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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/7188.txt b/7188.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fcc2a35 --- /dev/null +++ b/7188.txt @@ -0,0 +1,16973 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Higher Lessons in English +by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Higher Lessons in English + +Author: Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg + +Release Date: December, 2004 [EBook #7188] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on March 25, 2003] +[Date last updated: August 17, 2004] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HIGHER LESSONS IN ENGLISH *** + + + + +Produced by Karl Hagen and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + +** Transcriber's Notes ** + +Underscores mark italics; words enclosed in +pluses+ represent boldface; +Vowels followed by a colon represent a long vowel (printed with a macron in +the original text). + +To represent the sentence diagrams in ASCII, the following conventions are +used: + +- The heavy horizontal line (for the main clause) is formed with equals + signs (==). +- Other solid vertical lines are formed with minus signs (--). +- Diagonal lines are formed with backslashes (\). +- Words printed on a diagonal line are preceded by a backslash, with no + horizontal line under them. +- Dotted horizontal lines are formed with periods (..) +- Dotted vertical lines are formed with straight apostrophes (') +- Dotted diagonal lines are formed with slanted apostrophes (`) +- Words printed over a horizontally broken line are shown like this: + + ----, helping + '--------- + +- Words printed bending around a diagonal-horizontal line are broken like + this: + + \wai + \ ting + --------- +** End Transcriber's Notes ** + + + + + +HIGHER LESSONS IN ENGLISH. + +A WORK ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION, + +IN WHICH THE SCIENCE OF THE LANGUAGE IS MADE TRIBUTARY TO THE ART OF +EXPRESSION. + +A COURSE OF PRACTICAL LESSONS CAREFULLY GRADED, AND ADAPTED TO EVERY-DAY +USE IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. + +BY +ALONZO REED, A.M., + +FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, +BROOKLYN, + +AND +BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D., + +PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE POLYTECHNIC +INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN. + +Revised Edition, 1896. + + + +PREFACE. + +The plan of "Higher Lessons" will perhaps be better understood if we first +speak of two classes of text-books with which this work is brought into +competition. + ++Method of One Class of Text-books+.--In one class are those that aim +chiefly to present a course of technical grammar in the order of +Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. These books give large space +to grammatical Etymology, and demand much memorizing of definitions, rules, +declensions, and conjugations, and much formal word parsing,--work of which +a considerable portion is merely the invention of grammarians, and has +little value in determining the pupil's use of language or in developing +his reasoning faculties. This is a revival of the long-endured, unfruitful, +old-time method. + ++Method of Another Class of Text-books.+--In another class are those that +present a miscellaneous collection of lessons in Composition, Spelling, +Pronunciation, Sentence-analysis, Technical Grammar, and General +Information, without unity or continuity. The pupil who completes these +books will have gained something by practice and will have picked up some +scraps of knowledge; but his information will be vague and disconnected, +and he will have missed that mental training which it is the aim of a good +text-book to afford. A text-book is of value just so far as it presents a +clear, logical development of its subject. It must present its science or +its art as a natural growth, otherwise there is no apology for its being. + ++The Study of the Sentence for the Proper Use of Words.+--It is the plan of +_this_ book to trace with easy steps the natural development of the +sentence, to consider the leading facts first and then to descend to the +details. To begin with the parts of speech is to begin with details and to +disregard the higher unities, without which the details are scarcely +intelligible. The part of speech to which a word belongs is determined only +by its function in the sentence, and inflections simply mark the offices +and relations of words. Unless the pupil has been systematically trained to +discover the functions and relations of words as elements of an organic +whole, his knowledge of the parts of speech is of little value. It is not +because he cannot conjugate the verb or decline the pronoun that he falls +into such errors as "How many sounds _have_ each of the vowels?" "Five +years' interest _are_ due." "She is older than _me_." He probably would not +say "each _have_," "interest _are_," "_me_ am." One thoroughly familiar +with the structure of the sentence will find little trouble in using +correctly the few inflectional forms in English. + ++The Study of the Sentence for the Laws of Discourse.+--Through the study +of the sentence we not only arrive at an intelligent knowledge of the parts +of speech and a correct use of grammatical forms, but we discover the laws +of discourse in general. In the sentence the student should find the law of +unity, of continuity, of proportion, of order. All good writing consists of +good sentences properly joined. Since the sentence is the foundation or +unit of discourse, it is all-important that the pupil should know the +sentence. He should be able to put the principal and the subordinate parts +in their proper relation; he should know the exact function of every +element, its relation to other elements and its relation to the whole. He +should know the sentence as the skillful engineer knows his engine, that, +when there is a disorganization of parts, he may at once find the +difficulty and the remedy for it. + ++The Study of the Sentence for the Sake of Translation.+--The laws of +thought being the same for all nations, the logical analysis of the +sentence is the same for all languages. When a student who has acquired a +knowledge of the English sentence comes to the translation of a foreign +language, he finds his work greatly simplified. If in a sentence of his own +language he sees only a mass of unorganized words, how much greater must be +his confusion when this mass of words is in a foreign tongue! A study of +the parts of speech is a far less important preparation for translation, +since the declensions and conjugations in English do not conform to those +of other languages. Teachers of the classics and of modern languages are +beginning to appreciate these facts. + ++The Study of the Sentence for Discipline+.--As a means of discipline +nothing can compare with a training in the logical analysis of the +sentence. To study thought through its outward form, the sentence, and to +discover the fitness of the different parts of the expression to the parts +of the thought, is to learn to think. It has been noticed that pupils +thoroughly trained in the analysis and the construction of sentences come +to their other studies with a decided advantage in mental power. These +results can be obtained only by systematic and persistent work. Experienced +teachers understand that a few weak lessons on the sentence at the +beginning of a course and a few at the end can afford little discipline and +little knowledge that will endure, nor can a knowledge of the sentence be +gained by memorizing complicated rules and labored forms of analysis. To +compel a pupil to wade through a page or two of such bewildering terms as +"complex adverbial element of the second class" and "compound prepositional +adjective phrase," in order to comprehend a few simple functions, is +grossly unjust; it is a substitution of form for content, of words for +ideas. + ++Subdivisions and Modifications after the Sentence.+--Teachers familiar +with text-books that group all grammatical instruction around the eight +parts of speech, making eight independent units, will not, in the following +lessons, find everything in its accustomed place. But, when it is +remembered that the thread of connection unifying this work is the +sentence, it will be seen that the lessons fall into their natural order of +sequence. When, through the development of the sentence, all the offices of +the different parts of speech are mastered, the most natural thing is to +continue the work of classification and subdivide the parts of speech. The +inflection of words, being distinct from their classification, makes a +separate division of the work. If the chief end of grammar were to enable +one to parse, we should not here depart from long-established precedent. + ++Sentences in Groups--Paragraphs+.--In tracing the growth of the sentence +from the simplest to the most complex form, each element, as it is +introduced, is illustrated by a large number of detached sentences, chosen +with the utmost care as to thought and expression. These compel the pupil +to confine his attention to one thing till he gets it well in hand. +Paragraphs from literature are then selected to be used at intervals, with +questions and suggestions to enforce principles already presented, and to +prepare the way informally for the regular lessons that follow. The lessons +on these selections are, however, made to take a much wider scope. They +lead the pupil to discover how and why sentences are grouped into +paragraphs, and how paragraphs are related to each other; they also lead +him on to discover whatever is most worthy of imitation in the style of the +several models presented. + ++The Use of the Diagram+.--In written analysis, the simple map, or diagram, +found in the following lessons, will enable the pupil to present directly +and vividly to the eye the exact function of every clause in the sentence, +of every phrase in the clause, and of every word in the phrase--to picture +the complete analysis of the sentence, with principal and subordinate parts +in their proper relations. It is only by the aid of such a map, or picture, +that the pupil can, at a single view, see the sentence as an organic whole +made up of many parts performing various functions and standing in various +relations. Without such map he must labor under the disadvantage of seeing +all these things by piecemeal or in succession. + +But if for any reason the teacher prefers not to use these diagrams, they +may be omitted without causing the slightest break in the work. The plan of +this book is in no way dependent on the use of the diagrams. + ++The Objections to the Diagram+.--The fact that the pictorial diagram +groups the parts of a sentence according to their offices and relations, +and not in the order of speech, has been spoken of as a fault. It is, on +the contrary, a merit, for it teaches the pupil to look through the +literary order and discover the logical order. He thus learns what the +literary order really is, and sees that this may be varied indefinitely, so +long as the logical relations are kept clear. + +The assertion that correct diagrams can be made mechanically is not borne +out by the facts. It is easier to avoid precision in oral analysis than in +written. The diagram drives the pupil to a most searching examination of +the sentence, brings him face to face with every difficulty, and compels a +decision on every point. + ++The Abuse of the Diagram+.--Analysis by diagram often becomes so +interesting and so helpful that, like other good things, it is liable to be +overdone. There is danger of requiring too much written analysis. When the +ordinary constructions have been made clear, diagrams should be used only +for the more difficult sentences, or, if the sentences are long, only for +the more difficult parts of them. In both oral and written analysis there +is danger of repeating what needs no repetition. When the diagram has +served its purpose, it should be dropped. + + +AUTHORS' NOTE TO REVISED EDITION. + +During the years in which "Higher Lessons" has been in existence, we have +ourselves had an instructive experience with it in the classroom. We have +considered hundreds of suggestive letters written us by intelligent +teachers using the book. We have examined the best works on grammar that +have been published recently here and in England. And we have done more. We +have gone to the original source of all valid authority in our language-- +the best writers and speakers of it. That we might ascertain what present +linguistic usage is, we chose fifty authors, now alive or living till +recently, and have carefully read three hundred pages of each. We have +minutely noted and recorded what these men by habitual use declare to be +good English. Among the fifty are such men as Ruskin, Froude, Hamerton, +Matthew Arnold, Macaulay, De Quincey, Thackeray, Bagehot, John Morley, +James Martineau, Cardinal Newman, J. R. Green, and Lecky in England; and +Hawthorne, Curtis, Prof. W. D. Whitney, George P. Marsh, Prescott, Emerson, +Motley, Prof. Austin Phelps, Holmes, Edward Everett, Irving, and Lowell in +America. When in the pages following we anywhere quote usage, it is to the +authority of such men that we appeal. + +Upon these four sources of help we have drawn in the Revision of "Higher +Lessons" that we now offer to the public. + +In this revised work we have given additional reasons for the opinions we +hold, and have advanced to some new positions; have explained more fully +what some teachers have thought obscure; have qualified what we think was +put too positively in former editions; have given the history of +constructions where this would deepen interest or aid in composition; have +quoted the verdicts of usage on many locutions condemned by purists; have +tried to work into the pupil's style the felicities of expression found in +the lesson sentences; have taught the pupil earlier in the work, and more +thoroughly, the structure and the function of paragraphs; and have led him +on from the composition of single sentences of all kinds to the composition +of these great groups of sentences. But the distinctive features of "Higher +Lessons" that have made the work so useful and so popular stand as they +have stood--the Study of Words from their Offices in the Sentence, Analysis +for the sake of subsequent Synthesis, Easy Gradation, the Subdivisions and +Modifications of the Parts of Speech after the treatment of these in the +Sentence, etc., etc. We confess to some surprise that so little of what was +thought good in matter and method years ago has been seriously affected by +criticism since. + +The additions made to "Higher Lessons"--additions that bring the work up to +the latest requirements--are generally in foot-notes to pages, and +sometimes are incorporated into the body of the Lessons, which in number +and numbering remain as they were. The books of former editions and those +of this revised edition can, therefore, be used in the same class without +any inconvenience. + +Of the teachers who have given us invaluable assistance in this Revision, +we wish specially to name Prof. Henry M. Worrell, of the Polytechnic +Institute; and in this edition of the work, as in the preceding, we take +pleasure in acknowledging our great indebtedness to our critic, the +distinguished Prof. Francis A. March, of Lafayette College. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 1. + +A TALK ON LANGUAGE. + +Let us talk to-day about a language that we never learn from a grammar or +from a book of any kind--a language that we come by naturally, and use +without thinking of it. + +It is a universal language, and consequently needs no interpreter. People +of all lands and of all degrees of culture use it; even the brute animals +in some measure understand it. + +This Natural language is the language of cries, laughter, and tones, the +language of the eyes, the nose, the mouth, the whole face; the language of +gestures and postures. + +The child's cry tells of its wants; its sob, of grief; its scream, of pain; +its laugh, of delight. The boy raises his eyebrows in surprise and his nose +in disgust, leans forward in expectation, draws back in fear, makes a fist +in anger, and calls or drives away his dog simply by the tone in which he +speaks. + +But feelings and desires are not the only things we wish to communicate. +Early in life we begin to acquire knowledge and learn to think, and then we +feel the need of a better language. + +Suppose, for instance, you have formed an idea of a day; could you express +this by a tone, a look, or a gesture? + +If you wish to tell me the fact that _yesterday was cloudy_, or that _the +days are shorter in winter than in summer_, you find it wholly impossible +to do this by means of Natural language. + +To communicate, then, your thoughts, or even the mental pictures we have +called ideas, you need a language more nearly perfect. + +This language is made up of words. + +These words you learn from your mothers, and so Word language is your +mother-tongue. You learn them, also, from your friends and teachers, your +playmates and companions, and you learn them by reading; for words, as you +know, may be written as well as spoken. + +This Word language we may, from its superiority, call +Language Proper+. + +Natural language, as was said, precedes this Word language, but gives way +as Word language comes in and takes its place; yet Natural language may be +used, and always should be used, to assist and strengthen Word language. In +earnest conversation we enforce what we say in words, by the tone in which +we utter them, by the varying expression of the face, and by the movements +of the different parts of the body. + +The look or the gesture may even dart ahead of the word, or it may +contradict it, and thus convict the speaker of ignorance or deception. + +The happy union of the two kinds of language is the charm of all good +reading and speaking. The teacher of elocution is ever trying to recall the +pupil to the tones, the facial expression, and the action, so natural to +him in childhood and in animated conversation. + ++DEFINITION.--_Language Proper_ consists of the spoken and the written +words used to communicate ideas and thoughts+. + ++DEFINITION.--_English Grammar_ is the science which teaches the forms, +uses, and relations of the words of the English language.+ + + * * * * * + +LESSON 2. + +A TALK ON THOUGHTS AND SENTENCES. + +To express a thought we use more than a single word, and the words arranged +to express a thought we call a sentence. + +But there was a time when, through lack of words, we compressed our thought +into a single word. The child says to his father, _up_, meaning, _Take me +up into your lap_; or, _book_, meaning, _This thing in my hand is a book_. + +These first words always deal with the things that can be learned by the +senses; they express the child's ideas of these things. + +We have spoken of thoughts and sentences; let us see now whether we can +find out what a thought is, and what a sentence is. + +A sentence is a group of words expressing a thought; it is a body of which +a thought is the soul. It is something that can be seen or heard, while a +thought cannot be. Let us see whether, in studying a sentence, we may not +learn what a thought is. + +In any such sentence as this, _Spiders spin_, something is said, or +asserted, about something. Here it is said, or asserted, of the animals, +spiders, that they spin. + +The sentence, then, consists of two parts,--the name of that of which +something is said, and that which is said of it. + +The first of these parts we call the +Subject+ of the sentence; the second, +the +Predicate+. + +Now, if the sentence, composed of two parts, expresses the thought, there +must be in the thought two parts to be expressed. And there are two: viz., +something of which we think, and that which we think of it. In the thought +expressed by _Spiders spin_, the animals, spiders, are the something of +which we think, and their spinning is what we think of them. In the +sentence expressing this thought, the word _spiders_ names that of which we +think, and the word _spin_ tells what we think of spiders. + +Not every group of words is necessarily a sentence, because it may not be +the expression of a thought. _Spiders spinning_ is not a sentence. There is +nothing in this expression to show that we have formed a judgment, _i.e._, +that we have really made up our minds that spiders do spin. The spinning is +not asserted of the spiders. + +_Soft feathers_, _The shining sun_ are not sentences, and for similar +reasons. _Feathers are soft_, _The sun shines_ are sentences. Here the +asserting word is supplied, and something is said of something else. + +_The shines sun_ is not a sentence; for, though it contains the asserting +word _shines_, the arrangement is such that no assertion is made, and no +thought is expressed. