than the grasses of the Humid Region, and their nutritive -qualities, especially in winter, seems to be due thereto. In general, -the grasses seem to have large, strong stems, and are not so easily -broken down as those of the Humid Region, and the rains and snows by -which they would be so broken down are infrequent. Again, for these -reasons, the grasses, standing long after they are cut by frosts, cure -themselves, forming thereby a winter pasturage. - -The irrigable lands of Utah will be discussed more thoroughly and -in detail in subsequent chapters by Mr. G. K. Gilbert, who has made -the Great Salt Lake District his study; by Capt. C. E. Dutton, who -has prepared the chapter on the irrigable lands of the Sevier Lake -Drainage, and by Prof. A. H. Thompson, who has written the chapter on -the irrigable lands of the Colorado Drainage. - -The following is a table of the irrigable lands, arranged by districts, -as discussed in the present chapter. The table is compiled from those -presented in subsequent chapters. - - - _Table of irrigable lands in Utah Territory._ - - +---------------------------------------+------+-------+------+-------+ - | | | | Cultivated | - | | | | in 1877. | - | | | +------+-------+ - | |Square| |Square| | - | |miles.| Acres.|miles.| Acres.| - +---------------------------------------+------+-------+------+-------+ - | _Salt Lake drainage system._ | | | | | - |Base of Uinta Mountains | 2.5| 1,600| 1.6 | 1,024| - |Yellow Creek and Duck Creek | 2.0| 1,280| -- | -- | - |Randolph Valley and Saleratus Creek | 69.0| 44,160| 9.6 | 6,344| - |Shores of Bear Lake | 9.0| 5,760| 5.0 | 3,200| - |Cache Valley | 250.0|160,000| 50.0 | 32,000| - |Bear River Delta, Malade Valley, | | | | | - | and Connor’s Spring Valley | 218.0|139,520| 22.0 | 14,080| - |Box Elder Valley (Mantua) | 1.5| 960| 1.1 | 704| - |Weber Valley from Peoa to Hennefer, | | | | | - | inclusive | 9.0| 5,760| 8.5 | 5,440| - |Parley’s Park | 3.2| 2,048| 3.2 | 2,048| - |Uptown | 2.0| 1,280| .5 | 320| - |Echo Creek | 0.9| 576| .3 | 192| - |Croydon | 0.5| 320| .4 | 256| - |Round Valley | 0.5| 320| .5 | 320| - |Morgan Valley | 6.9| 4,416| 6.0 | 3,840| - |Ogden Valley | 8.0| 5,120| 4.1 | 2,624| - |Weber Delta Plain | 219.0|140,160| 91.0 | 58,240| - |Kamas Prairie | 13.0| 8,320| 4.7 | 3,003| - |Hailstone Ranche and vicinity | 2.0| 1,280| 2.0 | 1,280| - |Provo Valley | 16.0| 10,240| 6.0 | 3,840| - |Waldsburg | 2.0| 1,280| 2.0 | 1,280| - |Utah Valley | 190.0|121,600| 59.0 | 37,760| - |Salt Creek | 16.0| 10,240| 14.0 | 8,960| - |Salt Lake Valley (including Bountiful | | | | | - | and Centerville) | 192.0|122,880| 89.8 | 57,412| - |Tooele Valley | 45.0| 28,800| 5.4 | 3,456| - |Cedar Fort | 1.5| 1,000| 1.2 | 800| - |Fairfield | 1.5| 900| 1.2 | 800| - |Vernon Creek | 2.0| 1,200| 1.5 | 900| - |Saint Johns | 1.1| 700| 1.1 | 700| - |East Cañon Creek (Rush Valley) | 1.5| 900| .8 | 500| - |Stockton | .3| 500| .3 | 200| - |Skull Valley | 4.0| 2,500| 1.6 | 1,000| - |Government Creek | .5| 300| .5 | 300| - |Willow Spring, T. 10 S., R. 17 W | .4| 250| .4 | 250| - |Redding Spring | .1| 50| -- | 20| - |Dodoquibe Spring | .1| 50| -- | -- | - |Deep Creek, T. 9 S., R. 19 W | 1.6| 1,000| .8 | 500| - |Pilot Peak | .3| 200| -- | -- | - |Grouse Valley | 2.4| 1,500| .8 | 500| - |Owl Spring | .1| 10| -- | -- | - |Rosebud Creek | .6| 400| .2 | 150| - |Muddy Creek, T. 10 N., R. 15 W | .5| 300| .5 | 300| - |Park Valley | 3.5| 2,300| 1.1 | 700| - |Widow Spring | .1| 20| -- | -- | - |Indian Creek, T. 13 N., R. 12 W | .2| 100| -- | -- | - |East base Clear Creek Mountains | .2| 150| -- | 5| - |Cazure Creek | .3| 200| -- | -- | - |Clear Creek, T. 15 N., R. 12 W | .3| 200| .1 | 80| - |Junction Creek | .7| 500| -- | -- | - |Goose Creek | .3| 200| -- | -- | - |Pilot Spring | .1| 15| -- | -- | - |Deseret Creek (or Deep Creek) | 4.5| 3,000| .5 | 300| - |Crystal Springs, T. 14 N., R. 7 W | .2| 100| .1 | 60| - |Antelope Springs, T. 9 N., R. 6 W | .1| 30| -- | 30| - |Hanzel Spring | .1| 15| -- | 15| - |Promontory, east base | .9| 600| .5 | 300| - |Blue Creek | 2.3| 1,500| -- | -- | - |Brackish Springs, near Blue Creek | 1.5| 1,000| .3 | 200| - |Antelope Island | .1| 50| -- | -- | - | | | | | | - | _The valley of the Sevier River._ | | | | | - | | | | | | - |San Pete Valley | 31.2| 20,000| 17.0 | 10,880| - |Gunnison | 6.2| 4,000| 44.4 | 2,800| - |Sevier Valley, above Gunnison | 54.7| 35,000| 16.5 | 10,500| - |Circle Valley | 6.3| 4,000| 1.1 | 750| - |Panguitch and above | 10.9| 7,000| 2.8 | 1,800| - | | | | | | - | _Irrigable lands of the desert | | | | | - | drainage of southwestern Utah._ | | | | | - | | | | | | - |Cherry Creek | .2| 100| -- | -- | - |Judd Creek | .2| 100| -- | -- | - |Levan | 3.1| 2,000| -- | -- | - |Scipio | 2.6| 1,700| -- | -- | - |Holden | 1.6| 1,000| -- | -- | - |Filmore and Oak Creek | 5.5| 3,500| -- | -- | - |Meadow Creek | 1.9| 1,200| -- | -- | - |Kanosh | 3.1| 2,000| -- | -- | - |Beaver Creek and tributaries | 21.9| 14,000| -- | -- | - |Paragoonah | 1.6| 1,000| -- | -- | - |Parowan | 1.6| 1,000| -- | -- | - |Summit | .6| 400| -- | -- | - |Cedar City, Iron City, & Fort Hamilton | 3.6| 2,300| -- | -- | - |Mountain Meadows | .3| 200| -- | -- | - |Pinto | .3| 200| -- | -- | - |Hebron | 1.6| 1,000| -- | -- | - | | | | | | - | _Irrigable lands of | | | | | - | the Colorado drainage._ | | | | | - | | | | | | - |Virgin River | 30 | 19,200| 11.0 | 7,040| - |Kanab Creek | 2.5| 1,600| 1.1 | 700| - |Paria River | 6 | 3,840| -- | -- | - |Escalante River | 6 | 3,840| -- | -- | - |Fremont River | 38 | 24,320| -- | -- | - |San Rafael River | 175 |112,000| -- | -- | - |Price River | 11 | 7,040| -- | -- | - |Minnie Maud Creek | 3 | 1,920| -- | -- | - |Uinta River | 285 |182,400| .5 | 300| - |Ashley Fork | 25 | 16,000| .1 | 50| - |Henrys Fork | 10 | 6,400| -- | -- | - |White River | 75 | 48,000| -- | -- | - |Green River | | | | | - | Browns Park | 10 | 6,400| -- | -- | - | Below Split Mountain Cañon | 50 | 32,000| -- | -- | - | Gunnison Valley | 25 | 16,000| -- | -- | - |Grand River | 40 | 25,600| -- | -- | - | +------+-------+------+-------+ - | Total 2,262.4 1,447,920 -- -- | - +---------------------------------------+------+-------+------+-------+ - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - - IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE SALT LAKE DRAINAGE SYSTEM. - - BY G. K. GILBERT. - - -The field of my work in 1877 included so large a portion of the -drainage basin of Great Salt Lake and so little else that it has -proved most convenient to report on all of that basin, or rather on -that part of it which lies within the Territory of Utah. In so doing, -I have depended, for nearly all the lands draining to Utah Lake, upon -the data gathered by Mr. Renshawe, of this survey, in connection with -his topographic work. The remainder of the district, with very slight -exception, I have myself visited. - -The officials and citizens of the Territory have all freely contributed -such information as I have sought, and have aided me in many ways; but -I have been especially indebted to Mr. Martineau and Mr. Barton, the -surveyors of Cache and Davis Counties; to Mr. Fox, the territorial -surveyor; and to the Hon. A. P. Rockwood, the statistician of the -Deseret Agricultural Society. Mr. Rockwood prepared a statistical -report on the Territory in 1875, which has been of great service to me, -and he has kindly placed at my disposal the manuscript details of his -work as well as the published summary. - - - METHOD AND SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION. - -Where agriculture is dependent upon irrigation, the extent of land that -can be put to agricultural use is determined by the relation of the -quantity of available water to the quantity of available land. There is -a certain amount of water needed by a unit of land, and wherever the -land susceptible of cultivation requires more water than is obtainable, -only a portion of the land can be utilized. But there is also a limit -to the amount of water that can be profitably employed on a unit of -land, and where the supply of water is in excess of the quantity -required by such lands as are properly disposed to receive and use it, -only a portion of the water can be utilized. In order to ascertain, -therefore, the extent of agricultural land in a given district, it is -necessary to make a measurement of land, or a measurement of water, or -perhaps both, and it is necessary to know the amount of water demanded -by a unit area of the land under consideration. - -The proper quota of water for irrigation depends on climate and -soil and subsoil, as well as on the nature of the crop, and varies -indefinitely under diverse conditions. As a rule, the best soils -require least water; those which demand most are light sands on one -hand and adhesive clays on the other. Where the subsoil is open and -dry, more water is needed than where it is moist or impervious. -Wherever there is an impervious substratum, the subsoil accumulates -moisture and the demand for water diminishes from year to year. These -and other considerations so complicate the subject that it is difficult -to generalize, and I have found it more practicable to use in my -investigations certain limiting quantities than to attempt in every -case a diagnosis of the local conditions. By comparing the volumes -of certain streams in Utah, that are now used in irrigation to their -full capacity, with the quantities of land that they serve, I have -found that one hundred acres of dry bench land (_i. e._, land with -a deep, dry, open subsoil) will not yield a full crop of grain with -less than one cubic foot of water per second, and this under the most -favorable climate of the Territory. Where the climate is drier, a -greater quantity is required. Where there is a moist subsoil, a less -may suffice. - -In the drier districts, where the streams are small, they are usually -employed upon the dry benches, because these are most convenient to -their sources; and it is very rarely the case that their utility is -increased by the presence of a moist subsoil. But it is also in the -drier districts that the extent of agricultural land is ascertained by -the measurement of streams; and hence there is little danger of error -if we use in all cases the criterion that applies to dry bench land. In -the discussion of the lands of northern Utah, I have therefore assigned -to each cubic foot per second of perennial flow the reclamation of one -hundred acres of land, with the belief that the consequent estimates -would never underrate, though they might sometimes exaggerate, the -agricultural resources of the districts examined. - -In the measurement of streams the following method was employed: A -place was sought where the channel was straight for a distance equal -to several times the width of the stream, and where for some distance -there was little change in the dimensions of the cross section. -Measurement was then made of the width (in feet), of the mean depth (in -feet), and of the maximum surface current (in feet per second). The -mean current was assumed to be four-fifths of the maximum current; and -four-fifths of the product of the three measured elements was taken to -give the flow in cubic feet per second. This method of measurement is -confessedly crude, and is liable to considerable error, but with the -time at my disposal no better was practicable, and its shortcomings -are less to be regretted on account of the variability of the streams -themselves. - -All of the streams of Utah that flow from mountain slopes are subject -to great fluctuations. They derive a large share of their water from -the melting of snow, and not only does the melting vary as to its -rapidity and season, but the quantity of snow to be melted varies -greatly from year to year. A single measurement standing alone is quite -inadequate to determine the capacity of a stream for irrigation, and as -it was rarely practicable to visit a stream more than once, an endeavor -was made to supplement the single determination by collating the -judgments of residents as to the relative flow of the several creeks -and rivers at other seasons and in other years. In districts where -the water is nearly all used and its division and distribution are -supervised by “watermasters”, those functionaries are able to afford -information of a tolerably definite character, but in other districts -it was necessary to make great allowance for errors of judgment. -Certainly, that element of my estimates which is based on inquiries -cannot claim so small a probability of error as the element based on -measurements. - -Streams that are formed in high mountains reach their highest stage -in June, and their lowest in September or October. Streams from low -mountains attain their maxima in April or May, and reach their low -stages by August or September. In the low valleys the irrigation -of wheat and other small grains begins about the first of June, and -continues until the latter part of July. The irrigation of corn and -potatoes begins in the early part of July, and continues until the -middle of August. In the middle of July all of the land calls for -water, and if the supply is sufficient at that time, it is sure to -meet all demands at other times. It will be convenient to call that -time _the critical season_. In the higher agricultural valleys corn -and potatoes are not grown, but the irrigation of small grains and hay -is carried on from the middle of June to the middle or latter part of -August. Through all this time the volume of the streams is diminishing, -and if they fail at all it is at the end of the season. The critical -season for the higher valleys is about the middle of August. - -In order to estimate properly the agricultural capability of a stream, -it is necessary to ascertain its volume at its critical season. In the -investigations of the past summer, this was accomplished by direct -measurement in but a limited district. For the remainder of my field of -operations I was compelled to depend on the estimates of others as to -the relation between the volumes of streams at the time of measurement -and at the critical season. - -As will appear in the sequel, the uncertainty attaching to these -determinations of volumes affects the grand total in but small degree. -The utility of the large streams is not limited by their volumes -so much as by the available land suitable for overflow, a quantity -susceptible of more accurate determination, and the extent of land -irrigable by the large streams is many times greater than that -irrigable by the small. - -No streams are used throughout the year, and few can be fully utilized -during the spring flood. Wherever it is practicable to store up -the surplus water until the time of need, the irrigable area is -correspondingly increased. Enough has been accomplished in a few -localities to demonstrate the feasibility of reclaiming thousands of -acres by the aid of reservoirs, and eventually this will be done; but -except in a small way it is not a work of the immediate future. For -many years to come capital will find greater remuneration in taking -possession of the large rivers. - -In estimating the agricultural resources, it was, of course, necessary -to take account of all future increase, and wherever storage by -reservoirs seemed practicable a rough estimate was made of the extent -of land that could be thus reclaimed. - -There are a few restricted areas in Utah that yield remunerative crops -to the farmer without the artificial application of water. Their -productiveness is doubled or trebled by the use of water, and so far as -they are susceptible of irrigation they need not be distinguished from -the irrigable lands. When the greater rivers shall have been diverted -to the work of irrigation, nearly all such areas will be supplied with -water, but a few will not. The endeavor has been to include the latter -as well as the former in the estimate of the agricultural land. - -The term “agricultural land” is construed to include that which is used -or may be used for the production of hay as well as that cultivated by -the plow. Most irrigable lands may be utilized in either way, but there -are some tracts which, on account of the severity of the climate or the -impurity of the water, are adapted to the growth of grass only. - -I have sought in the foregoing remarks to set forth as briefly as -possible the methods and scope of my investigations, and to indicate -the degree of accuracy to be anticipated in the resulting estimates. To -these estimates we will now proceed. - - - IRRIGATION BY THE LARGE STREAMS. - -Three rivers enter Great Salt Lake--the Bear, the Weber, and the -Jordan, and upon their water will ultimately depend the major part of -the agriculture of Utah. By a curious coincidence, the principal heads -of the three rivers lie close together in the western end of the Uinta -range of mountains. - - * * * * * - -The _Bear River_ runs northward at first, and a little beyond the -foot of the mountains enters the Territory of Wyoming. Swerving to -the left, it passes again into Utah, and swerving again to the right -returns to Wyoming. From Wyoming it runs northward into Idaho, and -after making a great detour to the north returns on a more westerly -line to Utah. It reënters in Cache Valley, and passes thence by a -short cañon to its delta plain on the northwestern border of Great -Salt Lake. Its principal tributaries are received in Idaho and in -Cache Valley. Bordering upon the upper reaches of the river, there -is little land available for cultivation, and the climate forbids -any crop but hay. I am informed that the meadow land there somewhat -exceeds two square miles in area. Where the river next enters Utah it -runs for 30 miles through an open valley, the valley that contains the -towns of Woodruff and Randolph. At the head it passes through a short -defile, and can readily be thrown into two canals at such a level as -to command the greater part of the valley, bringing about 90 square -miles of land “under ditch”. For the irrigation of this amount the -river is sufficient, but if the necessary water were thus appropriated, -too little would remain for the use of the lands which border the -contiguous portions of the river in Wyoming. These have equal claim -to the use of the river, and a proper distribution of the water would -assign it to the reclamation of the best selection of land in the two -Territories. I estimate that such an adjustment would permit the Utah -valley to irrigate 45 square miles with the water of the river. The -minor streams of the valley will serve, in addition, 24 square miles. -The climate is unfavorable to grain and the chief crop must be of hay. - -Where the river next enters Utah it has acquired so great a volume that -it is impracticable to make use of its entire amount. The portion of -Cache Valley which lies in Utah can nearly all be irrigated. What is -on the left bank of Bear River can be served by Logan River and other -tributaries without calling on the main stream. The right bank will -have to be served in connection with an adjacent tract in Idaho, and by -a canal lying entirely in that Territory. The expense will be great, -but not greater than the benefit will warrant. I estimate that the Utah -division of Cache Valley will ultimately contain 250 square miles of -irrigated land. The climate admits of the growth of wheat, oats, and -corn, and such fruits as the apple, pear, and the apricot. - -In leaving Cache Valley the river tumbles through a short, narrow -cañon, and then enters the plain that borders the lake. The limestone -walls of the cañon offer a secure foundation for the head works to a -system of canals to supply the plain. Here, again, a large outlay is -necessary, but the benefits will be more than commensurate. Not only -will the entire alluvial plain of the Bear be served, but the valley of -the Malade, as far as Oregon Springs, and the valley which extends from -Little Mountain to Connor’s Spring. After deducting from these areas -the land along the margin of the lake that is too saline to afford hope -of reclamation, there remains a tract of 214 square miles. One-tenth of -this is now in use, being in part watered by Box Elder Creek and other -small creeks, and in part cultivated without irrigation. - -In the following table are summed the agricultural resources of that -portion of the Bear River drainage basin which lies in Utah: - - +------------------------------------+--------------------------+ - | | Square miles-- | - | Tracts. +-------------+------------+ - | | Cultivated | Cultivable.| - | | in 1877. | | - +------------------------------------+-------------+------------+ - |Base of Uinta Mountains | 1.6 | 2.5 | - |Yellow Creek and Duck Creek | 0.0 | 2.0 | - |Randolph Valley and Saleratus Creek | 9.6 | 69.0 | - |Shores of Bear Lake | 5.0 | 9.0 | - |Cache Valley | 50.0 | 250.0 | - |Delta Plain, Malade Valley, | | | - | and Connor’s Spring Valley | 22.0 | 218.0 | - |Box Elder Valley (Mantua) | 1.1 | 1.5 | - | |-------------+------------| - | Total | 89.3 | 552.0 | - +------------------------------------+-------------+------------+ - -The entire area of the Bear River District is about 3,620 square miles, -2¹⁄₂ per cent. being now under cultivation, and over 15 per cent. -susceptible of cultivation. - - * * * * * - -The _Weber River_ runs with a general northwesterly course from the -Uinta Mountains to Great Salt Lake, entering the latter at the middle -of its eastern shore. The Ogden is its only important tributary. At -the foot of the mountains it enters Kamas Prairie, in which it can be -made to irrigate a few square miles. Thence to Hennefer, a distance -of 30 miles, it is continuously bordered by a strip of farming land -about one-third of a mile broad. Then it passes a series of three -close cañons--in the intervals of which are Round Valley, with a few -acres of land, and Morgan Valley, with 7 square miles--and emerges -upon its delta plain. Within this plain are no less than 219 square -miles of farming land, of which about two-fifths are now in use. A part -is unwatered, a part is watered by the Ogden River and by a number -of creeks, and the remainder is watered by the Weber. To serve the -higher portions of the plain a great outlay would be required, and I -am of opinion that the highest levels cannot profitably be supplied. -Still, a great extension of the irrigated area is inevitable, and I -anticipate that when the water of the Weber has been carried as far as -is economically practicable, not more than 15 miles of the plain will -remain unsupplied. Deducting this amount, as well as the area served -by the minor streams and springs of the plain, there remain 185 square -miles dependent on the Weber and Ogden Rivers. The Ogden River has also -to water 8 square miles in its upper course, and the Weber 34, making -a total of 227 square miles dependent on the two streams. Whether they -are competent to serve so great an area may well be questioned. On the -8th of October I found in the Ogden River, at the mouth of its cañon, a -flow of 115 feet per second, and three days later the Weber showed 386 -feet. There was almost no irrigation in progress at that time, and the -total of 501 feet included practically all the water of the streams. To -irrigate 227 square miles, the rivers need to furnish at the critical -season (in this case about the 10th of July) 1,450 feet, or nearly -three times their October volume. Of the ratio between their July and -October volumes I have no direct means of judging, and the problem is -too nice a one to be trusted to the estimates of residents unaided -by measurements; but indirectly a partial judgment may be reached by -comparing the rivers with certain tributaries of the Jordan which were -twice observed. City Creek was measured on the 5th of July, and again -on 1st of September, and Emigration and Parley creeks were measured -July 5th, and again September 3rd. These streams rise in mountains that -are about as high as those which furnish the Weber and its branches, -and their conditions are generally parallel. Their measured volumes -were as follows: - - +------------------------+--------------------------------+ - | | I.--July volume, in | - | | feet per second. | - | | +-------------------------+ - | | | II.--September volume, | - | Streams. | | in feet per | - | | | second. | - | | | +--------------------+ - | | | | III.--Ratio of I to| - | | | | II. | - +------------------------+------+----+--------------------+ - | City Creek | 119 | 32 | 3.7 | - | Emigration Creek | 24 | 8 | 3.0 | - | Parley’s Creek | 72 | 29 | 2.5 | - +------------------------+------+----+--------------------+ - -The comparison is not decisive, but it seems to show that the problem -demands for its solution a careful examination at the “critical -season.” If the Ogden and Weber had been measured in September, as -were the other streams, their volumes would probably have been found -less than in October; and this consideration appears to throw the -balance of evidence against the competence of the rivers to water the -contiguous lands. - -But if their incompetence shall be proved, it does not follow that the -lands must go dry. The Bear at the north and the Jordan at the south -have each a great volume of surplus water, and either supply can be led -without serious engineering difficulty to the lower levels of the delta -of the Weber. - -In the following table are summed the agricultural resources of the -Weber drainage basin: - - +------------------------------+--------------------------+ - | | Square miles-- | - | Tracts. +------------+-------------+ - | | Cultivated | Cultivable. | - | | in 1877. | | - +------------------------------+------------+-------------+ - |Kamas Prairie (northern edge) | .7 | 3.0 | - |Peoa to Hennefer, inclusive | 8.5 | 9.0 | - |Parley’s Park | 3.2 | 3.2 | - |Uptown | .5 | 2.0 | - |Echo Creek | .3 | .9 | - |Croydon | .4 | .5 | - |Round Valley | .5 | .5 | - |Morgan Valley | 6.0 | 6.9 | - |Ogden Valley | 4.1 | 8.0 | - |Delta Plain | 91.0 | 219.0 | - | +------------+-------------+ - | Total | 115.2 | 253.0 | - +------------------------------+------------+-------------+ - -The estimate of 219 miles of cultivable land on the Delta Plain -includes 15 miles that will probably never be irrigated, but may -nevertheless be farmed. - -The total area of the Weber basin (including the whole plain from -Bonneville to Centerville, and excluding the main body of Kamas -Prairie) is 2,450 square miles; 4³⁄₄ per cent. of the area is now under -cultivation, and 10¹⁄₃ per cent. is susceptible of cultivation. - - * * * * * - -The _Jordan River_ is the outlet of Utah Lake, and runs northward, -entering Great Salt Lake at its southeastern angle. On the right it -receives a number of large tributaries from the Wasatch Range. The -largest tributary of Utah Lake is the Provo River, which rises in the -Uinta Mountains close to the heads of the Weber and Bear. - -From the mouth of its mountain cañon the Provo enters Kamas Prairie, -and it hugs the south margin of the plain just as the Weber hugs the -north margin, passing out by a narrow defile at the southwest corner. -At one time in the history of the prairie the Provo flowed northward -through it and joined itself to the Weber. The surface of the prairie -was then lower than now, and the sand and gravel which the river -brought from the mountains accumulated upon it. Eventually the Provo -built its alluvium so high that its water found a new passage over the -wall of the valley. The new channel, affording a more rapid descent -than the old, quickened the current through the valley, and caused -it to reverse its action and begin the excavation of the material it -had deposited. So long as the river built up its bed, its channel was -inconstant, shifting from place to place over the whole plain; but so -soon as it began to cut away the bed, its position became fixed and -the plain was abandoned. The river now flows in a narrow valley of its -own making, 150 feet below the surface of the plain. As a result of -this mode of origin, Kamas Prairie slopes uniformly from the Provo to -the Weber, and it would be an immense undertaking to irrigate it with -the water of the Weber. But the Provo River can be returned to its -ancient duty with comparative ease. A few miles of canal will suffice -to carry its water to the upper edge of the plain, and thence it can -be led to every part. Already a small canal has been constructed and -its enlargement may convert the whole prairie into a meadow. Thus the -prairie, although part of the drainage basin of the Weber, belongs to -the irrigation district of the Provo. - -The Provo next follows a narrow rock bound valley for 7 miles, being -skirted by bottom lands that admit of some farming. It then enters -Provo Valley, an opening about as large as the last, and favored by a -warm climate that permits the growth of breadstuffs. Thence to Utah -Valley it follows a deep, close cañon. - -The volume of the Provo is sufficient to water about 100 square miles. -If it be permitted to serve 28 miles in Kamas Prairie and 40 miles in -Provo Valley and its adjuncts, there will remain for Utah Valley the -quota for 32 miles. The minor streams of the valley, American Fork, -Spanish Fork, Hobble Creek, Payson Creek, etc., will irrigate 120 -miles, making a total of 152 square miles supplied with water. The -total land of the valley which might be irrigated if the water were -sufficient amounts to no less than 225 miles. - -Thus it appears that if all available lands on the upper Provo are -reclaimed, one-third of Utah Valley must go unwatered, while if none of -them are irrigated, nearly the whole of the valley will be supplied. A -middle course would appear most wise, and will undoubtedly be followed. -A gradual extension of the canals, as the demands and means of the -communities dictate and permit, will bring lands successively into -use in the order of their value and convenience, and when the limit -is reached and title has been acquired to all the water, the most -available lands in each of the three valleys traversed by the Provo -will have been reclaimed. The residents of Kamas Prairie will probably -have increased their meadows so as to furnish winter hay for herds -sufficient to stock the summer pastures of the vicinity; Provo Valley, -having a less favorable climate than Utah Valley, will have irrigated -only its choicest soils; and the major part of the river will belong -to Utah Valley. The apportionment may be roughly estimated as--Kamas -Prairie, 10 miles; Provo Valley and Waldsburg, 20 miles, and Utah -Valley, 70 miles. - -Below Utah Lake there is little inequality of volume dependent on -season. The lake is a natural reservoir 127 square miles in extent, -and so far equalizes the outflow through the Jordan that the volume of -that stream is less affected by the mean level of the lake than by the -influence of northerly and southerly winds. With suitable head works -its volume can be completely controlled, and, if desirable, the entire -discharge of the lake can be concentrated in the season of irrigation. - -The highest stage of the lake is in July, and the lowest in March -or April; and the natural volume of its outlet has of course a -corresponding change. In July I found that volume to be 1,275 feet per -second, and I am informed by residents that the stream carried more -than one-half as much water in its low stage; 1,000 feet is perhaps not -far from the mean volume. When all possible use is made of Provo River -and other tributaries the annual inflow of the lake will be diminished -by about one-eighth, and the outflow by a greater fraction, which we -will assume to be one-quarter. (This postulates that the evaporation -is at the rate of 90 inches per year for the whole lake surface.) The -remaining perennial outflow of 750 feet per second, if concentrated -into four months, would irrigate for that period 350 square miles. It -will be practicable to include under canals from the Jordan only about -160 square miles of farming land, and I think it safe to assume that -the supply of water will be greatly in excess of the demand. - -At the present time the Jordan is little used, the chief irrigation of -Salt Lake Valley being performed by the large creeks that flow from -the mountains at the east. It will not be long, however, before large -canals are constructed to carry the Jordan water to all parts of the -valley that lie below the level of Utah Lake. They will include 120 -square miles of farming land. - -The mountain streams, being no longer needed in the lower parts of the -valley, will be carried to higher land and made to serve the benches -at the base of the mountains. By these means the total agricultural -area of the valley will be increased to 192 square miles. Eventually, -the western canal will be carried about the north end of the Oquirrh -range and made to irrigate the northern third of Tooele Valley. It will -pass above the farming lands of E. T. City and Grantsville, and enable -the streams which irrigate the latter town to be used upon the higher -slopes. The service of the Jordan will amount to no less than 40 miles -and the agricultural area of the valley will be increased to about 45 -square miles. - -Including Tooele Valley and Kamas Prairie with the drainage basin of -the Jordan, its agricultural resources sum up as follows: - - +---------------------------------------+--------------------------+ - | | Square miles-- | - | Tracts. +------------+-------------+ - | | Cultivated | Cultivable. | - | | in 1877. | | - +---------------------------------------+------------+-------------+ - |Kamas Prairie | 4.0 | 10.0 | - |Hailstone Ranche and vicinity | 2.0 | 2.0 | - |Provo Valley | 6.0 | 16.0 | - |Waldsburg | 2.0 | 2.0 | - |Utah Valley | 59.0 | 190.0 | - |Goshen } | | | - |Mona } Salt Creek | 14.0 | 16.0 | - |Nephi } | | | - |Salt Lake Valley | | | - | (including Bountiful and Centerville) | 89.8 | 192.0 | - |Tooele Valley | 5.4 | 45.0 | - | +------------+-------------+ - | Total | 182.2 | 473.0 | - +---------------------------------------+------------+-------------+ - -The drainage district has an area of 4,010 miles; 4¹⁄₂ per cent. are -cultivated, and 11³⁄₄ per cent. may be cultivated. - -It will be observed that in these estimates the available water -above Utah Lake is regarded as insufficient for the available land, -while below the lake there is a superabundance of water, and yet -the lower stream is only a continuation of the upper streams. The -difference arises from the function of the lake as a reservoir. Below -the reservoir the whole of the annual supply can be controlled, but -above it I have assumed that irrigation will merely make use for the -irrigating season of the quantity which flows at the critical period. -If artificial reservoirs can be constructed so as to store water for -use in Utah Valley, a greater area can be cultivated. With adequate -storage facilities the streams tributary to the lake can irrigate in -Kamas Prairie 28 miles; in Provo Valley and vicinity 40 miles; in -Thistle Valley 6 miles; on Salt Creek 16 miles, and in Utah Valley 225 -miles, making a total of 315 miles; and there will still escape to the -Jordan enough water to serve all the land assigned to that stream. If -such storage is practicable, the estimate tabulated above should show -552 instead of 473 miles of cultivable land. The region most likely to -afford storage facilities lies in the mountains where the waters rise. -I did not visit it, and until it has been examined I shall not venture -to increase the estimate. - -The following table gives a summary for the Great Salt Lake river -system: - - +---------------+-----------------------------------------------------+ - | | Areas, in square miles. | - | +-----------+-------------+--------------+------------+ - | Districts. | Whole | Under | To be | Total | - | | district. | cultivation | reclaimed in | cultivable.| - | | | in 1877. | the future. | | - +---------------+-----------+-------------+--------------+------------+ - | Bear River | 3,620 | 89.3 | 462.7 | 552.0 | - | Weber River | 2,450 | 115.2 | 137.8 | 253.0 | - | Jordan River | 4,010 | 192.2 | 280.8 | 473.0 | - | +-----------+-------------+--------------+------------+ - | Total | 10,080 | 396.7 | 881.3 | 1,278.0 | - | +-----------+-------------+--------------+------------+ - | Ratios | 1,000 | .039 | .088 | .127 | - +---------------+-----------+-------------+--------------+------------+ - -This region includes an eighth part of the land area of the Territory, -and more than one-half the agricultural land. It is the richest section -of Utah. Nearly one-third of its available land is already in use. The -cost of the canals by which its cultivated lands have been furnished -with water has been about $2,000,000. To complete its system of -irrigation will probably cost $5,000,000 more. - - - IRRIGATION BY SMALL STREAMS. - -Through the remainder of the drainage basin of Great Salt Lake there -are no large bodies of farming land. At wide intervals are small -tracts, dependent on springs and small creeks, and the available land -is in nearly every case greatly in excess of the available water. A -few exceptional spots are cultivated without irrigation, but so far as -they have been discovered they are so situated as to be moistened from -beneath. No crops have been raised on dry bench lands. - -The principal facts are gathered in the following table: - - +---------------------------------+----------------------------+ - | |No. of distinct | - | | tracts. | - | | +-----------------------+ - | | |Acres in cultivation | - | | | in 1877. | - | | + +-----------------+ - | Localities. | | |Acres cultivable.| - +---------------------------------+----+-----+-----------------+ - |Cedar Fort | 1| 800| 1,000| - |Fairfield | 1| 800| 900| - |Vernon Creek | 1| 900| 1,200| - |Saint Johns | 1| 700| 700| - |East Cañon Creek, Rush Valley | 1| 500| 900| - |Stockton | 1| 200| 500| - |Skull Valley | 11|1,000| 2,500| - |Government Creek | 1| 300| 300| - |Willow Spring, township | 1| 250| 250| - | 10 south, range 17 west | | | | - |Redding Spring | 1| 20| 50| - |Dodoquibe Spring | 1| -- | 50| - |Deep Creek, township | 1| 500| 1,000| - | 9 south, range 19 west | 1| 500| 1,000| - |Pilot Peak | 1| -- | 200| - |Grouse Valley | 6| 500| 1,500| - |Owl Spring | 1| -- | 10| - |Rosebud Creek | 1| 150| 400| - |Muddy Creek, township | 1| 300| 300| - | 10 north, range 15 west | 1| 300| 300| - |Park Valley | 6| 700| 2,300| - |Widow Spring | 1| -- | 20| - |Indian Creek, township | 1| -- | 100| - | 13 north, range 12 west | 1| -- | 100| - |East base Clear Creek Mountains | 6| 5| 150| - |Cazure Creek | 1| -- | 200| - |Clear Creek, township 15 | 1| 80| 200| - | 15 north, range 12 west | 1| 80| 200| - |Junction Creek | 1| -- | 500| - |Goose Creek | 2| -- | 200| - |Pilot Spring | 1| -- | 15| - |Deseret Creek (or Deep Creek) | 1| 300| 3,000| - |Crystal Springs, township | 1| 60| 100| - | 14 north, range 7 west | 1| 60| 100| - |Antelope Spring, township | 1| 30| 30| - | 9 north, range 6 west | 1| 30| 30| - |Hanzel Spring | 1| 15| 15| - |Promontory, east base | 1| 300| 600| - |Blue Creek | 1| -- | 1,500| - |Brackish Springs near Blue Creek | 1| 200| 1,000| - |Antelope Island | 1| -- | 50| - | +----+-----+-----------------+ - | Total | 60|8,610| 21,740| - | +----+-----+-----------------+ - | Total in square miles | --| 13.5| 33.9| - +---------------------------------+----+-----+-----------------+ - - +--------------------------------+------------------------------+ - | Localities. |Cultivable acres | - | |not included in | - | |existing surveys. | - | + +------------------------+ - | | | Remarks. | - +--------------------------------+-----+------------------------+ - |Cedar Fort | -- |With aid of reservoirs. | - |Fairfield | -- | | - |Vernon Creek | -- |With aid of reservoirs. | - |Saint Johns | -- | | - |East Cañon Creek, Rush Valley | -- | | - |Stockton | -- | | - |Skull Valley | (?)|With aid of reservoirs; | - | | |visited in part only. | - |Government Creek | -- |Not visited. | - |Willow Spring, township | -- | Do. | - | 10 south, range 17 west | | | - |Redding Spring | -- | | - |Dodoquibe Spring | -- |Not visited. | - |Deep Creek, township | -- |With aid of reservoirs. | - | 9 south, range 19 west | -- | | - |Pilot Peak | 200|Not visited. | - |Grouse Valley | -- |With aid of reservoirs. | - |Owl Spring | 10| | - |Rosebud Creek | -- |With aid of reservoirs. | - |Muddy Creek, township | 300| | - | 10 north, range 15 west | 300| | - |Park Valley | -- |With aid of reservoirs. | - |Widow Spring | 20|Not visited. | - |Indian Creek, township | 100|With aid of reservoirs. | - | 13 north, range 12 west | | | - |East base Clear Creek Mountains | 100| Do. | - |Cazure Creek | 200|Not visited. | - |Clear Creek, township | 200| | - | 15 north, range 12 west | | | - |Junction Creek | 500|Not visited. | - |Goose Creek | 200| Do. | - |Pilot Spring | -- | | - |Deseret Creek (or Deep Creek) | -- |With aid of reservoirs. | - |Crystal Springs, township | 100| Do. | - | 14 north, range 7 west | | | - |Antelope Spring, township | 30|Not visited. | - | 9 north, range 6 west | 30|Not visited. | - |Hanzel Spring | 15| | - |Promontory, east base | 600|The greater part | - | | | is not irrigated. | - |Blue Creek | -- | | - |Brackish Springs near Blue Creek| -- | | - |Antelope Island | 50|Not visited. | - | +-----+ | - | Total |1,625| | - | +-----+ | - | Total in square miles | 2.5| | - +--------------------------------+-----+------------------------+ - -Nineteen tracts have not yet been surveyed by the land office. - -The total area of the district is 13,370 square miles, of which -one-tenth of one per cent. is cultivated, and one-fourth of one per -cent. may be cultivated. - - * * * * * - -The contrast between the districts east and west of Great Salt Lake -illustrates the combination of physical conditions essential to -agriculture in our arid territories. An atmosphere endowed with but a -small share of moisture precipitates freely only when it is reduced -to a low temperature. Agriculture is dependent on the precipitation -of moisture, but cannot endure the associated cold climate. It can -flourish only where mountain masses turn over the aqueous product of -their cold climates to low valleys endowed with genial climates. The -Wasatch and Uinta crests stand from 6,000 to 9,000 feet higher than the -valleys bordering Great Salt Lake. Their climate has a temperature from -20° to 30° lower. The snows that accumulate upon them in winter are not -melted by the first warmth of spring, but yield slowly to the advancing -sun, and all through the season of growing crops feed the streams -that water the valleys. The Bear, the Weber, and the Jordan carry the -moisture of the mountains to the warmth of the valleys, and fertility -is the result. - -To the north and west of the lake there are many mountains, but they -are too low and small to store up snow banks until the time of need. -Their streams are spent before the summer comes; and only a few springs -are perennial. The result is a general desert, dotted by a few oases. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER RIVER. - - BY CAPTAIN C. E. DUTTON. - - -As an agricultural region, the valley of the Sevier River and of -its tributaries is one of the most important in Utah. The amount of -arable land which may be reached by the waters of the stream is very -much larger than the stream can water advantageously, and the time is -probably not far distant when all the water that can be obtained will -be utilized in producing cereals, and there is probably no other region -in Utah where the various problems relating to the most economic use -of water will be solved so speedily. It is, therefore, a region of -unusual interest, regarded in the light of the new industrial problems -which the irrigation of these western lands is now bringing forward. -Fortunately, there is a smaller prospect of difficulty and obstruction -in the settlement of the legal controversies which must inevitably -arise elsewhere out of disputes about water rights than will be -encountered in other regions, for the Mormon Church is an institution -which quietly, yet resistlessly, assumes the power to settle such -disputes, and the Mormon people in these outlying settlements yield to -its assumptions an unhesitating obedience. Whatever the church deems -best for the general welfare of its dependencies it dictates, and -what it dictates is invariably done with promptitude, and none have -yet been found to resist. This communal arrangement has been attended -with great success so far as the development of the water resources -are concerned, and the system of management has ordinarily been so -conducted that the general welfare has been immensely benefited; and -if individuals have suffered, it has not been made manifest by any -apparent symptoms of general discontent or of individual resistance. -The system is by no means perfect as yet, but its imperfections may be -found in details which produce no present serious inconvenience, and -they will no doubt be remedied as rapidly as they attain the magnitude -of great evils. - -The Sevier River has its course along the southeastern border of the -Great Basin of the west, and its upper streams head in the lofty divide -which separates the drainage system of the Colorado River on the south -and east from the drainage system of the Great Basin on the north and -west. The general course of the upper portion of the stream is from -south to north, though its tributaries flow in many directions. The -lower portion of the stream, within 60 miles of its end, suddenly -breaks through one of the Basin Ranges on the west--the Pavant--and -then turns southwestward and empties into Sevier Lake, one of the -salinas of the Great Basin. - -The main valley of the Sevier River has a N. S. trend, and begins on -the divide referred to, about 270 miles almost due south of Great -Salt Lake, and continues northward a distance of about 170 miles. -There are three principal forks of this stream. The lowest fork is -at Gunnison, 140 miles south of Salt Lake City, and called the San -Pete, which waters a fine valley about 45 miles in length, and which -is at present the most important agricultural district in Utah. About -80 miles farther up the stream, at Circle Valley, the river divides -into two very nearly equal branches; one coming from the south, the -other breaking through a great plateau on the east. These are called, -respectively, the South and East Fork of the Sevier. The South Fork has -its principal fountains far up on the surface of a great plateau--the -Panguitch Plateau--whose broad expanse it drains by three considerable -streams, which finally unite in the valley at the foot of its eastern -slope. - -The East Fork of the Sevier receives the waters of a beautiful valley -lying to the eastward of and parallel to the main valley of the Sevier, -and separated from it by a lofty plateau 90 miles in length from north -to south, and from 10 to 20 miles in breadth, called the Sevier -Plateau. Through this great barrier the stream has cut a wide gorge -4,000 feet in depth and 10 miles long, called East Fork Cañon, and -right at its lower end it joins the South Fork of the Sevier. - -The physical geography of the region drained by the waters of the -river is highly interesting, and has an important relation to the -subject. The area in question consists of a series of tabular blocks, -of vast proportions, cut out of the general platform of the country -by great faults, and lifted above it from 2,000 to nearly 6,000 feet, -so that the absolute altitudes (above sea level) of the tables range -from 9,000 to 11,500 feet. Where the valleys are lowest the tables are -highest, and _vice versa_. The valleys or lowlands stand from 5,000 -to 7,500 feet above the sea. The plateaus have areas ranging from 400 -to 1,800 square miles, and collectively with the included lowlands -within the drainage system of the Sevier have an area of about 5,400 -square miles. The tables front the valleys with barriers which are -more continuous and which more closely resemble long lines of cliffs -than the mountain chains and sierras of other portions of the Rocky -Mountain Region, and there are stretches of unbroken walls, crowned -with vast precipices, 10, 20, and even 40 miles in length, which look -down from snowy altitudes upon the broad and almost torrid expanses -below. If the palisades of the Hudson had ten times their present -altitude and five or six times their present length, and if they had -been battered, notched, and crumbled by an unequal erosion, they would -offer much the same appearance as that presented by the wall of the -Sevier Plateau which fronts the main valley of the Sevier. If they -were from six to eight times multiplied, and extended from Hoboken -to West Point, and were similarly shattered, they would present the -appearance of the eastern wall of Grass Valley. If they were eight to -ten times multiplied, and imagined to extend around three-fourths of -the periphery of an area 40 miles by 20, and but little damaged by -erosion, they would represent the solemn battlements of the Aquarius -Plateau. These great plateaus are masses of volcanic rock overlying -sedimentaries, the latter so deeply buried that they are seldom seen -even in the deepest chasms, while superposed floods of volcanic -outflows are shown in sections, reaching sometimes a thickness of 5,000 -feet. The dark colors of these rocks give a somber aspect to the -scenery, and the gloomy fronts of the towering precipices are rendered -peculiarly grand and imposing. - -The prevailing winds of this region are from the west, northwest, -and southwest, and are a portion of the more general movement of the -atmospheric ocean which moves bodily from the Pacific to the heart -of the continent. In crossing the Sierra Nevada a large portion of -its moisture is wrung from the air, which blows hot and arid across -the Great Basin. Notwithstanding the aridity of the basin area, the -air gains about as much moisture as it loses in crossing it, until it -strikes the great barriers on the east side of the basin--the Wasatch -and the chain of high plateaus which are mapped as its southerly -continuation. Here the winds are projected by the bold fronts several -thousands of feet upward. The consequent cooling and rarefaction -condense from them an amount of moisture which, relatively to that -arid country, may be called large, though far less than that of more -favored regions. In the valleys the rainfall is exceedingly small; -almost the whole of the precipitation is in the high altitudes. It -is no uncommon thing to see the heavy masses of the cumulus clouds -enveloping the summits of all the plateaus while the valleys lie under -a sky but little obscured. The plateaus, then, are the reservoirs where -the waters accumulate, and from which they descend in many rivulets -and rills, while around their bases are copious springs fed by the -waters which fall above. The rainfall in the valleys is very small, as -compared with that upon the plateaus, and it is also highly variable. -No record has been kept of the precipitation within the drainage -system of the Sevier, and the nearest point where such a record has -been kept is at Fort Cameron, near Beaver, at the western base of -the Tushar Mountains. These observations cover but a brief period, -and no doubt represent a much larger precipitation than that which -occurs in the valleys and plains generally, because the situation of -the point of observation is just at the base of the loftiest range in -southern Utah, where the air currents from the west first strike it. -Moreover, these observations are not yet published, and are not at -present available. In the narrow valleys between closely approximated -and lofty mountain walls, like the valley of the Sevier at Marysvale, -the rainfall is greater than where the valley is wider, with lower -walls, as at Panguitch, Richfield, and Gunnison. An estimate of the -amount would be very hazardous; but, judging from what is known of -similar localities, the amount in the wider valleys may be as low as -7 or 8 inches, or as high as 10 or 11. In the narrower and deeper -valleys it may be between 10 and 12 inches. Upon the plateaus it may -be as large as 30 to 35 inches. The principal fall is in the winter -and spring months, from the middle of November to the first of June; -and in this period at least seven-eighths of the precipitation must be -accomplished in the valleys and three-fourths upon the plateaus. There -is, however, a large amount of variation in the distribution of the -monthly falls from year to year. No two consecutive years correspond -in this respect. In 1876 a heavy storm, with great rainfall and snow, -occurred in the month of October, but in 1875 and 1877 no such storm -occurred. In 1875 many drenching showers occurred in the months of July -and August, but none occurred at the same months of 1877. In general, -however, no summer rainfall has ever been known of such extent as to -dispense with the necessity of irrigation, or even to materially reduce -the necessary amount. Great variability in the distribution of the fall -over different months of the year is one of the characteristics of the -climate. But whatever the distribution, it is never such as to affect -this one conspicuous feature--that the season in which crops must have -their chief growth and reach their maturity is the dry season. - -Connected with the irrigation of the Sevier Valley is a limiting -condition, which rarely has to be considered in connection with the -lands watered by the Bear and Weber Rivers, and which does not enter at -all into the lands lying about Great Salt Lake. It is the dependence of -climate upon altitude. There are lands along the upper portions of the -forks of the Sevier which can be irrigated easily enough, but which are -not cultivable for grain on account of the shortness of the summer and -of the danger of frosts during the growth and ripening of the grain. -This in turn is directly connected with the altitude. At the point -where the Sevier leaves its main valley and enters the Pavant range, -its altitude is 5,050 feet above sea-level. At Gunnison it is 5,150 -feet. - -The altitudes of the San Pete Valley are approximately as follows: - - Feet. - Manti 5,350 - Ephraim 5,450 - Moroni 5,500 - Springtown 5,550 - Mount Pleasant 5,600 - Fairview 5,725 - Fountain Green 5,650 - -Beginning at Gunnison and ascending the Sevier along its main course, -the altitudes are as follows: - - Feet. - Gunnison 5,100 - Salina 5,175 - Richfield 5,300 - Monroe 5,350 - Joseph City 5,375 - Marysvale 5,600 - Circle Valley 6,000 - -Taking the East Fork in Grass Valley: - - Feet. - Head of East Fork Cañon 6,300 - Cousharem 6,700 - Daniels’ Ranch 7,000 - -Taking the South Fork: - - Feet. - Head of Panguitch Cañon 6,250 - Panguitch 6,400 - Hillsdale 6,550 - Junction of Mammoth Creek 6,900 - -In the San Pete Valley, which has been cultivated as far up as Mount -Pleasant for twenty years, I cannot learn that any crop has ever been -injured by frosts, and we may therefore conclude that this valley is -safe from such an attack, unless a most abnormal one. The same may -be said of the main Sevier Valley from Joseph City downward. From -Joseph City to Circle Valley there is a relatively small proportion -of irrigable land, but such as there is may, I think, be regarded as -safe from frost. Circle Valley, where the two forks unite, has been -cultivated for cereals for four years, and has not yet suffered from -frost, and it is fair to assume that such a calamity will be very -infrequent there, though it may not be possible to say there is no -danger. In Panguitch Valley, a severe frost in August, 1874, inflicted -great injury upon the crops, and only a small quantity of very -inferior grain was harvested. But in 1875, 1876, and 1877, excellent -crops were secured. Above Panguitch the amount of arable land is not -great, and the danger to crops is increased. In Grass Valley there -is a magnificent expanse of fertile arable land, but there can be no -question that a large portion of it is so liable to killing frosts in -August, or even in July, that the cereals cannot flourish there. The -lower portion of the valley, near the head of East Fork Cañon, is more -hopeful, and it is probable that a large majority of crops planted -there will mature, though occasional damage may be reasonably looked -for. The general result may be summarized as follows: Below 6,000 feet -crops may be considered as safe from serious damage by frosts. From -6,000 to 7,000 feet crops are liable to damage in a degree proportional -to the excess of altitude above 6,000 feet. Above 7,000 feet the danger -is probably such as to render agriculture of little value to those who -may pursue it. - -The climate has shown in past times a longer period of variation than -the annual one. Panguitch was settled once in 1860, but was abandoned -on account of the destruction of crops by the frosts. The settlement -was renewed in 1867, and again abandoned, in consequence of the attacks -of Indians. It was settled a third time in 1870, and, though crops have -occasionally been injured, the agriculture has on the whole proved -remunerative. - -Let us now look at the irrigable lands of the Sevier and its -tributaries. Above the town of Panguitch, on the South Fork, there is -a considerable area of arable land, which could be easily reached by -canals from the main stream and below 7,000 feet altitude, but for want -of a detailed survey it is impossible to do more than guess at the -area. I think, however, that 8,000 acres would be the maximum limit. -This portion of the valley is liable to killing frosts, though during -the last three years it has not suffered from this cause. In the long -run, I believe agriculture will not prove remunerative here. From -Panguitch northward to the head of the Panguitch Cañon, a distance of -18 miles, is a broad valley, averaging 5 miles in width, a very large -portion of which is irrigable, provided the water supply is adequate. -At least 24,000 acres may be cultivated without resort to anything more -than the usual methods of distributing the water; but not the whole -of this area is fertile. The greater part of the area of Panguitch -Valley is composed of alluvial slopes, or, as they have been termed -by geologists, alluvial cones. Although these surface features are -presented in a somewhat more typical and striking manner in Grass -Valley, yet they are well enough exhibited here; and as they have an -important relation to the subject, I will briefly discuss them. - -In a mountainous country like this, where the melting of the snows in -spring or heavy rainfalls at other seasons create sudden and great -torrents, large quantities of detritus are carried down from the -mountains into the valleys. These mountain streams, which in summer, -autumn, and early winter are ordinarily either very small or wholly -dried up, may upon certain occasions become devastating floods. The -bottoms of the ravines are steep water courses, down which the angry -torrents rush with a power which is seldom comprehended by those who -dwell in less rugged regions. Huge boulders weighing several tons, -great trees, with smaller débris of rocks, gravel, sand, and clay, -are swept along with resistless force, until the decreasing slope -diminishes the energy sufficiently to permit the greater boulders -to come to rest, while the smaller ones are still swept onward. The -decrease of slope is continuous, so that smaller and smaller fragments -reach a stable position, and only cobblestones, gravel, or sand reach -the junctions of the streams with the main rivers. Around the openings -of the greater gorges and ravines the deposits of coarser detritus -build up in the lapse of time the alluvial cones. As it accumulates, -each torrent builds up its bed and constantly changes the position of -its channel, and with the mouth of the ravine for a center it sweeps -around from right to left and left to right like a radius, adding -continually, year after year, to the accumulations of detritus. Thus a -portion of a flat cone is formed, having its apex at the mouth of the -ravine. At the foot of mountain ranges these alluvial cones are formed -at the mouth of every ravine, and are sometimes so near together that -they intersect each other, or become confluent. They are composed of -rudely stratified materials, ranging in size or grain from fine silt -and sand to rounded stones of several hundredweight, and occasionally -a block of a ton or more may be seen near the apex of the cone. In -regions where the rocks are soft and readily disintegrated the stones -are more worn, less in number, and smaller in size, and this is the -case generally with unaltered sedimentary rocks. But in valleys running -among volcanic ranges, the much greater hardness and durability of the -materials preserve them from disintegration, and the stones are more -numerous, larger, and less worn by attrition, composing indeed a very -large proportion of the bulk of the alluvial cones. A large portion -of the valley of the Sevier lies in the midst of a volcanic region, -and its sides are everywhere flanked with these alluvial cones, which -are very stony and gravelly. The lower portion of the Sevier is in a -country made of sedimentary beds, and though the alluvial cones are -equally common, they consist of finer material, and are less burdened -with stones. - -The Panguitch Valley is between volcanic plateaus, and most of its area -consists of alluvial cone land, which is no doubt fertile wherever the -stones and rubble are not sufficient to prevent plowing and planting, -but this difficulty must render it at least very undesirable. There -is, however, a large area of land of another description in Panguitch -Valley, composed of the finest silt brought down by the gentler current -of the river itself, and deposited within its own basin. This is good -bottom land, and the amount of it I estimate at not less than 7,000 -acres. It has already been remarked that Panguitch Valley stands at -an altitude above 6,000 feet, and is not free from danger of summer -frosts. These have been known to destroy or seriously injure the grain, -though in a majority of years crops will no doubt be safely harvested. -Whether the danger is such as to make agriculture unremunerative in the -long run experience can alone demonstrate. - -Following the South Fork of the Sevier downward through the Panguitch -cañons, the next important agricultural area is Circle Valley. This -is a broad, nearly circular area, situated in the midst of scenery -of the most magnificent description. Upon the east and west sides -rise those gigantic cliffs which are the peculiar feature of the -scenery of this elevated region, looking down upon the valley below -from altitudes of 4,000 to 5,000 feet. This valley also has upon its -sides long sloping areas of stony alluvial cones, full of blocks of -trachyte and basalt washed down from the cliffs above. It has also -a large area of arable land. There is in addition, a certain area -of sandy land of an inferior degree of excellence. The area of best -bottom land will probably reach as high as 6,000 acres. In this area -there is probably very little danger from early frosts, as the 6,000 -feet contour passes through the middle of the valley, and, as already -stated, the areas which lie within this limit are reasonably safe from -this occurrence. At the north end of Circle Valley we find the junction -of the two main forks of the Sevier River. From the junction the main -stream runs northward for nearly 20 miles, and throughout this entire -stretch there is but little arable land. Upon both sides of the river -there are long alluvial slopes, made up of stony materials and coarse -gravels, through which a plow could scarcely be driven. A portion of -the way the river runs between rocks and low cliffs and in abrupt -cañons, cutting through old trachyte and basaltic outflows. Reaching -Marysvale, we find a sufficient area for three or four good sized -farms, consisting of bottom land of the finest quality, which can be -watered either from the Sevier River itself or from two considerable -affluents which come roaring down out of the Beaver Mountains. North of -Marysvale is a barrier thrown across the valley, consisting of rugged -hills of rhyolitic rocks, through which the river has cut a deep cañon; -but agriculture in any portion of this barrier is out of the question. -The river emerges from it at the head of what may be called its main -or lower valley, near the Mormon settlement called Joseph City. From -this point northward we find what must undoubtedly become the great -agricultural area of southern Utah. It is a magnificent valley, nowhere -less than 5 miles in width, and at least 60 miles in length, with -abrupt mountain walls on either side, and almost the whole of its soil -consisting of alluvial cones, and susceptible of a high degree of -cultivation. The limit of the amount of land in this valley which can -be irrigated is measured by the quantity of water which can be found -to turn upon it. The western side of the valley is flanked by abrupt -walls of sedimentary rocks. As I have before stated, the alluvial cones -which find their origin in the degradation of these sedimentary walls -are invariably composed of finer materials than those which come from -the breaking up of volcanic rocks. The soil, therefore, is much more -readily plowed and planted than the corresponding cones farther up the -river. The surface of these cones, moreover, is coated with a thick -layer of fine loam, and it is not until penetrated to a considerable -depth that we come upon a coarser material. This portion of the valley -of the Sevier has been under cultivation for more than eight years. -The art of irrigation has also reached a certain stage of advancement, -at which it can be studied with some interest. A canal of sufficient -magnitude to carry the entire body of the water of the Sevier during -the dry season has been run for a distance of 8 miles, and is used for -irrigating the large grain fields which lie around Richfield; and, as -irrigation is now conducted, the entire flow of the stream is turned -through this canal after having been employed for irrigating the -various fields, which extend for the distance of nearly 7 miles. The -total amount of irrigable land which may be found between Joseph City -on the south and the point where the Sevier leaves its proper valley, -65 miles to the northward, cannot be much less than 90,000 acres. The -limit of irrigation throughout this entire valley is the limit of the -water supply. - -There is one other valley to which we must advert, namely, the -valley of the San Pete. This is fully equal in fertility and in the -convenience of every element connected with irrigation to the best -part of the main valley of the Sevier. The San Pete is a stream of -considerable magnitude, and experience has shown that it is probably -capable, under a more improved system of irrigation than that now in -use, of watering the greater portion of its valley. The cultivable -acreage of the San Pete Valley is about 55,000 acres, provided the -whole could be watered. - -The quantity of water carried by the Sevier will now be considered. -This, of course, is highly variable from month to month. The time for -measurement, if the true irrigating capacity of the stream is to be -considered, should be that time at which the ratio of water in the -stream to the amount required is smallest. At different stages of -growth of the crops the amount of water required differs considerably. -The largest amount is needed about the time the seeds of the grain -begin to fill out. Ordinarily this is in the latter part of July and -early in August throughout the lower and most extensive portion of -the valley, and a week later in the upper portions. At this season -the water is not at its minimum. There is a gradual diminution of the -flow during July, but the great shrinkage of the stream occurs during -the middle of August, just after, or sometimes even during, those -irrigations in which the greatest amount is required. The critical -period of the crops occurs, therefore, just before, and sometimes -dangerously near, the period of rapid decline in the water supply. -It will therefore be evident that it is not a very easy matter to -determine the exact stage of water which can serve as a criterion of -the irrigating capacity. My own measurements, however, were hardly a -matter of choice, but were made at the most advantageous period which -could be selected without interfering with the primary objects of the -expedition. - -The Sevier was measured at the junction of the two main forks, at the -north end of Circle Valley, on the 6th and 7th of July. The method -adopted was first to find a section of the water at a given point by -soundings and by actual measurement of the width of the water surfaces, -and measuring the surface velocity by means of floats. The most -probable mean result of several measurements was found to be 410 cubic -feet per second for the East Fork, and 450 feet per second for the -South Fork, or a total of 860 feet. - -While this measurement was made the South Fork was being drawn upon -above for the watering of about 1,100 acres near Panguitch, 35 miles -farther up the stream, and also for watering about 600 acres in Circle -Valley, about 3 to 4 miles above. The amount of water used in Circle -Valley was probably greater than that at Panguitch, since the method -employed was much more wasteful, and no provision made for returning -the tail water to the stream. On the other hand, a large proportion of -the tail water from both places finds its way back to the channel in -spite of waste, but how much it is impossible to conjecture. I think, -however, that 75 cubic feet per second would cover the loss from these -sources. - -Below the point of measurement the Sevier receives the following -affluents: At Van Buren’s ranch is a cluster of very large springs, -furnishing about 55 cubic feet per second. Between Van Buren’s and -Marysvale are three streams, yielding together about 30 feet, and -Bullion Creek at Marysvale carries about 40 feet. There is still -another affluent at Marysvale with about 30 feet. Finally, Clear -Creek, north of Marysvale Cañon, gives about 45 feet, making the total -contributions between the junction of the forks and Joseph City about -200 feet. - -At Monroe a stream issues from the Sevier table, and is used for -the irrigation of the field cultivated by that settlement. Its flow -is estimated at 40 feet in the middle of July. At Richfield, on the -other side of the valley, is a stream coming from the Pavant, with a -flow of about 20 feet, and at Glencove a stream of 25 feet. At Salina -is a large tributary issuing from a great cañon through the north -end of the Sevier Plateau, and its measurement indicated a flow of -165 feet. The total between Monroe and Salina, inclusive, would thus -reach 250 feet, to which might be added some smaller tributaries, not -specifically mentioned, amounting perhaps to 10 feet, giving a total of -260 feet. Adding this to the tributaries between the upper forks and -Joseph City, and to the main river itself, we have, as the total above -Gunnison, 1,320 feet. This estimate being for the early part of July, -and obviously largely in excess of the amount which is available at -the critical period, in the last week of that month and the first week -in August, what allowance should be made for the diminution of supply -during the month of July it is difficult to determine. The smaller -tributaries, as a rule, shrink much more than the larger. Those which -enter the stream lower down decline more during July than those which -join it farther up. Taken altogether, I am satisfied that it would be -unsafe to estimate the irrigating capacity in the first week of August -at more than 60 per cent. of that found in the first week of July, -and I regard 50 per cent. as a much more probable estimate. For want -of a better one, I adopt it, and this gives the estimated irrigating -capacity of the Sevier and its tributaries above the junction of the -San Pete at 660 cubic feet per second during the critical period. - -The water supply in the San Pete Valley was measured by Mr. Renshawe -during the latter part of July, and found by him to be as follows: - - -_Volume of flowing water, in cubic feet per second, of streams in San -Pete Valley._ - - Feet. - Pleasant Creek 28 - Ephraim Creek 28 - Manti Creek 28 - Springtown Creek 14 - Fairview Creek 10 - Wales Creek 6 - Fountain Green 10 - Moroni 10 - Creek between Ephraim and Manti 5 - Creek between Manti and Gunnison 5 - Creek above Fairview 2¹⁄₂ - Twelve-mile Creek 28 - San Pete at Gunnison 60 - ------- - Total 234¹⁄₂ - -This estimate is also liable to reduction, being undoubtedly a little -in excess of the amount available at the critical period. This -reduction may be as great as 15 per cent., which would leave very -closely 200 cubic feet as the water supply of the San Pete Valley, -which, added to the total of the Sevier above Gunnison, gives for the -whole drainage system of the Sevier River a water supply of 860 feet -per second at the time when the greatest amount is required. - -The next factor to be inquired into is the amount of land which a cubic -foot per second of water can irrigate. This is, of course, highly -variable, depending upon the nature of the soil, and the economy with -which the water is applied, and the frequency of the irrigations. -New lands freshly broken require much more water than the older ones -which have been planted and watered for several years; and in fact the -quantity diminishes with each season for a long term of years. In the -San Pete Valley, which has been longest cultivated, the decrease in -the amount of water applied to the oldest lands has not yet ceased, -though some fields have been cultivated with regularity since 1857. -The fresh soils are highly porous and absorptive, requiring a large -quantity of water for their irrigation, and not retaining this moisture -well under the great evaporative power of a dry and hot atmosphere. -With successive irrigations, the pores of the soil are gradually closed -and the earth is slowly compacted by the infiltration of impalpable -silt brought by the irrigating waters. It absorbs water much more -slowly, and retains it a much longer time. There is, however, a check -to this increased irrigating power, arising from a wasteful mode of -agriculture. It has not been the practice to employ fertilizers, -nor any other conservative means of keeping up the fertility of the -soil, and the yield of the crops growing smaller, the old lands are -frequently abandoned, and fresh adjoining lands are broken, planted, -and watered. It has been the practice to cut the straw, which is never -returned as mulch; and, as there is but little rotation in crops, the -result can be easily comprehended. So long as new land costs nothing -but the labor to clear of the _Artemisia_ or sage brush, there is -always the tendency to invade it as rapidly as the old lands show -signs of fatigue. Thus the waters are constantly irrigating every -year a large proportion of new land, and the consumption of water is -correspondingly great. - -A serious loss of water and fertility is produced by any method of -irrigation which employs more water than is just sufficient to saturate -the soil. Whatever water runs off from a field carries with it great -quantities of mud and fine silt, together with the most precious -elements of fertility. These elements are the soluble alkaline salts -and organic manner which are readily taken up by the water, and once -removed are not speedily restored. A field which is so irrigated that -a large surplus of water is continually running from the tail ditches -during the flow will rapidly deteriorate in fertility. But a field -which receives water which is allowed to stand until it has soaked -into the earth, without any surplus passing into the tail ditches, -will increase in fertility. These irrigating waters bring with them a -sufficiency of plant food to compensate, and more too, for the drain -upon the soil caused by the harvest; but they will carry off more than -they bring if they are permitted to run over the field and escape from -it, instead of being caught and held until they are absorbed. It is not -always practicable to attain this exact distribution of water, and many -cases occur where great expense and labor might be required to arrange -the ditches and fields in this manner. Ordinarily, it is cheaper to -throw away old land and take up new than to improve the system of -irrigation, and there are many fields in the valley of the Sevier which -have been abandoned because the fertility of the soil has been washed -out by a reckless method of irrigation. Connected with this is another -source of waste, arising from very unequal requirements of contiguous -areas, in consequence of which many lands, especially old ones, are -liable to be excessively watered. When a community farms a large number -of small fields, using water from the same canals, it is usually -impossible so to regulate the distribution of the privilege that each -field will receive the exact amount it needs. Some fields can remain -unwatered much longer than others, and the tendency always is to get as -much water as possible--each farmer fearing a deficiency of water and -wasting its surplus. Experience on the part of the watermasters and a -more and more settled habit in the lands themselves gradually diminish -this source of loss and create economy. Far better results, therefore, -may ordinarily be anticipated in old lands than in new. Better results, -also, are found where circumstances render difficult or impracticable -the abandonment of old fields for new, and this is ordinarily in those -portions where the water is nearly or quite sufficient for all the -irrigable land, and where all the irrigable land is taken up. - -Recurring, then, to the inquiry as to the amount of land which a cubic -foot per second of running water will irrigate, this area is in many -of the new lands as low as 40 acres, and it seldom exceeds 80 acres -with the old lands. Probably there are very few regions in the world -where the demand of the soil for water is so great as here where the -supply is so small. In California a cubic foot of water is said to be -capable of irrigating more than a hundred acres, in India 200, and in -Spain and Italy a much larger area. The reason is obvious. It is the -direct consequence of the extreme aridity of the climate of Utah. The -irrigating capacity of the unit of water is even less in the southern -counties of Utah than in those around Great Salt Lake. Mr. Gilbert’s -estimate of 100 acres for this last locality being accepted as the best -that can be hoped for, it will not be rating the factor too low to say -that 80 acres is the best that can be hoped for in the valley of the -Sevier. The present factor will not, I am convinced, have a higher -average value than 50 acres. - -The total acreage, therefore, which can be irrigated in the drainage -system of the Sevier by the present system of watering and of -agriculture may be estimated at about 43,000 acres, and the greatest -improvements and economies in the system of farming and watering -cannot, with the present water supply, be expected to raise the -irrigable area above 70,000 acres. - - +----------------------------+------------+----------------+ - | |Square miles|Acres cultivated| - | Districts. |cultivated | during | - | |during 1877.| 1877. | - +----------------------------+------------+----------------+ - |San Pete Valley | 17 | 11,000 | - |Gunnison | 4.4 | 2,800 | - |Sevier Valley above Gunnison| 16.5 | 10,500 | - |Circle Valley | 1.2 | 750 | - |Panguitch and above | 2.8 | 1,800 | - | +------------+----------------+ - | Total | 41.9 | 26,850 | - +----------------------------+------------+----------------+ - - - +----------------------------++---------------+--------------+ - | |Square miles of|Acres irrigable| - | Districts. |irrigable land.| land. | - | | | | - +----------------------------+---------------+---------------+ - |San Pete Valley | 31.2 | 20,000 | - |Gunnison | 6.2 | 4,000 | - |Sevier Valley above Gunnison| 54.7 | 35,000 | - |Circle Valley | 6.3 | 4,000 | - |Panguitch and above | 11 | 7,000 | - | +---------------+---------------+ - | Total | 109.4 | 70,000 | - +----------------------------+---------------+---------------+ - -Nevertheless, I am persuaded that it will be practicable to extend the -possibility of irrigation by an increase of water supply to a degree -sufficient to irrigate every acre of the main valley of the Sevier -which can be reached by canals, and which is also fit for cultivation. -It is by the method of artificial reservoirs. There is probably no -region in the world more admirably suited to the easy, cheap, and -efficient application of this method than this very region drained -by the Sevier River. The sources of this river are found at high -altitudes, but these high places are not mountains in the ordinary -sense, but great plateaus with broad summits. These table tops have -vast numbers of large basins broad enough for great ponds, which are -now drained by narrow gorges cut through volcanic sheets and leading -down to lower levels. These gorges are in most cases narrow cañons, -which, being once barred across, will dam the waters above them. I -could not select a better example than the following: About 15 miles -southwest of the town of Panguitch is a broad basin, the central part -of which is occupied by a shallow lake, about 1¹⁄₄ miles long and -nearly a mile wide, called Panguitch Lake. Its altitude is about 8,200 -feet. It is completely surrounded with barriers, nowhere less than 100 -feet in height, and finds its drainage through a narrow cleft on the -northeast side. It receives the influx of two fine streams, which in -May and June must carry heavy floods of water from the lofty rim and -broad watershed of the Panguitch Plateau lying to the westward. Even in -August their united flow must reach 50 feet per second. By throwing a -dam 30 feet high and 50 or 60 feet long across the outlet between its -walls of solid trachyte, a lake would be formed with an area of 6 or 7 -square miles. There are many such basins upon the Panguitch Plateau, -and it would be a low estimate to say that it would be possible, at -comparatively small expense, to create 30 or 40 square miles of lake -surface, with an average depth of 20 feet, upon that plateau alone. -The precipitation upon its surface would be more than sufficient to -fill these lakes every year. A dam across the upper part of East Fork -Cañon would create a lake behind it which might have an area of 12 to -15 square miles. Numerous reservoirs could be created at small expense -in Grass Valley, upon the Fish Lake Plateau, and upon the Sevier -Plateau, and in those valleys which are drained by Salina Creek and its -tributaries. The Sevier River itself can be cheaply dammed at several -gorges and made to overflow swampy flats above--notably at the head -of Marysvale Cañon, and again just north of Van Buren’s ranch. Other -things equal, it would be better, as well as cheaper, to build dams at -higher levels, since the evaporation is much less there than in the -valleys, and the natural facilities for creating lakes are also greater. - -In this way, I believe it to be practicable to reserve a store of water -sufficient to irrigate every acre of ground in the Sevier Valley, which -is by the nature of its soil and its situation suitable for irrigation. -It may be noted, too, that the “tank system” thus suggested would not -interfere with or take the place of the present system, but would be -supplementary to it. The streams would in June and early July run -through the lakes and over the dams, yielding about as much water as -they now yield in those months, and the reservoirs would not have to be -drawn upon before the middle of July. - -A very interesting subject connected with the peculiar conditions of -agriculture in the west is the origin and distribution of alkaline -salts in the soil. In moist regions such occurrences are rare. They -are peculiar to arid regions, and, in truth, very few arid regions -fail to exhibit them. The cause in a general way is well known. The -small amount of rain which falls during the wet season penetrates -deeply into the earth, where it gradually takes up such soluble salts -as it encounters there. During the dry season which follows, there -is always going on an evaporation from the surface, however dry it -may appear to the senses. It is a mistake to suppose that because the -saline soil is as dry as ashes no evaporation is in progress. In many -cases this may be true; but often in the most arid regions there are -many localities where the water collects far below the immediate -surface. By capillary action, this water always tends to diffuse itself -throughout the loose materials which make up the overlying soils. As -fast as it is evaporated at the surface, more water from below rises -by capillary action to take its place. When the air is exceedingly -dry, as it invariably is in summer throughout the whole Rocky Mountain -Region at moderate altitudes, the evaporative power becomes so great -and extends to such a depth below the immediate surface, that we are -unable to recognize the slightest traces of moisture indicating that -evaporation is going on. The water which may have accumulated beneath -has gradually risen by percolation through the interstices of the -unconsolidated materials of the soil, bringing with it whatever soluble -salts it may have taken into solution during its sojourn beneath the -surface. These soluble salts are left at the surface by the final -evaporation of the water, and, as the process is continuous until the -reservoir beneath is exhausted, the salts accumulate. Contrast this now -with the action going on in a moist country. Here the copious waters -wash the soils as rapidly as the salts come up from below, and carry -them in solution into the drainage channels. During the greater part of -the year the movement of the waters is partly from the surface downward -into the subterranean water courses, from which they emerge in springs; -partly by surface drainages into rills, and thence into living streams. -By both movements, any tendency to accumulate soluble salts at the -surface during the relatively brief periods of dryness is prevented. -In a dry country the periods of dryness are very much longer, and the -rainfall is seldom sufficient to wash the accumulated salts from the -soil. There is, however, usually a limit to this accumulation, since -at long intervals rains occur sufficient to remove a large portion of -the salts. The difference between a dry and wet country in this respect -is therefore one of degree rather than of kind. In a dry country -the periods of accumulation of salts at the surface are long and -continuous, while the washings of the soil are rare and imperfect. In a -wet country the periods of accumulation are short and rare, while the -washings are frequent, copious, and thorough. - -The saline materials vary widely in character and constitution. They -are, however, chiefly salts of soda, lime, potash, and magnesia. -Sometimes they exist in the condition of chlorides, sometimes of -carbonates, and sometimes of sulphates. The reactions from which -they are derived are many, and it will be proper here to give only a -few illustrations. A portion of the salts of magnesia and soda are -derived from the decomposition, by atmospheric influences, of volcanic, -granitic, and other crystalline rocks. Where these materials exist in -the form of felspar, hornblende, and pyroxene, the great decomposing -agent is water charged with the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, by -the action of which soda, magnesia, and lime are, with inconceivable -slowness, dissolved out of the constituents of these rocks. There is no -stream, however pure it may apparently be, which does not carry more or -less of chlorides and carbonates in solution. The sulphates are derived -mainly from subterranean sources. In the Rocky Mountain Region, one of -the most common forms of sulphate is found very abundantly in the rocks -of the Carboniferous, Triassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary Ages, in the -forms of gypsum and selenite, which are sulphates of lime. Whenever -waters containing carbonate of soda are filtered through strata -containing these sulphates, a double decomposition takes place, by -which carbonate of lime and sulphate of soda are formed. The carbonate -of lime is very slightly soluble in water, while the sulphate of soda -is highly so, and it is well known that waters emanating from the -sedimentary rocks just spoken of are very frequently highly charged -with it. Such, doubtless, is the origin of this mineral in the so -called alkaline waters of the west, and of all the soluble minerals -which pass under the name of alkali it is one of the most common. -Carbonate of soda is also abundant in the soils. It is frequently found -in the summer time, coating the surface of bottom lands which earlier -in the season have been submerged by the augmented streams. Common salt -(chloride of sodium) is even more abundant than the sulphate. It is -well known, however, that many of the sedimentary rocks, particularly -those of the Triassic and Jurassic Age, contain an abundance of it, -and there are many localities in the west where a very fair article -of common salt is obtained by the lixiviation of the detritus of the -red Triassic rocks. Incrustations of these soluble saline materials -occur most abundantly in the vicinity of the rivers and in the bottom -lands. This may at first seem somewhat strange, but it is susceptible -of a ready explanation. In order that these salts may accumulate at -the surface, there must be going on continually a slow transmission -of moisture from under ground upward, and since a continuous supply -of water is more frequently found in the bottom lands than elsewhere, -it follows that the conditions of these accumulations are here more -frequently fulfilled. They may, however, and do occur at localities -which probably contain subterranean reservoirs of water, which are -annually filled during the wet season. Sometimes these salts are so -abundant that the land requires a thorough washing before it is fit for -agriculture, and the Mormons have on several occasions, when founding -settlements, been obliged to allow the waters from their ditches to -leach the land for many months, and in one or two cases for two, and -even three, years, before a good crop could be raised. There is no -difficulty, however, in removing any quantity of these readily soluble -salts from the soil, provided this leaching process be continued long -enough; and it is usually found that lands which were originally highly -akaline become, when reclaimed from their alkalinity, among the most -fertile. - - * * * * * - -There yet remains for mention a number of small areas served by some -minor streams in southwestern Utah. These little creeks head in the -mountains, but are soon lost in the deserts of that arid and torrid -region, none of their waters finding their way to the ocean. The -greater number of them belong to the drainage basin of Sevier Lake. -In each case the water supply is small, and inadequate to supply the -available land. In nearly every case the competence of the supply -has been determined in the most practical way--by the operations of -settlers; but some allowance has been made for an increase of the -irrigable land by the more economic use of the water. This can be -accomplished by the construction of better waterways, and by more -carefully flowing the water over the lands. - -The following table exhibits the extent of these areas: - - +----------------------------------------+-------+--------+ - | | Square| | - | Districts. | miles.