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 3. + +A TALK ON SOUNDS AND LETTERS. + +We have already told you that in expressing our ideas and thoughts we use +two kinds of words, spoken words and written words. + +We learned the spoken words first. Mankind spoke long before they wrote. +Not until people wished to communicate with those at a distance, or had +thought out something worth handing down to aftertimes, did they need to +write. + +But speaking was easy. The air, the lungs, and the organs of the throat and +mouth were at hand. The first cry was a suggestion. Sounds and noises were +heard on every side, provoking imitation, and the need of speech for the +purposes of communication was imperative. + +Spoken words are made up of sounds. There are over forty sounds in the +English language. The different combinations of these give us all the words +of our spoken tongue. That you may clearly understand these sounds, we will +tell you something about the human voice. + +In talking, the air driven out from your lungs beats against two flat +muscles, stretched, like bands, across the top of the windpipe, and causes +them to vibrate up and down. This vibration makes sound. Take a thread, put +one end between your teeth, hold the other with thumb and finger, draw it +tight and strike it, and you will understand how voice is made. The shorter +the string, or the tighter it is drawn, the faster will it vibrate, and the +higher will be the pitch of the sound. The more violent the blow, the +farther will the string vibrate, and the louder will be the sound. Just so +with these vocal bands or cords. The varying force with which the breath +strikes them and their different tensions and lengths at different times, +explain the different degrees of loudness and the varying pitch of the +voice. + +If the voice thus produced comes out through the mouth held well open, a +class of sounds is formed which we call vowel sounds. + +But if the voice is held back or obstructed by the palate, tongue, teeth, +or lips, one kind of the sounds called consonant sounds is made. If the +breath is driven out without voice, and is held back by these same parts of +the mouth, the other kind of consonant sounds is formed. + +The written word is made up of characters, or letters, which represent to +the eye these sounds that address the ear. + +You are now prepared to understand us when we say that +vowels+ are the ++letters+ that stand for the +open sounds+ of the +voice+, and that ++consonants+ are the +letters+ that stand for the sounds made by the ++obstructed voice+ and the +obstructed breath+. + +The alphabet of a language is a complete list of its letters. A perfect +alphabet would have one letter for each sound, and only one. + +Our alphabet is imperfect in at least these three ways:-- + +1. Some of the letters are superfluous; _c_ stands for the sound of _s_ or +of _k_, as in _city_ and _can_; _q_ has the sound of _k_, as in _quit_; and +_x_ that of _ks_, _gz_, or _z_, as in _expel_, _exist_, and _Xenophon_. + +2. Combinations of letters sometimes represent single sounds; as, _th_ in +thine, _th_ in _thin_, _ng_ in _sing_, and _sh_ in _shut_. + +3. Some letters stand each for many sounds. Twenty-three letters represent +over forty sounds. Every vowel does more than single duty; _e_ stands for +two sounds, as in _mete_ and _met_; _i_ for two, as in _pine_ and _pin_; +_o_ for three, as in _note, not_, and _move_; _u_ for four, as in _tube, +tub, full_, and _fur_; _a_ for six, as in _fate, fat, far, fall, fast_, and +_fare_. + +_W_ is a vowel when it unites with a preceding vowel to represent a vowel +sound, and _y_ is a vowel when it has the sound of _i_, as in _now, by, +boy, newly_. _W_ and _y_ are consonants at the beginning of a word or +syllable. + +The various sounds of the several vowels and even of the same vowel are +caused by the different shapes which the mouth assumes. These changes in +its cavity produce, also, the two sounds that unite in each of the +compounds, _ou_, _oi_, _ew_, and in the alphabetic _i_ and _o_. + + 1. 2. +_Vocal Consonants_. _Aspirates_. + b..................p + d..................t + g..................k + -------------------h + j..................ch + l------------------ + m------------------ + n------------------ + r------------------ + th.................th + (in _thine_) (in _thin_) + v..................f + w------------------ + y------------------ + z (in _zone_)......s + z (in _azure_).....sh + +The consonants in column 1 represent the sounds made by the obstructed +voice; those in column 2, except _h_ (which represents a mere forcible +breathing), represent those made by the obstructed breath. + +The letters are mostly in pairs. Now note that the tongue, teeth, lips, and +palate are placed in the same relative position to make the sounds of both +letters in any pair. The difference in the sounds of the letters of any +pair is simply this: there is voice in the sounds of the letters in column +1, and only whisper in those of column 2. Give the sound of any letter in +column 1, as _b, g, v_, and the last or vanishing part of it is the sound +of the other letter of the pair. + +TO THE TEACHER.--Write these letters on the board, as above, and drill the +pupils on the sounds till they can see and make these distinctions. Drill +them on the vowels also. + +In closing this talk with you, we wish to emphasize one point brought +before you. Here is a pencil, a real thing; we carry in memory a picture of +the pencil, which we call an idea; and there are the two words naming this +idea, the spoken and the written. Learn to distinguish clearly these four +things. + +TO THE TEACHER.--In reviewing these three Lessons, put particular emphasis +on Lesson 2. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 4. + +ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM. + +TO THE TEACHER.--If the pupils have been through "Graded Lessons" or its +equivalent, some of the following Lessons may be passed over rapidly. + ++DEFINITION.--A _Sentence_ is the expression of a thought in words+. + ++Direction+.--_Analyze the following sentences_:-- + ++Model+.--_Spiders spin_. Why is this a sentence? Ans.--Because it +expresses a thought. Of what is something thought? Ans.--Spiders. Which +word tells what is thought? Ans.--_Spin_. [Footnote: The word _spiders_, +standing in Roman, names our idea of the real thing; _spin_, used merely as +a word, is in Italics. This use of Italics the teacher and the pupil will +please note here and elsewhere.] + +1. Tides ebb. +2. Liquids flow. +3. Steam expands. +4. Carbon burns. +5. Iron melts. +6. Powder explodes. +7. Leaves tremble. +8. Worms crawl. +9. Hares leap. + +In each of these sentences there are, as you have learned, two parts--the ++Subject+ and the +Predicate+. + ++DEFINITION.--The _Subject of a sentence_ names that of which something is +thought.+ + ++DEFINITION.--The _Predicate of a sentence_ tells what is thought.+ + ++DEFINITION.--The _Analysis of a sentence_ is the separation of it into its +parts.+ + ++Direction+.--_Analyze these sentences_:-- + ++Model+.--_Beavers build_. This is a sentence because it expresses a +thought. _Beavers_ is the subject because it names that of which something +is thought; _build_ is the predicate because it tells what is thought. +[Footnote: When pupils are familiar with the definitions, let the form of +analysis be varied. The reasons may be made more specific. Here and +elsewhere avoid mechanical repetition.] + +1. Squirrels climb. +2. Blood circulates. +3. Muscles tire. +4. Heralds proclaim. +5. Apes chatter. +6. Branches wave. +7. Corn ripens. +8. Birds twitter. +9. Hearts throb. + ++Explanation+.--Draw a heavy line and divide it into two parts. Let the +first part represent the subject of a sentence; the second, the predicate. + +If you write a word over the first part, you will understand that this word +is the subject of a sentence. If you write a word over the second part, you +will understand that this word is the predicate of a sentence. + + Love | conquers +========|============ + | + +You see, by looking at this figure, that _Love conquers_ is a sentence; +that _love_ is the subject, and _conquers_ the predicate. + +Such figures, made up of straight lines, we call _Diagrams_. + ++DEFINITION.--A _Diagram_ is a picture of the offices and the relations of +the different parts of a sentence.+ + ++Direction+.--_Analyze these sentences_:-- + +1. Frogs croak. +2. Hens sit. +3. Sheep bleat. +4. Cows low. +5. Flies buzz. +6. Sap ascends. +7. Study pays. +8. Buds swell. +9. Books aid. +10. Noise disturbs. +11. Hope strengthens. +12. Cocks crow. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 5. + +COMPOSITION--SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. + ++CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--The first word of every sentence must begin with a +_capital letter_+. + ++PERIOD--RULE.--A _period_ must be placed after every sentence that simply +affirms, denies, or commands.+ + ++Direction+.--_Construct sentences by supplying a subject to each of the +following predicates_:-- + +Ask yourselves the questions, What tarnishes? Who sailed, conquered, etc.? + +1. ----- tarnishes. +2. ----- capsize. +3. ----- radiates. +4. ----- sentence. +5. ----- careen. +6. ----- sailed. +7. ----- descends. +8. ----- glisten. +9. ----- absorb. +10. ----- corrode. +11. ----- conquered. +12. ----- surrendered. +13. ----- refines. +14. ----- gurgle. +15. ----- murmur. + ++Direction+.--_Construct sentences by supplying a predicate to each of the +following subjects_:-- + +Ask yourselves the question, Glycerine does what? + +1. Glycerine -----. +2. Yankees -----. +3. Tyrants -----. +4. Pendulums -----. +5. Caesar -----. +6. Labor -----. +7. Chalk -----. +8. Nature -----. +9. Tempests -----. +10. Seeds -----. +11. Heat -----. +12. Philosophers -----. +13. Bubbles -----. +14. Darkness -----. +15. Wax -----. +16. Reptiles -----. +17. Merchants -----. +18. Meteors -----. +19. Conscience -----. +20. Congress -----. +21. Life -----. +22. Vapors -----. +23. Music -----. +24. Pitch -----. + +TO THE TEACHER.--This exercise may profitably be extended by supplying +several subjects to each predicate, and several predicates to each subject. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 6. + +ANALYSIS. + +The predicate sometimes contains more than one word. + ++Direction+.--_Analyze as in Lesson 4_. + +1. Moisture is exhaled. +2. Conclusions are drawn. +3. Industry will enrich. +4. Stars have disappeared. +5. Twilight is falling. +6. Leaves are turning. +7. Sirius has appeared. +8. Constantinople had been captured. +9. Electricity has been harnessed. +10. Tempests have been raging. +11. Nuisances should be abated. +12. Jerusalem was destroyed. +13. Light can be reflected. +14. Rain must have fallen. +15. Planets have been discovered. +16. Palaces shall crumble. +17. Storms may be gathering. +18. Essex might have been saved. +19. Caesar could have been crowned, +20. Inventors may be encouraged. + ++Direction+.--_Point out the subject and the predicate of each sentence in +Lessons 12 and 17_. + +Look first for the word that asserts, and then, by putting _who_ or _what_ +before this predicate, the subject may easily be found. + +TO THE TEACHER.--Let this exercise be continued till the pupils can readily +point out the subject and the predicate in ordinary simple sentences. + +When this can be done promptly, the first and most important step in +analysis will have been taken. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 7. + +COMPOSITION--SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. + ++Direction+.--_Make at least ten good sentences out of the words in the +three columns following_:-- + +The helping words in column 2 must be prefixed to words in column 3 in +order to make complete predicates. Analyze your sentences. + +1 2 3 +Arts is progressing. +Allen was tested. +Life are command. +Theories will prolonged. +Science would released. +Truth were falling. +Shadows may be burned. +Moscow has been measured. +Raleigh have been prevail. +Quantity should have been lost. + +Review Questions. + +What is language proper? What is English grammar? What is a sentence? What +are its two parts? What is the subject of a sentence? The predicate of a +sentence? The analysis of a sentence? What is a diagram? What rule has been +given for the use of capital letters? For the period? May the predicate +contain more than one word? Illustrate. + +TO THE TEACHER.--Introduce the class to the Parts of Speech before the +close of this recitation. See "Introductory Hints" below. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 8. + +CLASSES OF WORDS. + +NOUNS. + ++Introductory Hints+.--We have now reached the point where we must classify +the words of our language. But we are appalled by their number. If we must +learn all about the forms and the uses of a hundred thousand words by +studying these words one by one, we shall die ignorant of English grammar. + +But may we not deal with words as we do with plants? If we had to study and +name each leaf and stem and flower, taken singly, we should never master +the botany even of our garden-plants. + +But God has made things to resemble one another and to differ from one +another; and, as he has given us the power to detect resemblances and +differences, we are able to group things that have like qualities. + +From certain likenesses in form and in structure, we put certain flowers +together and call them roses; from other likenesses, we get another class +called lilies; from others still, violets. Just so we classify trees and +get the oak, the elm, the maple, etc. + +The myriad objects of nature fall into comparatively few classes. Studying +each class, we learn all we need to know of every object in it. + +From their likenesses, though not in form, we classify words. We group them +according to their similarities in use, or office, in the sentence. Sorting +them thus, we find that they all fall into eight classes, which we call +Parts of Speech. + +We find that many words name things--are the names of things of which we +can think and speak. These we place in one class and call them +Nouns+ +(Latin _nomen_, a name, a noun). + +PRONOUNS. + +Without the little words which we shall italicize, it would be difficult +for one stranger to ask another, "Can _you_ tell _me who_ is the postmaster +at B?" The one would not know what name to use instead of _you_, the other +would not recognize the name in the place of _me_, and both would be +puzzled to find a substitute for _who_. + +_I, you, my, me, what, we, it, he, who, him, she, them,_ and other words +are used in place of nouns, and are, therefore, called +Pronouns+ (Lat. +_pro_, for, and _nomen_, a noun). + +By means of these handy little words we can represent any or every object +in existence. We could hardly speak or write without them now, they so +frequently shorten the expression and prevent confusion and repetition. + ++DEFINITION.--A _Noun_ is the name of anything.+ + ++DEFINITION.--A _Pronoun_ is a word used for a noun.+ + +The principal office of nouns is to name the things of which we say, or +assert, something in the sentence. + ++Direction+.---_Write, according to the model, the names of things that can +burn, grow, melt, love, roar, or revolve._ + ++Model.+-- _Nouns._ + Wood | + Paper | + Oil | + Houses + burn or burns. + Coal | + Leaves | + Matches | + Clothes | + ++Remark.+--Notice that, when the subject adds _s_ or _es_ to denote more +than one, the predicate does not take _s_. Note how it would sound if both +should add _s_. + ++Every subject+ of a sentence is a +noun+, or some word or words used as a +noun. But not every noun in a sentence is a subject. + ++Direction.+--_Select and write all the nouns and pronouns, whether +subjects or not, in the sentences given in Lesson_ 18. + +_In writing them observe the following rules_:-- + ++CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--_Proper,_ or _individual, names_ and _words derived +from them_ begin with capital letters.+ + ++PERIOD and CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--_Abbreviations_ generally begin with +capital letters and are always followed by the period.+ + + * * * * * + +LESSON 9. + +CAPITAL LETTERS. + ++Direction.+--_From the following words select and write in one column +those names that distinguish individual things from others of the same +class, and in another column those words that are derived from individual +names_:-- + +Observe Rule 1, Lesson 8. + +ohio, state, chicago, france, bostonian, country, england, boston, milton, +river, girl, mary, hudson, william, britain, miltonic, city, englishman, +messiah, platonic, american, deity, bible, book, plato, christian, +broadway, america, jehovah, british, easter, europe, man, scriptures, god. + ++Direction.+--_Write the names of the days of the week and the months of +the year, beginning each with a capital letter; and write the names of the +seasons without capital letters._ + ++Remember+ that, when a class name and a distinguishing word combine to +make one individual name, each word begins with a capital letter; as, +_Jersey City_. [Footnote: _Dead Sea_ is composed of the class name _sea_, +which applies to all seas, and the word _Dead_, which distinguishes one sea +from all others.] + +But, when the distinguishing word can by itself be regarded as a complete +name, the class name begins with a small letter; as, _river Rhine_. + ++Examples+.--Long Island, Good Friday, Mount Vernon, Suspension Bridge, New +York city, Harper's Ferry, Cape May, Bunker Hill, Red River, Lake Erie, +General Jackson, White Mountains, river Thames, Astor House, steamer Drew, +North Pole. + ++Direction+.--_Write these words, using capital letters when needed_:-- + +ohio river, professor huxley, president adams, doctor brown, clinton +county, westchester county, colonel burr, secretary stanton, lake george, +green mountains, white sea, cape cod, delaware bay, atlantic ocean, united +states, rhode island. + ++Remember+ that, when an individual name is made up of a class name, the +word _of_, and a distinguishing word, the class name and the distinguishing +word should each begin with a capital letter; as, _Gulf of Mexico_. But, +when the distinguishing word can by itself be regarded as a complete name, +the class name should begin with a small letter; as, _city of London_. +[Footnote: The need of some definite instruction to save the young writer +from hesitation and confusion in the use of capitals is evident from the +following variety of forms now in use: _City_ of New York, _city_ of New +York, New York _City_, New York _city_, New York _State_, New York _state_, +Fourth _Avenue_, Fourth _avenue_, Grand _Street_, Grand _street_, Grand +_st._, Atlantic _Ocean_, Atlantic _ocean_, Mediterranean _Sea_, +Mediterranean _sea_, Kings _County_, Kings _county_, etc. + +The usage of newspapers and of text-books on geography would probably favor +the writing of the class names in the examples above with initial capitals; +but we find in the most carefully printed books and periodicals a tendency +to favor small letters in such cases. + +In the superscription of letters, such words as _street_, _city_, and +_county_ begin with capitals. + +Usage certainly favors small initials for the following italicized words: +_river_ Rhine, Catskill _village_, the Ohio and Mississippi _rivers_. If +_river_ and _village_, in the preceding examples, are not essential parts +of the individual names, why should _river_, _ocean_, and _county_, in +Hudson _river_, Pacific _ocean_, Queens _county_, be treated differently? +We often say the _Hudson_, the _Pacific_, _Queens_, without adding the +explanatory class name. + +The principle we suggest may be in advance of common usage; but it is in +the line of progress, and it tends to uniformity of practice and to an +improved appearance of the page. About a century ago every noun began with +a capital letter. + +The American Cyclopedia takes a position still further in advance, as +illustrated in the following: Bed _river_, Black _sea_, _gulf_ of Mexico, +Rocky _mountains_. In the Encyclopaedia Britannica (Little, Brown, & Co., +9th ed.) we find Connecticut _river_, Madison _county_, etc., quite +uniformly; but we find _Gulf_ of Mexico, Pacific _Ocean_, etc.] + ++Direction+.--_Write these words, using capital letters when needed:_-- + +city of atlanta, isle of man, straits of dover, state of Vermont, isthmus +of darien, sea of galilee, queen of england, bay of naples, empire of +china. + ++Remember+ that, when a compound name is made up of two or more +distinguishing words, as, Henry Clay, John Stuart Mill, each word begins +with a capital letter. + ++Direction+.--_Write these words, using capital letters when needed_:-- + +great britain, lower california, south carolina, daniel webster, new +england, oliver wendell holmes, north america, new orleans, james russell +lowell, british america. + ++Remember+ that, in writing the titles of books, essays, poems, plays, +etc., and the names of the Deity, only the chief words begin with capital +letters; as, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Supreme Being, Paradise +Lost, the Holy One of Israel. + ++Direction+.--_Write these words, using capital letters when needed_:-- + +declaration of independence, clarendon's history of the great rebellion, +webster's reply to hayne, pilgrim's progress, johnson's lives of the poets, +son of man, the most high, dombey and son, tent on the beach, bancroft's +history of the united states. + ++Direction+.--_Write these miscellaneous names, using capital letters when +needed_:-- + +erie canal, governor tilden, napoleon bonaparte, cape of good hope, pope's +essay on criticism, massachusetts bay, city of boston, continent of +america, new testament, goldsmith's she stoops to conquer, milton's hymn on +the nativity, indian ocean, cape cod bay, plymouth rock, anderson's history +of the united states, mount washington, english channel, the holy spirit, +new york central railroad, old world, long island sound, flatbush village. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 10. + +ABBREVIATIONS. + ++Direction+.--_Some words occur frequently, and for convenience may he +abbreviated in writing. Observing Rule 2, Lesson 8, abbreviate these words +by writing the first five letters_:-- + +Thursday and lieutenant. + +_These by writing the first four letters_:-- + +Connecticut, captain, Colorado, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, +Mississippi, Nebraska, Oregon, professor, president, Tennessee, and +Tuesday. + +_These by writing the first three letters_:-- + +Alabama, answer, Arkansas, California, colonel, Delaware, England, esquire, +Friday, general, George, governor, honorable, Illinois, Indiana, major, +Monday, Nevada, reverend, Saturday, secretary, Sunday, Texas, Wednesday, +Wisconsin, and the names of the months except May, June, and July. + +_These by writing the first two letters_:-- + +Company, county, credit, example, and idem (the same). + +_These by writing the first letter_:-- + +East, north, south, and west. [Footnote: When these words refer to sections +of the country, they should begin with capitals.] + +_These by writing the first and the last letter_:-- + +Doctor, debtor, Georgia, junior, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, +Master, Mister, numero (number), Pennsylvania, saint, street, Vermont, and +Virginia. + +_These by writing the first letter of each word of the compound with a +period after each letter_:-- + +Artium baccalaureus (bachelor of arts), anno Domini (in the year of our +Lord), artium magister (master of arts), ante meridiem (before noon), +before Christ, collect on delivery, District (of) Columbia, divinitatis +doctor (doctor of divinity), member (of) Congress, medicinae doctor (doctor +of medicine), member (of) Parliament, North America, North Carolina, New +Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, postmaster, post meridiem (afternoon), +post-office, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and United States. + ++Direction.+--_The following abbreviations and those you have made should +be committed to memory_:-- + +Acct. _or_ acct., account. +Bbl. _or_ bbl., barrel. +Chas., Charles. +Fla., Florida. +LL. D., legum doctor (doctor of laws).[Footnote: The doubling of the + _l_ to _ll_ and in _LL. D.,_ and of _p_ in _pp.,_ + with no period between the letters, comes from pluralizing the nouns + _line, lean_, and _page_.] +Messrs., messieurs (gentlemen). +Mme., madame. +Mo., Missouri. +Mrs., (pronounced missis) mistress. +Mts., mountains. +Ph.D., philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy). +Recd., received. +Robt., Robert. +Supt., superintendent. +Thos., Thomas. +bu., bushel. +do., ditto (the same) +doz., dozen. +e.g., exempli gratia (for example) +etc., et caetera (and others). +ft., foot, feet. +hhd., hogshead. +hdkf., handkerchief. +i.e., id est (that is). +l., line. +ll., lines. +lb., libra (pound). +oz., ounce. +p., page. +pp., pages. +qt., quart. +vs., versus (against). +viz., videlicet (namely). +yd., yard. + ++Remark.+--In this Lesson we have given the abbreviations of the states as +now regulated by the "U. S. Official Postal Guide." In the "Guide" _Iowa_ +and _Ohio_ are not abbreviated. They are, however, frequently abbreviated +thus: _Iowa, Ia._ or _Io.; Ohio, 0._ + +The similarity, when hurriedly written, of the abbreviations _Cal., Col.; +Ia., Io.; Neb., Nev.; Penn., Tenn.,_ etc., has led to much confusion. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 11. + +VERBS. + ++Introductory Hints+.--We told you in Lesson 8 how, by noticing the +essential likenesses in things and grouping the things thus alike, we could +throw the countless objects around us into comparatively few classes. + +We began to classify words according to their use, or office, in the +sentence; we found one class of words that name things, and we called them +_nouns_. + +But in all the sentences given you, we have had to use another class of +words. These words, you notice, tell what the things do, or assert that +they are, or exist. + +When we say _Clocks tick_, _tick_ is not the name of anything; it tells +what clocks do: it asserts action. + +When we say _Clocks are_, or _There are clocks_, _are_ is not the name of. +anything, nor does it tell what clocks do; it simply asserts existence, or +being. + +When we say _Clocks hang, stand, last, lie_, or _remain_, these words +_hang, stand, last_, etc., do not name anything, nor do they tell that +clocks act or simply exist; they tell the condition, or state, in which +clocks are, or exist; that is, they assert state of being. + +All words that assert action, being, or state of being, we call +Verbs+ +(+Lat+. _verbum_, a word). The name was given to this class because it was +thought that they were the most important words in the sentence. + +Give several verbs that assert action. Give some that assert being, and +some that assert state of being. + ++DEFINITION+.--+A _Verb_ is a word that asserts action, being-, or state of +being+. + +There are, however, two forms of the verb, the participle and the +infinitive (see Lessons 37 and 40), that express action, being, or state of +being, without asserting it. + ++Direction.+--_Write after each of the following nouns as many appropriate +verbs as you can think of_:-- + +Let some express being and some express state of being. + ++Model.--_Noun._ + | burns. + | melt. + | scorches. + Fire | keep. + (or) + spreads. + Fires | glow. + | rages. + | heat. + | exists. + ++Remark.+--Notice that the simple form of the verb, as, _burn, melt, +scorch_, adds _s_ or _es_ when its subject noun names but one thing. + +Lawyers, mills, horses, books, education, birds, mind. + +A verb may consist of two, three, or even four words; as, _is learning, may +be learned, could have been learned_. [Footnote: Such groups of words are +sometimes called _verb-phrases_. For definition of _phrase_, see Lesson +17.] + ++Direction.+--_Unite the words in columns_ 2 _and_ 3 _below, and append the +verbs thus formed to the nouns and pronouns in column_ 1 _so as to make +good sentences_:-- + ++Remark.+--Notice that _is, was_, and _has_ are used with nouns naming one +thing, and with the pronouns _he, she_, and _it_; and that _are, were_, and +_have_ are used with nouns naming more than one thing, and with the +pronouns _we, you_, and _they_. _I_ may be used with _am, was_, and _have_. + +1 2 3 +Words am confused. +Cotton is exported. +Sugar are refined. +Air coined. +Teas was delivered. +Speeches were weighed. +I, we, you has been imported. +He, she, it, they have been transferred. + +As verbs are the only words that assert, +every predicate+ must be a verb, +or must contain a verb. + ++Naming the class+ to which a word belongs is the +first step in parsing.+ + ++Direction+.--_Parse five of the sentences you have written_. + ++Model+.--_Poland was dismembered_. + ++Parsing+.--_Poland_ is a noun because ----; _was dismembered_ is a verb +because it asserts action. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 12. + +MODIFIED SUBJECT. + +ADJECTIVES. + ++Introductory Hints+.--The subject noun and the predicate verb are not +always or often the whole of the structure that we call the sentence, +though they are the underlying timbers that support the rest of the verbal +bridge. Other words may be built upon them. + +We learned in Lesson 8 that things resemble one another and differ from one +another. They resemble and they differ in what we call their qualities. +Things are alike whose qualities are the same, as, two oranges having the +same color, taste, and odor. Things are unlike, as an orange and an apple, +whose qualities are different. + +It is by their qualities, then, that we know things and group them. + +_Ripe apples are healthful. Unripe apples are hurtful._ In these two +sentences we have the same word apples to name the same general class of +things; but the prefixed words ripe and unripe, marking opposite qualities +in the apples, separate the apples into two kinds--the ripe ones and the +unripe ones. + +These prefixed words _ripe_ and _unripe_, then, limit the word _apples_ in +its scope; _ripe apples_ or _unripe apples_ applies to fewer things than +_apples_ alone applies to. + +If we say _the, this, that_ apple, or _an, no_ apple, or _some, many, +eight_ apples, we do not mark any quality of the fruit; but _the, this,_ or +_that_ points out a particular apple, and limits the word _apple_ to the +one pointed out; and _an, no, some, many_, or _eight_ limits the word in +respect to the number of apples that it denotes. + +These and all such words as by marking quality, by pointing out, or by +specifying number or quantity limit the scope or add to the meaning of the +noun, +modify+ it, and are called +Modifiers+. + +In the sentence above, _apples_ is the +Simple Subject+ and _ripe apples_ +is the +Modified Subject+. + +Words that modify nouns and pronouns are called +Adjectives+ (Lat. _ad_, +to, and _jacere_, to throw). + + ++DEFINITION.--A _Modifier_ is a word or a group of words joined to some +part of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning+. + +The +Subject+ with its +Modifiers+ is called the +Modified Subject+, or +_Logical Subject_. + ++DEFINITION.--An _Adjective_ is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+. + +Analysis and Parsing. + +1. The cold November rain is falling. + + rain | is falling +=========================|============== + \The \cold \November | + ++Explanation.+--The two lines shaded alike and placed uppermost stand for +the subject and the predicate, and show that these are of the same rank, +and are the principal parts of the sentence. The lighter lines, placed +under and joined to the subject line, stand for the less important parts, +the modifiers, and show what is modified. [Footnote: TO THE TEACHER.--When +several adjectives are joined to one noun, each adjective does not always +modify the unlimited noun. _That old wooden house was burned._ Here +_wooden_ modifies _house_, _old_ modifies _house_ limited by _wooden_, and +_that_ modifies _house_ limited by _old_ and _wooden_. This may be +illustrated in the diagram by numbering the modifiers in the order of their +rank, thus:-- + + | +==================|======= + \3 \2 \1 | + +Adverbs, and both phrase and clause modifiers often differ in rank in the +same way. If the pupils are able to see these distinctions, it will be well +to have them made in the analysis, as they often determine the punctuation +and the arrangement. See Lessons 13 and 21.] + ++TO THE TEACHER.+--While we, from experience, are clear in the belief that +diagrams are very helpful in the analysis of sentences, we wish to say that +the work required in this book can all be done without resorting to these +figures. If some other form, or no form, of written analysis is preferred, +our diagrams can be omitted without break or confusion. + +When diagrams are used, only the teacher can determine how many shall be +required in any one Lesson, and how soon the pupil may dispense with their +aid altogether. + ++Oral Analysis.+--(Here and hereafter we shall omit from the oral analysis +and parsing whatever has been provided for in previous Lessons.) _The, +cold,_ and _November_ are modifiers of the subject. _The cold November +rain_ is the modified subject. + +TO THE TEACHER.--While in these "models" we wish to avoid repetition, we +should require of the pupils full forms of oral analysis for at least some +of the sentences in every Lesson. + ++Parsing.+--_The, cold,_ and _November_ are adjectives modifying +_rain_--_cold_ and _November_ expressing quality, and _the_ pointing out. + +2. The great Spanish Armada was destroyed. +3. A free people should be educated. +4. The old Liberty Bell was rung. +5. The famous Alexandrian library was burned. +6. The odious Stamp Act was repealed. +7. Every intelligent American citizen should vote. +8. The long Hoosac Tunnel is completed. +9. I alone should suffer. +10. All nature rejoices. +11. Five large, ripe, luscious, mellow apples were picked. +12. The melancholy autumn days have come. +13. A poor old wounded soldier returned. +14. The oppressed Russian serfs have been freed. +15. Immense suspension bridges have been built. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 13. + +COMPOSITION--ADJECTIVES. + ++Caution.+--When two or more adjectives are used with a noun, care must be +taken in their arrangement. If they differ in rank, place nearest the noun +the one most closely modifying it. If of the same rank, place them where +they will sound best--generally in the order of length, the shortest first. + ++Explanation.+--_Two honest young men were chosen, A tall, straight, +dignified person entered._ _Young_ tells the kind of men, _honest_ tells +the kind of young men, and _two_ tells the number of honest young men; +hence these adjectives are not of the same rank. _Tall_, _straight_, and +_dignified_ modify _person_ independently--the person is tall and straight +and dignified; hence these adjectives are of the same rank. + +Notice the comma after _tall_ and _straight_; _and_ may be supplied; in the +first sentence _and_ cannot be supplied. See Lesson 21. + ++Direction.+--_Arrange the adjectives below, and give your reasons:_-- + +1. A Newfoundland pet handsome large dog. +2. Level low five the fields. +3. A wooden rickety large building. +4. Blind white beautiful three mice. +5. An energetic restless brave people. +6. An enlightened civilized nation. + ++Direction.+--_Form sentences by prefixing modified subjects to these +predicates:_-- + +1. ------ have been invented. +2. ------ were destroyed. +3. ------ are cultivated. +4. ------ may be abused. +5. ------ was mutilated. +6. ------ were carved. +7. ------ have been discovered. +8. ------ have fallen. +9. ------ will be respected. +10. ------ have been built. + ++Direction.+--_Construct ten sentences, each of which shall contain a +subject modified by three adjectives--one from each of these columns:_-- + +Let the adjectives be appropriate. For punctuation, see Lesson 21. + +The dark sunny +That bright wearisome +This dingy commercial +Those short blue +These soft adventurous +Five brave fleecy +Some tiny parallel +Several important cheerless +Many long golden +A warm turbid + ++Direction+.--_Prefix to each of these nouns several appropriate +adjectives:_-- + +River, frost, grain, ships, air, men. + ++Direction+.--_Couple those adjectives and nouns below that most +appropriately go together:_-- + +Modest, lovely, flaunting, meek, patient, faithful, saucy, spirited, +violet, dahlia, sheep, pansy, ox, dog, horse, rose, gentle, duck, sly, +waddling, cooing, chattering, homely, chirping, puss, robin, dove, sparrow, +blackbird, cow, hen, cackling. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 14. + +MODIFIED PREDICATE. + +ADVERBS. + ++Introductory Hints+.--You have learned that the subject may be modified; +let us see whether the predicate may be. + +If we say, _The leaves fall_, we express a fact in a general way. But, if +we wish to speak of the time of their falling, we can add a word and say, +The leaves fall _early_; of the place of their falling, The leaves fall +_here_; of the manner, The leaves fall _quietly_; of the cause, _Why_ do +the leaves fall? + +We may join a word to one of these modifiers and say, The leaves fall +_very_ quietly. Here _very_ modifies _quietly_ by telling the degree. + +_Very quietly_ is a group of words modifying the predicate. The predicate +with its modifiers is called the +Modified Predicate+. Such words as _very, +here_, and _quietly_ form another part of speech, and are called +Adverbs+ +(Lat. _ad_, to, and _verbum_, a word, or verb). + +Adverbs may modify adjectives; as, _Very ripe_ apples are healthful. +Adverbs modify verbs just as adjectives modify nouns--by limiting them. The +horse has a _proud step_ = The horse _steps proudly_. + +The +Predicate+ with its +Modifiers+ is called the +Modified +Predicate, or +_Logical Predicate_. + ++DEFINITION.--An _Adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or +an adverb.+ [Footnote: See Lesson 92 and foot-note.] + +Analysis and Parsing. + +1. The leaves fall very quietly. + + leaves | fall +========|====== + \The | \quietly + \very + ++Oral Analysis+.--_Very quietly_ is a modifier of the predicate; _quietly_ +is the principal word of the group; _very_ modifies _quietly_; _the leaves_ +is the modified subject; _fall very quietly_ is the modified predicate. + ++Parsing+.--_Quietly_ is an adverb modifying _fall_, telling the manner; +_very_ is an adverb modifying _quietly_, telling the degree. + +2. The old, historic Charter Oak was blown down. +3. The stern, rigid Puritans often worshiped there. +4. Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere. +5. The precious morning hours should not be wasted. +6. The timely suggestion was very kindly received. +7. We turned rather abruptly. +8. A highly enjoyable entertainment was provided. +9. The entertainment was highly enjoyed. +10. Why will people exaggerate so! +11. A somewhat dangerous pass had been reached quite unexpectedly. +12. We now travel still more rapidly. +13. Therefore he spoke excitedly. +14. You will undoubtedly be very cordially welcomed. +15. A furious equinoctial gale has just swept by. +16. The Hell Gate reef was slowly drilled away. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 15. + +COMPOSITION--ADVERBS. + ++Caution+.--So place adverbs that there can be no doubt as to what you +intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. + ++Direction+.--_Place the, italicized words below in different positions, +and note the effect on the sound and the sense_:-- + +1. I _immediately_ ran out. +2. _Only_ one was left there. +3. She looked down _proudly_. +4. _Unfortunately_, this assistance came too late. + ++Direction+.--_Construct on each of these subjects three sentences having +modified subjects and modified predicates_:--- + +For punctuation, see Lesson 21. + ++Model+. ---- _clouds_ ----. + 1. _Dark, heavy, threatening clouds are slowly gathering above_. + 2. _Those, brilliant, crimson clouds will very soon dissolve_. + 3. _Thin, fleecy clouds are scudding over_. + +l. ---- ocean ----. +2. ---- breeze ----. +3. ---- shadows ----. +4. ---- rock ----. +5. ---- leaves ----. + ++Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which these adverbs shall modify +verbs_:-- + +Heretofore, hereafter, annually, tenderly, inaudibly, legibly, evasively, +everywhere, aloof, forth. + ++Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which five of these adverbs shall +modify adjectives, and five shall modify adverbs_:-- + +Far, unusually, quite, altogether, slightly, somewhat, much, almost, too, +rather. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 16. + +REVIEW. + +TO THE TEACHER.--In all school work, but especially here, where the +philosophy of the sentence and the principles of construction are developed +in progressive steps, success depends largely on the character of the +reviews. + +Let reviews be, so far as possible, topical. Require frequent outlines of +the work passed over, especially of what is taught in the "Introductory +Hints." The language, except that of Rules and Definitions, should be the +pupil's own, and the illustrative sentences should be original. + ++Direction+.--_Review from Lesson 8 to Lesson 15, inclusive_. + +Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (tell, for example, what +three things such words as _tick, are,_ and _remain_ do in the sentence, +what office they have in common, what such words are called, and why; what +common office such words as _ripe, the,_ and _eight_ have, in what three +ways they perform it, what such words are called, and why, etc.). Repeat +and illustrate definitions and rules; illustrate what is taught of the +capitalization and the abbreviation of names, and of the position of +adjectives and adverbs. + + +Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. + +(SEE PAGES 150-153.) + +TO THE TEACHER.--After the pupil has learned a few principles of analysis +and construction through the aid of short detached sentences that exclude +everything unfamiliar, he may be led to recognize these same principles in +longer related sentences grouped into paragraphs. The study of paragraphs +selected for this purpose may well be extended as an informal preparation +for what is afterwards formally presented in the regular lessons of the +text-book. + +These "Exercises" are offered only as suggestions. The teacher must, of +course, determine where and how often this composition should be +introduced. + +We invite special attention to the study of the paragraph. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 17. + +PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AND PREPOSITIONS. + ++Introductory Hints+.--To express our thoughts with greater exactness we +may need to expand a word modifier into several words; as, A _long_ ride +brought us _there_ = A ride _of one hundred miles_ brought us _to Chicago_. +These groups of words, _of one hundred miles_ and _to Chicago_--the one +substituted for the adjective _long_, the other for the adverb _there_--we +call +Phrases+. A phrase that does the work of an adjective is called an ++Adjective Phrase+. A phrase that does the work of an adverb is called an ++Adverb Phrase+. + +As adverbs modify adjectives and adverbs, they may modify their equivalent +phrases; as, The train stops _only at the station_. They sometimes modify +only the introductory word of the phrase--this introductory word being +adverbial in its nature; as, He sailed _nearly around_ the globe. + +That we may learn the office of such words as _of, to_, and _at_, used to +introduce these phrases, let us see how the relation of one idea to another +may be expressed. _Wealthy men_. These two words express two ideas as +related. We have learned to know this relation by the form and position of +the words. Change these, and the relation is lost--_men wealth_. But by +using _of_ before _wealth_ the relation is restored---_men of wealth_. The +word _of_, then, shows the relation between the ideas expressed by the +words _men_ and _wealth_. + +All such relation words are called +Prepositions+ (Lat. _prae_, before, and +_positus_, placed--their usual position being before the noun with which +they form a phrase). + +A phrase introduced by a preposition is called a +Prepositional Phrase+. +This, however, is not the only kind of phrase. + ++DEFINITION.