| Acres. | - +----------------------------------------+-------+--------+ - |Cherry Creek | .2 | 100 | - |Judd Creek | .2 | 100 | - |Levan | 3.1 | 2,000 | - |Scipio | 2.6 | 1,700 | - |Holden | 1.6 | 1,000 | - |Fillmore and Oak Creek | 5.5 | 3,500 | - |Meadow Creek | 1.9 | 1,200 | - |Kanosh | 3.1 | 2,000 | - |Beaver Creek and tributaries | 21.9 | 14,000 | - |Paragoonah | 1.5 | 1,000 | - |Parowan | 1.5 | 1,000 | - |Summit | .6 | 400 | - |Cedar City, Iron City, and Fort Hamilton| 3.6 | 2,300 | - |Mountain Meadows | .3 | 200 | - |Pinto | .3 | 200 | - |Hebron | 1.6 | 1,000 | - | +-------+--------+ - | Total | 49.5 | 31,700 | - +----------------------------------------+-------+--------+ - - - - - CHAPTER IX. - - IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THAT PORTION OF UTAH DRAINED BY THE COLORADO RIVER - AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. - - BY A. H. THOMPSON. - - -That portion of Utah drained by the Colorado River and its tributaries -belongs to a great basin limited on the north by the Uinta Mountains -and on the west by the high plateaus that separate the drainage of the -Colorado from that of the salt lakes of the interior, and extending -beyond the limits of the Territory on the east and south. The floor -of this basin is extremely rough, being broken by isolated groups of -rugged mountains, by plateaus encircled with cliffs of almost vertical -rock, by mesas and amphitheaters, and huge monumental and castellated -buttes. Everywhere the surface is cut and carved with a network of -cañons, hundreds and often thousands of feet in depth. - -The main channel through which its drainage passes to the sea is the -Colorado, and its proper upper continuation, the Green River. - -The principal tributaries to these streams from the east are the White, -the Grand, and the San Juan Rivers--all rising in the high mountains -east of the Territory and flowing in a general westerly course--the -White entering the Green River, the Grand uniting with the Green to -form the Colorado, and the San Juan entering the latter about 125 miles -below the junction of the Grand and the Green. The Virgin, the Kanab, -the Paria, the Escalante, the Fremont, the San Rafael, the Price, the -Minnie Maud, the Uinta, and Ashley Fork are the principal tributaries -from the west. - -This portion of Utah is but sparsely settled by white people, the only -permanent locations being in the southwestern part, and in the Uinta -Valley at the north. Information concerning its agricultural resources -is limited, being confined, except in relation to the localities -before mentioned, to data collected by the geographical and geological -parties of this survey. Many of the streams have been visited but a -single time, and different streams at widely different dates, during a -field season. Often the exigencies of the survey prevented as close an -examination into the flow of water, and the location and character of -the soil of the arable tracts, as was desirable; yet, on the whole, it -is thought that the data collected can be relied upon as a very close -approximation. - -The climate of the basin is one of extreme aridity. The prevailing wind -is westerly. The high plateaus and mountains forming the western rim -of the basin force these winds up to an altitude above the sea of over -10,000 feet, and thus act as great condensers to deprive them of their -moisture. Flowing down from the higher lands into the warmer regions -below, their capacity for absorption is increased, and during the -greater portion of the year the winds abstract from rather than add to -the humidity of the lower altitudes. But little is known concerning the -actual amount of precipitation of moisture within the basin. Below an -altitude of 7,000 feet it is very small, probably not over an average -of 5 inches yearly. At higher altitudes it is much greater, probably -reaching 24 inches, but this is mostly during the winter months and in -the form of snow. - -The elevation of the region under consideration is from 2,500 feet to -11,500 feet above the sea, thus giving great range in temperature. In -the valleys of the extreme southwestern portion an almost subtropical -warmth is experienced, and the different valleys containing arable -lands we pass from these by insensible gradations to those where -frosts occur during every month in the year. Generally, the limit of -successful cultivation of the soil is below 7,000 feet. - -In this portion of Utah irrigation is essential to agriculture. If -all the single acres it is possible to cultivate without artificial -irrigation were aggregated, I do not believe the sum would reach -one-fourth of one square mile, and every foot of this meager amount -is irrigated naturally. Springs are of infrequent occurrence. The -great source of the water supply is the streams fed by the rains and -snows of the high table lands and mountains. All these streams have a -rapid fall in their upper courses, and are here often of considerable -size; but upon reaching the lower and more level country their waters -are rapidly absorbed by the porous soil and evaporated by the higher -temperature. So great is the loss from these causes that some streams -fail to reach the main drainage channel during the warmer months, and -all are greatly shrunken in volume. All the arable lands--or lands -where altitude, slope of surface, and quality of soil permit successful -cultivation, if a supply of water can be obtained, and from which lands -to irrigate, or irrigable lands, may be selected--are in the valleys -adjacent to the streams. Usually this area in many valleys is in excess -of that which the water in the streams can irrigate, and choice in the -location of lands to cultivate is often practicable. In this report -I have considered irrigable lands to be such only as possess all the -necessary qualifications of altitude, slope of surface, and fertility -of soil, and have, in addition, an available supply of one cubic foot -of water per second for each hundred acres. The great dissimilarity -between the valleys makes it desirable to consider the drainage basin -of each separately, in respect to arable lands, irrigable lands, volume -of water, and practicability of increasing this supply during the -irrigating season. - - - THE VIRGIN RIVER. - -This stream is in the extreme southwest corner of the area under -consideration. Its branches rise in the Colob Plateau, at altitudes -varying from 8,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea. It flows in a -southwesterly course, and joins the Colorado beyond the boundaries of -Utah. The smaller creeks draining the eastern portion of the plateau -unite, after descending to an altitude of 5,500 feet above the sea, -and form what is called the Pa-ru-nu-weap Fork of the Virgin. At and -below the junction of these creeks, the cañon valley in which they -flow widens into what is known as Long Valley. There a considerable -area of available land is found. The soil is excellent, and wherever -cultivated yields abundant crops. Below Long Valley the stream enters -Pa-ru-nu-weap Cañon, and is simply a series of cascades for 15 miles, -descending in this distance from 5,000 to 3,500 feet above the sea -level. Emerging, it enters the valley of the Virgin. This valley is 44 -miles in length. Its upper portion is only an enlargement of the cañon, -in which small areas of available land are found. Its lower portion is -a broader valley, much broken by low, basalt covered mesas, and sharp -ridges of tilted sedimentary rocks. In the upper portion of the valley -the river receives several accessions, the principal ones being Little -Zion, North Fork, La Verkin, and Ash Creeks. With the exception of -the Ash, but very little cultivable land is found along these creeks. -Midway in the valley two streams enter, coming from the Pine Valley -Mountains and having small areas of irrigable land along their courses, -and near the foot the Santa Clara River adds its water. The united -streams leave the valley by a deep cañon cut through the Beaver Dam -Mountains. The valley of the Virgin has a lower altitude than any other -portion of Utah, and a warmer climate. The soil of the arable lands is -usually good, and wherever it is possible to irrigate produces abundant -crops. Some little difficulty is occasionally experienced in the first -years of cultivation from an excess of alkaline constituents in the -soil, but plentiful applications of water soon remove this difficulty, -and these lands often become the most productive. No reliable data -concerning the amount of arable land in the drainage basin, or the -volume of water carried by the Virgin River and its tributaries, have -been collected. From the best information attainable, the amount of -land actually irrigated in 1875, is placed at eleven square miles. -This conclusion is based in the main upon returns made in 1875 to -the Deseret Agricultural and Manufacturing Society, the amount under -cultivation in Long Valley having been ascertained by Mr. J. H. -Renshawe, of this survey. To irrigate this, all the water in most of -the tributary streams is used, but a large surplus remains in the main -river. The amount of arable land is far in excess of the water supply, -but some considerable expense for dams and canals would be necessary to -utilize the whole amount. - -It is probable that a portion of the Virgin River can be used to -advantage below the Beaver Dam Mountains in Nevada, and that a -sufficient amount to irrigate 25 square miles can be used to good -advantage in Utah. - -The time when the volume of available water furnished by any stream -bears the least ratio to the demands of the growing crops is the -most critical period in the cultivation of the soil where artificial -irrigation is a necessity. This time, depending as it does upon the -crops cultivated, the character of the soil, and the source of the -water supply, whether from springs or from melting snows, differs in -different localities. In the valley of the Virgin it occurs in June. - -At this time the river, though not at flood height, which occurs in -April, carries a large volume of water, and, by reason of the source of -this supply being in the rapidly melting snows of the Colob Plateau, is -decreasing but slowly, and thus the amount available at this critical -period bears a greater ratio to the flood of the stream than is usual -in Utah. But little information has been obtained concerning the amount -of water necessary to irrigate an acre. It is thought, however, to be -much greater than in any other portion of Utah. - - -KANAB CREEK. - -Kanab Creek rises in springs bursting from underneath the cliffs -forming the southern boundary of the Pauns-a-gunt Plateau, and flows -southward until it joins the Colorado River in Arizona. Small areas -of arable land are found along its course after it has descended to -an altitude of 7,500 feet, and thence until it passes beyond the -boundaries of Utah. The largest area in one body is in Kanab Valley, at -the foot of the Vermilion Cliffs. It is greatly in excess of the water -supply, is at an altitude of about 5,000 feet, has a fertile soil, and -requires but comparatively a small amount of irrigation. The amount -actually under cultivation in 1877 is placed by the best information -attainable at 700 acres. The critical period in the cultivation of this -area occurs in June. At that time the stream is falling rapidly, and -crops have sometimes been seriously damaged. Estimates of the volume of -water in the stream, made at different seasons and in different years, -give 15 cubic feet per second as the flow in June. Some desultory -attempts have been made to increase the supply by ponding, the cañon -through the Vermilion Cliffs above the arable lands affording many -opportunities. When this improvement is made on some well considered -and well executed plan, and the waterways flumed through some bad -sandy ground that now absorbs much water, the amount available at the -critical period can be at least doubled. - -Some years ago a settlement was established at the foot of the -Pink Cliffs, on the headwaters of the Kanab, but the town site was -eventually abandoned because of the deep snows of winter and the frosts -of summer. - - - THE PARIA RIVER. - -The Paria River rises under the eastern escarpment of the Pauns-a-gunt -Plateau, at about the same altitude as Kanab Creek, and flows in a -southwesterly course for 100 miles, joining the Colorado in Arizona. -Through the greater part of its course the river flows in a deep cañon, -but near its head, and at an altitude of 6,000 feet, the cañon expands -into a valley. Lower in its course, and at an altitude of 4,500 feet, -the cañon again widens into a smaller valley. These are the only areas -of arable lands within its drainage basin in Utah. The larger contains -15 and the smaller 10 square miles. In August, 1874, this stream flowed -30 cubic feet per second in the upper valley. The flow in the lower -would be one-third greater. High water occurs in April or early in -May. At this time the volume is three times greater than in August. -Settlements have been made in both valleys, and quite a large area is -under cultivation. The soil is excellent. - -The critical period in irrigation is the latter part of June or early -in July. At this time the stream probably carries 40 feet per second. -The land in the lower valley is much subject to flooding from heavy -showers that, falling on the table lands and mesas in the upper portion -of the drainage basin, pour a torrent often beyond the capacity of the -channel to convey through the lower valley. So great was the damage -done by these floods in sweeping away dams, breaking through ditches, -and inundating the growing crops at the site first selected for -settlement, that it was abandoned after three years’ occupation, and -other parts, where these sudden rushes could be controlled, selected. -Considerable difficulty has been experienced in the lower valley from -the vast amount of argillaceous sediment deposited on it. So great -during the floods is this deposit from the water used in irrigation -that the ground becomes completely coated with an impervious layer, and -growing crops, especially of small grains, suffer from the inability of -the soil to absorb the water conducted on it. The irrigating capacity -of this stream during the critical period could be greatly increased by -the construction of reservoirs in which to store the great surplus of -water that flows earlier in the season. The cañons above the valleys -offer very favorable opportunities for building the necessary dams and -embankments. - - - THE ESCALANTE RIVER. - -This stream enters the Colorado next north of the Paria. It rises -under the wall forming the eastern face of the Aquarius Plateau; flows -first northeast, then east, and finally southeast, before reaching the -Colorado. Its length is 90 miles, the lower three-fourths being in a -narrow cañon having vertical walls ranging from 900 to 1,200 feet in -height. Through this gorge the river sweeps, sometimes filling the -whole space from wall to wall; sometimes winding from side to side in -a flood plain of sand, and always shifting its bed more or less with -every freshet. Not an acre of accessible arable land is known in the -whole length of the cañon, and its depth precludes the possibility of -using the waters of the river on the lands above. Near the head of the -southern branch of the Escalante, in what is known as Potato Valley, -and at an elevation of about 5,000 feet, is an area of about 6 square -miles of available land. The flow of water in this branch was 90 cubic -feet per second in July, 1875. A portion of this area is now under -cultivation, and is said to produce good crops. A portion of the east -flank of the Aquarius Plateau is drained by a number of creeks that -join the Escalante in the deep gorge below Potato Valley; but they -all enter close cañons, in which no areas of arable land are known at -an altitude low enough for successful cultivation. Part of the waters -of these creeks might be used to irrigate grass lands at an altitude -of about 8,000 feet; but the conditions of pasturage are such in this -region that the amount practically available is small. - - - THE FREMONT RIVER. - -The largest branch of this stream rises in the Un-ca-pa-ga Mountains, -and after flowing in an easterly direction for 125 miles enters the -Colorado about 40 miles below the junction of the Grand and Green. It -is joined by one considerable tributary, Curtis Creek, from the north, -and another smaller, Tantalus Creek, from the south. The lower half -of its course is through two deep cañons, separated by an intervening -valley called Graves Valley, in which is an area of 10 square miles of -arable land, with an altitude of 4,500 feet above sea level. On the -upper waters of the main river, in what is known as Rabbit Valley, and -at an altitude of nearly 7,000 feet, are 25 square miles of arable -land of good quality. This area, from its altitude, should be subject -to late and early frosts, but the warm sandy soil and southeastern -slope of the whole valley will probably prevent much damage from this -cause. The valley is now used as a herd ground for cattle belonging -to the settlements in Sevier Valley, and the few experiments made by -the herdsmen in cultivating the soil also indicate that the danger to -be apprehended is slight. The volume of water flowing through Rabbit -Valley in July, 1875, was 175 cubic feet per second. - -Tantalus Creek drains the northern portion of the eastern slope of the -Aquarius Plateau. It enters a close cañon at 8,000 feet altitude, and -continues in cañons until it has passed through Water Pocket Fold. It -then flows along a desolate valley at the foot of the fold until it -joins the Fremont River. During the warmer months the water in this -creek is usually absorbed and evaporated before reaching its mouth. In -the valley at the foot of Water Pocket Fold are about 10 square miles -of arable land; but the almost inaccessible situation of the valley and -the desolation and ruggedness of the surrounding country may present -insurmountable obstacles to its settlement. - -Curtis Creek, the northern tributary of Fremont River, is formed by -the union of several smaller streams that rise in the Wasatch Plateau. -Debouching from the plateau, these branches flow across what is known -as Castle Valley, and here, at an altitude of 6,000 feet, are 25 square -miles of good arable land. They were measured in September, 1876, and -gave an aggregated flow of 47 cubic feet per second. As they derive a -greater part of their waters from the melting snows on the plateau, -double this amount, or 94 cubic feet, would not be an overestimate -of the volume during the irrigating season. After the union of these -branches, the united stream flows in a deep cañon until near its -junction with the Fremont River in Graves Valley. Both Curtis Creek and -the Fremont receive some accessions to their volume from springs in -the cañons through which they flow above this valley. If all the water -in their upper courses should be used to irrigate lands in Castle and -Rabbit Valleys, a sufficient amount would be returned to their channels -by percolation to irrigate, with the addition of the accessions in the -cañons, all the arable land in Graves Valley. - - - THE SAN RAFAEL RIVER. - -This stream flows in an easterly course, and enters the Green 32 -miles above the junction of that stream with the Grand. It has three -principal branches--Ferron, Cottonwood, and Huntington Creeks--all -rising in the Wasatch Plateau at an altitude of about 10,000 feet. -These streams have a rapid fall in their upper courses, and leave -the plateau through almost impassable cañons cut in its eastern wall -overlooking Castle Valley. They flow across that at intervals of a few -miles apart, and, then uniting, cut a deep, narrow cañon through the -San Rafael Swell. Emerging from the swell, the river flows across a -low, broken country until its junction with the Green. The largest body -of arable land within the drainage basin of the San Rafael is in Castle -Valley, a long, narrow depression lying between the eastern escarpment -of the Wasatch Plateau and the San Rafael Swell. It is nearly 60 miles -in length from north to south, and has an average elevation of 6,000 -feet above the sea. Its southern end, as has been before mentioned, -is drained by the tributaries of Curtis Creek, the central portion by -the three streams forming the San Rafael, and the northern by Price -River. No permanent settlements have been made in the valley, but it is -much used as a winter herding ground for stock owned by the settlers -in other portions of Utah. Lying near the branches of the San Rafael -that cross it, and in such position that the water can be easily -conducted over it, are 200 square miles of arable land, generally of -good quality. East of the San Rafael Swell, and lying on both sides of -the river, at an altitude of 4,000 feet, are 20 square miles of arable -land, which could be easily irrigated. The river was carefully measured -in July, 1876, and the volume of flow found to be 1,676 cubic feet per -second. The three branches in Castle Valley were also measured, with -results closely approximating the measurement of the united streams. -These measurements were made at high water, though not when the streams -were at their flood. As most of this volume is derived from the melting -snow, which rarely disappears from the high plateau before the middle -of July, the flow would be maintained with considerable steadiness -during a large part of what would be the critical period in the -irrigation of this valley. After the middle of July the decrease would -be very rapid until September, and the lowest stage of water reached -about the first of October, when the river would not flow probably more -than 400 cubic feet. - - - THE PRICE RIVER. - -This river rises in the angle formed by the intersection of the Wasatch -and Western Tavaputs Plateaus, receiving tributaries from both these -table lands, and has a general easterly course for 100 miles. It -crosses the northern end of Castle Valley, and then flows through a -broken country near the foot of the escarpment called the Book Cliffs, -forming the southern boundary of the Tavaputs Plateau, till within 20 -miles of the Green River, when it cuts through this escarpment into the -plateau and joins the Green a few miles above the foot of Gray Cañon. -The arable lands along its course are mostly found in Castle Valley, -where there are at least 50 square miles--a quantity considerably in -excess of the irrigating capacity of the stream. The volume of water -was measured in July, 1877, a few miles below where it debouches into -Castle Valley, and found to be 189 cubic feet per second. It must -suffer great loss from absorption, as the volume when leaving the -cliffs is much greater, and the aggregated flow of the branches on the -plateaus is at least twice as great. - - - MINNIE MAUD CREEK. - -This stream rises in the broken country, where the Western Tavaputs -and Wasatch Plateaus break into the Uinta Mountains. It has a general -easterly course, and joins the Green midway in the Cañon of Desolation. -For the greater part of its course it flows in a cañon that widens -enough occasionally to give a small area of arable land. One such area, -containing 6 square miles, occurs at an altitude of 5,500 feet. Here -the volume of water was measured in July, 1877, and found to be 16 -cubic feet per second. - - - THE UINTA RIVER. - -This is the largest tributary emptying into the main drainage channel -from the west. It rises in the Uinta Mountains, and has a southerly -course for 65 miles. The Duchesne River, its western branch, rises in -the same mountains, and the two streams unite only a few miles before -the Uinta joins the Green. The drainage basin of the Uinta has an -area of 1,300 square miles, lying between the altitudes of 4,500 and -7,000 feet above the sea. It has, generally speaking, a regular slope -from the foot of the Uinta Mountains to the mouth of the streams, -or in a direction toward the southeast. The surface of the basin is -greatly diversified, consisting of broad reaches of bottom lands along -the rivers; elevated, level, or gently sloping benches, sometimes -partially arable, but oftener gravelly barrens; broken, rock-faced -terraces; and low cliffs and ridges. It is difficult to estimate the -amount of arable land. All the bottom lands are such, and can be easily -irrigated. The streams have a rapid fall, but flow near the surface, -and no deep cañons are found anywhere in the basin. This renders it -possible to conduct the water over considerable areas of bench land, -and wherever the soil of these is sufficiently fertile, selections -of good farming land can be made. Above the limit in altitude for -successful cultivation, large tracts of meadow lands can be irrigated. -Those best acquainted with the extent of these classes of land place -the arable, including irrigable natural meadow lands, at 40 per cent. -of the whole basin. This would give an area of 520 square miles, and -I do not think it is an overestimate. The volume of water flowing in -the Duchesne River above its junction with Lake Fork was measured in -August, 1877, and found to be 1,011 cubic feet per second. The Uinta -was measured above its junction with the Duchesne in October, 1877, -and then flowed 214 cubic feet per second. These streams all rise in -high mountains, from whose summits the snow is never completely melted. -The line of highest water is usually in June, but the flow is well -sustained through July. After that the volume rapidly decreases, and -lowest water occurs in October. The critical period in the irrigation -of this basin would occur in August. I think it may safely be assumed -that the measurements of the Duchesne and the Uinta represent the flow -at the critical period, but that Lake Fork should be doubled. This -would give 1,825 cubic feet per second, or enough to irrigate, at the -assumed standard, 285 square miles, or 22 per cent. of the whole area -of the basin, and indicates the Uinta drainage as one of the best, if -not the best, agricultural valley in Utah. - - - ASHLEY FORK. - -This stream is the most northern tributary of the Green River south of -the Uinta Mountains. It rises in that range, but at a lower altitude -than the branches of the Uinta, and has a southeasterly course 48 miles -in length. On its lower course, at an altitude of 5,500 feet, are 75 -square miles of arable land of excellent quality, a few acres of which -are now cultivated. There is sufficient water in the stream during the -critical season to irrigate 25 square miles. - - - HENRYS FORK. - -But a small portion of the valley of Henrys Fork lies within the -Territory of Utah, but this portion includes its best lands. A -beautiful natural meadow is here found, affording a large quantity of -hay to the ranchmen of that country. The altitude is great, the valley -being 6,000 feet above the level of the sea, and hence liable to late -and early frosts. - -About 10 square miles can be redeemed by irrigation. The volume of -the stream is sufficient to irrigate a much larger tract, but a part -is needed for other lands which lie farther up the river, within the -Territory of Wyoming. - - - THE WHITE RIVER. - -The White River enters the Green from the east, about two miles below -the mouth of the Uinta. This stream rises in Colorado, and has only a -small portion of its course in Utah, but lying within the boundaries -of the Territory are 75 square miles of arable land which may be -irrigated with its water. The river was measured in October, 1877, near -its mouth, and flowed 734 cubic feet per second. High water usually -occurs in June, and the critical period in the irrigation of the land -is probably in August, when the stream should flow at least double -the volume of October, or, 1,468 cubic feet per second. This would be -greatly in excess of the amount needed to irrigate the available land -in Utah, and, from the best information attainable, it seems doubtful -if it could be used higher up on the course of the stream. - - - THE GREEN RIVER. - -_Brown’s Park._--Brown’s Park is a valley through which the Green River -meanders. Three or four small streams head in the mountains to the -north and a like number in the mountains to the south and find their -way into the river in the midst of the park. But a small portion of the -park lies within Utah and the small streams will be used for irrigation -in the portion which falls in Colorado. The flood plain lands of the -Green are extensive, and here many natural meadow lands are found, -interspersed with fine groves of cottonwood. Some of the bench lands -are well adapted to irrigation, but a portion of them and the foot -hills back of them are naked, valueless bad-lands. - -When the general industries of the country shall warrant the great -expenditure necessary, the Green will be taken out to irrigate the -bench lands on either side. About 10 square miles of these bench lands -will fall within Utah. - -_Below Split Mountain Cañon._--Lying along the Green, and between -the foot of Split Mountain Cañon and the mouth of the Uinta, are 50 -square miles of arable land. Some portions of this may be subject to -inundations at times of extraordinary floods, but the greater part -is above high water mark. Green River here carries sufficient water -to irrigate many times this amount of land, and while the cost for -the construction of suitable dams and canals would be greater than on -smaller streams, neither this nor the engineering skill required would -be beyond the resources of any ordinary settlement. - -_Gunnison Valley._--In Gunnison Valley, below the foot of Gray Cañon, -are 25 square miles of arable land. The cost of constructing the -necessary irrigation works at this point would be greater than above -the mouth of the Uinta, but still not beyond the ability of a colony. -Green River flowed in Gunnison Valley in September, 1877, 4,400 cubic -feet of water per second, enough to irrigate at the standard adopted -860 square miles. There seems to be no arable land to which it is -possible to take this great surplus, and probably for many years to -come it will be suffered to flow “unvexed to the sea”. - -The area colored on the map is much greater than above indicated. The -selections of irrigable lands will be made on either side of the river, -in patches, within the colored district. - - - THE GRAND RIVER. - -The Grand River has but a small amount of arable land along its course -in Utah, and flows for most of the distance in a close cañon. The -volume of the stream, about 40 miles above its junction with the Green, -was measured in September, 1877, and found to be 4,860 feet per second. -It is probable that selections can be made to the extent of 40 square -miles from the areas colored on the map. - - - THE SAN JUAN RIVER. - -But little is known concerning the arable lands or volume of water in -the valley of the San Juan. It flows for the most of its course through -Utah in a cañon, and all the arable land is thought to be so much -subject to overflow that cultivation is impracticable. - - - OTHER STREAMS. - -A few smaller streams are also tributary to the Colorado and Green -within the Territory of Utah, but they mostly flow in deep cañons, are -often dry in some portion of their course during every year, have at -best only a few acres of arable land anywhere along their courses, and -have been omitted in this report. - -The following table gives a summary of the facts relating to the flow -of the several streams and the amount of arable and irrigable lands in -the districts described above: - - +----------------------------+-------------+---------+---------+ - | | Estimated | | | - | | volume of | Square |Acres of | - | |flow during |miles of |irrigable| - | Name of stream. | irrigating |irrigable| land. | - | |season. (Feet| land. | | - | | per second.)| | | - +----------------------------+-------------+---------+---------+ - |Virgin River | -- | 30 | 19,200 | - |Kanab Creek | 15 | 2¹⁄₂ | 1,600 | - |Paria River | 40 | 6 | 3,840 | - |Escalante River | -- | 6 | 3,840 | - |Fremont River | 269 | 38 | 24,320 | - |San Rafael River | 1,118 | 175 | 112,000 | - |Price River | 189 | 11 | 7,040 | - |Minnie Maud Creek | 16 | 3 | 1,920 | - |Uinta River | 1,825 | 285 | 182,400 | - |Ashley Fork | -- | 25 | 16,000 | - |Henrys Fork | -- | 10 | 6,400 | - |White River | 1,468 | 75 | 48,000 | - |Green River | | | | - | Browns Park | -- | 10 | 6,400 | - | Below Split Mountain Cañon | 4,400 | 50 | 32,000 | - | Gunnison Valley | -- | 25 | 16,000 | - |Grand River | 4,860 | 40 | 25,600 | - | +-------------+---------+---------+ - | Total | -- | 791¹⁄₂ | 506,560 | - +----------------------------+-------------+---------+---------+ - - - - - CHAPTER X. - - LAND GRANTS IN AID OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. - - BY WILLIS DRUMMOND, JR. - - -The land grant system in favor of internal improvements has become a -well settled policy of this Government, and has attained not only a -social but a political importance. - -Like other American institutions its growth has been rapid, and -donations of that character now cover millions of acres of the public -domain. Of grants for railroads, wagon roads, and canals alone, -however, will this chapter treat, and no reference other than necessary -to a proper examination of the question will be made to concessions -whose terms place the lands under specific disposal by the States, such -as those for the establishment of schools, reclamation of swamp lands, -etc. - -The majority of grants, therefore, coming within our notice will be -those in aid of railroads, though many have been made in favor of -wagon roads and canals. The latter have, however, almost become things -of the past, and are rapidly being superseded by the railway. More -than one canal has given way to the more popular and general means of -transportation, and it is safe to say that no further donations for -canal purposes will be made, unless the circumstances should be such as -to absolutely demand that means of conveyance. At any rate, they will -not be made for purposes of general improvement. - -The object of this chapter is to point out the origin, growth, -character, and extent of these concessions. It is therefore necessary -to inquire into the early donations for various purposes. - -The first act making a donation in favor of internal improvements was -approved on the 30th of April, 1802, and was entitled “An act to enable -the people of the eastern division of the territory northwest of the -river Ohio to form a constitution and State government, and for the -admission of such State into the Union on an equal footing with the -original States, and for other purposes.” - -By the third proviso to the seventh section of that statute, -“one-twentieth part of the net proceeds of the lands lying within the -said State sold by Congress, from and after the thirtieth day of June -next, after deducting all expenses incident to the same”, was granted -and given to the said State (Ohio), and was to be applied to the laying -out and making of public roads leading to the Ohio River, to the said -State, and through the same, from the navigable waters emptying into -the Atlantic. Such roads were to be laid out under the authority of -Congress, with the consent of the several States through which they -passed. - -By an act approved March 3, 1803, the Secretary of the Treasury was -directed to pay, to such persons as the legislature of the State of -Ohio should designate, 3 per cent. of the net proceeds, as above, which -sums were to be applied to laying out, opening, and making roads within -said State. - -These acts, I believe, are the first two touching public improvements -through congressional aid. Of course there had previously been many -donations of land in favor of various persons, but they were for -services rendered the Government, or special preëmption privileges. - -Legislation similar to the acts above referred to, was enacted until -the year 1824, varying only in the extent of the proceeds granted. - -By an act approved May 26, 1824, the State of Indiana was authorized -to open and build a canal, and the right of way with 90 feet of land -on each side thereof, was granted, subject to use and occupancy for -the purposes specified. Nothing, however, was done under that act by -the State; and on the 2d of March, 1827, it was superseded by an act -of greater extent. On that day two acts were passed giving to Indiana -and Illinois, respectively, certain lands in aid of the construction of -canals, the first to connect the navigation of the Wabash River with -the waters of Lake Erie, and the second to connect the waters of the -Illinois River with those of Lake Michigan. A quantity of land, equal -to one-half of five sections in width on each side of said canals, was -granted, reserving to the United States each alternate section. The -canals were to remain public highways for the use of the Government, -free from toll or other charge whatever; were to be commenced in five -years, and completed in twenty years, or the States were bound to pay -to the United States “the amount of any lands previously sold”, and the -titles of the purchasers under the States were to be valid. - -As soon as the lines of the canals were fixed and the selections of -land were made, the States had power to sell, and give fee simple title -to the whole or any part of the lands. - -These may, properly, be considered the initiatory concessions of lands -in favor of internal improvements. - -As stated, a grant for right of way had been made, but that right was -solely one of use and occupancy. In this case the right of the States -to sell became absolute upon the selection of the lands. To be sure, -they were liable to repay the Government the price received by the sale -of any of the lands, but the titles of their purchasers were to be in -“fee”; and by such right of disposal they were enabled to realize at -once on their grant, and thereby secure a speedier construction of the -canals. - -On the same day (March 2) there was also granted to Indiana a certain -strip of land formerly held by the Pottawatamie Indians, or the -proceeds from the sale thereof, to be applied in building a road from -Lake Michigan, via Indianapolis, to some convenient point on the Ohio -River. - -On the next day (March 3) an act was approved granting to Ohio one-half -of two sections along the entire line of a road to be constructed from -Sandusky to Columbus. - -By an act approved May 23, 1828, a grant of 400,000 acres of “the -relinquished lands” in certain counties in Alabama was made in aid of -the improvement of the Tennessee and other rivers in that State; and -in case that amount of “said relinquished lands” could not be found -unappropriated, the necessary quantity could be selected from another -section of the State. Provision was made for the sale of the lands, at -the minimum price, but in case said lands or the proceeds thereof were -applied to any purposes other than that for which they were granted, -the grant was to become null and void. - -In this grant we find the first provisions for indemnity if the grant -was not full by reason of prior sales or disposals by the Government. -There, if the lands were not to be found “in place”, selections “in -lieu” could be made from another county. - -Grants like the one just referred to were made from time to time, -differing but little in their character and extent. - -By an act approved March 2, 1833, the State of Illinois was authorized -to apply the lands granted by the act of March 2, 1827, for canal -purposes, to the construction of a railroad instead; and the same -restrictive impositions were continued. - -This is the first act looking to the construction of a railroad through -the assistance of land donations. - -The railroad system was then but in its infancy, and the few miles -built had been constructed by private means. - -It is proper to add, however, that the State did not avail itself of -the privilege granted, for it subsequently built a canal. - -An act approved March 3, 1835, granted, for the purpose of aiding in -the construction of a railroad by a corporation organized in Florida, -the right of way through the public lands over which it might pass, -thirty feet of land on each side of its line, and the right to take -and use the timber for “one hundred yards” on each side for the -construction and repair of said road; it was also granted “ten acres of -land at the junction of the St. Mark’s and Waculla Rivers”, the point -where said road terminated. This was the first right of way grant in -favor of railroads, the previous grant having been for a canal. - -Following this came an act approved July 2, 1836, granting the right of -way “through such portion of the public lands as remain unsold”, not -to exceed 80 feet in width, to the New Orleans and Nashville Railroad -Company. The first section of that statute required that a description -of the route and surveys should be filed in the General Land Office -within sixty days after the survey. The second section granted for -depots, watering-places, and workshops, essential to the convenient -use of the road, certain plats of land, not exceeding five acres in any -one spot, nor nearer than fifteen miles to each other. - -The third section gave the company the right to take from the public -lands earth, stone, or timber necessary for the construction of the -road; and provided that unless the work was commenced within two -years after the approval of the act, and completed within eight years -thereafter, the grant should “cease and determine”. It provided, -moreover, that if the road should be abandoned or discontinued, even -after its completion, the grant was to “cease and determine”. - -So far as can be learned, this road was never completed. It is inserted -so fully for the purpose of showing the gradual growth of the system. - -Next to this came a grant to the East Florida and other railroads, -similar in general terms to those previously referred to. It required, -however, the companies to file, with the Commissioner of the General -Land Office, maps showing the location of their roads. This was to -be done within six months after such locations. I am unable to find -that any of those roads were ever constructed. Certainly, no evidence -thereof was ever furnished the General Land Office. - -A grant similar to the one to the New Orleans and Nashville company was -made by act of March 3, 1837, to the Atchafalaya Railroad and Banking -Company in Louisiana. - -Many grants of like character and extent were made from time to time, -as also donations in favor of various other internal improvements. The -greatest of these latter, however, were the grants in aid of improving -the navigation of the Des Moines River in Iowa, and the Fox and -Wisconsin Rivers in Wisconsin, which were approved August 8, 1846. - -The first of these made a grant to the then Territory of Iowa, for the -purpose of improving “the navigation of the Des Moines River from its -mouth to the Raccoon Fork (so called), in said Territory”, of “one -equal moiety, in alternate sections, of the public lands (remaining -unsold, and not otherwise disposed of, encumbered, or appropriated), -in a strip five miles in width on each side of said river, to be -selected within said Territory by an agent or agents to be appointed -by the governor thereof, subject to the approval of the Secretary of -the Treasury of the United States”. The second section provided that -“the lands hereby granted shall not be conveyed or disposed of by said -Territory, nor by any State to be formed out of the same, except as -said improvements shall progress; that is, the said Territory or State -may sell so much of said lands as shall produce the sum of thirty -thousand dollars, and then the sales shall cease until the governor of -said Territory or State shall certify the fact to the President of the -United States that one-half of said sum has been expended upon said -improvement, when the said Territory or State may sell and convey a -quantity of the residue of said lands sufficient to replace the amount -expended, and thus the sales shall progress as the proceeds thereof -shall be expended, and the fact of such expenditure shall be certified -as aforesaid.” - -Section 3 declared that the river should forever remain a public -highway for the use of the Government, free from toll or other charge -whatever; and provided that the Territory or State should not dispose -of the lands at a price less than the minimum price of public lands. - -The grant to Wisconsin for the improvement of the Fox and Wisconsin -Rivers, though approved the same day, was somewhat different from the -Des Moines grant. It provided that “there be, and hereby is, granted -to the State of Wisconsin”, upon the admission of Wisconsin as a State -(which, by the way, had been provided for by an act approved two days -before), “for the purpose of improving the navigation of the Fox and -Wisconsin Rivers in the Territory of Wisconsin, and of constructing the -canal to unite the said rivers, at or near the portage, a quantity of -land, equal to one-half of three sections in width on each side of said -Fox River, and the lakes through which it passes from its mouth to the -point where the portage canal shall enter the same, and on each side -of said canal from one stream to the other, reserving the alternate -sections to the United States, to be selected under the direction of -the governor of said State, and such selection to be approved by the -President of the United States”. The rivers, when improved, were to -remain forever public highways for the use of the Government, free from -toll; and the sections reserved to the United States were not to be -sold for less than $2.50 per acre. - -By the second section, the legislature of the State was to accept the -grant and fix the price at which the lands were to be sold (at not less -than $1.25 per acre), and adopt such kind and plan of improvement as -was for the best interests of the State. - -The provisions for the sale of the lands were the same as in the Iowa -grant, except that the sum to be realized by such sales was fixed at -$20,000. - -Section 3 required the work to be commenced within three years after -the admission of the State, and to be completed within twenty years, or -the United States was to be entitled to receive the amount for which -any of the lands may have been sold; the titles in the purchasers from -the State were, however, to be valid. - -The language employed in this statute was more definite than that used -in the Des Moines grant, and in it is to be found the first provisions -respecting the increase in price of the reserved sections. - -Probably no grant of this character has received such widespread -notoriety as the one for the improvement of the Des Moines River. It -is owing, no doubt, in a great degree to the numerous conflicting -decisions by the Executive Departments touching the extent of the -grant. The Hon. R. J. Walker, Secretary of the Treasury (under whose -supervision the Land Office then came), decided on the 2d of March, -1849, that the grant extended above the tributary of the Des Moines -River commonly known as the Raccoon Fork. The Land Office soon -thereafter passed from the jurisdiction of the Treasury Department, and -was placed as one of the bureaus of the Home or Interior Department. -The Secretary of this lately established branch of the Government -(Hon. Thomas Ewing) decided on the 6th of April, 1850, that the grant -did not extend above the Raccoon Fork. From that decision the State -of Iowa appealed to the President, who laid the matter before the -Attorney-General. That officer (Hon. Reverdy Johnson), on July 19, -1850, expressed an opinion confirmatory of the decision of Secretary -Walker. The Secretary of the Interior, however, being determined in -his views, did not adopt the opinion of the Attorney-General, and the -Commissioner of the General Land Office wrote, under date of 26th -September, 1850, to the President, reviewing and objecting to the -opinion of Mr. Johnson. The President, having been again applied to by -the State of Iowa to determine the matter, referred the whole question -to the Attorney-General (then Hon. J. J. Crittenden). That officer, -without delivering an opinion on the merits of the case, expressed the -belief that the President ought not to interfere, but should leave such -questions to the proper officers. The then Secretary of the Interior -(Hon. A. H. H. Stuart) thereupon decided that the grant did not extend -above the fork, but subsequently decided to approve the selections for -lands above the fork. Attorney-General Cushing, on the 29th of May, -1856, expressed the belief that on the merits of the case the grant -was limited to the Raccoon Fork, but as Secretary Stuart had approved -selections above that point, such practical enforcement of the grant -had better be continued. The view of Mr. Cushing was subsequently -maintained by the Supreme Court of the United States in Railroad -Company _vs._ Litchfield. (23 Howard, page 66). By the act of Congress -approved July 12, 1862, the grant was extended to the northern boundary -of the State, so as to include the alternate odd numbered sections -lying within five miles of said river, upon the following conditions: -The lands were to be held and applied in accordance with the provisions -of the original grant, except that the consent of Congress was given to -the application of “a portion thereof” to aid in the construction of -the Keokuk, Fort Des Moines and Minnesota Railroad, in accordance with -the provisions of an act of the general assembly of the State approved -March 22, 1858. - -It is well to state that the work of improving the river was abandoned, -and the railroad was constructed instead. - -Without examining the numerous right of way and other lesser grants, -I desire to direct attention to what is generally considered the -_first_ railroad grant. Reference is made to the donation by the act of -September 20, 1850. - -By that statute a grant was made to the State of Illinois of “every -alternate section of land designated by even numbers, for six sections -in width on each side of” the road and branches therein provided for. -The road to be built was from the southern terminus of the Illinois -and Michigan Canal to a point at or near the junction of the Ohio and -Mississippi Rivers, with a branch of the same to Chicago, and another -via the town of Galena, in Illinois, to the town of Dubuque, in Iowa. - -The second section provided that should it appear that the United -States had, when the lines of said road and branches were definitely -fixed, sold any part of any section thereby granted, or that the right -of preëmption had attached to the same, it should be lawful for any -agent or agents (to be appointed by the governor of the State) to -select so much land as would be equal to the tracts lost within the -granted limits. This “indemnity” was to be selected within fifteen -miles of the road and branches. - -The third section provided that the sections and parts of sections -which by the operation of the grant remained to the United States -within six miles on each side of said road and branches, should not be -sold for less than the double minimum price when sold. - -Section 4 provided for the disposal of the lands, and declared that the -road should remain a public highway for the use of the Government free -from toll or other charge. - -The fifth section declared within what period the roads should be -completed, and provided that in the event of a failure on the part of -the State to comply with the conditions of the grant, it was “bound to -pay to the United States the amount which may be received upon the sale -of any part of said lands by said State”. The title of the purchasers -was to be valid, but the tracts not sold were to revert and revest in -the United States. - -Section 6 said that the mails were to be transported at all times at -such price as Congress might direct. - -By the seventh section the grant was extended, on the same terms and -conditions, to the States of Alabama and Mississippi, for the purpose -of aiding in the construction of a road from Mobile to connect with the -first above named road. - -While this was not the first concession of lands in favor of railroads, -it may properly be considered the initiatory measure of the present -system. It granted specific sections instead of one-half of a certain -number of sections; provided in positive terms for “indemnity” for -lands lost to the grant; designated the manner in which the lands -should be disposed of; increased the price of the reserved sections -within the “granted” limits; provided for reversion in case of default, -and virtually established a form of grant which was differed from -but little in succeeding donations. It was the first railroad grant -that became effective, for of all previous ones none appear to have -been developed. The roads are now known as the Illinois Central and -branches, and the Mobile and Ohio. - -For the following two years no grants of importance were made, until -by an act approved June 10, 1852, a donation was made to the State of -Missouri for the construction of certain roads therein, now known as -the Hannibal and Saint Joseph, and the Missouri Pacific, Southwest -Branch. This grant was similar in character and extent to that to -Illinois, save two sections--one providing for the disposal of the -lands, and the other directing the Secretary of the Interior to -offer at public sale, from time to time, at the increased price, the -“reserved” or Government sections. The section respecting the disposal -of the lands is as follows: “That the lands hereby granted to said -State shall be disposed of by said State in manner following, that -is to say: that a quantity of land, not exceeding one hundred and -twenty sections on each road, and included within a continuous length -of twenty miles of said road, may be sold; and when the governor of -said State shall certify to the Secretary of the Interior that said -twenty miles of road is completed, then another like quantity of land, -hereby granted, may be sold; and so from time to time until said road -is completed; and if said road be not completed within ten years, no -further sales shall be made, and the lands unsold shall revert to the -United States.” - -With the exceptions stated, and the omission of the clause requiring -the State to reimburse the Government for lands sold, the grants are -identical. - -That act was followed by an act approved February 9, 1853, making, -under like conditions and impositions, a similar grant to Arkansas, in -aid of certain roads in that State. In this, however, the clause or -section directing the Secretary to “offer” the lands was omitted. - -For the next three years Congress seems to have been quite as liberal -in donations for other purposes, but no grants were made in aid of -railroads, unless note be made of a grant to Minnesota by act of June -29, 1854, which was repealed in August following. - -By that act there was granted to the Territory of Minnesota, for the -purpose of aiding in the construction of a railroad from the southern -line of said Territory, via Saint Paul, to the eastern line of the -Territory in the direction of Lake Superior, “every alternate section -of land designated by odd numbers for six sections in width on each -side of said road within said Territory”; but in case it should appear -that the United States had, when the line of the road was definitely -fixed, sold any section or any part thereof granted, or that the right -of preëmption had attached to the same, then it should be lawful for -any agent or agents to be appointed by the governor of said Territory, -subject to the approval of the Secretary of the Interior, to select -lands from alternate sections within fifteen miles of the road to -make up the deficiency. The lands granted were to be applied to the -construction of the road only. Section 2 increased the price of the -“reserved” tracts. - -Section 3 provided that the lands should be disposed of by the -legislature for the purposes aforesaid and were not to inure to the -benefit of any company then constituted or organized. The road was to -remain a highway, as in previous grants; and the lands could not be -sold until they had first been “offered” at the increased price. - -By section 4 no title was to vest in said Territory or patent issue -for any part of the lands until a continuous length of twenty miles of -said road had been completed; and when the Secretary of the Interior -was satisfied that any twenty continuous miles of said road had been -completed, then patent was to issue for a quantity not exceeding one -hundred and twenty sections of land; and so on from time to time until -the road was completed. If the road was not completed within ten years -no further sales could be made, and the lands remaining unsold were to -revert. - -By an act approved August 4, 1854, the act of June 29, 1854, was -repealed; and although four grants have been declared forfeited, for -failure of the grantees to perform the required conditions, this is the -only one which Congress has in terms repealed. - -It is to be regretted that subsequent legislation was not as devoid of -ambiguity. Had it been, much embarrassment might have been saved the -Government. I refer particularly to that clause or section respecting -the vesting of title and the manner in which the State was to acquire -rights under the grant. By the terms thereof no patents were to issue -except as the work of building the road progressed. - -By the omission of such language from the grants subsequently made -from time to time to as late as 1862, the Department of the Interior -believed that the duty of “disposal” was properly in the States charged -with executing the trusts; and in all the earlier grants, immediately -upon the location of the roads and determination of the limits of the -grants, certified, in whole, the lands to which the companies would -ultimately have been entitled had the roads been completed as required. -At that time there was but little doubt that all of the roads would be -rapidly constructed; but the civil conflict very naturally put a stop -to such extended improvements, and to-day about twenty railroads remain -uncompleted, and the lands certified to the States for their use and -benefit exceed by 1,058,295.86 acres the lands actually earned by the -portions of the several roads constructed. - -Out of the act of June 29, 1854, and the repealing statute a -very interesting question arose, which received, ultimately, the -consideration of the Supreme Court. A suit was brought in trespass by -Edmund Rice against the Minnesota and Northwestern Railroad Company, -for cutting timber on a tract of land in Minnesota. The company, in -its defense, set up title under the granting act aforesaid; to which -plaintiff replied, reciting the repealing statute. On demurrer by -the company, the question as to whether an interest had vested under -said grant was thus fairly presented to the Supreme Court. That body -decided, after elaborate review of the whole case, that the act of -August 4 was “a valid law”, and that no interest, beneficiary or -otherwise, had vested under the said grant. - -In 1856, at different times, various grants were made to the States -of Iowa, Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, and -Mississippi, and on the 3d of March, 1857, to Minnesota. - -An examination of these grants--say the one to Iowa, it being first -of the series--shows that, with the exception of the fact that the -sections granted were designated by _odd_ instead of _even_ numbers, -they were similar to the Missouri grant of 1852. The change there -inaugurated was owing to the fact that certain even sections in each -township had been previously given to the several States for school -purposes, and in a grant embracing a large territory the difference to -the railroad grants caused thereby would be considerable. From 1857 -until 1862 Congress seems to have been otherwise engaged, for I am -unable to find that any acts were passed during that period touching -railroad grants. - -By an act approved July 1, 1862, a new departure was taken. Certain -persons were created into a body corporate under the title and name -of the “Union Pacific Railroad Company”. The object thereof was the -construction and maintenance of a railroad and telegraph line from the -Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean. - -They were granted the right of way through the public lands to the -extent of two hundred feet in width on each side of the line of road, -together with the necessary grounds for stations, buildings, workshops, -etc. They were also granted in aid of the construction of the road -“every alternate section of public land”, designated by odd numbers, -to the amount of five alternate sections per mile, on each side of the -road; and all lands which had been disposed of or reserved, and mineral -lands, were excepted. - -Sections 5 and 11 of the act related to the issuance of bonds by the -United States. Section 7 required the company to file a map of its -general route, and directed the Secretary of the Interior to thereupon -withdraw the lands within fifteen miles of such line. - -Various other roads were provided for upon the same conditions, now -known as the Central Pacific, Central Branch of the Union Pacific, -Kansas Pacific, and Sioux City and Pacific. - -As it is not the purpose of this inquiry to look into any provisions -except such as relate to _land_ donations, I will not pursue the -sections respecting the issuance of bonds, payment of interest, etc. -But, before proceeding further, it is proper to notice the changes -inaugurated by that act. - -In the first place, the grant was to a corporation direct, and not to a -State in trust for one. - -Second. It was not confined to any particular State or section, but was -transcontinental in character, extending in this case more than half -across our country. - -Third. It was a grant ten miles in width on each side, instead of six, -as in previous grants, and no provision was made for indemnity. - -Fourth. It provided for the filing by the company of a map of its -general or designated route (before definite location of its line); -and upon the filing thereof the lands became legislatively reserved or -withdrawn. - -By an act approved July 2, 1864, this act was amended in several -particulars, and instead of “five” sections “ten” were granted, thereby -increasing the limits from ten to twenty miles on each side of the -roads. The term “mineral land” was construed not to include “coal and -iron land”. - -By section 19 of this latter act a grant was made to the Burlington -and Missouri River Railroad Company, for the construction of a road -from the Missouri River to some point not farther west than the one -hundredth meridian of west longitude to connect with the Union Pacific -road, of ten alternate sections per mile on each side of its line of -road. It has been decided that this company was not confined to any -limit, but could go far enough to secure the quantity granted, and it -is the only railroad whose grant is not confined to lateral limits. By -a proviso to the twentieth section, however, the company received no -bonds. - -The rapidity with which the Union Pacific road was constructed was -surprising, and the whole progress of the work displayed a spirit -of energy seldom seen in an undertaking of that character. The most -positive achievements, however, were those of the Central Pacific -Company. The construction of that road over the Sierras is considered -by professional authorities as one of the greatest results of -engineering. It crossed the maximum summit, of 7,042 feet above the -sea, within one hundred miles of the Pacific tide waters, requiring a -distribution of ascent really scientific to render it practicable, and, -by using a minimum radius of 573 feet, secured, comparatively speaking, -a direct alignment. - -The two roads were completed and a junction effected May 10, 1869, and -the initial transcontinental line was thereby finished. - -By an act approved March 3, 1863, there was a grant made to the State -of Kansas to aid in constructing certain railroads therein, now known -as the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé; Leavenworth, Lawrence and -Galveston, and Missouri, Kansas and Texas. It was of every alternate -section of land designated by odd numbers for ten sections in width -on each side of said roads. Indemnity was provided in ten additional -miles and, except as to extent, it was not unlike the Iowa grant. - -On the 5th of May, 1864, similar grants were made to the States of -Minnesota and Wisconsin, and on the 12th of May to the State of Iowa. -Various other grants followed of like character, differing only in few -respects, to Arkansas, Alabama, Missouri, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, -and Kansas; as also grants for wagon roads. The latter were similar in -terms to the railroad grants, save that three sections on either side -of the roads were given instead of six or ten. The Northern Pacific was -created July 1, 1864, and was very much like the Union Pacific grant, -except in extent, being double the quantity through the Territories, -with provision for “indemnity”. The Atlantic and Pacific and Southern -Pacific grants were made by act of July 27, 1866; the Denver Pacific by -act of March 3, 1869; the Southern Pacific (branch line) and Texas and -Pacific by act of March 3, 1871. - -Many of the grants made in early years were enlarged, and the time -for their completion extended; but thus far only four grants have -been declared forfeited. At present, however, about twenty grants -have “lapsed” by reason of non-compliance with the terms of the -granting acts, requiring completion within prescribed periods, and -recommendations have been made urging proper legislation. - -Neither time nor space permit an extended examination of every grant, -but sufficient has been considered to point out the origin and growth -of the system. - -We have seen that the first donation was one-twentieth part of certain -proceeds derived from the sale of lands; then ninety feet of land, -followed soon by one-half of five sections per mile on each side; then -by six sections; then by ten, and finally by twenty sections per mile -on each side of the road. - -If the lands granted, or in other words embraced within the limits of -the grants, could be found available, the companies, not including -those for canals or wagon roads, would receive, provided each built -its road and complied with the laws, more than two hundred and fifteen -million acres. That quantity if embraced in one compact body, would -form an area of more than three hundred and thirty-five thousand -square miles, or a tract of land more than seven times as large as the -State of Pennsylvania, and only about six thousand miles less than the -area of the thirteen original States. But, in fact, the grants will -not realize near that quantity, and the estimate, as made by the Land -Department, is only about one hundred and eighty-seven million acres. - -By the aid of those grants, however, about fifteen thousand miles -of road have been constructed. Those roads have been the means of -developing vast fields of magnificent territory, and securing to the -people many lesser lines built by private capital. - -The various grants have been the subject of much explanatory, -amendatory, and confirmatory legislation, and have also received -numerous interpretations by the different courts. Of the latter, I deem -it proper to refer only to the more important rulings of the Supreme -Court which bear upon the fundamental principles underlying the whole -system. - -In nearly all grants, except the Pacific, provision has been made for -indemnity in case it appeared, when the lines of the roads had been -definitely fixed, that the United States had sold, disposed of, or -reserved any of the sections or parts of sections contained within the -grants. The theory has heretofore existed that “indemnity” was allowed -for all tracts which might not be found subject to the operation of the -grant; and selections have been permitted in lieu of such disposed of -or reserved tracts. - -A recent decision, however, casts some doubt upon the correctness of -this theory. The question came up in a case from Kansas, under the act -of March 3, 1863, and the court declared: - -“We have before said that the grant itself was _in præsenti_, and -covered all the odd sections which should appear, on the location of -the road, to have been within the grant when it was made. The right to -them did not, however, depend on such location, but attached at once -on the making of the grant. It is true they could not be identified -until the line of the road was marked out on the ground, but as soon as -this was done it was easy to find them. If the company did not obtain -all of them within the original limit, by reason of the power of sale -or reservation retained by the United States, it was to be compensated -by an equal amount of substituted lands. The latter could not, on any -contingency, be selected within that limit. * * * It would be strange, -indeed, if the [indemnity] clause had been intended to perform the -office of making a new grant within the ten mile limit, or enlarging -the one already made. Instead of this, the words employed show clearly -that its only purpose is to give sections beyond that limit for those -lost within it by the action of the government between the date of the -grant and the location of the road. This construction gives effect to -the whole statute, and makes each part consistent with the other.” - -If it be thought, however, that such was not the intention of the -legislators who framed the statutes, consolation can be found in the -construction given to the clause inserted in every grant, substantially -as follows: “And the said road shall remain a public highway for -the use of the Government, free from toll or other charge upon the -transportation of troops or other property of the United States.” - -It is declared by the Supreme Court that the purpose of that clause -was to allow the Government the right to place its locomotive engines -and cars upon the railroad tracks, and to use such tracks as a public -highway. The court say: “We are of opinion that the reservation in -question secures to the Government only a free use of the railroads -concerned; and that it does not entitle the Government to have troops -or property transported by the companies over their respective roads -free of charge for transporting the same.” - -The section providing for the disposal of the lands, recited in full in -the Missouri grant of 1852, has been construed as vesting in the State -the right to sell one hundred and twenty sections of land, contained -within a continuous length of twenty miles at any place along the -grant, even though the road contemplated was never built; and the title -acquired by purchase from the State is valid. And the clause with which -the section referred to ends, to the effect that if the road be not -completed within a certain time the lands shall revert to the United -States, has been declared inoperative without further action by the -Government, either legislative or judicial, looking to an enforcement -of the reserved right. - -Fears have been awakened as to the power to ultimately control these -corporations, on account of the enormous extent to which they have -expanded; but, as has been said by an able writer, “this evil, however, -if it be such, will probably work its own cure.” - -Be that as it may, their influences have been felt by all, and their -benefits have extended to the remotest sections of our country. They -have proved a bond between the eastern and western States--anxiously -sought for by Washington when the lateral limits of the United States -were less than half what they are at this time. They have united the -Pacific with the Atlantic, and the Rocky Mountains of the west with -the Alleghanies of the east. They have dispelled all ideas looking to -the removal of the seat of Government, for they have put in direct -communication the people of Oregon with the people of Maine. From ocean -to ocean requires but days, where only a few years ago it required -weeks. - -In the past, long lines of moving wagons groaned beneath their loads -of adventurous families, who at night, within the corral, seated -themselves around the blazing camp fire, fearful of the dangers to -which they were exposed. But the present has forgotten them. In their -stead the ponderous wheels of frequent trains, moving with a speed -surpassing that of the deer, traversing the valley and mountain, carry -forward their loads of living freight; and, in place of dangerous -encampments, provide means of sleep and refreshment, and afford the -comforts of luxurious homes. The railway has brought to our doors the -harvest of our fields; handed to our mints the vast resources of our -mines, and opened to us direct communication with the older worlds. Its -arms have extended into a hundred vales and over a hundred mountains, -grasping in their embrace manifold evidences of civilization and -prosperity. - - - - - INDEX. - - - Page. - - Abbott, Mr., 62 - - _Abies amabilis_, 102 - _Canadensis_, 100 - _concolor_, 101 - _Douglasii_, 100 - _Engelmanni_, 101 - _grandis_, 102 - _Menziesii_, 101 - _subalpina_, 101 - - _Acer grandidentata_, 103 - - Agricultural and timber industries differentiated, 18 - resources of the Bear River drainage basin, 119 - Jordan River drainage basin, 124 - Weber River drainage basin, 121 - - Agriculture, Amount of precipitation necessary for, 2, 3 - Influence of temperature upon, 2 - in the Arid Region dependent upon irrigation, 40 - in Utah dependent upon irrigation, 6 - exceptions thereto, 6 - limited by several conditions, 7 - Utilization of the small streams in, 7 - without irrigation, 3, 6, 50 - - _Aira cœspitosa_, 109 - - Alabama, Land-grants to, 179 - - Alkaline salts, 145 - - Amount of land a unit of water will supply, 7 - - Antelope Island, 63, 64 - bar, 63, 67 - - Areal distribution of rainfall, 82 - - Area of irrigable land sometimes not limited by water supply, 85 - - Areas of standing timber, 15 - to which larger streams can be taken, 7 - which smaller streams can serve, 7 - - Arid Region, Boundaries of the, 1, 3 - Extent of the, 5 - Increase in water supply in the, 89, 91 - Land system needed for the, 25 - Mining industries of the, 88 - Physical characteristics of the, 1 - Precipitation of the, 48 - Rainfall of the, 5 - - Arizona and New Mexico, Seasonal precipitation in, 56 - - Arkansas, Land grants to, 174, 179 - - _Artemisia_, 110 - - Ashley Fork, Irrigable lands of, 161 - - Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé Railroad Company, Land grants to the, - 178 - - Atlantic and Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 179 - - Atlantic coast, Flow of the rivers of the, 76 - Rainfall on the, 69 - - - Barfoot, Mr. J. L., 59 - - Barton, Mr., 113 - - Basin, Colorado. (_See_ Colorado Basin.) - Great Salt Lake. (_See_ Great Salt Lake District.) - Range System, 94 - Sevier Lake. (_See_ Sevier Lake District.) - Uinta-White. (_See_ Uinta-White Basin.) - - Bear River, 117 - City, 78 - drainage basin, Agricultural resources of the, 119 - Area of the, 119 - Mean flow of the, 72 - - Beaver dams, Effect of cutting, 74 - - _Betula occidentalis_, 103 - - Bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts, 30 - pasturage districts, 33 - - Black Rock bench, 61 - pillar, 59, 60 - - Bonneville Lake, 96 - - Book Cliffs, Orographic structure of the, 98 - - _Bouteloua oligostachya_, 108 - - _Bromus_, 109 - - Brown Cliffs, 98 - - Brown’s Park, Irrigable lands of, 162 - - Burlington and Missouri Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 178 - - - Canals, Land grants in aid of, 166 - - Cañon Lands, Amount of irrigable land in the, 106 - Coal lands of the, 106 - Description of the, 105 - of Utah, 94 - - _Carex Jamesii_, 109 - - Carrington Island, 62 - - Castle Valley, 105 - - Central Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 177 - - _Cercocarpus parvifolius_, 110 - - _Celtis occidentalis_, 103 - - Circle Valley, Amount of irrigable land in the, 137 - - Climate of the Colorado Basin, 151 - - Coal lands, 45 - Disposal of the, 44 - of the Cañon Lands, 106 - of the Rocky Mountain Region, 19 - - Colony system, 28 - - Colorado Basin, Climate of the, 151 - Elevation of the, 151 - Irrigable lands of the, 150 - Mean annual precipitation in the, 79 - Orographic structure of the, 95 - Source of the water supply of the, 152 - Table of irrigable lands of the, 164 - drainage area, 94 - River, Principal tributaries of the, in Utah, 150 - - Conditions affecting the distribution of rainfall, 90 - - Coöperative labor necessary to the development of irrigation, 11 - - Critical period, 85, 138, 154 - season, 116 - - - Dakota, Precipitation of, 51 - - Denver Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 179 - - Desert drainage area, 94 - Orographic structure of the, 95 - - Des Moines River, Land grant in aid of the improvement of the, 171 - - Distribution of rain throughout the year, 50 - - District, Great Salt Lake. (_See_ Great Salt Lake District.) - Sevier Lake. (_See_ Sevier Lake District.) - - Division lines of pasturage farms, 22, 28, 37 - of land by settlers, 38 - - Drainage area, Colorado, 94 - Desert, 94 - Modification of the conditions of, 73 - of the Tavaputs Plateau, 96 - Uinta Mountains, 96 - Wasatch Mountains, 96 - Utah, 94 - - Drummond, Willis, jr., on land grants in aid of internal improvements, - 164 - - Dry farming, 50, 78 - - Duchesne River, Volume of flow of the, 160 - - Dutton, Capt. C. E., cited, 110 - on the irrigable land of the Sevier Basin, 128 - - - East Florida Railroad Company, Land grant to the, 169 - - Egg Island, 67 - - Engelmann, Mr., 102 - - _Erocoma cuspidata_, 108 - - Escalante River, Irrigable lands of the, 156 - Volume of flow of the, 156 - - _Eurotia lanata_, 110 - - Evaporation by spreading of water, 74 - - - Farmington pillar, 61 - - Farming without irrigation, 77 - - Farm residences, Grouping of, 22 - unit for pasturage lands, 21, 28 - - Fencing of pasturage lands, 23 - - Fires in the timber region, 15, 99 - Cause of, 17, 99 - Protection from, 18, 99 - - Flood-plain lands, 88 - - Forests, Amount of rainfall necessary to the growth of, 15 - - Fox, Mr. Jesse W., 61, 113 - - _Fraxinus anomala_, 103 - _coriacea_, 103 - - Fremont Island, 62, 67 - River, Irrigable lands of the, 157 - Tributaries of the, 157 - Volume of flow of the, 157, 158 - - - Gilbert, G. K., cited, 84, 110 - on irrigable land of the Salt Lake drainage system, 113 - on water supply, 57 - - Government right to use of subsidized railroads, 181 - - Grand River, Irrigable lands of the, 163 - Volume of flow of the, 163 - - Grasses of the pasturage lands, 19 - Utah, 107 - - Great Salt Lake, Accumulation of the water in, 58 - Area of, 66, 73 - Basin (_See_ Great Salt Lake District) - Causes of abnormal change of, 67 - Desert, 66 - Diagram showing rise and fall of, 64 - District, 94 - Amount of irrigable land in the, 107 - Change in the climate of the, 68, 70 - Description of the, 107 - Irrigable lands of the, 113 - Fluctuations in the rainfall of the, 70 - Irrigation by large streams in the, 117 - small streams in the, 126 - Evaporation of the water of, 58, 72 - History of the past changes of, 62 - Increase and decrease of the size of, 58 - Islands of, 62 - Limited oscillation of, 59 - Limit of wave action of, 65 - Record of height of, 60 - Rise and fall of, 59 - Storm lines of, 65 - Streams flowing into, 72 - - Green River, Irrigable lands of the, 162 - Volume of flow of the, 162 - - Gunnison, Captain, 98 - Valley, 105 - Irrigable lands of the, 163 - - - Hayden, Dr. F. V., 71 - - Henry Mountains, 105 - Prof. Joseph, 46, 59, 62, 79 - - Henrys Fork, Irrigable lands of, 161 - - - Illinois, Land grants to, 168, 172 - - Increase in water supply in the Arid Region, 57, 89, 91 - of rainfall, 69, 91 - - Indiana, Land grants to, 166, 167 - - Internal improvements, Land grants in aid of, 165 - - Iowa, Land grants to, 169, 179 - - Irrigable and pasturage lands of Utah, 104 - areas, Increase of, by storage of water, 12, 13 - land, Area of, sometimes not limited by water supply, 85, 86 - Extent of, increased by the use of springs, 9 - in Utah, Amount of, 9 - lands, 23 - Amount of water required for, 84 - Disposal of, 27 - highly productive, 10 - Important questions relating to, 81 - Increase in the extent of the, 57 - in Utah Territory, Table of, 111 - of Southwestern Utah, 148 - of the Colorado Basin, 150 - Table of, 164 - Great Salt Lake District, 113 - Sevier Lake District, 134 - valley of the Sevier River, 128 - - Irrigable lands of the, Virgin River, 153 - of Utah, Distribution of the, 9 - Selection of, 87 - Situation of the, 6 - - Irrigating canals, Cost of, 125 - methods, Improvement in, 8 - season, 85 - - Irrigation, Advantages of, 10 - Amount of water needed for, 114 - used in, 141 - companies, 40 - Coöperative labor necessary to the development of, 11 - Direct influence of, upon the inflow of Great Salt Lake, 75 - Indirect influence of, upon the inflow of Great Salt Lake, 76 - of pasturage farms, 21 - Quantitative value of water used in, 81 - Unit of water used in, 81 - - Isohyetal line of twenty inches, 2 - - - Jordan River, 121 - drainage basin, Agricultural resources of the, 124 - Area of the, 125 - Mean flow of the, 72 - - _Juncus Balticus_, 109 - - _Juniperus Californicus_, 103 - _Virginiana_, 103 - - - Kanab Creek, Irrigable lands of, 154 - Ponding of, 154 - - Kansas, Land grants to, 178, 179 - Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 177 - - Kimball, Mr. Heber P., 61 - - King, Mr. Clarence, 66 - - - Lake Bonneville, 96 - Utah, Function of, as a reservoir, 123 - - Land grants in aid of internal improvements, 165 - - Lands, Classification of, 43 - Irrigable. (_See_ Irrigable Lands.) - of Utah, 93 - and Idaho fertilized by water, 75 - Physical features of the, 93 - Pasturage. (_See_ Pasturage Lands.) - - Land system needed for the Arid Region, 25 - - Leavenworth, Lawrence and Galveston Railroad Company, Land grants to - the, 178 - - Lower Columbia Region, 1 - Precipitation of the, 49 - - - Marshes, Drainage of, 74 - Evaporation from, 74 - - Martineau, Mr. J. H., 113 - - Mean temperature by seasons for the San Francisco Region, 54 - - Method of determining the supply of water, 85, 86 - - Michigan, Land grants to, 179 - - Miller, Mr. Jacob, 61, 62 - - Mineral lands, 44 - Disposal of, 44 - not suited to agriculture, 44 - - Minnie Maud Creek, Irrigable lands of, 160 - Volume of flow of, 160 - - Minnesota and Northwestern Railroad Company, 176 - Land grants to the, 174, 179 - - Mississippi Valley, Flow of the rivers of the, 76 - - Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 178 - Land grants to, 179 - - Mitchell, Mr. John T., 59 - - Monopoly of pasturage farms, 22 - - Mountains, Henry, 105 - Uinta. (_See_ Uinta Mountains.) - Wasatch. (_See_ Wasatch Mountains.) - - - _Negundo aceroides_, 103 - - Nevada, Mean annual precipitation in, 79 - - New Mexico and Arizona, Seasonal precipitation in, 56 - - New Orleans and Nashville Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 168 - - New York, Rainfall of the State of, 70 - - - Ogden River, Measured volume of the, 120 - - Ohio, Land grants to, 166, 167 - - Ohio Valley, Rainfall of the, 70 - - Orographic structure of the Book Cliffs, 98 - Colorado drainage area, 95 - Desert drainage area, 95 - Uinta Mountains, 97 - Wasatch Mountains, 96 - - - Pacific coast, Seasonal precipitation and temperature of the, 55 - - Panguitch Valley, Amount of irrigable land in, 136 - - Paria River, Irrigable lands of the, 155 - Volume of flow of the, 155 - - Park, Dr. John R., 59 - - Pasturage farms, Division lines of, 22, 28, 37 - Irrigation of, 21 - need small tracts of irrigable land, 21, 28 - lands, 19, 24, 104 - - Pasturage lands, Boundaries of, 19 - Disposal of, 28 - Extent of, 19 - Farm unit for, 21, 28 - Fencing of, 23 - Grasses of the, 19 - Monopoly of the, 22 - partially supplied by scattered springs, 21 - Situation of the, 6 - - _Phragmites communis_, 109 - - _Pinus aristata_, 100 - _edulis_, 100 - _flexilis_, 100 - _monticola_, 100 - _ponderosa_, 100 - - Pioneers, Enterprise and industries of, 41 - - Plateaus, The High, 94 - - Plateau, Tavaputs, 93 - Yampa, 105 - - _Poas_, 108 - - Ponding, 12, 13 - - Ponds, Evaporation of the water of, 73 - - _Populus angustifolia_, 102 - _monilifera_, 102 - _tremuloides_, 102 - - Precipitation in the Region of the Plains, 52 - Mean annual, in Colorado, 79 - Nevada, 79 - Utah, 79 - Wyoming, 79 - north of the Columbia River, 1 - of Dakota, 51 - Texas, 50 - the Arid Region, 48 - Region of the Lower Columbia, 49 - San Francisco Region, 49 - Sub-humid Region, 47 - - Precipitation, Seasonal, of the Pacific Coast, 55 - - Price River, Irrigable lands of the, 159 - Volume of flow of the, 159 - - Provo River, 121 - - Public lands, How to acquire title to, 25 - - - _Quercus undulata_, 103 - - - Railroads, Land grants in aid of, 165, 168, 172 - - Rainfall, Areal distribution of, 82 - Conditions affecting the distribution of, 90 - - Rainfall, Distribution of, throughout the year, 50 - Increase of, 91 - of the Arid Region, 5, 48 - belt between Great Salt Lake and Wasatch Mountains, 6, 79 - Sub-humid Region, 4, 47 - of the western portion of the United States, 46 - - Rain gauge records, 1, 3, 91, 131 - Deficiency of, 1 - - “Rainy seasons”, 25, 50 - - Ranges, Basin, 94 - - Records, Rain gauge, 1, 3, 91, 131 - - Region of the Lower Columbia. (_See_ Lower Columbia Region.) - of the Plains, Seasonal precipitation in the, 52 - San Francisco. (_See_ San Francisco Region.) - Sub-humid. (_See_ Sub-humid Region.) - - Renshawe, Mr. J. H., 113, 153 - - Reservoirs, 12, 13, 85, 144 - - River, Bear. (_See_ Bear River.) - Colorado. (_See_ Colorado River.) - Duchesne. (_See_ Duchesne River.) - Escalante. (_See_ Escalante River.) - Fremont. (_See_ Fremont River.) - Grand. (_See_ Grand River.) - Green. (_See_ Green River.) - Gunnison. (_See_ Gunnison River.) - Jordan. (_See_ Jordan River.) - Ogden. (_See_ Ogden River.) - Paria. (_See_ Paria River.) - Price. (_See_ Price River.) - Provo. (_See_ Provo River.) - San Rafael. (_See_ San Rafael River.) - Sevier. (_See_ Sevier River.) - Uinta. (_See_ Uinta River.) - Virgin. (_See_ Virgin River.) - Weber. (_See_ Weber River.) - White. (_See_ White River.) - - Rivers, Land grants in aid of improvement of, 169 - - Rockwood, Hon. A. P., 113 - - - San Francisco Region, Mean temperature, by seasons, of the, 54 - Precipitation of the, 49 - Rainy season of the, 54 - Seasonal precipitation in the, 53 - - San Pete Valley, Amount of irrigable land in the, 138 - Flow of the streams of the, 138 - - San Rafael River, Irrigable lands of the, 158, 159 - Tributaries of the, 158 - - San Rafael River, Volume of flow of the, 159 - - Schott, Mr. Charles A., 46, 69 - - Seasonal precipitation and temperatures on the Pacific coast, 55 - in Arizona and New Mexico, 56 - - Seasonal precipitation in the Region of the Plains, 52 - San Francisco Region, 53 - - Selection of irrigable lands, 87 - - Sevier Lake Basin, 94 - District, 94 - Altitudes in the, 133 - Amount of irrigable land in the, 106, 143 - Climate of the, 131 - Description of the, 106 - Irrigable lands of the, 134 - Physical characteristics of the, 130 - Rainfall of the, 131 - Rain gauge records of the, 131 - River, Course of the, 129 - Volume of flow of the, 139, 140 - Irrigable lands of the valley of the, 128 - Valley of the, 129 - - Sierra La Sal, 105 - - Sioux City and Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 177 - - Smithsonian Tables of Precipitation, 46, 69 - - Soil and subsoil, Complicating conditions of, 83 - Conditions of, 82 - - Soils, 145 - - Southern Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 179 - - Springs, Opening out of, 74 - Use of, in irrigation, 9 - - Stansbury, Captain Howard, 64, 65, 66 - Island, 67 - bar, 64, 67 - - Streams, Descent of, 88 - flowing into Great Salt Lake, 72 - Flow of, at different periods, 13 - Increase in the volume of, 57 - Measurement of, 86, 115 - of San Pete Valley, Volume of flow of the, 140 - of Utah, Fluctuations of the, 115 - Practical capacity of, 85 - small, Employment of, in irrigation, 7, 11, 12 - - Strong’s Knob, 67 - - Sub-humid Region, Boundaries of the, 3 - destitute of forests, 4 - Mean precipitation of the, 47 - Rainfall of the, 4 - - Supply of water, Method of determining the, 85, 86 - - - Table I. Precipitation of the Sub-humid Region, 47 - II. Arid Region, 48 - III. San Francisco Region, 49 - IV. Region of the Lower Columbia, 49 - V. Texas, 50 - VI. Dakota, 51 - VII. Season of precipitation in the Region of the Plains, 52 - VIII. San Francisco Region, 53 - IX. Mean temperature, by seasons, for the San Francisco Region, 54 - X. Seasonable precipitation and temperatures on the Pacific coast, - 55 - XI. in Arizona and New Mexico, 56 - of irrigable lands in Utah, 111 - of southwestern Utah, 149 - of the Colorado Basin, 164 - Sevier Lake District, 144 - of mean annual precipitation in Colorado, 79 - Nevada, 79 - Utah, 79 - Wyoming, 79 - - Tavaputs Plateau, 93 - Drainage of the, 96 - - Temperature dependent upon altitude and latitude, 2 - - Temperatures, Seasonal, on the Pacific Coast, 55 - - Texas and Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 179 - Precipitation of, 50 - - The High Plateaus, 94 - - Thomas, Prof. Cyrus, 71 - - Thompson, Prof. A. H., cited, 86, 110 - on the irrigable land of the Colorado Basin, 150 - - Timber, 98 - Areas of standing, 15, 17 - Cultivation of, 19 - Destruction of, by fire, 15 - growth dependent upon climatic conditions, 14 - lands, 14, 23 - Boundaries of the, 14 - Disposal of the, 27 - Situation of the, 6, 14 - regions, 15 - Extent of the, 16 - Fires in the, 15, 17, 18, 99 - - Titles to public lands, 25 - - - Uinta Mountains, 93 - Drainage of the, 96 - Orographic structure of the, 97 - - Uinta River, Irrigable lands of the, 160 - Tributaries of the, 160 - Volume of flow of the, 160, 161 - White Basin, 93 - Amount of irrigable lands in the, 105 - Description of the, 104 - Physical features of the, 160 - - Union Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, 177 - - Unit of water supply, 8, 84, 115, 141 - Method of determining the, 8 - used in irrigation, 81 - - Utah, Amount of cultivated land in, 84 - Church government in, 89, 128 - Drainage of, 94 - Forest trees of, 100 - Grasses of, 107 - Irrigable and pasturage lands of, 104 - Lake, 123 - Lands of, 93 - Mean annual precipitation in, 79 - Pasturage lands of, 104 - Prevailing winds of, 68 - Table of irrigable lands in, 111 - Timber of, 98 - Variety of crops cultivated in, 84 - Watershed of, 94 - - - Valley, Castle, 105 - Circle, Amount of irrigable land in the, 137 - Gunnison, 105 - Irrigable lands of the, 162 - of the Mississippi, 76 - Sevier River, Amount of irrigable land in the, 144 - Panguitch, Amount of irrigable land in the, 136 - San Pete, Amount of irrigable land in the, 138 - Flow of the streams of the, 140 - - Vasey, Dr. George, 108 - - _Vilfa_ (_Sporobolis_) _airoides_, 108 - - Virgin River, Irrigable lands of the, 153 - - Volume of water flowing in the streams, Determination of, 8 - - - Wagon roads, Land grants in aid of, 166 - - Ward, Mr. L. F., 103 - - Wasatch Mountains, 93, 94 - Drainage of the, 96 - Orographic structure of the, 96 - - Wastage of water, 84 - - Water, Evaporation of, 13 - Irrigating capacity of, 8, 84, 115, 141 - Loss of, by evaporation, 87 - Method of determining the supply of, 85, 115, 139 - storing, 12 - rights, 40 - should inhere in the lands to be irrigated, 40, 41 - supply, 57 - affected by the cutting of timber, 75 - farming, 73 - grazing, 74 - Economic bearings of the, 76 - Increase in the, 57, 89, 91 - Storage of, 116, 125, 144 - used in irrigation, Quantitative value of, 81 - Unit of, 81 - Wastage of, 84, 142 - ways rudely constructed, 8 - - Weber River, 119 - drainage basin, Agricultural resources of the, 121 - Area of the, 121 - Mean flow of the, 72 - - White River, Irrigable lands of the, 162 - Volume of flow of the, 162 - - Winds of Utah, 68 - - Wisconsin, Land grants to, 169, 179 - - Wyoming, Mean annual precipitation in, 79 - - - Yampa Plateau, 105 - - Young, Hon. Brigham, 105 - - - [Illustration: DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR - -U. S. GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION, - - J. W. POWELL IN CHARGE. - - MAP OF UTAH TERRITORY - - REPRESENTING THE EXTENT OF THE IRRIGABLE, TIMBER AND PASTURE LANDS. - - COMPILED AND DRAWN BY CHARLES MAHON, J. H. RENSHAWE, W. H. GRAVES AND - H. LINDENKOHL FOR THE COMMISSIONER OF PUBLIC LANDS - - 1878. - - Miles - - Note _This map has been constructed from atlas sheets of the U. S. - Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region with - additional material taken from the maps of the U. S. Geographical - Explorations and Surveys west of the 100ᵈᵗʰ Meridian, Lieut. Geo. - M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, in charge, the U. S. Geological - Exploration of the 40ᵗʰ Parallel, Clarence King, U. S. Geologist - in charge, and the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the - Territories, F. V. Hayden, in charge_ - - - EXPLANATION - - _Irrigable Lands_ - _Standing Timber_ - _Area destitute of Timber on account of Fires_ - _Rail Roads_ - _Wagon Roads_ - _Trails_ - _Telegraph Lines_ - _County Seats in Capital Letters._] - - [Illustration: DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR U.S. GEOGRAPHICAL AND -GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION J. W. POWELL, IN CHARGE. - - MAP OF THE UNITED STATES - -EXHIBITING THE GRANTS OF LANDS MADE BY THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT TO AID IN - THE CONSTRUCTION OF RAILROADS AND WAGON ROADS. - - 1878 - - For explanation see chapter on “Land Grants in aid of International - Improvements” - - [The base chart was engraved for the Statistical Atlas of the United - States.] - - Julius Bien. Lithographer] - - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - -Errors in punctuation have been fixed. - -Page 35: “the Commisioner” changed to “the Commissioner” - -Page 52: “not greater han should” changed to “not greater than should” - -Page 57: “very erroneneous” changed to “very erroneous” - -Page 65: “needed to clense land” changed to “needed to cleanse land” - -Page 68: “whatever manner in was disturbed” changed to “whatever manner -it was disturbed” - -Page 108: “strongly akaline soils” changed to “strongly alkaline soils” - -Page 162: “in the moutains” changed to “in the mountains” - -Page 172: “of a “a portion”” changed to “of “a portion”” - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REPORT ON THE LANDS OF THE ARID -REGION OF THE UNITED STATES, WITH A MORE DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE LANDS -OF UTAH *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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- margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; -} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; - text-indent: 1em; -} - -.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - -hr.tb {width: 45%; margin-left: 27.5%; margin-right: 27.5%;} -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} -@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } - -hr.r5 {width: 5%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 47.5%; margin-right: 47.5%;} - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - -ul.index { list-style-type: none; margin-top: 2em;} -li.ifrst { - margin-top: 1em; - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 1em; -} -li.isuba { - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 2em; -} -li.isubb { - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 3em; -} -li.isubc { - text-indent: -2em; 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margin-left: 5%} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - -.xbig {font-size: 2em;} -.big {font-size: 1.2em;} -.small {font-size: 0.8em;} - -abbr[title] { - text-decoration: none; -} - - /* ]]> */ </style> -</head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Report on the lands of the arid region of the United States, with a more detailed account of the lands of Utah, by John Wesley Powell</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Report on the lands of the arid region of the United States, with a more detailed account of the lands of Utah</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: John Wesley Powell</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: February 9, 2023 [eBook #69995]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REPORT ON THE LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES, WITH A MORE DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE LANDS OF UTAH ***</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</span></p> - - - - -<h1>REPORT<br> - -<span class="small">ON THE</span><br> - -<span class="big">LANDS OF THE ARID REGION</span><br> - -<span class="small">OF THE</span><br> - -UNITED STATES,</h1> - -<p class="center"><span class="small">WITH A</span><br> - -MORE DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE LANDS OF UTAH.</p> -<p class="center p2">WITH MAPS.</p> -<p class="center p2"><span class="small">BY</span><br> - -<span class="big">J. W. POWELL.</span></p> -<hr class="r5"> -<p class="center">SECOND EDITION.<br></p> - -<hr class="r5"> -<p class="center"><span class="big">WASHINGTON:</span><br> -GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.<br> -1879. -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</span></p> - - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="right"> -<span class="smcap">Congress of the United States (3d Session),</span><br> -<span class="smcap">In the House of Representatives</span>,<br> -<i>March 3, 1879</i>.<br> -</p> - -<p>The following resolution, originating in the House of Representatives, -has this day been concurred in by the Senate:</p> - -<p><i>Resolved, by the House of Representatives</i> (<i>the Senate -concurring</i>), That there be printed five thousand copies of the -Report on the Lands of the Arid Region of the United States, by J. W. -Powell; one thousand for the use of the Senate, two thousand for the -use of the House of Representatives, and two thousand for the use of -the Department of the Interior.</p> - -<p>Attest:</p> - -<p class="right"> -GEO. M. ADAMS, <i>Clerk</i>.<br> -</p></div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</span></p> - -<p class="center xbig">J. W. POWELL’S REPORT ON SURVEY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION.</p> -</div> -<hr class="r5"> - -<p class="center">LETTER<br> - -<span class="small">FROM</span><br> -<span class="big">THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR,</span><br> - -<span class="small">TRANSMITTING</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><i>Report of J. W. Powell, geologist in charge of the United States -Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, upon -the lands of the Arid Region of the United States.</i></p> -<hr class="r5"> -<p><span class="smcap">April 3, 1878.</span>—Referred to the Committee on Appropriations -and ordered to be printed.</p> -</div> -<hr class="r5"> -<p class="right"> -<span style="margin-right: 7em;"><span class="smcap">Department of the Interior,</span></span><br> -<span class="smcap">Washington, D. C.</span>, <i>April 3, 1878</i>.<br> -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report from Maj. -J. W. Powell, geologist in charge of the United States Geographical -and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, upon the lands -of the Arid Region of the United States, setting forth the extent of -said region, and making suggestions as to the conditions under which -the lands embraced within its limit may be rendered available for -agricultural and grazing purposes. With the report is transmitted a -statement of the rainfall of the western portion of the United States, -with reports upon the subject of irrigation by Capt. C. E. Dutton, U. -S. A., Prof. A. H. Thompson, and Mr. G. K. Gilbert.</p> - -<p>Herewith are also transmitted draughts of two bills, one entitled “A -bill to authorize the organization of pasturage districts by homestead -settlements<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</span> on the public lands which are of value for pasturage -purposes only”, and the other “A bill to authorize the organization of -irrigation districts by homestead settlements upon the public lands -requiring irrigation for agricultural purposes”, intended to carry -into effect a new system for the disposal of the public lands of said -region, and to promote the settlement and development of that portion -of the country.</p> - -<p>In view of the importance of rendering the vast extent of country -referred to available for agricultural and grazing purposes, I have -the honor to commend the views set forth by Major Powell and the bills -submitted herewith to the consideration of Congress.</p> - -<p class="right"> -<span style="margin-right: 15em;">Very respectfully,</span><br> -<br> -<span style="margin-right: 10em;">C. SCHURZ,</span><br> -<span style="margin-right: 5em;"><i>Secretary</i>.</span><br> -<br> -<span style="margin-right: 10em;">Hon. <span class="smcap">Samuel J. Randall</span>,</span><br> -<span style="margin-right: 5em;"><i>Speaker of the House of Representatives</i>.</span><br> -</p> -<hr class="tb"> - -<p class="right"> -<span class="smcap">Department of the Interior, General Land Office,</span><br> -<span style="margin-right: 3.5em;"><span class="smcap">Washington, D. C.</span>, <i>April 1, 1878</i>.</span><br> -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: I have the honor to submit herewith a report from Maj. -J. W. Powell, in charge of the Geographical and Geological Survey -of the Rocky Mountains, in regard to the Arid Region of the United -States, and draughts of two bills, one entitled “A bill to authorize -the organization of pasturage districts by homestead settlements on the -public lands which are of value for pasturage purposes only”, and the -other “A bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts by -homestead settlements upon the public lands requiring irrigation for -agricultural purposes”.</p> - -<p>Major Powell reviews at length the features of, and furnishes -statistics relative to, the Arid Region of the United States, which is -substantially the territory west of the one hundredth meridian and east -of the Cascade Range, and the bills named are intended, if passed, to -carry into effect the views expressed in his report for the settlement -and development of this region.</p> - -<p>He has, in the performance of his duties in conducting the geological -and geographical survey, been over much of the country referred to, -and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</span> is qualified by observation, research, and study to speak of the -topography, characteristics, and adaptability of the same.</p> - -<p>I have not been able, on account of more urgent official duties, to -give Major Powell’s report and proposed bills the careful investigation -necessary, in view of their great importance, to enable me to express -a decided opinion as to their merits. Some change is necessary in the -survey and disposal of the lands, and I think his views are entitled -to great weight, and would respectfully recommend that such action -be taken as will bring his report and bills before Congress for -consideration by that body.</p> - -<p class="right"> -<span style="margin-right: 15em;">Very respectfully,</span><br> -<span style="margin-right: 10em;">J. A. WILLIAMSON,</span><br> -<span style="margin-right: 5em;"><i>Commissioner</i>.</span><br> -<br> -<span style="margin-right: 10em;">Hon. <span class="smcap">C. Schurz</span>,</span><br> -<i>Secretary of the Interior</i>.<br> -</p> -<hr class="tb"> -<p class="right"> -<span style="margin-right: 19.5em;"><span class="smcap">Department of the Interior,</span></span><br> -<span class="smcap">U. S. Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region,</span><br> -<span style="margin-right: 12.5em;"><span class="smcap">Washington, D. C.</span>, <i>April 1, 1878</i>.</span><br> -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the -lands of the Arid Region of the United States. After setting forth the -general facts relating to the conditions under which these lands must -be utilized, I have taken the liberty to suggest a system for their -disposal which I believe would be adapted to the wants of the country.</p> - -<p>I wish to express my sincere thanks for the assistance you have given -me in the collection of many of the facts necessary to the discussion, -and especially for the aid you have rendered in the preparation of the -maps.</p> - -<p>Permit me to express the hope that the great interest you take in the -public domain will be rewarded by the consciousness that you have -assisted many citizens in the establishment of farm homes thereon.</p> - -<p class="right"> -<span style="margin-right: 15em;">I am, with great respect, your obedient servant,</span><br> -<span style="margin-right: 10em;">J. W. POWELL,</span><br> -<span style="margin-right: 5em;"><i>In charge U. S. G. and G. Survey Rocky Mountain Region</i>.</span><br> -<br> -<span style="margin-right: 10em;">Hon. <span class="smcap">J. A. Williamson</span>,</span><br> -<i>Commissioner General Land Office, Washington, D. C.</i><br> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</span></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>It was my intention to write a work on the Public Domain. The object -of the volume was to give the extent and character of the lands yet -belonging to the Government of the United States. Compared with the -whole extent of these lands, but a very small fraction is immediately -available for agriculture; in general, they require drainage or -irrigation for their redemption.</p> - -<p>It is true that in the Southern States there are some millions of -acres, chiefly timber lands, which at no remote time will be occupied -for agricultural purposes. Westward toward the Great Plains, the lands -in what I have, in the body of this volume, termed the Humid Region -have passed from the hands of the General Government. To this statement -there are some small exceptions here and there—fractional tracts, -which, for special reasons, have not been considered desirable by -persons in search of lands for purposes of investment or occupation.</p> - -<p>In the Sub-humid Region settlements are rapidly extending westward -to the verge of the country where agriculture is possible without -irrigation.</p> - -<p>In the Humid Region of the Columbia the agricultural lands are largely -covered by great forests, and for this reason settlements will progress -slowly, as the lands must be cleared of their timber.</p> - -<p>The redemption of the Arid Region involves engineering problems -requiring for their solution the greatest skill. In the present volume -only these lands are considered. Had I been able to execute the -original plan to my satisfaction, I should have treated of the coast -swamps of the South Atlantic and the Gulf slopes, the Everglade lands -of the Floridian Peninsula, the flood plain lands of the great rivers -of the south, which have heretofore<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</span> been made available only to a -limited extent by a system of levees, and the lake swamp lands found -about the headwaters of the Mississippi and the region of the upper -Great Lakes. All of these lands require either drainage or protection -from overflow, and the engineering problems involved are of diverse -nature. These lands are to be redeemed from excessive humidity, -while the former are to be redeemed from excessive aridity. When -the excessively humid lands are redeemed, their fertility is almost -inexhaustible, and the agricultural capacity of the United States will -eventually be largely increased by the rescue of these lands from -their present valueless condition. In like manner, on the other hand, -the arid lands, so far as they can be redeemed by irrigation, will -perennially yield bountiful crops, as the means for their redemption -involves their constant fertilization.</p> - -<p>To a great extent, the redemption of all these lands will require -extensive and comprehensive plans, for the execution of which -aggregated capital or coöperative labor will be necessary. Here, -individual farmers, being poor men, cannot undertake the task. For -its accomplishment a wise prevision, embodied in carefully considered -legislation, is necessary. It was my purpose not only to consider the -character of the lands themselves, but also the engineering problems -involved in their redemption, and further to make suggestions for the -legislative action necessary to inaugurate the enterprises by which -these lands may eventually be rescued from their present worthless -state. When I addressed myself to the broader task as indicated above, -I found that my facts in relation to some of the classes of lands -mentioned, especially the coast swamps of the Gulf and some of the -flood plain lands of the southern rivers, were too meager for anything -more than general statements. There seemed to be no immediate necessity -for the discussion of these subjects; but to the Arid Region of the -west thousands of persons are annually repairing, and the questions -relating to the utilization of these lands are of present importance. -Under these considerations I have decided to publish that portion of -the volume relating to the arid lands, and to postpone to some future -time that part relating to the excessively humid lands.</p> - -<p>In the preparation of the contemplated volume I desired to give a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</span> -historical sketch of the legislation relating to swamp lands and -executive action thereunder; another chapter on bounty lands and land -grants for agricultural schools, and still another on land grants in -aid of internal improvements—chiefly railroads. The latter chapter has -already been prepared by Mr. Willis Drummond, jr., and as the necessary -map is ready I have concluded to publish it now, more especially as the -granted lands largely lie in the Arid Region. Mr. Drummond’s chapter -has been carefully prepared and finely written, and contains much -valuable information.</p> - -<p>To the late Prof. Joseph Henry, secretary of the Smithsonian -Institution, I am greatly indebted for access to the records of the -Institution relating to rainfall. Since beginning my explorations and -surveys in the far west, I have received the counsel and assistance -of the venerable professor on all important matters relating to my -investigations; and whatever of value has been accomplished is due in -no small part to his wisdom and advice. I cannot but express profound -sorrow at the loss of a counselor so wise, so patient, and so courteous.</p> - -<p>I am also indebted to Mr. Charles A. Schott, of the United States Coast -Survey, to whom the discussion of the rain gauge records has been -intrusted by the Smithsonian Institution, for furnishing to me the -required data in advance of publication by himself.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately, the chapters written by Messrs. Gilbert, Dutton, -Thompson, and Drummond have not been proof-read by themselves, by -reason of their absence during the time when the volume was going -through the press; but this is the less to be regretted from the fact -that the whole volume has been proof-read by Mr. J. C. Pilling, whose -critical skill is all that could be desired.</p> - -<p class="right"> -J. W. P.<br> -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">August</span>, 1878.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE_TO_THE_SECOND_EDITION">PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The first edition of this report having been exhausted in a few months -and without satisfying the demand which the importance of the subject -created, a second was ordered by Congress in March, 1879. The authors -were thus given an opportunity to revise their text and eliminate a -few formal errors which had crept in by reason of their absence while -the first edition was passing through the press. The substance of the -report is unchanged.