--A _Phrase_ is a group of words denoting related ideas, and +having a distinct office, but not expressing a thought+. + ++DEFINITION.--A _Preposition_ is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, +and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word +modified.+ + +Analysis and Parsing. + +1. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity of vibration. + +TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions in Lesson 12, concerning the use of +diagrams. + +pitch depends +==========|================= + \The \of \upon + \ \ + \ note \ rapidity + \-------- \------------ + \the \musical \the \of + \ + \vibration + \--------- + ++Explanation+.--The diagram of the phrase is made up of a slanting line +standing for the introductory word, and a horizontal line representing the +principal word. Under the latter are drawn the lines which represent the +modifiers of the principal word. + ++Oral Analysis+.---_The_ and the adjective phrase _of the musical note_ are +modifiers of the subject; the adverb phrase _upon the rapidity of +vibration_ is a modifier of the predicate. _Of_ introduces the first +phrase, and _note_ is the principal word; _the_ and _musical_ are modifiers +of _note_; _upon_ introduces the second phrase, and _rapidity_ is the +principal word; _the_ and the adjective phrase _of vibration_ are modifiers +of _rapidity_; _of_ introduces this phrase, and _vibration_ is the +principal word. + +TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions in Lesson 12, concerning oral analysis. + ++Parsing+.--_Of_ is a preposition showing the relation, in sense, of _note_ +to _pitch_; etc., etc. + +TO THE TEACHER.--Insist that, in parsing, the pupils shall give specific +reasons instead of general definitions. + +2. The Gulf Stream can be traced along the shores of the United States by + the blueness of the water. +3. The North Pole has been approached in three principal directions. +4. In 1607, Hudson penetrated within six hundred miles of the North Pole. + [Footnote: "1607" may be treated as a noun, and "six hundred" as one + adjective.] +5. The breezy morning died into silent noon. +6. The Delta of the Mississippi was once at St. Louis. +7. Coal of all kinds has originated from the decay of plants. +8. Genius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of freedom. + +\in \ + \ _____\below + \atmosphere \just \ + \___________ \Falls + \ \______ + \only \ + \the + ++Explanation+.----_Only_ modifies the whole phrase, and _just_ modifies the +preposition. + +9. The Suspension Bridge is stretched across the Niagara river just below + the Falls. +10. In Mother Goose the cow jumps clear over the moon. +11. The first standing army was formed in the middle of the fifteenth + century. +12. The first astronomical observatory in Europe was erected at Seville by + the Saracens. +13. The tails of some comets stretch to the distance of 100,000,000 miles. +14. The body of the great Napoleon was carried back from St. Helena to + France. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 18. + +COMPOSITION-PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. + ++COMMA-RULE.--Phrases that are placed out of their usual order [Footnote: +For the usual order of words and phrases, see Lesson 51.] and made +emphatic, or that are loosely connected with the rest of the sentence, +should be set off by the comma.+ [Footnote: An expression in the body of a +sentence is set off by two commas; at the beginning or at the end, by one +comma.] + ++Remark.+--This rule must be applied with caution. Unless it is desired to +make the phrase emphatic, or to break the continuity of the thought, the +growing usage among writers is not to set it off. + ++Direction.+--_Tell why the comma is, or is not, used in these +sentences_:-- + +1. Between the two mountains lies a fertile valley. +2. Of the scenery along the Rhine, many travelers speak with enthusiasm. +3. He went, at the urgent request of the stranger, for the doctor. +4. He went from New York to Philadelphia on Monday. +5. In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce, he + approached. + ++Direction+.--_Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation_:-- + +1. England in the eleventh century was conquered by the Normans. +2. Amid the angry yells of the spectators he died. +3. For the sake of emphasis a word or a phrase may be placed out of its + natural order. +4. In the Pickwick Papers the conversation of Sam Weller is spiced with + wit. +5. New York on the contrary abounds in men of wealth. +6. It has come down by uninterrupted tradition from the earliest times to + the present day. + ++Direction+.--_See in how many places the phrases in the sentences above +may stand without obscuring the thought._ + ++Caution+.--So place phrase modifiers that there can be no doubt as to what +yon intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. + ++Direction+.--_Correct these errors in position, and use the comma when +needed_:-- + +1. The honorable member was reproved for being intoxicated by the + president. +2. That small man is speaking with red whiskers. +3. A message was read from the President in the Senate. +4. With his gun toward the woods he started in the morning. +5. On Monday evening on temperance by Mr. Gough a lecture at the old brick + church was delivered. + ++Direction+.--_Form a sentence out of each of these groups of words_:-- + +(Look sharply to the arrangement and the punctuation.) + +1. Of mind of splendor under the garb often is concealed poverty. +2. Of affectation of the young fop in the face impertinent an was seen + smile. +3. Has been scattered Bible English the of millions by hundreds of the + earth over the face. +4. To the end with no small difficulty of the journey at last through deep + roads we after much fatigue came. +5. At the distance a flood of flame from the line from thirty iron mouths + of twelve hundred yards of the enemy poured forth. + ++Direction+.--_See into how many good, clear sentences you can convert +these by transposing the phrases_:-- + +1. He went over the mountains on a certain day in early boyhood. +2. Ticonderoga was taken from the British by Ethan Allen on the tenth of + May in 1775. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 19. + +COMPOSITION--PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. + ++Direction+.--_Rewrite these sentences, changing the italicized words into +equivalent phrases_:-- + ++Model+.--The sentence was _carefully_ written. The sentence was written +_with_ care. + +1. A _brazen_ image was _then_ set up. +2. Those _homeless_ children were _kindly_ treated. +3. Much has been said about the _Swiss_ scenery. +4. An _aerial_ trip to Europe was _rashly_ planned. +5. The _American_ Continent was _probably_ discovered by Cabot. + ++Direction+.--_Change these adjectives and adverbs into equivalent phrases; +and then, attending carefully to the punctuation, use these phrases in +sentences of your own_:-- + +1. Bostonian +2. why +3. incautiously +4. nowhere +5. there +6. hence +7. northerly +8. national +9. whence +10. here +11. Arabian +12. lengthy +13. historical +14. lucidly +15. earthward + ++Direction+.--_Compose sentences, using these phrases as modifiers_:-- + +Of copper; in Pennsylvania; from the West Indies; around the world; between +the tropics; toward the Pacific; on the 22d of February; during the reign +of Elizabeth; before the application of steam to machinery; at the +Centennial Exposition of 1876. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 20. + +COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE. + +CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. + ++Introductory Hints.+--_Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth reigned in England._ +The three words _Edward, Mary,_ and _Elizabeth_ have the same +predicate--the same act being asserted of the king and the two queens. +_Edward, Mary_, and _Elizabeth_ are connected by _and_, _and_ being +understood between Edward and Mary. Connected subjects having the same +predicate form a +Compound Subject+. + +_Charles I. was seized, was tried, and was beheaded._ The three predicates +_was seized, was tried_, and _was beheaded_ have the same subject--the +three acts being asserted of the same king. Connected predicates having the +same subject form a +Compound Predicate.+ + +A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate; as, +_Mary_ and _Elizabeth lived_ and _reigned_ in England. + +The words connecting the parts of a compound subject or of a compound +predicate are called +Conjunctions+ (Lat. _con_, or _cum_, together, and +_jungere_, to join). + +A conjunction may connect other parts of the sentence, as two word +modifiers--A dark _and_ rainy night follows; Some men sin deliberately +_and_ presumptuously. + +It may connect two phrases; as, The equinox occurs in March _and_ in +September. + +It may connect two clauses, that is, expressions that, standing alone, +would be sentences; as, The leaves of the pine fall in spring, _but_ the +leaves of the maple drop in autumn. + ++Interjections+ (Lat. _inter_, between, and _jacere_, to throw) are the +eighth and last part of speech. + +_Oh! ah! pooh! pshaw!_ etc., express bursts of feeling too sudden and +violent for deliberate sentences. + +_Hail! fudge! indeed! amen! _etc., express condensed thought as well as +feeling. + +Any part of speech may be wrenched from its construction with other words, +and may lapse into an interjection; _as, behold! shame! what!_ + +Professor Sweet calls interjections _sentence-words_. + + +Two or more connected subjects having the same predicate form a +Compound +Subject+. + +Two or more connected predicates having the same subject form a +Compound +Predicate+. + ++DEFINITION.--A _Conjunction_ is a word used to connect words, phrases, or +clauses.+ + ++DEFINITION.--An _Interjection_ is a word used to express strong or sudden +feeling.+ + +Analysis and Parsing. + +1. Ah! anxious wives, sisters, and mothers wait for the news. + + Ah + ---- +wives +========\ + '\ + ' \ | wait +sisters 'x \=====|=========== +========' \ \anxious \for + 'and/ \ + ' / \news +mothers ' / ----- +========'/ \the + ++Explanation+.--The three short horizontal lines represent each a part of +the compound subject. They are connected by dotted lines, which stand for +the connecting word. The x shows that a conjunction is understood. The line +standing for the word modifier is joined to that part of the subject line +which represents the entire subject. Turn this diagram about, and the +connected horizontal lines will stand for the parts of a compound +predicate. + ++Oral Analysis+.---_Wives, sisters_, and _mothers_ form the compound +subject; _anxious_ is a modifier of the compound subject; _and_ connects +_sisters_ and _mothers_. + ++Parsing+.--_And_ is a conjunction connecting _sisters_ and _mothers_; _ah_ +is an interjection, expressing a sudden burst of feeling. + +2. In a letter we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss. + +(For diagram see the last sentence of the "Explanation" above.) + +3. The mental, moral, and muscular powers are improved by use. + + powers came +================= ========= + \The \ X \ and \ \ and \of + \...\.....\ \.......\ parentage + \ \ \muscular \ \----------- + \ \moral \from + \mental \ land + \--------- + +4. The hero of the Book of Job came from a strange land and of a strange + parentage. +5. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of the eyeball, and + there spreads out. +6. Between the mind of man and the outer world are interposed the nerves of + the human body. +7. All forms of the lever and all the principal kinds of hinges are found + in the body. +8. By perfection is meant the full and harmonious development of all the + faculties. +9. Ugh! I look forward with dread to to-morrow. +10. From the Mount of Olives, the Dead Sea, dark and misty and solemn, is + seen. +11. Tush! tush! 't will not again appear. +12. A sort of gunpowder was used at an early period in China and in other + parts of Asia. +13. Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously. +14. Feudalism did not and could not exist before the tenth century. +15. The opinions of the New York press are quoted in every port and in + every capital. +16. Both friend and foe applauded. + + friend +-------------------\ + ' \ + ' \ | applauded + 'and.... Both >===|=========== + ' / + foe ' / +--------'----------/ + ++Explanation+.--The conjunction _both_ is used to strengthen the real +connective _and_. _Either_ and _neither_ do the same for _or_ and _nor_ in +_either--or_, _neither--nor_. + ++Remark.+--A phrase that contains another phrase as a modifier is called a ++Complex Phrase+. Two or more phrases connected by a conjunction form a ++Compound Phrase+. + ++Direction.+--_Pick out the simple, the complex, and the compound phrases +in the sentences above._ + + * * * * * + +LESSON 21. + +COMPOSITION---CONNECTED TERMS AND INTERJECTIONS. + ++COMMA--RULE.--Words or phrases connected by conjunctions are separated +from each other by the comma unless all the conjunctions are expressed.+ + ++Remark+.--When words and phrases stand in pairs, the pairs are separated +according to the Rule, but the words of each pair are not. + +When one of two terms has a modifier that without the comma might be +referred to both, or, when the parts of compound predicates and of other +phrases are long or differently modified, these terms or parts are +separated by the comma though no conjunction is omitted. + +When two terms connected by or have the same meaning, the second is +logically explanatory of the first, and is set off by the comma, _i. e._, +when it occurs in the body of a sentence, a comma is placed after the +explanatory word, as well as before the _or_. + ++Direction.+--_Justify the punctuation of these sentences:_-- + +1. Long, pious pilgrimages are made to Mecca. +2. Empires rise, flourish, and decay. +3. Cotton is raised in Egypt, in India, and in the United States. +4. The brain is protected by the skull, or cranium. +5. Nature and art and science were laid under tribute. +6. The room was furnished with a table, and a chair without legs. +7. The old oaken bucket hangs in the well. + ++Explanation.+--No comma here, for no conjunction is omitted. _Oaken_ +limits _bucket_, _old_ limits _bucket_ modified by _oaken_, and _the_ +limits _bucket_ modified by _old_ and _oaken_. See Lesson 13. + +8. A Christian spirit should be shown to Jew or Greek, male or female, + friend or foe. +9. We climbed up a mountain for a view. + ++Explanation+.--No comma. _Up a mountain_ tells where we climbed, and _for +a view_ tells why we climbed up a mountain. + +10. The boy hurries away from home, and enters upon a career of business or + of pleasure. +11. The long procession was closed by the great dignitaries of the realm, + and the brothers and sons of the king. + ++Direction+.--_Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation, and +give your reasons_:-- + +1. Men and women and children stare cry out and run. +2. Bright healthful and vigorous poetry was written by Milton. +3. Few honest industrious men fail of success in life. + +(Where is the conjunction omitted?) + +4. Ireland or the Emerald Isle lies to the west of England. +5. That relates to the names of animals or of things without sex. +6. The Hebrew is closely allied to the Arabic the Phoenician the Syriac and + the Chaldee. +7. We sailed down the river and along the coast and into a little inlet. +8. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same stables and were fed + with abundance of hay and grain. +9. Spring and summer autumn and winter rush by in quick succession. +10. A few dilapidated old buildings still stand in the deserted village. + ++EXCLAMATION POINT--RULE.--All _Exclamatory Expressions_ must be followed +by the exclamation point.+ + ++Remark+.--Sometimes an interjection alone and sometimes an interjection +and the words following it form the exclamatory expression; as, _Oh! it +hurts. Oh, the beautiful snow!_ + +_O_ is used in direct address; as, _O father, listen to me. Oh_ is used as +a cry of pain, surprise, delight, fear, or appeal. This distinction, +however desirable, is not strictly observed, _O_ being frequently used in +place of _Oh_. + ++CAPITAL LETTERS--RULE.--The words _I_ and _O_ should be written in capital +letters.+ + ++Direction.+--_Correct these violations of the two rules given above:_-- + +1. o noble judge o excellent young man. +2. Out of the depths have i cried unto thee. +3. Hurrah the field is won. +4. Pshaw how foolish. +5. Oh oh oh i shall be killed. +6. o life how uncertain o death how inevitable. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 22. + +ANALYSIS AND PARSING. + ++Direction+.--_Beginning with the 8th sentence of the first group of +exercises in Lesson_ 21, _analyze thirteen sentences, omitting the_ 4_th of +the second group._ + ++Model+.--_A Christian spirit should be shown to Jew or Greek, male or +female, friend or foe._ + + spirit |should be shown / Jew +===============|================ __/'-------- +\A \Christian | \ /' \' Greek + \ / ' \-------- + \ / ' + \to / x ' / male + \--/ '_/'-------- + \ ' \' female + \ x ' \-------- + \ ' + \ ' / friend + \__/'--------- + \' foe + \--------- + + * * * * * + +LESSON 23. + +COMPOSITION--CONNECTED TERMS. + +Direction.+--_Using the nouns below, compose sentences with compound +subjects; compose others in which the verbs shall form compound predicates; +and others in which the adjectives, the adverbs, and the phrases shall form +compound modifiers:_-- + +In some let there be three or more connected terms. Observe Rule, Lesson +21, for punctuation. Let your sentences mean something. + +NOUNS. + +Washington, beauty, grace, Jefferson, symmetry, lightning, Lincoln, +electricity, copper, silver, flowers, gold, rose, lily. + +VERBS. + +Examine, sing, pull, push, report, shout, love, hate, like, scream, loathe, +approve, fear, obey, refine, hop, elevate, skip, disapprove. + +ADJECTIVES. + ++Direction.+--_See Caution, Lesson_ 13. + +Bright, acute, patient, careful, apt, forcible, simple, homely, happy, +short, pithy, deep, jolly, mercurial, precipitous. + +ADVERBS. + ++Direction.+--_See Caution, Lesson 15._ Neatly, slowly, carefully, sadly, +now, here, never, hereafter. + +PHRASES. + +On sea; in the city; by day; on land; by night; in the country; by hook; +across the ocean; by crook; over the lands; along the level road; up the +mountains. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 24. + +REVIEW. + +CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. + +Direction.+--_Give the reason for every capital letter and for every mark +of punctuation used below:_-- + +1. The sensitive parts of the body are covered by the cuticle, or skin. +2. The degrees of A.B., A.M., D.D., and LL.D. are conferred by the colleges + and the universities of the country. +3. Oh, I am so happy! +4. Fathers and mothers, sons and daughters rejoice at the news. +5. Plants are nourished by the earth, and the carbon of the air. +6. A tide of American travelers is constantly flooding Europe. +7. The tireless, sleepless sun rises above the horizon, and climbs slowly + and steadily to the zenith. +8. He retired to private life on half pay, and on the income of a large + estate in the South. + ++Direction.+--_Write these expressions, using capital letters and marks of +punctuation where they belong:_-- + +1. a fresh ruddy and beardless french youth replied +2. maj, cal, bu, p m, rev, no, hon, ft, w, e, oz, mr, n y, a b, mon, bbl, + st +3. o father o father i cannot breathe here +4. ha ha that sounds well +5. the edict of nantes was established by henry the great of france +6. mrs, vs, co, esq, yd, pres, u s, prof, o, do, dr +7. hurrah good news good news +8. the largest fortunes grow by the saving of cents and dimes and dollars +9. the baltic sea lies between sweden and russia +10. the mississippi river pours into the gulf of mexico +11. supt, capt, qt, ph d, p, cr, i e, doz +12. benjamin franklin was born in boston in 1706 and died in 1790 + ++Direction.+--_Correct all these errors in capitalization and punctuation, +and give your reasons:_-- + +1 Oliver cromwell ruled, over the english People, +2. halloo. I must speak to You! +3. john Milton, went abroad in Early Life, and, stayed, for some time, with + the Scholars of Italy, +4. Most Fuel consists of Coal and Wood from the Forests +5. books are read for Pleasure and the Instruction and improvement of the + Intellect, +6. In rainy weather the feet should be protected by overshoes or galoches +7. hark they are coming! +8. A, neat, simple and manly style is pleasing to Us. +9. alas poor thing alas, +10. i fished on a, dark, and cool, and mossy, trout stream. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 25. + +MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. + +ANALYSIS. + +1. By the streets of By-and-by, one arrives at the house of + Never.--_Spanish Proverb_ [Footnote: By-and-by has no real streets, the + London journals do not actually thunder, nor were the cheeks of William + the Testy literally scorched by his fiery gray eyes. _Streets, house, + colored, thunder_, and _scorched_ are not, then, used here in their + first and ordinary meaning, but in a secondary and figurative sense. + These words we call +Metaphors+. By what they denote and by what they + only suggest they lend clearness, vividness, and force to the thought + they help to convey, and add beauty to the expression. + + For further treatment of metaphors and other figures of speech, see + pages 87, 136, 155, 156, 165, and Lesson 150.] + +2. The winds and waves are always on the side of the ablest + navigators.--_Gibbon_. +3. The axis of the earth sticks out visibly through the center of each and + every town or city.--_Holmes_. +4. The arrogant Spartan, with a French-like glorification, boasted forever + of little Thermopylae.--_De Quincey_. +5. The purest act of knowledge is always colored by some feeling of + pleasure or pain.--_Hamilton_. +6. The thunder of the great London journals reverberates through every + clime.--_Marsh_. +7. The cheeks of William the Testy were scorched into a dusky red by two + fiery little gray eyes.--_Irving_. +8. The study of natural science goes hand in hand with the culture of the + imagination.--_Tyndall_. [Footnote: _Hand in hand_ may be treated as one + adverb, or _with_ may be supplied.] +9. The whole substance of the winds is drenched and bathed and washed and + winnowed and sifted through and through by this baptism in the + sea.--_Swain_. +10. The Arabian Empire stretched from the Atlantic to the Chinese Wall, and + from the shores of the Caspian Sea to those of the Indian + Ocean.--_Draper_. +11. One half of all known materials consists of oxygen.--_Cooke_. +12. The range of thirty pyramids, even in the time of Abraham, looked down + on the plain of Memphis.--_Stanley_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 26. + +WRITTEN PARSING. + ++Direction+.--_Parse the sentences of Lesson 25 according to this +Model +for Written Parsing_. + + | Nouns. | Pron. | Verbs. | Adj. | Adv. | Prep. | Conj.| Int.| + |--------|-------|--------|--------|------|-------|------|-----| +1st |streets,| | |the,the.| |By,of, | | | +sentence|By-and- | one. |arrives.| | |at,of | | | + | by, | | | | | | | | + |house, | | | | | | | | + |Never. | | | | | | | | +--------|--------|-------|--------|--------|------|-------|------|-----| + | | | | | | | | | +2d | | | | | | | | | +sentence| | | | | | | | | + +TO THE TEACHER.--Until the +Subdivisions+ and +Modifications+ of parts of +speech are reached, +Oral and Written Parsing+ can be only a classification +of the words in the sentence. You must judge how frequently a lesson like +this is needed, and how much parsing should be done orally day by day. In +their +Oral Analysis+ let the pupils give at first the reasons for every +statement, but guard against their doing this mechanically and in set +terms; and, when you think it can safely be done, let them drop it. But ask +now and then, whenever you think they have grown careless or are guessing, +for the reason of this, that, or the other step taken. + +Here it may be well to emphasize the fact that the part of speech to which +any word belongs is determined by the use of the word, and not from its +form. Such exercises as the following are suggested:-- + + Use _right_ words. + Act _right_. + _Right_ the wrong. + You are in the _right_. + +Pupils will be interested in finding sentences that illustrate the +different uses of the same word. It is hardly necessary for us to make +lists of words that have different uses. Any dictionary will furnish +abundant examples. It is an excellent practice to point out such words in +the regular exercises for analysis. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 27. + +REVIEW. + +TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16. + ++Direction+.--_Review from Lesson_ 17 _to Lesson_ 21, _inclusive_. + +Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (tell, for example, what +such words as _long_ and _there_ may be expanded into, how these expanded +forms may be modified, how introduced, what the introductory words are +called, and why, etc.). Repeat and illustrate definitions and rules; +illustrate fully what is taught of the position of phrases, and of the +punctuation of phrases, connected terms, and exclamatory expressions. How +many parts of speech are there? + +Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. + +(SEE PAGES 153-156.) + +TO THE TEACHER.--See notes to the teacher, pages 30, 150. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 28. + +NOUNS AS OBJECT COMPLEMENTS. + +Introductory Hints.+--In saying _Washington captured_, we do not fully +express the act performed by Washington. If we add a noun and say, +_Washington captured Cornwallis_, we complete the predicate by naming that +which receives the act. + +Whatever fills out, or completes, is a +Complement+. As _Cornwallis_ +completes the expression of the act by naming the thing acted upon--the +object--we call it the +Object Complement+. Connected objects completing +the same verb form a +Compound Object Complement+; as, Washington captured +_Cornwallis_ and his _army_. + + ++DEFINITION.--The _Object Complement of a Sentence_ completes the +predicate, and names that which receives the act.+ + +The complement with all its modifiers is called the +Modified Complement.+ + ++Analysis.+ + +1. Clear thinking makes clear writing. + + thinking | makes | writing +============|===================== + \ clear | \clear + ++Oral Analysis+.---_Writing_ is the object complement; _clear writing_ is +the modified complement, and _makes clear writing_ is the entire predicate. + +2. Austerlitz killed Pitt. +3. The invention of gunpowder destroyed feudalism. +4. Liars should have good memories. +5. We find the first surnames in the tenth century. +6. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. +7. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod. +8. At the opening of the thirteenth century, Oxford took and held rank with + the greatest schools of Europe. + + took + /---------\ + Oxford | / ' \ | rank +========|=and' ========== + | \ ' / + \ ' held / + \-------/ + + revolves + /------------ + moon | / ' +======|== and' + | \ ' + \ ' keeps | side + \--------------- + +9. The moon revolves, and keeps the same side toward us. +10. Hunger rings the bell, and orders up coals in the shape of bread and + butter, beef and bacon, pies and puddings. +11. The history of the Trojan war rests on the authority of Homer, and + forms the subject of the noblest poem of antiquity. +12. Every stalk, bud, flower, and seed displays a figure, a proportion, a + harmony, beyond the reach of art. +13. The natives of Ceylon build houses of the trunk, and thatch roofs with + the leaves, of the cocoa-nut palm. +14. Richelieu exiled the mother, oppressed the wife, degraded the brother, + and banished the confessor, of the king. +15. James and John study and recite grammar and arithmetic. + + James study grammar +=========\ /===========\ /=============== + ' \ | / ' \ | / ' + 'and ==|== and' ===== and' + John ' / | \ ' recite / \ ' arithmetic +=========/ \===========/ \=============== + + * * * * * + +LESSON 29. + +NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES AS ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENTS. + ++Introductory Hints+.--The subject presents one idea; the predicate +presents another, and asserts it of the first. _Corn is growing_ presents +the idea of the thing, corn, and the idea of the act, growing, and asserts +the act of the thing. _Corn growing_ lacks the asserting word, and _Corn_ +is lacks the word denoting the idea to be asserted. + +In logic, the asserting word is called the _copula_--it shows that the two +ideas are coupled into a thought--and the word expressing the idea asserted +is called the predicate. But, as one word often performs both offices, e. +g., Corn _grows_, and, as it is disputed whether any word can assert +without expressing something of the idea asserted, we pass this distinction +by as not essential in grammar, and call both that which asserts and that +which expresses the idea asserted, by one name--the predicate. [Footnote: +We may call the verb the predicate; but, when it is followed by a +complement, it is an incomplete predicate.] + +The _maple leaves become_. The verb become does not make a complete +predicate; it does not fully express the idea to be asserted. The idea may +be completely expressed by adding the adjective _red_, denoting the quality +we wish to assert of leaves, or attribute to them--_The maple leaves become +red_. + +_Lizards are reptiles_. The noun _reptiles_, naming the class of the +animals called lizards, performs a like office for the asserting word are. +_Rolfe's wife was Pocahontas_. _Pocahontas_ completes the predicate by +presenting a second idea, which _was_ asserts to be identical with that of +the subject. + +When the completing word expressing the idea to be attributed does not +unite with the asserting word to make a single verb, we distinguish it as +the +Attribute Complement.+ [Footnote: _Subjective Complement_ may, if +preferred, be used instead of Attribute Complement.] Connected attribute +complements of the same verb form a +Compound Attribute Complement+. + +Most grammarians call the adjective and the noun, when so used, the ++Predicate Adjective+ and the +Predicate Noun+. + + ++DEFINITION.--The _Attribute Complement_ of a Sentence completes the +predicate and belongs to the subject.+ + +Analysis. + +1. Slang is vulgar. + + Slang | is \ vulgar +==========|================= + | + ++Explanation+.--The line standing for the attribute complement is, like the +object line, a continuation of the predicate line; but notice that the line +which separates the incomplete predicate from the complement slants toward +the subject to show that the complement is an attribute of it. + ++Oral Analysis+.--_Vulgar_ is the attribute complement, completing the +predicate and expressing a quality of slang; _is vulgar_ is the entire +predicate. + +2. The sea is fascinating and treacherous. +3. The mountains are grand, tranquil, and lovable. +4. The Saxon words in English are simple, homely, and substantial. +5. The French and the Latin words in English are elegant, dignified, and + artificial. [Footnote: The assertion in this sentence is true only in + the main.] +6. The ear is the ever-open gateway of the soul. +7. The verb is the life of the sentence. +8. Good-breeding is surface-Christianity. +9. A dainty plant is the ivy green. + ++Explanation+.--The subject names that of which the speaker says something. +The terms in which he says it,--the predicate,--he, of course, assumes that +the hearer already understands. Settle, then, which--plant or ivy--Dickens +supposed the reader to know least about, and which, therefore, Dickens was +telling him about; and you settle which word--_plant_ or _ivy_--is the +subject. (Is it not the writer's poetical conception of "the green ivy" +that the reader is supposed not to possess?) + +10. The highest outcome of culture is simplicity. +11. Stillness of person and steadiness of features are signal marks of + good-breeding. +12. The north wind is full of courage, and puts the stamina of endurance + into a man. +13. The west wind is hopeful, and has promise and adventure in it. +14. The east wind is peevishness and mental rheumatism and grumbling, and + curls one up in the chimney-corner. +15. The south wind is full of longing and unrest and effeminate suggestions + of luxurious ease. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 30. + +ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENTS--CONTINUED. + +Analysis. + +1. He went out as mate and came back captain. + + as + --- + ' + went \ ' mate + /======================= + He | / ' \out +====|=and ' + | \ ' came \ captain + \======================= + \back + ++Explanation+.--_Mate_, like _captain_, is an attribute complement. Some +would say that the conjunction _as_ connects _mate_ to _he_; but we think +this connection is made through the verb _went_, and that _as_ is simply +introductory. This is indicated in the diagram. + +2. The sun shines bright and hot at midday. +3. Velvet feels smooth, and looks rich and glossy. +4. She grew tall, queenly, and beautiful. +5. Plato and Aristotle are called the two head-springs of all philosophy. +6. Under the Roman law, every son was regarded as a slave. +7. He came a foe and returned a friend. +8. I am here. I am present. + ++Explanation+.--The office of an adverb sometimes seems to fade into that +of an adjective attribute and is not easily distinguished from it. _Here_, +like an adjective, seems to complete _am_, and, like an adverb to modify +it. From their form and usual function, _here,_ in this example, should be +called an adverb, and _present_ an adjective. + +9. This book is presented to you as a token of esteem and gratitude. +10. The warrior fell back upon the bed a lifeless corpse. +11. The apple tastes and smells delicious. +12. Lord Darnley turned out a dissolute and insolent husband. +13. In the fable of the Discontented Pendulum, the weights hung speechless. +14. The brightness and freedom of the New Learning seemed incarnate in the + young and scholarly Sir Thomas More. +15. Sir Philip Sidney lived and died the darling of the Court, and the + gentleman and idol of the time. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 31. + +OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS. + ++Introductory Hints+.--_He made the wall white._ Here _made_ does not fully +express the act performed upon the wall. We do not mean to say, He _made_ +the white _wall_, but, He _made-white_ (_whitened_) the wall. _White_ helps +_made_ to express the act, and at the same time it denotes the quality +attributed to the wall as the result of the act. + +_They made Victoria queen_. Here _made_ does not fully express the act +performed upon Victoria. They did not _make_ Victoria, but _made-queen_ +(_crowned_) Victoria. _Queen_ helps _made_ to express the act, and at the +same time denotes the office to which the act raised Victoria. + +A word that, like the adjective _white_ or the noun _queen_, helps to +complete the predicate and at the same time belongs to the object +complement, differs from an attribute complement by belonging not to the +subject but to the object complement, and so is called an +Objective +Complement+. + +As the objective complement generally denotes what the receiver of the act +is made to be, in fact or in thought, it is sometimes called the _factitive +complement_ or the _factitive object_ (Lat. _facere_, to make). [Footnote: +See Lesson 37, last foot-note.] + +Some of the other verbs which are thus completed are _call_, _think_, +_choose_, and _name_. + + ++DEFINITION.--The _Objective Complement_ completes the predicate and +belongs to the object complement.+ + +Analysis. + +1. They made Victoria queen. + + They | made / queen | Victoria +======|========================= + | + ++Explanation+.--The line that separates _made_ from _queen_ slants toward +the object complement to show that _queen_ belongs to the object. + ++Oral Analysis+.--_Queen_ is an objective complement completing _made_ and +belonging to _Victoria_; _made Victoria queen_ is the complete predicate. + +2. Some one has called the eye the window of the soul. +3. Destiny had made Mr. Churchill a schoolmaster. +4. President Hayes chose the Hon. Wm. M. Evarts Secretary of State. +5. After a break of sixty years in the ducal line of the English nobility, + James I. created the worthless Villiers Duke of Buckingham. +6. We should consider time as a sacred trust. + ++Explanation+.--_As_ may be used simply to introduce an objective +complement. + +7. Ophelia and Polonius thought Hamlet really insane. +8. The President and the Senate appoint certain men ministers to foreign + courts. +9. Shylock would have struck Jessica dead beside him. +10. Custom renders the feelings blunt and callous. +11. Socrates styled beauty a short-lived tyranny. +12. Madame de Stael calls beautiful architecture frozen music. +13. They named the state New York from the Duke of York. +14. Henry the Great consecrated the Edict of Nantes as the very ark of the + constitution. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 32. + +COMPOSITION--COMPLEMENTS. + ++Caution.+--Be careful to distinguish an adjective complement from an +adverb modifier. + ++Explanation.+--Mary arrived _safe_. We here wish to tell the condition of +Mary on her arrival, and not the manner of her arriving. My head feels +_bad_ (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the sense of feeling). The +sun shines _bright_ (is bright, as perceived by its shining). + +When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above, +you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows. + ++Direction.+--_Justify the use of these adjectives and adverbs_:-- + +1. The boy is running wild. +2. The boy is running wildly about. +3. They all arrived safe and sound. +4. The day opened bright. +5. He felt awkward in the presence of ladies. +6. He felt around awkwardly for his chair. +7. The sun shines bright. +8. The sun shines brightly on the tree-tops. +9. He appeared prompt and willing. +10. He appeared promptly and willingly. + ++Direction+.--_Correct these errors and give your reasons_:-- + +1. My head pains me very bad. +2. My friend has acted very strange in the matter. +3. Don't speak harsh. +4. It can be bought very cheaply. +5. I feel tolerable well. +6. She looks beautifully. + ++Direction+.--_Join to each of the nouns below three appropriate adjectives +expressing the qualities as assumed, and then make complete sentences by +asserting these qualities_:-- + ++Model.+ + Hard | + brittle + glass. + transparent | + +Glass is hard, brittle, and transparent. + +Coal, iron, Niagara Falls, flowers, war, ships. + ++Direction+.--_Compose sentences containing these nouns as attribute +complements_:-- + +Emperor, mathematician, Longfellow, Richmond. + ++Direction+.--_Compose sentences, using these verbs as predicates, and +these pronouns as attribute complements_:-- + +Is, was, might have been; I, we, he, she, they. + ++Remark+.--Notice that these forms of the pronouns--_I, we, thou, he, she, +ye, they_, and _who_--are never used as object complements or as principal +words in prepositional phrases; and that _me, us, thee, him, her, them_, +and _whom_ are never used as subjects or as attribute complements of +sentences. + ++Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which each of the following verbs shall +have two complements--the one an object complement, the other an objective +complement:_-- + +Let some object complements be pronouns, and let some objective complements +be introduced by _as_. + ++Model+.--They call _me chief_. We regard composition _as_ very +_important_. + +Make, appoint, consider, choose, call. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 33. + +NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. + ++Introductory Hints+.--_Solomon's temple was destroyed. Solomon's_ limits +_temple_ by telling what or whose temple is spoken of, and is therefore a +modifier of _temple_. + +The relation of Solomon to the temple is expressed by the apostrophe and +_s_ ('_s_) added to the noun _Solomon_. When _s_ has been added to the noun +to denote more than one, this relation of possession is expressed by the +apostrophe alone ('); as, _boys'_ hats. This same relation of possession +may be expressed by the preposition _of_; _Solomon's_ temple = the temple +_of Solomon_. + +_Dom Pedro, the emperor, was welcomed by the Americans_. The noun _emperor_ +modifies _Dom Pedro_ by telling what Dom Pedro is meant. Both words name +the same person. + +_Solomon's_ and _emperor_, like adjectives, modify nouns; but they are +names of things, and are modified by adjectives and not by adverbs; as, +_the wise_ Solomon's temple; Dom Pedro, _the Brazilian_ emperor. These are +conclusive reasons for calling such words nouns. + +They represent two kinds of +Noun Modifiers+--the +Possessive+ and the ++Explanatory+. + +The Explanatory Modifier is often called an +Appositive+. It identifies or +explains by adding another name of the same thing. + +Analysis. + +1. Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I. + + favorite (Raleigh) | was beheaded +====================|============== + \Elizabeth's | \by + \ James I + \----------- + ++Oral Analysts+.--_Elizabeth's_ and _Raleigh_ are modifiers of the subject; +the first word telling whose favorite is meant, the second what favorite. +_Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh_ is the modified subject. + +2. The best features of King James's translation of the Bible are derived + from Tyndale's version. +3. St. Paul, the apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero. +4. A fool's bolt is soon shot. +5. The tadpole, or polliwog, becomes a frog. +6. An idle brain is the devil's workshop. +7. Mahomet, or Mohammed, was born in the year 569 and died in 632. +8. They scaled Mount Blanc--a daring feat. + + They | scaled | Mount Blanc ( feat ) +======|===================== ======= + | \a \daring + ++Explanation+.--_Feat_ is explanatory of the sentence, _They scaled Mount +Blanc_, and in the diagram it stands, enclosed in curves, on a short line +placed after the sentence line. + +9. Bees communicate to each other the death of the queen, by a rapid + interlacing of the antennae. [Footnote: For uses of _each other_ and + _one another_, see Lesson 124.] + ++Explanation+.--_Each other_ may be treated as one term, or _each_ may be +made explanatory of _bees_. + +10. The lamp of a man's life has three wicks--brain, blood, and breath. + ++Explanation.+--Several words may together be explanatory of one. + +11. The turtle's back-bone and breast-bone--its shell and coat of + armor--are on the outside of its body. + + back-bone shell +=============\ ========\ + '\ /' \ | are + and' \==========(======/ 'and \=)=|======= + ' / \turtle's \its \ ' / | + breast-bone '/ \The \' coat / +=============/ ========/ + +12. Cromwell's rule as Protector began in the year 1653 and ended in 1658. + ++Explanation+.