</p> - -<p class="right"> -J. W. P.<br> -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">July</span>, 1879.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> - - -<table class="autotable"><tr><th></th><th class="tdr page">Page.</th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Physical Characteristics of the Arid Region</span>: </td></tr> -<tr><td>The Arid Region</td><td class="tdr page"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Irrigable lands </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_6">6</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Advantages of irrigation </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Coöperative labor or capital necessary for the development of irrigation </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The use of smaller streams sometimes interferes with the use of the larger </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Increase of irrigable area by the storage of water </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Timber lands </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Agricultural and timber industries differentiated </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Cultivation of timber </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Pasturage lands </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Pasturage farms need small tracts of irrigable land </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The farm unit for pasturage lands </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Regular division lines for pasturage farms not practicable </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Farm residences should be grouped </td><td class="tdr page"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Pasturage lands cannot be fenced </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Recapitulation </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Irrigable lands </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Timber lands </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Pasturage lands </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Land-System needed for the Arid Region</span>:</td></tr> -<tr><td>Irrigable lands </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Timber lands </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Pasturage lands </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>A bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>A bill to authorize the organization of pasturage districts </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Water rights </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The lands should be classified </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Rainfall of the Western Portion of the United States</span>:</td></tr> -<tr><td>Precipitation of the Sub-humid Region </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Precipitation of the Arid Region </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_48">48</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Precipitation of the San Francisco Region </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Precipitation of the Region of the Lower Columbia </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_49">49</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</span></td></tr> -<tr><td>Distribution of rain through the year </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Precipitation of Texas </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Precipitation of Dakota </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Seasonal precipitation in the Region of the Plains </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Seasonal precipitation in the San Francisco Region </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_53">53</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Mean temperature, by seasons, for the San Francisco Region </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Seasonal precipitation and temperature on the Pacific Coast, etc. </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Seasonal precipitation in Arizona and New Mexico </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Water Supply.—By G. K. Gilbert</span>:</td></tr> -<tr><td>Increase of streams </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Rise of Great Salt Lake </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Volcanic theory </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Climatic theory </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Theory of human agencies </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Farming without irrigation </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Certain Important Questions relating to Irrigable Lands</span>:</td></tr> -<tr><td>The unit of water used in irrigation </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The quantitative value of water in irrigation </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Area of irrigable land sometimes not limited by water supply</td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Method of determining the supply of water </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Methods of determining the extent of irrigable land unlimited by water supply </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The selection of irrigable lands </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Increase in the water supply </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Lands of Utah</span>:</td></tr> -<tr><td>Physical features </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Timber </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Irrigable and pasturage lands</td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Uinta-White Basin </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The Cañon Lands </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The Sevier Lake District </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The Great Salt Lake District </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Grasses </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Table of Irrigable lands in Utah Territory </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Irrigable Lands of the Salt Lake Drainage System.—By G. K. Gilbert</span>:</td></tr> -<tr><td>Irrigation by the larger streams </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Bear River drainage basin </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Weber River drainage basin </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Jordan River drainage basin</td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Irrigation by smaller streams </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Irrigable Lands of the Valley of the Sevier River.—By Capt. C. E. Dutton</span>:</td></tr> -<tr><td>Altitudes of the San Pete Valley </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Volume of flowing water in San Pete Valley </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Irrigable lands of the Sevier Lake District </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_144">144</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</span> -</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Irrigable Lands of that portion of Utah drained by the Colorado River and its Tributaries.—By - Prof. A. H. Thompson</span>:</td></tr> -<tr><td>The Virgin River </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Kanab Creek </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The Paria River </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The Escalante River </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The Fremont River </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The San Rafael River </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The Price River </td><td class="tdr page"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Minnie Maud Creek </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The Uinta River </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_160">160</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Ashley Fork </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Henrys Fork </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The White River </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The Green River </td><td class="tdr page"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The Grand River </td><td class="tdr page"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>The San Juan River </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Other streams </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr> -<tr><td>Irrigable lands of the Colorado drainage </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_164">164</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a></td></tr> -<tr><td><span class="smcap">Land Grants in Aid of Internal Improvements.—By Willis Drummond, Jr.</span> </td><td class="tdr page"> <a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr> -</table><p> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center xbig">REPORT ON THE LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.</p> - -<p class="center big"><span class="smcap">By J. W. Powell.</span></p> - - -<hr class="r5"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br><span class="small">PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION.</span></h2></div> - - -<p>The eastern portion of the United States is supplied with abundant -rainfall for agricultural purposes, receiving the necessary amount -from the evaporation of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico; but -westward the amount of aqueous precipitation diminishes in a general -way until at last a region is reached where the climate is so arid that -agriculture is not successful without irrigation. This Arid Region -begins about midway in the Great Plains and extends across the Rocky -Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. But on the northwest coast there is -a region of greater precipitation, embracing western Washington and -Oregon and the northwest corner of California. The winds impinging on -this region are freighted with moisture derived from the great Pacific -currents; and where this water-laden atmosphere strikes the western -coast in full force, the precipitation is excessive, reaching a maximum -north of the Columbia River of 80 inches annually. But the rainfall -rapidly decreases from the Pacific Ocean eastward to the summit of the -Cascade Mountains. It will be convenient to designate this humid area -as the Lower Columbia Region. Rain gauge records have not been made -to such an extent as to enable us to define its eastern and southern -boundaries, but as they are chiefly along high mountains, definite -boundary lines are unimportant in the consideration of agricultural -resources and the questions relating thereto. In like manner on the -east the rain gauge records, though more full, do not give all the -facts necessary to a thorough discussion of the subject; yet the -records are such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span> as to indicate approximately the boundary between -the Arid Region, where irrigation is necessary to agriculture, and the -Humid Region, where the lands receive enough moisture from the clouds -for the maturing of crops. Experience teaches that it is not wise to -depend upon rainfall where the amount is less than 20 inches annually, -if this amount is somewhat evenly distributed throughout the year; -but if the rainfall is unevenly distributed, so that “rainy seasons” -are produced, the question whether agriculture is possible without -irrigation depends upon the time of the “rainy season” and the amount -of its rainfall. Any unequal distribution of rain through the year, -though the inequality be so slight as not to produce “rainy seasons”, -affects agriculture either favorably or unfavorably. If the spring and -summer precipitation exceeds that of the fall and winter, a smaller -amount of annual rain may be sufficient; but if the rainfall during the -season of growing crops is less than the average of the same length -of time during the remainder of the year, a greater amount of annual -precipitation is necessary. In some localities in the western portion -of the United States this unequal distribution of rainfall through the -seasons affects agriculture favorably, and this is true immediately -west of the northern portion of the line of 20 inches of rainfall, -which extends along the plains from our northern to our southern -boundary.</p> - -<p>The isohyetal or mean annual rainfall line of 20 inches, as indicated -on the rain chart accompanying this report, begins on the southern -boundary of the United States, about 60 miles west of Brownsville, -on the Rio Grande del Norte, and intersects the northern boundary -about 50 miles east of Pembina. Between these two points the line is -very irregular, but in middle latitudes makes a general curve to the -westward. On the southern portion of the line the rainfall is somewhat -evenly distributed through the seasons, but along the northern portion -the rainfall of spring and summer is greater than that of fall and -winter, and hence the boundary of what has been called the Arid Region -runs farther to the west. Again, there is another modifying condition, -namely, that of temperature. Where the temperature is greater, more -rainfall is needed; where the temperature is less, agriculture is -successful with a smaller amount of precipitation. But geographically -this temperature is dependent upon two conditions—altitude and -latitude. Along the northern portion of the line latitude is an -important<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span> factor, and the line of possible agriculture without -irrigation is carried still farther westward. This conclusion, based -upon the consideration of rainfall and latitude, accords with the -experience of the farmers of the region, for it is a well known fact -that agriculture without irrigation is successfully carried on in the -valley of the Red River of the North, and also in the southeastern -portion of Dakota Territory. A much more extended series of rain-gauge -records than we now have is necessary before this line constituting -the eastern boundary of the Arid Region can be well defined. It is -doubtless more or less meandering in its course throughout its whole -extent from south to north, being affected by local conditions of -rainfall, as well as by the general conditions above mentioned; but in -a general way it may be represented by the one hundredth meridian, in -some places passing to the east, in others to the west, but in the main -to the east.</p> - -<p>The limit of successful agriculture without irrigation has been set -at 20 inches, that the extent of the Arid Region should by no means -be exaggerated; but at 20 inches agriculture will not be uniformly -successful from season to season. Many droughts will occur; many -seasons in a long series will be fruitless; and it may be doubted -whether, on the whole, agriculture will prove remunerative. On this -point it is impossible to speak with certainty. A larger experience -than the history of agriculture in the western portion of the United -States affords is necessary to a final determination of the question.</p> - -<p>In fact, a broad belt separates the Arid Region of the west from the -Humid Region of the east. Extending from the one hundredth meridian -eastward to about the isohyetal line of 28 inches, the district of -country thus embraced will be subject more or less to disastrous -droughts, the frequency of which will diminish from west to east. -For convenience let this be called the Sub-humid Region. Its western -boundary is the line already defined as running irregularly along -the one hundredth meridian. Its eastern boundary passes west of -the isohyetal line of 28 inches of rainfall in Minnesota, running -approximately parallel to the western boundary line above described. -Nearly one-tenth of the whole area of the United States, exclusive -of Alaska, is embraced in this Sub-humid Region. In the western -portion disastrous droughts will be frequent; in the eastern portion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span> -infrequent. In the western portion agriculturists will early resort to -irrigation to secure immunity from such disasters, and this event will -be hastened because irrigation when properly conducted is a perennial -source of fertilization, and is even remunerative for this purpose -alone; and for the same reason the inhabitants of the eastern part will -gradually develop irrigating methods. It may be confidently expected -that at a time not far distant irrigation will be practiced to a -greater or less extent throughout this Sub-humid Region. Its settlement -presents problems differing materially from those pertaining to the -region to the westward. Irrigation is not immediately necessary, and -hence agriculture does not immediately depend upon capital. The region -may be settled and its agricultural capacities more or less developed, -and the question of the construction of irrigating canals may be a -matter of time and convenience. For many reasons, much of the sub-humid -belt is attractive to settlers: it is almost destitute of forests, and -for this reason is more readily subdued, as the land is ready for the -plow. But because of the lack of forests the country is more dependent -upon railroads for the transportation of building and fencing materials -and for fuel. To a large extent it is a region where timber may be -successfully cultivated. As the rainfall is on a general average nearly -sufficient for continuous successful agriculture, the amount of water -to be supplied by irrigating canals will be comparatively small, so -that its streams can serve proportionally larger areas than the streams -of the Arid Region. In its first settlement the people will be favored -by having lands easily subdued, but they will have to contend against a -lack of timber. Eventually this will be a region of great agricultural -wealth, as in general the soils are good. From our northern to our -southern boundary no swamp lands are found, except to some slight -extent in the northeastern portion, and it has no excessively hilly or -mountainous districts. It is a beautiful prairie country throughout, -lacking somewhat in rainfall; but this want can be easily supplied by -utilizing the living streams; and, further, these streams will afford -fertilizing materials of great value.</p> - -<p>The Humid Region of the lower Columbia and the Sub-humid Region of the -Great Plains have been thus briefly indicated in order that the great -Arid Region, which is the subject of this paper, may be more clearly -defined.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span></p> - - -<h3>THE ARID REGION.</h3> - -<p>The Arid Region is the great Rocky Mountain Region of the United -States, and it embraces something more than four-tenths of the -whole country, excluding Alaska. In all this region the mean annual -rainfall is insufficient for agriculture, but in certain seasons some -localities, now here, now there, receive more than their average -supply. Under such conditions crops will mature without irrigation. -As such seasons are more or less infrequent even in the more favored -localities, and as the agriculturist cannot determine in advance -when such seasons may occur, the opportunities afforded by excessive -rainfall cannot be improved.</p> - -<p>In central and northern California an unequal distribution of rainfall -through the seasons affects agricultural interests favorably. A “rainy -season” is here found, and the chief precipitation occurs in the months -of December-April. The climate, tempered by mild winds from the broad -expanse of Pacific waters, is genial, and certain crops are raised by -sowing the seeds immediately before or during the “rainy season”, and -the watering which they receive causes the grains to mature so that -fairly remunerative crops are produced. But here again the lands are -subject to the droughts of abnormal seasons. As many of these lands can -be irrigated, the farmers of the country are resorting more and more -to the streams, and soon all the living waters of this region will be -brought into requisition.</p> - -<p>In the tables of a subsequent chapter this will be called the San -Francisco Region.</p> - -<p>Again in eastern Washington and Oregon, and perhaps in northern Idaho, -agriculture is practiced to a limited extent without irrigation. The -conditions of climate by which this is rendered possible are not yet -fully understood. The precipitation of moisture on the mountains is -greater than on the lowlands, but the hills and mesas adjacent to the -great masses of mountains receive a little of the supply condensed by -the mountains themselves, and it will probably be found that limited -localities in Montana, and even in Wyoming, will be favored by this -condition to an extent sufficient to warrant agricultural operations -independent of irrigation. These<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span> lands, however, are usually supplied -with living streams, and their irrigation can be readily effected, and -to secure greater certainty and greater yield of crops irrigation will -be practiced in such places.</p> - - -<h3>IRRIGABLE LANDS.</h3> - -<p>Within the Arid Region only a small portion of the country is -irrigable. These irrigable tracts are lowlands lying along the streams. -On the mountains and high plateaus forests are found at elevations so -great that frequent summer frosts forbid the cultivation of the soil. -Here are the natural timber lands of the Arid Region—an upper region -set apart by nature for the growth of timber necessary to the mining, -manufacturing, and agricultural industries of the country. Between the -low irrigable lands and the elevated forest lands there are valleys, -mesas, hills, and mountain slopes bearing grasses of greater or less -value for pasturage purposes.</p> - -<p>Then, in discussing the lands of the Arid Region, three great classes -are recognized—the irrigable lands below, the forest lands above, and -the pasturage lands between. In order to set forth the characteristics -of these lands and the conditions under which they can be most -profitably utilized, it is deemed best to discuss first a somewhat -limited region in detail as a fair type of the whole. The survey under -the direction of the writer has been extended over the greater part of -Utah, a small part of Wyoming and Colorado, the northern portion of -Arizona, and a small part of Nevada, but it is proposed to take up for -this discussion only the area embraced in Utah Territory.</p> - -<p>In Utah Territory agriculture is dependent upon irrigation. To this -statement there are some small exceptions. In the more elevated regions -there are tracts of meadow land from which small crops of hay can be -taken: such lands being at higher altitudes need less moisture, and -at the same time receive a greater amount of rainfall because of the -altitude; but these meadows have been, often are, and in future will -be, still more improved by irrigation. Again, on the belt of country -lying between Great Salt Lake and the Wasatch Mountains the local -rainfall is much greater than the general rainfall of the region. -The water evaporated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span> from the lake is carried by the westerly winds -to the adjacent mountains on the east and again condensed, and the -rainfall thus produced extends somewhat beyond the area occupied by the -mountains, so that the foot hills and contiguous bench lands receive -a modicum of this special supply. In some seasons this additional -supply is enough to water the lands for remunerative agriculture, but -the crops grown will usually be very small, and they will be subject -to seasons of extreme drought, when all agriculture will result in -failure. Most of these lands can be irrigated, and doubtless will be, -from a consideration of the facts already stated, namely, that crops -will thereby be greatly increased and immunity from drought secured. -Perhaps other small tracts, on account of their subsoils, can be -profitably cultivated in favorable seasons, but all of these exceptions -are small, and the fact remains that agriculture is there dependent -upon irrigation. Only a small part of the territory, however, can be -redeemed, as high, rugged mountains and elevated plateaus occupy much -of its area, and these regions are so elevated that summer frosts -forbid their occupation by the farmer. Thus thermic conditions limit -agriculture to the lowlands, and here another limit is found in the -supply of water. Some of the large streams run in deep gorges so far -below the general surface of the country that they cannot be used; for -example, the Colorado River runs through the southeastern portion of -the Territory and carries a great volume of water, but no portion of -it can be utilized within the Territory from the fact that its channel -is so much below the adjacent lands. The Bear River, in the northern -part of the Territory, runs in a somewhat narrow valley, so that only -a portion of its waters can be utilized. Generally the smaller streams -can be wholly employed in agriculture, but the lands which might thus -be reclaimed are of greater extent than the amount which the streams -can serve; hence in all such regions the extent of irrigable land is -dependent upon the volume of water carried by the streams.</p> - -<p>In order to determine the amount of irrigable land in Utah it was -necessary to determine the areas to which the larger streams can be -taken by proper engineering skill, and the amount which the smaller -streams can serve. In the latter case it was necessary to determine -first the amount of land which a given amount or unit of water would -supply, and then the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> volume of water running in the streams; the -product of these factors giving the extent of the irrigable lands. A -continuous flow of one cubic foot of water per second was taken as the -unit, and after careful consideration it was assumed that this unit of -water will serve from 80 to 100 acres of land. Usually the computations -have been made on the basis of 100 acres. This unit was determined in -the most practical way—from the experience of the farmers of Utah who -have been practicing agriculture for the past thirty years. Many of -the farmers will not admit that so great a tract can be cultivated by -this unit. In the early history of irrigation in this country the lands -were oversupplied with water, but experience has shown that irrigation -is most successful when the least amount of water is used necessary to -a vigorous growth of the crops; that is, a greater yield is obtained -by avoiding both scanty and excessive watering; but the tendency to -overwater the lands is corrected only by extended experience. A great -many of the waterways are so rudely constructed that much waste ensues. -As irrigating methods are improved this wastage will be avoided; so in -assuming that a cubic foot of water will irrigate from 80 to 100 acres -of land it is at the same time assumed that only the necessary amount -of water will be used, and that the waterways will eventually be so -constructed that the waste now almost universal will be prevented.</p> - -<p>In determining the volume of water flowing in the streams great -accuracy has not been attained. For this purpose it would be necessary -to make continuous daily, or even hourly, observations for a series of -years on each stream, but by the methods described in the following -chapters it will be seen that a fair approximation to a correct amount -has been made. For the degree of accuracy reached much is due to the -fact that many of the smaller streams are already used to their fullest -capacity, and thus experience has solved the problem.</p> - -<p>Having determined from the operations of irrigation that one cubic foot -per second of water will irrigate from 80 to 100 acres of land when the -greatest economy is used, and having determined the volume of water -or number of cubic feet per second flowing in the several streams of -Utah by the most thorough methods available under the circumstances, -it appears that within the territory, excluding a small portion in the -southeastern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span> corner where the survey has not yet been completed, the -amount of land which it is possible to redeem by this method is about -2,262 square miles, or 1,447,920 acres. Of course this amount does not -lie in a continuous body, but is scattered in small tracts along the -water courses. For the purpose of exhibiting their situations a map -of the territory has been prepared, and will be found accompanying -this report, on which the several tracts of irrigable lands have been -colored. A glance at this map will show how they are distributed. -Excluding that small portion of the territory in the southeast corner -not embraced in the map, Utah has an area of 80,000 square miles, of -which 2,262 square miles are irrigable. That is, 2.8 per cent. of -the lands under consideration can be cultivated by utilizing all the -available streams during the irrigating season.</p> - -<p>In addition to the streams considered in this statement there are -numerous small springs on the mountain sides scattered throughout the -territory—springs which do not feed permanent streams; and if their -waters were used for irrigation the extent of irrigable land would be -slightly increased; to what exact amount cannot be stated, but the -difference would be so small as not to materially affect the general -statement, and doubtless these springs can be used in another way and -to a better purpose, as will hereafter appear.</p> - -<p>This statement of the facts relating to the irrigable lands of Utah -will serve to give a clearer conception of the extent and condition of -the irrigable lands throughout the Arid Region. Such as can be redeemed -are scattered along the water courses, and are in general the lowest -lands of the several districts to which they belong. In some of the -states and territories the percentage of irrigable land is less than in -Utah, in others greater, and it is probable that the percentage in the -entire region is somewhat greater than in the territory which we have -considered.</p> - -<p>The Arid Region is somewhat more than four-tenths of the total area of -the United States, and as the agricultural interests of so great an -area are dependent upon irrigation it will be interesting to consider -certain questions relating to the economy and practicability of -distributing the waters over the lands to be redeemed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span></p> - - -<h3>ADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION.</h3> - -<p>There are two considerations that make irrigation attractive to -the agriculturist. Crops thus cultivated are not subject to the -vicissitudes of rainfall; the farmer fears no droughts; his labors -are seldom interrupted and his crops rarely injured by storms. This -immunity from drought and storm renders agricultural operations much -more certain than in regions of greater humidity. Again, the water -comes down from the mountains and plateaus freighted with fertilizing -materials derived from the decaying vegetation and soils of the upper -regions, which are spread by the flowing water over the cultivated -lands. It is probable that the benefits derived from this source alone -will be full compensation for the cost of the process. Hitherto these -benefits have not been fully realized, from the fact that the methods -employed have been more or less crude. When the flow of water over the -land is too great or too rapid the fertilizing elements borne in the -waters are carried past the fields, and a washing is produced which -deprives the lands irrigated of their most valuable elements, and -little streams cut the fields with channels injurious in diverse ways. -Experience corrects these errors, and the irrigator soon learns to -flood his lands gently, evenly, and economically. It may be anticipated -that all the lands redeemed by irrigation in the Arid Region will be -highly cultivated and abundantly productive, and agriculture will -be but slightly subject to the vicissitudes of scant and excessive -rainfall.</p> - -<p>A stranger entering this Arid Region is apt to conclude that the soils -are sterile, because of their chemical composition, but experience -demonstrates the fact that all the soils are suitable for agricultural -purposes when properly supplied with water. It is true that some of the -soils are overcharged with alkaline materials, but these can in time be -“washed out”. Altogether the fact suggests that far too much attention -has heretofore been paid to the chemical constitution of soils and -too little to those physical conditions by which moisture and air are -supplied to the roots of the growing plants.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span></p> - - -<h3>COÖPERATIVE LABOR OR CAPITAL NECESSARY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF -IRRIGATION.</h3> - -<p>Small streams can be taken out and distributed by individual -enterprise, but coöperative labor or aggregated capital must be -employed in taking out the larger streams.</p> - -<p>The diversion of a large stream from its channel into a system of -canals demands a large outlay of labor and material. To repay this all -the waters so taken out must be used, and large tracts of land thus -become dependent upon a single canal. It is manifest that a farmer -depending upon his own labor cannot undertake this task. To a great -extent the small streams are already employed, and but a comparatively -small portion of the irrigable lands can be thus redeemed; hence the -chief future development of irrigation must come from the use of the -larger streams. Usually the confluence of the brooks and creeks which -form a large river takes place within the mountain district which -furnishes its source before the stream enters the lowlands where -the waters are to be used. The volume of water carried by the small -streams that reach the lowlands before uniting with the great rivers, -or before they are lost in the sands, is very small when compared with -the volume of the streams which emerge from the mountains as rivers. -This fact is important. If the streams could be used along their upper -ramifications while the several branches are yet small, poor men could -occupy the lands, and by their individual enterprise the agriculture of -the country would be gradually extended to the limit of the capacity -of the region; but when farming is dependent upon larger streams such -men are barred from these enterprises until coöperative labor can be -organized or capital induced to assist. Before many years all the -available smaller streams throughout the entire region will be occupied -in serving the lands, and then all future development will depend on -the conditions above described.</p> - -<p>In Utah Territory coöperative labor, under ecclesiastical organization, -has been very successful. Outside of Utah there are but few instances -where it has been tried; but at Greeley, in the State of Colorado, this -system has been eminently successful.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span></p> - - -<h3>THE USE OF SMALLER STREAMS SOMETIMES INTERFERES WITH THE USE OF THE -LARGER.</h3> - -<p>A river emerging from a mountain region and meandering through a valley -may receive small tributaries along its valley course. These small -streams will usually be taken out first, and the lands which they will -be made to serve will often lie low down in the valley, because the -waters can be more easily controlled here and because the lands are -better; and this will be done without regard to the subsequent use of -the larger stream to which the smaller ones are tributary. But when the -time comes to take out the larger stream, it is found that the lands -which it can be made to serve lying adjacent on either hand are already -in part served by the smaller streams, and as it will not pay to take -out the larger stream without using all of its water, and as the people -who use the smaller streams have already vested rights in these lands, -a practical prohibition is placed upon the use of the larger river. -In Utah, church authority, to some extent at least, adjusts these -conflicting interests by causing the smaller streams to be taken out -higher up in their course. Such adjustment is not so easily attained -by the great body of people settling in the Rocky Mountain Region, and -some provision against this difficulty is an immediate necessity. It is -a difficulty just appearing, but in the future it will be one of great -magnitude.</p> - - -<h3>INCREASE OF IRRIGABLE AREA BY THE STORAGE OF WATER.</h3> - -<p>Within the Arid Region great deposits of gold, silver, iron, coal, -and many other minerals are found, and the rapid development of these -mining industries will demand <i>pari passu</i> a rapid development of -agriculture. Thus all the lands that can be irrigated will be required -for agricultural products necessary to supply the local market created -by the mines. For this purpose the waters of the non-growing season -will be stored, that they may be used in the growing season.</p> - -<p>There are two methods of storing the waste waters. Reservoirs may be -constructed near the sources of the streams and the waters held in -the upper valleys, or the water may be run from the canals into ponds -within or adjacent to the district where irrigation is practiced. -This latter method will be employed first. It is already employed to -some extent where local<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> interests demand and favorable opportunities -are afforded. In general, the opportunities for ponding water in this -way are infrequent, as the depressions where ponds can easily be made -are liable to be so low that the waters cannot be taken from them to -the adjacent lands, but occasionally very favorable sites for such -ponds may be found. This is especially true near the mountains where -alluvial cones have been formed at the debouchure of the streams -from the mountain cañons. Just at the foot of the mountains are many -places where ancient glaciation has left the general surface with many -depressions favorable to ponding.</p> - -<p>Ponding in the lower region is somewhat wasteful of water, as the -evaporation is greater than above, and the pond being more or less -shallow a greater proportional surface for evaporation is presented. -This wastage is apparent when it is remembered that the evaporation in -an arid climate may be from 60 to 80 inches annually, or even greater.</p> - -<p>Much of the waste water comes down in the spring when the streams are -high and before the growing crops demand a great supply. When this -water is stored the loss by evaporation will be small.</p> - -<p>The greater storage of water must come from the construction of great -reservoirs in the highlands where lateral valleys may be dammed and -the main streams conducted into them by canals. On most streams -favorable sites for such water works can be found. This subject cannot -be discussed at any length in a general way, from the fact that each -stream presents problems peculiar to itself.</p> - -<p>It cannot be very definitely stated to what extent irrigation can be -increased by the storage of water. The rainfall is much greater in -the mountain than in the valley districts. Much of this precipitation -in the mountain districts falls as snow. The great snow banks are the -reservoirs which hold the water for the growing seasons. Then the -streams are at flood tide; many go dry after the snows have been melted -by the midsummer sun; hence they supply during the irrigating time much -more water than during the remainder of the year. During the fall and -winter the streams are small; in late spring and early summer they are -very large. A day’s flow at flood time is greater than a month’s flow -at low water time. During the first part of the irrigating season less -water is needed, but during<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> that same time the supply is greatest. The -chief increase will come from the storage of this excess of water in -the early part of the irrigating season. The amount to be stored will -then be great, and the time of this storage will be so short that it -will be but little diminished by evaporation. The waters of the fall -and winter are so small in amount that they will not furnish a great -supply, and the time for their storage will be so great that much will -be lost by evaporation. The increase by storage will eventually be -important, and it would be wise to anticipate the time when it will be -needed by reserving sites for principal reservoirs and larger ponds.</p> - - -<h3>TIMBER LANDS.</h3> - -<p>Throughout the Arid Region timber of value is found growing -spontaneously on the higher plateaus and mountains. These timber -regions are bounded above and below by lines which are very irregular, -due to local conditions. Above the upper line no timber grows because -of the rigor of the climate, and below no timber grows because of -aridity. Both the upper and lower lines descend in passing from south -to north; that is, the timber districts are found at a lower altitude -in the northern portion of the Arid Region than in the southern. The -forests are chiefly of pine, spruce, and fir, but the pines are of -principal value. Below these timber regions, on the lower slopes of -mountains, on the mesas and hills, low, scattered forests are often -found, composed mainly of dwarfed piñon pines and cedars. These stunted -forests have some slight value for fuel, and even for fencing, but the -forests of principal value are found in the Timber Region as above -described.</p> - -<p>Primarily the growth of timber depends on climatic conditions—humidity -and temperature. Where the temperature is higher, humidity must be -greater, and where the temperature is lower, humidity may be less. -These two conditions restrict the forests to the highlands, as above -stated. Of the two factors involved in the growth of timber, that -of the degree of humidity is of the first importance; the degree of -temperature affects the problem comparatively little, and for most of -the purposes of this discussion may be neglected. For convenience, -all these upper regions where conditions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> of temperature and humidity -are favorable to the growth of timber may be called the <i>timber -regions</i>.</p> - -<p>Not all these highlands are alike covered with forests. The timber -regions are only in part <i>areas of standing timber</i>. This -limitation is caused by fire. Throughout the timber regions of all -the arid land fires annually destroy larger or smaller districts of -timber, now here, now there, and this destruction is on a scale so vast -that the amount taken from the lands for industrial purposes sinks by -comparison into insignificance. The cause of this great destruction is -worthy of careful attention. The conditions under which these fires -rage are climatic. Where the rainfall is great and extreme droughts -are infrequent, forests grow without much interruption from fires; but -between that degree of humidity necessary for their protection, and -that smaller degree necessary to growth, all lands are swept bare by -fire to an extent which steadily increases from the more humid to the -more arid districts, until at last all forests are destroyed, though -the humidity is still sufficient for their growth if immunity from -fire were secured. The amount of mean annual rainfall necessary to the -growth of forests if protected from fire is probably about the same as -the amount necessary for agriculture without irrigation; at any rate, -it is somewhere from 20 to 24 inches. All timber growth below that -amount is of a character so stunted as to be of little value, and the -growth is so slow that, when once the timber has been taken from the -country, the time necessary for a new forest growth is so great that no -practical purpose is subserved.</p> - -<p>The evidence that the growth of timber, if protected from fires, -might be extended to the limits here given is abundant. It is a -matter of experience that planted forests thus protected will thrive -throughout the prairie region and far westward on the Great Plains. -In the mountain region it may be frequently observed that forest -trees grow low down on the mountain slopes and in the higher valleys -wherever local circumstances protect them from fires, as in the case -of rocky lands that give insufficient footing to the grass and shrubs -in which fires generally spread. These cases must not be confounded -with those patches of forest that grow on alluvial cones where rivers -leave mountain cañons and enter valleys or plains. Here the streams, -clogged by the material washed from the adjacent mountains<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> by storms, -are frequently turned from their courses and divided into many -channels running near the surface. Thus a subterranean watering is -effected favorable to the growth of trees, as their roots penetrate to -sufficient depth. Usually this watering is too deep for agriculture, so -that forests grow on lands that cannot be cultivated without irrigation.</p> - -<p>Fire is the immediate cause of the lack of timber on the prairies, -the eastern portion of the Great Plains, and on some portions of the -highlands of the Arid Region; but fires obtain their destructive force -through climatic conditions, so that directly and remotely climate -determines the growth of all forests. Within the region where prairies, -groves, and forests appear, the local distribution of timber growth is -chiefly dependent upon drainage and soil, a subject which needs not -be here discussed. Only a small portion of the Rocky Mountain Region -is protected by climatic conditions from the invasion of fires, and a -sufficiency of forests for the country depends upon the control which -can be obtained over that destructive agent. A glance at the map of -Utah will exhibit the extent and distribution of the forest region -throughout that territory, and also show what portions of it are in -fact occupied by standing timber. The <i>area of standing timber</i>, -as exhibited on the map, is but a part of the Timber Region as there -shown, and includes all of the timber, whether dense or scattered.</p> - -<p>Necessarily the area of standing timber has been generalized. It -was not found practicable to indicate the growth of timber in any -refined way by grading it, and by rejecting from the general area -the innumerable small open spaces. If the area of standing timber -were considered by acres, and all acres not having timber valuable -for milling purposes rejected, the extent would be reduced at least -to one-fourth of that colored. Within the territory represented on -the map the Timber Region has an extent of 18,500 square miles; that -is, 23 per cent. belongs to the Timber Region. The general area of -standing timber is about 10,000 square miles, or 12.5 per cent. of -the entire area. The area of milling timber, determined in the more -refined way indicated above, is about 2,500 square miles, or 3¹⁄₈ per -cent. of the area embraced on the map. In many portions of the Arid -Region these percentages are much smaller. This is true of southern -California, Nevada, southern Arizona, and Idaho. In other regions the -percentages<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> are larger. Utah gives about a fair average. In general it -may be stated that the timber regions are fully adequate to the growth -of all the forests which the industrial interests of the country will -require if they can be protected from desolation by fire. No limitation -to the use of the forests need be made. The amount which the citizens -of the country will require will bear but a small proportion to the -amount which the fires will destroy; and if the fires are prevented, -the renewal by annual growth will more than replace that taken by -man. The protection of the forests of the entire Arid Region of the -United States is reduced to one single problem—Can these forests be -saved from fire? The writer has witnessed two fires in Colorado, each -of which destroyed more timber than all that used by the citizens of -that State from its settlement to the present day; and at least three -in Utah, each of which has destroyed more timber than that taken by -the people of the territory since its occupation. Similar fires have -been witnessed by other members of the surveying corps. Everywhere -throughout the Rocky Mountain Region the explorer away from the beaten -paths of civilization meets with great areas of dead forests; pines -with naked arms and charred trunks attesting to the former presence of -this great destroyer. The younger forests are everywhere beset with -fallen timber, attesting to the rigor of the flames, and in seasons of -great drought the mountaineer sees the heavens filled with clouds of -smoke.</p> - -<p>In the main these fires are set by Indians. Driven from the lowlands -by advancing civilization, they resort to the higher regions until -they are forced back by the deep snows of winter. Want, caused by -the restricted area to which they resort for food; the desire for -luxuries to which they were strangers in their primitive condition, and -especially the desire for personal adornment, together with a supply -of more effective instruments for hunting and trapping, have in late -years, during the rapid settlement of the country since the discovery -of gold and the building of railroads, greatly stimulated the pursuit -of animals for their furs—the wealth and currency of the savage. On -their hunting excursions they systematically set fire to forests for -the purpose of driving the game. This is a fact well known to all -mountaineers. Only the white hunters of the region properly understand -why these fires are set, it being usually attributed to a wanton<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> -desire on the part of the Indians to destroy that which is of value to -the white man. The fires can, then, be very greatly curtailed by the -removal of the Indians.</p> - -<p>These forest regions are made such by inexorable climatic conditions. -They are high among the summer frosts. The plateaus are scored by deep -cañons, and the mountains are broken with crags and peaks. Perhaps at -some distant day a hardy people will occupy little glens and mountain -valleys, and wrest from an unwilling soil a scanty subsistence among -the rigors of a sub-arctic climate. Herdsmen having homes below may -in the summer time drive their flocks to the higher lands to crop the -scanty herbage. Where mines are found mills will be erected and little -towns spring up, but in general habitations will be remote. The forests -will be dense here or scattered there, as the trees may with ease or -difficulty gain a foothold, but the forest regions will remain such, to -be stripped of timber here and there from time to time to supply the -wants of the people who live below; but once protected from fires, the -forests will increase in extent and value. The first step to be taken -for their protection must be by prohibiting the Indians from resorting -thereto for hunting purposes, and then slowly, as the lower country -is settled, the grasses and herbage of the highlands, in which fires -generally spread, will be kept down by summer pasturage, and the dead -and fallen timber will be removed to supply the wants of people below. -This protection, though sure to come at last, will be tardy, for it -depends upon the gradual settlement of the country; and this again -depends upon the development of the agricultural and mineral resources -and the establishment of manufactories, and to a very important extent -on the building of railroads, for the whole region is so arid that its -streams are small, and so elevated above the level of the sea that its -few large streams descend too rapidly for navigation.</p> - - -<h3>AGRICULTURAL AND TIMBER INDUSTRIES DIFFERENTIATED.</h3> - -<p>It is apparent that the irrigable lands are more or less remote -from the timber lands; and as the larger streams are employed for -irrigation, in the future the extended settlements will be still -farther away. The pasturage lands that in a general way intervene -between the irrigable and timber<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> lands have a scanty supply of -dwarfed forests, as already described, and the people in occupying -these lands will not resort, to any great extent, to the mountains for -timber; hence timber and agricultural enterprises will be more or less -differentiated; lumbermen and woodmen will furnish to the people below -their supply of building and fencing material and fuel. In some cases -it will be practicable for the farmers to own their timber lands, but -in general the timber will be too remote, and from necessity such a -division of labor will ensue.</p> - - -<h3>CULTIVATION OF TIMBER.</h3> - -<p>In the irrigable districts much timber will be cultivated along the -canals and minor waterways. It is probable that in time a sufficient -amount will thus be raised to supply the people of the irrigable -districts with fuel wherever such fuel is needed, but often such a -want will not exist, for in the Rocky Mountain Region there is a great -abundance of lignitic coals that may be cheaply mined. All these coals -are valuable for domestic purposes, and many superior grades are found. -These coals are not uniformly distributed, but generally this source of -fuel is ample.</p> - - -<h3>PASTURAGE LANDS.</h3> - -<p>The irrigable lands and timber lands constitute but a small fraction of -the Arid Region. Between the lowlands on the one hand and the highlands -on the other is found a great body of valley, mesa, hill, and low -mountain lands. To what extent, and under what conditions can they be -utilized? Usually they bear a scanty growth of grasses. These grasses -are nutritious and valuable both for summer and winter pasturage. Their -value depends upon peculiar climatic conditions; the grasses grow -to a great extent in scattered bunches, and mature seeds in larger -proportion perhaps than the grasses of the more humid regions. In -general the winter aridity is so great that the grasses when touched -by the frosts are not washed down by the rains and snows to decay on -the moist soil, but stand firmly on the ground all winter long and -“cure”, forming a <i>quasi</i> uncut hay. Thus the grass lands are of -value both in summer and winter. In a broad way, the greater or lesser -abundance of the grasses is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> dependent on latitude and altitude; the -higher the latitude the better are the grasses, and they improve as the -altitude increases. In very low altitudes and latitudes the grasses are -so scant as to be of no value; here the true deserts are found. These -conditions obtain in southern California, southern Nevada, southern -Arizona, and southern New Mexico, where broad reaches of land are naked -of vegetation, but in ascending to the higher lands the grass steadily -improves. Northward the deserts soon disappear, and the grass becomes -more and more luxuriant to our northern boundary. In addition to the -desert lands mentioned, other large deductions must be made from the -area of the pasturage lands. There are many districts in which the -“country rock” is composed of incoherent sands and clays; sometimes -sediments of ancient Tertiary lakes; elsewhere sediments of more -ancient Cretaceous seas. In these districts perennial or intermittent -streams have carved deep waterways, and the steep hills are ever washed -naked by fierce but infrequent storms, as the incoherent rocks are -unable to withstand the beating of the rain. These districts are known -as the <i>mauvaises terres</i> or bad lands of the Rocky Mountain -Region. In other areas the streams have carved labyrinths of deep -gorges and the waters flow at great depths below the general surface. -The lands between the streams are beset with towering cliffs, and the -landscape is an expanse of naked rock. These are the alcove lands and -cañon lands of the Rocky Mountain Region. Still other districts have -been the theater of late volcanic activity, and broad sheets of naked -lava are found; cinder cones are frequent, and scoria and ashes are -scattered over the land. These are the lava-beds of the Rocky Mountain -Region. In yet other districts, low broken mountains are found with -rugged spurs and craggy crests. Grasses and chaparral grow among the -rocks, but such mountains are of little value for pasturage purposes.</p> - -<p>After making all the deductions, there yet remain vast areas of -valuable pasturage land bearing nutritious but scanty grass. The lands -along the creeks and rivers have been relegated to that class which -has been described as irrigable, hence the lands under consideration -are away from the permanent streams. No rivers sweep over them and no -creeks meander among their hills.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span></p> - -<p>Though living water is not abundant, the country is partially supplied -by scattered springs, that often feed little brooks whose waters -never join the great rivers on their way to the sea, being able to -run but a short distance from their fountains, when they spread among -the sands to be reëvaporated. These isolated springs and brooks will -in many cases furnish the water necessary for the herds that feed on -the grasses. When springs are not found wells may be sometimes dug, -and where both springs and wells fail reservoirs may be constructed. -Wherever grass grows water may be found or saved from the rains in -sufficient quantities for all the herds that can live on the pasturage.</p> - - -<h3>PASTURAGE FARMS NEED SMALL TRACTS OF IRRIGABLE LAND.</h3> - -<p>The men engaged in stock raising need small areas of irrigable lands -for gardens and fields where agricultural products can be raised for -their own consumption, and where a store of grain and hay may be raised -for their herds when pressed by the severe storms by which the country -is sometimes visited. In many places the lone springs and streams are -sufficient for these purposes. Another and larger source of water for -the fertilization of the gardens and fields of the pasturage farms is -found in the smaller branches and upper ramifications of the larger -irrigating streams. These brooks can be used to better advantage for -the pasturage farms as a supply of water for stock gardens and small -fields than for farms where agriculture by irrigation is the only -industry. The springs and brooks of the permanent drainage can be -employed in making farms attractive and profitable where large herds -may be raised in many great districts throughout the Rocky Mountain -Region.</p> - -<p>The conditions under which these pasturage lands can be employed are -worthy of consideration.</p> - - -<h3>THE FARM UNIT FOR PASTURAGE LANDS.</h3> - -<p>The grass is so scanty that the herdsman must have a large area for the -support of his stock. In general a quarter section of land alone is of -no value to him; the pasturage it affords is entirely inadequate to the -wants of a herd that the poorest man needs for his support.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span></p> - -<p>Four square miles may be considered as the minimum amount necessary -for a pasturage farm, and a still greater amount is necessary for -the larger part of the lands; that is, pasturage farms, to be of -any practicable value, must be of at least 2,560 acres, and in many -districts they must be much larger.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> For the determination of the proper unit for pasturage -farms the writer has conferred with many persons living in the Rocky -Mountain Region who have had experience. His own observations have -been extensive, and for many years while conducting surveys and making -long journeys through the Arid Region this question has been uppermost -in his mind. He fears that this estimate will disappoint many of his -western friends, who will think he has placed the minimum too low, but -after making the most thorough examination of the subject possible he -believes the amount to be sufficient for the best pasturage lands, -especially such as are adjacent to the minor streams of the general -drainage, and when these have been taken by actual settlers the size of -the pasturage farms may be increased as experience proves necessary.</p> - -</div> - - -<h3>REGULAR DIVISION LINES FOR PASTURAGE FARMS NOT PRACTICABLE.</h3> - -<p>Many a brook which runs but a short distance will afford sufficient -water for a number of pasturage farms; but if the lands are surveyed in -regular tracts as square miles or townships, all the water sufficient -for a number of pasturage farms may fall entirely within one division. -If the lands are thus surveyed, only the divisions having water will -be taken, and the farmer obtaining title to such a division or farm -could practically occupy all the country adjacent by owning the water -necessary to its use. For this reason divisional surveys should conform -to the topography, and be so made as to give the greatest number of -water fronts. For example, a brook carrying water sufficient for -the irrigation of 200 acres of land might be made to serve for the -irrigation of 20 acres to each of ten farms, and also supply the water -for all the stock that could live on ten pasturage farms, and ten small -farmers could have homes. But if the water was owned by one man, nine -would be excluded from its benefits and nine-tenths of the land remain -in the hands of the government.</p> - - -<h3>FARM RESIDENCES SHOULD BE GROUPED.</h3> - -<p>These lands will maintain but a scanty population. The homes must -necessarily be widely scattered from the fact that the farm unit -must be large. That the inhabitants of these districts may have the -benefits of the local social organizations of civilization—as schools, -churches, etc., and the benefits of coöperation in the construction of -roads, bridges, and other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> local improvements, it is essential that the -residences should be grouped to the greatest possible extent. This may -be practically accomplished by making the pasturage farms conform to -topographic features in such manner as to give the greatest possible -number of water fronts.</p> - - -<h3>PASTURAGE LANDS CANNOT BE FENCED.</h3> - -<p>The great areas over which stock must roam to obtain subsistence -usually prevents the practicability of fencing the lands. It will -not pay to fence the pasturage fields, hence in many cases the lands -must be occupied by herds roaming in common; for poor men coöperative -pasturage is necessary, or communal regulations for the occupancy of -the ground and for the division of the increase of the herds. Such -communal regulations have already been devised in many parts of the -country.</p> - - -<h3>RECAPITULATION.</h3> - -<p>The Arid Region of the United States is more than four-tenths of the -area of the entire country excluding Alaska.</p> - -<p>In the Arid Region there are three classes of lands, namely, irrigable -lands, timber lands, and pasturage lands.</p> - - -<h3>IRRIGABLE LANDS.</h3> - -<p>Within the Arid Region agriculture is dependent upon irrigation.</p> - -<p>The amount of irrigable land is but a small percentage of the whole -area.</p> - -<p>The chief development of irrigation depends upon the use of the large -streams.</p> - -<p>For the use of large streams coöperative labor or capital is necessary.</p> - -<p>The small streams should not be made to serve lands so as to interfere -with the use of the large streams.</p> - -<p>Sites for reservoirs should be set apart, in order that no hinderance -may be placed upon the increase of irrigation by the storage of water.</p> - - -<h3>TIMBER LANDS.</h3> - -<p>The timber regions are on the elevated plateaus and mountains.</p> - -<p>The timber regions constitute from 20 to 25 per cent. of the Arid -Region.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span></p> - -<p>The area of standing timber is much less than the timber region, as the -forests have been partially destroyed by fire.</p> - -<p>The timber regions cannot be used as farming lands; they are valuable -for forests only.</p> - -<p>To preserve the forests they must be protected from fire. This will be -largely accomplished by removing the Indians.</p> - -<p>The amount of timber used for economic purposes will be more than -replaced by the natural growth.</p> - -<p>In general the timber is too far from the agricultural lands to be -owned and utilized directly by those who carry on farming by irrigation.</p> - -<p>A division of labor is necessary, and special timber industries will be -developed, and hence the timber lands must be controlled by lumbermen -and woodmen.</p> - - -<h3>PASTURAGE LANDS.</h3> - -<p>The grasses of the pasturage lands are scant, and the lands are of -value only in large quantities.</p> - -<p>The farm unit should not be less than 2,560 acres.</p> - -<p>Pasturage farms need small tracts of irrigable land; hence the small -streams of the general drainage system and the lone springs and streams -should be reserved for such pasturage farms.</p> - -<p>The division of these lands should be controlled by topographic -features in such manner as to give the greatest number of water fronts -to the pasturage farms.</p> - -<p>Residences of the pasturage farms should be grouped, in order to secure -the benefits of local social organizations, and coöperation in public -improvements.</p> - -<p>The pasturage lands will not usually be fenced, and hence herds must -roam in common.</p> - -<p>As the pasturage lands should have water fronts and irrigable tracts, -and as the residences should be grouped, and as the lands cannot -be economically fenced and must be kept in common, local communal -regulations or coöperation is necessary.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br><span class="small">THE LAND SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID REGION.</span></h2></div> - - -<p>The growth and prosperity of the Arid Region will depend largely upon a -land system which will comply with the requirements of the conditions -and facts briefly set forth in the former chapter.</p> - -<p>Any citizen of the United States may acquire title to public lands by -purchase at public sale or by ordinary “private entry”, and in virtue -of preëmption, homestead, timber culture, and desert land laws.</p> - -<p>Purchase at public sale may be effected when the lands are offered at -public auction to the highest bidder, either pursuant to proclamation -by the President or public notice given in accordance with instructions -from the General Land Office. If the land is thus offered and -purchasers are not found, they are then subject to “private entry” at -the rate of $1.25 or $2.50 per acre. For a number of years it has not -been the practice of the Government to dispose of the public lands by -these methods; but the public lands of the southern states are now, or -soon will be, thus offered for sale.</p> - -<p>Any citizen may preëmpt 160 acres of land, and by settling thereon, -erecting a dwelling, and making other improvements, and by paying $1.25 -per acre in some districts, without the boundaries of railroad grants, -and $2.50 within the boundaries of railroad grants in others, may -acquire title thereto. The preëmption right can be exercised but once. -No person can exercise the preëmption right who is already the owner of -320 acres of land.</p> - -<p>Any citizen may, under the homestead privilege, obtain title to 160 -acres of land valued at $1.25 per acre, or 80 acres valued at the rate -of $2.50, by payment of $5 in the first case and $10 in the last, -and by residing on the land for the term of five years and by making -certain improvements.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span></p> - -<p>The time of residence is shortened for persons who have served in the -army or navy of the United States, and any such person may homestead -160 acres of land valued at $2.50 per acre.</p> - -<p>Any citizen may take advantage of both the homestead and preëmption -privileges.</p> - -<p>Under the timber culture act, any citizen who is the head of a family -may acquire title to 160 acres of land in the prairie region by -cultivating timber thereon in certain specific quantities; the title -can be acquired at the expiration of eight years from the date of entry.</p> - -<p>Any citizen may acquire title to one section of desert land (irrigable -lands as described in this paper) by the payment at the time of entry -of 25 cents per acre, and by redeeming the same by irrigation within -a period of three years and by the payment of $1 per acre at the -expiration of that time, and a patent will then issue.</p> - -<p>Provision is also made for the disposal of public lands as town sites.</p> - -<p>From time to time land warrants have been issued by the Government as -bounties to soldiers and sailors, and for other purposes. These land -warrants have found their way into the market, and the owners thereof -are entitled to enter Government lands in the quantities specified in -the warrants.</p> - -<p>Agricultural scrip has been issued for the purpose of establishing -and endowing agricultural schools. A part of this scrip has been used -by the schools in locating lands for investment. Much of the scrip -has found its way into the market and is used by private individuals. -Warrants and scrip can be used when lands have been offered for sale, -and preëmptors can use them in lieu of money.</p> - -<p>Grants of lands have been made to railroad and other companies, and as -these railroads have been completed in whole or in part, the companies -have obtained titles to the whole or proportional parts of the lands -thus granted.</p> - -<p>Where the railroads are unfinished the titles are inchoate to an extent -proportional to the incomplete parts.</p> - -<p>With small exceptions, the lands of the Arid Region have not been -offered for sale at auction or by private entry.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span></p> - -<p>The methods, then, by which the lands under consideration can be -obtained from the Government are by taking advantage of the preëmption, -homestead, timber culture, or desert land privileges.</p> - - -<h3>IRRIGABLE LANDS.</h3> - -<p>By these methods adequate provision is made for actual settlers on all -irrigable lands that are dependent on the waters of minor streams; but -these methods are insufficient for the settlement of the irrigable -lands that depend on the larger streams, and also for the pasturage -lands and timber lands, and in this are included nearly all the lands -of the Arid Region. If the irrigable lands are to be sold, it should -be in quantities to suit purchasers, and but one condition should be -imposed, namely, that the lands should be actually irrigated before -the title is transferred to the purchaser. This method would provide -for the redemption of these lands by irrigation through the employment -of capital. If these lands are to be reserved for actual settlers, -in small quantities, to provide homes for poor men, on the principle -involved in the homestead laws, a general law should be enacted under -which a number of persons would be able to organize and settle on -irrigable districts, and establish their own rules and regulations for -the use of the water and subdivision of the lands, but in obedience to -the general provisions of the law.</p> - - -<h3>TIMBER LANDS.</h3> - -<p>The timber lands cannot be acquired by any of the methods provided in -the preëmption, homestead, timber culture, and desert land laws, from -the fact that they are not agricultural lands. Climatic conditions -make these methods inoperative. Under these laws “dummy entries” are -sometimes made. A man wishing to obtain the timber from a tract of land -will make homestead or preëmption entries by himself or through his -employés without intending to complete the titles, being able thus to -hold these lands for a time sufficient to strip them of their timber.</p> - -<p>This is thought to be excusable by the people of the country, as -timber is necessary for their industries, and the timber lands cannot -honestly be acquired by those who wish to engage in timber enterprises. -Provision should be made by which the timber can be purchased by -persons or companies<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> desiring to engage in the lumber or wood -business, and in such quantities as may be necessary to encourage the -construction of mills, the erection of flumes, the making of roads, and -other improvements necessary to the utilization of the timber for the -industries of the country.</p> - - -<h3>PASTURAGE LANDS.</h3> - -<p>If divisional surveys were extended over the pasturage lands, favorable -sites at springs and along small streams would be rapidly taken under -the homestead and preëmption privileges for the nuclei of pasturage -farms.</p> - -<p>Unentered lands contiguous to such pasturage farms could be controlled -to a greater or less extent by those holding the water, and in this -manner the pasturage of the country would be rendered practicable. -But the great body of land would remain in the possession of the -Government; the farmers owning the favorable spots could not obtain -possession of the adjacent lands by homestead or preëmption methods, -and if such adjacent lands were offered for sale, they could not afford -to pay the Government price.</p> - -<p>Certain important facts relating to the pasturage farms may be -advantageously restated.</p> - -<p>The farm unit should not be less than 2,560 acres; the pasturage farms -need small bodies of irrigable land; the division of these lands should -be controlled by topographic features to give water fronts; residences -of the pasturage lands should be grouped; the pasturage farms cannot be -fenced—they must be occupied in common.</p> - -<p>The homestead and preëmption methods are inadequate to meet these -conditions. A general law should be enacted to provide for the -organization of pasturage districts, in which the residents should have -the right to make their own regulations for the division of the lands, -the use of the water for irrigation and for watering the stock, and for -the pasturage of the lands in common or in severalty. But each division -or pasturage farm of the district should be owned by an individual; -that is, these lands could be settled and improved by the “colony” plan -better than by any other. It should not be understood that the colony -system applies only to such persons as migrate from the east in a body; -any number of persons already<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> in this region could thus organize. In -fact very large bodies of these lands would be taken by people who are -already in the country and who have herds with which they roam about -seeking water and grass, and making no permanent residences and no -valuable improvements. Such a plan would give immediate relief to all -these people.</p> - -<p>This district or colony system is not untried in this country. It is -essentially the basis of all the mining district organizations of the -west. Under it the local rules and regulations for the division of -mining lands, the use of water, timber, etc., are managed better than -they could possibly be under specific statutes of the United States. -The association of a number of people prevents single individuals from -having undue control of natural privileges, and secures an equitable -division of mineral lands; and all this is secured in obedience to -statutes of the United States providing general regulations.</p> - -<p>Customs are forming and regulations are being made by common consent -among the people in some districts already; but these provide no means -for the acquirement of titles to land, no incentive is given to the -improvement of the country, and no legal security to pasturage rights.</p> - -<p>If, then, the irrigable lands can be taken in quantities to suit -purchasers, and the colony system provided for poor men who wish to -coöperate in this industry; if the timber lands are opened to timber -enterprises, and the pasturage lands offered to settlement under a -colony plan like that indicated above, a land system would be provided -for the Arid Region adapted to the wants of all persons desiring to -become actual settlers therein. Thousands of men who now own herds -and live a semi-nomadic life; thousands of persons who now roam from -mountain range to mountain range prospecting for gold, silver, and -other minerals; thousands of men who repair to that country and return -disappointed from the fact that they are practically debarred from the -public lands; and thousands of persons in the eastern states without -employment, or discontented with the rewards of labor, would speedily -find homes in the great Rocky Mountain Region.</p> - -<p>In making these recommendations, the wisdom and beneficence of the -homestead system have been recognized and the principles involved have -been considered paramount.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span></p> - -<p>To give more definite form to some of the recommendations for -legislation made above, two bills have been drawn, one relating to the -organization of irrigation districts, the other to pasturage districts. -These bills are presented here. It is not supposed that these forms are -the best that could be adopted; perhaps they could be greatly improved; -but they have been carefully considered, and it is believed they embody -the recommendations made above.</p> - - -<p class="center caption p2">A BILL to authorize the organization of irrigation districts by -homestead settlements upon the public lands requiring irrigation for -agricultural purposes.</p> - -<p><i>Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the -United States of America in Congress assembled</i>, That it shall be -lawful for any nine or more persons who may be entitled to acquire a -homestead from the public lands, as provided for in sections twenty-two -hundred and eighty-nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen, -inclusive, of the Revised Statutes of the United States, to settle an -irrigation district and to acquire titles to irrigable lands under the -limitations and conditions hereinafter provided.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 2.</span> That it shall be lawful for the persons mentioned -in section one of this act to organize an irrigation district in -accordance with a form and general regulations to be prescribed by the -Commissioner of the General Land Office, which shall provide for a -recorder; and said persons may make such by-laws, not in conflict with -said regulations, as they may deem wise for the use of waters in such -district for irrigation or other purposes, and for the division of the -lands into such parcels as they may deem most convenient for irrigating -purposes; but the same must accord with the provisions of this act.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 3.</span> That all lands in those portions of the United States -where irrigation is necessary to agriculture, which can be redeemed by -irrigation and for which there is accessible water for such purpose, -not otherwise utilized or lawfully claimed, sufficient for the -irrigation of three hundred and twenty acres of land, shall, for the -purposes set forth in this act, be classed as irrigable lands.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 4.</span> That it shall be lawful for the requisite number of -persons, as designated in section one of this act, to select from -the public lands designated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> as irrigable lands in section three of -this act, for the purpose of settling thereon, an amount of land not -exceeding eighty acres to each person; but the lands thus selected -by the persons desiring to organize an irrigation district shall be -in one continuous tract, and the same shall be subdivided as the -regulations and by-laws of the irrigation district shall prescribe: -<i>Provided</i>, That no one person shall be entitled to more than -eighty acres.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 5.</span> That whenever such irrigation district shall be -organized the recorder of such district shall notify the register -and receiver of the land district in which such irrigation district -is situate, and also the Surveyor-General of the United States, that -such irrigation district has been organized; and each member of the -organization of said district shall file a declaration with the -register and receiver of said land district that he has settled upon -a tract of land within such irrigation district, not exceeding the -prescribed amount, with the intention of residing thereon and obtaining -a title thereto under the provisions of this act.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 6.</span> That if within three years after the organization -of the irrigation district the claimants therein, in their organized -capacity, shall apply for a survey of said district to the -Surveyor-General of the United States, he shall cause a proper survey -to be made, together with a plat of the same; and on this plat each -tract or parcel of land into which the district is divided, such tract -or parcel being the entire claim of one person, shall be numbered, and -the measure of every angle, the length of every line in the boundaries -thereof, and the number of acres in each tract or parcel shall be -inscribed thereon, and the name of the district shall appear on the -plat in full; and this plat and the field-notes of such survey shall be -submitted to the Surveyor-General of the United States; and it shall be -the duty of that officer to examine the plat and notes therewith and -prove the accuracy of the survey in such manner as the Commissioner of -the General Land Office may prescribe; and if it shall appear after -such examination and proving that correct surveys have been made, and -that the several tracts claimed are within the provisions of this act, -he shall certify the same to the register of the land district, and -shall thereupon furnish to the said register of the land district, -and to the recorder of the irrigation district, and to the recorder -or clerk of the county in which the irrigation district is situate, -and to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> Commissioner of the General Land Office, a copy thereof -to each, and the original shall be retained in the office of the -Surveyor-General of the United States for preservation.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 7.</span> That each person applying for the benefits of this -act shall, in addition to compliance therewith, conform to the methods -provided for the acquirement of a homestead in sections twenty-two -hundred and eighty-nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen, -inclusive, of the Revised Statutes of the United States, so far as they -are applicable and consistent with this act, and shall also furnish -such evidence as the Commissioner of the General Land Office may -require that such land has actually been redeemed by irrigation, and -may thereupon obtain a patent: <i>Provided</i>, That no person shall -obtain a patent under this act to any coal lands, town sites, or tracts -of public lands on which towns may have been built, or to any mine -of gold, silver, cinnabar, copper, or other mineral for the sale or -disposal of which provision has been made by law.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 8.</span> That the lands patented under the provisions of this -act shall be described as irrigation farms, and designated by the -number of the tract or parcel and the name of the irrigation district.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 9.</span> That the right to the water necessary to the -redemption of an irrigation farm shall inhere in the land from the time -of the organization of the irrigation district, and in all subsequent -conveyances the right to the water shall pass with the title to the -land. But if after the lapse of five years from the date of the -organization of the district the owner of any irrigation farm shall -have failed to irrigate the whole or any part of the same, the right to -the use of the necessary water to irrigate the unreclaimed lands shall -thereupon lapse, and any subsequent right to water necessary for the -cultivation of said unreclaimed land shall be acquired only by priority -of utilization.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 10.</span> That it shall be lawful for any person entitled to -acquire a homestead from the public lands as designated in section -one of this act to settle on an irrigation farm contiguous to any -irrigation district after such district has been organized by making -the notifications and declaration provided for in section five of this -act, and by notifying the recorder of such irrigation district, and -also by complying with the rules and regulations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> of such district; -and such person may thereupon become a member of the district and -entitled to the same privileges as the other members thereof; and -it shall be the duty of the recorder of the irrigation district to -notify the register and receiver of the land district, and also the -Surveyor-General of the United States, that such claim has been -made; and such person may obtain a patent to the same under the -conditions and by conforming to the methods prescribed in this act: -<i>Provided</i>, That the water necessary for the irrigation of such -farm can be taken without injury to the rights of any person who shall -have entered an irrigation farm in such district: <i>And provided -further</i>, That the right to the water necessary to the redemption -of such irrigation farm shall inhere in the land from the time when -said person becomes a member of said district, and in all subsequent -conveyances the right to the water shall pass with the title to the -land; but if, after the lapse of five years from the date of said -notifications and declaration, the owner of said irrigation farm shall -have failed to irrigate the whole or any part of the same, the right to -the use of the necessary water to irrigate the unreclaimed lands shall -thereupon lapse, and any subsequent right to the water necessary for -the cultivation of the said unreclaimed land shall be acquired only by -priority of utilization.</p> - - -<p class="center caption p2">A BILL to authorize the organization of pasturage districts by -homestead settlements on the public lands which are of value for -pasturage purposes only.</p> - -<p><i>Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the -United States of America in Congress assembled</i>, That it shall be -lawful for any nine or more persons who may be entitled to acquire a -homestead from the public lands, as provided for in section twenty-two -hundred and eighty-nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen, -inclusive, of the Revised Statutes of the United States, to settle a -pasturage district and to acquire titles to pasturage lands under the -limitations and conditions hereinafter provided.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 2.</span> That it shall be lawful for the persons mentioned -in section one of this act to organize a pasturage district in -accordance with a form and general regulations to be prescribed by the -Commissioner of the General Land Office, which shall provide for a -recorder; and said persons may make such by-laws, not in conflict with -said regulations, as they may deem wise for the use of waters in such -district for irrigation or other purposes,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> and for the pasturage of -the lands severally or conjointly; but the same must accord with the -provisions of this act.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 3.</span> That all lands in those portions of the United States -where irrigation is necessary to agriculture shall be, for the purposes -set forth in this act, classed as pasturage lands, excepting all tracts -of land of not less than three hundred and twenty acres which can be -redeemed by irrigation, and where there is sufficient accessible water -for such purpose not otherwise utilized or lawfully claimed, and all -lands bearing timber of commercial value.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 4.</span> That it shall be lawful for the requisite number of -persons, as designated in section one of this act, to select from -the public lands designated as pasturage lands in section three of -this act, for the purpose of settling thereon, an amount of land not -exceeding two thousand five hundred and sixty acres to each person; -but the lands thus selected by the persons desiring to organize a -pasturage district shall be in one continuous tract, and the same -shall be subdivided as the regulations and by-laws of the pasturage -district shall prescribe: <i>Provided</i>, That no one person shall be -entitled to more than two thousand five hundred and sixty acres, and -this may be in one continuous body, or it may be in two parcels, one -for irrigation, the other for pasturage purposes; but the parcel for -irrigation shall not exceed twenty acres: <i>And provided further</i>, -That no tract or tracts of land selected for any one person shall be -entitled to a greater amount of water for irrigating purposes than that -sufficient for the reclamation and cultivation of twenty acres of land; -nor shall the tract be selected in such a manner along a stream as to -monopolize a greater amount.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 6.</span> That whenever such pasturage district shall be -organized, the recorder of such district shall notify the register -and receiver of the land district in which such pasturage district -is situate, and also the Surveyor-General of the United States, -that such pasturage district has been organized; and each member of -the organization of said district shall file a declaration with the -register and receiver of said land district that he has settled upon -a tract of land within such pasturage district, not exceeding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> the -prescribed amount, with the intention of residing thereon and obtaining -a title thereto under the provisions of this act.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 6.</span> That if within three years after the organization -of the pasturage district the claimants therein, in their organized -capacity, shall apply for a survey of said district to the -Surveyor-General of the United States, he shall cause a proper survey -to be made, together with a plat of the same; and on this plat each -tract or parcel of land into which the district is divided shall be -numbered, and the measure of every angle, the length of every line -in the boundaries thereof, and the number of acres in each tract or -parcel, shall be inscribed thereon, and the name of the district shall -appear on the plat in full; and this plat and the field-notes of such -survey shall be submitted to the Surveyor-General of the United States; -and it shall be the duty of that officer to examine the plat and notes -therewith and prove the accuracy of the survey in such manner as the -Commissioner of the General Land Office may prescribe; and if it -shall appear after such examination and proving that correct surveys -have been made, and that the several tracts claimed are within the -provisions of this act, he shall certify the same to the register of -the land district, and shall furnish to the said register of the land -district, and to the recorder of the pasturage district, and to the -recorder or clerk of the county in which the pasturage district is -situate, and to the Commissioner of the General Land Office, a copy -thereof to each; and the original shall be retained in the office of -the Surveyor-General of the United States for preservation.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 7.</span> That each person applying for the benefits of this -act shall, in addition to compliance therewith, conform to the methods -provided for the acquirement of a homestead in sections twenty-two -hundred and eighty-nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen, -inclusive, of the Revised Statutes of the United States, so far as -they are applicable and consistent with this act, and may thereupon -obtain a patent: <i>Provided</i>, That no person shall obtain a patent -under this act to any coal lands, town sites, or tracts of public lands -on which towns may have been built, or to any mine of gold, silver, -cinnabar, copper, or other mineral for the sale or disposal of which -provision has been made by law.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 8.</span> That the lands patented under the provisions of this -act shall<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> be described as pasturage farms, and designated by the -number of the tract or parcel and the name of the pasturage district.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 9.</span> That the right to the water necessary to the -redemption of an irrigation tract of a pasturage farm shall inhere in -the land from the time of the organization of the pasturage district, -and in all subsequent conveyances the right to the water shall pass -with the title to the tract; but if after a lapse of five years from -the date of the organization of the pasturage district the owner of -any pasturage farm shall have failed to irrigate the whole or any part -of the irrigable tract the right to the use of the necessary water to -irrigate the unreclaimed land shall thereupon lapse, and any subsequent -right to water necessary for the cultivation of such unreclaimed land -shall be acquired only by priority of utilization.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sec. 10.</span> That it shall be lawful for any person entitled to -acquire a homestead from the public lands designated in section one -of this act to settle on a pasturage farm contiguous to any pasturage -district after such district has been organized, by making the -notifications and declaration provided for in section five of this act, -and by notifying the recorder of such pasturage district, and also by -complying with the rules and regulations of such district; and such -person may thereupon become a member of the district and entitled to -the same privileges as the other members thereof; and it shall be the -duty of the recorder of the pasturage district to notify the register -and receiver of the land district, and also the Surveyor-General of -the United States, that such claim has been made; and such person may -obtain a patent to the same under the conditions and by conforming to -the methods prescribed in this act: <i>Provided</i>, That the water -necessary for such farm can be taken without injury to the rights of -any person who shall have entered a pasturage farm in such district: -<i>And provided further</i>, That the right to the water necessary to -the redemption of the irrigable tract of such pasturage farm shall -inhere in the land from the time when said person becomes a member of -said district, and in all subsequent conveyances the right to the water -shall pass with the title to the land; but if, after the lapse of five -years from the date of such notifications and declaration, the owner -of said irrigable tract shall have failed to irrigate the whole or -any part of the same, the right to the use of the necessary water<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> to -irrigate the unreclaimed land shall thereupon lapse, and any subsequent -right to the water necessary to the cultivation of the said unreclaimed -land shall be acquired only by priority of utilization.</p> - -<hr class="tb"> - -<p>The provisions in the submitted bills by which the settlers themselves -may parcel their lands may need further comment and elucidation. If -the whole of the Arid Region was yet unsettled, it might be wise for -the Government to undertake the parceling of the lands and employ -skilled engineers to do the work, whose duties could then be performed -in advance of settlement. It is manifest that this work cannot be -properly performed under the contract system; it would be necessary to -employ persons of skill and judgment under a salary system. The mining -industries which have sprung up in the country since the discovery of -gold on the Pacific coast, in 1849, have stimulated immigration, so -that settlements are scattered throughout the Arid Region; mining towns -have sprung up on the flanks of almost every great range of mountains, -and adjacent valleys have been occupied by persons desiring to engage -in agriculture. Many of the lands surveyed along the minor streams have -been entered, and the titles to these lands are in the hands of actual -settlers. Many pasturage farms, or ranches, as they are called locally, -have been established throughout the country. These remarks are true -of every state and territory in the Arid Region. In the main these -ranches or pasturage farms are on Government land, and the settlers are -squatters, and some are not expecting to make permanent homes. Many -other persons have engaged in pasturage enterprises without having -made fixed residences, but move about from place to place with their -herds. It is now too late for the Government to parcel the pasturage -lands in advance of the wants of settlers in the most available way, -so as to closely group residences and give water privileges to the -several farms. Many of the settlers are actually on the ground, and are -clamoring for some means by which they can obtain titles to pasturage -farms of an extent adequate to their wants, and the tens of thousands -of individual interests would make the problem a difficult one for -the officers of the Government to solve. A system less arbitrary -than that of the rectangular surveys now in vogue, and requiring -unbiased judgment, overlooking the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> interests of single individuals -and considering only the interests of the greatest number, would meet -with local opposition. The surveyors themselves would be placed under -many temptations, and would be accused—sometimes rightfully perhaps, -sometimes unjustly—of favoritism and corruption, and the service would -be subject to the false charges of disappointed men on the one hand, -and to truthful charges against corrupt men on the other. In many ways -it would be surrounded with difficulties and fall into disrepute.</p> - -<p>Under these circumstances it is believed that it is best to permit the -people to divide their lands for themselves—not in a way by which each -man may take what he pleases for himself, but by providing methods by -which these settlers may organize and mutually protect each other from -the rapacity of individuals. The lands, as lands, are of but slight -value, as they cannot be used for ordinary agricultural purposes, <i>i. -e.</i>, the cultivation of crops; but their value consists in the scant -grasses which they spontaneously produce, and these values can be made -available only by the use of the waters necessary for the subsistence -of stock, and that necessary for the small amount of irrigable land -which should be attached to the several pasturage farms. Thus, -practically, all values inhere in the water, and an equitable division -of the waters can be made only by a wise system of parceling the lands; -and the people in organized bodies can well be trussed with this right, -while individuals could not thus be trusted. These considerations have -led to the plan suggested in the bill submitted for the organization of -pasturage districts.</p> - -<p>In like manner, in the bill designed for the purpose of suggesting a -plan for the organization of irrigation districts, the same principle -is involved, <i>viz</i>, that of permitting the settlers themselves to -subdivide the lands into such tracts as they may desire.</p> - -<p>The lands along the streams are not valuable for agricultural purposes -in continuous bodies or squares, but only in irrigable tracts governed -by the levels of the meandering canals which carry the water for -irrigation, and it would be greatly to the advantage of every such -district if the lands could be divided into parcels, governed solely by -the conditions under which the water could be distributed over them; -and such parceling cannot be properly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> done prior to the occupancy -of the lands, but can only be made pari passu with the adoption of a -system of canals; and the people settling on these lands should be -allowed the privilege of dividing the lands into such tracts as may be -most available for such purposes, and they should not be hampered with -the present arbitrary system of dividing the lands into rectangular -tracts.</p> - -<p>Those who are acquainted with the history of the land system of the -eastern states, and know the difficulty of properly identifying or -determining the boundaries of many of the parcels or tracts of land -into which the country is divided, and who appreciate the cumbrous -method of describing such lands by metes and bounds in conveyances, may -at first thought object to the plan of parceling lands into irregular -tracts. They may fear that if the system of parceling the lands into -townships and sections, and describing the same in conveyances by -reference to certain great initial points in the surveys of the lands, -is abandoned, it will lead to the uncertainties and difficulties that -belonged to the old system. But the evils of that system did not belong -to the shape into which the lands were divided. The lands were often -not definitely and accurately parceled; actual boundary lines were -not fixed on the ground and accurate plats were not made, and the -description of the boundary lines was usually vague and uncertain. -It matters not what the shape of tracts or parcels may be; if these -parcels are accurately defined by surveys on the ground and plotted for -record, none of these uncertainties will arise, and if these tracts or -parcels are lettered or numbered on the plats, they may be very easily -described in conveyances without entering into a long and tedious -description of metes and bounds.</p> - -<p>In most of our western towns and cities lots are accurately surveyed -and plotted and described by number of lot, number of block, etc., -etc., and such a simple method should be used in conveying the -pasturage lands. While the system of parceling and conveying by -section, township, range, etc., was a very great improvement on the -system which previously existed, the much more simple method used in -most of our cities and towns would be a still further improvement.</p> - -<p>The title to no tract of land should be conveyed from the Government<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span> -to the individual until the proper survey of the same is made and the -plat prepared for record. With this precaution, which the Government -already invariably takes in disposing of its lands, no fear of -uncertainty of identification need be entertained.</p> - - -<h3>WATER RIGHTS.</h3> - -<p>In each of the suggested bills there is a clause providing that, with -certain restrictions, the right to the water necessary to irrigate -any tract of land shall inhere in the land itself from the date of -the organization of the district. The object of this is to give -settlers on pasturage or irrigation farms the assurance that their -lands shall not be made worthless by taking away the water to other -lands by persons settling subsequently in adjacent portions of the -country. The men of small means who under the theory of the bill are to -receive its benefits will need a few years in which to construct the -necessary waterways and bring their lands under cultivation. On the -other hand, they should not be permitted to acquire rights to water -without using the same. The construction of the waterways necessary to -actual irrigation by the land owners may be considered as a sufficient -guarantee that the waters will subsequently be used.</p> - -<p>The general subject of water rights is one of great importance. In many -places in the Arid Region irrigation companies are organized who obtain -vested rights in the waters they control, and consequently the rights -to such waters do not inhere in any particular tracts of land.</p> - -<p>When the area to which it is possible to take the water of any given -stream is much greater than the stream is competent to serve, if the -land titles and water rights are severed, the owner of any tract of -land is at the mercy of the owner of the water right. In general, the -lands greatly exceed the capacities of the streams. Thus the lands -have no value without water. If the water rights fall into the hands -of irrigating companies and the lands into the hands of individual -farmers, the farmers then will be dependent upon the stock companies, -and eventually the monopoly of water rights will be an intolerable -burden to the people.</p> - -<p>The magnitude of the interests involved must not be overlooked. All the -present and future agriculture of more than four-tenths of the area -of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> the United States is dependent upon irrigation, and practically -all values for agricultural industries inhere, not in the lands but -in the water. Monopoly of land need not be feared. The question for -legislators to solve is to devise some practical means by which water -rights may be distributed among individual farmers and water monopolies -prevented.</p> - -<p>The pioneers in the “new countries” in the United States have -invariably been characterized by enterprise and industry and an -intense desire for the speedy development of their new homes. These -characteristics are no whit less prominent in the Rocky Mountain Region -than in the earlier “new countries”; but they are even more apparent. -The hardy pioneers engage in a multiplicity of industrial enterprises -surprising to the people of long established habits and institutions. -Under the impetus of this spirit irrigation companies are organized and -capital invested in irrigating canals, and but little heed is given -to philosophic considerations of political economy or to the ultimate -condition of affairs in which their present enterprises will result. -The pioneer is fully engaged in the present with its hopes of immediate -remuneration for labor. The present development of the country fully -occupies him. For this reason every effort put forth to increase the -area of the agricultural land by irrigation is welcomed. Every man who -turns his attention to this department of industry is considered a -public benefactor. But if in the eagerness for present development a -land and water system shall grow up in which the practical control of -agriculture shall fall into the hands of water companies, evils will -result therefrom that generations may not be able to correct, and the -very men who are now lauded as benefactors to the country will, in the -ungovernable reaction which is sure to come, be denounced as oppressors -of the people.</p> - -<p><i>The right to use water should inhere in the land to be irrigated, -and water rights should go with land titles.</i></p> - -<p>Those unacquainted with the industrial institutions of the far west, -involving the use of lands and waters, may without careful thought -suppose that the long recognized principles of the common law are -sufficient to prevent the severance of land and water rights; but -other practices are obtaining which have, or eventually will have, -all the force of common law, because the necessities of the country -require the change, and these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> practices are obtaining the color of -right from state and territorial legislation, and to some extent by -national legislation. In all that country the natural channels of the -streams cannot be made to govern water rights without great injury -to its agricultural and mining industries. For the great purposes -of irrigation and hydraulic mining the water has no value in its -natural channel. In general the water cannot be used for irrigation -on the lands immediately contiguous to the streams—<i>i. e.</i>, the -flood plains or bottom valleys—for reasons more fully explained in -a subsequent chapter. The waters must be taken to a greater or less -extent on the bench lands to be used in irrigation. All the waters -of all the arid lands will eventually be taken from their natural -channels, and they can be utilized only to the extent to which they -are thus removed, and water rights must of necessity be severed -from the natural channels. There is another important factor to be -considered. The water when used in irrigation is absorbed by the soil -and reëvaporated to the heavens. It cannot be taken from its natural -channel, used, and returned. Again, the water cannot in general be -properly utilized in irrigation by requiring it to be taken from its -natural channel within the limits ordinarily included in a single -ownership. In order to conduct the water on the higher bench lands -where it is to be used in irrigation, it is necessary to go up the -stream until a level is reached from which the waters will flow to the -lands to be redeemed. The exceptions to this are so small that the -statement scarcely needs qualification. Thus, to use the water it must -be diverted from its natural course often miles or scores of miles from -where it is to be used.</p> - -<p>The ancient principles of common law applying to the use of natural -streams, so wise and equitable in a humid region, would, if applied to -the Arid Region, practically prohibit the growth of its most important -industries. Thus it is that a custom is springing up in the Arid -Region which may or may not have color of authority in statutory or -common law; on this I do not wish to express an opinion; but certain -it is that water rights are practically being severed from the natural -channels of the streams; and this must be done. In the change, it is -to be feared that water rights will in many cases be separated from -all land rights as the system is now forming. If this fear is not -groundless, to the extent that such a separation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> is secured, water -will become a property independent of the land, and this property will -be gradually absorbed by a few. Monopolies of water will be secured, -and the whole agriculture of the country will be tributary thereto—a -condition of affairs which an American citizen having in view the -interests of the largest number of people cannot contemplate with favor.</p> - -<p>Practically, in that country the right to water is acquired by priority -of utilization, and this is as it should be from the necessities of -the country. But two important qualifications are needed. The <i>user -right</i> should attach to the <i>land</i> where used, not to the -individual or company constructing the canals by which it is used. The -right to the water should inhere in the land where it is used; the -priority of usage should secure the right. But this needs some slight -modification. A farmer settling on a small tract, to be redeemed by -irrigation, should be given a reasonable length of time in which to -secure his water right by utilization, that he may secure it by his -own labor, either directly by constructing the waterways himself, or -indirectly by coöperating with his neighbors in constructing systems of -waterways. Without this provision there is little inducement for poor -men to commence farming operations, and men of ready capital only will -engage in such enterprises.</p> - -<p>The tentative bills submitted have been drawn on the theory thus -briefly enunciated.</p> - -<p>If there be any doubt of the ultimate legality of the practices of the -people in the arid country relating to water and land rights, all such -doubts should be speedily quieted through the enactment of appropriate -laws by the national legislature. Perhaps an amplification by the -courts of what has been designated as the <i>natural right</i> to the -use of water may be made to cover the practices now obtaining; but it -hardly seems wise to imperil interests so great by intrusting them to -the possibility of some future court made law.</p> - - -<h3>THE LANDS SHOULD BE CLASSIFIED.</h3> - -<p>Such a system of disposing of the public lands in the Arid Region will -necessitate an authoritative classification of the same. The largest -amount of land that it is possible to redeem by irrigation, excepting -those tracts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> watered by lone springs, brooks, and the small branches, -should be classed as irrigable lands, to give the greatest possible -development to this industry. The limit of the timber lands should -be clearly defined, to prevent the fraudulent acquirement of these -lands as pasturage lands. The irrigable and timber lands are of small -extent, and their boundaries can easily be fixed. All of the lands -falling without these boundaries would be relegated to the greater -class designated as pasturage lands. It is true that all such lands -will not be of value for pasturage purposes, but in general it would be -difficult to draw a line between absolutely desert lands and pasturage -lands, and no practical purposes would be subserved thereby. Fix the -boundaries of the timber lands that they may be acquired by proper -methods; fix the boundaries of the irrigable lands that they may also -be acquired by proper methods, and then permit the remaining lands to -be acquired by settlers as pasturage lands, to the extent that they may -be made available, and there will be no fear of settlers encroaching on -the desert or valueless lands.</p> - -<p>Heretofore we have been considering only three great classes of -lands—namely, irrigable, timber, and pasturage lands, although -practically and under the laws there are two other classes of lands -to be recognized—namely, mineral lands, <i>i. e.</i>, lands bearing -lodes or placers of gold, silver, cinnabar, etc., and coal lands. Under -the law these lands are made special. Mineral lands are withheld from -general sale, and titles to the mines are acquired by the investment -of labor and capital to an amount specified in the law. Coal lands -are sold for $20 per acre. The mineral lands proper, though widely -scattered, are of small extent. Where the mines are lodes, the lands -lie along the mountains, and are to a greater or less extent valueless -for all other purposes. Where the mines are placers, they may also be -agricultural lands, but their extent is very limited. To withhold these -lands from purchase and settlement as irrigable, timber, and pasturage -lands will in no material way affect the interests of the industries -connected with the last mentioned lands. The General Government -cannot reasonably engage in the research necessary to determine the -mineral lands, but this is practically done by the miners themselves. -Thousands of hardy, skilful men are vigorously engaged in this work, -and as mines<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> are discovered mining districts are organized, and on the -proper representation of these interested parties the mineral lands -are withheld from general sale by the Land Department. Thus, proper -provision is already made for this branch of the work of classification.</p> - -<p>In many parts of the Arid Region there are extensive deposits of -coal. These coal fields are inexhaustible by any population which the -country can support for any length of time that human prevision can -contemplate. To withhold from general settlement the entire area of the -workable coal fields would be absurd. Only a small fraction will be -needed for the next century. Only those lands should be classed as coal -lands that contain beds of coal easily accessible, and where there is -a possibility of their being used as such within the next generation -or two. To designate or set apart these lands will require the highest -geological skill; a thorough geological survey is necessary.</p> - -<p>In providing for a general classification of the lands of the Arid -Region, it will, then, be necessary to recognize the following classes, -namely: mineral lands, coal lands, irrigable lands, timber lands, -and pasturage lands. The mineral lands are practically classified by -the miners themselves, and for this no further legal provision is -necessary. The coal lands must be determined by geological survey. -The work of determining the areas which should be relegated to the -other classes—namely, irrigable, timber, and pasturage lands—will be -comparatively inexpensive.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br><span class="small">THE RAINFALL OF THE WESTERN PORTION OF THE UNITED STATES.</span></h2></div> - - -<p>The Smithsonian Institution conducted for a number of years an -extensive system of measurements of rainfall in the United States, -and at the same time diligently collected pluvial records from every -possible source. The accumulated data thus collected were placed in the -hands of Mr. Charles A. Schott for reduction and discussion, and he -prepared the “Smithsonian Tables of Precipitation in Rain and Snow”, -which appeared in 1868. Since that time much additional material has -been acquired by the continuation of the work to the present time, -and also by a great increase in the number of observation stations, -and so valuable is this new material that it has been determined to -recompile the tables and issue a second edition. By the time the -present report was called for, the preliminary computations for the -tables had developed an important body of facts bearing on the climate -of the Arid Region, and through the courtesy of Prof. Joseph Henry, -Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and of Mr. Schott, they were -placed at my disposal. Mr. Schott also made such a change in the order -of computation as to give precedence to the states and territories -which form the subject of this investigation, and by this timely favor -made it possible to base the following discussion on the very latest -determinations of rainfall.</p> - -<p>The results thus made available exhibit the mean precipitation at -each station of observation west of the Mississippi River for each -month, for each season, and for the year. A number of other data -are also tabulated, including the latitude, longitude, and altitude -of each station, and the extent of each series of observations in -years and months. In selecting material for the present purpose the -shorter records were ignored. The variations from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> year to year are -so great that an isolated record of a single year is of no value -as an indication of the average rainfall. The mean of two or three -years is almost equally liable to mislead, and only a long series of -observations can afford accurate results. In the following tables no -stations are included (with one exception) which show records of less -than five years’ extent.</p> - -<p><a href="#table1">Table I</a> shows the precipitation of the Sub-humid Region; <a href="#table2">Table II</a>, of -the Arid Region; <a href="#table3">Table III</a>, of the San Francisco Region; and <a href="#table4">Table IV</a>, -of the Region of the Lower Columbia. The limits of each region have -been given in a former chapter, and need not be repeated. In each table -the first column contains the names of the stations of observation; -the second, their latitudes; the third, their longitudes (west from -Greenwich); and the fourth, their altitudes in feet above the level -of the sea. The next four columns show for each season of the year -the mean observed rainfall in inches, and their sum appears in the -following column as the mean yearly rainfall. In the last column the -extent of each series of observations is given in years and months. In -<a href="#table1">Table I</a> the stations are arranged by latitudes, in <a href="#table2">Tables II</a>, <a href="#table3">III</a>, and -<a href="#table4">IV</a>, alphabetically.</p> - - -<p class="center caption p2" id="table1"><span class="smcap">Table I.</span>—<i>Precipitation of Sub-humid Region.</i></p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bt br"><th class="bl" rowspan="3">Station.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Latitude.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Longitude.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Height.</th><th colspan="5" class="bl">Mean precipitation, in inches.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Extent of record.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Spring.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Summer.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Autumn.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Winter.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Year.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdr bl">°   ´</td><td class="tdr bl">°   ´</td><td class="tdr bl br"><i>Feet.</i><td class="tdr bl"><i>Y.</i> <i>M.</i></td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Pembina, Dak</td><td class="tdr bl">48 57</td><td class="tdr bl">97 03</td><td class="tdr bl">768</td><td class="tdr bl">4.02</td><td class="tdr bl">7.24</td><td class="tdr bl">2.71</td><td class="tdr bl">1.53</td><td class="tdr bl">15.50</td><td class="tdr bl">4 8</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Totten, Dak</td><td class="tdr bl">47 56 </td><td class="tdr bl">99 16 </td><td class="tdr bl">1,480 </td><td class="tdr bl">5.18 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.17</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.50</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.59</td><td class="tdr bl">16.44</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 5</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Abercrombie, Dak</td><td class="tdr bl">46 27 </td><td class="tdr bl">96 21 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">4.80 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.67</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.46</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.85</td><td class="tdr bl">18.78</td><td class="tdr bl">13 6</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Wadsworth, Dak</td><td class="tdr bl">45 43 </td><td class="tdr bl">97 10 </td><td class="tdr bl">1,650 </td><td class="tdr bl">7.00 </td><td class="tdr bl">10.25</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.98</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.92</td><td class="tdr bl">24.15</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 5</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Omaha Agency, Nebr</td><td class="tdr bl">42 07 </td><td class="tdr bl">96 22 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">8.21 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.70</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.77</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.90</td><td class="tdr bl">25.58</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 2</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Kearney, Nebr</td><td class="tdr bl">0 38 </td><td class="tdr bl">98 57 </td><td class="tdr bl">2,360 </td><td class="tdr bl">7.81 </td><td class="tdr bl">11.13</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.83</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.45</td><td class="tdr bl">25.22</td><td class="tdr bl">14 4</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Riley, Kans</td><td class="tdr bl">39 03 </td><td class="tdr bl">96 35 </td><td class="tdr bl">1,300 </td><td class="tdr bl">5.49 </td><td class="tdr bl">10.48</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.92</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.63</td><td class="tdr bl">24.52</td><td class="tdr bl">20 10</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Hays, Kans</td><td class="tdr bl">38 59 </td><td class="tdr bl">99 20 </td><td class="tdr bl">2,107 </td><td class="tdr bl">6.93 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.23</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.77</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.77</td><td class="tdr bl">22.70</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 11</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Larned, Kans</td><td class="tdr bl">38 10 </td><td class="tdr bl">98 57 </td><td class="tdr bl">1,932 </td><td class="tdr bl">5.17 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.63</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.95</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.67</td><td class="tdr bl">21.42</td><td class="tdr bl">10 9</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Belknap, Tex</td><td class="tdr bl">33 08 </td><td class="tdr bl">98 46 </td><td class="tdr bl">1,600 </td><td class="tdr bl">6.41 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.44</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.34</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.86</td><td class="tdr bl">28.05</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 10</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Griffin, Tex </td><td class="tdr bl">32 54 </td><td class="tdr bl">99 14 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">4.95 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.25</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.14</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.17</td><td class="tdr bl">21.51</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 3</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Chadbourne, Tex</td><td class="tdr bl">31 58 </td><td class="tdr bl">100 15 </td><td class="tdr bl">2,020 </td><td class="tdr bl">5.77 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.53</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.06</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.52</td><td class="tdr bl">22.88</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 7</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort McKavett, Tex </td><td class="tdr bl">30 48 </td><td class="tdr bl">100 08 </td><td class="tdr bl">2,060 </td><td class="tdr bl">5.21 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.71</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.81</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.22</td><td class="tdr bl">23.95</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 7</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>New Braunfels, Tex </td><td class="tdr bl">29 42 </td><td class="tdr bl">98 15 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 720 </td><td class="tdr bl">7.60 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.90</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.83</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.25</td><td class="tdr bl">27.58</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 1</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Clark, Tex </td><td class="tdr bl">29 17 </td><td class="tdr bl">100 25 </td><td class="tdr bl">1,000 </td><td class="tdr bl">4.14 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.57</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.55</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.35</td><td class="tdr bl">22.61</td><td class="tdr bl">12 5</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Inge, Tex </td><td class="tdr bl">29 10 </td><td class="tdr bl">99 50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 845 </td><td class="tdr bl">5.38 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.67</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.88</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.53</td><td class="tdr bl">25.46</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 4</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Duncan, Tex </td><td class="tdr bl">28 39 </td><td class="tdr bl">100 30 </td><td class="tdr bl">1,460 </td><td class="tdr bl">3.56 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.60</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.54</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.63</td><td class="tdr bl">21.33</td><td class="tdr bl">11 7</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Brown, Tex </td><td class="tdr bl">25 50 </td><td class="tdr bl">97 37 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50 </td><td class="tdr bl">3.18 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.64</td><td class="tdr bl">13.02</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.04</td><td class="tdr bl">27.88</td><td class="tdr bl">15 0</td></tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span></p> - - -<p class="center caption p2" id="table2"><span class="smcap">Table II.</span>—<i>Precipitation of the Arid Region.</i></p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bt br"><th class="bl" rowspan="3">Station.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Latitude.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Longitude.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Height.</th><th colspan="5" class="bl">Mean precipitation, in inches.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Extent of record.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Spring.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Summer.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Autumn.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Winter.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Year.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdr bl">°   ´</td><td class="tdr bl">°   ´</td><td class="tdr bl br"><i>Feet.</i><td class="tdr bl"><i>Y.</i> <i>M.</i></td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Albuquerque, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl">35 06</td><td class="tdr bl">106 38 </td><td class="tdr bl">5,032 </td><td class="tdr bl">0.83</td><td class="tdr bl">4.35</td><td class="tdr bl">2.04</td><td class="tdr bl">0.89 </td><td class="tdr bl">8.11 </td><td class="tdr bl">12 2</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> -Camp Bowie, Ariz </td><td class="tdr bl">32 10</td><td class="tdr bl">109 30 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,872 </td><td class="tdr bl">1.29</td><td class="tdr bl">7.35</td><td class="tdr bl">2.03</td><td class="tdr bl">4.59</td><td class="tdr bl">15.26 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 8</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> -Camp Douglas, Utah </td><td class="tdr bl">40 46</td><td class="tdr bl">111 50 </td><td class="tdr bl">5,024 </td><td class="tdr bl">7.20</td><td class="tdr bl">2.18</td><td class="tdr bl">3.24</td><td class="tdr bl">6.20</td><td class="tdr bl">18.82 </td><td class="tdr bl">10 3</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> -Camp Grant, Ariz </td><td class="tdr bl">32 54</td><td class="tdr bl">110 40 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,833 </td><td class="tdr bl">2.08</td><td class="tdr bl">6.25</td><td class="tdr bl">3.27</td><td class="tdr bl">3.48</td><td class="tdr bl">15.08 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 10</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> -Camp Halleck, Nev </td><td class="tdr bl">40 49</td><td class="tdr bl">115 20 </td><td class="tdr bl">5,790 </td><td class="tdr bl">3.66</td><td class="tdr bl">1.19</td><td class="tdr bl">2.31</td><td class="tdr bl">3.82</td><td class="tdr bl">10.98 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 8</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> -Camp Harney, Oreg </td><td class="tdr bl">43 00</td><td class="tdr bl">119 00 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">2.29</td><td class="tdr bl">1.09</td><td class="tdr bl">1.59</td><td class="tdr bl">3.79 </td><td class="tdr bl">8.76 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 0</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> -Camp Independence, Cal </td><td class="tdr bl">36 50</td><td class="tdr bl">118 11 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,800 </td><td class="tdr bl">1.09</td><td class="tdr bl">0.35</td><td class="tdr bl">0.62</td><td class="tdr bl">4.54 </td><td class="tdr bl">6.60 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 2</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> -Camp McDermitt, Nev </td><td class="tdr bl">41 58</td><td class="tdr bl">117 40 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,700 </td><td class="tdr bl">3.02</td><td class="tdr bl">0.72</td><td class="tdr bl">1.13</td><td class="tdr bl">3.66 </td><td class="tdr bl">8.53 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 4</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> -Camp McDowell, Ariz </td><td class="tdr bl">33 46</td><td class="tdr bl">111 36 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">1.11</td><td class="tdr bl">4.79</td><td class="tdr bl">1.73</td><td class="tdr bl">3.82</td><td class="tdr bl">11.45 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 2</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> -Camp Mohave, Ariz </td><td class="tdr bl">35 02</td><td class="tdr bl">114 36 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 604 </td><td class="tdr bl">0.81</td><td class="tdr bl">1.27</td><td class="tdr bl">0.93</td><td class="tdr bl">1.64 </td><td class="tdr bl">4.65 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 1</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Camp Verde, Ariz </td><td class="tdr bl">34 34</td><td class="tdr bl">111 54 </td><td class="tdr bl">3,160 </td><td class="tdr bl">1.25</td><td class="tdr bl">4.65</td><td class="tdr bl">2.41</td><td class="tdr bl">2.54</td><td class="tdr bl">10.85 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 1</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Camp Warner, Oreg </td><td class="tdr bl">42 28</td><td class="tdr bl">119 42 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">4.31</td><td class="tdr bl">1.10</td><td class="tdr bl">2.53</td><td class="tdr bl">6.47</td><td class="tdr bl">14.41 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 3</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> -Camp Whipple, Ariz </td><td class="tdr bl">34 27</td><td class="tdr bl">112 20 </td><td class="tdr bl">5,700 </td><td class="tdr bl">3.88</td><td class="tdr bl">8.07</td><td class="tdr bl">2.15</td><td class="tdr bl">5.18</td><td class="tdr bl">19.28 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 5</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Cantonment Burgwin, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl">36 26</td><td class="tdr bl">105 30 </td><td class="tdr bl">7,900 </td><td class="tdr bl">1.57</td><td class="tdr bl">2.92</td><td class="tdr bl">2.42</td><td class="tdr bl">1.74 </td><td class="tdr bl">8.65 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 9</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> -Drum Barracks, Cal </td><td class="tdr bl">33 47</td><td class="tdr bl">118 17 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 32 </td><td class="tdr bl">2.26</td><td class="tdr bl">0.26</td><td class="tdr bl">0.35</td><td class="tdr bl">5.87 </td><td class="tdr bl">8.74 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 5</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> -Denver, Colo </td><td class="tdr bl">39 45</td><td class="tdr bl">105 01 </td><td class="tdr bl">5,250 </td><td class="tdr bl">5.02</td><td class="tdr bl">3.69</td><td class="tdr bl">3.16</td><td class="tdr bl">1.90</td><td class="tdr bl">13.77 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 1</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Bayard, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl">32 46</td><td class="tdr bl">108 30 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,450 </td><td class="tdr bl">1.54</td><td class="tdr bl">7.22</td><td class="tdr bl">2.28</td><td class="tdr bl">3.28</td><td class="tdr bl">14.32 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 6</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Benton, Mont </td><td class="tdr bl">47 50</td><td class="tdr bl">110 39 </td><td class="tdr bl">2,730 </td><td class="tdr bl">5.34</td><td class="tdr bl">4.48</td><td class="tdr bl">1.65</td><td class="tdr bl">1.79</td><td class="tdr bl">13.26 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 1</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Bidwell, Cal </td><td class="tdr bl">41 50</td><td class="tdr bl">120 10 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,680 </td><td class="tdr bl">4.95</td><td class="tdr bl">1.54</td><td class="tdr bl">3.03</td><td class="tdr bl">10.71</td><td class="tdr bl">20.23 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 3</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Bliss (El Paso), Tex </td><td class="tdr bl">31 47</td><td class="tdr bl">106 30 </td><td class="tdr bl">3,830 </td><td class="tdr bl">0.43</td><td class="tdr bl">3.49</td><td class="tdr bl">3.38</td><td class="tdr bl">1.23 </td><td class="tdr bl">8.53 </td><td class="tdr bl">14 3</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Boisé, Idaho </td><td class="tdr bl">43 40</td><td class="tdr bl">116 00 </td><td class="tdr bl">1,998 </td><td class="tdr bl">5.16</td><td class="tdr bl">1.15</td><td class="tdr bl">2.50</td><td class="tdr bl">6.67</td><td class="tdr bl">15.48 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 5</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Bridger, Wyo </td><td class="tdr bl">41 20</td><td class="tdr bl">110 23 </td><td class="tdr bl">6,656 </td><td class="tdr bl">2.99</td><td class="tdr bl">2.05</td><td class="tdr bl">1.68</td><td class="tdr bl">1.71 </td><td class="tdr bl">8.43 </td><td class="tdr bl">12 10</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Buford, Dak </td><td class="tdr bl">48 01</td><td class="tdr bl">103 58 </td><td class="tdr bl">1,900 </td><td class="tdr bl">3.76</td><td class="tdr bl">4.06</td><td class="tdr bl">2.01</td><td class="tdr bl">2.01</td><td class="tdr bl">11.84 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 10</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Colville, Wash </td><td class="tdr bl">48 42</td><td class="tdr bl">118 02 </td><td class="tdr bl">1,963 </td><td class="tdr bl">3.63</td><td class="tdr bl">3.04</td><td class="tdr bl">2.56</td><td class="tdr bl">4.83</td><td class="tdr bl">14.06 </td><td class="tdr bl">11 0</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Craig, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl">33 38</td><td class="tdr bl">107 00 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,619 </td><td class="tdr bl">0.70</td><td class="tdr bl">5.87</td><td class="tdr bl">3.43</td><td class="tdr bl">1.06</td><td class="tdr bl">11.06 </td><td class="tdr bl">15 9</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort D. A. Russell, Wyo </td><td class="tdr bl">41 12</td><td class="tdr bl">104 50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">4.76</td><td class="tdr bl">4.56</td><td class="tdr bl">3.27</td><td class="tdr bl">1.50</td><td class="tdr bl">14.09 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 1</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Davis, Tex </td><td class="tdr bl">30 40</td><td class="tdr bl">104 07 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,700 </td><td class="tdr bl">1.84</td><td class="tdr bl">8.76</td><td class="tdr bl">4.72</td><td class="tdr bl">1.80</td><td class="tdr bl">17.12 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 11</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Defiance, Ariz </td><td class="tdr bl">35 43</td><td class="tdr bl">109 10 </td><td class="tdr bl">6,500 </td><td class="tdr bl">2.03</td><td class="tdr bl">5.91</td><td class="tdr bl">3.72</td><td class="tdr bl">2.55</td><td class="tdr bl">14.21 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 5</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Fetterman, Wyo </td><td class="tdr bl">42 50</td><td class="tdr bl">105 29 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,973 </td><td class="tdr bl">4.48</td><td class="tdr bl">4.12</td><td class="tdr bl">2.99</td><td class="tdr bl">3.51</td><td class="tdr bl">15.10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 7</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Fillmore, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl">32 14</td><td class="tdr bl">106 42 </td><td class="tdr bl">3,937 </td><td class="tdr bl">0.48</td><td class="tdr bl">4.16</td><td class="tdr bl">3.02</td><td class="tdr bl">0.76 </td><td class="tdr bl">8.42 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 3</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort F. Steele, Wyo </td><td class="tdr bl">41 47</td><td class="tdr bl">106 57 </td><td class="tdr bl">6,841 </td><td class="tdr bl">4.57</td><td class="tdr bl">3.48</td><td class="tdr bl">3.05</td><td class="tdr bl">4.28</td><td class="tdr bl">15.38 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 5</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Garland, Colo </td><td class="tdr bl">37 25</td><td class="tdr bl">105 40 </td><td class="tdr bl">7,864 </td><td class="tdr bl">3.28</td><td class="tdr bl">6.70</td><td class="tdr bl">2.37</td><td class="tdr bl">2.51</td><td class="tdr bl">14.86 </td><td class="tdr bl">13 1</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Lapwai, Idaho </td><td class="tdr bl">46 18</td><td class="tdr bl">116 54 </td><td class="tdr bl">2,000 </td><td class="tdr bl">4.11</td><td class="tdr bl">2.41</td><td class="tdr bl">3.38</td><td class="tdr bl">4.99</td><td class="tdr bl">14.89 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 8</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Laramie, Wyo </td><td class="tdr bl">42 12</td><td class="tdr bl">104 31 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,472 </td><td class="tdr bl">5.35</td><td class="tdr bl">4.40</td><td class="tdr bl">2.73</td><td class="tdr bl">1.97</td><td class="tdr bl">14.45 </td><td class="tdr bl">17 8</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Lyon, Colo </td><td class="tdr bl">38 08</td><td class="tdr bl">102 05 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,000 </td><td class="tdr bl">4.33</td><td class="tdr bl">5.44</td><td class="tdr bl">2.30</td><td class="tdr bl">0.49</td><td class="tdr bl">12.56 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 9</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Massachusetts, Colo </td><td class="tdr bl">37 32</td><td class="tdr bl">105 23 </td><td class="tdr bl">8,365 </td><td class="tdr bl">3.12</td><td class="tdr bl">5.56</td><td class="tdr bl">6.28</td><td class="tdr bl">2.27</td><td class="tdr bl">17.23 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 1</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort McPherson, Nebr </td><td class="tdr bl">41 00</td><td class="tdr bl">100 30 </td><td class="tdr bl">3,726 </td><td class="tdr bl">6.90</td><td class="tdr bl">7.56</td><td class="tdr bl">3.25</td><td class="tdr bl">1.25</td><td class="tdr bl">18.96 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 9</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort McIntosh, Tex </td><td class="tdr bl">27 35 </td><td class="tdr bl">99 48 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 806 </td><td class="tdr bl">3.22</td><td class="tdr bl">6.56</td><td class="tdr bl">5.38</td><td class="tdr bl">2.35</td><td class="tdr bl">17.51 </td><td class="tdr bl">14 7</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort McRae, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl">33 18</td><td class="tdr bl">107 03 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,500 </td><td class="tdr bl">2.43</td><td class="tdr bl">6.15</td><td class="tdr bl">2.32</td><td class="tdr bl">0.69</td><td class="tdr bl">11.59 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 0</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Randall, Dak </td><td class="tdr bl">43 01 </td><td class="tdr bl">98 37 </td><td class="tdr bl">1,245 </td><td class="tdr bl">4.72</td><td class="tdr bl">6.22</td><td class="tdr bl">3.40</td><td class="tdr bl">1.18</td><td class="tdr bl">15.52 </td><td class="tdr bl">15 6</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Rice, Dak </td><td class="tdr bl">46 32</td><td class="tdr bl">100 33 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">3.63</td><td class="tdr bl">4.87</td><td class="tdr bl">1.54</td><td class="tdr bl">1.35</td><td class="tdr bl">11.39 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 1</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Sanders, Wyo </td><td class="tdr bl">41 17</td><td class="tdr bl">105 36 </td><td class="tdr bl">7,161 </td><td class="tdr bl">3.55</td><td class="tdr bl">4.15</td><td class="tdr bl">2.33</td><td class="tdr bl">1.43</td><td class="tdr bl">11.46 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 10</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Selden, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl">32 23</td><td class="tdr bl">106 55 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">0.58</td><td class="tdr bl">4.83</td><td class="tdr bl">1.86</td><td class="tdr bl">1.22 </td><td class="tdr bl">8.49 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 5</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Shaw, Mont </td><td class="tdr bl">47 30</td><td class="tdr bl">111 42 </td><td class="tdr bl">6,000 </td><td class="tdr bl">2.18</td><td class="tdr bl">2.30</td><td class="tdr bl">1.34</td><td class="tdr bl">1.13 </td><td class="tdr bl">6.95 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 3</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Stanton, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl">33 29</td><td class="tdr bl">105 38 </td><td class="tdr bl">5,000 </td><td class="tdr bl">3.03</td><td class="tdr bl">10.61</td><td class="tdr bl">4.86</td><td class="tdr bl">2.44</td><td class="tdr bl">20.94 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 9</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Stevenson, Dak </td><td class="tdr bl">47 36</td><td class="tdr bl">101 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">3.41</td><td class="tdr bl">4.97</td><td class="tdr bl">2.15</td><td class="tdr bl">1.31</td><td class="tdr bl">11.84 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 2</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Stockton, Tex </td><td class="tdr bl">30 20</td><td class="tdr bl">102 30 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,950 </td><td class="tdr bl">1.24</td><td class="tdr bl">5.66</td><td class="tdr bl">3.31</td><td class="tdr bl">1.29</td><td class="tdr bl">11.50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 8</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Sully, Dak </td><td class="tdr bl">44 50</td><td class="tdr bl">100 35 </td><td class="tdr bl">1,672 </td><td class="tdr bl">6.52</td><td class="tdr bl">7.18</td><td class="tdr bl">1.70</td><td class="tdr bl">1.14</td><td class="tdr bl">16.54 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 8</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Union, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl">35 54</td><td class="tdr bl">104 57 </td><td class="tdr bl">6,670 </td><td class="tdr bl">2.12</td><td class="tdr bl">11.92</td><td class="tdr bl">3.79</td><td class="tdr bl">1.32</td><td class="tdr bl">19.15 </td><td class="tdr bl">17 5</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Walla Walla, Wash </td><td class="tdr bl">46 03</td><td class="tdr bl">118 20 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 800 </td><td class="tdr bl">4.69</td><td class="tdr bl">2.07</td><td class="tdr bl">4.98</td><td class="tdr bl">7.62</td><td class="tdr bl">19.36 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 8</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Wingate, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl">35 29</td><td class="tdr bl">107 45 </td><td class="tdr bl">6,982 </td><td class="tdr bl">1.96</td><td class="tdr bl">6.50</td><td class="tdr bl">3.42</td><td class="tdr bl">5.44</td><td class="tdr bl">17.32 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 1</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Fort Yuma, Cal </td><td class="tdr bl">32 44</td><td class="tdr bl">114 36 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 200 </td><td class="tdr bl">0.27</td><td class="tdr bl">1.30</td><td class="tdr bl">1.36</td><td class="tdr bl">0.98 </td><td class="tdr bl">3.91 </td><td class="tdr bl">16 6<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span></td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> -Ringgold Barracks, Tex </td><td class="tdr bl">26 23 </td><td class="tdr bl">99 00 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 521 </td><td class="tdr bl">3.71</td><td class="tdr bl">7.00</td><td class="tdr bl">6.31</td><td class="tdr bl">2.58</td><td class="tdr bl">19.60 </td><td class="tdr bl">14 2</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> -Salt Lake City, Utah </td><td class="tdr bl">40 46</td><td class="tdr bl">111 54 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,534 </td><td class="tdr bl">6.25</td><td class="tdr bl">6.28</td><td class="tdr bl">4.71</td><td class="tdr bl">7.57</td><td class="tdr bl">24.81 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 2</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>San Diego, Cal </td><td class="tdr bl">32 42</td><td class="tdr bl">117 14 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 150 </td><td class="tdr bl">1.89</td><td class="tdr bl">0.36</td><td class="tdr bl">1.89</td><td class="tdr bl">5.17 </td><td class="tdr bl">9.31 </td><td class="tdr bl">24 2</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td> - Santa Fé, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl">35 41</td><td class="tdr bl">106 02 </td><td class="tdr bl">6,846 </td><td class="tdr bl">2.17</td><td class="tdr bl">6.82</td><td class="tdr bl">3.45</td><td class="tdr bl">2.47</td><td class="tdr bl">14.91 </td><td class="tdr bl">19 10</td></tr> -</table> - - -<p class="center caption p2" id="table3"><span class="smcap">Table III.</span>—<i>Precipitation of the San Francisco Region.</i></p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bt br"><th class="bl" rowspan="3">Station.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Latitude.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Longitude.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Height.</th><th colspan="5" class="bl">Mean precipitation, in inches.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Extent of record.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Spring.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Summer.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Autumn.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Winter.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Year.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdr bl">°   ´</td><td class="tdr bl">°   ´</td><td class="tdr bl br"><i>Feet.</i><td class="tdr bl"><i>Y.</i> <i>M.</i></td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Alcatraz Island </td><td class="tdr bl">37 49 </td><td class="tdr bl">122 25 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.59</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.01</td><td class="tdr bl">1.85</td><td class="tdr bl">12.04 </td><td class="tdr bl">16.49 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 5</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Angel Island </td><td class="tdr bl">37 51 </td><td class="tdr bl">122 26 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 30 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.52</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.02</td><td class="tdr bl">2.75</td><td class="tdr bl">12.29 </td><td class="tdr bl">18.58 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 11</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Benicia Barracks </td><td class="tdr bl">38 03 </td><td class="tdr bl">122 09 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 64 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.10</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.13</td><td class="tdr bl">2.28</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.39 </td><td class="tdr bl">14.90 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 18 3</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Miller </td><td class="tdr bl">37 00 </td><td class="tdr bl">119 40 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 402 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.25</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.00</td><td class="tdr bl">2.94</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.81 </td><td class="tdr bl">19.00 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 9</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Point </td><td class="tdr bl">37 48 </td><td class="tdr bl">122 29 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 27 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.66</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.03</td><td class="tdr bl">2.28</td><td class="tdr bl">11.39 </td><td class="tdr bl">17.36 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14 11</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Monterey </td><td class="tdr bl">36 37 </td><td class="tdr bl">121 52 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 40 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.43</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.26</td><td class="tdr bl">2.24</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.78 </td><td class="tdr bl">15.71 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 12 3</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Sacramento </td><td class="tdr bl">38 34 </td><td class="tdr bl">121 26 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 81 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.55</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.09</td><td class="tdr bl">2.76</td><td class="tdr bl">10.84 </td><td class="tdr bl">19.24 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 18 3</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>San Francisco; Presidio </td><td class="tdr bl">37 47 </td><td class="tdr bl">122 28 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 150 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.80</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.49</td><td class="tdr bl">2.68</td><td class="tdr bl">12.32 </td><td class="tdr bl">20.29 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 20 2</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>San Francisco </td><td class="tdr bl">37 48 </td><td class="tdr bl">122 25 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 130 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.03</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.22</td><td class="tdr bl">3.05</td><td class="tdr bl">13.19 </td><td class="tdr bl">21.49 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 24 4</td></tr> -</table> - - -<p class="center caption p2" id="table4"><span class="smcap">Table IV.</span>—<i>Precipitation of the Region of the Lower -Columbia.</i></p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bt br"><th class="bl" rowspan="3">Station.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Latitude.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Longitude.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Height.</th><th colspan="5" class="bl">Mean precipitation, in inches.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Extent of record.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Spring.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Summer.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Autumn.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Winter.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Year.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdr bl">°   ´</td><td class="tdr bl">°   ´</td><td class="tdr bl br"><i>Feet.</i><td class="tdr bl"><i>Y.</i> <i>M.</i></td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Astoria, Oreg </td><td class="tdr bl">46 11 </td><td class="tdr bl">123 48 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 52 </td><td class="tdr bl">18.90</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.72</td><td class="tdr bl">18.19</td><td class="tdr bl"> 34.80</td><td class="tdr bl"> 77.61</td><td class="tdr bl"> 22 4</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Cape Disappointment, Wash </td><td class="tdr bl">46 17 </td><td class="tdr bl">124 03 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 30 </td><td class="tdr bl">14.97</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.97</td><td class="tdr bl">20.46</td><td class="tdr bl"> 29.84</td><td class="tdr bl"> 71.24</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 9</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Dalles, Oreg </td><td class="tdr bl">45 33 </td><td class="tdr bl">120 50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 350 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.91</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.16</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.78</td><td class="tdr bl"> 11.27</td><td class="tdr bl"> 22.12</td><td class="tdr bl"> 12 8</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Camp Gaston, Cal </td><td class="tdr bl">41 01 </td><td class="tdr bl">123 34 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">14.76</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.15</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.92</td><td class="tdr bl"> 31.56</td><td class="tdr bl"> 57.39</td><td class="tdr bl"> 12 0</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Camp Wright, Cal </td><td class="tdr bl">39 48 </td><td class="tdr bl">123 17 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.26</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.27</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.17</td><td class="tdr bl"> 27.27</td><td class="tdr bl"> 43.97</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 8</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Crook, Cal </td><td class="tdr bl">41 07 </td><td class="tdr bl">121 29 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3,390 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.37</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.97</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.55</td><td class="tdr bl"> 11.29</td><td class="tdr bl"> 23.18</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 0</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Hoskins, Oreg </td><td class="tdr bl">45 06 </td><td class="tdr bl">123 26 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">14.69</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.65</td><td class="tdr bl">14.88</td><td class="tdr bl"> 34.48</td><td class="tdr bl"> 66.70</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 9</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Humboldt, Cal </td><td class="tdr bl">40 45 </td><td class="tdr bl">124 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.36</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.73</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.49</td><td class="tdr bl"> 18.73</td><td class="tdr bl"> 35.31</td><td class="tdr bl"> 11 2</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Jones, Cal </td><td class="tdr bl">41 36 </td><td class="tdr bl">122 52 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,570 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.23</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.91</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.19</td><td class="tdr bl"> 11.37</td><td class="tdr bl"> 21.70</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 0</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Steilacoom, Wash </td><td class="tdr bl">47 11 </td><td class="tdr bl">122 34 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 300 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.98</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.81</td><td class="tdr bl">10.12</td><td class="tdr bl"> 17.01</td><td class="tdr bl"> 38.92</td><td class="tdr bl"> 12 9</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Stevens, Oreg </td><td class="tdr bl">46 12 </td><td class="tdr bl">123 57 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">17.67</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.88</td><td class="tdr bl">18.21</td><td class="tdr bl"> 34.81</td><td class="tdr bl"> 78.57</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 5</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Umpqua, Oreg </td><td class="tdr bl">43 42 </td><td class="tdr bl">124 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 </td><td class="tdr bl">16.83</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.86</td><td class="tdr bl">15.64</td><td class="tdr bl"> 32.08</td><td class="tdr bl"> 67.41</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 10</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Vancouver, Wash </td><td class="tdr bl">45 40 </td><td class="tdr bl">122 30 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.70</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.78</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.17</td><td class="tdr bl"> 16.72</td><td class="tdr bl"> 38.37</td><td class="tdr bl"> 16 11</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Yamhill, Oreg </td><td class="tdr bl">45 21 </td><td class="tdr bl">123 15 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">13.10</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.39</td><td class="tdr bl">13.20</td><td class="tdr bl"> 26.90</td><td class="tdr bl"> 55.59</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 3</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Portland, Oreg </td><td class="tdr bl">45 30 </td><td class="tdr bl">122 36 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 45 </td><td class="tdr bl">13.75</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.50</td><td class="tdr bl">11.31</td><td class="tdr bl"> 19.64</td><td class="tdr bl"> 47.20</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 0</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Port Townsend, Wash </td><td class="tdr bl">48 07 </td><td class="tdr bl">122 45 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.45</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.22</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.31</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.07</td><td class="tdr bl"> 16.05</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 6</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>San Juan Island, Wash </td><td class="tdr bl">48 28 </td><td class="tdr bl">123 01 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 150 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.01</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.60</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.89</td><td class="tdr bl"> 10.84</td><td class="tdr bl"> 28.34</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 4</td></tr> -</table><p> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span></p> - - -<h3 class="p2">DISTRIBUTION OF RAIN THROUGH THE YEAR.</h3> - -<p>In a general way the limit of agriculture without irrigation, or “dry -farming”, is indicated by the curve of 20 inches rainfall, and where -the rainfall is equally distributed through the year this limitation -is without exception. But in certain districts the rainfall is -concentrated in certain months so as to produce a “rainy season”, and -wherever the temperature of the rainy season is adapted to the raising -of crops it is found that “dry farming” can be carried on with less -than 20 inches of annual rain. There are two such districts upon the -borders of the Arid Region, and within its limits there may be a third.</p> - -<p><i>First District.</i>—Along the eastern border of the Arid Region a -contrast has been observed between the results obtained at the north -and at the south. In Texas 20 inches of rain are not sufficient for -agriculture, while in Dakota and Minnesota a less amount is sufficient. -The explanation is clearly developed by a comparison of the tables -of rainfall with reference to the distribution of rain in different -seasons.</p> - - -<p class="center caption" id="table5"><span class="smcap">Table V.</span>—<i>Precipitation of Texas.</i></p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bt br"><th class="bl" rowspan="3">Station.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Latitude.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Longitude.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Height.</th><th colspan="5" class="bl">Mean precipitation, in inches.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Extent of record.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Spring.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Summer.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Autumn.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Winter.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Year.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdr bl">°   ´</td><td class="tdr bl">°   ´</td><td class="tdr bl br"><i>Feet.</i><td class="tdr bl"><i>Y.</i> <i>M.</i></td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Austin </td><td class="tdr bl">30 17 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 97 44 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 650 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.61</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.94</td><td class="tdr bl">10.74</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.23</td><td class="tdr bl"> 33.52</td><td class="tdr bl"> 18 8</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Camp Verde </td><td class="tdr bl">30 00 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 99 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,400 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.11</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.81</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.30</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.05</td><td class="tdr bl"> 29.27</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 9</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Belknap </td><td class="tdr bl">33 08 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 98 46 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,600 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.41</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.44</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.34</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.86</td><td class="tdr bl"> 28.05</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 10</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Bliss (El Paso) </td><td class="tdr bl">31 47 </td><td class="tdr bl">106 30 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3,830 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.43</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.49</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.38</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.23</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.53</td><td class="tdr bl"> 14 3</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Brown </td><td class="tdr bl">25 50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 97 37 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.18</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.64</td><td class="tdr bl">13.02</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.04</td><td class="tdr bl"> 27.88</td><td class="tdr bl"> 15 0</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Chadbourne </td><td class="tdr bl">31 58 </td><td class="tdr bl">100 15 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,020 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.77</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.53</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.06</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.52</td><td class="tdr bl"> 22.88</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 7</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Clark </td><td class="tdr bl">29 17 </td><td class="tdr bl">100 25 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.14</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.57</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.55</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.35</td><td class="tdr bl"> 22.61</td><td class="tdr bl"> 12 5</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Davis </td><td class="tdr bl">30 40 </td><td class="tdr bl">104 07 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4,700 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.84</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.76</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.72</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.80</td><td class="tdr bl"> 17.12</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 11</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Duncan </td><td class="tdr bl">28 39 </td><td class="tdr bl">100 30 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,460 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.56</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.60</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.54</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.63</td><td class="tdr bl"> 21.33</td><td class="tdr bl"> 11 7</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Griffin </td><td class="tdr bl">32 54 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 99 14 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.95</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.25</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.14</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.17</td><td class="tdr bl"> 21.51</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 3</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Inge </td><td class="tdr bl">29 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 99 50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 845 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.38</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.67</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.88</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.53</td><td class="tdr bl"> 25.46</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 4</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Mason </td><td class="tdr bl">30 40 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 99 15 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,200 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.36</td><td class="tdr bl">10.44</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.22</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.96</td><td class="tdr bl"> 28.98</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 1</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort McIntosh </td><td class="tdr bl">27 35 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 99 48 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 806 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.22</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.56</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.38</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.35</td><td class="tdr bl"> 17.51</td><td class="tdr bl"> 14 7</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort McKavett </td><td class="tdr bl">30 48 </td><td class="tdr bl">100 08 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,060 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.21</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.71</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.81</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.22</td><td class="tdr bl"> 23.95</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 7</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Stockton </td><td class="tdr bl">30 20 </td><td class="tdr bl">102 30 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4,950 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.24</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.66</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.31</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.29</td><td class="tdr bl"> 11.50</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 8</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Galveston </td><td class="tdr bl">29 18 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 94 47 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 30 </td><td class="tdr bl">13.15</td><td class="tdr bl">14.90</td><td class="tdr bl">16.83</td><td class="tdr bl"> 12.19</td><td class="tdr bl"> 57.07</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 1</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Gilmer (near) </td><td class="tdr bl">32 40 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 94 59 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 950 </td><td class="tdr bl">13.36</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.93</td><td class="tdr bl">11.77</td><td class="tdr bl"> 10.93</td><td class="tdr bl"> 45.99</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 9</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>New Braunfels </td><td class="tdr bl">29 42 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 98 15 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 720 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.60</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.90</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.83</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.25</td><td class="tdr bl"> 27.58</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 1</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Ringgold Barracks </td><td class="tdr bl">26 33 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 99 00 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 521 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.71</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.00</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.31</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.58</td><td class="tdr bl"> 19.60</td><td class="tdr bl"> 14 2</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>San Antonio </td><td class="tdr bl">29 25 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 98 25 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 600 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.77</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.91</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.30</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.32</td><td class="tdr bl"> 31.30</td><td class="tdr bl"> 10 2</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td colspan="4"><span class="caption">Means</span> </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.62</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.78</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.64</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.69</td><td class="tdr bl"> 21.73</td><td class="tdr bl"> — —</td></tr> -</table><p> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p2 caption" id="table6"><span class="smcap">Table VI.</span>—<i>Precipitation of Dakota.</i></p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bt br"><th class="bl" rowspan="3">Station.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Latitude.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Longitude.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Height.</th><th colspan="5" class="bl">Mean precipitation, in inches.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Extent of record.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Spring.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Summer.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Autumn.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Winter.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Year.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdr bl">°   ´</td><td class="tdr bl">°   ´</td><td class="tdr bl br"><i>Feet.</i><td class="tdr bl"><i>Y.</i> <i>M.</i></td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Abercrombie </td><td class="tdr bl">46 27 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 96 21 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.80</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.67</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.46</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.85 </td><td class="tdr bl">18.78 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 13 6 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Buford </td><td class="tdr bl">48 01 </td><td class="tdr bl">103 58 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,900 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.76</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.06</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.01</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.01 </td><td class="tdr bl">11.84 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 10 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Randall </td><td class="tdr bl">43 01 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 98 37 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,245 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.72</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.22</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.40</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.18 </td><td class="tdr bl">15.52 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15 6 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Rice </td><td class="tdr bl">46 32 </td><td class="tdr bl">100 33 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.63</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.87</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.54</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.35 </td><td class="tdr bl">11.39 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 1 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Stevenson </td><td class="tdr bl">47 36 </td><td class="tdr bl">101 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.41</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.97</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.15</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.31 </td><td class="tdr bl">11.84 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 2 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Sully </td><td class="tdr bl">44 50 </td><td class="tdr bl">100 35 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,672 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.52</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.18</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.70</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.14 </td><td class="tdr bl">16.54 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 8 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Totten </td><td class="tdr bl">47 56 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 99 16 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,480 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.18</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.17</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.50</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.59 </td><td class="tdr bl">16.44 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 5 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Wadsworth </td><td class="tdr bl">45 43 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 97 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,650 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.00</td><td class="tdr bl">10.25</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.98</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.92 </td><td class="tdr bl">24.15 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 5 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Pembina </td><td class="tdr bl">48 57 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 97 03 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 768 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.02</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.24</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.71</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.53 </td><td class="tdr bl">15.50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4 8</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td colspan="4"><span class="caption">Means</span> </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.78</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.74</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.61</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.65 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15.78</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2"><a href="#table5">Table V</a> includes every station in Texas that has a record of five -years or more, in all twenty stations. If the means of rainfall for -the state be compared with the means for single stations, it will be -seen that there is a general correspondence in the ratios pertaining -to the different seasons, so that the former can fairly be considered -to represent for the state the distribution through the year. <a href="#table6">Table VI</a> -presents the data for Dakota in the same way, and the correspondence -between the general mean and the station mean is here exceedingly -close. At each of the nine stations, the greatest rainfall is recorded -in summer, the next greatest in spring, and the least in winter. -Placing the two series of results in the form of percentages, they show -a decided contrast:</p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bt bl br"><th></th><th class="bl">Spring.</th><th class="bl">Summer.</th><th class="bl">Autumn.</th><th class="bl">Winter.</th><th class="bl">Year.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Dakota</td><td class="tdc bl">30 </td><td class="tdc bl">43</td><td class="tdc bl">17</td><td class="tdc bl">10</td><td class="tdc bl">100</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bb bl br"><td>Texas</td><td class="tdc bl"> 21</td><td class="tdc bl">31</td><td class="tdc bl">31</td><td class="tdc bl">17</td><td class="tdc bl">100</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2">In Dakota a rainy season is well marked, and 73 per cent. of the rain -falls in spring and summer, or at the time when it is most needed -by the farmer. In Texas only 52 per cent. of the rain falls in the -season of agriculture. The availability of rain in the two regions is -therefore in the ratio of 73 to 52, and for agricultural purposes 20 -inches of rainfall in Texas is equivalent to about 15 inches in Dakota.</p> - -<p>For the further exhibition of the subject, <a href="#table7">Table VII</a> has been -prepared,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> comprising stations in the Region of the Plains all the -way from our northern to our southern boundary. By way of restricting -attention to the practical problem of the limit of “dry farming”, only -those stations are admitted which exhibit a mean annual rainfall of -more than 15 and less than 25 inches. The order of arrangement is by -latitudes, and in the columns at the right the seasonal rainfalls are -expressed in percentages of the yearly. The column at the extreme right -gives the sum of the spring and summer quotas, and is taken to express -the availability of the rainfall.</p> - - -<p class="center caption p2" id="table7"><span class="smcap">Table VII.</span>—<i>Seasonal precipitation in the Region of the -Plains.</i></p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bt br"><th class="bl" rowspan="3">Station.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Latitude.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Extent of Record.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Mean yearly rainfall.</th><th colspan="5" class="bl">Percentage of annual rainfall.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Spring.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Summer.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Autumn.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Winter.</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="2">Spring and Summer.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdr bl">°   ´</td><td class="tdr bl"><i>Y.</i> <i>M.</i></td><td class="tdr bl"><i>Inches.</i></td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Pembina, Dak. </td><td class="tdr bl">48 57</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4 8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15.50</td><td class="tdr bl"> 26 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 47 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 17 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 73 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Totten, Dak. </td><td class="tdr bl">47 56</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 16.44</td><td class="tdr bl"> 31 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 44 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 75 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Abercrombie, Dak. </td><td class="tdr bl">46 27</td><td class="tdr bl">13 6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 18.78</td><td class="tdr bl"> 26 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 46 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 18 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 72 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Wadsworth, Dak. </td><td class="tdr bl">45 43</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 24.15</td><td class="tdr bl"> 29 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 42 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 17 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 12 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 71 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Sully, Dak. </td><td class="tdr bl">44 50</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 16.54</td><td class="tdr bl"> 39 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 44 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 83 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Sibley, Minn. </td><td class="tdr bl">44 30</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 11 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 24.74</td><td class="tdr bl"> 21 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 40 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 29 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 61 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Randall, Dak. </td><td class="tdr bl">43 01</td><td class="tdr bl">15 6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15.52</td><td class="tdr bl"> 30 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 40 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 22 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 70 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort McPherson, Nebr. </td><td class="tdr bl">41 00</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 9 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 18.96</td><td class="tdr bl"> 36 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 40 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 17 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 76 </td></tr> -<tr class="btt bl br bb"><td>Fort Riley, Kans. </td><td class="tdr bl">39 03</td><td class="tdr bl">20 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 24.52</td><td class="tdr bl"> 22 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 43 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 24 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 11 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 65 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Hays, Kans. </td><td class="tdr bl">38 59</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 11 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 22.70</td><td class="tdr bl"> 31 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 27 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 25 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 17 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 58 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Larned, Kans. </td><td class="tdr bl">38 10</td><td class="tdr bl">10 9 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 21.42</td><td class="tdr bl"> 24 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 45 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 23 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 69 </td></tr> -<tr class="btt bl br bb"><td>Fort Griffin, Tex. </td><td class="tdr bl">32 54</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 3 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 21.51</td><td class="tdr bl"> 23 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 29 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 29 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 19 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 52 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Chadbourne, Tex. </td><td class="tdr bl">31 58</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 7 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 22.88</td><td class="tdr bl"> 25 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 29 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 31 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 54 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort McKavett, Tex. </td><td class="tdr bl">30 48</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 7 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 23.95</td><td class="tdr bl"> 22 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 28 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 32 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 18 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Davis, Tex. </td><td class="tdr bl">30 40</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 11 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 17.12</td><td class="tdr bl"> 11 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 51 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 28 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 62 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Clark, Tex. </td><td class="tdr bl">29 17</td><td class="tdr bl">12 5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 22.61</td><td class="tdr bl"> 18 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 34 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 29 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 19 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 52 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Duncan, Tex. </td><td class="tdr bl">28 39</td><td class="tdr bl">11 7 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 21.33</td><td class="tdr bl"> 17 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 40 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 31 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 12 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 57 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort McIntosh, Tex. </td><td class="tdr bl">27 35</td><td class="tdr bl">14 7 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 17.51</td><td class="tdr bl"> 18 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 38 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 31 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 13 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 56 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Ringgold Barracks, Tex. </td><td class="tdr bl">26 23</td><td class="tdr bl">14 2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 19.60</td><td class="tdr bl"> 19 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 36 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 32 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 13 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 55 </td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2">The graduation of the ratios from north to south is apparent to -inspection, but is somewhat irregular. The irregularity, however, is -not greater than should be anticipated from the shortness of the terms -of observation at the several stations, and it disappears when the -stations are combined in natural groups. Dividing the whole series -into three groups, as indicated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> by the cross lines in <a href="#table7">Table VII</a>, and -computing weighted means of the seasonal ratios, we have—</p> - - -<p class="center caption p2" id="table7b"><span class="smcap">Table VII</span> (<i>a</i>).<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bt br"><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Groups of stations.</th><th class="bl">Mean latitude of group.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Total years of record.</th><th colspan="5" class="bl">Percentage of annual rainfall.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdr bl">°   ´</td><td class="tdc bl">Spring.</td><td class="tdc bl">Summer.</td><td class="tdc bl">Autumn.</td><td class="tdc bl">Winter.</td><td class="tdc bl">Spring and Summer.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Eight stations in Dakota, Minnesota, and Nebraska </td><td class="tdr bl"> 45 20 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 67 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 29</td><td class="tdr bl"> 43</td><td class="tdr bl"> 19</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 72 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Three stations in Kansas </td><td class="tdr bl"> 38 45 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 38 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 24</td><td class="tdr bl"> 41</td><td class="tdr bl"> 24</td><td class="tdr bl"> 11 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 65 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Eight stations in Texas </td><td class="tdr bl"> 29 45 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 85 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 19</td><td class="tdr bl"> 36</td><td class="tdr bl"> 31</td><td class="tdr bl"> 14 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 55</td></tr> -</table> -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> In computing the several means of <a href="#table7">Table VII</a> (<i>a</i>) from the seasonal means of <a href="#table7">Table VII</a>, the latter were weighted according to the lengths of the records by which they had been obtained.<br> - -</div> -<p class="p2">A moment’s inspection will show that the middle group is intermediate -between the northern and southern in all its characters. The spring -quota of rainfall progressively diminishes from north to south, and -so does the summer, while the fall and winter quotas increase. What -is lost in summer is gained in winter, and thereby the inequality of -rainfall from season to season is diminished, so that a rainy season is -not so well defined in Texas as in Dakota. What is lost in spring is -gained in autumn, and thereby the place of the rainy season in the year -is shifted. In Dakota the maximum of rain is earlier than in Texas, and -corresponds more nearly with the maximum of temperature.</p> - - -<p class="center caption p2" id="table8"><span class="smcap">Table VIII.</span>—<i>Seasonal precipitation in the San Francisco -Region.</i></p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bt br"><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Station.</th><th class="bl">Extent of record.</th><th class="bl">Mean annual rainfall.</th><th colspan="5" class="bl">Percentage of annual rainfall.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdr bl"><i>Y.</i> <i>M.</i></td><td class="tdr bl"><i>Inches.</i></td><td class="tdc bl">Spring.</td><td class="tdc bl">Summer.</td><td class="tdc bl">Autumn.</td><td class="tdc bl">Winter.</td><td class="tdc bl">Winter and spring.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Alcatraz Island </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 16.49</td><td class="tdr bl"> 16</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 11</td><td class="tdr bl"> 73 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 89 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Angel Island </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 11</td><td class="tdr bl"> 18.58</td><td class="tdr bl"> 19</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15</td><td class="tdr bl"> 66 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 85 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Benicia Barracks </td><td class="tdr bl"> 18 3</td><td class="tdr bl"> 14.90</td><td class="tdr bl"> 28</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15</td><td class="tdr bl"> 56 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 84 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Miller </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 9</td><td class="tdr bl"> 19.00</td><td class="tdr bl"> 38</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 16</td><td class="tdr bl"> 46 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 84 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Point </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14 11</td><td class="tdr bl"> 17.36</td><td class="tdr bl"> 21</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 13</td><td class="tdr bl"> 66 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 87 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Monterey </td><td class="tdr bl"> 12 3</td><td class="tdr bl"> 15.71</td><td class="tdr bl"> 28</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14</td><td class="tdr bl"> 56 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 84 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Sacramento </td><td class="tdr bl"> 18 3</td><td class="tdr bl"> 19.24</td><td class="tdr bl"> 29</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14</td><td class="tdr bl"> 56 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 85 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>San Francisco; Presidio </td><td class="tdr bl"> 20 2</td><td class="tdr bl"> 20.29</td><td class="tdr bl"> 24</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 13</td><td class="tdr bl"> 61 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 85 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>San Francisco </td><td class="tdr bl"> 24 4</td><td class="tdr bl"> 21.49</td><td class="tdr bl"> 24</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14</td><td class="tdr bl"> 61 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 85 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td><span class="caption">Weighted means</span> </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 25</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14</td><td class="tdr bl"> 60 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 85 </td></tr></table> -<p class="center caption"> - Total extent of record = 130 years. <br>Mean of yearly rainfalls = 15.90.</p> -<p> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span></p> - -<p class="p2"><i>Second District.</i>—In the San Francisco Region a rainy season -is still more definitely marked, but occurs at a different time of -year. It will be seen by <a href="#table3">Tables III</a> and <a href="#table8">VIII</a> that no rain falls in -summer, while the winter months receive 60 per cent. of the annual -precipitation, and the spring 25 per cent. The general yearly rainfall -of the district is only about 16 inches, but by this remarkable -concentration a period of five months is made to receive 13 inches. -The winter temperature of the district is no less remarkable, and -supplies the remaining condition essential to agriculture. Frosts are -rare, and in the valleys all the precipitation has the form of rain. -The nine stations which afford the rainfall records given above show a -mean spring temperature of 57° (see <a href="#table9">Table IX</a>). Thirteen inches of rain -coming in a frostless winter and spring have been found sufficient for -remunerative agriculture.</p> - - -<p class="center caption p2" id="table9"><span class="smcap">Table IX.</span>—<i>Mean temperatures, by seasons, for the San -Francisco Region.</i></p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bt br"><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Station.</th><th class="bl">Extent of record.</th><th colspan="5" class="bl">Mean temperatures, in degrees Fahr.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdr bl"><i>Y.</i> <i>M.</i></td><td class="tdc bl">Spring.</td><td class="tdc bl">Summer.</td><td class="tdc bl">Autumn.</td><td class="tdc bl">Winter.</td><td class="tdc bl">Year.