--_As, namely, to wit, viz., i.e., e.g.,_ and _that is_ may +introduce explanatory modifiers, but they do not seem to connect them to +the words modified. In the diagram they stand like _as_ in Lesson 30. +_Protector_ is explanatory of _Cromwell's_. + +13. In the latter half of the eighteenth century, three powerful nations, + namely, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, united for the dismemberment of + Poland. +14. John, the beloved disciple, lay on his Master's breast. +15. The petals of the daisy, _day's-eye_, close at night and in rainy + weather. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 34. + +COMPOSITION--NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. + ++COMMA--RULE.--An _Explanatory Modifier_, when it does not restrict the +modified term or combine closely with it, is set off by the comma.+ +[Footnote: See foot-note, Lesson 18] + ++Explanation+.--_The words I and O should be written in capital_ _letters_. +The phrase _I and O_ restricts _words_, that is, limits its application, +and no comma is needed. + +_Jacob's favorite sons, Joseph and Benjamin, were Rachel's children_. The +phrase _Joseph and Benjamin_ explains sons without restricting, and +therefore should be set off by the comma. + +In each of these expressions, _I myself, we boys, William the Conqueror_, +the explanatory term combines closely with the word explained, and no comma +is needed. + ++Direction+.--_Give the reasons for the insertion or the omission of commas +in these sentences_:-- + +1. My brother Henry and my brother George belong to a boat-club. +2. The author of Pilgrim's Progress, John Bunyan, was the son of a tinker. +3. Shakespeare, the great dramatist, was careless of his literary + reputation. +4. The conqueror of Mexico, Cortez, was cruel in his treatment of + Montezuma. +5. Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, was a Spaniard. +6. The Emperors Napoleon and Alexander met and became fast friends on a + raft at Tilsit. + ++Direction+.--_Insert commas below, where they are needed, and give your +reasons_:-- + +1. The Franks a warlike people of Germany gave their name to France. +2. My son Joseph has entered college. +3. You blocks! You stones! 0 you hard hearts! +4. Mecca a city in Arabia is sacred in the eyes of Mohammedans. +5. He himself could not go. +6. The poet Spenser lived in the reign of Elizabeth. +7. Elizabeth Queen of England ruled from 1558 to 1603. + ++Direction.+--_Compose sentences containing these expressions as +explanatory modifiers_:-- + +The most useful metal; the capital of Turkey; the Imperial City; the great +English poets; the hermit; a distinguished American statesman. + ++Direction.+--_Punctuate these expressions, and employ each of them in a +sentence_:-- + +See Remark, Lesson 21. Omit _or_, and note the effect. + +1. Palestine or the Holy Land ----. +2. New York or the Empire State ----. +3. New Orleans or the Crescent City ----. +4. The five Books of Moses or the Pentateuch ----. + ++Remember+ that (_'s_) and (_'_) are the possessive signs--(_'_) being used +when _s_ has been added to denote more than one, and (_'s_) in other cases. + ++Direction.+--_Copy the following, and note the use of the possessive +sign_:-- + +The lady's fan; the girl's bonnet; a dollar's worth; Burns's poems; Brown & +Co.'s business; a day's work; men's clothing; children's toys; those girls' +dresses; ladies' calls; three years' interest; five dollars' worth. + ++Direction.+--_Make possessive modifiers of the following words, and join +them to appropriate nouns_:-- + +Woman, women; mouse, mice; buffalo, buffaloes; fairy, fairies; hero, +heroes; baby, babies; calf, calves. + ++Caution.+--Do not use (_'s_) or (_'_) with the pronouns _its, his, ours, +yours, hers, theirs_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 35. + +NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS. + ++Introductory Hints.+--_He gave me a book_. Here we have what many +grammarians call a _double object_. _Book_, naming the thing acted upon, +they call the _direct_ object; and _me_, naming the person toward whom the +act is directed, they call the +indirect+, or _dative_, +object+. + +You see that _me_ and _book_ do not, like _Cornwallis_ and _army_, in +_Washington captured Cornwallis and his army_, form a compound object +complement; they cannot be connected by a conjunction, for they do not +stand in the same relation to the verb _gave_. The meaning is not, He gave +me _and_ the book. + +We treat these indirect objects, which generally denote the person to or +for whom something is done, as equivalent to phrase modifiers. If we change +the order of the words, a preposition must be supplied; as, He gave a book +_to me_. He bought _me_ a _book_; He bought a book _for me_. He asked _me_ +a _question_; He asked a _question of me_. When the indirect object +precedes the direct, no preposition is expressed or understood. + +_Teach, tell, send, promise, permit_, and _lend_ are other examples of +verbs that take indirect objects. + +Besides these indirect objects, +nouns denoting measure+, quantity, weight, +time, value, distance, or direction are often used adverbially, being +equivalent to phrase modifiers. We walked four _miles_ an _hour_; It weighs +one _pound_; It is worth a _dollar_ a _yard_; I went _home_ that _way_; The +wall is ten _feet_ six _inches_ high. + +The idiom of the language does not often admit a preposition before nouns +denoting measure, direction, etc. In your analysis you need not supply one. + ++Analysis.+ + +1. They offered Caesar the crown three times. + + They | offered | crown +========|========================== + | \ \ times \the + \ ------- + \ \three + \ + \ Caesar + ----------- + ++Oral Analysis.+--_Caesar_ and _times_ are nouns used adverbially, being +equivalent to adverb phrases modifying the predicate _offered_. + +2. We pay the President of the United States $50,000 a year. +3. He sent his daughter home that way. +4. I gave him a dollar a bushel for his wheat, and ten cents a pound for + his sugar. +5. Shakespeare was fifty-two years old the very day of his death. +6. Serpents cast their skin once a year. +7. The famous Charter Oak of Hartford, Conn., fell Aug. 21, 1856. +8. Good land should yield its owner seventy-five bushels of corn an acre. +9. On the fatal field of Zutphen, Sept. 22, 1586, his attendants brought + the wounded Sir Philip Sidney a cup of cold water. +10. He magnanimously gave a dying soldier the water. +11. The frog lives several weeks as a fish, and breathes by means of gills. +12. Queen Esther asked King Ahasuerus a favor. +13. Aristotle taught Alexander the Great philosophy. +14. The pure attar of roses is worth twenty or thirty dollars an ounce. +15. Puff-balls have grown six inches in diameter in a single night. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 36. + +REVIEW. + +TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16. + ++Direction.+--_Review from Lesson 28 to Lesson 35, inclusive_. + +Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (for example, show clearly +what two things are essential to a complete predicate; explain what is +meant by a complement; distinguish clearly the three kinds of complements; +show what parts of speech may be employed for each, and tell what general +idea--action, quality, class, or identity--is expressed by each attribute +complement or objective complement in your illustrations, etc.). Repeat and +illustrate definitions and rules; explain and illustrate fully the +distinction between an adjective complement and an adverb modifier; +illustrate what is taught of the forms _I, we,_ etc., _me, us,_ etc.; +explain and illustrate the use of the possessive sign. + + +Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. + +(SEE PAGES 156-159.) + +TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 37. + +VERBS AS ADJECTIVES AND AS NOUNS--PARTICIPLES. + ++Introductory Hints.+--_Corn grows; Corn growing._ Here _growing_ differs +from _grows_ in lacking the power to assert. _Growing_ is a form of the +verb that cannot, like _grows_, make a complete predicate because it only +assumes or implies that the corn does the act. _Corn_ may be called the +assumed subject of _growing_. + +_Birds, singing, delight us._ Here _singing_ does duty (1) as an adjective, +describing birds by assuming or implying an act, and (2) as a verb by +expressing the act of singing as going on at the time birds delight us. + +_By singing their songs birds delight us._ Here _singing_ has the nature of +a verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an object complement, _songs_; +and as a noun it names the act, and stands as the principal word in a +prepositional phrase. + +_Their singing so sweetly delights us_. Here, also, _singing_ has the +nature of a verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an adverb modifier, +_sweetly_, and as a noun it names an act and takes a possessive modifier. + +This form of the verb is called the +Participle+ (Lat. _pars_, a part, and +_capere_, to take) because it partakes of two natures and performs two +offices--those of a verb and an adjective, or those of a verb and a noun. +(For definition see Lesson 131.) + +_Singing birds delight us_. Here _singing_ has lost its verbal nature, and +expresses a permanent quality of birds--telling what kind of birds,--and +consequently is a mere adjective. _The singing of the birds delights us_. +Here _singing_ is simply a noun, naming the act and taking adjective +modifiers. + +There are two kinds of participles; [Footnote: Grammarians are not agreed +as to what these words that have the nature of the verb and that of the +noun should be called. Some would call the simple forms _doing_, _writing_, +and _injuring_, in sentences (1), (6), and (7), Lesson 38, _Infinitives_. +They would also call by the same name such compound forms as _being +accepted_, _having been shown_, and _having said_ in these expressions: +"for the purpose of being accepted;" "is the having been shown over a +place;" "I recollect his having said that." But does it not tax even +credulity to believe that a simple Anglo-Saxon infinitive in _-an_, only +one form of which followed a preposition, and that always _to_, could have +developed into many compound forms, used in both voices, following almost +any preposition, and modified by _the_ and by nouns and pronouns in the +possessive? No wonder the grammarian Mason says, "An infinitive in _-ing_, +set down by some as a modification of the simple infinitive in _-an_ or +_-en_, is a perfectly unwarranted invention." + +Others call these words modernized forms of the Anglo-Saxon _Verbal Nouns_ +in _-ung_, _-ing_. But this derivation of them encounters the stubborn fact +that those verbal nouns never were compound, and never were or could be +followed by objects. These words, on the contrary, are compound, as we have +seen, and have objects. That they are from nouns in _-ung_ is otherwise, +and almost for the same reasons, as incredible as that they are from +infinitives in _-an_. + +Others call these words _Gerunds_. A gerund in Latin is a simple form of +the verb in the active voice, never found in the nominative, and never in +the accusative (objective) after a verb. A gerund in Anglo-Saxon is a +simple form of the verb in the active voice--the dative case of the +infinitive merely--used mainly to indicate purpose, and always preceded by +the preposition _to_. To call these words in question gerunds is to stretch +the term _gerund_ immensely beyond its meaning in Anglo-Saxon, and make it +cover words which sometimes (1) are highly compounded; sometimes (2) are +used in the passive voice; sometimes (3) follow other prepositions than +_to_; sometimes (4) do not follow any preposition; sometimes (5) are +objects of verbs; sometimes (6) are subjects of verbs; sometimes (7) are +modified by _the_; sometimes (8) are modified by a noun or pronoun in the +possessive; and generally (9) do not indicate purpose. We submit that the +extension of a class term so as to include words having these relations +that the Anglo-Saxon gerund never had, is not warranted by any precedent +except that furnished above in the extension of the term _infinitive_ or of +the term _verbal noun_! + +Still others call some of these words _Infinitives_; some of them _Verbal +Nouns_; and some of them _Gerunds_. + +The forms in question--_seeing, having seen, being seen, having been seen_, +and _having been seeing_, for instance--are now made from the verb in +precisely the same way when partaking the nature of the noun as when +partaking the nature of the adjective. What can they possibly be but the +forms that all grammarians call _participles_ extended to new uses? If the +uses of the original participles have been extended, why may we not carry +over the name? The name _participle_ is as true to its etymology when +applied to the nounal use of the verb as when applied to the adjectival +use. For convenience of classification we call these disputed forms +_participles_, as good grammarians long ago called them and still call +them, though some of them may be traced back to the Saxon verbal noun or to +the infinitive, and though the Saxon participle was adjectival. The name +_participle_ neither confounds terms nor misleads the student. The nounal +and the adjectival uses of participial forms we distinguish very sharply.] +one sharing the nature of the verb and that of the adjective; the other, +the nature of the verb and that of the noun. Participles commonly end in +_ing_, _ed_, or _en_. + +The participle, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by an object +complement or an attribute complement. + +Analysis and Parsing. + +The +participle+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+. + +1. Hearing a step, I turned. + + I | turned + ===|========= + \ | + \ hea + \ ring | step + --------|------ + \a + ++Explanation+.--The line standing for the participle is broken; one part +slants to represent the adjective nature of the participle, and the other +is horizontal to represent its verbal nature. + ++Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _hearing a step_ is a modifier of the subject; +[Footnote: Logically, or in sense, _hearing a step_ modifies the predicate +also. I _turned when_ or _because_ I heard a step. See Lesson 79.] the +principal word is _hearing_, which is completed by the noun _step_; _step_ +is modified by _a_. + ++Parsing+.--_Hearing_ is a form of the verb called participle because the +act expressed by it is merely assumed, and it shares the nature of an +adjective and that of a verb. + +2. The fat of the body is fuel laid away for use. + ++Explanation+.--The complement is here modified by a participle phrase. + +3. The spinal marrow, proceeding from the brain, extends down-ward through + the back-bone. +4. Van Twiller sat in a huge chair of solid oak, hewn in the celebrated + forest of the Hague. + ++Explanation+.--The principal word of a prepositional phrase is here +modified by a participle phrase. + +5. Lentulus, returning with victorious legions, had amused the populace + with the sports of the amphitheater. + +The +participle+ may be used as an +attribute complement+. + +6. The natives came crowding around. + ++Explanation+.--_Crowding_ here completes the predicate _came_, and belongs +to the subject _natives_. The natives are represented as performing the act +of coming and the accompanying act of crowding. The assertive force of the +predicate _came_ seems to extend over both verbs. [Footnote: Some +grammarians prefer to treat the participle in such constructions as +adverbial. But is _crowding_ any more adverbial here than are _pale_ and +_trembling_ in "The natives came _pale_ and _trembling_"?] + +7. The city lies sleeping. +8. They stood terrified. +9. The philosopher sat buried in thought. + + \and \and \ + \....\....\ + \ \ \star + \ \ \ ving + \ \sav \------- + \ \ ing + \gru \---------- + \ bbing + \------------- + | +miser | kept \ / \ +======|====================== + | + +10. The old miser kept grubbing and saving and starving. + +The +participle+ may be used as an +objective complement+. + +11. He kept me waiting. + ++Explanation+.--_Waiting_ completes _kept_ and relates to the object +complement _me_. _Kept-waiting_ expresses the complete act performed upon +me. _He kept-waiting me_=_He detained me_. The relation of _waiting_ to +_me_ may be seen by changing the form of the verb; as, I _was kept +waiting_. See Lesson 31. + +12. I found my book growing dull. [Footnote: It will be seen by this and +following examples that we extend the application of the term _objective +complement_ beyond its primary, or factitive, sense. In "I struck the man +_dead_," the condition expressed by _dead_ is the result of the act +expressed by _struck_. In "I found the man _dead_," the condition is not +the result of the act, and so grammarians say that in this second example +_dead_ should be treated simply as an "appositive" adjective modifying +_man_. While _dead_ does not belong to _man_ as expressing the result of +the act, it is made to belong to _man_ through the asserting force of the +verb, and therefore is not a mere modifier of _man_. _Dead_ helps _found_ +to express the act. Not _found_, but _found-dead_ tells what was done to +the man. + +If we put the sentence in the passive form, "The man was found _dead_," it +will be seen that _dead_ is more than a mere modifier; it belongs to _man_ +through the assertive force of _was found_. If _dead_ is here merely an +"appositive" adjective, "I found the man dead" must equal "I found the man, +who was dead" (or, "and he was dead"). The two sentences obviously are not +equal. "I caught him asleep" does not mean, "I caught him, and he was +asleep." + +If, in the construction discussed above, _dead_ is an objective complement, +_quiet_, _stirring_, and (to) _stir_ in the +following sentences are objective complements:-- + + I saw the leaves quiet. + I saw the leaves stirring. + I saw the leaves stir. + +The adjective, the participle, and the infinitive do not here seem to +differ essentially in office. See Lesson 31 and page 78.] + + \grow + \ wing \ dull + \--------------- + | + I | found / / \ | book +=====|============================== + | \my + ++Explanation+.--The diagram representing the phrase complement is drawn +above the complement line, on which it is made to rest by means of a +support. All that stands on the complement line is regarded as the +complement. Notice that the little mark before the phrase points toward the +object complement. The adjective _dull_ completes _growing_ and belongs to +_book_, the assumed subject of _growing_. + +13. He owned himself defeated. +14. No one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding together in turbulent + mobs. +15. I felt my heart beating faster. +16. You may imagine me sitting there. +17. Saul, seeking his father's asses, found himself suddenly turned into a + king. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 38. + +PARTICIPLES--CONTINUED. + +Analysis and Parsing. + +The +participle+ may be used as +principal word+ in a +prepositional +phrase+. + +1. We receive good by doing good. + + We | receive | good +=====|==================== + | \by + \-----,doing | good + -------------- + ++Explanation+.--The line representing the participle here is broken; the +first part represents the participle as a noun, and the other as a verb. + ++Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _by doing good_ is a modifier of the +predicate; _by_ introduces the phrase; the principal word is _doing_, which +is completed by the noun _good_. + ++Passing+.--_Doing_ is a participle; like a noun, it follows the +preposition _by_, and, like a verb, it takes an object complement. + +2. Portions of the brain may be cut off without producing any pain. +3. The Coliseum was once capable of seating ninety thousand persons. +4. Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously. +5. You cannot fully sympathize with suffering without having suffered. + (_Suffering_ is here a noun.) + +The +participle+ may be the +principal word+ in a phrase used as a ++subject+ or as an +object complement+. + +6. Your writing that letter so neatly secured the position. + +---, writing | letter + '------------------------ + \Your | \neatly \that + | \so + | + / \ | secured | position + =========|========='=========== + | \the + ++Explanation+.--The diagram of the subject phrase is drawn above the +subject line. All that rests on the subject line is regarded as the +subject. + ++Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _your writing that letter so neatly_ is the +subject; the principal word of it is _writing_, which is completed by +_letter; writing_, as a noun, is modified by _your_, and, as a verb, by the +adverb phrase _so neatly_. + +7. We should avoid injuring the feelings of others. +8. My going there will depend upon my father's giving his consent. +9. Good reading aloud is a rare accomplishment. + +The +participial form+ may be used as a +mere noun+ or a +mere adjective+. + +10. The cackling of geese saved Rome. + +11. Such was the exciting campaign, celebrated in many a long-forgotten + song. [Footnote: "_Manig man_ in Anglo-Saxon was used like German + _mancher mann_, Latin _multus vir_, and the like, until the thirteenth + century; when the article was inserted to emphasize the distribution + before indicated by the singular number."--_Prof. F. A. March._] + ++Explanation+.--_Many_ modifies _song_ after _song_ has been limited by _a_ +and _long-forgotten_. + +12. All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility. +13. He was a squeezing, grasping, hardened old sinner. + +The +participle+ may be used in +independent+ or +absolute phrases+. + +14. The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell into the river. + ++Explanation+.