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Alcatraz Island </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 6</td><td class="tdr bl"> 55 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 57 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 60 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 54 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 57</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Angel Island </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 58 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 63 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 61 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 52 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 58</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Benicia Barracks </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15 7</td><td class="tdr bl"> 58 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 67 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 62 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 49 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 59 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Miller </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 6</td><td class="tdr bl"> 64 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 86 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 67 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 49 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 67 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Point </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10 11</td><td class="tdr bl"> 55 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 59 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 58 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 52 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 56 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Monterey </td><td class="tdr bl"> 12 5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 55 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 60 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 57 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 55 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Sacramento </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14 0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 59 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 71 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 62 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 48 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 60 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>San Francisco; Presidio </td><td class="tdr bl"> 19 0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 54 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 57 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 57 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 55 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>San Francisco </td><td class="tdr bl"> 11 2</td><td class="tdr bl"> 55 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 58 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 58 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 55 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td><span class="caption">Means</span> </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 57 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 64 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 60 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 58</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2">The same winter maximum of rainfall is characteristic of the whole -Pacific coast. The Region of the Lower Columbia, with an average -rainfall of 46 inches, receives 47 per cent. of it in winter and 24 -per cent. in spring. Southward on the coast, Drum Barracks (near Los -Angeles) and San Diego receive more than half their rain in winter, -but as the whole amount is only 9 inches agriculture is not benefited. -The eastern bases of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range exhibit the -winter maximum of rainfall, and this feature can be traced eastward -in Idaho and Nevada, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> in these districts it is accompanied by no -amelioration of winter temperature. (See <a href="#table10">Table X.</a>)</p> - - -<p class="center caption p2" id="table10"><span class="smcap">Table X.</span>—<i>Seasonal precipitation and temperatures on the -Pacific coast, etc.</i></p> -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bt br"><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Station.</th><th class="bl">Mean annual rainfall.</th><th colspan="4" class="bl">Percentage of rainfall.</th><th class="bl" colspan="2">Mean temperature.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdr bl"><i>Inches.</i></td><td class="tdc bl">Spring.</td><td class="tdc bl">Summer.</td><td class="tdc bl">Autumn.</td><td class="tdc bl">Winter.</td><td class="tdc bl">Spring.</td><td class="tdc bl">Winter.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>San Francisco Region </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15.90</td><td class="tdr bl"> 25</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 14</td><td class="tdr bl"> 60 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 57 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Region of Lower Columbia </td><td class="tdr bl"> 46.45</td><td class="tdr bl"> 24</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6</td><td class="tdr bl"> 23</td><td class="tdr bl"> 47 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 51 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 40 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Drum Barracks, Cal </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.74</td><td class="tdr bl"> 26</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4</td><td class="tdr bl"> 67 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 60 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 56 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>San Diego, Cal </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.31</td><td class="tdr bl"> 20</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4</td><td class="tdr bl"> 20</td><td class="tdr bl"> 56 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 60 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 54 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Camp Independence, Cal </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.60</td><td class="tdr bl"> 17</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9</td><td class="tdr bl"> 69 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 57 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 39 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Bidwell, Cal </td><td class="tdr bl"> 20.23</td><td class="tdr bl"> 24</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8</td><td class="tdr bl"> 15</td><td class="tdr bl"> 53 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 48 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 32 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Camp Warner, Oreg </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14.41</td><td class="tdr bl"> 30</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8</td><td class="tdr bl"> 17</td><td class="tdr bl"> 45 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 42 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 29 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Camp Harney, Oreg </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.76</td><td class="tdr bl"> 26</td><td class="tdr bl"> 13</td><td class="tdr bl"> 18</td><td class="tdr bl"> 43 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 47 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 27 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Colville, Wash </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14.06</td><td class="tdr bl"> 26</td><td class="tdr bl"> 22</td><td class="tdr bl"> 18</td><td class="tdr bl"> 34 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 45 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 24 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Walla Walla, Wash </td><td class="tdr bl"> 19.36</td><td class="tdr bl"> 24</td><td class="tdr bl"> 11</td><td class="tdr bl"> 26</td><td class="tdr bl"> 39 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 52 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 34 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Camp McDermitt, Nev </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.53</td><td class="tdr bl"> 35</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9</td><td class="tdr bl"> 13</td><td class="tdr bl"> 43 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 46 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 29 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Camp Halleck, Nev </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10.98</td><td class="tdr bl"> 33</td><td class="tdr bl"> 11</td><td class="tdr bl"> 21</td><td class="tdr bl"> 35 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 45 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 28 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Lapwai, Idaho </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14.89</td><td class="tdr bl"> 28</td><td class="tdr bl"> 16</td><td class="tdr bl"> 23</td><td class="tdr bl"> 33 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 53 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 33 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Boisé, Idaho </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15.48</td><td class="tdr bl"> 33</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8</td><td class="tdr bl"> 16</td><td class="tdr bl"> 43 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 52 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 30 </td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2"><i>Third District.</i>—In Arizona and New Mexico there is a general -maximum of rainfall in summer, and a restricted maximum in winter. The -principal minimum is in spring. In <a href="#table11">Table XI</a> the stations are arranged -according to longitudes, a disposition well suited to exhibit their -relations. In eastern New Mexico the distribution of rainfall has the -same character as in adjacent Texas, but with a more decided maximum. -Half of the total rainfall is in summer and half of the remainder in -autumn. Westward the maximum diminishes slightly, but it appears in -every station of the two territories. In western Arizona the winter -maximum of the Pacific coast asserts itself, and it can be traced -eastward as far as Fort Wingate, New Mexico. Except at Camp Mohave, on -the western border of Arizona, it is inferior in amount to the summer -maximum.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span></p> - - -<p class="center caption p2" id="table11"><span class="smcap">Table XI.</span>—<i>Seasonal precipitation in Arizona and New -Mexico.</i></p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bt br"><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Station.</th><th class="bl">Longitude.</th><th class="bl">Mean annual rainfall.</th><th colspan="4" class="bl">Percentage of annual rainfall.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdr bl">°   ´</td><td class="tdr bl"><i>Inches.</i></td><td class="tdc bl">Spring.</td><td class="tdc bl">Summer.</td><td class="tdc bl">Autumn.</td><td class="tdc bl">Winter.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Western Texas </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 19 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 36 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 31 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14</td></tr> -<tr class="btt bl br bb"><td>Fort Union, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl"> 104 57</td><td class="tdr bl"> 19.15 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 11 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 62 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 20 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Cantonment Burgwin, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl"> 105 30</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.65 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 18 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 34 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 28 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 20 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Stanton, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl"> 105 38</td><td class="tdr bl"> 20.94 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 51 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 23 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 12 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Santa Fé, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl"> 106 02</td><td class="tdr bl"> 14.91 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 46 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 23 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 17 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Albuquerque, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl"> 106 38</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.11 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 54 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 25 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 11 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Fillmore, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl"> 106 42</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.42 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 36 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Selden, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl"> 106 55</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.49 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 57 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 22 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Craig, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl"> 107 00</td><td class="tdr bl"> 11.06 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 53 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 31 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort McRae, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl"> 107 03</td><td class="tdr bl"> 11.59 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 21 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 53 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 20 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Wingate, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl"> 107 45</td><td class="tdr bl"> 17.32 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 11 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 38 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 20 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 31 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Bayard, N. Mex </td><td class="tdr bl"> 108 30</td><td class="tdr bl"> 14.32 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 11 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 16 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 23 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Fort Defiance, Ariz </td><td class="tdr bl"> 109 10</td><td class="tdr bl"> 14.21 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 42 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 26 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 18 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Camp Bowie, Ariz </td><td class="tdr bl"> 109 30</td><td class="tdr bl"> 15.26 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 48 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 13 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 30 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Camp Grant, Ariz </td><td class="tdr bl"> 110 40</td><td class="tdr bl"> 15.08 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 41 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 22 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 23 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Camp McDowell, Ariz </td><td class="tdr bl"> 111 36</td><td class="tdr bl"> 11.45 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 42 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 33 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Camp Verde, Ariz </td><td class="tdr bl"> 111 54</td><td class="tdr bl"> 10.85 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 12 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 43 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 22 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 23 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Camp Whipple, Ariz </td><td class="tdr bl"> 112 20</td><td class="tdr bl"> 19.28 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 20 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 42 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 11 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 27 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td>Camp Mohave, Ariz </td><td class="tdr bl"> 114 36</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.65 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 18 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 27 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 20 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 35 </td></tr> -<tr class="btt bl br bb"><td>San Francisco Region </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 25 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 60 </td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2">In all this region the daily range of temperature is great, and frosts -occur so early in autumn that no use can be made of the autumnal -rainfall. The yearly precipitation is very small, and the summer quota -rarely exceeds seven or eight inches. Nevertheless the Pueblo Indians -have succeeded, in a few localities, and by a unique method, in raising -maize without irrigation. The yield is too meagre to tempt the white -man to follow their example, and for his use the region is agricultural -only where it can be watered artificially.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br><span class="small">WATER SUPPLY.</span></h2></div> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By G. K. Gilbert.</span></p> - - -<p>The following discussion is based upon a special study of the -drainage-basin of Great Salt Lake.</p> - - -<h3>INCREASE OF STREAMS.</h3> - -<p>The residents of Utah who practice irrigation have observed that many -of the streams have increased in volume since the settlement of the -country. Of the actuality of this increase there can be no question. -A popular impression in regard to the fluctuations of an unmeasured -element of climate may be very erroneous, as, for example, the -impression that the rainfall of the timbered states has been diminished -by the clearing of the land, but in the case of these streams relative -measurements have practically been made. Some of them were so fully -in use twenty years ago that all of their water was diverted from -its channels at the “critical period”, and yet the dependent fields -suffered from drought in the drier years. Afterward, it was found that -in all years there was enough water and to spare, and operations were -extended. Additional canals were dug and new lands were added to the -fields; and this was repeated from time to time, until in many places -the service of a stream was doubled, and in a few it was increased -tenfold, or even fiftyfold. It is a matter of great importance to the -agricultural interests, not only of Utah but of the whole district -dependent on irrigation, that the cause or causes of this change shall -be understood. Until they are known we cannot tell whether the present -gain is an omen of future gain or of future loss, nor whether the -future changes are within or beyond our control. I shall therefore take -the liberty to examine somewhat at length the considerations which are -supposed by myself or others to bear upon the problem.</p> - -<p>Fortunately we are not compelled to depend on the incidental -observations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> of the farming community for the amount of the increase -of the streams, but merely for the fact of their increase. The amount -is recorded in an independent and most thorough manner, by the -accumulation of the water in Great Salt Lake.</p> - - -<h3>RISE OF GREAT SALT LAKE.</h3> - -<p>A lake with an outlet has its level determined by the height of the -outlet. Great Salt Lake, having no outlet, has its level determined by -the relation of evaporation to inflow. On one hand the drainage of a -great basin pours into it a continuous though variable tribute; on the -other, there is a continuous absorption of its water by the atmosphere -above it. The inflow is greatest in the spring time, while the snows -are melting in the mountains, and least in the autumn after the melting -has ceased, but before the cooling of the air has greatly checked -evaporation on the uplands. The lake evaporation is greatest in summer, -while the air is warm, and least in winter. Through the winter and -spring the inflow exceeds the evaporation, and the lake rises. In the -latter part of the summer and in autumn the loss is greater than the -gain, and the lake falls. The maximum occurs in June or July, and the -minimum probably in November. The difference between the two, or the -height of the annual tide, is about 20 inches.</p> - -<p>But it rarely happens that the annual evaporation is precisely equal -to the annual inflow, and each year the lake gains or loses an amount -which depends upon the climate of the year. If the air which crosses -the drainage basin of the lake in any year is unusually moist, there -is a twofold tendency to raise the mean level. On one hand there -is a greater precipitation, whereby the inflow is increased, and -on the other hand there is a less evaporation. So, too, if the air -is unusually dry, the inflow is correspondingly small, the loss by -evaporation is correspondingly great, and the contents of the lake -diminish. This annual gain or loss is an expression, and a very -delicate expression, of the mean annual humidity of a large district of -country, and as such is more trustworthy than any result which might -be derived from local observations with psychrometer and rain gauge. -A succession of relatively dry years causes a progressive fall of the -lake, and a succession of moist years a progressive rise. As the water -falls it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> retires from its shore, and the slopes being exceedingly -gentle the area of the lake is rapidly contracted. The surface for -evaporation diminishes and its ratio to the inflow becomes less. As the -water rises the surface of the lake rapidly increases, and the ratio of -evaporation to inflow becomes greater. In this way a limit is set to -the oscillation of the lake as dependent on the ordinary fluctuations -of climate, and the cumulation of results is prevented. Whenever the -variation of the water level from its mean position becomes great, -the resistance to its further advance in that direction becomes -proportionally great. For the convenience of a name, I shall speak of -this oscillation of the lake as the <i>limited oscillation</i>. It -depends on an oscillation of climate which is universally experienced, -but which has not been found to exhibit either periodicity, or -synchrony over large areas, or other features of regularity.</p> - -<p>Beside the annual tide and the limited oscillation, the lake has been -found to exhibit a third change, and this third or <i>abnormal</i> -change seems to be connected with the increase of the tributary -streams. In order to exhibit it, it will be necessary to discuss -somewhat fully the history of the rise and fall of the lake, and -I shall take occasion at the same time to call attention to the -preparations that have recently been made for future observations.</p> - -<p>Previous to the year 1875 no definite record was made. In 1874 Prof. -Joseph Henry, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, began a -correspondence with Dr. John R. Park, of Salt Lake City, in regard to -the fluctuations and other peculiarities of the lake, and as a chief -result a systematic record was begun. With the coöperation of Mr. J. -L. Barfoot and other citizens of Utah, Dr. Park erected a graduated -pillar at Black Rock, a point on the southern shore which was then a -popular summer resort. It consisted of a granite block cut in the form -of an obelisk and engraved on one side with a scale of feet and inches. -It was set in gravel beneath shallow water, with the zero of its scale -near the surface. The water level was read on the pillar by Mr. John -T. Mitchell at frequent intervals from September 14, 1875, to October -9, 1876, when the locality ceased to be used as a watering place, and -the systematic record was discontinued. Two observations were made by -the writer in 1877, and it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span> was found in making the second that the -shifting gravel of the beach had buried the column so deeply as to -conceal half the graduation.</p> - -<p>Dr. Park has kindly furnished me a copy of Mr. Mitchell’s record. -The observer was instructed to choose such times of observation that -the influence of wind storms upon the level of the lake would be -eliminated, and the work appears to have been faithfully performed.</p> - - -<p class="center caption p2"><i>Record of the height of Great Salt Lake above the zero of the -granite pillar at Black Rock.</i></p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bt bl br"><th class="bl" colspan="3">Date.</th><th colspan="2" class="bl">Reading.</th><th colspan="2">Wind.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdc">Year.</td><td class="tdc bl">Month.</td><td class="tdc bl">Day.</td><td class="tdc bl">Feet.</td><td class="tdc bl">Inches.</td><td class="tdc bl">Direction.</td><td class="tdc bl">Force.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td rowspan="14" class="bb bt">1875 </td><td class="tdr bl" rowspan="3">September</td><td class="tdr bl"> 14</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. </td><td class="tdr bl">Gentle.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr">22</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5¹⁄₂</td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr">25</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td rowspan="4" class="bl tdr">October </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4¹⁄₂</td><td class="tdr bl"> N. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr">12</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr">18</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3¹⁄₂</td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr">26</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td rowspan="4" class="bl tdr">November </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> W. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr">16</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1¹⁄₂</td><td class="tdr bl"> N. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr">23</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr">29</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5¹⁄₂</td><td class="tdr bl"> E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td rowspan="3" class="bl tdr">December </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr">14</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5¹⁄₂</td><td class="tdr bl"> E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr"> 21</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="btt bl br"><td rowspan="29" class="bl tdr">1876 </td><td class="tdr bl" rowspan="3">January </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr">11</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8¹⁄₂</td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr">29</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 </td><td class="tdr bl"> E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td rowspan="3" class="bl tdr">February </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 </td><td class="tdr bl"> S. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr">15</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9¹⁄₂</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">Calm. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr"> 22</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9¹⁄₂</td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td rowspan="3" class="bl tdr">March </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 11 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr"> 22</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr"> 28</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> ¹⁄₂</td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td rowspan="2" class="bl tdr">April </td><td class="tdr bl"> 17</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">Calm. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr">25</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td rowspan="2" class="bl tdr">May </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr"> 22</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td rowspan="5" class="bl tdr">June </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 11 </td><td class="tdr bl"> W. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr"> 8</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">Calm. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr"> 13</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr">23</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr"> 30</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> S. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td rowspan="2" class="bl tdr">July </td><td class="tdr bl"> 18</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr"> 25</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td rowspan="5" class="bl tdr">August </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr"> 10</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr"> 22</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr">29</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> S. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Strong. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr"> 30</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> N. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr" rowspan="3">September</td><td class="tdr bl"> 14</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">Calm. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr"> 19</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6¹⁄₂</td><td class="tdr bl"> N. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr">26</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">Calm. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="bl tdr">October </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5¹⁄₂</td><td class="tdr bl"> N. E. </td><td class="tdr bl">Quiet. </td></tr> -<tr class="btt bl br"><td rowspan="2" class="bl">1877 </td><td class="tdr bl">July </td><td class="tdr bl"> 12</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">Calm. </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bb bl br"><td class="bl tdr">October </td><td class="tdr bl"> 19</td><td class="tdr bl"> 0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">Calm. </td></tr> -</table><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span></p> - -<p class="p2">Comparing the October observations for three years, it appears that the -lake rose 13 inches from 1875 to 1876, and fell in the next year 6¹⁄₂ -inches.</p> - -<p class="center p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img001"> -<img src="images/001.jpg" class="w75" alt="SKETCH OF BLACK ROCK AND VICINITY, UTAH TERRITORY"> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption">SKETCH OF BLACK ROCK AND VICINITY, UTAH TERRITORY.</p> - -<p><i>Prepared to show the position of the graduated pillar erected by Dr. -John Park for observations on the water-level of Great Salt Lake, and -the position of the granite bench-mark.</i></p> - -<p>The Black Rock pillar has not the permanence that is desirable. -Although it has thus far been only the more firmly established by the -action of the waves, it is still true that the lake is encroaching -on the land in this part of the coast, and a storm may at any time -undermine and overthrow the pillar. To provide for such a contingency -it was determined to establish a bench mark out of reach of the waves, -and connect it with the pillar by leveling, so that if the existing -standard should be destroyed its record would still have a definite -meaning, and the relative height of a new standard could be ascertained -with precision. In this undertaking I was joined by Mr. Jesse W. Fox, -a gentleman who has long held the office of territorial surveyor of -Utah. A suitable stone was furnished by the Hon. Brigham Young, and was -carried to Black Rock without charge through the courtesy of Mr. Heber -P. Kimball, superintendent of the Utah Western Railroad. The block is -of granite, and is three feet in length. It was sunk in the earth, all -but a few inches, on the northern slope of a small limestone knoll just -south of the railroad track at Black Rock. Its top is dressed square, -about 10 × 10 inches, and is marked with a +. It will be convenient to -speak of the top of this monument as the <i>Black Rock bench</i>. On -the 11th of July, 1877, the surface of the lake was 34.5 feet below the -bench, and it then marked 2.0 feet on the pillar erected by Dr. Park. -The zero of the observation pillar is therefore 36.5 feet below the -bench.</p> - -<p>The accompanying topographic sketch will serve at any time to identify -the position of the bench.</p> - -<p>After consultation with Dr. Park, I concluded that it would be -better not to depend on the Black Rock station for observations in -the future—at least in the immediate future—and other points were -discussed. Eventually it was determined to establish a new station near -Farmington, on the eastern shore of the lake. The point selected is in -an inlet so sheltered that a heavy swell in the lake will not interfere -with accurate observation. At the present stage of water the spot is -well adapted to the purpose, and it can be used with the water 2 feet -lower or 5 feet higher. I was not able to attend personally to the -erection of the pillar, but left the matter in the hands of Mr. Jacob -Miller, of Farmington, who writes me that it was placed in position and -the record begun on the 24th of November, 1877. The pillar is of wood, -and is graduated to inches for 9 feet of its length.</p> - -<p>On the day of its establishment the reading of the water surface was 2 -feet 1 inch. On the 21st of January, 1878, the reading was 2 feet 1¹⁄₂ -inches.</p> - -<p>The Farmington and Black Rock pillars are 23 miles apart. The relative -height of their zeros will be ascertained as soon as practicable by -making coincident readings, during still weather, of the water surface -at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> the two stations. It is already known that the Farmington zero is -<i>approximately</i> 16 inches lower than the Black Rock.</p> - -<p>A stone “bench” or monument for permanent reference has also been -placed on rising ground near the observation pillar, and the two will -be connected by spirit level. The Farmington bench is of gneiss, and -is marked with a + in the same manner as the Black Rock. The stone was -contributed by Mr. Abbott, of Farmington, and was gratuitously shaped -and placed by Mr. Miller.</p> - -<p>Mr. Miller has also voluntarily assumed charge of the record, and will -make or superintend the observations. It will not be practicable to -visit the pillar daily, nor even at <i>regular</i> intervals, but it is -expected that the record will be as full as the one tabulated above. -The following items are to be noted:</p> - -<p>1. Time of observation, including year, month, day, and hour.</p> - -<p>2. Reading of water surface in feet and inches.</p> - -<p>3. Direction and force of wind.</p> - -<p>4. Account of wind for the preceding 24 hours.</p> - -<p>5. Name of observer.</p> - -<p>These observations will not only determine the annual gain or loss of -the lake, but will in a few years give data to construct the curve of -the annual tide.</p> - -<p>The history of past changes not having been the subject of record, -it became necessary to compile it from such collateral data as were -attainable. The enquiries inaugurated by Professor Henry have been -prosecuted, and have resulted in a tolerably definite determination of -the principal changes since 1847, together with the indication of a -superior limit to earlier oscillations.</p> - -<p>Ever since the settlement of Salt Lake City, in 1847, the islands of -the lake have been used as herd grounds. Fremont and Carrington islands -have been reached by boat, and Antelope and Stansbury islands partly -by boat, partly by fording, and partly by land communication. A large -share of the navigation has been performed by citizens of Farmington, -and the shore is in that neighborhood so flat that the changes of -water level have necessitated frequent changes of landing place. The -pursuits of the boatmen have been so greatly affected that all of the -more important fluctuations were impressed upon their memories, and -most of the changes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span> were so associated with features of the topography -that some estimate of their quantitative values could be made. The -data which became thus available were collated for Professor Henry by -Mr. Miller, a gentleman who himself took part in the navigation, and -of whom I have already had occasion to speak. His results agree very -closely with those derived from an independent investigation of my own, -to which I will now proceed.</p> - -<p>Antelope Island is connected with the delta of the Jordan River by a -broad, flat sand bar that has been usually submerged but occasionally -exposed. It slopes very gently toward the island, and just where it -joins it is interrupted by a narrow channel a few inches in depth. -For a number of years this bar afforded the means of access to the -island, and many persons traversed it. By combining the evidence of -such persons it has been practicable to learn the condition of the ford -up to the time of its final abandonment. From 1847 to 1850 the bar was -dry during the low stage of each winter, and in summer covered by not -more than 20 inches of water. Then began a rise which continued until -1855 or 1856. At that time a horseman could with difficulty ford in the -winter, but all communication was by boat in summer. Then the water -fell for a series of years until in 1860 and 1861 the bar was again dry -in winter. The spring of 1862 was marked by an unusual fall of rain and -snow, whereby the streams were greatly flooded and the lake surface was -raised several feet. In subsequent years the rise continued, until in -1865 the ford became impassable. According to Mr. Miller the present -height was attained in about 1868, and there have since occurred only -minor fluctuations.</p> - -<p>For the purpose of connecting the traditional history as derived from -the ford with the systematic record that has now been inaugurated, I -visited the bar in company with Mr. Miller on the 19th of October, -1877, and made careful soundings. The features of the ford had -been minutely described, and there was no uncertainty as to the -identification of the locality. We found 9 feet of water on the sand -flat, and 9 feet 6 inches in the little channel at its edge. The -examination was completed at 11 a. m.; at 5 p. m. the water stood at 0 -feet 10 inches on the Black Rock pillar; and on the following day at 8 -a. m. we marked its level at the place where the Farmington pillar now -stands, our mark being 2 feet 2 inches above the zero of the pillar.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span></p> - -<p>The Antelope Island bar thus affords a tolerably complete record from -1847 to 1865, but fails to give any later details. It happens, however, -that the hiatus is filled at another locality. Stansbury Island is -joined to the mainland by a similar bar, which was entirely above -water at the time of Captain Stansbury’s survey, and so continued for -many years. In 1866, the year following that in which the Antelope bar -became unfordable, the water for the first time covered the Stansbury -bar, and its subsequent advance and recession have so affected the -pursuits of the citizens of Grantsville, who used the island for a -winter herd ground, that it will not be difficult to obtain a full -record by compiling their forced observations. Since undertaking the -inquiry I have had no opportunity to visit that town, but the following -facts have been elicited by correspondence. Since the first flooding of -the bar the depth of water has never been less than 1 foot, and it has -never been so great as to prevent fording in winter. But in the summers -of 1872, 1873, and 1874, during the flood stage of the annual tide, -there was no access except by boat, and in those years the lake level -attained its greatest height. In the spring of 1869 the depth was 4¹⁄₂ -feet, and in the autumn of 1877, 2¹⁄₂ feet.</p> - -<p>The last item shows that the Stansbury bar is 7 feet higher than the -Antelope, and serves to connect the two series of observations.</p> - - - -<p class="center p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img005"> -<img src="images/005.jpg" class="w50" alt="Diagram showing the rise and fall of Great Salt Lake -from 1847 to 1877"> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption"><i>Diagram showing the rise and fall of Great Salt Lake -from 1847 to 1877.</i></p> - -<p class="poetry caption"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">N. S. = Level of new storm line.</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">O. S. = Level of old storm line.</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">S. B. = Level of Stansbury Island bar.</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">A. B. = Level of Antelope Island bar.</span><br> -</p> - -<p>Further inquiries will probably render the record more complete -and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span> exact, but, as it now stands, all the general features of the -fluctuations are clearly indicated. In the accompanying diagram -the horizontal spaces represent years, and the vertical, feet. The -irregular curve shows the height of the lake in different years. Where -it is drawn as a full line the data are definite; the dotted portions -are interpolated.</p> - -<p>Upon the same diagram are indicated the levels of two storm lines. The -upper is the limit of wave action at the present time, and is 3 feet -above the winter stage (October, 1877). It is everywhere marked by -drift wood, and in many places by a ridge of sand. Above it there is -a growth, on all steep shores, of sage and other bushes, but those in -immediate proximity are dead, having evidently been killed by the salt -spray. Below the line are still standing the stumps of similar bushes, -and the same can be found 2 or 3 feet below the surface of the water.</p> - -<p>The lower storm line was observed by Captain Stansbury in 1850, and -has been described to me by a number of citizens of Utah to whom it -was familiar at that time and subsequently. Like the line now visible, -it was marked by drift wood, and a growth of bushes, including the -sage, extended down to it; but below it there were seen no stumps. Its -position is now several feet under water, and it is probable that the -advancing waves destroyed most of its features, but the vestiges of the -bushy growth above it remain.</p> - -<p>The peculiarities of the two storm lines have an important bearing on -the history of the lake. The fact that the belt of land between them -supported sage bushes shows that previous to its present submergence -the lake had not covered it for many years. Lands washed by the brine -of the lake become saturated with salt to such extent that even -salt-loving plants cannot live upon them, and it is a familiar fact -that the sage (<i>Artemisia sempervirens</i>) never grows in Utah -upon soil so saline as to be unfavorable for grain. The rains of many -years, and perhaps even of centuries, would be needed to cleanse land -abandoned by the lake so that it could sustain the salt-hating bushes, -and we cannot avoid the conclusion that the ancient storm line had been -for a long period the superior limit of the fluctuations of the lake -surface.</p> - -<p>To avoid misapprehension, it should be stated that the storm lines<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span> -have been described as they appear on the eastern shore of Antelope -Island, a locality where the slope of the ground amounts to three or -four degrees. The circumstances are different at the margin of the -mainland, and especially where the slopes are very gentle. The lake is -so shallow that its equilibrium is greatly disturbed by strong winds. -Its waves are small, but in storms the water is pushed high up on the -land toward which the wind blows, the extreme effects being produced -where the inclination is most gentle. The islands, however, are little -flooded; the water does not accumulate against them, but is driven -past; and the easterly gales that produced the present storm line on -the east shore of Antelope Island may have driven so much water to -the westward as even to have depressed the level in that locality. -Moreover, where the land surface is nearly level, the cleansing by rain -of portions once submerged is indefinitely retarded. On all the flatter -shores the lake is bordered by tracts too saline for reclamation by -the farmer, and either bare of vegetation or scantily covered by -salt-loving shrubs. These tracts are above the modern storm line, and -they acquired their salt during some flood too remote to be considered -in this connection. The largest of them is called the Great Salt Lake -Desert, and has a greater area than the lake itself.</p> - -<p>Thus it appears that in recent times the lake has overstepped a bound -to which it had long been subject. Previous to the year 1865, and for -a period of indefinite duration, it rose and fell with the limited -oscillation and with the annual tide, but was never carried above a -certain limiting line. In that year, or the one following, it passed -the line, and it has not yet returned. The annual tide and the limited -oscillation are continued as before, but the lowest stage of the new -regime is higher than the highest stage of the old. The mean stage of -the new regime is 7 or 8 feet higher than the mean stage of the old. -The mean area of the water surface is a sixth part greater under the -new regime than under the old.</p> - -<p>The last statement is based on the United States surveys of Captain -Stansbury and Mr. King. The former gathered the material for his map -in 1850, when the water was at its lowest stage, and the latter in the -spring of 1869, when the water was near its highest stage. The one map -shows an area of 1,750 and the other of 2,166 square miles. From these -I<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span> estimate the old mean area at 1,820 miles, the new at 2,125 miles, -and the increase at 305 miles, or 17 per cent.</p> - - - -<p class="center p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img002"> -<img src="images/002.jpg" class="w75" alt="COMPARATIVE MAP OF GREAT SALT LAKE, UTAH COMPILED TO SHOW ITS INCREASE OF AREA"> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption">COMPARATIVE MAP OF GREAT SALT LAKE, UTAH COMPILED TO SHOW ITS INCREASE OF AREA</p> - - -<p class="center caption"><i>The topography and later shore-line are taken from the Survey of Mr. -Clarence King, U.S. Geologist; the earlier shore-line from the Survey -of Capt. Howard Stansbury, U.S.A.</i></p> - -<p class="p2">The “abnormal change” of the lake may then be described as an infilling -or rise of the water whereby its ordinary level has been raised 7 or 8 -feet and its ordinary area has been increased a sixth part; and this -appears to be distinct from the limited oscillation and annual tide, -which may be regarded as comparatively normal. To account for it a -number of theories have been proposed, and three of them seem worthy -of consideration. They appeal respectively to volcanic, climatic, and -human agencies.</p> - - -<h3>VOLCANIC THEORY.</h3> - -<p>It has been surmised that upheavals of the land, such as sometimes -accompany earthquakes, might have changed the form of the lake bed -and displaced from some region the water that has overflowed others. -This hypothesis acquires a certain plausibility from the fact that -the series of uplifts and downthrows by which the mountains of the -region were formed have been traced down to a very recent date, but it -is negatived by such an array of facts that it cannot be regarded as -tenable. In the first place, the water has risen against <i>all</i> the -shores and about every island of which we have account. The farmers -of the eastern and southern margins have lost pastures and meadows by -submergence. At the north, Bear River Bay has advanced several miles -upon the land. At the west, a boat has recently sailed a number of -miles across tracts that were traversed by Captain Stansbury’s land -parties. That officer has described and mapped Strong’s Knob and -Stansbury Island as peninsulas, but they have since become islands. -Antelope Island is no longer accessible by ford, and Egg Island, the -nesting ground of the gulls and pelicans, has become a reef. Springs -that supplied Captain Stansbury with fresh water near Promontory Point -are now submerged and inaccessible; and other springs have been covered -on the shores of Antelope, Stansbury, and Fremont islands.</p> - -<p>In the second place, the rise of the lake is correlated in time with -the increase of the inflowing streams, which has been everywhere -observed by irrigators, and it is logical to refer the two phenomena to -the same cause.</p> - -<p>And, finally, if upheaval could account for the enlargement of the -lake, it would still be inadequate to account for the maintenance -of its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> increased size, in the face of an evaporation that yearly -removes a layer several feet in depth. The same compensatory principle -that restricts the “limited oscillation” would quickly restore the -equilibrium between inflow and evaporation, in whatever manner it was -disturbed.</p> - - -<h3>CLIMATIC THEORY.</h3> - -<p>It is generally supposed that the change is a phenomenon of climate, -and this hypothesis includes harmoniously the increase of streams with -the increase of lake surface. By some it is thought that the climate of -the district is undergoing, or has undergone, a permanent change; and -by others that the series of oscillations about a mean condition which -characterizes every climate has in this case developed a moist phase -of exceptional degree and duration. The latter view was my own before -I became aware of the features of the ancient storm line, but it now -appears to me untenable. That a variable surface of evaporation, which -had for a long period recognized a limit to its expansion, should not -merely exceed that limit, but should maintain an abnormal extent for -more than a decade, is in a high degree improbable.</p> - -<p>It is far more probable that one of those gradual climatic changes, of -which geology has shown the magnitude and meteorology has illustrated -the slowness, here finds a manifestation. The observed change is -apparently abrupt, and even saltatory; but of this we cannot be -certain, since it is impossible from a record of only thirty years -to eliminate the limited oscillation. It is quite conceivable that -were such elimination effected, the residual change would appear as a -continuous and equable increase of the lake. However that may be, a -certain degree of rapidity of change is necessarily involved, for the -climatic change which is able in a decade to augment by a sixth part -the mean area of evaporation cannot be of exceeding slowness. If we -can ascertain how great a change would be demanded, it will be well to -compare it with such changes as have been observed in other parts of -the country, and see whether its magnitude is such as to interfere with -its assumption.</p> - -<p>The prevailing winds of Utah are westerly, and it may be said in a -general way that the atmosphere of the drainage basin of Great Salt -Lake<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span> is part of an air current moving from west to east. The basin -having no outlet, the precipitation of rain and snow within its limits -must be counter-balanced by the evaporation. The air current must on -the average absorb the same quantity of moisture that it discharges. -Part of the absorption is from land surfaces and part from water, the -latter being the more rapid.</p> - -<p>If, now, the equilibrium be disturbed by an augmented humidity of the -inflowing air, two results ensue. On the one hand the precipitation -is increased, and on the other, the absorbent power of the air being -less, the rate of evaporation is diminished. In so dry a climate the -precipitation is increased in greater ratio than the humidity, and the -rate of evaporation is diminished in less ratio; while of the increased -precipitation an increased percentage gathers in streams and finds its -way to the lake. That reservoir, having its inflow augmented and its -rate of evaporation decreased, gains in volume and grows in breadth -until the evaporation from the added expanse is sufficient to restore -the equilibrium. Giving attention to the fact that the lake receives -a greater percentage of the total downfall than before, and to the -fact that its rate of evaporation is at the same time diminished it is -evident that the resultant augmentation of the lake surface is more -than proportional to the augmentation of the precipitation.</p> - -<p>We are therefore warranted in assuming that an increase of humidity -sufficient to account for the observed increase of 17 per cent. in the -size of the lake would modify the rainfall by less than 17 per cent. -The actual change of rainfall cannot be estimated with any degree of -precision, but from a review of such data as are at my command I am led -to the opinion that an allowance of 10 per cent. would be as likely to -exceed as to fall short, while an allowance of 7 per cent. would be at -the verge of possibility.</p> - -<p>The rainfall of some other portions of the continent has been recorded -with such a degree of thoroughness and for such a period that a term -of comparison is afforded. In his discussion of the precipitation of -the United States, Mr. Schott has grouped the stations by climatic -districts, and deduced the annual means for the several districts. -Making use of his table on page 154 (Smithsonian Contributions, No. -222), and restricting my attention to the results derived from five -or more stations, I select the following extreme cases of variation -between the mean annual rainfalls of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span> consecutive decades. District I -comprises the sea coast from Maine to Virginia, and the record includes -five or more stations from 1827 to 1867. From the decade 1831-’40 to -the decade 1841-’50 the rainfall increased 6 per cent. District II -comprises the state of New York and adjacent regions, and includes -five or more stations from 1830 to 1866. From the decade 1847-’56 to -the decade 1857-’66 the rainfall increased 9 per cent. District IV -comprises the Ohio Valley and adjacent regions, and includes five -or more stations from 1837 to 1866. From decade 1841-’50 to decade -1851-’60 the rainfall diminished 8 per cent.</p> - -<p>The case, then, stands that the best comparable districts and epochs -exhibit extreme fluctuations from decade to decade of from 6 to 9 per -cent, while the rise of Great Salt Lake implies a fluctuation of about -10 per cent. But before deciding that the hypothetical fluctuation -in Utah is extraordinary, consideration should be given to the fact -that in the dry climate of that region a given change in humidity will -produce a relatively great change in rainfall, while an identical -change of rainfall, measured in inches, acquires an exaggerated -importance when expressed as the percentage of a small total rainfall. -Giving due weight to these considerations, I am led to conclude -that the assumed increase of rainfall in Utah is not of incredible -magnitude, and consequently that the hypothesis which ascribes the rise -of the lake to a change of climate should be regarded as tenable. It -by no means follows that it is proven, and so long as it depends on an -assumption the truth of which is merely possible, but not established, -it can claim no more than a provisional acceptance.</p> - -<p>It is proper to add that, so far as I entertain the idea of a change of -climate, I do so without referring the change to any local cause. It is -frequently asserted that the cultivated lands of Utah “draw the rain”; -or that the prayers of the religious community inhabiting the territory -have brought water to their growing crops; or that the telegraph -wires and iron rails which gird the country have in some way caused -electricity to induce precipitation; but none of these agencies seem to -be competent. The weather of the globe is a complex whole, each part of -which reacts on every other, and each part of which depends on every -other. The weather of Utah is an interdependent part of the whole, and -cannot be referred to its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span> causes until the entire subject is mastered. -The simpler and more immediate meteoric reactions have been so far -analyzed that their results are daily predicted; but the remote sources -of our daily changes, as well as the causes of the greater cycles of -change, are still beyond our reach. Although withdrawn from the domain -of the unknowable, they remain within that of the unknown.</p> - - -<h3>THEORY OF HUMAN AGENCIES.</h3> - -<p>The only remaining theory of value is the one advocated by Professor -Powell: that the phenomena are to be ascribed to the modification of -the surface of the earth by the agency of man. The rise of the lake -and the increase of streams have been observed since the settlement of -the country by the white man, and the sage brush on the old storm line -shows that they had not been carried to the same extent at any previous -period in the century. They have coincided in time with the extension -of the operations of civilization; and the settlers attach this idea to -the facts in detail as well as in general. They have frequently told me -that wherever and whenever a settlement was established, there followed -in a few years an increase of the water supply, and these statements -have been supported by such enumerations of details that they seem -worthy of consideration. If they are well founded, the secret of the -change will surely be found among the modifications incident to the -operations of the settler.</p> - -<p>Similar testimony was gathered by Prof. Cyrus Thomas in 1869 in regard -to the increase of water supply at the western edge of the plains, and -the following conclusion appears in his report to Dr. Hayden (page 237 -of the reprint of Dr. Hayden’s reports for 1867, 1868, and 1869):</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>All this, it seems to me, must lead to the conclusion that since the -territory [Colorado] has begun to be settled, towns and cities built -up, farms cultivated, mines opened, and roads made and travelled, -there has been a gradual increase of moisture. Be the cause what it -may, unless it is assumed that there is a cycle of years through which -there is an increase, and that there will be a corresponding decrease, -the fact must be admitted upon this accumulated testimony. I therefore -give it as my firm conviction that this increase is of a permanent -nature, and not periodical, and that it has commenced within eight -years past, and that it is in some way connected with the settlement -of the country, and that as the population increases the moisture will -increase.</p> -</div> - -<p>Notwithstanding the confidence of Professor Thomas’s conclusions, he -appears to have reached them by a leap, for he makes no attempt to -analyze the influence of civilized man on nature to which he appeals. -Before we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span> accept his results, it will be necessary to inquire in what -way the white man has modified the conditions by which the water supply -is controlled.</p> - -<p>To facilitate this inquiry, an attempt will be made to give a new and -more convenient form to our expression of the amount of change for -which it is necessary to account in the basin of Great Salt Lake.</p> - -<p>The inflow of the lake is derived chiefly from three rivers, and is -susceptible of very exact determination. Thorough measurement has not -yet been made, but there has been a single determination of each river -and minor stream, and a rough estimate can be based on them. The Bear -and the Weber were measured in October, 1877, and I am led by the -analogy of other streams and by the characters of the river channels -to judge that the mean volume of the Bear for the year was twice its -volume at the date of measurement, and that of the Weber four times. -The mean flow of the Jordan can be estimated with more confidence, for -reasons which will appear in a following chapter. The “supply from -other sources” mentioned in the table includes all the creeks that flow -from the Wasatch Mountains, between Draper and Hampden, together with -the Malade River, Blue Creek, the creeks of Skull and Tooele Valleys, -and the line of springs that encircles the lake.</p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr><th>Rivers, etc.</th><th>Measured volume in feet per second.</th><th>Estimated mean volume in feet per second.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Bear River, measured October 4, 1877, at Hampden Bridge</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,600 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5,200 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Weber River, measured October 11, near Ogden </td><td class="tdr bl"> 500 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,000 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Jordan River, measured July 8, near Draper </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,275 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Supply from other sources </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,800 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td><span class="caption">    Total</span> </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10,000 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Deduct the water used in irrigation </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 600 </td></tr> -<tr class="bb bt bl br"><td><span class="caption">    Remainder</span> </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9,400 </td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2">The result expresses the mean inflow to the lake in 1877, and is -probably not more than 25 per cent. in error. The total inflow for the -year would suffice to cover the lake to a depth of 60 inches. In the -same year (or from October, 1876, to October, 1877) the lake fell 6¹⁄₂ -inches, showing that the loss by evaporation was by so much greater -than the gain by inflow. The total annual evaporation of inflowing -water may therefore be placed provisionally at 66¹⁄₂ inches. If we add -to this the rain and snow<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span> which fall on the lake, we deduce a total -annual evaporation of about 80 inches of water; but for the present -purpose it will be more convenient to consider the former figure.</p> - -<p>The extent of the Salt Lake basin is about 28,500 square miles. The -western portion, amounting to 12,500 miles, sends no water to the -lake, yielding all its rainfall to evaporation within its own limits. -The remaining 16,000 miles includes both plains and mountains, and -its tribute is unequal. To supply 66¹⁄₂ inches annually to the whole -area of the lake, 2,125 miles, it must yield a sheet of water with an -average thickness of 8.83 inches. In former times, when the lake had an -area of only 1,820 miles, the yield of the same area was 7.43 inches. -The advance from 7.43 to 8.83, or the addition of 1 inch and 4 tenths -to the mean outflow of the district, is the phenomenon to be accounted -for.</p> - -<p>All the water that is precipitated within the district as rain or snow -returns eventually to the air, but different portions are returned -in different ways. Of the snow, a portion is melted and a portion is -evaporated without melting. Of the melted snow and the rain, a part is -absorbed by vegetation and soil, and is afterward reabsorbed by the -air; another part runs from the surface in rills, and a third part -sinks into the underlying formations and afterward emerges in springs. -The streams which arise from springs and rills are again divided. Part -of the water is evaporated from the surfaces of the streams and of -fresh water lakes interrupting their courses. Another part enters the -adjacent porous soils, and either meets in them the air by which it is -slowly absorbed, or else so saturates them as to produce marshes from -which evaporation progresses rapidly at the surface. The remainder -flows to Great Salt Lake, and is in time evaporated from its surface. -The lesser portion of the precipitation enters the lake; the greater -is intercepted on the way and turned back to the air. Whatever man -has done to clear the way for the flowing water has diminished local -evaporation and helped to fill the lake. Whatever he has done to -increase local evaporation has tended to empty the lake.</p> - -<p>The white man has modified the conditions of drainage, first, by the -cultivation of the soil; second, by the raising of herds; and, third, -by the cutting of trees.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span></p> - -<p>1. By plowing the earth the farmer has rendered it more porous and -absorbent, so that a smaller percentage of the passing shower runs off. -He has destroyed the native vegetation, and replaced it by another -that may or may not increase the local evaporation; but this is of -little moment, because his operations have been conducted on gentle -slopes which in their natural condition contributed very little to the -streams. It is of greater import that he has diverted water already -accumulated in streams, and for the purposes of irrigation has spread -it broadly upon the land, whence it is absorbed by the air. In this way -he has diminished the inflow of the lake.</p> - -<p>Incidental to the work of irrigation has been what is known as the -“opening out” of springs. Small springs are apt to produce bogs from -which much water is evaporated, and it has been found that by running -ditches through them the water can be gathered into streams instead. -The streams of water thus rescued from local dissipation are consumed -in irrigation during a few months of the year, but for the remainder -go to swell the rivers, and the general tendency of the work is to -increase the inflow of the lake. A similar and probably greater result -has been achieved by the cutting of beaver dams. In its natural -condition every stream not subject to violent floods was ponded from -end to end by the beaver. Its water surface was greatly expanded, -and its flood plains were converted into marshes. The irrigator has -destroyed the dams and drained the marshes.</p> - -<p>There are a few localities where drainage has been resorted to for the -reclamation of wet hay lands, and that work has the same influence on -the discharge to the lake.</p> - -<p>2. The area affected by grazing is far greater than that affected by -farming. Cattle, horses, and sheep have ranged through all the valleys -and upon all the mountains. Over large areas they have destroyed the -native grasses, and they have everywhere reduced them. Where once the -water from rain was entangled in a mesh of vegetation and restrained -from gathering into rills, there is now only an open growth of bushes -that offer no obstruction. Where once the snows of autumn were spread -on a non-conducting mat of hay, and wasted by evaporation until the -sunshine came to melt them, they now fall upon naked earth and are -melted at once by its warmth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span></p> - -<p>The treading of many feet at the boggy springs compacts the spongy mold -and renders it impervious. The water is no longer able to percolate, -and runs away in streams. The porous beds of brooklets are in the same -way tramped and puddled by the feet of cattle, and much water that -formerly sank by the way is now carried forward.</p> - -<p>In all these ways the herds tend to increase the inflow of the lake, -and there is perhaps no way in which they have lessened it.</p> - -<p>3. The cutting of trees for lumber and fence material and fuel has -further increased the streams. By the removal of foliage, that share -of the rain and snow which was formerly caught by it and thence -evaporated, is now permitted to reach the ground, and some part of it -is contributed to the streams. Snow beds that were once shaded are -now exposed to the sun, and their melting is so accelerated that a -comparatively small proportion of their contents is wasted by the wind. -Moreover, that which is melted is melted more rapidly, and a larger -share of it is formed into rills.</p> - -<p>On the whole, it appears that the white man causes a greater percentage -of the precipitation in snow to be melted and a less percentage to be -evaporated directly. This follows from the destruction of trees and of -grass. By reducing the amount of vegetation he gives a freer flow to -the water from rain and melting snow and carries a greater percentage -of it to streams, while a smaller percentage reaches the air by -evaporation from the soil. By the treading of his cattle he diminishes -the leakage of the smaller water channels, and conserves the streams -gathered there. By the same means and by the digging of drains he -dries the marshes and thereby enlarges the streams. In all these ways -he increases the outflow of the land and the inflow of the lake. He -diminishes the inflow in a notable degree only by irrigation.</p> - -<p>The direct influence of irrigation upon the inflow is susceptible of -quantitative statement. Four hundred square miles of land in Utah and -Idaho are fertilized by water that would otherwise flow to the lake, -and they dissipate annually a layer of about 20 inches. To supply these -20 inches the drainage district of 16,000 miles yields an average layer -of 0.5 inch, and this yield is in addition to the 1.4 inches required -to maintain the increase of lake surface. The total augmentation of the -annual water<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> supply is therefore represented by a sheet 1.9 inches in -depth covering the entire district.</p> - -<p>The indirect influence of irrigation, and the influences exerted by the -grazier and the woodman, cannot be estimated from any existing data, -but of their tendencies there can be no question. To some extent they -diminish local evaporation, and induce a larger share of the rainfall -to gather in the streams; and to one who has contrasted the district in -question with similar districts in their virgin condition, there seems -no extravagance in ascribing to them the whole of the observed change.</p> - -<p>In the valley of the Mississippi and on the Atlantic coast, it has been -observed that the floods of rivers are higher than formerly, and that -the low stages are lower, and the change has been ascribed by Ellet -and others to the destruction of the native vegetation. The removal -of forests and of prairie grasses is believed to facilitate the rapid -discharge from the land of the water from rain and melted snow, and to -diminish the amount stored in the soil to maintain springs. In an arid -country like Utah, where the thirst of the air is not satisfied by the -entire rainfall, any influence that will increase the rapidity of the -discharge must also increase the amount of the discharge. The moisture -that lingers on the surface is lost.</p> - -<p>On the whole, it may be most wise to hold the question an open one -whether the water supply of the lake has been increased by a climatic -change or by human agency. So far as we now know, neither theory is -inconsistent with the facts, and it is possible that the truth includes -both. The former appeals to a cause that may perhaps be adequate, but -is not independently known to exist. The latter appeals to causes known -to exist but quantitatively undetermined.</p> - -<p>It is gratifying to turn to the economic bearings of the question, for -the theories best sustained by facts are those most flattering to the -agricultural future of the Arid Region. If the filling of the streams -and the rise of the lake were due to a transient extreme of climate, -that extreme would be followed by a return to a mean condition, or -perhaps by an oscillation in the opposite direction, and a large share -of the fields now productive would be stricken by drought and returned -to the desert.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span></p> - -<p>If the increase of water supply is due to a progressive change of -climate forming part of a long cycle, it is practically permanent, and -future changes are more likely to be in the same advantageous direction -than in the opposite. The lands now reclaimed are assured for years to -come, and there is every encouragement for the work of utilizing the -existing streams to the utmost.</p> - -<p>And finally, if the increase of water supply is due to the changes -wrought by the industries of the white man, the prospect is even -better. Not only is every gain of the present assured for the future, -but future gain may be predicted. Not alone are the agricultural -facilities of this district improving, but the facilities in the whole -Rocky Mountain Region are improving and will improve. Not only does the -settler incidentally and unconsciously enhance his natural privilege, -but it is possible, by the aid of a careful study of the subject, to -devise such systematic methods as shall render his work still more -effectual.</p> - - -<h3>FARMING WITHOUT IRRIGATION.</h3> - -<p>The general rule that agriculture in Utah is dependent on artificial -irrigation finds exception in two ways. First, there are some -localities naturally irrigated; and, second, there is at least one -locality of which the local climate permits dry farming.</p> - -<p>Along the low banks of many streams there are fertile strips of -land. The soil is in every such case of a porous nature, and water -from the stream percolates laterally and rises to the roots of the -plants. Nearly all such lands are flooded in spring time, and they -are usually devoted to hay as an exclusive crop; but some of them are -above ordinary floods and are suited for other uses. It rarely happens, -however, that they are farmed without some irrigation, for the reason -that the use of the convenient water render the harvest more secure and -abundant.</p> - -<p>The same fertility is sometimes induced by subterranean waters which -have no connection with surface streams. In such cases there is -usually, and perhaps always, an impervious subsoil which retains -percolating water near the surface. A remarkable instance of this sort -is known at the western base of the Wasatch Mountains. A strip of land -from 20 to 40 rods broad,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span> and marking the junction of the mountain -slope with the plain, has been found productive from Hampton’s Bridge -to Brigham City, a distance of 18 miles. In some parts it has been -irrigated, with the result of doubling or trebling the yield, but where -water has not been obtained, the farmer has nevertheless succeeded in -extracting a living. A similar but narrower belt of land lies at the -eastern base of the Promontory range, and a few others have been found. -In each locality the proximity of subterranean water to the surface is -shown by the success of shallow wells, and there is evidently a natural -irrigation.</p> - -<p>There is one region, however, where natural irrigation is out of the -question, but where crops have nevertheless been secured. Bear River -“City” was founded by a company of Danes, who brought the water of the -Malade River to irrigate their fields. After repeated experiment they -became satisfied that the water was so brackish as to be injurious -instead of beneficial, and ceased to use it; and for a number of years -they have obtained a meagre subsistence by dry farming. A district -lying south of Ogden and east of Great Salt Lake, and known as “the -Sand Ridge”, has recently been brought in use, and in 1876 and 1877 -winter wheat was harvested with a yield variously reported as from 10 -to 15 bushels per acre. This success is regarded by some of the older -settlers as temporary and delusive, for it is said to have depended on -exceptional spring rains; but the majority of the community have faith -in its permanence, and the experiment is being pushed in many valleys. -In Bear River City and on the Sand Ridge water is not found by shallow -wells, and the land is naturally dry. In these localities, and, so -far as I am aware, in all others where dry land has been successfully -farmed, the soil is sandy, and this appears to be an essential -condition. Success has moreover been restricted to the line of valleys -which lie at the western base of the Wasatch Mountains and near Great -Salt Lake.</p> - -<p>This last feature depends, as I conceive, on a local peculiarity of -climate. The general movement of the atmosphere is from west to east, -and the air which crosses the lake is immediately lifted from its level -to the crest of the Wasatch. Having acquired from the lake an addition -to its quota of moisture, it has less power of absorption and a greater -tendency<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> to precipitation than the atmosphere in general, and it -confers on the eastern shore of the lake a climate of exceptional -humidity.</p> - -<p>The character of this climate is clearly indicated by the assemblage of -the observed facts in regard to precipitation. Through the kindness of -Prof. Joseph Henry I have been permitted to examine the rain records -accumulated by the Smithsonian Institution, including not only those -which have been embodied in the published “Tables,” but the more recent -data to be included in the forthcoming second edition. The following -table shows the mean annual precipitation for all stations in Utah, -Nevada, Wyoming, and Colorado, which have a record two years or more -in extent, together with certain other facts for comparison. The -temperature means are taken from the Smithsonian Temperature Tables and -the United States Signal Service Reports.</p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bt bl br"><th rowspan="3">Station.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Annual precipitation.</th><th class="bl" colspan="2">Mean Temperature.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Height above sea.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Latitude.</th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Length of record.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdc bl">Spring.</td><td class="tdc bl">Summer.</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdr bl"><i>Inches.</i></td><td class="tdr bl"><i>Deg.</i> <i>F.</i></td><td class="tdr bl"><i>Deg.</i> <i>F.</i></td><td class="tdr bl"><i>Feet.</i></td><td class="tdr bl">°   ´</td><td class="tdr bl"><i>Yrs.</i> <i>Mos.</i></td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Salt Lake City, Utah </td><td class="tdr bl"> 24.81</td><td class="tdr bl"> 50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 74 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,354</td><td class="tdr bl">40 46</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9 2 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Camp Douglas, Utah </td><td class="tdr bl"> 18.82</td><td class="tdr bl"> 49 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 73 </td><td class="tdr bl">5,024</td><td class="tdr bl">40 46</td><td class="tdr bl"> 10 3 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Colorado Springs, Colo </td><td class="tdr bl"> 17.59</td><td class="tdr bl"> 44 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 68 </td><td class="tdr bl">5,970</td><td class="tdr bl">38 49</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3 0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Camp Winfield Scott, Nev </td><td class="tdr bl"> 17.33</td><td class="tdr bl"> 47 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 74 </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">41 34</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 8 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Massachusetts, Colo </td><td class="tdr bl"> 17.23</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">8,365</td><td class="tdr bl">37 32</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 1 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Golden City, Colo </td><td class="tdr bl"> 17.01</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 72 </td><td class="tdr bl">5,240</td><td class="tdr bl">39 44</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 3 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Sedgwick, Colo </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15.44</td><td class="tdr bl"> 47 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 74 </td><td class="tdr bl">3,600</td><td class="tdr bl">40 58</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 1 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Fred. Steele, Wyo </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15.38</td><td class="tdr bl"> 41 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 66 </td><td class="tdr bl">6,845</td><td class="tdr bl">41 47</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 5 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Fetterman, Wyo </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15.10</td><td class="tdr bl"> 41 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 67 </td><td class="tdr bl">5,012</td><td class="tdr bl">42 50</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 7 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Garland, Colo </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14.86</td><td class="tdr bl"> 43 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 64 </td><td class="tdr bl">7,864</td><td class="tdr bl">37 25</td><td class="tdr bl"> 13 1 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Laramie, Wyo </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14.45</td><td class="tdr bl"> 47 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 73 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,472</td><td class="tdr bl">42 12</td><td class="tdr bl"> 17 8 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort D. A, Russell, Wyo </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14.09</td><td class="tdr bl"> 36 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 64 </td><td class="tdr bl">6,000</td><td class="tdr bl">41 12</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 1 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Denver, Colo </td><td class="tdr bl"> 13.77</td><td class="tdr bl"> 46 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 69 </td><td class="tdr bl">5,250</td><td class="tdr bl">39 45</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 1 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Harrisburg, Utah </td><td class="tdr bl"> 13.74</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">3,275</td><td class="tdr bl">37 10</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 2 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Reynolds, Colo </td><td class="tdr bl"> 13.26</td><td class="tdr bl"> 52 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 75 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,300</td><td class="tdr bl">38 12</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 8 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Lyon, Colo </td><td class="tdr bl"> 12.56</td><td class="tdr bl"> 51 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 77 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,000</td><td class="tdr bl">38 08</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7 9 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Sanders, Wyo </td><td class="tdr bl"> 11.46</td><td class="tdr bl"> 38 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 62 </td><td class="tdr bl">7,161</td><td class="tdr bl">41 17</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 10 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Saint George, Utah </td><td class="tdr bl"> 11.39</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl">2,800</td><td class="tdr bl">37 13</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 11 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Camp Halleck, Nev </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10.98</td><td class="tdr bl"> 45 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 68 </td><td class="tdr bl">5,790</td><td class="tdr bl">40 49</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5 8 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Cheyenne, Wyo </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10.14</td><td class="tdr bl"> 40 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 66 </td><td class="tdr bl">6,075</td><td class="tdr bl">41 08</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3 9 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Camp McDermitt, Nev </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.53</td><td class="tdr bl"> 46 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 70 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,700</td><td class="tdr bl">41 58</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 4 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Bridger, Wyo </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.43</td><td class="tdr bl"> 39 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 63 </td><td class="tdr bl">6,656</td><td class="tdr bl">41 20</td><td class="tdr bl"> 12 10 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fort Churchill, Nev </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.43</td><td class="tdr bl"> 52 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 75 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,284</td><td class="tdr bl">39 17</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3 9 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Camp Floyd, Utah </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7.33</td><td class="tdr bl"> 49 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 74 </td><td class="tdr bl">4,867</td><td class="tdr bl">40 16</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2 6 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br bb"><td><span class="caption">Means</span> </td><td class="tdr bl"> 13.80</td><td class="tdr bl"> 45 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 70 </td><td class="tdr bl">5,300</td><td class="tdr bl">40 05</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -</table> -<p> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span></p> - -<p class="p2">Two of the stations, Salt Lake City and Camp Douglas, lie within the -zone of climate modified by Great Salt Lake, and a brief inspection -of the table will show how greatly their climate is influenced. As a -general rule, the localities of greatest precipitation in the Rocky -Mountain Region have so great altitude that their summer temperature -does not permit agriculture, but Salt Lake City, with an altitude -1,000 feet below the average of the 24 stations, and a temperature 4° -above the average, has a rainfall 11 inches greater than the average; -and Camp Douglas, 3° warmer than the average and 250 feet lower, has -a rainfall 5 inches greater. If the two stations are compared with -those which lie nearest them, the contrast is still more striking. Camp -Halleck, 130 miles west of the lake, and 600 feet higher than Camp -Douglas, has a rainfall of 11 inches only. Fort Bridger, 90 miles east -of the lake and 1,600 feet higher than Camp Douglas, has a rainfall of -8 inches. Camp Floyd, 30 miles south of the lake and sheltered from its -influence by mountains, receives only 7¹⁄₃ inches. But Salt Lake City -and Camp Douglas, lying between the lake and the Wasatch Range, record -respectively 24.8 and 18.8 inches.</p> - -<p>In fine, it appears that the climate of the eastern shore of Great Salt -Lake is decidedly exceptional and approximates in humidity to that of -Central Kansas. The fact that it admits of dry farming gives no warrant -for the belief that large areas in the Arid Region can be cultivated -without irrigation, but serves rather to confirm the conclusion that -the limit to remunerative dry farming is practically drawn by the -isohyetal line of 22 inches. Even in this most favored district the -yield is so small that it can be doubled by irrigation, and eventually -water ditches will be carried to nearly all the land that has yet been -plowed.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br><span class="small">CERTAIN IMPORTANT QUESTIONS RELATING TO IRRIGABLE LANDS.</span></h2> -</div> - - - -<h3>THE UNIT OF WATER USED IN IRRIGATION.</h3> - -<p>The unit of water employed in mining as well as manufacturing -enterprises in the west is usually the inch, meaning thereby the amount -of water which will flow through an orifice one inch square. But in -practice this quantity is very indefinite, due to the “head” or amount -of pressure from above. In some districts this latter is taken at six -inches. Another source of uncertainty exists in the fact that increase -in the size of the orifice and increase in the amount of flow do not -progress in the same ratio. An orifice of one square inch will not -admit of a discharge one-tenth as great as an orifice of ten square -inches. An inch of water, therefore, is variable with the size of the -stream as well as with the head or pressure. For these reasons it -seemed better to take a more definite quantity of water, and for this -purpose the <i>second-foot</i> has been adopted. By its use the volume -of a stream will be given by stating the number of cubic feet which the -stream will deliver per second.</p> - - -<h3>THE QUANTITATIVE VALUE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION.</h3> - -<p>In general, throughout the Arid Region the extent of the irrigable land -is limited by the water supply; the arable lands are much greater than -the irrigable. Hence it becomes necessary, in determining the amount of -irrigable lands with reasonably approximate accuracy, to determine the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span> -value of water in irrigation; that is, the amount of land which a given -amount of water will serve.</p> - -<p>All questions of concrete or applied science are more or less complex -by reason of the multifarious conditions found in nature, and this is -eminently true of the problem we are now to solve, namely, how much -water must an acre of land receive by irrigation to render agriculture -thereon most successful; or, how much land will a given amount of water -adequately supply. This will be affected by the following general -conditions, namely, the amount of water that will be furnished by -rainfall, for if there is rainfall in the season of growing crops, -irrigation is necessary only to supply the deficiency; second, the -character of the soil and subsoil. If the conditions of soil are -unfavorable, the water supply may be speedily evaporated on the one -hand, or quickly lost by subterranean drainage on the other; but if -there be a soil permitting the proper permeation of water downward and -upward, and an impervious subsoil, the amount furnished by artificial -irrigation will be held in such a manner as to serve the soil bearing -crops to the greatest extent; and, lastly, there is a great difference -in the amount of water needed for different crops, some requiring less, -others more.</p> - -<p>Under these heads come the general complicating conditions. In the -mountainous country the areal distribution of rainfall is preëminently -variable, as the currents of air which carry the water are deflected in -various ways by diverse topographic inequalities. The rainfall is also -exceedingly irregular, varying from year to year, and again from season -to season.</p> - -<p>But in all these varying conditions of time and space there is one -fact which must control our conclusions in considering most of the -lands of the Arid Region, namely: any district of country which we may -be studying is liable for many seasons in a long series to be without -rainfall, when the whole supply must be received from irrigation. -Safety in agricultural operations will be secured by neglecting the -rainfall and considering only the supply of water to be furnished by -artificial methods; the less favorable seasons must be considered; -in the more favorable there will be a surplus. In general, this -statement applies throughout the Arid Region, but there<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span> are some -limited localities where a small amount of rainfall in the season of -growing crops seems to be constant from year to year. In such districts -irrigation will only be used to supply deficiencies.</p> - -<p>The complicating conditions arising from soil and subsoil are many. -Experience has already shown that there are occasional conditions of -soil and subsoil so favorable that the water may be supplied before the -growing season, and the subsoil will hold it for weeks, or even months, -and gradually yield the moisture to the overlying soil by slow upward -percolation or capillary attraction during the season when growing -crops require its fertilizing effect. When such conditions of soil and -subsoil obtain, the construction of reservoirs is unnecessary, and the -whole annual supply of the streams may be utilized. On the other hand, -there are extremely pervious soils underlaid by sands and gravels, -which speedily carry away the water by a natural under drainage. Here -a maximum supply by irrigation is necessary, as the soils must be kept -moist by frequent flowing. Under such conditions the amount of water to -be supplied is many fold greater than under the conditions previously -mentioned, and between these extremes almost infinite variety prevails.</p> - -<p>Practical agriculture by irrigation has also demonstrated the fact -that the wants of different crops are exceedingly variable, some -requiring many fold the amount of others. This is due in part to the -length of time necessary to the maturing of the crops, in part to the -amount of constant moisture necessary to their successful growth. But -by excluding the variability due to rainfall, and considering only -that due to differences of soils and crops, and by taking advantage -of a wide experience, a general average may be obtained of sufficient -accuracy for the purposes here in view.</p> - -<p>In examining the literature of this subject it was found that the -experience in other countries could not be used as a guide in -considering our problems. In general, irrigation in Europe and Asia -is practiced only to supply deficiencies, and the crops there raised -are only in part the same as with us, and the variation on account of -the crops is very great. Certain statements of Marsh in his “Man and -Nature” have been copied into the journals and reports published in -the United States, and made to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> do duty on many occasions; but these -statements are rather misleading, as the experience of farmers in the -Arid Region has abundantly demonstrated. The writers who have used -them have in general overestimated the quantitative value of water in -irrigation. The facts in Italy, in Spain, in Grenada, and India are -valuable severally for discussion in the countries named, but must be -used in a discussion of the arid lands of the United States with much -care. It seemed better, under these circumstances, to determine the -quantitative value of water in irrigation in Utah from the experience -of the farmers of Utah. Irrigation has there been practiced for about -thirty years, and gradually during that time the area of land thus -redeemed has been increased, until at present about 325,000 acres -of land are under cultivation. A great variety of crops have been -cultivated—corn, wheat, oats, rye, garden vegetables, orchard trees, -fruits, vines, etc., etc.; and even the fig tree and sugar cane are -there raised.</p> - -<p>During the past six or seven years I have from time to time, as -occasion was afforded, directed my attention to this problem, but being -exceedingly complex, a very wide range of facts must be considered in -order to obtain a reasonably approximate average. During the past year -the task of more thoroughly investigating this subject was delegated -to Mr. Gilbert. The results of his studies appear in a foregoing -chapter, written by him; but it may be stated here that he has reached -the conclusion that a continuous flow of one cubic foot of water per -second, <i>i. e.</i>, a <i>second-foot</i> of water, will, in most of -the lands of Utah, serve about 100 acres for the general average of -crops cultivated in that country; but to secure that amount of service -from the water very careful and economic methods of irrigation must -be practiced. At present, there are few instances where such economic -methods are used. In general, there is a great wastage, due to badly -constructed canals, from which the water either percolates away or -breaks away from time to time; due, also, to too rapid flow, and also -to an excessive use of the water, as there is a tendency among the -farmers to irrigate too frequently and too copiously, errors corrected -only by long experience.</p> - -<p>The studies of Mr. Gilbert, under the circumstances, were quite -thorough, and his conclusions accord with my own, derived from a more -desultory but longer study of the subject.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span></p> - - -<h3>AREA OF IRRIGABLE LAND SOMETIMES NOT LIMITED BY WATER SUPPLY.</h3> - -<p>While, as a general fact, the area of arable land is greater than the -area of irrigable land, by reason of the insufficient supply of water, -yet in considering limited tracts it may often be found that the supply -of water is so great that only a part of it can be used thereon. In -such cases the area of irrigable land is limited by the extent to which -the water can be used by proper engineering skill. This is true in -considering some portions of Utah, where the waters of the Green and -Colorado cannot all be used within that territory. Eventually these -surplus waters will be used in southern California.</p> - - -<h3>METHOD OF DETERMINING THE SUPPLY OF WATER.</h3> - -<p>To determine the amount of irrigable land in Utah, it was necessary to -consider the supply; that is, to determine the amount of water flowing -in the several streams. Again, this quantity is variable in each stream -from season to season and from year to year. The irrigable season is -but a small portion of the year. To utilize the entire annual discharge -of the water, it would be necessary to hold the surplus flowing in the -non-growing season in reservoirs, and even by this method the whole -amount could not be utilized, as a great quantity would be lost by -evaporation. As the utilization of the water by reservoirs will be to -a great extent postponed for many years, the question of immediate -practical importance is resolved into a consideration of the amount of -water that the streams will afford during the irrigating season. But -in the earlier part of the season the flow in most of the streams in -this western region is great, and it steadily diminishes to the end of -the summer. Earlier in the season there is more water, while for the -average of crops the greater amount is needed later.</p> - -<p>The practical capacity of a stream will then be determined by its flow -at the time when that is least in comparison with the demands of the -growing crops. This will be called the critical period, and the volume -of water of the critical period will determine the capacity of the -stream. The critical period will vary in different parts of the region -from the latter part of June until the first part of August. For the -purposes of this discussion it was only necessary to determine the -flow of the water during the critical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span> period. This has been done by -very simple methods. Usually in each case a section of the stream has -been selected having the least possible variation of outline and flow. -A cross-section of the stream has been measured, and the velocity of -flow determined. With these factors the capacity of the streams has -been obtained. In some cases single measurements have been made; in -others several at different seasons, rarely in different years. The -determination of the available volume of the several streams by such -methods is necessarily uncertain, especially from the fact that it has -not always been possible to gauge the streams exactly at the critical -period; and, again, the flow in one season may differ materially from -that in another. But as the capacity of a stream should never be rated -by its volume in seasons of abundant flow, we have endeavored as far -as possible to determine the capacity of the streams in low water -years. Altogether the amount of water in the several streams has been -determined crudely, and at best the data given must be considered -tolerable approximations. In considering the several streams experience -may hereafter discover many errors, but as the number of determinations -is great, the average may be considered good.</p> - - -<h3>METHODS OF DETERMINING THE EXTENT OF IRRIGABLE LAND UNLIMITED BY WATER -SUPPLY.</h3> - -<p>In the few cases where the water supply is more than sufficient to -serve the arable lands, the character of the problem is entirely -changed, and it becomes necessary then to determine the area to which -the waters can be carried. These problems are hypsometric; relative -altitudes are the governing conditions. The hypsometric methods -were barometric and angular; that is, from the barometric stations -vertical angles were taken and recorded to all the principal points -in the topography of the country; mercurial and aneroid barometers -were used, chiefly the former; the latter to a limited extent, for -subsidiary work. Angular measurements were made with gradientors to a -slight extent, but chiefly with the orograph, an instrument by which a -great multiplicity of angles are observed and recorded by mechanical -methods. This instrument was devised by Professor Thompson for the use -of the survey, and has been fully described in the reports on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span> -geographical operations. To run hypsometric lines with spirit levels -would have involved a great amount of labor and been exceedingly -expensive, and such a method was entirely impracticable with the means -at command, but the methods used give fairly approximate results, and -perhaps all that is necessary for the purposes to be subserved.</p> - - -<h3>THE SELECTION OF IRRIGABLE LANDS.</h3> - -<p>From the fact that the area of arable lands greatly exceeds the -irrigable, or the amount which the waters of the streams will serve, -a wide choice in the selection of the latter is permitted. The -considerations affecting the choice are diverse, but fall readily -into two classes, viz: physical conditions and artificial conditions. -The mountains and high plateaus are the great aqueous condensers; the -mountains and high plateaus are also the reservoirs that hold the water -fed to the streams in the irrigating season, for the fountains from -which the rivers flow are the snow fields of the highlands. After the -streams leave the highlands they steadily diminish in volume, the loss -being due in part to direct evaporation, and in part to percolation -in the sands from which the waters are eventually evaporated. In like -manner irrigating canals starting near the mountains and running -far out into the valleys and plains rapidly diminish in the volume -of flowing water. Looking to the conservation of water, it is best -to select lands as high along the streams as possible. But this -consideration is directly opposed by considerations relating to -temperature; the higher the land the colder the climate. Where the -great majority of streams have their sources, agriculture is impossible -on account of prevailing summer frosts; the lower the altitude the more -genial the temperature; the lower the land the greater the variety of -crops which can be cultivated; and to the extent that the variety of -crops is multiplied the irrigating season is lengthened, until the -maximum is reached in low altitudes and low latitudes where two crops -can be raised annually on the same land. In the selection of lands, -as governed by these conditions, the higher lands will be avoided on -the one hand because of the rigor of the climate; if these conditions -alone governed, no settlement should be made in Utah above 6,500 feet -above the level of the sea, and in general still lower lands should be -used; on the other hand<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> the irrigable lands should not be selected at -such a distance from the source of the stream as to be the occasion of -a great loss of water by direct and indirect evaporation. For general -climatic reasons, the lands should be selected as low as possible; -for economy of water as high as possible; and these conditions in the -main will cause the selections to be made along the middle courses of -the streams. But this general rule will be modified by minor physical -conditions relating to soil and slope—soils that will best conserve -the water will be selected, and land with the gentlest slopes will be -taken.</p> - -<p>In general, the descent of the streams in the arid land is very great; -for this reason the flood plains are small, that is, the extent of -the lands adjacent to the streams which are subject to overflow at -high water is limited. In general, these flood-plain lands should not -be chosen for irrigation, from the fact that the irrigating canals -are liable to be destroyed during flood seasons. Where the plan of -irrigation includes the storage of the water of the non-growing season, -by which all the waters of the year are held under control, the -flood-plain lands can be used to advantage, from the fact that they -lie in such a way as to be easily irrigated and their soils possess -elements and conditions of great fertility.</p> - -<p>Other locally controlling conditions are found in selecting the most -advantageous sites for the necessary water works.</p> - -<p>These are the chief physical factors which enter into the problem, and -in general it will be solved by considering these factors only; but -occasionally artificial conditions will control.</p> - -<p>The mining industries of the Arid Region are proportionately greater -than in the more humid country. Where valuable mines are discovered -towns spring up in their immediate vicinity, and they must be served -with water for domestic purposes and for garden culture. When possible, -agriculture will be practiced in the immediate vicinity for the purpose -of taking advantage of the local market. In like manner towns spring -up along the railroads, and agriculture will be carried on in their -vicinity. For this and like reasons the streams of the Arid Region will -often be used on lands where they cannot be made the most available -under physical conditions, and yet under such circumstances artificial -conditions must prevail.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span></p> - -<p>In the indication of specific areas as irrigable on the accompanying -map of Utah, it must be considered that the selections made are -but tentative; the areas chosen are supposed to be, under all the -circumstances, the most available; but each community will settle -this problem for itself, and the circumstances which will control -any particular selection cannot be foretold. It is believed that the -selections made will be advantageous to the settler, by giving him the -opinions of men who have made the subject a study, and will save many -mistakes.</p> - -<p>The history of this subject in Utah is very instructive. The greater -number of people in the territory who engage in agriculture are -organized into ecclesiastical bodies, trying the experiment of communal -institutions. In this way the communal towns are mobile. This mobility -is increased by the fact that the towns are usually laid out on -Government lands, and for a long time titles to the land in severalty -are not obtained by the people. It has been the custom of the church -to send a number of people, organized as a community, to a town site -on some stream to be used in the cultivation of the lands, and rarely -has the first selection made been final. Luxuriant vegetation has -often tempted the settlers to select lands at too great an altitude, -and many towns have been moved down stream. Sometimes selections have -been made too far away from the sources of the streams, and to increase -the supply of water, towns have been moved up stream. Sometimes lands -of too great slope have been chosen, and here the waters have rapidly -cut deep channels and destroyed the fields. Sometimes alkaline lands -are selected and abandoned, and sometimes excessively sandy lands have -caused a change to be made; but the question of the best sites for the -construction of works for controlling and distributing the water has -usually determined the selection of lands within restricted limits.</p> - -<p>To a very slight extent indeed have artificial conditions controlled -in Utah; the several problems have generally been solved by the -consideration of physical facts.</p> - - -<h3>INCREASE IN THE WATER SUPPLY.</h3> - -<p>Irrigation has been practiced in different portions of the Arid Region -for the last twenty-five or thirty years, and the area cultivated -by this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span> means has been steadily increasing during that time. In -California and New Mexico irrigation has been practiced to a limited -extent for a much longer time at the several Catholic missions under -the old Spanish regime. In the history of the settlement of the several -districts an important fact has been uniformly observed—in the first -years of settlement the streams have steadily increased in volume. -This fact has been observed alike in California, Utah, Colorado, and -wherever irrigation has been practiced. As the chief development of -this industry has been within the last fifteen years, it has been a -fact especially observed during that time. An increase in the water -supply, so universal of late years, has led to many conjectures and -hypotheses as to its origin. It has generally been supposed to result -from increased rainfall, and this increased rainfall now from this, now -from that, condition of affairs. Many have attributed the change to the -laying of railroad tracks and construction of telegraph lines; others -to the cultivation of the soil, and not a few to the interposition of -Divine Providence in behalf of the Latter Day Saints.</p> - -<p>If each physical cause was indeed a <i>vera causa</i>, their inability -to produce the results is quite manifest. A single railroad line has -been built across the Arid Region from east to west, and a short -north and south line has been constructed in Colorado, another in -Utah, and several in California. But an exceedingly small portion of -the country where increase of water supply has been noticed has been -reached by the railroads, and but a small fraction of one per cent. of -the lands of the Arid Region have been redeemed by irrigation. This -fully demonstrates their inadequacy. In what manner rainfall could be -affected through the cultivation of the land, building of railroads, -telegraph lines, etc., has not been shown. Of course such hypotheses -obtain credence because of a lack of information relating to the laws -which govern aqueous precipitation. The motions of the earth on its -axis and about the sun; the unequal heating of the atmosphere, which -decreases steadily from equator to poles; the great ocean currents -and air currents; the distribution of land and water over the earth; -the mountain systems—these are all grand conditions affecting the -distribution of rainfall. Many minor conditions also prevail in -topographic reliefs, and surfaces favorable to the absorption or -reflection of the sun’s heat, etc., etc., affecting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span> in a slight degree -the general results. But the operations of man on the surface of the -earth are so trivial that the conditions which they produce are of -minute effect, and in presence of the grand effects of nature escape -discernment. Thus the alleged causes for the increase of rainfall fail. -The rain gauge records of the country have been made but for a brief -period, and the stations have been widely scattered, so that no very -definite conclusions can be drawn from them, but so far as they are of -value they fail to show any increase. But if it be true that increase -of the water supply is due to increase in precipitation, as many have -supposed, the fact is not cheering to the agriculturist of the Arid -Region. The permanent changes of nature are secular; any great sudden -change is ephemeral, and usually such changes go in cycles, and the -opposite or compensating conditions may reasonably be anticipated.</p> - -<p>For the reasons so briefly stated, the question of the origin and -permanence of the increase of the water supply is one of prime -importance to the people of the country. If it is due to a temporary -increase of rainfall, or any briefly cyclic cause, we shall have to -expect a speedy return to extreme aridity, in which case a large -portion of the agricultural industries of the country now growing up -would be destroyed.</p> - -<p>The increase is abundantly proved; it is a matter of universal -experience. The observations of the writer thereon have been widely -extended. Having examined as far as possible all the facts seeming -to bear on the subject, the theory of the increase of rainfall was -rejected, and another explanation more flattering to the future of -agriculture accepted.</p> - -<p>The amount of water flowing in the streams is but a very small part of -that which falls from the heavens. The greater part of the rainfall -evaporates from the surfaces which immediately receive it. The -exceedingly dry atmosphere quickly reabsorbs the moisture occasionally -thrown down by a conjunction of favoring conditions. Any changes in -the surfaces which receive the precipitation favorable to the rapid -gathering of the rain into rills and brooks and creeks, while taking -to the streams but a small amount of that precipitated, will greatly -increase the volume of the streams themselves, because the water in the -streams bears so small a proportion to the amount discharged from the -clouds. The artificial changes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span> wrought by man on the surface of the -earth appear to be adequate to the production of the observed effects. -The destruction of forests, which has been immense in this country for -the past fifteen years; the cropping of the grasses, and the treading -of the soil by cattle; the destruction of the beaver dams, causing a -drainage of the ponds; the clearing of drift wood from stream channels; -the draining of upland meadows, and many other slight modifications, -all conspire to increase the accumulation of water in the streams, and -all this is added to the supply of water to be used in irrigation.</p> - -<p>Students of geology and physical geography have long been aware of -these facts. It is well known that, under the modifying influences -of man, the streams of any region redeemed from the wilderness are -changed in many important characteristics. In flood times their volumes -are excessively increased and their powers of destruction multiplied. -In seasons of drought, some streams that were perennial before man -modified the surface of the country become entirely dry; the smaller -navigable streams have their periods of navigation shortened, and the -great rivers run so low at times that navigation becomes more and -more difficult during dry seasons; in multiplied ways these effects -are demonstrated. While in the main the artificial changes wrought by -man on the surface are productive of bad results in humid regions, -the changes are chiefly advantageous to man in arid regions where -agriculture is dependent upon irrigation, for here the result is to -increase the supply of water. Mr. Gilbert, while engaged during the -past season in studying the lands of Utah, paid especial attention to -this subject, and in his chapter has more thoroughly discussed the -diverse special methods by which increase in the flow of the streams is -caused by the changes wrought by man upon the surface of the earth. His -statement of facts is clear, and his conclusions are deemed valid.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br><span class="small">THE LANDS OF UTAH</span></h2></div> - - -<h3>PHYSICAL FEATURES.</h3> - -<p>A zone of mountains and high plateaus extends from the northern nearly -to the southern boundary of Utah Territory. The Wasatch Mountains -constitute the northern portion of this zone, the High Plateaus the -southern. This central zone has a general altitude above the sea -of from nine to eleven thousand feet. Many peaks are higher, a few -reaching an altitude of about twelve thousand feet. On the other hand -many cañons and valleys have been excavated by the running waters far -below the general level thus indicated.</p> - -<p>The Uinta Mountains stretch eastward from the midst of the Wasatch. -This region is a lofty table land carrying many elevated peaks whose -summits are from twelve to nearly fourteen thousand feet above the -level of the sea. This is the highest portion of Utah, and among its -peaks are the culminating points.</p> - -<p>South from the Uinta Region, and from the southern extremity of the -Wasatch Mountains, another elevated district extends east-southeast -beyond the borders of Utah. This table land is cut in twain by two -great gorges of the Green River—the Cañon of Desolation and Gray -Cañon. The eastern portion is called East Tavaputs Plateau, the western -West Tavaputs Plateau.</p> - -<p>Between the Uinta Mountains and the Tavaputs table land is the -Uinta-White Basin, a low synclinal valley, drained by the Uinta and its -ramifications on the west, and the lower portion of the White River on -the east.</p> - -<p>The district of country lying south of the Tavaputs table land, and -east and south of the High Plateaus, is traversed by many deep cañons.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span> -This is the Cañon Land of Utah. In its midst the Green and Grand unite -to form the Colorado. The Price and San Rafael are tributary to the -Green. The Fremont, Escalante, Paria, Kanab, and Virgin are directly -tributary to the Colorado from the north and west. From the east the -San Juan flows to the Colorado, but its drainage area is not included -in our present discussion.</p> - -<p>West of the lofty zone lie low, arid valleys, interrupted by short -and abrupt ranges of mountains whose naked cliffs and desolate peaks -overlook the still more desolate valleys. These short longitudinal -ranges are but a part of the Basin Ranges, a mountain system extending -through Nevada and northward into Idaho and Oregon. That portion of -the Basin Range System which lies in Utah, and which we now have under -consideration, is naturally divided into two parts, the northern -embracing the drainage area of Great Salt Lake, the southern embracing -the drainage area of Sevier Lake, giving the Great Salt Lake District -and the Sevier Lake District.</p> - -<p>To recapitulate, the grand districts into which Utah is naturally -divided are as follows: The Wasatch Mountains and the High Plateaus, -constituting the lofty zone above mentioned; the Uinta Mountains, the -Tavaputs table lands, the Uinta-White Basin, the Cañon Lands, the -Sevier Lake Basin, and the Great Salt Lake Basin, the two latter being -fragments of the great Basin Range Province.</p> - -<hr class="tb"> - -<p>The eastern portion of the Territory of Utah is drained by the Colorado -River by the aid of a number of important tributaries. The western -portion is drained by streams that, heading in the mountains and high -plateaus of the central portion, find their way by many meanderings -into the salt lakes and desert sands to the westward.</p> - -<p>Considered with reference to its drainage, Utah may thus be divided -into two parts—the Colorado drainage area and the Desert drainage -area; the former is about two-fifths, the latter three-fifths of the -area of the territory.</p> - -<p>All of the Wasatch Mountains lie west of the drainage crest; a part of -the High Plateaus are drained to the Colorado, a part to the deserts. -This<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span> great water divide, commencing north of the Pine Valley Mountains -in the southwest corner of the territory, runs north of the Colob -Plateau and enters the district of the High Plateaus. It first runs -eastward along the crest or brink of the Pink Cliffs that bound the -Markagunt and Pauns-a-gunt Plateaus, and then north and east in many -meandering ways, now throwing a plateau into the western drainage, and -now another into the eastern, until it reaches the western extremity of -the Tavaputs table lands. Thence it runs around the western end of the -Uinta Valley, throwing the Tavaputs table lands, the Uinta Valley, and -Uinta Mountains into the Colorado drainage, and the Wasatch Mountains -into the Desert drainage.</p> - -<p>These two regions are highly differentiated in orographic structure -and other geological characteristics. The sedimentary formations of -the eastern region are in large part of Cenozoic and Mesozoic age, -though Paleozoic rocks appear in some localities. The Cenozoic and -Mesozoic formations are largely composed of incoherent sands and shales -with intercalated beds of indurated sandstone and limestone. The -great geological displacements are chiefly by faults and monoclinal -flexures, by which the whole country has been broken up into many broad -blocks, so that the strata are horizontal or but slightly inclined, -except along the zones of displacement by which the several blocks are -bounded. Here the strata, when not faulted, are abruptly flexed, and -the rocks dip at high angles.</p> - -<p>The Uinta Mountains are storm carved from an immense uplifted block. -The mountains of the Cañon Lands are isolated and volcanic. In the -High Plateaus sedimentary beds are covered by vast sheets of lava. -The sedimentary beds exposed in the mountains of the Desert region -are of Paleozoic age, and many crystalline schists appear, while -the sedimentary beds exposed in the valleys are Post-Tertiary. The -crystalline schists and ancient sedimentaries of the mountains are -often extensive masses of extravasated rocks. The prevailing type of -orographic structure is that of monoclinal ridges of displacement. -Blocks of strata have been turned up so as to incline at various -angles, and from their upturned edges the mountains have been carved. -But these monoclinal ridges are much complicated by mountain masses -having an eruptive origin.</p> - -<p>In the eastern districts the materials denuded from the mountains and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span> -plateaus have been carried to the sea, but in the western districts -the materials carried from the mountains are deposited in the adjacent -valleys, so that while the mountains are composed of rocks of great -age, the rocks of the valleys are of recent origin. In that geological -era known as the Glacial epoch the waters of a great lake spread over -these valleys, and the mountains stood as islands in the midst of a -fresh-water sea. For the history of this lake we are indebted to the -researches of Mr. Gilbert. It had its outlet to the north by way of the -Shoshoni River and the Columbia to the North Pacific. These later beds -of the valleys are in part the sediments of Lake Bonneville, the great -lake above mentioned, and in part they are subaërial gravels and sands.</p> - -<hr class="tb"> - -<p>The Wasatch system of mountains is composed of abrupt ranges crowned -with sharp peaks. The several minor ranges and groups of peaks -into which it is broken are separated only in part by structural -differences, since ridges with homogeneous structure are severed by -transverse valleys. The drainage of the whole area occupied by the -Wasatch Mountains is westward to the Great Salt Lake. The streams -that head in the western end of the Uinta Mountains and West Tavaputs -Plateau cut through the Wasatch Mountains.</p> - -<p>Great Salt Lake and its upper tributary, Utah Lake, exist by virtue of -the presence of the Wasatch Mountains, for the mountains wring from the -clouds the waters with which the lakes are supplied.</p> - -<p>Walled by high ridges and peaks, many elevated valleys are found. -In the midsummer months these valleys are favored with a pleasant, -invigorating climate. Occasionally showers of rain fall. Vegetation is -vigorous. The distant mountain slopes bear forests of spruce, pine, -and fir; the broken foot hills are often covered by low, ragged piñon -pines and cedars; and the flood plains of the streams are natural -meadows. About the springs and streamlets groves of aspen stand, and -the streams are bordered with willows, box elders, and cottonwoods. Now -and then a midsummer storm comes, bringing hail, and even snow. When -the short summer ends, the aspen and box elder foliage turns to gold -flecked<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span> with scarlet; the willows to crimson and russet; the meadows -are quickly sered, and soon the autumn verdure presents only the somber -tints of the evergreens; early snows fall, and the whole land is soon -covered with a white mantle, except that here and there bleak hills -and rugged peaks are swept bare by the winds. The brief, beautiful -summer is followed by a long, dreary winter, and during this winter of -snowfall are accumulated the waters that are to be used in fertilizing -the valleys away below in the border region between the mountains and -the desert basins.</p> - -<p>From the Wasatch on the north to the Colob on the south are elevated -tables, in general bounded by bold, precipitous escarpments. The lands -above are highly and sharply differentiated from the lands below in -climate, vegetation, soil, and other physical characters. These high -plateaus are covered with sheets and beds of lava, and over the lava -sheets are scattered many volcanic cinder cones. The higher plateaus -bear heavy forests of evergreens, and scattered through the forests are -many little valleys or meadow glades. The gnarled, somber forests are -often beset with fallen timber and a vigorous second growth, forming -together a dead and living tangle difficult to penetrate. But often the -forest aisles are open from glade to glade, or from border cliff to -border cliff. In the midst of the glades are many beautiful lakelets, -and from the cliffs that bound the plateaus on every hand the waters -break out in innumerable springs.</p> - -<p>Here, also, a brief summer is followed by a long winter, and through -its dreary days the snow is gathered which fills the lakelets above and -feeds the springs along the bordering cliffs. The springs of the cliffs -are the fountains of the rivers that are to fertilize the valleys lying -to the east, south, and west.</p> - -<p>The Uinta Mountains constitute an east and west range. From a single -great uplift, nearly 200 miles long and from 40 to 50 miles wide, -valleys and cañons have been carved by rains and rivers, and table -lands and peaks have been left embossed on the surface. Along its -middle belt from east to west the peaks are scattered in great -confusion, but in general the highest peaks are near the center of the -range. The general elevation descends abruptly both on the north and -south margins of the uplift, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span> at the crest of each abrupt descent -there are many limestone ridges and crags. Between these ridges and -crags that stand along the bordering crests, and the peaks that stand -along the meandering watershed, there are broad tables, some times -covered with forests, sometimes only with grass.</p> - -<p>This is a third region of short summers and long winters, where the -waters are collected to fertilize the valleys to the north and south.</p> - -<p>Away to the southward are the twin plateaus, East and West Tavaputs, -severed by the Green River. These plateaus culminate at the Brown -Cliffs, where bold escarpments are presented southward.</p> - -<p>Outlying the Brown Cliffs are the Book Cliffs. These, also, are -escarpments of naked rock, with many salient and reëntrant angles and -outlying buttes. The beds of which they are composed are shales and -sandstones of many shades of blue, gray, and buff. In the distance, -and softly blended by atmospheric haze, the towering walls have an -azure hue. Everywhere they are elaborately water carved, and the bold -battlements above are buttressed with sculptured hills. In 1869, when -the writer first saw this great escarpment, he gave it the name of -the Azure Cliffs, but an earlier traveler, passing by another route -across the country, had seen them in the distance, and, seizing -another characteristic feature, had called them the Book Mountains. -Gunnison saw, however, not a range of mountains, but the escarped edge -of a plateau, and this escarpment we now call the Book Cliffs. From -the Brown Cliffs northward these plateaus dip gently north to the -Uinta-White Basin. From the very crest of the Brown Cliffs the drainage -is northward.</p> - -<p>This is a fourth region of short summers and long winters, where the -moisture is collected to fertilize adjacent lands; but the altitude -is not great enough nor the area large enough to accumulate a large -supply of water, and the amount furnished by the Tavaputs Plateaus is -comparatively small.</p> - -<p>Such are the lofty regions of Utah that furnish water to irrigate the -lowlands.</p> - - -<h3>TIMBER.</h3> - -<p>In these elevated districts is found all the timber of commercial -value. This is well shown on the map. The map also exhibits the fact -that many portions of the elevated districts are devoid of timber, -it having been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span> destroyed by fire, as explained in a former chapter. -Doubtless, if fires could be prevented, the treeless areas would in -due time be again covered with forests, but in such a climate forest -growth is slow. At present, the treeless areas will afford valuable -summer pasturage for cattle, and doubtless such pasturage would be -advantageous to the growth of new forests, by keeping down the grasses -in which in part the fires spread. It has already been shown that, to -a great extent, the fires which destroy the forests are set by Indians -while on their hunting excursions. The removal of the Indians from the -country will further protect the forests. Eventually, the better class -of timber lands will fall into the hands of individual owners, who -will be interested in protecting their property from devastation by -this fierce element. By all of these means the standing timber will be -preserved for economic uses; but it will be a long time before complete -immunity from fires will be secured.</p> - -<p>The demand for lumber will never be very great. A variety of causes -conspire to this end. The adjacent country will sustain but a small -agricultural population, because the irrigable lands are of limited -extent. The people of the lowlands will eventually supply themselves -with fuel by cultivating timber along the water courses and by using -the coal so abundant in some portions of Utah. The lumber will never be -carried to a foreign market because of the expense of transportation: -first, it will be expensive to get it down from the highlands to the -lowlands, and, second, there are no navigable streams by which lumber -may be cheaply transported from the country. In general, the lumber is -of inferior quality, and cannot successfully compete for a permanent -place in the markets of the world. But there will be a demand for -lumber for building and fencing purposes in the valleys, and for mining -purposes in the mountains.</p> - -<p>If the timber region can be protected from fire, the supply of timber -will equal the demand.</p> - -<p>From the brief description given above, it will be seen that the timber -region will never support agriculture. Much of it is mountainous and -inhospitable, and the climate is cold. The timber region is ever to be -such; mining industries will slightly encroach on it on the one hand, -and pasturage industries on the other, but lumbermen will control the -country.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span></p> - -<p>The forests of these upper regions are monotonous, as the variety of -tree life is very small. All of the timber trees proper are coniferous, -and belong to the pine, fir, and juniper families. The pine of chief -value is <i>Pinus ponderosa</i>, locally distinguished as the “Long -leaved pine”; the wood is very heavy and coarse grained, but is -suitable for the ruder building and mining purposes. It is usually -found on the slopes between eight and nine thousand feet above the -level of the sea. It attains a large size, and is a stately tree, -contrasting grandly with the darker and smaller firs that usually keep -it company.</p> - -<p><i>Pinus aristata</i> is of no commercial value, as it is much branched -and spreading with limbs near the base; it grows on the crags at an -altitude of from nine to eleven thousand feet.</p> - -<p><i>Pinus flexilis</i> grows at the same altitude as the last mentioned, -and often shows a similar habit of growth. On the southern plateaus -it is less branched and has a tolerably straight trunk, but it is too -small and scarce to be important as timber. It is highly resinous, and -is called “Pitch pine.”</p> - -<p><i>Pinus monticola</i>, or Sugar pine, is found on the southern -plateaus, but is not abundant, and rarely attains milling size.</p> - -<p><i>Pinus edulis</i> is the well known “Piñon pine”. It covers the -foot hills and less elevated slopes adjacent to the river valleys. -The tree is low, diffusely branched and scrubby, and is of no use for -lumber; but the wood is well supplied with resin and makes an excellent -fuel, for which purpose it is extensively used in consequence of its -accessibility.</p> - -<p>There are three valuable species of Abies, namely: <i>A. Douglasii</i>, -<i>A. concolor</i>, and <i>A. Engelmanni</i>. <i>Abies Douglasii</i>, -or Douglas’ spruce, bears some resemblance to the eastern spruce, -<i>A. Canadensis</i>, but it is a finer tree, and the wood is much -superior. Though rather light, it is tough and exceedingly durable. The -heart wood is red, from which circumstance lumbermen distinguish it -as the “Red pine”. In building it is used for all the heavier parts, -as frames, joists, rafters, etc., and it makes excellent flooring. -Its value is still further enhanced from the fact that it occupies a -belt of from seven to nine thousand feet altitude, and thus is easily -obtained. It may readily be distinguished by its cones, the bracts of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span> -which are trifurcate, sharp, pointed, and conspicuously exserted, and -they are unlike those of any other species.</p> - -<p><i>Abies concolor</i>, known in Utah as the “Black balsam”, grows at -about the same altitude as the last mentioned species, and though -rather cross-grained makes good lumber, being quite durable and strong. -From its silvery foliage, the leaves being glaucous on both sides, -this tree is known to tourists as the “White silver fir”. Lumbermen -sometimes call it the “Black gum”, the wood being very dark colored.</p> - -<p><i>Abies Engelmanni</i>, or Engelmann’s spruce, occupies the highest -elevations, and constitutes the only timber above 11,000 feet in -altitude. Above 11,500 feet it is reduced to a dwarf. On the terraces -of the high plateaus, at about 10,000 feet altitude, it appears to -flourish best, and here it becomes a large, beautiful tree. The leaves -are needle shaped, and thus differ from both the preceding species. The -trunks are straight and free from limbs or knots, making fine saw logs. -The wood is white and soft, but fine grained and durable, and being -easily worked is held in high esteem for all the lighter uses, such as -sash, doors, etc. Its place in the lumber industries of Utah is about -the same as that of the “White pine” (<i>Pinus Strobus</i>) in the -east. Lumbermen usually call it “White pine”. Because of the altitude -of its habitat it is difficult to obtain, yet it is systematically -sought, and large amounts are yearly manufactured into lumber; it also -makes good shingles.</p> - -<p><i>Abies Menziesii</i>, or Menzies’s spruce, usually called “Spruce” by -lumbermen of the country, is botanically very similar to the species -last described, but the cones are larger and the leaves sharper -pointed. It bears a large quantity of cones, which are generally -aggregated near the top, obscuring the foliage, and giving the trees a -peculiar tawny appearance. The wood is light, white, and fine grained, -and would rival that of the last named species but for the fact that -the trunk has a number of slight curves, so that it is impossible to -obtain good saw logs of sufficient length from it. Its habitat is along -the cañons from seven to nine thousand feet altitude, and seems to end -about where <i>A. Engelmanni</i> begins. It is, however, a smaller -tree, and less abundant.</p> - -<p><i>Abies subalpina</i> is of little value as a timber tree; the wood -is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span> soft and spongy, from which circumstance it is locally known as -“Pumpkin pine”, but the more appropriate name of “White balsam” is -also applied to distinguish it from <i>A. concolor</i>, which is -called “Black balsam”. This species grows high up on the mountains and -plateaus, generally from nine to eleven thousand feet. It is very tall, -often attaining a height of 80 or 90 feet. Its trunk is straight and -limbless for a great distance. This species has been but little known -to botanists heretofore, from the fact that it has been confounded with -<i>A. grandis</i>, but Mr. Engelmann decides, from specimens collected -by Mr. L. F. Ward, that it must be considered as a new species.</p> - -<p><i>Abies amabilis</i> and <i>Abies grandis</i>, spruces resembling -the “White balsam” in their general appearance, occur in the Wasatch -Mountains, but are not abundant.</p> - -<p><i>Juniperus Californicus</i>, var. <i>Utahensis</i>, or White cedar, -is very abundant over the foot hills and lower mountain slopes, and, -like the piñon pine, is much used for fire wood. It has also the -characteristic durability of the junipers, and makes excellent fence -posts. It grows low, is diffusely branched, and is valueless for -milling purposes.</p> - -<p><i>Juniperus Virginiana</i>, or Red cedar, is also found in this -region. Its habitat is near the streams and at moderate altitudes. It -is said to lack the durable qualities for which it is noted at the -east, and which seem to be transferred to the other species.</p> - -<p><i>Populus angustifolia</i>, or Cottonwood, is the chief representative -of the poplar family in this region. The people of the country -distinguish two varieties or species, the Black cottonwood and Yellow -cottonwood. The former is said to be useless for lumber, while the -latter has some slight value. It forms no part of the forest proper, -but fringes the lower reaches of the streams, rarely occurring higher -in altitude than 6,000 feet. Its rapid growth and its proximity to -the irrigable lands make it valuable for fuel, although it is not of -superior quality.</p> - -<p><i>Populus monilifera</i>, the Cottonwood of the Mississippi Valley, -grows with the above in the southern part of the Territory, and has -about the same value.</p> - -<p><i>Populus tremuloides</i>, or Aspen, is found about the moist places -on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span> mountain sides, and often borders the glades of the plateaus. -The long poles which it furnishes are sometimes used for fencing -purposes; it makes a fair fuel; the quantity found is small.</p> - -<p><i>Acer grandidentata</i>, a species of Maple, abounds at the north as -a bush, and rare individuals attain the rank of small trees. Its wood -is highly prized for the repair of machinery, but is too scarce to be -of great service.</p> - -<p><i>Negundo aceroides</i>, or Box elder, is found along the water -courses in many places. Sometimes along the larger streams it attains -a height of 25 or 30 feet. It makes a good fuel, but is found in such -small quantities as to be scarcely worthy of mention.</p> - -<p><i>Quercus undulata</i>, or White oak, is very abundant as a bush, and -sometimes attains a diameter of six or eight inches. It is too rare as -a tree to deserve more than mere mention.</p> - -<p><i>Betula occidentalis</i>, a species of Birch, grows about the upland -springs and creeks. Its habit is bushlike, but it often has a height of -20 feet, and it makes a tolerable fuel.</p> - -<p>The Hackberry (<i>Celtis occidentalis</i>) and two species of Ash -(<i>Fraxinus coriacea</i> and <i>F. anomala</i>) grow as small trees, -but are exceedingly rare.</p> - -<p>The above is a nearly complete list of the forest trees of Utah. The -number of species is very small; aridity on the one hand, and cold on -the other, successfully repel the deciduous trees. The oak, hickory, -ash, etc., necessary to such a variety of industries, especially the -manufacture of agricultural machinery, must all be imported from more -humid regions. The coniferous trees, growing high among the rocks of -the upper regions and beaten by the cold storms of a long winter, are -ragged and gnarled, and the lumber they afford is not of the finest -quality; and the finishing lumber for architectural purposes and -furniture must also be imported from more humid regions.</p> - - -<h3>IRRIGABLE AND PASTURE LANDS.</h3> - - -<h3>UINTA-WHITE BASIN.</h3> - -<p>The Uinta-White Valley is a deep basin inclosed by the Uinta Mountains -on the north and the Tavaputs highlands on the south. Eastward the -basin extends beyond the limits of Utah; westward the Uinta Mountains<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span> -and West Tavaputs Plateau nearly inclose the head of the Uinta -Valley, but the space between is filled with a section of the Wasatch -Mountains. From the north, west, and south the Uinta Valley inclines -gently toward the Duchesne River. Many streams come down from the north -and from the south. In the midst of the valley there are some small -stretches of bad lands.</p> - -<p>Along the lower part of the Uinta and the Duchesne, and the lower -courses of nearly all the minor streams, large tracts of arable land -are found, and from these good selections can be made, sufficient to -occupy in their service all the water of the Uinta and its numerous -branches. The agricultural portion of the valley is sufficiently low to -have a genial climate, and all the crops of the northern States can be -cultivated successfully.</p> - -<p>Stretching back on every hand from the irrigable districts, the little -hills, valleys, and slopes are covered with grasses, which are found -more and more luxuriant in ascending the plateaus and mountains, until -the peaks are reached, and these are naked.</p> - -<p>On the north of the Uinta, and still west of the Green, the basin is -drained by some small streams, the chief of which is Ashley Fork. -Except near the lower course of Ashley Fork, this section of country -is exceedingly broken; the bad lands and hogbacks are severed by deep, -precipitous cañons.</p> - -<p>From the east the White River enters the Green. Some miles up the -White, a cañon is reached, and the country on either hand, stretching -back for a long distance, is composed of rugged barren lands. But -between the highlands and the Green, selections of good land can be -made, and the waters of the White can be used to serve them. From the -White, south to the East Tavaputs Plateau, the grass lands steadily -increase in value to the summit of the Brown Cliffs. Many good springs -are found in this region, and eventually this will be a favorite -district for pasturage farms.</p> - -<p>Fine pasturage farms may be made on the southern slope of the Yampa -Plateau, with summer pasturage above and winter pasturage below. -Altogether, the Uinta-White Basin is one of the favored districts of -the west, with great numbers of cool springs issuing from the mountains -and hills; many beautiful streams of clear, cold water; a large amount -of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span> arable land from which irrigable tracts may be selected; an -abundance of fuel in the piñon pines and cedars of the foot hills; and -building timber farther back on the mountains and plateaus.</p> - -<p>The whole amount of irrigable land is estimated at 280,320 acres.</p> - - -<h3>THE CAÑON LANDS.</h3> - -<p>South of the Tavaputs highlands, and east and south of the High -Plateaus, the Cañon Lands of Utah are found. The lower course of the -Grand, the lower course of the Green, and a large section of the -Colorado cuts through them, and the streams that head in the High -Plateaus run across them. All the rivers, all the creeks, all the -brooks, run in deep gorges—narrow, winding cañons, with their floors -far below the general surface of the country. Many long lines of cliffs -are found separating higher from lower districts. The hills are bad -lands and alcove lands.</p> - -<p>The Sierra la Sal and Henry Mountains are great masses of lava, wrapped -in sedimentary beds, which are cut with many dikes. South of the High -Plateaus great numbers of cinder cones are found.</p> - -<p>On the Grand River there are some patches of land which can be served -by the waters of that river. On the Green, in what is known as Gunnison -Valley, patches of good land can be selected and redeemed by the waters -of that river.</p> - -<p>Castle Valley is abruptly walled on the west, north, and northeast -by towering cliffs. East of its southern portion a region of towers, -buttes, crags, and rocklands is found, known as the San Rafael Swell. -In this valley there is a large amount of good land, and the numerous -streams which run across it can all be used in irrigation. Farther -south, on the Fremont, Escalante, and Paria, some small tracts of -irrigable land are found, and on the Kanab and Virgin there are limited -areas which can be used for agricultural purposes. But all that portion -of the cañon country south of Castle Valley and westward to the Beaver -Dam Mountains is exceedingly desolate; naked rocks are found, refusing -footing even to dwarfed cedars and piñon pines; the springs are -infrequent and yield no bountiful supply of water; its patches of grass -land are widely scattered, and it has but little value for agricultural -purposes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span></p> - -<p>A broad belt of coal land extends along the base of the cliffs from -the Tavaputs Plateau on the northeast to the Colob Plateau on the -southwest. At the foot of the cliffs which separate the lowlands -from the highlands, many pasturage farms may be made; the grass of -the lowlands can be used in the winter, and that of the highlands in -summer, and everywhere good springs of water may be found.</p> - -<p>The extent of the irrigable lands in this district is estimated at -213,440 acres.</p> - - -<h3>THE SEVIER LAKE DISTRICT.</h3> - -<p>This district embraces all the country drained by the waters which flow -into the Sevier Lake, and the areas drained by many small streams which -are quickly lost in the desert. The greater part of the irrigable land -lies in the long, narrow valleys walled by the plateaus, especially -along the Sevier, Otter Creek, and the San Pete. The arable lands -greatly exceed the irrigable, and good selections may be made. Most of -the irrigable lands are already occupied by farmers, and the waters -are used in their service. In the valleys among the high plateaus, and -along their western border, the grasses are good, and many pasturage -farms may be selected, and the springs and little streams that come -from the plateau cliffs will afford an abundant supply of water. The -summits of the plateaus will afford an abundant summer pasturage.</p> - -<p>Westward among the Basin Ranges feeble and infrequent springs are -found; there is little timber of value, but the lower mountains and -foot hills have cedars and piñon pines that would be valuable for fuel -if nearer to habitations. The cedar and piñon hills bear scant grasses. -The valleys are sometimes covered with sage, sometimes with grease -wood, sometimes quite naked.</p> - -<p>The amount of irrigable land in this district is estimated at 101,700 -acres.</p> - - -<h3>THE GREAT SALT LAKE DISTRICT.</h3> - -<p>This district has already become famous in the history of western -agriculture, for here the Latter Day Saints first made “a home in the -valleys among the mountains”.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span></p> - -<p>The rivers and creeks bring the waters down from the Wasatch Mountains -on the east. The high valleys among the mountains have to some extent -been cultivated, and will hereafter be used more than at present for -meadow purposes. In general the people have selected their lands low -down, in order to obtain a more genial climate. Yet the irrigable -lands are not very far from the mountains, as a glance at the map will -reveal. Utah Lake constitutes a fine natural reservoir and discharges -its waters into Salt Lake by the Jordan, and from its channel the -waters may be conducted over a large area of country. The waters of -the Weber and Bear Rivers, now flowing idly into the lake, will soon -be spread over extensive valleys, and the area of agricultural lands -be greatly increased. Westward the influence of the mountains in -the precipitation of moisture is soon lost, and beyond the lake an -irreclaimable desert is found.</p> - -<p>Near to the mountains the grass lands are fair but they have been -overpastured and greatly injured. Out among the Basin Ranges little -grass land of value is found.</p> - -<p>The amount of irrigable land in this district is estimated at 837,660 -acres.</p> - -<p>The lofty zone of mountains and table lands with arms stretching -eastward, with its culminating points among summer frosts and winter -storms, is the central region about which the human interests of the -country gather. The timber, the water, the agricultural lands, the -pasturage lands, to a large extent the coal and iron mines, and to -some extent the silver mines, are all found in these higher regions or -clinging closely to them.</p> - - -<h3>GRASSES.</h3> - -<p>While the forests present but a few species of trees, the pasturage -lands present a great variety of grasses. Between fifty and sixty -species have been collected by parties connected with the survey -under the direction of the writer, and these are distributed among -twenty-six or twenty-seven genera. Most of them belong to the mountains -or highlands, and are rich and sweet. Nearly all of them are bunch -grasses. The spaces by which the bunches are separated are bare or -occupied with weeds and shrubs. This is often the case on the mountains -and high plateaus. A continuous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span> turf is never seen. Where a sward is -seen in moist places, about springs and in glades, the verdure consists -in chief part of other plants, sedges and reeds.</p> - -<p>Of the bunch grasses the <i>Poas</i> are by far the most abundant. Of -this genus nine species were obtained, but this gives an inadequate -idea of the variety. Of one species alone Dr. Vasey has enumerated nine -varieties, and advances the opinion that several will be eventually -considered as species. They are found at all altitudes, mostly on the -slopes. Perhaps the most important single species in that region is -the <i>Bouteloua oligostachya</i>, the so called “Circle grass”. It -has a peculiar habit of forming partial or complete circles on the -ground, with areas of bare ground in the center. These turfy rings -are comparatively narrow, often not more than three or four inches -in width, while the circles are from two to four feet in diameter. -The form is not always circular, but often assumes irregular shapes. -The grass is sweet and nutritious, but its chief value consists in -its power to resist inclement seasons, as it cures standing, like the -“Buffalo grass” of the Great Plains.</p> - -<p>Another very valuable grass is the <i>Eriocoma cuspidata</i>, which is -known by the name of “Sand grass”. It grows at much lower altitudes, -and is properly a valley grass. It has a solitary, scattering habit, -or at least the bunches are small and turfless. Horses and cattle -select it with care from among other species, and it seems especially -nutritious. It has a large black grain, which is often collected by the -Indians for food.</p> - -<p>A remarkable lowland grass is the Vilfa (<i>Sporobolis airoides</i>). -It has something of the appearance of “Hair grass”, with a widely -spreading purple panicle and large perennial roots. The old culms -persist at the base, and with the new ones form thick and almost woody -tufts. These tufts are scattered about in the strongly alkaline soils -of the river bottoms, and are extensively pastured by large herds of -cattle. A marked characteristic of this grass, common, however, to -several others, is its power to take up saline matter, which gives -to the whole plant a salty taste. The effect of this upon the stock -feeding upon it is doubtful, judging from the conflicting reports of -the inhabitants; but it seems that when cattle are first pastured upon -it they are injured by the excess of salt, but that after a time they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> -cease to be injured by it. All of the so called “Salt grasses” are -cropped to a greater or less extent by stock.</p> - -<p>The chief grasses of the elevated timber tracts belong to the genus -<i>Bromus</i>. When young they are good, but they become stale and -valueless with age. The only grass that can compare with those of -the eastern meadows, and which forms a continuous sod and covers the -ground with a uniform growth, is a variety of <i>Aira cæspitosa</i>, a -red topped grass, which was found surrounding the small lakes of the -mountains and plateaus, at elevations of 11,000 feet and over. This is -an exceedingly beautiful grass as it waves in the gentle breezes that -fan the lakelets of the upper regions.</p> - -<p><i>Phragmites communis</i>, the so called “Cane”, is common in the -glades and sloughs; and, though large and rather dry, it furnishes the -only verdure obtainable for months in severe seasons.</p> - -<p>Much of the hay and pasturage of the country, which is there called -grass, consists of plants of different families. Notable among these -are several species of <i>Carex</i> (sedges), particularly <i>Carex -Jamesii</i>, which springs up wherever artificial meadows are made -by the system of flooding commonly practiced. The plants have large, -strong, subterranean root-stocks, forming a tangled mass which, when -once established, cannot easily be eradicated. The leaves are broad and -grasslike, and, though coarse and comparatively insipid, form a good -sward which can be mowed—a rare condition in that country; and hence -such meadows are highly prized.</p> - -<p><i>Juncus Balticus</i>, var. <i>montanus</i>, which has a blue color, -terete culms, and tough fiber, and which the settlers call “Wire -grass”, is very abundant. It is cut for hay, and is said to serve a -good purpose as such.</p> - -<p>There are some shrubs that furnish excellent browsing, among which, -perhaps, the grease wood takes the first rank. The sage brush, -<i>Artemisia</i>, on the contrary, is seldom resorted to. There is -one shrub to which great virtues are ascribed which may be mentioned -in this connection. This is the <i>Cercocarpus parvifolius</i>, which -occupies the mountain sides for a wide zone of altitude. The foliage, -though not strictly evergreen, remains most of the winter, and is said -to afford the only food for horses and cattle<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span> that can be obtained -during some seasons of deep snows. This shrub is a congener of the well -known mountain mahogany, <i>C. ledifolius</i>, which grows at higher -altitudes, and has truly evergreen foliage.</p> - -<p>The small perennial plant <i>Eurotia lanata</i>, or “White sage”, found -growing in the valleys and plains, is held in high esteem as winter -food for stock.</p> - -<p>The growth of grass, even on the plateaus, is often scant; on the foot -hills it becomes less, and farther away from the highlands it still -diminishes in quantity until absolute deserts are found. Most of the -grasses seem to protect themselves from the great aridity by growing -in bunches. They appear to produce proportionately a greater amount -of seeds than the grasses of the Humid Region, and their nutritive -qualities, especially in winter, seems to be due thereto. In general, -the grasses seem to have large, strong stems, and are not so easily -broken down as those of the Humid Region, and the rains and snows by -which they would be so broken down are infrequent. Again, for these -reasons, the grasses, standing long after they are cut by frosts, cure -themselves, forming thereby a winter pasturage.</p> - -<p>The irrigable lands of Utah will be discussed more thoroughly and -in detail in subsequent chapters by Mr. G. K. Gilbert, who has made -the Great Salt Lake District his study; by Capt. C. E. Dutton, who -has prepared the chapter on the irrigable lands of the Sevier Lake -Drainage, and by Prof. A. H. Thompson, who has written the chapter on -the irrigable lands of the Colorado Drainage.</p> - -<p>The following is a table of the irrigable lands, arranged by districts, -as discussed in the present chapter. The table is compiled from those -presented in subsequent chapters.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span></p> - - -<p class="center caption p2"><i>Table of irrigable lands in Utah Territory.</i></p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bt bl br"><th rowspan="2" colspan="2"></th><th class="bl" rowspan="2">Square miles.</th><th rowspan="2" class="bl">Acres.</th><th colspan="2" class="bl">Cultivated in 1877.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td class="tdc bl">Square miles.</td><td class="tdc bl">Acres.</td></tr> -<tr class="btt bl br"><td colspan="6"><i>Salt Lake drainage system.</i></td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Base of Uinta Mountains </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,600</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,024</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Yellow Creek and Duck Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,280</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Randolph Valley and Saleratus Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 69.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 44,160</td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6,344</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Shores of Bear Lake </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5,760</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3,200</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Cache Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 250.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 160,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> 50.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 32,000</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Bear River Delta, Malade Valley, and Connor’s Spring Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 218.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 139,520</td><td class="tdr bl"> 22.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14,080</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Box Elder Valley (Mantua) </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 960</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 704</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Weber Valley from Peoa to Hennefer, inclusive </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5,760</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5,440</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Parley’s Park </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.2</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,048</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,048</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Uptown </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,280</td><td class="tdr bl"> .5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 320</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Echo Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.9</td><td class="tdr bl"> 576</td><td class="tdr bl"> .3 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 192</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Croydon </td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 320</td><td class="tdr bl"> .4 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 256</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Round Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 320</td><td class="tdr bl"> .5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 320</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Morgan Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.9</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4,416</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3,840</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Ogden Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5,120</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,624</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Weber Delta Plain </td><td class="tdr bl"> 219.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 140,160</td><td class="tdr bl"> 91.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 58,240</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Kamas Prairie </td><td class="tdr bl"> 13.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 8,320</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.7 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3,003</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Hailstone Ranche and vicinity </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,280</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,280</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Provo Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 16.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 10,240</td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3,840</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Waldsburg </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,280</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,280</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Utah Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 190.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 121,600</td><td class="tdr bl"> 59.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 37,760</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Salt Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 16.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 10,240</td><td class="tdr bl"> 14.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8,960</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Salt Lake Valley (including Bountiful and Centerville) </td><td class="tdr bl"> 192.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 122,880</td><td class="tdr bl"> 89.8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 57,412</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Tooele Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 45.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 28,800</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.4 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3,456</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Cedar Fort </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 800</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Fairfield </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 900</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 800</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Vernon Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,200</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 900</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Saint Johns </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 700</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 700</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">East Cañon Creek (Rush Valley) </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 900</td><td class="tdr bl"> .8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 500</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Stockton </td><td class="tdr bl"> .3</td><td class="tdr bl"> 500</td><td class="tdr bl"> .3 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Skull Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.0</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,500</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Government Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> .5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 300</td><td class="tdr bl"> .5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 300</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Willow Spring, T. 10 S., R. 17 W </td><td class="tdr bl"> .4</td><td class="tdr bl"> 250</td><td class="tdr bl"> .4 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 250</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Redding Spring </td><td class="tdr bl"> .1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 50</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 20</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Dodoquibe Spring </td><td class="tdr bl"> .1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 50</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Deep Creek, T. 9 S., R. 19 W </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.6</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> .8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 500</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Pilot Peak </td><td class="tdr bl"> .3</td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Grouse Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.4</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,500</td><td class="tdr bl"> .8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 500</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Owl Spring </td><td class="tdr bl"> .1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 10</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Rosebud Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> .6</td><td class="tdr bl"> 400</td><td class="tdr bl"> .2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 150</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Muddy Creek, T. 10 N., R. 15 W </td><td class="tdr bl"> .5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 300</td><td class="tdr bl"> .5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 300</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Park Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,300</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 700</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Widow Spring </td><td class="tdr bl"> .1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 20</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Indian Creek, T. 13 N., R. 12 W </td><td class="tdr bl"> .2</td><td class="tdr bl"> 100</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">East base Clear Creek Mountains </td><td class="tdr bl"> .2</td><td class="tdr bl"> 150</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Cazure Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> .3</td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Clear Creek, T. 15 N., R. 12 W </td><td class="tdr bl"> .3</td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td><td class="tdr bl"> .1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 80</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Junction Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> .7</td><td class="tdr bl"> 500</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Goose Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> .3</td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Pilot Spring </td><td class="tdr bl"> .1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 15</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Deseret Creek (or Deep Creek) </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> .5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 300<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span></td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Crystal Springs, T. 14 N., R. 7 W </td><td class="tdr bl"> .2</td><td class="tdr bl"> 100</td><td class="tdr bl"> .1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 60</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Antelope Springs, T. 9 N., R. 6 W </td><td class="tdr bl"> .1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 30</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 30</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Hanzel Spring </td><td class="tdr bl"> .1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 15</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Promontory, east base </td><td class="tdr bl"> .9</td><td class="tdr bl"> 600</td><td class="tdr bl"> .5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 300</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Blue Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.3</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,500</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Brackish Springs, near Blue Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> .3 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Antelope Island </td><td class="tdr bl"> .1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 50</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="btt bl br"><td colspan="6"><i>The valley of the Sevier River.</i></td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">San Pete Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 31.2</td><td class="tdr bl"> 20,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> 17.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10,880</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Gunnison </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.2</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> 44.4 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,800</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Sevier Valley, above Gunnison </td><td class="tdr bl"> 54.7</td><td class="tdr bl"> 35,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> 16.5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10,500</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Circle Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.3</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 750</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Panguitch and above </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10.9</td><td class="tdr bl"> 7,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,800</td></tr> -<tr class="btt bl br"><td colspan="6"><i>Irrigable lands of the desert drainage of southwestern Utah.</i></td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Cherry Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> .2</td><td class="tdr bl"> 100</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Judd Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> .2</td><td class="tdr bl"> 100</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Levan </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Scipio </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.6</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,700</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Holden </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.6</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Filmore and Oak Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3,500</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Meadow Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.9</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,200</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Kanosh </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Beaver Creek and tributaries </td><td class="tdr bl"> 21.9</td><td class="tdr bl"> 14,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Paragoonah </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.6</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Parowan </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.6</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Summit </td><td class="tdr bl"> .6</td><td class="tdr bl"> 400</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Cedar City, Iron City, and Fort Hamilton </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.6</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,300</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Mountain Meadows </td><td class="tdr bl"> .3</td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Pinto </td><td class="tdr bl"> .3</td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Hebron </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.6</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="btt bl br"><td colspan="6"><i>Irrigable lands of the Colorado drainage.</i></td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Virgin River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 30 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 19,200</td><td class="tdr bl"> 11.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7,040</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Kanab Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,600</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 700</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Paria River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3,840</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Escalante River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3,840</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Fremont River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 38 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 24,320</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">San Rafael River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 175 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 112,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Price River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 11 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7,040</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Minnie Maud Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,920</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Uinta River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 285 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 182,400</td><td class="tdr bl"> .5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 300</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Ashley Fork </td><td class="tdr bl"> 25 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 16,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> .1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Henrys Fork </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6,400</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">White River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 75 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 48,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Browns Park </td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="3">Green River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6,400</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Below Split Mountain Cañon </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 32,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Gunnison Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 25 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 16,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Grand River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 40 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 25,600</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -<tr class="btt bb bl br"><td colspan="2"><span class="caption">Total </span> </td><td class="tdr bl"><span class="caption">2,262.4</span></td><td class="tdr bl"><span class="caption">1,447,920</span></td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td></tr> -</table> -<p> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br><span class="small">IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE SALT LAKE DRAINAGE SYSTEM.</span></h2></div> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By G. K. Gilbert.</span></p> - - -<p>The field of my work in 1877 included so large a portion of the -drainage basin of Great Salt Lake and so little else that it has -proved most convenient to report on all of that basin, or rather on -that part of it which lies within the Territory of Utah. In so doing, -I have depended, for nearly all the lands draining to Utah Lake, upon -the data gathered by Mr. Renshawe, of this survey, in connection with -his topographic work. The remainder of the district, with very slight -exception, I have myself visited.</p> - -<p>The officials and citizens of the Territory have all freely contributed -such information as I have sought, and have aided me in many ways; but -I have been especially indebted to Mr. Martineau and Mr. Barton, the -surveyors of Cache and Davis Counties; to Mr. Fox, the territorial -surveyor; and to the Hon. A. P. Rockwood, the statistician of the -Deseret Agricultural Society. Mr. Rockwood prepared a statistical -report on the Territory in 1875, which has been of great service to me, -and he has kindly placed at my disposal the manuscript details of his -work as well as the published summary.</p> - - -<h3>METHOD AND SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION.</h3> - -<p>Where agriculture is dependent upon irrigation, the extent of land that -can be put to agricultural use is determined by the relation of the -quantity of available water to the quantity of available land. There is -a certain amount of water needed by a unit of land, and wherever the -land susceptible of cultivation requires more water than is obtainable, -only a portion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span> of the land can be utilized. But there is also a limit -to the amount of water that can be profitably employed on a unit of -land, and where the supply of water is in excess of the quantity -required by such lands as are properly disposed to receive and use it, -only a portion of the water can be utilized. In order to ascertain, -therefore, the extent of agricultural land in a given district, it is -necessary to make a measurement of land, or a measurement of water, or -perhaps both, and it is necessary to know the amount of water demanded -by a unit area of the land under consideration.</p> - -<p>The proper quota of water for irrigation depends on climate and -soil and subsoil, as well as on the nature of the crop, and varies -indefinitely under diverse conditions. As a rule, the best soils -require least water; those which demand most are light sands on one -hand and adhesive clays on the other. Where the subsoil is open and -dry, more water is needed than where it is moist or impervious. -Wherever there is an impervious substratum, the subsoil accumulates -moisture and the demand for water diminishes from year to year. These -and other considerations so complicate the subject that it is difficult -to generalize, and I have found it more practicable to use in my -investigations certain limiting quantities than to attempt in every -case a diagnosis of the local conditions. By comparing the volumes -of certain streams in Utah, that are now used in irrigation to their -full capacity, with the quantities of land that they serve, I have -found that one hundred acres of dry bench land (<i>i. e.</i>, land -with a deep, dry, open subsoil) will not yield a full crop of grain -with less than one cubic foot of water per second, and this under the -most favorable climate of the Territory. Where the climate is drier, a -greater quantity is required. Where there is a moist subsoil, a less -may suffice.</p> - -<p>In the drier districts, where the streams are small, they are usually -employed upon the dry benches, because these are most convenient to -their sources; and it is very rarely the case that their utility is -increased by the presence of a moist subsoil. But it is also in the -drier districts that the extent of agricultural land is ascertained by -the measurement of streams; and hence there is little danger of error -if we use in all cases the criterion that applies to dry bench land. In -the discussion of the lands of northern Utah, I have therefore assigned -to each cubic foot per second of perennial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span> flow the reclamation of one -hundred acres of land, with the belief that the consequent estimates -would never underrate, though they might sometimes exaggerate, the -agricultural resources of the districts examined.</p> - -<p>In the measurement of streams the following method was employed: A -place was sought where the channel was straight for a distance equal -to several times the width of the stream, and where for some distance -there was little change in the dimensions of the cross section. -Measurement was then made of the width (in feet), of the mean depth (in -feet), and of the maximum surface current (in feet per second). The -mean current was assumed to be four-fifths of the maximum current; and -four-fifths of the product of the three measured elements was taken to -give the flow in cubic feet per second. This method of measurement is -confessedly crude, and is liable to considerable error, but with the -time at my disposal no better was practicable, and its shortcomings -are less to be regretted on account of the variability of the streams -themselves.</p> - -<p>All of the streams of Utah that flow from mountain slopes are subject -to great fluctuations. They derive a large share of their water from -the melting of snow, and not only does the melting vary as to its -rapidity and season, but the quantity of snow to be melted varies -greatly from year to year. A single measurement standing alone is quite -inadequate to determine the capacity of a stream for irrigation, and as -it was rarely practicable to visit a stream more than once, an endeavor -was made to supplement the single determination by collating the -judgments of residents as to the relative flow of the several creeks -and rivers at other seasons and in other years. In districts where -the water is nearly all used and its division and distribution are -supervised by “watermasters”, those functionaries are able to afford -information of a tolerably definite character, but in other districts -it was necessary to make great allowance for errors of judgment. -Certainly, that element of my estimates which is based on inquiries -cannot claim so small a probability of error as the element based on -measurements.</p> - -<p>Streams that are formed in high mountains reach their highest stage -in June, and their lowest in September or October. Streams from low -mountains attain their maxima in April or May, and reach their low -stages<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span> by August or September. In the low valleys the irrigation -of wheat and other small grains begins about the first of June, and -continues until the latter part of July. The irrigation of corn and -potatoes begins in the early part of July, and continues until the -middle of August. In the middle of July all of the land calls for -water, and if the supply is sufficient at that time, it is sure to meet -all demands at other times. It will be convenient to call that time -<i>the critical season</i>. In the higher agricultural valleys corn -and potatoes are not grown, but the irrigation of small grains and hay -is carried on from the middle of June to the middle or latter part of -August. Through all this time the volume of the streams is diminishing, -and if they fail at all it is at the end of the season. The critical -season for the higher valleys is about the middle of August.</p> - -<p>In order to estimate properly the agricultural capability of a stream, -it is necessary to ascertain its volume at its critical season. In the -investigations of the past summer, this was accomplished by direct -measurement in but a limited district. For the remainder of my field of -operations I was compelled to depend on the estimates of others as to -the relation between the volumes of streams at the time of measurement -and at the critical season.</p> - -<p>As will appear in the sequel, the uncertainty attaching to these -determinations of volumes affects the grand total in but small degree. -The utility of the large streams is not limited by their volumes -so much as by the available land suitable for overflow, a quantity -susceptible of more accurate determination, and the extent of land -irrigable by the large streams is many times greater than that -irrigable by the small.</p> - -<p>No streams are used throughout the year, and few can be fully utilized -during the spring flood. Wherever it is practicable to store up -the surplus water until the time of need, the irrigable area is -correspondingly increased. Enough has been accomplished in a few -localities to demonstrate the feasibility of reclaiming thousands of -acres by the aid of reservoirs, and eventually this will be done; but -except in a small way it is not a work of the immediate future. For -many years to come capital will find greater remuneration in taking -possession of the large rivers.</p> - -<p>In estimating the agricultural resources, it was, of course, necessary -to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span> take account of all future increase, and wherever storage by -reservoirs seemed practicable a rough estimate was made of the extent -of land that could be thus reclaimed.</p> - -<p>There are a few restricted areas in Utah that yield remunerative crops -to the farmer without the artificial application of water. Their -productiveness is doubled or trebled by the use of water, and so far as -they are susceptible of irrigation they need not be distinguished from -the irrigable lands. When the greater rivers shall have been diverted -to the work of irrigation, nearly all such areas will be supplied with -water, but a few will not. The endeavor has been to include the latter -as well as the former in the estimate of the agricultural land.</p> - -<p>The term “agricultural land” is construed to include that which is used -or may be used for the production of hay as well as that cultivated by -the plow. Most irrigable lands may be utilized in either way, but there -are some tracts which, on account of the severity of the climate or the -impurity of the water, are adapted to the growth of grass only.</p> - -<p>I have sought in the foregoing remarks to set forth as briefly as -possible the methods and scope of my investigations, and to indicate -the degree of accuracy to be anticipated in the resulting estimates. To -these estimates we will now proceed.</p> - - -<h3>IRRIGATION BY THE LARGE STREAMS.</h3> - -<p>Three rivers enter Great Salt Lake—the Bear, the Weber, and the -Jordan, and upon their water will ultimately depend the major part of -the agriculture of Utah. By a curious coincidence, the principal heads -of the three rivers lie close together in the western end of the Uinta -range of mountains.</p> - -<hr class="tb"> - -<p>The <i>Bear River</i> runs northward at first, and a little beyond the -foot of the mountains enters the Territory of Wyoming. Swerving to -the left, it passes again into Utah, and swerving again to the right -returns to Wyoming. From Wyoming it runs northward into Idaho, and -after making a great detour to the north returns on a more westerly -line to Utah. It reënters in Cache Valley, and passes thence by a -short cañon to its delta plain on the northwestern border of Great -Salt Lake. Its principal tributaries<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span> are received in Idaho and in -Cache Valley. Bordering upon the upper reaches of the river, there -is little land available for cultivation, and the climate forbids -any crop but hay. I am informed that the meadow land there somewhat -exceeds two square miles in area. Where the river next enters Utah it -runs for 30 miles through an open valley, the valley that contains the -towns of Woodruff and Randolph. At the head it passes through a short -defile, and can readily be thrown into two canals at such a level as -to command the greater part of the valley, bringing about 90 square -miles of land “under ditch”. For the irrigation of this amount the -river is sufficient, but if the necessary water were thus appropriated, -too little would remain for the use of the lands which border the -contiguous portions of the river in Wyoming. These have equal claim -to the use of the river, and a proper distribution of the water would -assign it to the reclamation of the best selection of land in the two -Territories. I estimate that such an adjustment would permit the Utah -valley to irrigate 45 square miles with the water of the river. The -minor streams of the valley will serve, in addition, 24 square miles. -The climate is unfavorable to grain and the chief crop must be of hay.</p> - -<p>Where the river next enters Utah it has acquired so great a volume that -it is impracticable to make use of its entire amount. The portion of -Cache Valley which lies in Utah can nearly all be irrigated. What is -on the left bank of Bear River can be served by Logan River and other -tributaries without calling on the main stream. The right bank will -have to be served in connection with an adjacent tract in Idaho, and by -a canal lying entirely in that Territory. The expense will be great, -but not greater than the benefit will warrant. I estimate that the Utah -division of Cache Valley will ultimately contain 250 square miles of -irrigated land. The climate admits of the growth of wheat, oats, and -corn, and such fruits as the apple, pear, and the apricot.</p> - -<p>In leaving Cache Valley the river tumbles through a short, narrow -cañon, and then enters the plain that borders the lake. The limestone -walls of the cañon offer a secure foundation for the head works to a -system of canals to supply the plain. Here, again, a large outlay is -necessary, but the benefits will be more than commensurate. Not only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span> -will the entire alluvial plain of the Bear be served, but the valley of -the Malade, as far as Oregon Springs, and the valley which extends from -Little Mountain to Connor’s Spring. After deducting from these areas -the land along the margin of the lake that is too saline to afford hope -of reclamation, there remains a tract of 214 square miles. One-tenth of -this is now in use, being in part watered by Box Elder Creek and other -small creeks, and in part cultivated without irrigation.</p> - -<p>In the following table are summed the agricultural resources of that -portion of the Bear River drainage basin which lies in Utah:</p> - -<table class="autotable p2"> -<tr class="bl br bt"><th rowspan="2">Tracts.</th><th class="bl" colspan="2">Square miles—</th></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td class="tdc bl">Cultivated in 1877.</td><td class="tdc bl">Cultivable.</td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Base of Uinta Mountains </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.5 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Yellow Creek and Duck Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 0.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Randolph Valley and Saleratus Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 69.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Shores of Bear Lake </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Cache Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 250.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Delta Plain, Malade Valley, and Connor’s Spring Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 22.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 218.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Box Elder Valley (Mantua) </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.5 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br btt bb"><td><span class="caption">Total </span> </td><td class="tdr bl"> 89.3 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 552.0</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2">The entire area of the Bear River District is about 3,620 square miles, -2¹⁄₂ per cent. being now under cultivation, and over 15 per cent. -susceptible of cultivation.</p> - -<hr class="tb"> - -<p>The <i>Weber River</i> runs with a general northwesterly course from -the Uinta Mountains to Great Salt Lake, entering the latter at the -middle of its eastern shore. The Ogden is its only important tributary. -At the foot of the mountains it enters Kamas Prairie, in which it can -be made to irrigate a few square miles. Thence to Hennefer, a distance -of 30 miles, it is continuously bordered by a strip of farming land -about one-third of a mile broad. Then it passes a series of three -close cañons—in the intervals of which are Round Valley, with a few -acres of land, and Morgan Valley, with 7 square miles—and emerges -upon its delta plain. Within this plain are no less than 219 square -miles of farming land, of which about two-fifths are now in use. A part -is unwatered, a part is watered by the Ogden River and by a number -of creeks, and the remainder is watered by the Weber. To serve the -higher portions of the plain a great outlay would be required, and I -am of opinion that the highest levels cannot profitably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span> be supplied. -Still, a great extension of the irrigated area is inevitable, and I -anticipate that when the water of the Weber has been carried as far as -is economically practicable, not more than 15 miles of the plain will -remain unsupplied. Deducting this amount, as well as the area served -by the minor streams and springs of the plain, there remain 185 square -miles dependent on the Weber and Ogden Rivers. The Ogden River has also -to water 8 square miles in its upper course, and the Weber 34, making -a total of 227 square miles dependent on the two streams. Whether they -are competent to serve so great an area may well be questioned. On the -8th of October I found in the Ogden River, at the mouth of its cañon, a -flow of 115 feet per second, and three days later the Weber showed 386 -feet. There was almost no irrigation in progress at that time, and the -total of 501 feet included practically all the water of the streams. To -irrigate 227 square miles, the rivers need to furnish at the critical -season (in this case about the 10th of July) 1,450 feet, or nearly -three times their October volume. Of the ratio between their July and -October volumes I have no direct means of judging, and the problem is -too nice a one to be trusted to the estimates of residents unaided -by measurements; but indirectly a partial judgment may be reached by -comparing the rivers with certain tributaries of the Jordan which were -twice observed. City Creek was measured on the 5th of July, and again -on 1st of September, and Emigration and Parley creeks were measured -July 5th, and again September 3rd. These streams rise in mountains that -are about as high as those which furnish the Weber and its branches, -and their conditions are generally parallel. Their measured volumes -were as follows:</p> - -<table class="autotable p2"> -<tr class="bt bl br"><th>Streams.</th><th class="bl">I.—July volume, in feet per second.</th><th class="bl"> II.—September volume, in feet per second.</th><th class="bl">III.—Ratio of I to II.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>City Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 119 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 32 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.7 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Emigration Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 24 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bb bl br"><td>Parley’s Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 72 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 29 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.5 </td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2">The comparison is not decisive, but it seems to show that the problem -demands for its solution a careful examination at the “critical -season.” If<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span> the Ogden and Weber had been measured in September, as -were the other streams, their volumes would probably have been found -less than in October; and this consideration appears to throw the -balance of evidence against the competence of the rivers to water the -contiguous lands.</p> - -<p>But if their incompetence shall be proved, it does not follow that the -lands must go dry. The Bear at the north and the Jordan at the south -have each a great volume of surplus water, and either supply can be led -without serious engineering difficulty to the lower levels of the delta -of the Weber.</p> - -<p>In the following table are summed the agricultural resources of the -Weber drainage basin:</p> - -<table class="autotable p2"> -<tr class="bt bl br"><th rowspan="2">Tracts.</th><th class="bl" colspan="2">Square miles— </th></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td class="tdc bl">Cultivated in 1877.</td><td class="tdc bl">Cultivable.</td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Kamas Prairie (northern edge) </td><td class="tdr bl"> .7 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Peoa to Hennefer, inclusive </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 9.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Parley’s Park </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.2 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Uptown </td><td class="tdr bl"> .5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Echo Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> .3 </td><td class="tdr bl"> .9 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Croydon </td><td class="tdr bl"> .4 </td><td class="tdr bl"> .5 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Round Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> .5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> .5 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Morgan Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.9 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Ogden Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 8.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Delta Plain </td><td class="tdr bl"> 91.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 219.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br btt bb"><td>Total </td><td class="tdr bl"> 115.2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 253.0 </td></tr> - -</table> - -<p class="p2">The estimate of 219 miles of cultivable land on the Delta Plain -includes 15 miles that will probably never be irrigated, but may -nevertheless be farmed.</p> - -<p>The total area of the Weber basin (including the whole plain from -Bonneville to Centerville, and excluding the main body of Kamas -Prairie) is 2,450 square miles; 4³⁄₄ per cent. of the area is now under -cultivation, and 10¹⁄₃ per cent. is susceptible of cultivation.</p> - -<hr class="tb"> - -<p>The <i>Jordan River</i> is the outlet of Utah Lake, and runs northward, -entering Great Salt Lake at its southeastern angle. On the right it -receives a number of large tributaries from the Wasatch Range. The -largest tributary of Utah Lake is the Provo River, which rises in the -Uinta Mountains close to the heads of the Weber and Bear.</p> - -<p>From the mouth of its mountain cañon the Provo enters Kamas Prairie, -and it hugs the south margin of the plain just as the Weber hugs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span> the -north margin, passing out by a narrow defile at the southwest corner. -At one time in the history of the prairie the Provo flowed northward -through it and joined itself to the Weber. The surface of the prairie -was then lower than now, and the sand and gravel which the river -brought from the mountains accumulated upon it. Eventually the Provo -built its alluvium so high that its water found a new passage over the -wall of the valley. The new channel, affording a more rapid descent -than the old, quickened the current through the valley, and caused -it to reverse its action and begin the excavation of the material it -had deposited. So long as the river built up its bed, its channel was -inconstant, shifting from place to place over the whole plain; but so -soon as it began to cut away the bed, its position became fixed and -the plain was abandoned. The river now flows in a narrow valley of its -own making, 150 feet below the surface of the plain. As a result of -this mode of origin, Kamas Prairie slopes uniformly from the Provo to -the Weber, and it would be an immense undertaking to irrigate it with -the water of the Weber. But the Provo River can be returned to its -ancient duty with comparative ease. A few miles of canal will suffice -to carry its water to the upper edge of the plain, and thence it can -be led to every part. Already a small canal has been constructed and -its enlargement may convert the whole prairie into a meadow. Thus the -prairie, although part of the drainage basin of the Weber, belongs to -the irrigation district of the Provo.</p> - -<p>The Provo next follows a narrow rock bound valley for 7 miles, being -skirted by bottom lands that admit of some farming. It then enters -Provo Valley, an opening about as large as the last, and favored by a -warm climate that permits the growth of breadstuffs. Thence to Utah -Valley it follows a deep, close cañon.</p> - -<p>The volume of the Provo is sufficient to water about 100 square miles. -If it be permitted to serve 28 miles in Kamas Prairie and 40 miles in -Provo Valley and its adjuncts, there will remain for Utah Valley the -quota for 32 miles. The minor streams of the valley, American Fork, -Spanish Fork, Hobble Creek, Payson Creek, etc., will irrigate 120 -miles, making a total of 152 square miles supplied with water. The -total land of the valley which might be irrigated if the water were -sufficient amounts to no less than 225 miles.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span></p> - -<p>Thus it appears that if all available lands on the upper Provo are -reclaimed, one-third of Utah Valley must go unwatered, while if none of -them are irrigated, nearly the whole of the valley will be supplied. A -middle course would appear most wise, and will undoubtedly be followed. -A gradual extension of the canals, as the demands and means of the -communities dictate and permit, will bring lands successively into -use in the order of their value and convenience, and when the limit -is reached and title has been acquired to all the water, the most -available lands in each of the three valleys traversed by the Provo -will have been reclaimed. The residents of Kamas Prairie will probably -have increased their meadows so as to furnish winter hay for herds -sufficient to stock the summer pastures of the vicinity; Provo Valley, -having a less favorable climate than Utah Valley, will have irrigated -only its choicest soils; and the major part of the river will belong -to Utah Valley. The apportionment may be roughly estimated as—Kamas -Prairie, 10 miles; Provo Valley and Waldsburg, 20 miles, and Utah -Valley, 70 miles.