--The diagram of the absolute phrase, which consists of a +noun used independently with a participle, stands by itself. See lesson 44. + +15. Talking of exercise, you have heard, of course, of Dickens's + "constitutionals." + + * * * * * + +LESSON 39. + +COMPOSITION--PARTICIPLES. + ++COMMA--RULE.--The Participle used as an adjective modifier, with the words +belonging to it, is set off+ [Footnote: An expression in the body of a +sentence is set off by two commas; at the beginning or at the end, by one +comma.] +by the comma unless restrictive+. + ++Explanation+.--_A bird, lighting near my window, greeted me with a song. +The bird sitting on the wall is a wren. Lighting_ describes without +restricting; _sitting_ restricts--limits the application of _bird_ to a +particular bird. + ++Direction+.--_Justify the punctuation of the participle phrases in Lesson_ +37. + ++Caution+.--In using a participle, be careful to leave no doubt as to what +you intend it to modify. + ++Direction+.--_Correct these errors in arrangement, and punctuate, giving +your reasons:--_ + +1. A gentleman will let his house going abroad for the summer to a small + family containing all the improvements. +2. The town contains fifty houses and one hundred inhabitants built of + brick. +3. Suits ready made of material cut by an experienced tailor handsomely + trimmed and bought at a bargain are offered cheap. +4. Seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily engaged in gnawing an + acorn we espied a squirrel. +5. A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent + gentleman suffering from cold and hunger. + ++Direction+.--_Recast these sentences, making the reference of the +participle clear, and punctuating correctly_:-- + ++Model+.--_Climbing to the top of the hill the Atlantic ocean was seen._ +Incorrect because it appears that the ocean did the climbing. + +_Climbing to the top of the hill, we saw the Atlantic ocean_. + +1. Entering the next room was seen a marble statue of Apollo. +2. By giving him a few hints he was prepared to do the work well. +3. Desiring an early start the horse was saddled by five o'clock. + ++Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which each of these three participles +shall be used as an adjective modifier, as the principal word in a +prepositional phrase, as the principal word in a phrase used as a subject +or as an object complement, as a mere adjective, as a mere noun, and in an +absolute phrase_:-- + +Buzzing, leaping, waving. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 40. + +VERBS AS NOUNS--INFINITIVES. + ++Introductory Hints+.--_I came to see you_. Here the verb _see_, like the +participle, lacks asserting power--_I to see_ asserts nothing. _See_, +following the preposition _to_, [Footnote: For the discussion of _to_ with +the infinitive, see Lesson 134.] names the act and is completed by _you_, +and so does duty as a noun and as a verb. In office it is like the second +kind of participles, described in Lesson 37, and from many grammarians has +received the same name--some calling both _gerunds_, and others calling +both _infinitives_. It differs from this participle in form, and in +following only the preposition _to_. Came _to see_=came _for seeing_. + +This form of the verb is frequently the principal word of a phrase used as +a subject or as an object, complement; as, _To read good books_ is +profitable; I like _to read good books_. Here also the form with _to_ is +equivalent to the participle form _reading_. _Reading good books_ is +profitable. + +As this form of the verb names the action in an indefinite way, without +limiting it to a subject, we call it the +Infinitive+ (Lat. _infinitus_, +without limit). For definition, see Lesson 131. The infinitive, like the +participle, may have what is called an _assumed subject_. The _assumed +subject_ denotes that to which the action or being expressed by the +participle or the infinitive belongs. + +Frequently the infinitive phrase expresses purpose, as in the first example +given above, and in such cases _to_ expresses relation, and performs its +full function as a preposition; but, when the infinitive phrase is used as +subject or as object complement, the _to_ expresses no relation. It serves +only to introduce the phrase, and in no way affects the meaning of the +verb. + +The infinitive, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by the +different complements. + + +Analysis and Parsing. + +The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+ or an ++adverb modifier+. + +1. The hot-house is a trap to catch sunbeams. + + hot-house | is \ trap +============|================ + \The | \a \to + \ catch | sunbeams + \-------'---------- + ++Oral Analysis+.--_To_ introduces the phrase; _catch_ is the principal +word, and _sunbeams_ completes it. + ++Parsing+.--_To_ is a preposition, introducing the phrase and showing the +relation, in sense, of the principal word to _trap; catch_ is a form of the +verb called _infinitive_; like a noun, it follows the preposition _to_ and +names the action, and, like a verb, it is completed by _sunbeams_. + +2. Richelieu's title to command rested on sublime force of will and + decision of character. +3. Many of the attempts to assassinate William the Silent were defeated. +4. We will strive to please you. + ++Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify +the predicate. + +5. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion and refine the race. +6. These harmless delusions tend to make us happy. + ++Explanation+.--_Happy_ completes _make_ and relates to _us_. + +7. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. + ++Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify +the adjective _hard_. _To heal = to be healed_. + +8. The representative Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new + lands, to clear new cornfields, to build another shingle palace, and + again to sell off and wander. +9. These apples are not ripe enough to eat. + ++Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify +the adverb _enough_. _To eat = to be eaten_. + +The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as +subject+ or +complement.+ + +10. To be good is to be great. + +\To \to + \ be \good \ be \ great + \----------------------- + | | + / \ | is \ / \ +========|================== + | + +Explanation.--_To_, in each of these phrases, shows no relation--it serves +merely to introduce. The complements _good_ and _great_ are adjectives used +abstractly, having no noun to relate to. + +11. To bear our fate is to conquer it. +12. To be entirely just in our estimate of others is impossible. +13. The noblest vengeance is to forgive. +14. He seemed to be innocent. + ++Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase here performs the office of an +adjective. _To be innocent = innocent_. + +15. The blind men's dogs appeared to know him. +16. We should learn to govern ourselves. + ++Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used as an object complement. + +17. Each hill attempts to ape her voice. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 41. + +INFINITIVES--CONTINUED. + +Analysis. + +The +infinitive phrase+ may be used +after a preposition+ as the +principal +term+ of another phrase. + +1. My friend is about to leave me. + + \to + \ leave | me + \-------'---- + \ about | + \ / \ + \----------------- + | + friend | is \ / \ +========|===================== + \My | + ++Explanation+.--The preposition _about_ introduces the phrase used as +attribute complement; the principal part is the infinitive phrase _to leave +me_. + +2. Paul was now about to open his mouth. +3. No way remains but to go on. + ++Explanation+.--_But_ is here a preposition. + +The +infinitive+ and its +assumed subject+ may form the +principal term+ in +a phrase introduced by the preposition +for+. + +4. For us to know our faults is profitable. + + us + ------- + | \to + \ | \ know | faults + \For | \------'-------- + \ / \ \our + \------- + | + / \ | is \ profitable +=============|====================== + | + ++Explanation+.--_For_ introduces the subject phrase; the principal part of +the entire phrase is _us to know our faults;_ the principal word is _us_, +which is modified by the phrase _to know our faults_. + +5. God never made his work for man to mend. + ++Explanation+.---The principal term of the phrase _for man to mend_ is not +_man_, but _man to mend_. + +6. For a man to be proud of his learning is the greatest ignorance. + +The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as an +explanatory modifier.+ + +7. It is easy to find fault. + + +\to + \ find | fault + \-----'------ + | +It (/ \) | is \ easy +=========|=========== + | + ++Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase _to find fault_ explains the subject +_it_. Read the sentence without _it_, and you will see the real nature of +the phrase. This use of _it_ as a substitute for the real subject is a very +common idiom of our language. It allows the real subject to follow the +verb, and thus gives the sentence balance of parts. + +8. It is not the way to argue down a vice to tell lies about it. +9. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope. +10. It is not all of life to live. +11. This task, to teach the young, may become delightful. + +The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as +objective complement.+ + +12. He made me wait. + ++Explanation+.--The infinitive _wait_ (here used without _to_) completes +_made_ and relates to _me_. _He made-wait me = He detained me_. + +See "Introductory Hints," Lesson 31, and participles used as objective +complements, Lesson 37. Compare _I saw him do it_ with _I saw him doing +it_. Compare also _He made the stick bend_--equaling _He made-bend _(= +bent) _the stick_--with _He made the stick straight_--equaling _He +made-straight _(= straightened) _the stick_. + +The relation of these objective complements to _me, him_, and _stick_ may +be more clearly seen by changing the form of the verb, thus: I was made _to +wait_; He was seen _to do it_, He was seen _doing it_; The stick was made +_to bend_; The stick was made _straight_. + +13.We found the report to be true. [Footnote: Some prefer to treat _the + report to be true_ as an object clause because it is equivalent to the + clause _that the report is true_. But many expressions logically + equivalent are entirely different in grammatical construction; as, I + desire _his promotion_; I desire _him to be promoted_; I desire _that he + should be promoted_. Besides, to teach that _him_ is the subject, and + _to be promoted_ the predicate, of a + clause would certainly be confusing.] + + \to + \ be \ true + \-------------- + | +We | found / / \ | report +===|========================== + | + +14. He commanded the bridge to be lowered. [Footnote: Notice the difference + in construction between this sentence and the sentence _He commanded + him to lower the bridge_. _Him_ represents the one to whom the command + is given, and _to lower the bridge_ is the object complement. This last + sentence = He commanded _him that he should lower the bridge_. Compare + _He told me to go_ with _He told (to) me a story_; also _He taught me + to read_ with _He taught (to) me reading._ In such sentences as (13) + and (14) it may not always be expedient to demand that the pupil shall + trace the exact relations of the infinitive phrase to the preceding + noun and to the predicate verb. If preferred, in such cases, the + infinitive and its assumed subject may be treated as a kind of phrase + object, equivalent to a clause. This construction is similar to the + Latin "accusative with the infinitive."] + +15. I saw the leaves stir. [Footnote: See pages 68 and 69, foot-note.] + ++Explanation+.--_Stir_ is an infinitive without the _to_. + +16. Being persuaded by Poppaesa, Hero caused his mother, Agrippina, to be + assassinated. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 42. + +INFINITIVES--CONTINUED. + +Analysis. + +The +infinitive phrase+ may be used +independently+. [Footnote: These +infinitive phrases can be expanded into dependent clauses. See Lesson 79. + +For the infinitive after _as, than_, etc., see Lesson 63. Participles and +infinitives unite with other verbs to make compound forms; as, have +_walked_, shall _walk_.] + ++Explanation+.--In the diagram the independent element must stand by +itself. + +1. England's debt, to put it in round numbers, is $4,000,000,000. +2. Every object has several faces, so to speak. +3. To make a long story short, Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette were + executed. + +Infinitives and Participles. + +MISCELLANEOUS. + +4. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord. +5. We require clothing in the summer to protect the body from the heat of + the sun. +6. Rip Van Winkle could not account for everything's having changed so. +7. This sentence is not too difficult for me to analyze. +8. The fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole, +9. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. +10. To be, or not to be,--that is the question. +11. I supposed him to be a gentleman. +12. Food, keeping the body in health by making it warm and repairing its + waste, is a necessity. +13. I will teach you the trick to prevent your being cheated another time. +14. She threatened to go beyond the sea, to throw herself out of the + window, to drown herself. +15. Busied with public affairs, the council would sit for hours smoking and + watching the smoke curl from their pipes to the ceiling. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 43. + +COMPOSITION--THE INFINITIVE. + ++Direction+.--_Change the infinitives in these sentences into participles, +and the participles into infinitives_:-- + +Notice that _to_, the only preposition used with the infinitive, is changed +to _toward, for, of, at, in,_ or _on_, when the infinitive is changed to a +participle. + +1. I am inclined to believe it. +2. I am ashamed to be seen there. +3. She will be grieved to hear it. +4. They trembled to hear such words. +5. It will serve for amusing the children. +6. There is a time to laugh. +7. I rejoice to hear it. +8. You are prompt to obey. +9. They delight to do it. +10. I am surprised at seeing you. +11. Stones are used in ballasting vessels. + ++Direction+.--_Improve these sentences by changing the participles into +infinitives, and the infinitives into participles_:-- + +1. We began ascending the mountain. +2. He did not recollect to have paid it. +3. I commenced to write a letter. +4. It is inconvenient being poor. +5. It is not wise complaining. + ++Direction+.--_Vary these sentences as in the model_:-- + ++Model+.--_Rising early_ is healthful; _To rise_ early is healthful; _It_ +is healthful _to rise_ early; _For one to rise_ early is healthful. + +(Notice that the explanatory phrase after _it_ is not set off by the +comma.) + +1. Reading good books is profitable. +2. Equivocating is disgraceful. +3. Slandering is base. +4. Indorsing another's paper is dangerous. +5. Swearing is sinful. + ++Direction.+--_Write nine sentences, in three of which the infinitive +phrase shall be used as an adjective, in three as an adverb, and in three +as a noun_. + ++Direction.+--_Write eight sentences in which these verbs shall be followed +by an infinitive without the to_:-- + ++Model.+--We _saw_ the sun _sink_ behind the mountain. + +Bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, and see. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 44. + +WORDS AND PHRASES USED INDEPENDENTLY. + ++Introductory Hints.+--In this Lesson we wish to notice words and phrases +that in certain uses have no grammatical connection with the rest of the +sentence. + +_The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. Dear Brutus_ serves only to +arrest attention, and is independent by address. + +_Poor man! he never came back again. Poor man_ is independent by +exclamation. + +_Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me_. _Rod_ and _staff_ simply call +attention to the objects before anything is said of them, and are +independent by pleonasm--a construction used sometimes for rhetorical +effect, but out of place in ordinary speech. + +_His master being absent, the business was neglected. His master being +absent_ logically modifies the verb _was neglected_ by assigning the cause, +but the phrase has no connective expressed or understood, and is therefore +grammatically independent. This is called the _absolute phrase_. An +_absolute phrase_ consists of a noun or a pronoun used independently with a +modifying participle. + +_His conduct, generally speaking, was honorable. Speaking_ is a participle +without connection, and with the adverb _generally_ forms an independent +phrase. + +_To confess the truth, I was wrong._ The infinitive phrase is independent. + +The adverbs _well, now, why, there_ are sometimes independent; as, _Well_, +life is an enigma; _Now_, that is strange; _Why_, it is already noon; +_There_ are pitch-pine Yankees and white-pine Yankees. + +Interjections are without grammatical connection, as you have learned, and +hence are independent. + +Whatever is enclosed within marks of parenthesis is also independent of the +rest of the sentence; as, I stake my fame (_and I had fame_), my heart, my +hope, my soul, upon this cast. + ++Analysis+. + +1. The loveliest things in life, Tom, are but shadows. + ++Explanation.+--_Tom_ is independent by address. _But_ is an adjective +modifying _shadows_. + +2. There are one-story intellects, two-story intellects, and three-story + intellects with skylights. + ++Explanation+.--Often, as in this sentence, _there_ is used idiomatically, +merely to throw the subject after the verb, the idea of place having faded +out of the word. To express place, another _there_ may follow the +predicate; as, _There_ is gold _there_. + +3. Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro. +4. Hope lost, all is lost. +5. The smith, a mighty man is he. +6. Why, this is not revenge. +7. Well, this is the forest of Arden. +8. Now, there is at Jerusalem, by the sheep-market, a pool. +9. To speak plainly, your habits are your worst enemies. +10. No accident occurring, we shall arrive to-morrow. +11. The teacher being sick, there was no school Friday. +12. Mr. President, I shall enter on no encomium upon Massachusetts. +13. Properly speaking, there can be no chance in our affairs. +14. But the enemies of tyranny--their path leads to the scaffold. +15. She (oh, the artfulness of the woman!) managed the matter extremely + well. + + retreat | began + =========|======= + \later + \---\ + \ day + \------- + \A + +16. A day later (Oct. 19, 1812) began the fatal retreat of the Grand Army, + from Moscow. + +See Lesson 35. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 45. + +COMPOSITION--INDEPENDENT WORDS AND PHRASES. + ++COMMA--RULE.--Words and phrases independent or nearly so are set off by +the comma.+ + ++Remark+.--Interjections, as you have seen, are usually followed by the +exclamation point; and _there_, used merely to introduce, is never set off +by the comma. When the break after pleonastic expressions is slight, as in +(5), Lesson 44, the comma is used; but, if it is more abrupt, as in (14), +the dash is required. If the independent expression can be omitted without +affecting the sense, it may be enclosed within marks of parenthesis, as in +(15) and (16). (For the uses of the dash and the marks of parenthesis, see +Lesson 148.) + +Words and phrases nearly independent are those which, like _however, of +course, indeed, in short, by the bye, for instance_, and _accordingly_, do +not modify a word or a phrase alone, but rather the sentence as a whole; +as, Lee did not, _however_, follow Washington's orders. + ++Direction.+--_Write sentences illustrating the several kinds of +independent expressions, and punctuate according to the Rule as explained_. + ++Direction.+--_Write short sentences in which these words and phrases, used +in a manner nearly independent, shall occur, and punctuate them +properly_:-- + +In short, indeed, now and then, for instance, accordingly, moreover, +however, at least, in general, no doubt, by the bye, by the way, then, too, +of course, in fine, namely, above all, therefore. + ++Direction.+--_Write short sentences in which these words shall modify same +particular word or phrase so closely as not to be set off by the comma_:-- + +Indeed, surely, too, then, now, further, why, again, still. + ++Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.+ + +(SEE PAGES 160-162.) + +TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30,150. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 46. + +SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO MEANING. + ++Introductory Hints+.--In the previous Lessons we have considered the +sentence with respect to the words and phrases composing it. Let us now +look at it as a whole. + +_The mountains lift up their heads_. This sentence is used simply to +affirm, or to declare a fact, and is called a +Declarative Sentence.+ + +_Do the mountains lift up their heads?_ This sentence expresses a question, +and is called an +Interrogative Sentence.+ + +_Lift up your heads_. This sentence expresses a command, and is called an ++Imperative Sentence+. Such expressions as _You must go_, _You shall go_ +are equivalent to imperative sentences, though they have not the imperative +form. + +_How the mountains lift up their heads!