</p> - -<p>Below Utah Lake there is little inequality of volume dependent on -season. The lake is a natural reservoir 127 square miles in extent, -and so far equalizes the outflow through the Jordan that the volume of -that stream is less affected by the mean level of the lake than by the -influence of northerly and southerly winds. With suitable head works -its volume can be completely controlled, and, if desirable, the entire -discharge of the lake can be concentrated in the season of irrigation.</p> - -<p>The highest stage of the lake is in July, and the lowest in March -or April; and the natural volume of its outlet has of course a -corresponding change. In July I found that volume to be 1,275 feet per -second, and I am informed by residents that the stream carried more -than one-half as much water in its low stage; 1,000 feet is perhaps not -far from the mean volume. When all possible use is made of Provo River -and other tributaries the annual inflow of the lake will be diminished -by about one-eighth, and the outflow by a greater fraction, which we -will assume to be one-quarter. (This postulates that the evaporation -is at the rate of 90 inches per year for the whole lake surface.) The -remaining perennial outflow of 750 feet per second, if concentrated -into four months, would irrigate for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span> that period 350 square miles. It -will be practicable to include under canals from the Jordan only about -160 square miles of farming land, and I think it safe to assume that -the supply of water will be greatly in excess of the demand.</p> - -<p>At the present time the Jordan is little used, the chief irrigation of -Salt Lake Valley being performed by the large creeks that flow from -the mountains at the east. It will not be long, however, before large -canals are constructed to carry the Jordan water to all parts of the -valley that lie below the level of Utah Lake. They will include 120 -square miles of farming land.</p> - -<p>The mountain streams, being no longer needed in the lower parts of the -valley, will be carried to higher land and made to serve the benches -at the base of the mountains. By these means the total agricultural -area of the valley will be increased to 192 square miles. Eventually, -the western canal will be carried about the north end of the Oquirrh -range and made to irrigate the northern third of Tooele Valley. It will -pass above the farming lands of E. T. City and Grantsville, and enable -the streams which irrigate the latter town to be used upon the higher -slopes. The service of the Jordan will amount to no less than 40 miles -and the agricultural area of the valley will be increased to about 45 -square miles.</p> - -<p>Including Tooele Valley and Kamas Prairie with the drainage basin of -the Jordan, its agricultural resources sum up as follows:</p> -<table class="autotable p2"> -<tr class="bt bl br"><th colspan="2" rowspan="2">Tracts.</th><th class="bl" colspan="2">Square miles— </th></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td class="tdc bl">Cultivated in 1877.</td><td class="tdc bl">Cultivable.</td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td colspan="2">Kamas Prairie </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td colspan="2">Hailstone Ranche and vicinity </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td colspan="2">Provo Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 16.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td colspan="2">Waldsburg </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td colspan="2">Utah Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 59.0 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 190.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Goshen</td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="3"> Salt Creek<td class="tdr bl" rowspan="3"> 14.0 </td><td class="tdr bl" rowspan="3"> 16.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Mona </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Nephi </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td colspan="2">Salt Lake Valley (including Bountiful and Centerville) </td><td class="tdr bl"> 89.8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 192.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td colspan="2">Tooele Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.4 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 45.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bb btt"><td colspan="2"> Total </td><td class="tdr bl"> 182.2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 473.0 </td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2">The drainage district has an area of 4,010 miles; 4¹⁄₂ per cent. are -cultivated, and 11³⁄₄ per cent. may be cultivated.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span></p> - -<p>It will be observed that in these estimates the available water -above Utah Lake is regarded as insufficient for the available land, -while below the lake there is a superabundance of water, and yet -the lower stream is only a continuation of the upper streams. The -difference arises from the function of the lake as a reservoir. Below -the reservoir the whole of the annual supply can be controlled, but -above it I have assumed that irrigation will merely make use for the -irrigating season of the quantity which flows at the critical period. -If artificial reservoirs can be constructed so as to store water for -use in Utah Valley, a greater area can be cultivated. With adequate -storage facilities the streams tributary to the lake can irrigate in -Kamas Prairie 28 miles; in Provo Valley and vicinity 40 miles; in -Thistle Valley 6 miles; on Salt Creek 16 miles, and in Utah Valley 225 -miles, making a total of 315 miles; and there will still escape to the -Jordan enough water to serve all the land assigned to that stream. If -such storage is practicable, the estimate tabulated above should show -552 instead of 473 miles of cultivable land. The region most likely to -afford storage facilities lies in the mountains where the waters rise. -I did not visit it, and until it has been examined I shall not venture -to increase the estimate.</p> - -<p>The following table gives a summary for the Great Salt Lake river -system:</p> - -<table class="autotable p2"> -<tr class="bl br bt"><th rowspan="2">Districts.</th><th class="bl" colspan="4">Areas, in square miles. </th></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td class="tdc bl">Whole district.</td><td class="tdc bl">Under cultivation in 1877.</td><td class="tdc bl">To be reclaimed in the future.</td><td class="tdc bl">Total cultivable. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Bear River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3,620 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 89.3 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 462.7 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 552.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Weber River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,450 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 115.2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 137.8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 253.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br bt"><td>Jordan River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4,010 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 192.2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 280.8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 473.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br btt"><td>Total </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10,080 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 396.7 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 881.3 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,278.0 </td></tr> -<tr class="bl br btt bb"><td>Ratios </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000 </td><td class="tdr bl"> .039 </td><td class="tdr bl"> .088 </td><td class="tdr bl"> .127 </td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2">This region includes an eighth part of the land area of the Territory, -and more than one-half the agricultural land. It is the richest section -of Utah. Nearly one-third of its available land is already in use. The -cost of the canals by which its cultivated lands have been furnished -with water has been about $2,000,000. To complete its system of -irrigation will probably cost $5,000,000 more.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span></p> - - -<h3>IRRIGATION BY SMALL STREAMS.</h3> - -<p>Through the remainder of the drainage basin of Great Salt Lake there -are no large bodies of farming land. At wide intervals are small -tracts, dependent on springs and small creeks, and the available land -is in nearly every case greatly in excess of the available water. A -few exceptional spots are cultivated without irrigation, but so far as -they have been discovered they are so situated as to be moistened from -beneath. No crops have been raised on dry bench lands.</p> - -<p>The principal facts are gathered in the following table:</p> - -<table class="autotable p2"> -<tr class="bl bt br"><th>Localities.</th><th class="bl">No. of distinct tracts.</th><th class="bl">Acres in cultivation in 1877.</th><th class="bl"> -Acres cultivable.</th><th class="bl">Cultivable acres not included in existing surveys.</th><th class="bl">Remarks.</th></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Cedar Fort </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 800</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl">With aid of reservoirs.</td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Fairfield </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 800</td><td class="tdr bl"> 900</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Vernon Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 900</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,200</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl">With aid of reservoirs. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Saint Johns </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 700</td><td class="tdr bl"> 700</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>East Cañon Creek, Rush Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 500</td><td class="tdr bl"> 900</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Stockton </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td><td class="tdr bl"> 500</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Skull Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 11</td><td class="tdr bl">1,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,500</td><td class="tdr bl"> (?)</td><td class="tdl bl">With aid of reservoirs; visited in part only. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Government Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 300</td><td class="tdr bl"> 300</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl">Not visited. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Willow Spring, township 10 south, range 17 west </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 250</td><td class="tdr bl"> 250</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl"> Do. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Redding Spring </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 20</td><td class="tdr bl"> 50</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Dodoquibe Spring </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl">Not visited. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Deep Creek, township 9 south, range 19 west </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 500</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl">With aid of reservoirs. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Pilot Peak </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td><td class="tdl bl">Not visited. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Grouse Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6</td><td class="tdr bl"> 500</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,500</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl">With aid of reservoirs. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Owl Spring </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10</td><td class="tdr bl"> 10</td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Rosebud Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 150</td><td class="tdr bl"> 400</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl">With aid of reservoirs. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Muddy Creek, township 10 north, range 15 west </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 300</td><td class="tdr bl"> 300</td><td class="tdr bl"> 300</td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Park Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6</td><td class="tdr bl"> 700</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,300</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl">With aid of reservoirs. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Widow Spring </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 20</td><td class="tdr bl"> 20</td><td class="tdl bl">Not visited. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Indian Creek, township 13 north, range 12 west </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 100</td><td class="tdr bl"> 100</td><td class="tdl bl">With aid of reservoirs. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>East base Clear Creek Mountains </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6</td><td class="tdr bl"> 5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 150</td><td class="tdr bl"> 100</td><td class="tdl bl"> Do. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Cazure Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td><td class="tdl bl">Not visited. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Clear Creek, township 15 north, range 12 west </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 80</td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Junction Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 500</td><td class="tdr bl"> 500</td><td class="tdl bl">Not visited. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Goose Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td><td class="tdl bl"> Do. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Pilot Spring </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Deseret Creek (or Deep Creek) </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 300</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl">With aid of reservoirs. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Crystal Springs, township 14 north, range 7 west</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 60</td><td class="tdr bl"> 100</td><td class="tdr bl"> 100</td><td class="tdl bl"> Do. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Antelope Spring, township 9 north, range 6 west </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 30</td><td class="tdr bl"> 30</td><td class="tdr bl"> 30</td><td class="tdl bl">Not visited. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Hanzel Spring </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 15</td><td class="tdr bl"> 15</td><td class="tdr bl"> 15</td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Promontory, east base </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 300</td><td class="tdr bl"> 600</td><td class="tdr bl"> 600</td><td class="tdl bl">The greater part is not irrigated.</td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Blue Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,500</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Brackish Springs near Blue Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> 200</td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdl bl"> </td></tr> -<tr class="bl bt br"><td>Antelope Island </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1</td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50</td><td class="tdr bl"> 50</td><td class="tdl bl">Not visited. </td></tr> -<tr class="bl btt br"><td><span class="caption">Total</span> </td><td class="tdr bl"> 60</td><td class="tdr bl">8,610</td><td class="tdr bl">21,740</td><td class="tdr bl">1,625</td><td class="tdr bl"> </td></tr> -<tr class="bl btt br bb"><td><span class="caption">Total in square miles</span> </td><td class="tdr bl"> —</td><td class="tdr bl"> 13.5</td><td class="tdr bl"> 33.9</td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.5</td><td class="tdr bl"> </td></tr> -</table><p> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span></p> - - - -<p class="p2">Nineteen tracts have not yet been surveyed by the land office.</p> - -<p>The total area of the district is 13,370 square miles, of which -one-tenth of one per cent. is cultivated, and one-fourth of one per -cent. may be cultivated.</p> - -<hr class="tb"> - -<p>The contrast between the districts east and west of Great Salt Lake -illustrates the combination of physical conditions essential to -agriculture in our arid territories. An atmosphere endowed with but a -small share of moisture precipitates freely only when it is reduced -to a low temperature. Agriculture is dependent on the precipitation -of moisture, but cannot endure the associated cold climate. It can -flourish only where mountain masses turn over the aqueous product of -their cold climates to low valleys endowed with genial climates. The -Wasatch and Uinta crests stand from 6,000 to 9,000 feet higher than the -valleys bordering Great Salt Lake. Their climate has a temperature from -20° to 30° lower. The snows that accumulate upon them in winter are not -melted by the first warmth of spring, but yield slowly to the advancing -sun, and all through the season of growing crops feed the streams -that water the valleys. The Bear, the Weber, and the Jordan carry the -moisture of the mountains to the warmth of the valleys, and fertility -is the result.</p> - -<p>To the north and west of the lake there are many mountains, but they -are too low and small to store up snow banks until the time of need. -Their streams are spent before the summer comes; and only a few springs -are perennial. The result is a general desert, dotted by a few oases.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br><span class="small">IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER RIVER.</span></h2></div> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By Captain C. E. Dutton.</span></p> - - -<p>As an agricultural region, the valley of the Sevier River and of -its tributaries is one of the most important in Utah. The amount of -arable land which may be reached by the waters of the stream is very -much larger than the stream can water advantageously, and the time is -probably not far distant when all the water that can be obtained will -be utilized in producing cereals, and there is probably no other region -in Utah where the various problems relating to the most economic use -of water will be solved so speedily. It is, therefore, a region of -unusual interest, regarded in the light of the new industrial problems -which the irrigation of these western lands is now bringing forward. -Fortunately, there is a smaller prospect of difficulty and obstruction -in the settlement of the legal controversies which must inevitably -arise elsewhere out of disputes about water rights than will be -encountered in other regions, for the Mormon Church is an institution -which quietly, yet resistlessly, assumes the power to settle such -disputes, and the Mormon people in these outlying settlements yield to -its assumptions an unhesitating obedience. Whatever the church deems -best for the general welfare of its dependencies it dictates, and -what it dictates is invariably done with promptitude, and none have -yet been found to resist. This communal arrangement has been attended -with great success so far as the development of the water resources -are concerned,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span> and the system of management has ordinarily been so -conducted that the general welfare has been immensely benefited; and -if individuals have suffered, it has not been made manifest by any -apparent symptoms of general discontent or of individual resistance. -The system is by no means perfect as yet, but its imperfections may be -found in details which produce no present serious inconvenience, and -they will no doubt be remedied as rapidly as they attain the magnitude -of great evils.</p> - -<p>The Sevier River has its course along the southeastern border of the -Great Basin of the west, and its upper streams head in the lofty divide -which separates the drainage system of the Colorado River on the south -and east from the drainage system of the Great Basin on the north and -west. The general course of the upper portion of the stream is from -south to north, though its tributaries flow in many directions. The -lower portion of the stream, within 60 miles of its end, suddenly -breaks through one of the Basin Ranges on the west—the Pavant—and -then turns southwestward and empties into Sevier Lake, one of the -salinas of the Great Basin.</p> - -<p>The main valley of the Sevier River has a N. S. trend, and begins on -the divide referred to, about 270 miles almost due south of Great -Salt Lake, and continues northward a distance of about 170 miles. -There are three principal forks of this stream. The lowest fork is -at Gunnison, 140 miles south of Salt Lake City, and called the San -Pete, which waters a fine valley about 45 miles in length, and which -is at present the most important agricultural district in Utah. About -80 miles farther up the stream, at Circle Valley, the river divides -into two very nearly equal branches; one coming from the south, the -other breaking through a great plateau on the east. These are called, -respectively, the South and East Fork of the Sevier. The South Fork has -its principal fountains far up on the surface of a great plateau—the -Panguitch Plateau—whose broad expanse it drains by three considerable -streams, which finally unite in the valley at the foot of its eastern -slope.</p> - -<p>The East Fork of the Sevier receives the waters of a beautiful valley -lying to the eastward of and parallel to the main valley of the Sevier, -and separated from it by a lofty plateau 90 miles in length from north -to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span> south, and from 10 to 20 miles in breadth, called the Sevier -Plateau. Through this great barrier the stream has cut a wide gorge -4,000 feet in depth and 10 miles long, called East Fork Cañon, and -right at its lower end it joins the South Fork of the Sevier.</p> - -<p>The physical geography of the region drained by the waters of the river -is highly interesting, and has an important relation to the subject. -The area in question consists of a series of tabular blocks, of vast -proportions, cut out of the general platform of the country by great -faults, and lifted above it from 2,000 to nearly 6,000 feet, so that -the absolute altitudes (above sea level) of the tables range from 9,000 -to 11,500 feet. Where the valleys are lowest the tables are highest, -and <i>vice versa</i>. The valleys or lowlands stand from 5,000 to -7,500 feet above the sea. The plateaus have areas ranging from 400 -to 1,800 square miles, and collectively with the included lowlands -within the drainage system of the Sevier have an area of about 5,400 -square miles. The tables front the valleys with barriers which are -more continuous and which more closely resemble long lines of cliffs -than the mountain chains and sierras of other portions of the Rocky -Mountain Region, and there are stretches of unbroken walls, crowned -with vast precipices, 10, 20, and even 40 miles in length, which look -down from snowy altitudes upon the broad and almost torrid expanses -below. If the palisades of the Hudson had ten times their present -altitude and five or six times their present length, and if they had -been battered, notched, and crumbled by an unequal erosion, they would -offer much the same appearance as that presented by the wall of the -Sevier Plateau which fronts the main valley of the Sevier. If they -were from six to eight times multiplied, and extended from Hoboken -to West Point, and were similarly shattered, they would present the -appearance of the eastern wall of Grass Valley. If they were eight to -ten times multiplied, and imagined to extend around three-fourths of -the periphery of an area 40 miles by 20, and but little damaged by -erosion, they would represent the solemn battlements of the Aquarius -Plateau. These great plateaus are masses of volcanic rock overlying -sedimentaries, the latter so deeply buried that they are seldom seen -even in the deepest chasms, while superposed floods of volcanic -outflows are shown in sections, reaching sometimes a thickness of 5,000 -feet. The dark<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span> colors of these rocks give a somber aspect to the -scenery, and the gloomy fronts of the towering precipices are rendered -peculiarly grand and imposing.</p> - -<p>The prevailing winds of this region are from the west, northwest, -and southwest, and are a portion of the more general movement of the -atmospheric ocean which moves bodily from the Pacific to the heart -of the continent. In crossing the Sierra Nevada a large portion of -its moisture is wrung from the air, which blows hot and arid across -the Great Basin. Notwithstanding the aridity of the basin area, the -air gains about as much moisture as it loses in crossing it, until it -strikes the great barriers on the east side of the basin—the Wasatch -and the chain of high plateaus which are mapped as its southerly -continuation. Here the winds are projected by the bold fronts several -thousands of feet upward. The consequent cooling and rarefaction -condense from them an amount of moisture which, relatively to that -arid country, may be called large, though far less than that of more -favored regions. In the valleys the rainfall is exceedingly small; -almost the whole of the precipitation is in the high altitudes. It -is no uncommon thing to see the heavy masses of the cumulus clouds -enveloping the summits of all the plateaus while the valleys lie under -a sky but little obscured. The plateaus, then, are the reservoirs where -the waters accumulate, and from which they descend in many rivulets -and rills, while around their bases are copious springs fed by the -waters which fall above. The rainfall in the valleys is very small, as -compared with that upon the plateaus, and it is also highly variable. -No record has been kept of the precipitation within the drainage -system of the Sevier, and the nearest point where such a record has -been kept is at Fort Cameron, near Beaver, at the western base of -the Tushar Mountains. These observations cover but a brief period, -and no doubt represent a much larger precipitation than that which -occurs in the valleys and plains generally, because the situation of -the point of observation is just at the base of the loftiest range in -southern Utah, where the air currents from the west first strike it. -Moreover, these observations are not yet published, and are not at -present available. In the narrow valleys between closely approximated -and lofty mountain walls, like the valley of the Sevier at Marysvale, -the rainfall is greater than where<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span> the valley is wider, with lower -walls, as at Panguitch, Richfield, and Gunnison. An estimate of the -amount would be very hazardous; but, judging from what is known of -similar localities, the amount in the wider valleys may be as low as -7 or 8 inches, or as high as 10 or 11. In the narrower and deeper -valleys it may be between 10 and 12 inches. Upon the plateaus it may -be as large as 30 to 35 inches. The principal fall is in the winter -and spring months, from the middle of November to the first of June; -and in this period at least seven-eighths of the precipitation must be -accomplished in the valleys and three-fourths upon the plateaus. There -is, however, a large amount of variation in the distribution of the -monthly falls from year to year. No two consecutive years correspond -in this respect. In 1876 a heavy storm, with great rainfall and snow, -occurred in the month of October, but in 1875 and 1877 no such storm -occurred. In 1875 many drenching showers occurred in the months of July -and August, but none occurred at the same months of 1877. In general, -however, no summer rainfall has ever been known of such extent as to -dispense with the necessity of irrigation, or even to materially reduce -the necessary amount. Great variability in the distribution of the fall -over different months of the year is one of the characteristics of the -climate. But whatever the distribution, it is never such as to affect -this one conspicuous feature—that the season in which crops must have -their chief growth and reach their maturity is the dry season.</p> - -<p>Connected with the irrigation of the Sevier Valley is a limiting -condition, which rarely has to be considered in connection with the -lands watered by the Bear and Weber Rivers, and which does not enter at -all into the lands lying about Great Salt Lake. It is the dependence of -climate upon altitude. There are lands along the upper portions of the -forks of the Sevier which can be irrigated easily enough, but which are -not cultivable for grain on account of the shortness of the summer and -of the danger of frosts during the growth and ripening of the grain. -This in turn is directly connected with the altitude. At the point -where the Sevier leaves its main valley and enters the Pavant range, -its altitude is 5,050 feet above sea-level. At Gunnison it is 5,150 -feet.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span></p> - -<p>The altitudes of the San Pete Valley are approximately as follows:</p> - -<table class="thin p2"> -<tr><th></th><th class="tdr">Feet.</th></tr> - <tr><td> Manti </td><td class="tdr"> 5,350</td></tr> - <tr><td> Ephraim </td><td class="tdr"> 5,450</td></tr> - <tr><td> Moroni </td><td class="tdr"> 5,500</td></tr> -<tr><td> Springtown </td><td class="tdr"> 5,550</td></tr> - <tr><td> Mount Pleasant</td><td class="tdr"> 5,600</td></tr> - <tr><td> Fairview </td><td class="tdr"> 5,725</td></tr> - <tr><td> Fountain Green</td><td class="tdr"> 5,650</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2">Beginning at Gunnison and ascending the Sevier along its main course, -the altitudes are as follows:</p> - -<table class="thin p2"> -<tr><th></th><th class="tdr">Feet.</th></tr> -<tr><td>Gunnison </td><td class="tdr"> 5,100</td></tr> -<tr><td>Salina </td><td class="tdr"> 5,175</td></tr> -<tr><td>Richfield </td><td class="tdr"> 5,300</td></tr> -<tr><td>Monroe </td><td class="tdr"> 5,350</td></tr> -<tr><td>Joseph City </td><td class="tdr"> 5,375</td></tr> -<tr><td>Marysvale </td><td class="tdr"> 5,600</td></tr> -<tr><td>Circle Valley </td><td class="tdr"> 6,000</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2">Taking the East Fork in Grass Valley:</p> - -<table class="thin p2"> -<tr><th></th><th class="tdr">Feet.</th></tr> -<tr><td> Head of East Fork Cañon </td><td class="tdr"> 6,300</td></tr> -<tr><td> Cousharem </td><td class="tdr"> 6,700</td></tr> -<tr><td> Daniels’ Ranch </td><td class="tdr"> 7,000</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2">Taking the South Fork:</p> - -<table class="thin p2"> - <tr><th></th><th class="tdr"> Feet.</th></tr> -<tr><td> Head of Panguitch Cañon </td><td class="tdr"> 6,250</td></tr> -<tr><td> Panguitch </td><td class="tdr"> 6,400</td></tr> -<tr><td> Hillsdale </td><td class="tdr"> 6,550</td></tr> -<tr><td> Junction of Mammoth Creek</td><td class="tdr"> 6,900</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2">In the San Pete Valley, which has been cultivated as far up as Mount -Pleasant for twenty years, I cannot learn that any crop has ever been -injured by frosts, and we may therefore conclude that this valley is -safe from such an attack, unless a most abnormal one. The same may -be said of the main Sevier Valley from Joseph City downward. From -Joseph City to Circle Valley there is a relatively small proportion -of irrigable land, but such as there is may, I think, be regarded as -safe from frost. Circle Valley, where the two forks unite, has been -cultivated for cereals for four years, and has not yet suffered from -frost, and it is fair to assume that such a calamity will be very -infrequent there, though it may not be possible to say there is no -danger. In Panguitch Valley, a severe frost in August, 1874, inflicted -great injury upon the crops, and only a small quantity of very -inferior grain was harvested. But in 1875, 1876, and 1877, excellent -crops were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span> secured. Above Panguitch the amount of arable land is not -great, and the danger to crops is increased. In Grass Valley there -is a magnificent expanse of fertile arable land, but there can be no -question that a large portion of it is so liable to killing frosts in -August, or even in July, that the cereals cannot flourish there. The -lower portion of the valley, near the head of East Fork Cañon, is more -hopeful, and it is probable that a large majority of crops planted -there will mature, though occasional damage may be reasonably looked -for. The general result may be summarized as follows: Below 6,000 feet -crops may be considered as safe from serious damage by frosts. From -6,000 to 7,000 feet crops are liable to damage in a degree proportional -to the excess of altitude above 6,000 feet. Above 7,000 feet the danger -is probably such as to render agriculture of little value to those who -may pursue it.</p> - -<p>The climate has shown in past times a longer period of variation than -the annual one. Panguitch was settled once in 1860, but was abandoned -on account of the destruction of crops by the frosts. The settlement -was renewed in 1867, and again abandoned, in consequence of the attacks -of Indians. It was settled a third time in 1870, and, though crops have -occasionally been injured, the agriculture has on the whole proved -remunerative.</p> - -<p>Let us now look at the irrigable lands of the Sevier and its -tributaries. Above the town of Panguitch, on the South Fork, there is -a considerable area of arable land, which could be easily reached by -canals from the main stream and below 7,000 feet altitude, but for want -of a detailed survey it is impossible to do more than guess at the -area. I think, however, that 8,000 acres would be the maximum limit. -This portion of the valley is liable to killing frosts, though during -the last three years it has not suffered from this cause. In the long -run, I believe agriculture will not prove remunerative here. From -Panguitch northward to the head of the Panguitch Cañon, a distance of -18 miles, is a broad valley, averaging 5 miles in width, a very large -portion of which is irrigable, provided the water supply is adequate. -At least 24,000 acres may be cultivated without resort to anything more -than the usual methods of distributing the water; but not the whole -of this area is fertile. The greater part of the area of Panguitch<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span> -Valley is composed of alluvial slopes, or, as they have been termed -by geologists, alluvial cones. Although these surface features are -presented in a somewhat more typical and striking manner in Grass -Valley, yet they are well enough exhibited here; and as they have an -important relation to the subject, I will briefly discuss them.</p> - -<p>In a mountainous country like this, where the melting of the snows in -spring or heavy rainfalls at other seasons create sudden and great -torrents, large quantities of detritus are carried down from the -mountains into the valleys. These mountain streams, which in summer, -autumn, and early winter are ordinarily either very small or wholly -dried up, may upon certain occasions become devastating floods. The -bottoms of the ravines are steep water courses, down which the angry -torrents rush with a power which is seldom comprehended by those who -dwell in less rugged regions. Huge boulders weighing several tons, -great trees, with smaller débris of rocks, gravel, sand, and clay, -are swept along with resistless force, until the decreasing slope -diminishes the energy sufficiently to permit the greater boulders -to come to rest, while the smaller ones are still swept onward. The -decrease of slope is continuous, so that smaller and smaller fragments -reach a stable position, and only cobblestones, gravel, or sand reach -the junctions of the streams with the main rivers. Around the openings -of the greater gorges and ravines the deposits of coarser detritus -build up in the lapse of time the alluvial cones. As it accumulates, -each torrent builds up its bed and constantly changes the position of -its channel, and with the mouth of the ravine for a center it sweeps -around from right to left and left to right like a radius, adding -continually, year after year, to the accumulations of detritus. Thus a -portion of a flat cone is formed, having its apex at the mouth of the -ravine. At the foot of mountain ranges these alluvial cones are formed -at the mouth of every ravine, and are sometimes so near together that -they intersect each other, or become confluent. They are composed of -rudely stratified materials, ranging in size or grain from fine silt -and sand to rounded stones of several hundredweight, and occasionally -a block of a ton or more may be seen near the apex of the cone. In -regions where the rocks are soft and readily disintegrated the stones -are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span> more worn, less in number, and smaller in size, and this is the -case generally with unaltered sedimentary rocks. But in valleys running -among volcanic ranges, the much greater hardness and durability of the -materials preserve them from disintegration, and the stones are more -numerous, larger, and less worn by attrition, composing indeed a very -large proportion of the bulk of the alluvial cones. A large portion -of the valley of the Sevier lies in the midst of a volcanic region, -and its sides are everywhere flanked with these alluvial cones, which -are very stony and gravelly. The lower portion of the Sevier is in a -country made of sedimentary beds, and though the alluvial cones are -equally common, they consist of finer material, and are less burdened -with stones.</p> - -<p>The Panguitch Valley is between volcanic plateaus, and most of its area -consists of alluvial cone land, which is no doubt fertile wherever the -stones and rubble are not sufficient to prevent plowing and planting, -but this difficulty must render it at least very undesirable. There -is, however, a large area of land of another description in Panguitch -Valley, composed of the finest silt brought down by the gentler current -of the river itself, and deposited within its own basin. This is good -bottom land, and the amount of it I estimate at not less than 7,000 -acres. It has already been remarked that Panguitch Valley stands at -an altitude above 6,000 feet, and is not free from danger of summer -frosts. These have been known to destroy or seriously injure the grain, -though in a majority of years crops will no doubt be safely harvested. -Whether the danger is such as to make agriculture unremunerative in the -long run experience can alone demonstrate.</p> - -<p>Following the South Fork of the Sevier downward through the Panguitch -cañons, the next important agricultural area is Circle Valley. This -is a broad, nearly circular area, situated in the midst of scenery -of the most magnificent description. Upon the east and west sides -rise those gigantic cliffs which are the peculiar feature of the -scenery of this elevated region, looking down upon the valley below -from altitudes of 4,000 to 5,000 feet. This valley also has upon its -sides long sloping areas of stony alluvial cones, full of blocks of -trachyte and basalt washed down from the cliffs above. It has also -a large area of arable land. There is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span> in addition, a certain area -of sandy land of an inferior degree of excellence. The area of best -bottom land will probably reach as high as 6,000 acres. In this area -there is probably very little danger from early frosts, as the 6,000 -feet contour passes through the middle of the valley, and, as already -stated, the areas which lie within this limit are reasonably safe from -this occurrence. At the north end of Circle Valley we find the junction -of the two main forks of the Sevier River. From the junction the main -stream runs northward for nearly 20 miles, and throughout this entire -stretch there is but little arable land. Upon both sides of the river -there are long alluvial slopes, made up of stony materials and coarse -gravels, through which a plow could scarcely be driven. A portion of -the way the river runs between rocks and low cliffs and in abrupt -cañons, cutting through old trachyte and basaltic outflows. Reaching -Marysvale, we find a sufficient area for three or four good sized -farms, consisting of bottom land of the finest quality, which can be -watered either from the Sevier River itself or from two considerable -affluents which come roaring down out of the Beaver Mountains. North of -Marysvale is a barrier thrown across the valley, consisting of rugged -hills of rhyolitic rocks, through which the river has cut a deep cañon; -but agriculture in any portion of this barrier is out of the question. -The river emerges from it at the head of what may be called its main -or lower valley, near the Mormon settlement called Joseph City. From -this point northward we find what must undoubtedly become the great -agricultural area of southern Utah. It is a magnificent valley, nowhere -less than 5 miles in width, and at least 60 miles in length, with -abrupt mountain walls on either side, and almost the whole of its soil -consisting of alluvial cones, and susceptible of a high degree of -cultivation. The limit of the amount of land in this valley which can -be irrigated is measured by the quantity of water which can be found -to turn upon it. The western side of the valley is flanked by abrupt -walls of sedimentary rocks. As I have before stated, the alluvial cones -which find their origin in the degradation of these sedimentary walls -are invariably composed of finer materials than those which come from -the breaking up of volcanic rocks. The soil, therefore, is much more -readily plowed and planted than the corresponding cones farther up the -river. The surface of these cones,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span> moreover, is coated with a thick -layer of fine loam, and it is not until penetrated to a considerable -depth that we come upon a coarser material. This portion of the valley -of the Sevier has been under cultivation for more than eight years. -The art of irrigation has also reached a certain stage of advancement, -at which it can be studied with some interest. A canal of sufficient -magnitude to carry the entire body of the water of the Sevier during -the dry season has been run for a distance of 8 miles, and is used for -irrigating the large grain fields which lie around Richfield; and, as -irrigation is now conducted, the entire flow of the stream is turned -through this canal after having been employed for irrigating the -various fields, which extend for the distance of nearly 7 miles. The -total amount of irrigable land which may be found between Joseph City -on the south and the point where the Sevier leaves its proper valley, -65 miles to the northward, cannot be much less than 90,000 acres. The -limit of irrigation throughout this entire valley is the limit of the -water supply.</p> - -<p>There is one other valley to which we must advert, namely, the -valley of the San Pete. This is fully equal in fertility and in the -convenience of every element connected with irrigation to the best -part of the main valley of the Sevier. The San Pete is a stream of -considerable magnitude, and experience has shown that it is probably -capable, under a more improved system of irrigation than that now in -use, of watering the greater portion of its valley. The cultivable -acreage of the San Pete Valley is about 55,000 acres, provided the -whole could be watered.</p> - -<p>The quantity of water carried by the Sevier will now be considered. -This, of course, is highly variable from month to month. The time for -measurement, if the true irrigating capacity of the stream is to be -considered, should be that time at which the ratio of water in the -stream to the amount required is smallest. At different stages of -growth of the crops the amount of water required differs considerably. -The largest amount is needed about the time the seeds of the grain -begin to fill out. Ordinarily this is in the latter part of July and -early in August throughout the lower and most extensive portion of -the valley, and a week later in the upper portions. At this season -the water is not at its minimum. There is a gradual diminution of the -flow during July, but the great shrinkage of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span> stream occurs during -the middle of August, just after, or sometimes even during, those -irrigations in which the greatest amount is required. The critical -period of the crops occurs, therefore, just before, and sometimes -dangerously near, the period of rapid decline in the water supply. -It will therefore be evident that it is not a very easy matter to -determine the exact stage of water which can serve as a criterion of -the irrigating capacity. My own measurements, however, were hardly a -matter of choice, but were made at the most advantageous period which -could be selected without interfering with the primary objects of the -expedition.</p> - -<p>The Sevier was measured at the junction of the two main forks, at the -north end of Circle Valley, on the 6th and 7th of July. The method -adopted was first to find a section of the water at a given point by -soundings and by actual measurement of the width of the water surfaces, -and measuring the surface velocity by means of floats. The most -probable mean result of several measurements was found to be 410 cubic -feet per second for the East Fork, and 450 feet per second for the -South Fork, or a total of 860 feet.</p> - -<p>While this measurement was made the South Fork was being drawn upon -above for the watering of about 1,100 acres near Panguitch, 35 miles -farther up the stream, and also for watering about 600 acres in Circle -Valley, about 3 to 4 miles above. The amount of water used in Circle -Valley was probably greater than that at Panguitch, since the method -employed was much more wasteful, and no provision made for returning -the tail water to the stream. On the other hand, a large proportion of -the tail water from both places finds its way back to the channel in -spite of waste, but how much it is impossible to conjecture. I think, -however, that 75 cubic feet per second would cover the loss from these -sources.</p> - -<p>Below the point of measurement the Sevier receives the following -affluents: At Van Buren’s ranch is a cluster of very large springs, -furnishing about 55 cubic feet per second. Between Van Buren’s and -Marysvale are three streams, yielding together about 30 feet, and -Bullion Creek at Marysvale carries about 40 feet. There is still -another affluent at Marysvale with about 30 feet. Finally, Clear -Creek, north of Marysvale Cañon, gives about 45 feet, making the total -contributions between the junction of the forks and Joseph City about -200 feet.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span></p> - -<p>At Monroe a stream issues from the Sevier table, and is used for -the irrigation of the field cultivated by that settlement. Its flow -is estimated at 40 feet in the middle of July. At Richfield, on the -other side of the valley, is a stream coming from the Pavant, with a -flow of about 20 feet, and at Glencove a stream of 25 feet. At Salina -is a large tributary issuing from a great cañon through the north -end of the Sevier Plateau, and its measurement indicated a flow of -165 feet. The total between Monroe and Salina, inclusive, would thus -reach 250 feet, to which might be added some smaller tributaries, not -specifically mentioned, amounting perhaps to 10 feet, giving a total of -260 feet. Adding this to the tributaries between the upper forks and -Joseph City, and to the main river itself, we have, as the total above -Gunnison, 1,320 feet. This estimate being for the early part of July, -and obviously largely in excess of the amount which is available at -the critical period, in the last week of that month and the first week -in August, what allowance should be made for the diminution of supply -during the month of July it is difficult to determine. The smaller -tributaries, as a rule, shrink much more than the larger. Those which -enter the stream lower down decline more during July than those which -join it farther up. Taken altogether, I am satisfied that it would be -unsafe to estimate the irrigating capacity in the first week of August -at more than 60 per cent. of that found in the first week of July, -and I regard 50 per cent. as a much more probable estimate. For want -of a better one, I adopt it, and this gives the estimated irrigating -capacity of the Sevier and its tributaries above the junction of the -San Pete at 660 cubic feet per second during the critical period.</p> - -<p>The water supply in the San Pete Valley was measured by Mr. Renshawe -during the latter part of July, and found by him to be as follows:</p> - - -<p class="center caption p2"><i>Volume of flowing water, in cubic feet per second, of streams in San -Pete Valley.</i></p> - -<table class="thin p2"> -<tr><th></th><th class="tdr"> Feet.</th></tr> -<tr><td>Pleasant Creek</td><td class="tdr"> 28</td></tr> -<tr><td> Ephraim Creek </td><td class="tdr"> 28</td></tr> - <tr><td> Manti Creek </td><td class="tdr"> 28</td></tr> -<tr><td> Springtown Creek </td><td class="tdr"> 14</td></tr> - <tr><td> Fairview Creek </td><td class="tdr"> 10</td></tr> -<tr><td> Wales Creek </td><td class="tdr"> 6</td></tr> -<tr><td> Fountain Green </td><td class="tdr"> 10<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span></td></tr> -<tr><td> Moroni </td><td class="tdr"> 10</td></tr> -<tr><td> Creek between Ephraim and Manti </td><td class="tdr"> 5</td></tr> -<tr><td> Creek between Manti and Gunnison </td><td class="tdr"> 5</td></tr> -<tr><td> Creek above Fairview </td><td class="tdr"> 2¹⁄₂</td></tr> -<tr><td> Twelve-mile Creek </td><td class="tdr"> 28</td></tr> -<tr><td> San Pete at Gunnison</td><td class="tdr"> 60</td></tr> -<tr><td class="bt"> Total </td><td class="tdr"> 234¹⁄₂</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2">This estimate is also liable to reduction, being undoubtedly a little -in excess of the amount available at the critical period. This -reduction may be as great as 15 per cent., which would leave very -closely 200 cubic feet as the water supply of the San Pete Valley, -which, added to the total of the Sevier above Gunnison, gives for the -whole drainage system of the Sevier River a water supply of 860 feet -per second at the time when the greatest amount is required.</p> - -<p>The next factor to be inquired into is the amount of land which a cubic -foot per second of water can irrigate. This is, of course, highly -variable, depending upon the nature of the soil, and the economy with -which the water is applied, and the frequency of the irrigations. -New lands freshly broken require much more water than the older ones -which have been planted and watered for several years; and in fact the -quantity diminishes with each season for a long term of years. In the -San Pete Valley, which has been longest cultivated, the decrease in -the amount of water applied to the oldest lands has not yet ceased, -though some fields have been cultivated with regularity since 1857. -The fresh soils are highly porous and absorptive, requiring a large -quantity of water for their irrigation, and not retaining this moisture -well under the great evaporative power of a dry and hot atmosphere. -With successive irrigations, the pores of the soil are gradually closed -and the earth is slowly compacted by the infiltration of impalpable -silt brought by the irrigating waters. It absorbs water much more -slowly, and retains it a much longer time. There is, however, a check -to this increased irrigating power, arising from a wasteful mode of -agriculture. It has not been the practice to employ fertilizers, -nor any other conservative means of keeping up the fertility of the -soil, and the yield of the crops growing smaller, the old lands are -frequently abandoned, and fresh adjoining lands are broken, planted, -and watered. It has been the practice to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span> cut the straw, which is never -returned as mulch; and, as there is but little rotation in crops, the -result can be easily comprehended. So long as new land costs nothing -but the labor to clear of the <i>Artemisia</i> or sage brush, there -is always the tendency to invade it as rapidly as the old lands show -signs of fatigue. Thus the waters are constantly irrigating every -year a large proportion of new land, and the consumption of water is -correspondingly great.</p> - -<p>A serious loss of water and fertility is produced by any method of -irrigation which employs more water than is just sufficient to saturate -the soil. Whatever water runs off from a field carries with it great -quantities of mud and fine silt, together with the most precious -elements of fertility. These elements are the soluble alkaline salts -and organic manner which are readily taken up by the water, and once -removed are not speedily restored. A field which is so irrigated that -a large surplus of water is continually running from the tail ditches -during the flow will rapidly deteriorate in fertility. But a field -which receives water which is allowed to stand until it has soaked -into the earth, without any surplus passing into the tail ditches, -will increase in fertility. These irrigating waters bring with them a -sufficiency of plant food to compensate, and more too, for the drain -upon the soil caused by the harvest; but they will carry off more than -they bring if they are permitted to run over the field and escape from -it, instead of being caught and held until they are absorbed. It is not -always practicable to attain this exact distribution of water, and many -cases occur where great expense and labor might be required to arrange -the ditches and fields in this manner. Ordinarily, it is cheaper to -throw away old land and take up new than to improve the system of -irrigation, and there are many fields in the valley of the Sevier which -have been abandoned because the fertility of the soil has been washed -out by a reckless method of irrigation. Connected with this is another -source of waste, arising from very unequal requirements of contiguous -areas, in consequence of which many lands, especially old ones, are -liable to be excessively watered. When a community farms a large number -of small fields, using water from the same canals, it is usually -impossible so to regulate the distribution of the privilege that each -field will receive the exact amount it needs. Some fields can<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span> remain -unwatered much longer than others, and the tendency always is to get as -much water as possible—each farmer fearing a deficiency of water and -wasting its surplus. Experience on the part of the watermasters and a -more and more settled habit in the lands themselves gradually diminish -this source of loss and create economy. Far better results, therefore, -may ordinarily be anticipated in old lands than in new. Better results, -also, are found where circumstances render difficult or impracticable -the abandonment of old fields for new, and this is ordinarily in those -portions where the water is nearly or quite sufficient for all the -irrigable land, and where all the irrigable land is taken up.</p> - -<p>Recurring, then, to the inquiry as to the amount of land which a cubic -foot per second of running water will irrigate, this area is in many -of the new lands as low as 40 acres, and it seldom exceeds 80 acres -with the old lands. Probably there are very few regions in the world -where the demand of the soil for water is so great as here where the -supply is so small. In California a cubic foot of water is said to be -capable of irrigating more than a hundred acres, in India 200, and in -Spain and Italy a much larger area. The reason is obvious. It is the -direct consequence of the extreme aridity of the climate of Utah. The -irrigating capacity of the unit of water is even less in the southern -counties of Utah than in those around Great Salt Lake. Mr. Gilbert’s -estimate of 100 acres for this last locality being accepted as the best -that can be hoped for, it will not be rating the factor too low to say -that 80 acres is the best that can be hoped for in the valley of the -Sevier. The present factor will not, I am convinced, have a higher -average value than 50 acres.</p> - -<p>The total acreage, therefore, which can be irrigated in the drainage -system of the Sevier by the present system of watering and of -agriculture may be estimated at about 43,000 acres, and the greatest -improvements and economies in the system of farming and watering -cannot, with the present water supply, be expected to raise the -irrigable area above 70,000 acres.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span></p> - -<table class="autotable p2"> -<tr class="bt bl br"><th> Districts.</th><th class="bl">Square miles cultivated during 1877.</th> -<th class="bl">Acres cultivated during 1877.</th><th class="bl">Square miles of irrigable land.</th><th class="bl"> -Acres irrigable land. </th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>San Pete Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 17 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 11,000 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 31.2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 20,000 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Gunnison </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4.4 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,800 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4,000 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Sevier Valley above Gunnison</td><td class="tdr bl"> 16.5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10,500 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 54.7 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 35,000</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Circle Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 750 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6.3 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4,000 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Panguitch and above </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.8 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,800 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 11 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7,000 </td></tr> -<tr class="btt bl br bb"><td> Total </td><td class="tdr bl"> 41.9 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 26,850 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 109.4 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 70,000</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="p2">Nevertheless, I am persuaded that it will be practicable to extend the -possibility of irrigation by an increase of water supply to a degree -sufficient to irrigate every acre of the main valley of the Sevier -which can be reached by canals, and which is also fit for cultivation. -It is by the method of artificial reservoirs. There is probably no -region in the world more admirably suited to the easy, cheap, and -efficient application of this method than this very region drained -by the Sevier River. The sources of this river are found at high -altitudes, but these high places are not mountains in the ordinary -sense, but great plateaus with broad summits. These table tops have -vast numbers of large basins broad enough for great ponds, which are -now drained by narrow gorges cut through volcanic sheets and leading -down to lower levels. These gorges are in most cases narrow cañons, -which, being once barred across, will dam the waters above them. I -could not select a better example than the following: About 15 miles -southwest of the town of Panguitch is a broad basin, the central part -of which is occupied by a shallow lake, about 1¹⁄₄ miles long and -nearly a mile wide, called Panguitch Lake. Its altitude is about 8,200 -feet. It is completely surrounded with barriers, nowhere less than 100 -feet in height, and finds its drainage through a narrow cleft on the -northeast side. It receives the influx of two fine streams, which in -May and June must carry heavy floods of water from the lofty rim and -broad watershed of the Panguitch Plateau lying to the westward. Even in -August their united flow must reach 50 feet per second. By throwing a -dam 30 feet high and 50 or 60 feet long across the outlet between its -walls of solid trachyte, a lake would be formed with an area of 6 or 7 -square miles. There are many such basins upon the Panguitch Plateau, -and it would be a low estimate to say that it would be possible, at -comparatively small expense,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span> to create 30 or 40 square miles of lake -surface, with an average depth of 20 feet, upon that plateau alone. -The precipitation upon its surface would be more than sufficient to -fill these lakes every year. A dam across the upper part of East Fork -Cañon would create a lake behind it which might have an area of 12 to -15 square miles. Numerous reservoirs could be created at small expense -in Grass Valley, upon the Fish Lake Plateau, and upon the Sevier -Plateau, and in those valleys which are drained by Salina Creek and its -tributaries. The Sevier River itself can be cheaply dammed at several -gorges and made to overflow swampy flats above—notably at the head -of Marysvale Cañon, and again just north of Van Buren’s ranch. Other -things equal, it would be better, as well as cheaper, to build dams at -higher levels, since the evaporation is much less there than in the -valleys, and the natural facilities for creating lakes are also greater.</p> - -<p>In this way, I believe it to be practicable to reserve a store of water -sufficient to irrigate every acre of ground in the Sevier Valley, which -is by the nature of its soil and its situation suitable for irrigation. -It may be noted, too, that the “tank system” thus suggested would not -interfere with or take the place of the present system, but would be -supplementary to it. The streams would in June and early July run -through the lakes and over the dams, yielding about as much water as -they now yield in those months, and the reservoirs would not have to be -drawn upon before the middle of July.</p> - -<p>A very interesting subject connected with the peculiar conditions of -agriculture in the west is the origin and distribution of alkaline -salts in the soil. In moist regions such occurrences are rare. They -are peculiar to arid regions, and, in truth, very few arid regions -fail to exhibit them. The cause in a general way is well known. The -small amount of rain which falls during the wet season penetrates -deeply into the earth, where it gradually takes up such soluble salts -as it encounters there. During the dry season which follows, there -is always going on an evaporation from the surface, however dry it -may appear to the senses. It is a mistake to suppose that because the -saline soil is as dry as ashes no evaporation is in progress. In many -cases this may be true; but often in the most arid regions there are -many localities where the water collects far below the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span> immediate -surface. By capillary action, this water always tends to diffuse itself -throughout the loose materials which make up the overlying soils. As -fast as it is evaporated at the surface, more water from below rises -by capillary action to take its place. When the air is exceedingly -dry, as it invariably is in summer throughout the whole Rocky Mountain -Region at moderate altitudes, the evaporative power becomes so great -and extends to such a depth below the immediate surface, that we are -unable to recognize the slightest traces of moisture indicating that -evaporation is going on. The water which may have accumulated beneath -has gradually risen by percolation through the interstices of the -unconsolidated materials of the soil, bringing with it whatever soluble -salts it may have taken into solution during its sojourn beneath the -surface. These soluble salts are left at the surface by the final -evaporation of the water, and, as the process is continuous until the -reservoir beneath is exhausted, the salts accumulate. Contrast this now -with the action going on in a moist country. Here the copious waters -wash the soils as rapidly as the salts come up from below, and carry -them in solution into the drainage channels. During the greater part of -the year the movement of the waters is partly from the surface downward -into the subterranean water courses, from which they emerge in springs; -partly by surface drainages into rills, and thence into living streams. -By both movements, any tendency to accumulate soluble salts at the -surface during the relatively brief periods of dryness is prevented. -In a dry country the periods of dryness are very much longer, and the -rainfall is seldom sufficient to wash the accumulated salts from the -soil. There is, however, usually a limit to this accumulation, since -at long intervals rains occur sufficient to remove a large portion of -the salts. The difference between a dry and wet country in this respect -is therefore one of degree rather than of kind. In a dry country -the periods of accumulation of salts at the surface are long and -continuous, while the washings of the soil are rare and imperfect. In a -wet country the periods of accumulation are short and rare, while the -washings are frequent, copious, and thorough.</p> - -<p>The saline materials vary widely in character and constitution. They -are, however, chiefly salts of soda, lime, potash, and magnesia. -Sometimes they exist in the condition of chlorides, sometimes of -carbonates, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span> sometimes of sulphates. The reactions from which -they are derived are many, and it will be proper here to give only a -few illustrations. A portion of the salts of magnesia and soda are -derived from the decomposition, by atmospheric influences, of volcanic, -granitic, and other crystalline rocks. Where these materials exist in -the form of felspar, hornblende, and pyroxene, the great decomposing -agent is water charged with the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, by -the action of which soda, magnesia, and lime are, with inconceivable -slowness, dissolved out of the constituents of these rocks. There is no -stream, however pure it may apparently be, which does not carry more or -less of chlorides and carbonates in solution. The sulphates are derived -mainly from subterranean sources. In the Rocky Mountain Region, one of -the most common forms of sulphate is found very abundantly in the rocks -of the Carboniferous, Triassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary Ages, in the -forms of gypsum and selenite, which are sulphates of lime. Whenever -waters containing carbonate of soda are filtered through strata -containing these sulphates, a double decomposition takes place, by -which carbonate of lime and sulphate of soda are formed. The carbonate -of lime is very slightly soluble in water, while the sulphate of soda -is highly so, and it is well known that waters emanating from the -sedimentary rocks just spoken of are very frequently highly charged -with it. Such, doubtless, is the origin of this mineral in the so -called alkaline waters of the west, and of all the soluble minerals -which pass under the name of alkali it is one of the most common. -Carbonate of soda is also abundant in the soils. It is frequently found -in the summer time, coating the surface of bottom lands which earlier -in the season have been submerged by the augmented streams. Common salt -(chloride of sodium) is even more abundant than the sulphate. It is -well known, however, that many of the sedimentary rocks, particularly -those of the Triassic and Jurassic Age, contain an abundance of it, -and there are many localities in the west where a very fair article -of common salt is obtained by the lixiviation of the detritus of the -red Triassic rocks. Incrustations of these soluble saline materials -occur most abundantly in the vicinity of the rivers and in the bottom -lands. This may at first seem somewhat strange, but it is susceptible -of a ready explanation. In order that these salts may accumulate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span> at -the surface, there must be going on continually a slow transmission -of moisture from under ground upward, and since a continuous supply -of water is more frequently found in the bottom lands than elsewhere, -it follows that the conditions of these accumulations are here more -frequently fulfilled. They may, however, and do occur at localities -which probably contain subterranean reservoirs of water, which are -annually filled during the wet season. Sometimes these salts are so -abundant that the land requires a thorough washing before it is fit for -agriculture, and the Mormons have on several occasions, when founding -settlements, been obliged to allow the waters from their ditches to -leach the land for many months, and in one or two cases for two, and -even three, years, before a good crop could be raised. There is no -difficulty, however, in removing any quantity of these readily soluble -salts from the soil, provided this leaching process be continued long -enough; and it is usually found that lands which were originally highly -akaline become, when reclaimed from their alkalinity, among the most -fertile.</p> - -<hr class="tb"> - -<p>There yet remains for mention a number of small areas served by some -minor streams in southwestern Utah. These little creeks head in the -mountains, but are soon lost in the deserts of that arid and torrid -region, none of their waters finding their way to the ocean. The -greater number of them belong to the drainage basin of Sevier Lake. -In each case the water supply is small, and inadequate to supply the -available land. In nearly every case the competence of the supply -has been determined in the most practical way—by the operations of -settlers; but some allowance has been made for an increase of the -irrigable land by the more economic use of the water. This can be -accomplished by the construction of better waterways, and by more -carefully flowing the water over the lands.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span></p> - -<p>The following table exhibits the extent of these areas:</p> - -<table class="autotable p2"> -<tr class="bl br bt"><th> Districts.</th><th class="bl"> Square miles.</th><th class="bl"> Acres.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Cherry Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> .2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 100 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Judd Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> .2 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 100 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Levan </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,000 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Scipio </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2.6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,700 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Holden </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Fillmore and Oak Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 5.5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3,500 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Meadow Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.9 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,200 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Kanosh </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.1 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,000 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Beaver Creek and tributaries </td><td class="tdr bl"> 21.9 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 14,000</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Paragoonah </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Parowan </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Summit </td><td class="tdr bl"> .6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 400 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Cedar City, Iron City, and Fort Hamilton</td><td class="tdr bl"> 3.6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2,300 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Mountain Meadows </td><td class="tdr bl"> .3 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 200 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Pinto </td><td class="tdr bl"> .3 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 200 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Hebron </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1.6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,000 </td></tr> -<tr class="btt bb bl br"><td><span class="caption">Total </span> </td><td class="tdr bl"> 49.5 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 31,700 </td></tr> -</table><p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br><span class="small">IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THAT PORTION OF UTAH DRAINED BY THE COLORADO RIVER -AND ITS TRIBUTARIES.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By A. H. Thompson.</span></p> - - -<p>That portion of Utah drained by the Colorado River and its tributaries -belongs to a great basin limited on the north by the Uinta Mountains -and on the west by the high plateaus that separate the drainage of the -Colorado from that of the salt lakes of the interior, and extending -beyond the limits of the Territory on the east and south. The floor -of this basin is extremely rough, being broken by isolated groups of -rugged mountains, by plateaus encircled with cliffs of almost vertical -rock, by mesas and amphitheaters, and huge monumental and castellated -buttes. Everywhere the surface is cut and carved with a network of -cañons, hundreds and often thousands of feet in depth.</p> - -<p>The main channel through which its drainage passes to the sea is the -Colorado, and its proper upper continuation, the Green River.</p> - -<p>The principal tributaries to these streams from the east are the White, -the Grand, and the San Juan Rivers—all rising in the high mountains -east of the Territory and flowing in a general westerly course—the -White entering the Green River, the Grand uniting with the Green to -form the Colorado, and the San Juan entering the latter about 125 miles -below the junction of the Grand and the Green. The Virgin, the Kanab, -the Paria, the Escalante, the Fremont, the San Rafael, the Price, the -Minnie Maud, the Uinta, and Ashley Fork are the principal tributaries -from the west.</p> - -<p>This portion of Utah is but sparsely settled by white people, the only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span> -permanent locations being in the southwestern part, and in the Uinta -Valley at the north. Information concerning its agricultural resources -is limited, being confined, except in relation to the localities -before mentioned, to data collected by the geographical and geological -parties of this survey. Many of the streams have been visited but a -single time, and different streams at widely different dates, during a -field season. Often the exigencies of the survey prevented as close an -examination into the flow of water, and the location and character of -the soil of the arable tracts, as was desirable; yet, on the whole, it -is thought that the data collected can be relied upon as a very close -approximation.</p> - -<p>The climate of the basin is one of extreme aridity. The prevailing wind -is westerly. The high plateaus and mountains forming the western rim -of the basin force these winds up to an altitude above the sea of over -10,000 feet, and thus act as great condensers to deprive them of their -moisture. Flowing down from the higher lands into the warmer regions -below, their capacity for absorption is increased, and during the -greater portion of the year the winds abstract from rather than add to -the humidity of the lower altitudes. But little is known concerning the -actual amount of precipitation of moisture within the basin. Below an -altitude of 7,000 feet it is very small, probably not over an average -of 5 inches yearly. At higher altitudes it is much greater, probably -reaching 24 inches, but this is mostly during the winter months and in -the form of snow.</p> - -<p>The elevation of the region under consideration is from 2,500 feet to -11,500 feet above the sea, thus giving great range in temperature. In -the valleys of the extreme southwestern portion an almost subtropical -warmth is experienced, and the different valleys containing arable -lands we pass from these by insensible gradations to those where -frosts occur during every month in the year. Generally, the limit of -successful cultivation of the soil is below 7,000 feet.</p> - -<p>In this portion of Utah irrigation is essential to agriculture. If -all the single acres it is possible to cultivate without artificial -irrigation were aggregated, I do not believe the sum would reach -one-fourth of one square mile, and every foot of this meager amount -is irrigated naturally. Springs are of infrequent occurrence. The -great source of the water supply is the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span> streams fed by the rains and -snows of the high table lands and mountains. All these streams have a -rapid fall in their upper courses, and are here often of considerable -size; but upon reaching the lower and more level country their waters -are rapidly absorbed by the porous soil and evaporated by the higher -temperature. So great is the loss from these causes that some streams -fail to reach the main drainage channel during the warmer months, and -all are greatly shrunken in volume. All the arable lands—or lands -where altitude, slope of surface, and quality of soil permit successful -cultivation, if a supply of water can be obtained, and from which lands -to irrigate, or irrigable lands, may be selected—are in the valleys -adjacent to the streams. Usually this area in many valleys is in excess -of that which the water in the streams can irrigate, and choice in the -location of lands to cultivate is often practicable. In this report -I have considered irrigable lands to be such only as possess all the -necessary qualifications of altitude, slope of surface, and fertility -of soil, and have, in addition, an available supply of one cubic foot -of water per second for each hundred acres. The great dissimilarity -between the valleys makes it desirable to consider the drainage basin -of each separately, in respect to arable lands, irrigable lands, volume -of water, and practicability of increasing this supply during the -irrigating season.</p> - - -<h3>THE VIRGIN RIVER.</h3> - -<p>This stream is in the extreme southwest corner of the area under -consideration. Its branches rise in the Colob Plateau, at altitudes -varying from 8,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea. It flows in a -southwesterly course, and joins the Colorado beyond the boundaries of -Utah. The smaller creeks draining the eastern portion of the plateau -unite, after descending to an altitude of 5,500 feet above the sea, -and form what is called the Pa-ru-nu-weap Fork of the Virgin. At and -below the junction of these creeks, the cañon valley in which they -flow widens into what is known as Long Valley. There a considerable -area of available land is found. The soil is excellent, and wherever -cultivated yields abundant crops. Below Long Valley the stream enters -Pa-ru-nu-weap Cañon, and is simply a series of cascades for 15 miles, -descending in this distance from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span> 5,000 to 3,500 feet above the sea -level. Emerging, it enters the valley of the Virgin. This valley is 44 -miles in length. Its upper portion is only an enlargement of the cañon, -in which small areas of available land are found. Its lower portion is -a broader valley, much broken by low, basalt covered mesas, and sharp -ridges of tilted sedimentary rocks. In the upper portion of the valley -the river receives several accessions, the principal ones being Little -Zion, North Fork, La Verkin, and Ash Creeks. With the exception of -the Ash, but very little cultivable land is found along these creeks. -Midway in the valley two streams enter, coming from the Pine Valley -Mountains and having small areas of irrigable land along their courses, -and near the foot the Santa Clara River adds its water. The united -streams leave the valley by a deep cañon cut through the Beaver Dam -Mountains. The valley of the Virgin has a lower altitude than any other -portion of Utah, and a warmer climate. The soil of the arable lands is -usually good, and wherever it is possible to irrigate produces abundant -crops. Some little difficulty is occasionally experienced in the first -years of cultivation from an excess of alkaline constituents in the -soil, but plentiful applications of water soon remove this difficulty, -and these lands often become the most productive. No reliable data -concerning the amount of arable land in the drainage basin, or the -volume of water carried by the Virgin River and its tributaries, have -been collected. From the best information attainable, the amount of -land actually irrigated in 1875, is placed at eleven square miles. -This conclusion is based in the main upon returns made in 1875 to -the Deseret Agricultural and Manufacturing Society, the amount under -cultivation in Long Valley having been ascertained by Mr. J. H. -Renshawe, of this survey. To irrigate this, all the water in most of -the tributary streams is used, but a large surplus remains in the main -river. The amount of arable land is far in excess of the water supply, -but some considerable expense for dams and canals would be necessary to -utilize the whole amount.</p> - -<p>It is probable that a portion of the Virgin River can be used to -advantage below the Beaver Dam Mountains in Nevada, and that a -sufficient amount to irrigate 25 square miles can be used to good -advantage in Utah.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span></p> - -<p>The time when the volume of available water furnished by any stream -bears the least ratio to the demands of the growing crops is the -most critical period in the cultivation of the soil where artificial -irrigation is a necessity. This time, depending as it does upon the -crops cultivated, the character of the soil, and the source of the -water supply, whether from springs or from melting snows, differs in -different localities. In the valley of the Virgin it occurs in June.</p> - -<p>At this time the river, though not at flood height, which occurs in -April, carries a large volume of water, and, by reason of the source of -this supply being in the rapidly melting snows of the Colob Plateau, is -decreasing but slowly, and thus the amount available at this critical -period bears a greater ratio to the flood of the stream than is usual -in Utah. But little information has been obtained concerning the amount -of water necessary to irrigate an acre. It is thought, however, to be -much greater than in any other portion of Utah.</p> - - -<h3>KANAB CREEK.</h3> - -<p>Kanab Creek rises in springs bursting from underneath the cliffs -forming the southern boundary of the Pauns-a-gunt Plateau, and flows -southward until it joins the Colorado River in Arizona. Small areas -of arable land are found along its course after it has descended to -an altitude of 7,500 feet, and thence until it passes beyond the -boundaries of Utah. The largest area in one body is in Kanab Valley, at -the foot of the Vermilion Cliffs. It is greatly in excess of the water -supply, is at an altitude of about 5,000 feet, has a fertile soil, and -requires but comparatively a small amount of irrigation. The amount -actually under cultivation in 1877 is placed by the best information -attainable at 700 acres. The critical period in the cultivation of this -area occurs in June. At that time the stream is falling rapidly, and -crops have sometimes been seriously damaged. Estimates of the volume of -water in the stream, made at different seasons and in different years, -give 15 cubic feet per second as the flow in June. Some desultory -attempts have been made to increase the supply by ponding, the cañon -through the Vermilion Cliffs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span> above the arable lands affording many -opportunities. When this improvement is made on some well considered -and well executed plan, and the waterways flumed through some bad -sandy ground that now absorbs much water, the amount available at the -critical period can be at least doubled.</p> - -<p>Some years ago a settlement was established at the foot of the -Pink Cliffs, on the headwaters of the Kanab, but the town site was -eventually abandoned because of the deep snows of winter and the frosts -of summer.</p> - - -<h3>THE PARIA RIVER.</h3> - -<p>The Paria River rises under the eastern escarpment of the Pauns-a-gunt -Plateau, at about the same altitude as Kanab Creek, and flows in a -southwesterly course for 100 miles, joining the Colorado in Arizona. -Through the greater part of its course the river flows in a deep cañon, -but near its head, and at an altitude of 6,000 feet, the cañon expands -into a valley. Lower in its course, and at an altitude of 4,500 feet, -the cañon again widens into a smaller valley. These are the only areas -of arable lands within its drainage basin in Utah. The larger contains -15 and the smaller 10 square miles. In August, 1874, this stream flowed -30 cubic feet per second in the upper valley. The flow in the lower -would be one-third greater. High water occurs in April or early in -May. At this time the volume is three times greater than in August. -Settlements have been made in both valleys, and quite a large area is -under cultivation. The soil is excellent.</p> - -<p>The critical period in irrigation is the latter part of June or early -in July. At this time the stream probably carries 40 feet per second. -The land in the lower valley is much subject to flooding from heavy -showers that, falling on the table lands and mesas in the upper portion -of the drainage basin, pour a torrent often beyond the capacity of the -channel to convey through the lower valley. So great was the damage -done by these floods in sweeping away dams, breaking through ditches, -and inundating the growing crops at the site first selected for -settlement, that it was abandoned after three years’ occupation, and -other parts, where these sudden rushes could be controlled, selected. -Considerable difficulty has been experienced in the lower valley from -the vast amount of argillaceous sediment deposited<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span> on it. So great -during the floods is this deposit from the water used in irrigation -that the ground becomes completely coated with an impervious layer, and -growing crops, especially of small grains, suffer from the inability of -the soil to absorb the water conducted on it. The irrigating capacity -of this stream during the critical period could be greatly increased by -the construction of reservoirs in which to store the great surplus of -water that flows earlier in the season. The cañons above the valleys -offer very favorable opportunities for building the necessary dams and -embankments.</p> - - -<h3>THE ESCALANTE RIVER.</h3> - -<p>This stream enters the Colorado next north of the Paria. It rises -under the wall forming the eastern face of the Aquarius Plateau; flows -first northeast, then east, and finally southeast, before reaching the -Colorado. Its length is 90 miles, the lower three-fourths being in a -narrow cañon having vertical walls ranging from 900 to 1,200 feet in -height. Through this gorge the river sweeps, sometimes filling the -whole space from wall to wall; sometimes winding from side to side in -a flood plain of sand, and always shifting its bed more or less with -every freshet. Not an acre of accessible arable land is known in the -whole length of the cañon, and its depth precludes the possibility of -using the waters of the river on the lands above. Near the head of the -southern branch of the Escalante, in what is known as Potato Valley, -and at an elevation of about 5,000 feet, is an area of about 6 square -miles of available land. The flow of water in this branch was 90 cubic -feet per second in July, 1875. A portion of this area is now under -cultivation, and is said to produce good crops. A portion of the east -flank of the Aquarius Plateau is drained by a number of creeks that -join the Escalante in the deep gorge below Potato Valley; but they -all enter close cañons, in which no areas of arable land are known at -an altitude low enough for successful cultivation. Part of the waters -of these creeks might be used to irrigate grass lands at an altitude -of about 8,000 feet; but the conditions of pasturage are such in this -region that the amount practically available is small.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span></p> - - -<h3>THE FREMONT RIVER.</h3> - -<p>The largest branch of this stream rises in the Un-ca-pa-ga Mountains, -and after flowing in an easterly direction for 125 miles enters the -Colorado about 40 miles below the junction of the Grand and Green. It -is joined by one considerable tributary, Curtis Creek, from the north, -and another smaller, Tantalus Creek, from the south. The lower half -of its course is through two deep cañons, separated by an intervening -valley called Graves Valley, in which is an area of 10 square miles of -arable land, with an altitude of 4,500 feet above sea level. On the -upper waters of the main river, in what is known as Rabbit Valley, and -at an altitude of nearly 7,000 feet, are 25 square miles of arable -land of good quality. This area, from its altitude, should be subject -to late and early frosts, but the warm sandy soil and southeastern -slope of the whole valley will probably prevent much damage from this -cause. The valley is now used as a herd ground for cattle belonging -to the settlements in Sevier Valley, and the few experiments made by -the herdsmen in cultivating the soil also indicate that the danger to -be apprehended is slight. The volume of water flowing through Rabbit -Valley in July, 1875, was 175 cubic feet per second.</p> - -<p>Tantalus Creek drains the northern portion of the eastern slope of the -Aquarius Plateau. It enters a close cañon at 8,000 feet altitude, and -continues in cañons until it has passed through Water Pocket Fold. It -then flows along a desolate valley at the foot of the fold until it -joins the Fremont River. During the warmer months the water in this -creek is usually absorbed and evaporated before reaching its mouth. In -the valley at the foot of Water Pocket Fold are about 10 square miles -of arable land; but the almost inaccessible situation of the valley and -the desolation and ruggedness of the surrounding country may present -insurmountable obstacles to its settlement.</p> - -<p>Curtis Creek, the northern tributary of Fremont River, is formed by -the union of several smaller streams that rise in the Wasatch Plateau. -Debouching from the plateau, these branches flow across what is known -as Castle Valley, and here, at an altitude of 6,000 feet, are 25 square -miles of good arable land. They were measured in September, 1876, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span> -gave an aggregated flow of 47 cubic feet per second. As they derive a -greater part of their waters from the melting snows on the plateau, -double this amount, or 94 cubic feet, would not be an overestimate -of the volume during the irrigating season. After the union of these -branches, the united stream flows in a deep cañon until near its -junction with the Fremont River in Graves Valley. Both Curtis Creek and -the Fremont receive some accessions to their volume from springs in -the cañons through which they flow above this valley. If all the water -in their upper courses should be used to irrigate lands in Castle and -Rabbit Valleys, a sufficient amount would be returned to their channels -by percolation to irrigate, with the addition of the accessions in the -cañons, all the arable land in Graves Valley.</p> - - -<h3>THE SAN RAFAEL RIVER.</h3> - -<p>This stream flows in an easterly course, and enters the Green 32 -miles above the junction of that stream with the Grand. It has three -principal branches—Ferron, Cottonwood, and Huntington Creeks—all -rising in the Wasatch Plateau at an altitude of about 10,000 feet. -These streams have a rapid fall in their upper courses, and leave -the plateau through almost impassable cañons cut in its eastern wall -overlooking Castle Valley. They flow across that at intervals of a few -miles apart, and, then uniting, cut a deep, narrow cañon through the -San Rafael Swell. Emerging from the swell, the river flows across a -low, broken country until its junction with the Green. The largest body -of arable land within the drainage basin of the San Rafael is in Castle -Valley, a long, narrow depression lying between the eastern escarpment -of the Wasatch Plateau and the San Rafael Swell. It is nearly 60 miles -in length from north to south, and has an average elevation of 6,000 -feet above the sea. Its southern end, as has been before mentioned, -is drained by the tributaries of Curtis Creek, the central portion by -the three streams forming the San Rafael, and the northern by Price -River. No permanent settlements have been made in the valley, but it is -much used as a winter herding ground for stock owned by the settlers -in other portions of Utah. Lying near the branches of the San Rafael -that cross it, and in such position that the water can be easily -conducted over it, are 200 square miles of arable land,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span> generally of -good quality. East of the San Rafael Swell, and lying on both sides of -the river, at an altitude of 4,000 feet, are 20 square miles of arable -land, which could be easily irrigated. The river was carefully measured -in July, 1876, and the volume of flow found to be 1,676 cubic feet per -second. The three branches in Castle Valley were also measured, with -results closely approximating the measurement of the united streams. -These measurements were made at high water, though not when the streams -were at their flood. As most of this volume is derived from the melting -snow, which rarely disappears from the high plateau before the middle -of July, the flow would be maintained with considerable steadiness -during a large part of what would be the critical period in the -irrigation of this valley. After the middle of July the decrease would -be very rapid until September, and the lowest stage of water reached -about the first of October, when the river would not flow probably more -than 400 cubic feet.</p> - - -<h3>THE PRICE RIVER.</h3> - -<p>This river rises in the angle formed by the intersection of the Wasatch -and Western Tavaputs Plateaus, receiving tributaries from both these -table lands, and has a general easterly course for 100 miles. It -crosses the northern end of Castle Valley, and then flows through a -broken country near the foot of the escarpment called the Book Cliffs, -forming the southern boundary of the Tavaputs Plateau, till within 20 -miles of the Green River, when it cuts through this escarpment into the -plateau and joins the Green a few miles above the foot of Gray Cañon. -The arable lands along its course are mostly found in Castle Valley, -where there are at least 50 square miles—a quantity considerably in -excess of the irrigating capacity of the stream. The volume of water -was measured in July, 1877, a few miles below where it debouches into -Castle Valley, and found to be 189 cubic feet per second. It must -suffer great loss from absorption, as the volume when leaving the -cliffs is much greater, and the aggregated flow of the branches on the -plateaus is at least twice as great.</p> - - -<h3>MINNIE MAUD CREEK.</h3> - -<p>This stream rises in the broken country, where the Western Tavaputs -and Wasatch Plateaus break into the Uinta Mountains. It has a general<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span> -easterly course, and joins the Green midway in the Cañon of Desolation. -For the greater part of its course it flows in a cañon that widens -enough occasionally to give a small area of arable land. One such area, -containing 6 square miles, occurs at an altitude of 5,500 feet. Here -the volume of water was measured in July, 1877, and found to be 16 -cubic feet per second.</p> - - -<h3>THE UINTA RIVER.</h3> - -<p>This is the largest tributary emptying into the main drainage channel -from the west. It rises in the Uinta Mountains, and has a southerly -course for 65 miles. The Duchesne River, its western branch, rises in -the same mountains, and the two streams unite only a few miles before -the Uinta joins the Green. The drainage basin of the Uinta has an -area of 1,300 square miles, lying between the altitudes of 4,500 and -7,000 feet above the sea. It has, generally speaking, a regular slope -from the foot of the Uinta Mountains to the mouth of the streams, -or in a direction toward the southeast. The surface of the basin is -greatly diversified, consisting of broad reaches of bottom lands along -the rivers; elevated, level, or gently sloping benches, sometimes -partially arable, but oftener gravelly barrens; broken, rock-faced -terraces; and low cliffs and ridges. It is difficult to estimate the -amount of arable land. All the bottom lands are such, and can be easily -irrigated. The streams have a rapid fall, but flow near the surface, -and no deep cañons are found anywhere in the basin. This renders it -possible to conduct the water over considerable areas of bench land, -and wherever the soil of these is sufficiently fertile, selections -of good farming land can be made. Above the limit in altitude for -successful cultivation, large tracts of meadow lands can be irrigated. -Those best acquainted with the extent of these classes of land place -the arable, including irrigable natural meadow lands, at 40 per cent. -of the whole basin. This would give an area of 520 square miles, and -I do not think it is an overestimate. The volume of water flowing in -the Duchesne River above its junction with Lake Fork was measured in -August, 1877, and found to be 1,011 cubic feet per second. The Uinta -was measured above its junction with the Duchesne in October, 1877, -and then flowed 214 cubic feet per second.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span> These streams all rise in -high mountains, from whose summits the snow is never completely melted. -The line of highest water is usually in June, but the flow is well -sustained through July. After that the volume rapidly decreases, and -lowest water occurs in October. The critical period in the irrigation -of this basin would occur in August. I think it may safely be assumed -that the measurements of the Duchesne and the Uinta represent the flow -at the critical period, but that Lake Fork should be doubled. This -would give 1,825 cubic feet per second, or enough to irrigate, at the -assumed standard, 285 square miles, or 22 per cent. of the whole area -of the basin, and indicates the Uinta drainage as one of the best, if -not the best, agricultural valley in Utah.</p> - - -<h3>ASHLEY FORK.</h3> - -<p>This stream is the most northern tributary of the Green River south of -the Uinta Mountains. It rises in that range, but at a lower altitude -than the branches of the Uinta, and has a southeasterly course 48 miles -in length. On its lower course, at an altitude of 5,500 feet, are 75 -square miles of arable land of excellent quality, a few acres of which -are now cultivated. There is sufficient water in the stream during the -critical season to irrigate 25 square miles.</p> - - -<h3>HENRYS FORK.</h3> - -<p>But a small portion of the valley of Henrys Fork lies within the -Territory of Utah, but this portion includes its best lands. A -beautiful natural meadow is here found, affording a large quantity of -hay to the ranchmen of that country. The altitude is great, the valley -being 6,000 feet above the level of the sea, and hence liable to late -and early frosts.</p> - -<p>About 10 square miles can be redeemed by irrigation. The volume of -the stream is sufficient to irrigate a much larger tract, but a part -is needed for other lands which lie farther up the river, within the -Territory of Wyoming.</p> - - -<h3>THE WHITE RIVER.</h3> - -<p>The White River enters the Green from the east, about two miles below -the mouth of the Uinta. This stream rises in Colorado, and has only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span> a -small portion of its course in Utah, but lying within the boundaries -of the Territory are 75 square miles of arable land which may be -irrigated with its water. The river was measured in October, 1877, near -its mouth, and flowed 734 cubic feet per second. High water usually -occurs in June, and the critical period in the irrigation of the land -is probably in August, when the stream should flow at least double -the volume of October, or, 1,468 cubic feet per second. This would be -greatly in excess of the amount needed to irrigate the available land -in Utah, and, from the best information attainable, it seems doubtful -if it could be used higher up on the course of the stream.</p> - - -<h3>THE GREEN RIVER.</h3> - -<p><i>Brown’s Park.</i>—Brown’s Park is a valley through which the Green -River meanders. Three or four small streams head in the mountains to -the north and a like number in the mountains to the south and find -their way into the river in the midst of the park. But a small portion -of the park lies within Utah and the small streams will be used for -irrigation in the portion which falls in Colorado. The flood plain -lands of the Green are extensive, and here many natural meadow lands -are found, interspersed with fine groves of cottonwood. Some of the -bench lands are well adapted to irrigation, but a portion of them and -the foot hills back of them are naked, valueless bad-lands.</p> - -<p>When the general industries of the country shall warrant the great -expenditure necessary, the Green will be taken out to irrigate the -bench lands on either side. About 10 square miles of these bench lands -will fall within Utah.</p> - -<p><i>Below Split Mountain Cañon.</i>—Lying along the Green, and between -the foot of Split Mountain Cañon and the mouth of the Uinta, are 50 -square miles of arable land. Some portions of this may be subject to -inundations at times of extraordinary floods, but the greater part -is above high water mark. Green River here carries sufficient water -to irrigate many times this amount of land, and while the cost for -the construction of suitable dams and canals would be greater than on -smaller streams, neither this nor the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span> engineering skill required would -be beyond the resources of any ordinary settlement.</p> - -<p><i>Gunnison Valley.</i>—In Gunnison Valley, below the foot of Gray -Cañon, are 25 square miles of arable land. The cost of constructing the -necessary irrigation works at this point would be greater than above -the mouth of the Uinta, but still not beyond the ability of a colony. -Green River flowed in Gunnison Valley in September, 1877, 4,400 cubic -feet of water per second, enough to irrigate at the standard adopted -860 square miles. There seems to be no arable land to which it is -possible to take this great surplus, and probably for many years to -come it will be suffered to flow “unvexed to the sea”.</p> - -<p>The area colored on the map is much greater than above indicated. The -selections of irrigable lands will be made on either side of the river, -in patches, within the colored district.</p> - - -<h3>THE GRAND RIVER.</h3> - -<p>The Grand River has but a small amount of arable land along its course -in Utah, and flows for most of the distance in a close cañon. The -volume of the stream, about 40 miles above its junction with the Green, -was measured in September, 1877, and found to be 4,860 feet per second. -It is probable that selections can be made to the extent of 40 square -miles from the areas colored on the map.</p> - - -<h3>THE SAN JUAN RIVER.</h3> - -<p>But little is known concerning the arable lands or volume of water in -the valley of the San Juan. It flows for the most of its course through -Utah in a cañon, and all the arable land is thought to be so much -subject to overflow that cultivation is impracticable.</p> - - -<h3>OTHER STREAMS.</h3> - -<p>A few smaller streams are also tributary to the Colorado and Green -within the Territory of Utah, but they mostly flow in deep cañons, are -often dry in some portion of their course during every year, have at -best only a few acres of arable land anywhere along their courses, and -have been omitted in this report.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span></p> - -<p>The following table gives a summary of the facts relating to the flow -of the several streams and the amount of arable and irrigable lands in -the districts described above:</p> - -<table class="autotable p2"> -<tr class="bt bl br"><th colspan="2">Name of stream.</th><th class="bl">Estimated volume of flow during irrigating season. (Feet per second.) -</th><th class="bl">Square miles of irrigable land.</th><th class="bl">Acres of irrigable land.</th></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Virgin River </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 30 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 19,200 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Kanab Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 15 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 2¹⁄₂ </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,600 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Paria River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 40 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3,840 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Escalante River </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3,840 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Fremont River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 269 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 38 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 24,320 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">San Rafael River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,118 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 175 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 112,000</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Price River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 189 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 11 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 7,040 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Minnie Maud Creek </td><td class="tdr bl"> 16 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 3 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,920 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Uinta River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,825 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 285 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 182,400 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Ashley Fork </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 25 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 16,000 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Henrys Fork </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6,400 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">White River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 1,468 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 75 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 48,000 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Browns Park </td><td class="tdc bl" rowspan="3">Green River </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 10 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 6,400 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Below Split Mountain Cañon</td><td class="tdr bl"> 4,400 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 50 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 32,000 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td>Gunnison Valley </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 25 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 16,000 </td></tr> -<tr class="bt bl br"><td colspan="2">Grand River </td><td class="tdr bl"> 4,860 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 40 </td><td class="tdr bl"> 25,600 </td></tr> -<tr class="btt bb bl br"><td colspan="2"><span class="caption">Total</span> </td><td class="tdr bl"> — </td><td class="tdr bl"> 791¹⁄₂ </td><td class="tdr bl"> 506,560 </td></tr></table> -<p> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br><span class="small">LAND GRANTS IN AID OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS.</span></h2></div> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By Willis Drummond, Jr.</span></p> - - -<p>The land grant system in favor of internal improvements has become a -well settled policy of this Government, and has attained not only a -social but a political importance.</p> - -<p>Like other American institutions its growth has been rapid, and -donations of that character now cover millions of acres of the public -domain. Of grants for railroads, wagon roads, and canals alone, -however, will this chapter treat, and no reference other than necessary -to a proper examination of the question will be made to concessions -whose terms place the lands under specific disposal by the States, such -as those for the establishment of schools, reclamation of swamp lands, -etc.</p> - -<p>The majority of grants, therefore, coming within our notice will be -those in aid of railroads, though many have been made in favor of -wagon roads and canals. The latter have, however, almost become things -of the past, and are rapidly being superseded by the railway. More -than one canal has given way to the more popular and general means of -transportation, and it is safe to say that no further donations for -canal purposes will be made, unless the circumstances should be such as -to absolutely demand that means of conveyance. At any rate, they will -not be made for purposes of general improvement.</p> - -<p>The object of this chapter is to point out the origin, growth, -character, and extent of these concessions. It is therefore necessary -to inquire into the early donations for various purposes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span></p> - -<p>The first act making a donation in favor of internal improvements was -approved on the 30th of April, 1802, and was entitled “An act to enable -the people of the eastern division of the territory northwest of the -river Ohio to form a constitution and State government, and for the -admission of such State into the Union on an equal footing with the -original States, and for other purposes.”</p> - -<p>By the third proviso to the seventh section of that statute, -“one-twentieth part of the net proceeds of the lands lying within the -said State sold by Congress, from and after the thirtieth day of June -next, after deducting all expenses incident to the same”, was granted -and given to the said State (Ohio), and was to be applied to the laying -out and making of public roads leading to the Ohio River, to the said -State, and through the same, from the navigable waters emptying into -the Atlantic. Such roads were to be laid out under the authority of -Congress, with the consent of the several States through which they -passed.</p> - -<p>By an act approved March 3, 1803, the Secretary of the Treasury was -directed to pay, to such persons as the legislature of the State of -Ohio should designate, 3 per cent. of the net proceeds, as above, which -sums were to be applied to laying out, opening, and making roads within -said State.</p> - -<p>These acts, I believe, are the first two touching public improvements -through congressional aid. Of course there had previously been many -donations of land in favor of various persons, but they were for -services rendered the Government, or special preëmption privileges.</p> - -<p>Legislation similar to the acts above referred to, was enacted until -the year 1824, varying only in the extent of the proceeds granted.</p> - -<p>By an act approved May 26, 1824, the State of Indiana was authorized -to open and build a canal, and the right of way with 90 feet of land -on each side thereof, was granted, subject to use and occupancy for -the purposes specified. Nothing, however, was done under that act by -the State; and on the 2d of March, 1827, it was superseded by an act -of greater extent. On that day two acts were passed giving to Indiana -and Illinois, respectively, certain lands in aid of the construction of -canals, the first to connect the navigation of the Wabash River with -the waters of Lake Erie,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span> and the second to connect the waters of the -Illinois River with those of Lake Michigan. A quantity of land, equal -to one-half of five sections in width on each side of said canals, was -granted, reserving to the United States each alternate section. The -canals were to remain public highways for the use of the Government, -free from toll or other charge whatever; were to be commenced in five -years, and completed in twenty years, or the States were bound to pay -to the United States “the amount of any lands previously sold”, and the -titles of the purchasers under the States were to be valid.</p> - -<p>As soon as the lines of the canals were fixed and the selections of -land were made, the States had power to sell, and give fee simple title -to the whole or any part of the lands.</p> - -<p>These may, properly, be considered the initiatory concessions of lands -in favor of internal improvements.</p> - -<p>As stated, a grant for right of way had been made, but that right was -solely one of use and occupancy. In this case the right of the States -to sell became absolute upon the selection of the lands. To be sure, -they were liable to repay the Government the price received by the sale -of any of the lands, but the titles of their purchasers were to be in -“fee”; and by such right of disposal they were enabled to realize at -once on their grant, and thereby secure a speedier construction of the -canals.</p> - -<p>On the same day (March 2) there was also granted to Indiana a certain -strip of land formerly held by the Pottawatamie Indians, or the -proceeds from the sale thereof, to be applied in building a road from -Lake Michigan, via Indianapolis, to some convenient point on the Ohio -River.</p> - -<p>On the next day (March 3) an act was approved granting to Ohio one-half -of two sections along the entire line of a road to be constructed from -Sandusky to Columbus.</p> - -<p>By an act approved May 23, 1828, a grant of 400,000 acres of “the -relinquished lands” in certain counties in Alabama was made in aid of -the improvement of the Tennessee and other rivers in that State; and -in case that amount of “said relinquished lands” could not be found -unappropriated, the necessary quantity could be selected from another -section of the State. Provision was made for the sale of the lands, at -the minimum<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span> price, but in case said lands or the proceeds thereof were -applied to any purposes other than that for which they were granted, -the grant was to become null and void.</p> - -<p>In this grant we find the first provisions for indemnity if the grant -was not full by reason of prior sales or disposals by the Government. -There, if the lands were not to be found “in place”, selections “in -lieu” could be made from another county.</p> - -<p>Grants like the one just referred to were made from time to time, -differing but little in their character and extent.</p> - -<p>By an act approved March 2, 1833, the State of Illinois was authorized -to apply the lands granted by the act of March 2, 1827, for canal -purposes, to the construction of a railroad instead; and the same -restrictive impositions were continued.</p> - -<p>This is the first act looking to the construction of a railroad through -the assistance of land donations.</p> - -<p>The railroad system was then but in its infancy, and the few miles -built had been constructed by private means.</p> - -<p>It is proper to add, however, that the State did not avail itself of -the privilege granted, for it subsequently built a canal.</p> - -<p>An act approved March 3, 1835, granted, for the purpose of aiding in -the construction of a railroad by a corporation organized in Florida, -the right of way through the public lands over which it might pass, -thirty feet of land on each side of its line, and the right to take -and use the timber for “one hundred yards” on each side for the -construction and repair of said road; it was also granted “ten acres of -land at the junction of the St. Mark’s and Waculla Rivers”, the point -where said road terminated. This was the first right of way grant in -favor of railroads, the previous grant having been for a canal.</p> - -<p>Following this came an act approved July 2, 1836, granting the right of -way “through such portion of the public lands as remain unsold”, not -to exceed 80 feet in width, to the New Orleans and Nashville Railroad -Company. The first section of that statute required that a description -of the route and surveys should be filed in the General Land Office -within sixty days after the survey. The second section granted for -depots,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span> watering-places, and workshops, essential to the convenient -use of the road, certain plats of land, not exceeding five acres in any -one spot, nor nearer than fifteen miles to each other.</p> - -<p>The third section gave the company the right to take from the public -lands earth, stone, or timber necessary for the construction of the -road; and provided that unless the work was commenced within two -years after the approval of the act, and completed within eight years -thereafter, the grant should “cease and determine”. It provided, -moreover, that if the road should be abandoned or discontinued, even -after its completion, the grant was to “cease and determine”.</p> - -<p>So far as can be learned, this road was never completed. It is inserted -so fully for the purpose of showing the gradual growth of the system.</p> - -<p>Next to this came a grant to the East Florida and other railroads, -similar in general terms to those previously referred to. It required, -however, the companies to file, with the Commissioner of the General -Land Office, maps showing the location of their roads. This was to -be done within six months after such locations. I am unable to find -that any of those roads were ever constructed. Certainly, no evidence -thereof was ever furnished the General Land Office.</p> - -<p>A grant similar to the one to the New Orleans and Nashville company was -made by act of March 3, 1837, to the Atchafalaya Railroad and Banking -Company in Louisiana.</p> - -<p>Many grants of like character and extent were made from time to time, -as also donations in favor of various other internal improvements. The -greatest of these latter, however, were the grants in aid of improving -the navigation of the Des Moines River in Iowa, and the Fox and -Wisconsin Rivers in Wisconsin, which were approved August 8, 1846.</p> - -<p>The first of these made a grant to the then Territory of Iowa, for the -purpose of improving “the navigation of the Des Moines River from its -mouth to the Raccoon Fork (so called), in said Territory”, of “one -equal moiety, in alternate sections, of the public lands (remaining -unsold, and not otherwise disposed of, encumbered, or appropriated), -in a strip five miles in width on each side of said river, to be -selected within said Territory by an agent or agents to be appointed -by the governor thereof, subject<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span> to the approval of the Secretary of -the Treasury of the United States”. The second section provided that -“the lands hereby granted shall not be conveyed or disposed of by said -Territory, nor by any State to be formed out of the same, except as -said improvements shall progress; that is, the said Territory or State -may sell so much of said lands as shall produce the sum of thirty -thousand dollars, and then the sales shall cease until the governor of -said Territory or State shall certify the fact to the President of the -United States that one-half of said sum has been expended upon said -improvement, when the said Territory or State may sell and convey a -quantity of the residue of said lands sufficient to replace the amount -expended, and thus the sales shall progress as the proceeds thereof -shall be expended, and the fact of such expenditure shall be certified -as aforesaid.”</p> - -<p>Section 3 declared that the river should forever remain a public -highway for the use of the Government, free from toll or other charge -whatever; and provided that the Territory or State should not dispose -of the lands at a price less than the minimum price of public lands.</p> - -<p>The grant to Wisconsin for the improvement of the Fox and Wisconsin -Rivers, though approved the same day, was somewhat different from the -Des Moines grant. It provided that “there be, and hereby is, granted -to the State of Wisconsin”, upon the admission of Wisconsin as a State -(which, by the way, had been provided for by an act approved two days -before), “for the purpose of improving the navigation of the Fox and -Wisconsin Rivers in the Territory of Wisconsin, and of constructing the -canal to unite the said rivers, at or near the portage, a quantity of -land, equal to one-half of three sections in width on each side of said -Fox River, and the lakes through which it passes from its mouth to the -point where the portage canal shall enter the same, and on each side -of said canal from one stream to the other, reserving the alternate -sections to the United States, to be selected under the direction of -the governor of said State, and such selection to be approved by the -President of the United States”. The rivers, when improved, were to -remain forever public highways for the use of the Government, free from -toll; and the sections reserved to the United States were not to be -sold for less than $2.50 per acre.</p> - -<p>By the second section, the legislature of the State was to accept the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span> -grant and fix the price at which the lands were to be sold (at not less -than $1.25 per acre), and adopt such kind and plan of improvement as -was for the best interests of the State.</p> - -<p>The provisions for the sale of the lands were the same as in the Iowa -grant, except that the sum to be realized by such sales was fixed at -$20,000.</p> - -<p>Section 3 required the work to be commenced within three years after -the admission of the State, and to be completed within twenty years, or -the United States was to be entitled to receive the amount for which -any of the lands may have been sold; the titles in the purchasers from -the State were, however, to be valid.</p> - -<p>The language employed in this statute was more definite than that used -in the Des Moines grant, and in it is to be found the first provisions -respecting the increase in price of the reserved sections.</p> - -<p>Probably no grant of this character has received such widespread -notoriety as the one for the improvement of the Des Moines River. It -is owing, no doubt, in a great degree to the numerous conflicting -decisions by the Executive Departments touching the extent of the -grant. The Hon. R. J. Walker, Secretary of the Treasury (under whose -supervision the Land Office then came), decided on the 2d of March, -1849, that the grant extended above the tributary of the Des Moines -River commonly known as the Raccoon Fork. The Land Office soon -thereafter passed from the jurisdiction of the Treasury Department, and -was placed as one of the bureaus of the Home or Interior Department. -The Secretary of this lately established branch of the Government -(Hon. Thomas Ewing) decided on the 6th of April, 1850, that the grant -did not extend above the Raccoon Fork. From that decision the State -of Iowa appealed to the President, who laid the matter before the -Attorney-General. That officer (Hon. Reverdy Johnson), on July 19, -1850, expressed an opinion confirmatory of the decision of Secretary -Walker. The Secretary of the Interior, however, being determined in -his views, did not adopt the opinion of the Attorney-General, and the -Commissioner of the General Land Office wrote, under date of 26th -September, 1850, to the President, reviewing and objecting to the -opinion of Mr. Johnson. The President, having been again applied to by -the State of Iowa to determine the matter, referred the whole question<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span> -to the Attorney-General (then Hon. J. J. Crittenden). That officer, -without delivering an opinion on the merits of the case, expressed the -belief that the President ought not to interfere, but should leave such -questions to the proper officers. The then Secretary of the Interior -(Hon. A. H. H. Stuart) thereupon decided that the grant did not extend -above the fork, but subsequently decided to approve the selections for -lands above the fork. Attorney-General Cushing, on the 29th of May, -1856, expressed the belief that on the merits of the case the grant -was limited to the Raccoon Fork, but as Secretary Stuart had approved -selections above that point, such practical enforcement of the grant -had better be continued. The view of Mr. Cushing was subsequently -maintained by the Supreme Court of the United States in Railroad -Company <i>vs.</i> Litchfield. (23 Howard, page 66). By the act of -Congress approved July 12, 1862, the grant was extended to the northern -boundary of the State, so as to include the alternate odd numbered -sections lying within five miles of said river, upon the following -conditions: The lands were to be held and applied in accordance with -the provisions of the original grant, except that the consent of -Congress was given to the application of “a portion thereof” to aid in -the construction of the Keokuk, Fort Des Moines and Minnesota Railroad, -in accordance with the provisions of an act of the general assembly of -the State approved March 22, 1858.</p> - -<p>It is well to state that the work of improving the river was abandoned, -and the railroad was constructed instead.</p> - -<p>Without examining the numerous right of way and other lesser grants, -I desire to direct attention to what is generally considered the -<i>first</i> railroad grant. Reference is made to the donation by the -act of September 20, 1850.</p> - -<p>By that statute a grant was made to the State of Illinois of “every -alternate section of land designated by even numbers, for six sections -in width on each side of” the road and branches therein provided for. -The road to be built was from the southern terminus of the Illinois -and Michigan Canal to a point at or near the junction of the Ohio and -Mississippi Rivers, with a branch of the same to Chicago, and another -via the town of Galena, in Illinois, to the town of Dubuque, in Iowa.</p> - -<p>The second section provided that should it appear that the United<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span> -States had, when the lines of said road and branches were definitely -fixed, sold any part of any section thereby granted, or that the right -of preëmption had attached to the same, it should be lawful for any -agent or agents (to be appointed by the governor of the State) to -select so much land as would be equal to the tracts lost within the -granted limits. This “indemnity” was to be selected within fifteen -miles of the road and branches.</p> - -<p>The third section provided that the sections and parts of sections -which by the operation of the grant remained to the United States -within six miles on each side of said road and branches, should not be -sold for less than the double minimum price when sold.</p> - -<p>Section 4 provided for the disposal of the lands, and declared that the -road should remain a public highway for the use of the Government free -from toll or other charge.</p> - -<p>The fifth section declared within what period the roads should be -completed, and provided that in the event of a failure on the part of -the State to comply with the conditions of the grant, it was “bound to -pay to the United States the amount which may be received upon the sale -of any part of said lands by said State”. The title of the purchasers -was to be valid, but the tracts not sold were to revert and revest in -the United States.</p> - -<p>Section 6 said that the mails were to be transported at all times at -such price as Congress might direct.</p> - -<p>By the seventh section the grant was extended, on the same terms and -conditions, to the States of Alabama and Mississippi, for the purpose -of aiding in the construction of a road from Mobile to connect with the -first above named road.</p> - -<p>While this was not the first concession of lands in favor of railroads, -it may properly be considered the initiatory measure of the present -system. It granted specific sections instead of one-half of a certain -number of sections; provided in positive terms for “indemnity” for -lands lost to the grant; designated the manner in which the lands -should be disposed of; increased the price of the reserved sections -within the “granted” limits; provided for reversion in case of default, -and virtually established a form of grant which was differed from -but little in succeeding donations. It was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span> the first railroad grant -that became effective, for of all previous ones none appear to have -been developed. The roads are now known as the Illinois Central and -branches, and the Mobile and Ohio.</p> - -<p>For the following two years no grants of importance were made, until -by an act approved June 10, 1852, a donation was made to the State of -Missouri for the construction of certain roads therein, now known as -the Hannibal and Saint Joseph, and the Missouri Pacific, Southwest -Branch. This grant was similar in character and extent to that to -Illinois, save two sections—one providing for the disposal of the -lands, and the other directing the Secretary of the Interior to -offer at public sale, from time to time, at the increased price, the -“reserved” or Government sections. The section respecting the disposal -of the lands is as follows: “That the lands hereby granted to said -State shall be disposed of by said State in manner following, that -is to say: that a quantity of land, not exceeding one hundred and -twenty sections on each road, and included within a continuous length -of twenty miles of said road, may be sold; and when the governor of -said State shall certify to the Secretary of the Interior that said -twenty miles of road is completed, then another like quantity of land, -hereby granted, may be sold; and so from time to time until said road -is completed; and if said road be not completed within ten years, no -further sales shall be made, and the lands unsold shall revert to the -United States.”</p> - -<p>With the exceptions stated, and the omission of the clause requiring -the State to reimburse the Government for lands sold, the grants are -identical.</p> - -<p>That act was followed by an act approved February 9, 1853, making, -under like conditions and impositions, a similar grant to Arkansas, in -aid of certain roads in that State. In this, however, the clause or -section directing the Secretary to “offer” the lands was omitted.</p> - -<p>For the next three years Congress seems to have been quite as liberal -in donations for other purposes, but no grants were made in aid of -railroads, unless note be made of a grant to Minnesota by act of June -29, 1854, which was repealed in August following.</p> - -<p>By that act there was granted to the Territory of Minnesota, for the -purpose of aiding in the construction of a railroad from the southern -line of said Territory, via Saint Paul, to the eastern line of the -Territory in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span> direction of Lake Superior, “every alternate section -of land designated by odd numbers for six sections in width on each -side of said road within said Territory”; but in case it should appear -that the United States had, when the line of the road was definitely -fixed, sold any section or any part thereof granted, or that the right -of preëmption had attached to the same, then it should be lawful for -any agent or agents to be appointed by the governor of said Territory, -subject to the approval of the Secretary of the Interior, to select -lands from alternate sections within fifteen miles of the road to -make up the deficiency. The lands granted were to be applied to the -construction of the road only. Section 2 increased the price of the -“reserved” tracts.</p> - -<p>Section 3 provided that the lands should be disposed of by the -legislature for the purposes aforesaid and were not to inure to the -benefit of any company then constituted or organized. The road was to -remain a highway, as in previous grants; and the lands could not be -sold until they had first been “offered” at the increased price.</p> - -<p>By section 4 no title was to vest in said Territory or patent issue -for any part of the lands until a continuous length of twenty miles of -said road had been completed; and when the Secretary of the Interior -was satisfied that any twenty continuous miles of said road had been -completed, then patent was to issue for a quantity not exceeding one -hundred and twenty sections of land; and so on from time to time until -the road was completed. If the road was not completed within ten years -no further sales could be made, and the lands remaining unsold were to -revert.</p> - -<p>By an act approved August 4, 1854, the act of June 29, 1854, was -repealed; and although four grants have been declared forfeited, for -failure of the grantees to perform the required conditions, this is the -only one which Congress has in terms repealed.</p> - -<p>It is to be regretted that subsequent legislation was not as devoid of -ambiguity. Had it been, much embarrassment might have been saved the -Government. I refer particularly to that clause or section respecting -the vesting of title and the manner in which the State was to acquire -rights under the grant. By the terms thereof no patents were to issue -except as the work of building the road progressed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span></p> - -<p>By the omission of such language from the grants subsequently made -from time to time to as late as 1862, the Department of the Interior -believed that the duty of “disposal” was properly in the States charged -with executing the trusts; and in all the earlier grants, immediately -upon the location of the roads and determination of the limits of the -grants, certified, in whole, the lands to which the companies would -ultimately have been entitled had the roads been completed as required. -At that time there was but little doubt that all of the roads would be -rapidly constructed; but the civil conflict very naturally put a stop -to such extended improvements, and to-day about twenty railroads remain -uncompleted, and the lands certified to the States for their use and -benefit exceed by 1,058,295.86 acres the lands actually earned by the -portions of the several roads constructed.</p> - -<p>Out of the act of June 29, 1854, and the repealing statute a -very interesting question arose, which received, ultimately, the -consideration of the Supreme Court. A suit was brought in trespass by -Edmund Rice against the Minnesota and Northwestern Railroad Company, -for cutting timber on a tract of land in Minnesota. The company, in -its defense, set up title under the granting act aforesaid; to which -plaintiff replied, reciting the repealing statute. On demurrer by -the company, the question as to whether an interest had vested under -said grant was thus fairly presented to the Supreme Court. That body -decided, after elaborate review of the whole case, that the act of -August 4 was “a valid law”, and that no interest, beneficiary or -otherwise, had vested under the said grant.</p> - -<p>In 1856, at different times, various grants were made to the States -of Iowa, Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, and -Mississippi, and on the 3d of March, 1857, to Minnesota.</p> - -<p>An examination of these grants—say the one to Iowa, it being first -of the series—shows that, with the exception of the fact that the -sections granted were designated by <i>odd</i> instead of <i>even</i> -numbers, they were similar to the Missouri grant of 1852. The change -there inaugurated was owing to the fact that certain even sections -in each township had been previously given to the several States -for school purposes, and in a grant embracing a large territory -the difference to the railroad grants caused thereby would be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span> -considerable. From 1857 until 1862 Congress seems to have been -otherwise engaged, for I am unable to find that any acts were passed -during that period touching railroad grants.</p> - -<p>By an act approved July 1, 1862, a new departure was taken. Certain -persons were created into a body corporate under the title and name -of the “Union Pacific Railroad Company”. The object thereof was the -construction and maintenance of a railroad and telegraph line from the -Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean.</p> - -<p>They were granted the right of way through the public lands to the -extent of two hundred feet in width on each side of the line of road, -together with the necessary grounds for stations, buildings, workshops, -etc. They were also granted in aid of the construction of the road -“every alternate section of public land”, designated by odd numbers, -to the amount of five alternate sections per mile, on each side of the -road; and all lands which had been disposed of or reserved, and mineral -lands, were excepted.</p> - -<p>Sections 5 and 11 of the act related to the issuance of bonds by the -United States. Section 7 required the company to file a map of its -general route, and directed the Secretary of the Interior to thereupon -withdraw the lands within fifteen miles of such line.</p> - -<p>Various other roads were provided for upon the same conditions, now -known as the Central Pacific, Central Branch of the Union Pacific, -Kansas Pacific, and Sioux City and Pacific.</p> - -<p>As it is not the purpose of this inquiry to look into any provisions -except such as relate to <i>land</i> donations, I will not pursue the -sections respecting the issuance of bonds, payment of interest, etc. -But, before proceeding further, it is proper to notice the changes -inaugurated by that act.</p> - -<p>In the first place, the grant was to a corporation direct, and not to a -State in trust for one.</p> - -<p>Second. It was not confined to any particular State or section, but was -transcontinental in character, extending in this case more than half -across our country.</p> - -<p>Third. It was a grant ten miles in width on each side, instead of six, -as in previous grants, and no provision was made for indemnity.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span></p> - -<p>Fourth. It provided for the filing by the company of a map of its -general or designated route (before definite location of its line); -and upon the filing thereof the lands became legislatively reserved or -withdrawn.</p> - -<p>By an act approved July 2, 1864, this act was amended in several -particulars, and instead of “five” sections “ten” were granted, thereby -increasing the limits from ten to twenty miles on each side of the -roads. The term “mineral land” was construed not to include “coal and -iron land”.</p> - -<p>By section 19 of this latter act a grant was made to the Burlington -and Missouri River Railroad Company, for the construction of a road -from the Missouri River to some point not farther west than the one -hundredth meridian of west longitude to connect with the Union Pacific -road, of ten alternate sections per mile on each side of its line of -road. It has been decided that this company was not confined to any -limit, but could go far enough to secure the quantity granted, and it -is the only railroad whose grant is not confined to lateral limits. By -a proviso to the twentieth section, however, the company received no -bonds.</p> - -<p>The rapidity with which the Union Pacific road was constructed was -surprising, and the whole progress of the work displayed a spirit -of energy seldom seen in an undertaking of that character. The most -positive achievements, however, were those of the Central Pacific -Company. The construction of that road over the Sierras is considered -by professional authorities as one of the greatest results of -engineering. It crossed the maximum summit, of 7,042 feet above the -sea, within one hundred miles of the Pacific tide waters, requiring a -distribution of ascent really scientific to render it practicable, and, -by using a minimum radius of 573 feet, secured, comparatively speaking, -a direct alignment.</p> - -<p>The two roads were completed and a junction effected May 10, 1869, and -the initial transcontinental line was thereby finished.</p> - -<p>By an act approved March 3, 1863, there was a grant made to the State -of Kansas to aid in constructing certain railroads therein, now known -as the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé; Leavenworth, Lawrence and -Galveston, and Missouri, Kansas and Texas. It was of every alternate -section of land designated by odd numbers for ten sections in width -on each side<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span> of said roads. Indemnity was provided in ten additional -miles and, except as to extent, it was not unlike the Iowa grant.</p> - -<p>On the 5th of May, 1864, similar grants were made to the States of -Minnesota and Wisconsin, and on the 12th of May to the State of Iowa. -Various other grants followed of like character, differing only in few -respects, to Arkansas, Alabama, Missouri, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, -and Kansas; as also grants for wagon roads. The latter were similar in -terms to the railroad grants, save that three sections on either side -of the roads were given instead of six or ten. The Northern Pacific was -created July 1, 1864, and was very much like the Union Pacific grant, -except in extent, being double the quantity through the Territories, -with provision for “indemnity”. The Atlantic and Pacific and Southern -Pacific grants were made by act of July 27, 1866; the Denver Pacific by -act of March 3, 1869; the Southern Pacific (branch line) and Texas and -Pacific by act of March 3, 1871.</p> - -<p>Many of the grants made in early years were enlarged, and the time -for their completion extended; but thus far only four grants have -been declared forfeited. At present, however, about twenty grants -have “lapsed” by reason of non-compliance with the terms of the -granting acts, requiring completion within prescribed periods, and -recommendations have been made urging proper legislation.</p> - -<p>Neither time nor space permit an extended examination of every grant, -but sufficient has been considered to point out the origin and growth -of the system.</p> - -<p>We have seen that the first donation was one-twentieth part of certain -proceeds derived from the sale of lands; then ninety feet of land, -followed soon by one-half of five sections per mile on each side; then -by six sections; then by ten, and finally by twenty sections per mile -on each side of the road.</p> - -<p>If the lands granted, or in other words embraced within the limits of -the grants, could be found available, the companies, not including -those for canals or wagon roads, would receive, provided each built -its road and complied with the laws, more than two hundred and fifteen -million acres. That quantity if embraced in one compact body, would -form an area of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span> more than three hundred and thirty-five thousand -square miles, or a tract of land more than seven times as large as the -State of Pennsylvania, and only about six thousand miles less than the -area of the thirteen original States. But, in fact, the grants will -not realize near that quantity, and the estimate, as made by the Land -Department, is only about one hundred and eighty-seven million acres.</p> - -<p>By the aid of those grants, however, about fifteen thousand miles -of road have been constructed. Those roads have been the means of -developing vast fields of magnificent territory, and securing to the -people many lesser lines built by private capital.</p> - -<p>The various grants have been the subject of much explanatory, -amendatory, and confirmatory legislation, and have also received -numerous interpretations by the different courts. Of the latter, I deem -it proper to refer only to the more important rulings of the Supreme -Court which bear upon the fundamental principles underlying the whole -system.</p> - -<p>In nearly all grants, except the Pacific, provision has been made for -indemnity in case it appeared, when the lines of the roads had been -definitely fixed, that the United States had sold, disposed of, or -reserved any of the sections or parts of sections contained within the -grants. The theory has heretofore existed that “indemnity” was allowed -for all tracts which might not be found subject to the operation of the -grant; and selections have been permitted in lieu of such disposed of -or reserved tracts.</p> - -<p>A recent decision, however, casts some doubt upon the correctness of -this theory. The question came up in a case from Kansas, under the act -of March 3, 1863, and the court declared:</p> - -<p>“We have before said that the grant itself was <i>in præsenti</i>, and -covered all the odd sections which should appear, on the location of -the road, to have been within the grant when it was made. The right to -them did not, however, depend on such location, but attached at once -on the making of the grant. It is true they could not be identified -until the line of the road was marked out on the ground, but as soon as -this was done it was easy to find them. If the company did not obtain -all of them within the original limit, by reason of the power of sale -or reservation retained by the United States, it was to be compensated -by an equal amount of substituted lands. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span> latter could not, on any -contingency, be selected within that limit. * * * It would be strange, -indeed, if the [indemnity] clause had been intended to perform the -office of making a new grant within the ten mile limit, or enlarging -the one already made. Instead of this, the words employed show clearly -that its only purpose is to give sections beyond that limit for those -lost within it by the action of the government between the date of the -grant and the location of the road. This construction gives effect to -the whole statute, and makes each part consistent with the other.”</p> - -<p>If it be thought, however, that such was not the intention of the -legislators who framed the statutes, consolation can be found in the -construction given to the clause inserted in every grant, substantially -as follows: “And the said road shall remain a public highway for -the use of the Government, free from toll or other charge upon the -transportation of troops or other property of the United States.”</p> - -<p>It is declared by the Supreme Court that the purpose of that clause -was to allow the Government the right to place its locomotive engines -and cars upon the railroad tracks, and to use such tracks as a public -highway. The court say: “We are of opinion that the reservation in -question secures to the Government only a free use of the railroads -concerned; and that it does not entitle the Government to have troops -or property transported by the companies over their respective roads -free of charge for transporting the same.”</p> - -<p>The section providing for the disposal of the lands, recited in full in -the Missouri grant of 1852, has been construed as vesting in the State -the right to sell one hundred and twenty sections of land, contained -within a continuous length of twenty miles at any place along the -grant, even though the road contemplated was never built; and the title -acquired by purchase from the State is valid. And the clause with which -the section referred to ends, to the effect that if the road be not -completed within a certain time the lands shall revert to the United -States, has been declared inoperative without further action by the -Government, either legislative or judicial, looking to an enforcement -of the reserved right.</p> - -<p>Fears have been awakened as to the power to ultimately control these -corporations, on account of the enormous extent to which they have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span> -expanded; but, as has been said by an able writer, “this evil, however, -if it be such, will probably work its own cure.”</p> - -<p>Be that as it may, their influences have been felt by all, and their -benefits have extended to the remotest sections of our country. They -have proved a bond between the eastern and western States—anxiously -sought for by Washington when the lateral limits of the United States -were less than half what they are at this time. They have united the -Pacific with the Atlantic, and the Rocky Mountains of the west with -the Alleghanies of the east. They have dispelled all ideas looking to -the removal of the seat of Government, for they have put in direct -communication the people of Oregon with the people of Maine. From ocean -to ocean requires but days, where only a few years ago it required -weeks.</p> - -<p>In the past, long lines of moving wagons groaned beneath their loads -of adventurous families, who at night, within the corral, seated -themselves around the blazing camp fire, fearful of the dangers to -which they were exposed. But the present has forgotten them. In their -stead the ponderous wheels of frequent trains, moving with a speed -surpassing that of the deer, traversing the valley and mountain, carry -forward their loads of living freight; and, in place of dangerous -encampments, provide means of sleep and refreshment, and afford the -comforts of luxurious homes. The railway has brought to our doors the -harvest of our fields; handed to our mints the vast resources of our -mines, and opened to us direct communication with the older worlds. Its -arms have extended into a hundred vales and over a hundred mountains, -grasping in their embrace manifold evidences of civilization and -prosperity.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX.</h2> -</div> - - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Abbott, Mr., <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Abies amabilis</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> -<li class="isuba"><i>Canadensis</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li class="isuba"><i>concolor</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> -<li class="isuba"><i>Douglasii</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li class="isuba"><i>Engelmanni</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> -<li class="isuba"><i>grandis</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> -<li class="isuba"><i>Menziesii</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> -<li class="isuba"><i>subalpina</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Acer grandidentata</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Agricultural and timber industries differentiated, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> -<li class="isuba">resources of the Bear River drainage basin, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Jordan River drainage basin, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Weber River drainage basin, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Agriculture, Amount of precipitation necessary for, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Influence of temperature upon, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> -<li class="isuba">in the Arid Region dependent upon irrigation, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> -<li class="isuba">in Utah dependent upon irrigation, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> -<li class="isubb">exceptions thereto, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> -<li class="isuba">limited by several conditions, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Utilization of the small streams in, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> -<li class="isuba">without irrigation, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Aira cœspitosa</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Alabama, Land-grants to, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Alkaline salts, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Amount of land a unit of water will supply, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Antelope Island, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> -<li class="isuba">bar, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Areal distribution of rainfall, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Area of irrigable land sometimes not limited by water supply, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Areas of standing timber, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> -<li class="isuba">to which larger streams can be taken, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> -<li class="isuba">which smaller streams can serve, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Arid Region, Boundaries of the, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Extent of the, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Increase in water supply in the, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Land system needed for the, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</span></li> -<li class="isuba">Mining industries of the, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Physical characteristics of the, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Precipitation of the, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Rainfall of the, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Arizona and New Mexico, Seasonal precipitation in, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Arkansas, Land grants to, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Artemisia</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ashley Fork, Irrigable lands of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé Railroad Company, Land grants to the, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Atlantic and Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Atlantic coast, Flow of the rivers of the, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Rainfall on the, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Barfoot, Mr. J. L., <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Barton, Mr., <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Basin, Colorado. (<i>See</i> <a href="#colbas">Colorado Basin</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Great Salt Lake. (<i>See</i> <a href="#gsld">Great Salt Lake District</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Range System, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Sevier Lake. (<i>See</i> <a href="#sld">Sevier Lake District</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Uinta-White. (<i>See</i> <a href="#uwb">Uinta-White Basin</a>.)</li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="beariv">Bear River, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> -<li class="isuba">City, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> -<li class="isuba">drainage basin, Agricultural resources of the, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Area of the, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Mean flow of the, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Beaver dams, Effect of cutting, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Betula occidentalis</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> -<li class="isuba">pasturage districts, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Black Rock bench, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> -<li class="isuba">pillar, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Bonneville Lake, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Book Cliffs, Orographic structure of the, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Bouteloua oligostachya</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Bromus</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Brown Cliffs, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Brown’s Park, Irrigable lands of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Burlington and Missouri Railroad Company, Land grants to the, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Canals, Land grants in aid of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cañon Lands, Amount of irrigable land in the, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Coal lands of the, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Description of the, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of Utah, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Carex Jamesii</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Carrington Island, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Castle Valley, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Central Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Cercocarpus parvifolius</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Celtis occidentalis</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Circle Valley, Amount of irrigable land in the, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Climate of the Colorado Basin, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Coal lands, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Disposal of the, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of the Cañon Lands, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of the Rocky Mountain Region, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Colony system, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="colbas">Colorado Basin, Climate of the, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Elevation of the, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Irrigable lands of the, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Mean annual precipitation in the, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Orographic structure of the, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Source of the water supply of the, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Table of irrigable lands of the, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> -<li class="isuba">drainage area, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> -<li class="isuba" id="colriv">River, Principal tributaries of the, in Utah, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Conditions affecting the distribution of rainfall, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Coöperative labor necessary to the development of irrigation, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Critical period, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> -<li class="isuba">season, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Dakota, Precipitation of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Denver Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Desert drainage area, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Orographic structure of the, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="desriv">Des Moines River, Land grant in aid of the improvement of the, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Distribution of rain throughout the year, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">District, Great Salt Lake. (<i>See</i> <a href="#gsld">Great Salt Lake District</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Sevier Lake. (<i>See</i> <a href="#sld">Sevier Lake District</a>.)</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Division lines of pasturage farms, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of land by settlers, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Drainage area, Colorado, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Desert, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Modification of the conditions of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of the Tavaputs Plateau, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Uinta Mountains, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Wasatch Mountains, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Utah, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Drummond, Willis, jr., on land grants in aid of internal improvements, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Dry farming, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="ducriv">Duchesne River, Volume of flow of the, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Dutton, Capt. C. E., cited, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span></li> -<li class="isuba">on the irrigable land of the Sevier Basin, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">East Florida Railroad Company, Land grant to the, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Egg Island, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Engelmann, Mr., <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Erocoma cuspidata</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="escriv">Escalante River, Irrigable lands of the, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Volume of flow of the, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Eurotia lanata</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Evaporation by spreading of water, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Farmington pillar, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Farming without irrigation, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Farm residences, Grouping of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> -<li class="isuba">unit for pasturage lands, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Fencing of pasturage lands, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Fires in the timber region, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Cause of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Protection from, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Flood-plain lands, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Forests, Amount of rainfall necessary to the growth of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Fox, Mr. Jesse W., <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Fraxinus anomala</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> -<li class="isuba"><i>coriacea</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Fremont Island, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> -<li class="isuba" id="freriv">River, Irrigable lands of the, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Tributaries of the, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Volume of flow of the, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Gilbert, G. K., cited, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> -<li class="isuba">on irrigable land of the Salt Lake drainage system, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li class="isuba">on water supply, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Government right to use of subsidized railroads, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="grariv">Grand River, Irrigable lands of the, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Volume of flow of the, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Grasses of the pasturage lands, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Utah, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Great Salt Lake, Accumulation of the water in, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Area of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Basin  (<i>See</i> <a href="#gsld">Great Salt Lake District</a>)</li> -<li class="isuba">Causes of abnormal change of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Desert, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Diagram showing rise and fall of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> -<li class="isuba" id="gsld">District, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Amount of irrigable land in the, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Change in the climate of the, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Description of the, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Irrigable lands of the, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span></li> -<li class="isubb">Fluctuations in the rainfall of the, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Irrigation by large streams in the, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> -<li class="isubc">small streams in the, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Evaporation of the water of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> -<li class="isuba">History of the past changes of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Increase and decrease of the size of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Islands of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Limited oscillation of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Limit of wave action of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Record of height of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Rise and fall of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Storm lines of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Streams flowing into, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="greriv">Green River, Irrigable lands of the, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Volume of flow of the, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="gunriv">Gunnison, Captain, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Valley, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Irrigable lands of the, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Hayden, Dr. F. V., <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Henry Mountains, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Prof. Joseph, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Henrys Fork, Irrigable lands of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Illinois, Land grants to, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Increase in water supply in the Arid Region, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of rainfall, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Indiana, Land grants to, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Internal improvements, Land grants in aid of, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Iowa, Land grants to, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="irr">Irrigable and pasturage lands of Utah, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> -<li class="isuba">areas, Increase of, by storage of water, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> -<li class="isuba">land, Area of, sometimes not limited by water supply, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Extent of, increased by the use of springs, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> -<li class="isubb">in Utah, Amount of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> -<li class="isuba">lands, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Amount of water required for, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Disposal of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> -<li class="isubb">highly productive, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Important questions relating to, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Increase in the extent of the, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> -<li class="isubb">in Utah Territory, Table of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> -<li class="isubb">of Southwestern Utah, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> -<li class="isubb">of the Colorado Basin, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Table of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> -<li class="isubc">Great Salt Lake District, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li class="isubc">Sevier Lake District, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</span></li> -<li class="isubc">valley of the Sevier River, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Irrigable lands of the, Virgin River, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of Utah, Distribution of the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Selection of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Situation of the, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Irrigating canals, Cost of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> -<li class="isuba">methods, Improvement in, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> -<li class="isuba">season, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Irrigation, Advantages of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Amount of water needed for, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> -<li class="isubb">used in, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> -<li class="isuba">companies, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Coöperative labor necessary to the development of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Direct influence of, upon the inflow of Great Salt Lake, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Indirect influence of, upon the inflow of Great Salt Lake, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of pasturage farms, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Quantitative value of water used in, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Unit of water used in, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Isohyetal line of twenty inches, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst" id="jorriv">Jordan River, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> -<li class="isuba">drainage basin, Agricultural resources of the, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Area of the, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Mean flow of the, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Juncus Balticus</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Juniperus Californicus</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> -<li class="isuba"><i>Virginiana</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Kanab Creek, Irrigable lands of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Ponding of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Kansas, Land grants to, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Kimball, Mr. Heber P., <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">King, Mr. Clarence, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Lake Bonneville, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Utah, Function of, as a reservoir, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Land grants in aid of internal improvements, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lands, Classification of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Irrigable. (<i>See</i> <a href="#irr">Irrigable Lands</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">of Utah, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> -<li class="isubb">and Idaho fertilized by water, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Physical features of the, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Pasturage. (<i>See</i> <a href="#past">Pasturage Lands</a>.)</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Land system needed for the Arid Region, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Leavenworth, Lawrence and Galveston Railroad Company, Land grants to the, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="lcr">Lower Columbia Region, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</span></li> -<li class="isuba">Precipitation of the, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Marshes, Drainage of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Evaporation from, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Martineau, Mr. J. H., <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mean temperature by seasons for the San Francisco Region, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Method of determining the supply of water, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Michigan, Land grants to, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Miller, Mr. Jacob, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mineral lands, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Disposal of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> -<li class="isuba">not suited to agriculture, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Minnie Maud Creek, Irrigable lands of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Volume of flow of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Minnesota and Northwestern Railroad Company, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Land grants to the, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mississippi Valley, Flow of the rivers of the, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroad Company, Land grants to the, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Land grants to, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mitchell, Mr. John T., <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Monopoly of pasturage farms, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mountains, Henry, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Uinta. (<i>See</i> <a href="#umt">Uinta Mountains</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Wasatch. (<i>See</i> <a href="#wmt">Wasatch Mountains</a>.)</li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst"><i>Negundo aceroides</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Nevada, Mean annual precipitation in, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">New Mexico and Arizona, Seasonal precipitation in, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">New Orleans and Nashville Railroad Company, Land grants to the, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">New York, Rainfall of the State of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst" id="ogdriv">Ogden River, Measured volume of the, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ohio, Land grants to, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ohio Valley, Rainfall of the, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Orographic structure of the Book Cliffs, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Colorado drainage area, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Desert drainage area, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Uinta Mountains, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Wasatch Mountains, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Pacific coast, Seasonal precipitation and temperature of the, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Panguitch Valley, Amount of irrigable land in, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="parriv">Paria River, Irrigable lands of the, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Volume of flow of the, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Park, Dr. John R., <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pasturage farms, Division lines of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Irrigation of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> -<li class="isubb">need small tracts of irrigable land, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</span></li> -<li class="isuba">lands, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="past">Pasturage lands, Boundaries of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Disposal of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Extent of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Farm unit for, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Fencing of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Grasses of the, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Monopoly of the, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> -<li class="isuba">partially supplied by scattered springs, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Situation of the, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Phragmites communis</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Pinus aristata</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li class="isuba"><i>edulis</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li class="isuba"><i>flexilis</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li class="isuba"><i>monticola</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li class="isuba"><i>ponderosa</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pioneers, Enterprise and industries of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Plateaus, The High, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Plateau, Tavaputs, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Yampa, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Poas</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ponding, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ponds, Evaporation of the water of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Populus angustifolia</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> -<li class="isuba"><i>monilifera</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> -<li class="isuba"><i>tremuloides</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Precipitation in the Region of the Plains, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Mean annual, in Colorado, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Nevada, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Utah, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Wyoming, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -<li class="isuba">north of the Columbia River, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of Dakota, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Texas, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> -<li class="isubb">the Arid Region, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> -<li class="isubc">Region of the Lower Columbia, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> -<li class="isubc">San Francisco Region, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> -<li class="isubc">Sub-humid Region, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Precipitation, Seasonal, of the Pacific Coast, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="pririv">Price River, Irrigable lands of the, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Volume of flow of the, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="proriv">Provo River, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Public lands, How to acquire title to, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst"><i>Quercus undulata</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Railroads, Land grants in aid of, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Rainfall, Areal distribution of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</span></li> -<li class="isuba">Conditions affecting the distribution of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Rainfall, Distribution of, throughout the year, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Increase of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of the Arid Region, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> -<li class="isubb">belt between Great Salt Lake and Wasatch Mountains, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Sub-humid Region, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of the western portion of the United States, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Rain gauge records, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Deficiency of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">“Rainy seasons”, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ranges, Basin, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Records, Rain gauge, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Region of the Lower Columbia. (<i>See</i> <a href="#lcr">Lower Columbia Region</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">of the Plains, Seasonal precipitation in the, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> -<li class="isuba">San Francisco. (<i>See</i> <a href="#sfr">San Francisco Region</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Sub-humid. (<i>See</i> <a href="#sub">Sub-humid Region</a>.)</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Renshawe, Mr. J. H., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Reservoirs, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">River, Bear. (<i>See</i> <a href="#beariv">Bear River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Colorado. (<i>See</i> <a href="#colriv">Colorado River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Duchesne. (<i>See</i> <a href="#ducriv">Duchesne River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Escalante. (<i>See</i> <a href="#escriv">Escalante River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Fremont. (<i>See</i> <a href="#freriv">Fremont River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Grand. (<i>See</i> <a href="#grariv">Grand River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Green. (<i>See</i> <a href="#greriv">Green River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Gunnison. (<i>See</i> <a href="#gunriv">Gunnison River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Jordan. (<i>See</i> <a href="#jorriv">Jordan River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Ogden. (<i>See</i> <a href="#ogdriv">Ogden River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Paria. (<i>See</i> <a href="#parriv">Paria River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Price. (<i>See</i> <a href="#pririv">Price River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Provo. (<i>See</i> <a href="#proriv">Provo River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">San Rafael. (<i>See</i> <a href="#sanriv">San Rafael River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Sevier. (<i>See</i> <a href="#sevriv">Sevier River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Uinta. (<i>See</i> <a href="#uinriv">Uinta River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Virgin. (<i>See</i> <a href="#virriv">Virgin River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">Weber. (<i>See</i> <a href="#webriv">Weber River</a>.)</li> -<li class="isuba">White. (<i>See</i> <a href="#whiriv">White River</a>.)</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Rivers, Land grants in aid of improvement of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Rockwood, Hon. A. P., <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst" id="sfr">San Francisco Region, Mean temperature, by seasons, of the, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Precipitation of the, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Rainy season of the, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Seasonal precipitation in the, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">San Pete Valley, Amount of irrigable land in the, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Flow of the streams of the, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="sanriv">San Rafael River, Irrigable lands of the, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</span></li> -<li class="isuba">Tributaries of the, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">San Rafael River, Volume of flow of the, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Schott, Mr. Charles A., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Seasonal precipitation and temperatures on the Pacific coast, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li class="isuba">in Arizona and New Mexico, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Seasonal precipitation in the Region of the Plains, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> -<li class="isuba">San Francisco Region, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Selection of irrigable lands, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sevier Lake Basin, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> -<li class="isubb" id="sld">District, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> -<li class="isubc">Altitudes in the, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> -<li class="isubc">Amount of irrigable land in the, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> -<li class="isubc">Climate of the, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> -<li class="isubc">Description of the, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li class="isubc">Irrigable lands of the, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> -<li class="isubc">Physical characteristics of the, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> -<li class="isubc">Rainfall of the, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> -<li class="isubc">Rain gauge records of the, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> -<li class="isuba" id="sevriv">River, Course of the, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Volume of flow of the, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Irrigable lands of the valley of the, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Valley of the, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sierra La Sal, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sioux City and Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Smithsonian Tables of Precipitation, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Soil and subsoil, Complicating conditions of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Conditions of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Soils, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Southern Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Springs, Opening out of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Use of, in irrigation, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Stansbury, Captain Howard, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Island, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> -<li class="isubb">bar, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Streams, Descent of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> -<li class="isuba">flowing into Great Salt Lake, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Flow of, at different periods, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Increase in the volume of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Measurement of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of San Pete Valley, Volume of flow of the, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of Utah, Fluctuations of the, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Practical capacity of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> -<li class="isuba">small, Employment of, in irrigation, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Strong’s Knob, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="sub">Sub-humid Region, Boundaries of the, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> -<li class="isuba">destitute of forests, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Mean precipitation of the, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</span></li> -<li class="isuba">Rainfall of the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Supply of water, Method of determining the, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Table I. Precipitation of the Sub-humid Region, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li class="isuba">II. Arid Region, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> -<li class="isuba">III. San Francisco Region, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> -<li class="isuba">IV. Region of the Lower Columbia, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> -<li class="isuba">V. Texas, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> -<li class="isuba">VI. Dakota, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> -<li class="isuba">VII. Season of precipitation in the Region of the Plains, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> -<li class="isuba">VIII. San Francisco Region, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> -<li class="isuba">IX. Mean temperature, by seasons, for the San Francisco Region, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> -<li class="isuba">X. Seasonable precipitation and temperatures on the Pacific coast, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> -<li class="isuba">XI. in Arizona and New Mexico, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of irrigable lands in Utah, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> -<li class="isubb">of southwestern Utah, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> -<li class="isubb">of the Colorado Basin, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> -<li class="isubc">Sevier Lake District, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of mean annual precipitation in Colorado, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Nevada, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Utah, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Wyoming, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tavaputs Plateau, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Drainage of the, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Temperature dependent upon altitude and latitude, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Temperatures, Seasonal, on the Pacific Coast, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Texas and Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Precipitation of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">The High Plateaus, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Thomas, Prof. Cyrus, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Thompson, Prof. A. H., cited, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> -<li class="isuba">on the irrigable land of the Colorado Basin, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Timber, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Areas of standing, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Cultivation of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Destruction of, by fire, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> -<li class="isuba">growth dependent upon climatic conditions, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> -<li class="isuba">lands, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Boundaries of the, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Disposal of the, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Situation of the, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> -<li class="isuba">regions, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Extent of the, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Fires in the, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Titles to public lands, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst" id="umt">Uinta Mountains, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Drainage of the, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</span></li> -<li class="isuba">Orographic structure of the, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="uinriv">Uinta River, Irrigable lands of the, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Tributaries of the, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Volume of flow of the, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> -<li class="isuba" id="uwb">White Basin, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Amount of irrigable lands in the, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Description of the, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Physical features of the, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Union Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Unit of water supply, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Method of determining the, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> -<li class="isuba">used in irrigation, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Utah, Amount of cultivated land in, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Church government in, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Drainage of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Forest trees of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Grasses of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Irrigable and pasturage lands of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Lake, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Lands of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Mean annual precipitation in, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Pasturage lands of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Prevailing winds of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Table of irrigable lands in, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Timber of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Variety of crops cultivated in, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Watershed of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Valley, Castle, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Circle, Amount of irrigable land in the, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Gunnison, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Irrigable lands of the, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of the Mississippi, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Sevier River, Amount of irrigable land in the, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Panguitch, Amount of irrigable land in the, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> -<li class="isuba">San Pete, Amount of irrigable land in the, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Flow of the streams of the, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Vasey, Dr. George, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Vilfa</i> (<i>Sporobolis</i>) <i>airoides</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="virriv">Virgin River, Irrigable lands of the, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Volume of water flowing in the streams, Determination of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Wagon roads, Land grants in aid of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ward, Mr. L. F., <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="wmt">Wasatch Mountains, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Drainage of the, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Orographic structure of the, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</span></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Wastage of water, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Water, Evaporation of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Irrigating capacity of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Loss of, by evaporation, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Method of determining the supply of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> -<li class="isubb">storing, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> -<li class="isuba">rights, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> -<li class="isubb">should inhere in the lands to be irrigated, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> -<li class="isuba">supply, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> -<li class="isubb">affected by the cutting of timber, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li class="isubc">farming, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> -<li class="isubc">grazing, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Economic bearings of the, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Increase in the, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Storage of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> -<li class="isuba">used in irrigation, Quantitative value of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Unit of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Wastage of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> -<li class="isuba">ways rudely constructed, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="webriv">Weber River, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> -<li class="isuba">drainage basin, Agricultural resources of the, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> -<li class="isubb">Area of the, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Mean flow of the, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="whiriv">White River, Irrigable lands of the, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Volume of flow of the, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Winds of Utah, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Wisconsin, Land grants to, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Wyoming, Mean annual precipitation in, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Yampa Plateau, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Young, Hon. Brigham, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -</ul><hr class="tb"> -<p class="center p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img003"> -<img src="images/003.jpg" class="w75" alt="A"> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption">DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR</p> - -<p class="center caption">U. S. GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION,<br>J. W. POWELL IN CHARGE.</p> - -<p class="center caption">MAP OF UTAH TERRITORY<br> - -REPRESENTING THE EXTENT OF THE IRRIGABLE, TIMBER AND PASTURE LANDS.</p> - -<p class="center caption">COMPILED AND DRAWN BY CHARLES MAHON, J. H. RENSHAWE, W. H. GRAVES AND -H. LINDENKOHL FOR THE COMMISSIONER OF PUBLIC LANDS</p> - -<p class="center caption">1878.</p> - -<p class="center caption">Miles</p> - -<p class="center caption">Note <i>This map has been constructed from atlas sheets of the U. S. -Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region with -additional material taken from the maps of the U. S. Geographical -Explorations and Surveys west of the 100ᵈᵗʰ Meridian, Lieut. Geo. -M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, in charge, the U. S. Geological -Exploration of the 40ᵗʰ Parallel, Clarence King, U. S. Geologist -in charge, and the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the -Territories, F. V. Hayden, in charge</i></p> - - -<p class="center caption">EXPLANATION</p> - -<p class="poetry caption"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Irrigable Lands</i></span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Standing Timber</i></span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Area destitute of Timber on account of Fires</i></span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Rail Roads</i></span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Wagon Roads</i></span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Trails</i></span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Telegraph Lines</i></span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>County Seats in Capital Letters.</i></span><br> -</p> -<hr class="tb"> -<p class="center p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img004"> -<img src="images/004.jpg" class="w75" alt="DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR U.S. GEOGRAPHICAL AND -GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION J. W. POWELL, IN CHARGE."> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption">DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR U.S. GEOGRAPHICAL AND -GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION J. W. POWELL, IN CHARGE.</p> - -<p class="center caption">MAP <span class="allsmcap">OF THE</span> UNITED STATES</p> - -<p class="center caption">EXHIBITING THE GRANTS OF LANDS MADE BY THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT TO AID IN -THE CONSTRUCTION OF RAILROADS AND WAGON ROADS.</p> - -<p class="center caption">1878</p> - -<p class="center caption">For explanation see chapter on “Land Grants in aid of International -Improvements”</p> - -<p class="center caption">[The base chart was engraved for the Statistical Atlas of the United -States.]</p> - -<p class="center caption">Julius Bien. Lithographer</p> - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - - -<p>Errors in punctuation have been fixed.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_35">Page 35</a>: “the Commisioner” changed to “the Commissioner”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_52">Page 52</a>: “not greater han should” changed to “not greater than should”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_57">Page 57</a>: “very erroneneous” changed to “very erroneous”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_65">Page 65</a>: “needed to clense land” changed to “needed to cleanse land”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_68">Page 68</a>: “whatever manner in was disturbed” changed to “whatever manner -it was disturbed”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_108">Page 108</a>: “strongly akaline soils” changed to “strongly alkaline soils”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_162">Page 162</a>: “in the moutains” changed to “in the mountains”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_172">Page 172</a>: “of a “a portion”” changed to “of “a portion””</p> -</div> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REPORT ON THE LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES, WITH A MORE DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE LANDS OF UTAH ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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