_ In this sentence the thought is +expressed with strong emotion. It is called an +Exclamatory Sentence+. +_How_ and _what_ usually introduce such sentences; but a declarative, an +interrogative, or an imperative sentence may become exclamatory when the +speaker uses it mainly to give vent to his feelings; as, _It is impossible! +How can I endure it! Talk of hypocrisy after this!_ + + ++DEFINITION.--A _Declarative Sentence_ is one that is used to affirm or to +deny.+ + ++DEFINITION.--An _Interrogative Sentence_ is one that expresses a +question.+ + ++DEFINITION.--An _Imperative Sentence_ is one that expresses a command or +an entreaty.+ + ++DEFINITION.--An _Exclamatory Sentence_ is one that expresses sudden +thought or strong feeling.+ [Footnote: For punctuation, see page 42.] + ++INTERROGATION POINT--RULE.--Every direct interrogative sentence should be +followed by an interrogation point.+ + ++Remark.+--When an interrogative sentence is made a part of another +sentence, it may be direct; as, He asked, "_What is the trouble?_" or +indirect; as, He asked _what the trouble was_. (See Lesson 74.) + + +Analysis. + ++Direction.+--_Before analyzing these sentences, classify them, and justify +the terminal marks of punctuation:_-- + +1. There are no accidents in the providence of God. +2. Why does the very murderer, his victim sleeping before him, and his + glaring eye taking the measure of the blow, strike wide of the mortal + part? +3. Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss. + +(The subject is _you_ understood.) + +4. How wonderful is the advent of spring! +5. Oh! a dainty plant is the ivy green! +6. Six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work. +7. Alexander the Great died at Babylon in the thirty-third year of his age. +8. How sickness enlarges the dimensions of a man's self to himself! +9. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. +10. Lend me your ears. +11. What brilliant rings the planet Saturn has! +12. What power shall blanch the sullied snow of character? +13. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. +14. How beautiful was the snow, falling all day long, all night long, on + the roofs of the living, on the graves of the dead! +15. Who, in the darkest days of our Revolution, carried your flag into the + very chops of the British Channel, bearded the lion in his den, and + woke the echoes of old Albion's hills by the thunders of his cannon and + the shouts of his triumph? + + * * * * * + +LESSON 47. + +MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW + +Analysis. + +1. Poetry is only the eloquence and enthusiasm of religion.--_Wordsworth_. +2. Refusing to bare his head to any earthly potentate, Richelieu would + permit no eminent author to stand bareheaded in his presence. + --_Stephen_. +3. The Queen of England is simply a piece of historic heraldry; a flag, + floating grandly over a Liberal ministry yesterday, over a Tory ministry + to-day.--_Conway_. +4. The vulgar intellectual palate hankers after the titillation of foaming + phrase.--_Lowell_. +5. Two mighty vortices, Pericles and Alexander the Great, drew into strong + eddies about themselves all the glory and the pomp of Greek literature, + Greek eloquence, Greek wisdom, Greek art.--_De Quincey_. +6. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, lie in three words-- + health, peace, and competence.--_Pope_. +7. Extreme admiration puts out the critic's eye.--_Tyler_. [Footnote: + Weighty thoughts tersely expressed, like (7), (8), and (10) in this + Lesson, are called Epigrams. What quality do you think they impart to + one's style?] +8. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the sun.-- + _Longfellow_. +9. Things mean, the Thistle, the Leek, the Broom of the Plantagenets, + become noble by association.--_F. W. Robertson_. +10. Prayer is the key of the morning and the bolt of the night.-- + _Beecher_. +11. In that calm Syrian afternoon, memory, a pensive Ruth, went gleaning + the silent fields of childhood, and found the scattered grain still + golden, and the morning sunlight fresh and fair.--_Curtis_. [Footnote: + In _Ruth_ of this sentence, we have a type of the metaphor called + +Personification+--a figure in which things are raised above their + proper plane, taken up toward or to that of persons. Things take on + dignity and importance as they rise in the scale of being. + + Note, moreover, that in this instance of the figure we have an + +Allusion+. All the interest that the Ruth of the Bible awakens in us + this allusion gathers about so common a thing as memory.] + + * * * * * + +LESSON 48. + +MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. + +Analysis. + +1. By means of steam man realizes the fable of Aeolus's bag, and carries + the two-and-thirty winds in the boiler of his boat.--_Emerson_. +2. The Angel of Life winds our brains up once for all, then closes the + case, and gives the key into the hands of the Angel of + Resurrection.--_Holmes_. +3. I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the + Old.--_Canning_. +4. The prominent nose of the New Englander is evidence of the constant + linguistic exercise of that organ.--_Warner_. +5. Every Latin word has its function as noun or verb or adverb ticketed + upon it.--_Earle_. +6. The Alps, piled in cold and still sublimity, are an image of + despotism.--_Phillips_. +7. I want my husband to be submissive without looking so.--_Gail Hamilton_. +8. I love to lose myself in other men's minds.--_Lamb_. +9. Cheerfulness banishes all anxious care and discontent, soothes and + composes the passions, and keeps the soul in a perpetual + calm.--_Addison_. +10. To discover the true nature of comets has hitherto proved beyond the + power of science. + ++Explanation+.--_Beyond the power of science = impossible_, and is +therefore an attribute complement. The preposition _beyond_ shows the +relation, in sense, of _power_ to the subject phrase. + +11. Authors must not, like Chinese soldiers, expect to win victories by + turning somersets in the air.--_Longfellow_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 49. + +REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION. + ++Direction+.--_Give the reasons, so far as you have been taught, for the +marks of punctuation used in Lessons_ 44, 46, 47, _and_ 48. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 50. + +REVIEW. + +TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16. + ++Direction+.--_Review from Lesson_ 37 _to Lesson_ 46, _inclusive_. + +Give, in some such way as we have outlined in preceding Review Lessons, the +substance of the "Introductory Hints;" repeat and illustrate definitions +and rules; illustrate the different uses of the participle and the +infinitive, and illustrate the Caution regarding the use of the participle; +illustrate the different ways in which words and phrases may be +grammatically independent, and the punctuation of these independent +elements. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 51. + +ARRANGEMENT--USUAL ORDER. + +TO THE TEACHER.--If, from lack of time or from the necessity of conforming +to a prescribed course of study, it is found desirable to abridge these +Lessons on Arrangement and Contraction, the exercises to be written may be +omitted, and the pupil may be required to illustrate the positions of the +different parts, in both the Usual and the Transposed order, and then to +read the examples given, making the required changes orally. + +The eight following Lessons may thus be reduced to two or three. + +Let us recall the +Usual Order+ of words and phrases in a simple +declarative sentence. + +The verb follows the subject, and the object complement follows the verb. + ++Example+.--_Drake circumnavigated the globe_. + ++Direction+.--_Observing this order, write three sentences each with an +object complement._ + +An adjective or a possessive modifier precedes its noun, and an explanatory +modifier follows it. + ++Examples+.--_Man's life is a brief span. Moses, the lawgiver_, came down +from the Mount. + ++Direction+.--_Observing this order, write four sentences, two with +possessive modifiers and two with explanatory, each sentence containing an +adjective._ + +The attribute complement, whether noun or adjective, follows the verb, the +objective complement follows the object complement, and the indirect object +precedes the direct. + ++Examples+.--Egypt _is the valley_ of the Nile. Eastern life _is dreamy_. +They made _Bonaparte consul_. They offered _Caesar a crown_. + ++Direction+.--_Observing this order, write four sentences illustrating the +positions of the noun and of the adjective when they perform these +offices_. + +If adjectives are of unequal rank, the one most closely modifying the noun +stands nearest to it; if of the same rank, they stand in the order of their +length--the shortest first. + ++Examples+.--_Two honest young_ men enlisted. Cassino has a _lean_ and +_hungry_ look. A rock, _huge_ and _precipitous_, stood in our path. + ++Direction+.--_Observing this order, write three sentences illustrating the +relative position of adjectives before and after the noun_. + +An adverb precedes the adjective, the adverb, or the phrase which it +modifies; precedes or follows (more frequently follows) the simple verb or +the verb with its complement; and follows one or more words of the verb if +the verb is compound. + ++Examples+.--The light _far in the distance_ is _so very bright_. I _soon +found him_. I _hurt him badly_. He _had often been there_. + ++Direction+.--_Observing this order, write sentences illustrating these +several positions of the adverb_. + +Phrases follow the words they modify; if a word has two or more phrases, +those most closely modifying it stand nearest to it. + ++Examples+.--_Facts once established_ are facts forever. He _sailed for +Liverpool on Monday_. + ++Direction+.--_Observing this order, write sentences illustrating the +positions of participle and prepositional phrases_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 52. + +ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER. + ++Introductory Hints+.--The usual order of words, spoken of in the preceding +Lesson, is not the only order admissible in an English sentence; on the +contrary, great freedom in the placing of words and phrases is sometimes +allowable. Let the relation of the words be kept obvious and, consequently, +the thought clear, and in poetry, in impassioned oratory, in excited speech +of any kind, one may deviate widely from this order. + +A writer's meaning is never distributed evenly among his words; more of it +lies in some words than in others. Under the influence of strong feeling, +one may move words out of their accustomed place, and, by thus attracting +attention to them, give them additional importance to the reader or hearer. + +When any word or phrase in the predicate stands out of its usual place, +appearing either at the front of the sentence or at the end, we have what +we may call the +Transposed Order+. _I dare not venture to go down into the +cabin--Venture to go down into the cabin I dare not. You shall die--Die you +shall. Their names will forever live on the lips of the people--Their names +will, on the lips of the people, forever live_. + +When the word or phrase moved to the front carries the verb, or the +principal word of it, before the subject, we have the extreme example of +the transposed order; as, _A yeoman had he. Strange is the magic of a +turban._ The whole of a verb is not placed at the beginning of a +declarative sentence except in poetry; as, _Flashed all their sabers bare_. + +TO THE TEACHER.----Where, in our directions in these Lessons on Arrangement +and Contraction, we say _change, transpose_, or _restore_, the pupils need +not write the sentences. They should study them and be able to read them. +Require them to show what the sentence has lost or gained in the change. + ++Direction+.--_Change these sentences from the usual to the transposed +order by moving words or phrases to the front, and explain the effect_:-- + +1. He could not avoid it. +2. They were pretty lads. +3. The great Queen died in the year 1603. +4. He would not escape. +5. I must go. +6. She seemed young and sad. +7. He cried, "My son, my son!" +8. He ended his tale here. +9. The moon shone bright. +10. A frozen continent lies beyond the sea. +11. He was a contentious man. +12. It was quoted so. +13. Monmouth had never been accused of cowardice. + ++Direction+.--_Change these sentences from the transposed order to the +usual, and explain the effect_:-- + +1. Him, the Almighty Power hurled headlong. +2. Volatile he was. +3. Victories, indeed, they were. +4. Of noble race the lady came. +5. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. +6. Once again we'll sleep secure. +7. This double office the participle performs. +8. That gale I well remember. +9. Churlish he often seemed. +10. One strong thing I find here below. +11. Overhead I heard a murmur. +12. To their will we must succumb. +13. Him they hanged. +14. Freely ye have received. + ++Direction+.--_Write five sentences, each with one of the following nouns +or adjectives as a complement; and five, each with one of the adverbs or +phrases as predicate modifier; then transpose the ten with these same words +moved to the front, and explain the effect_:-- + +Giant, character, happy, him, serene, often, in the market, long and +deeply, then, under foot. + ++Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by placing the italicized words +last, and note the effect_:-- + +1. The clouds lowering upon our house are _buried_ in the deep bosom of the + ocean. +2. Aeneas did _bear_ from the flames of Troy upon his shoulder the old + Anchises. +3. Such a heart _beats_ in the breast of my people. +4. The great fire _roared_ up the deep and wide chimney. + ++Direction+.--_Change these to the usual order_:-- + +1. No woman was ever in this wild humor wooed and won. +2. Let a shroud, stripped from some privileged corpse, be, for its proper + price, displayed. +3. An old clock, early one summer's morning, before the stirring of the + family, suddenly stopped. +4. Treasures of gold and of silver are, in the deep bosom of the earth, + concealed. +5. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school, + the most difficult and valuable. + ++Direction+.--_Write three sentences, each with the following noun or +adjective or phrase in its usual place in the predicate, and then +transpose, placing these words wherever they can properly go_:-- + +Mountains, glad, by and by. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 53. + +ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER. + ++Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the +object complement and the verb to their customary places, and tell what is +lost by the change_:-- + +1. Thorns and thistles shall the earth bring forth. +2. "Exactly so," replied the pendulum. +3. Me restored he to mine office. +4. A changed France have we. +5. These evils hath sin wrought. + ++Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the object complement +and the verb, and tell what is gained by the change_:-- + +1. The dial-plate exclaimed, "Lazy wire!" +2. The maiden has such charms. +3. The English character has faults and plenty of them. +4. I will make one effort more to save you. +5. The king does possess great power. +6. You have learned much in this short journey. + ++Direction+.--_Write six transposed sentences with these nouns as object +complements, and then restore them to their usual order_:-- + +Pause, cry, peace, horse, words, gift. + ++Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the +attribute complement and the verb to their usual places, and tell what is +lost by the change_:-- + +1. A dainty plant is the ivy green. +2. Feet was I to the lame. +3. A mighty man is he. +4. As a mark of respect was the present given. +5. A giant towered he among men. + ++Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the attribute complement +and the verb, and tell what is gained by the change_:-- + +1. We are merry brides. +2. Washington is styled the "Father of his Country." +3. He was a stark mosstrooping Scot. +4. The man seemed an incarnate demon. +5. Henry VIII. had become a despot. + ++Direction+.--_Using these nouns as attribute complements, write three +sentences in the usual order, and then transpose them_:-- + +Rock, desert, fortress. + ++Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the +adjective complement and the verb to their customary places_:-- + +1. Happy are we to-night, boys. +2. Good and upright is the Lord. +3. Hotter grew the air. +4. Pale looks your Grace. +5. Dark rolled the waves. +6. Louder waxed the applause. +7. Blood-red became the sun. +8. Doubtful seemed the battle. +9. Wise are all his ways. +10. Wide open stood the doors. +11. Weary had he grown. +12. Faithful proved he to the last. + ++Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the adjective complement +and the verb_:-- + +1. My regrets were bitter and unavailing. +2. The anger of the righteous is weighty. +3. The air seemed deep and dark. +4. She had grown tall and queenly. +5. The peacemakers are blessed. +6. I came into the world helpless. +7. The untrodden snow lay bloodless. +8. The fall of that house was great. +9. The uproar became intolerable. +10. The secretary stood alone. + ++Direction+.--_Write five transposed sentences, each with one of these +adjectives as attribute complement, and then restore the sentences to the +usual order_:-- + +Tempestuous, huge, glorious, lively, fierce. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 54. + +ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER. + ++Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to the usual order by moving the +adverb and the verb to their customary places, and note the loss_:-- + +1. Then burst his mighty heart. +2. Here stands the man. +3. Crack! went the ropes. +4. Down came the masts. +5. So died the great Columbus of the skies. +6. Tictac! tictac! go the wheels of thought. +7. Away went Gilpin. +8. Off went his bonnet. +9. Well have ye judged. +10. On swept the lines. +11. There dozed the donkeys. +12. Boom! boom! went the guns. +13. Thus waned the afternoon. +14. There thunders the cataract age after age. + ++Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the adverb and the +verb_:-- + +1. I will never desert Mr. Micawber. +2. The great event occurred soon after. +3. The boy stood there with dizzy brain. +4. The Spaniard's shot went whing! whing! +5. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin. +6. A sincere word was never utterly lost. +7. It stands written so. +8. Venus was yet the morning star. +9. You must speak thus. +10. Lady Impudence goes up to the maid. +11. Thy proud waves shall be stayed here. + ++Direction+.--_Write ten sentences in the transposed order, using these +adverbs_:-- + +Still, here, now, so, seldom, there, out, yet, thus, never. + ++Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to the usual order by moving the +phrase and the verb to their customary places, and note the loss_:-- + +1. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. +2. Seven years after the Restoration appeared Paradise Lost. +3. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. +4. To such straits is a kaiser driven. +5. Upon such a grating hinge opened the door of his daily life. +6. Between them lay a mountain ridge. +7. In purple was she robed. +8. Near the surface are found the implements of bronze. +9. Through the narrow bazaar pressed the demure donkeys. +10. In those days came John the Baptist. +11. On the 17th of June, 1775, was fought the battle of Bunker Hill. +12. Three times were the Romans driven back. + ++Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the phrase and the +verb_:-- + +1. The disciples came at the same time. +2. The dreamy murmur of insects was heard over our heads. +3. An ancient and stately hall stood near the village. +4. His trusty sword lay by his side. +5. Pepin eventually succeeded to Charles Martel. +6. The house stands somewhat back from the street. +7. Our sphere turns on its axis. +8. The bridle is red with the sign of despair. +9. I have served in twenty campaigns. +10. Touch proper lies in the finger-tips and in the lips. + ++Direction+.--_Write ten sentences in the usual order, using these +prepositions to introduce phrases, and then transpose the sentences, and +compare the two orders_:-- + +Beyond, upon, toward, of, by, into, between, in, at, to. + ++Direction+.--_Write six sentences in the transposed order, beginning them +with these words_:-- + +There (independent), nor, neither. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 55. + +ARRANGEMENT--INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. + +If the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it, the order is +usual. + ++Examples+.--_Who_ came last evening? _What star_ shines brightest? + ++Direction+.--_Write five interrogative sentences, using the first word +below as a subject; the second as a subject and then as a modifier of the +subject; the third as a subject and then as a modifier of the subject_:-- + +Who, which, what. + +If the interrogative word is object complement or attribute complement or a +modifier of either, the order is transposed. + ++Examples+.--_Whom_ did you see? _What_ are personal consequences? _Which +course_ will you choose? + ++Direction+.--_Write an interrogative sentence with the first word below as +object complement, and another with the second word as attribute +complement. Write four with the third and the fourth as_ _complements, and +four with the third and the fourth as modifiers of the complement_:-- + +Whom, who, which, what. + +If the interrogative word is an adverb, the order is transposed. + ++Examples+.--_Why_ is the forum crowded? _Where_ are the flowers, the fair +young flowers? + ++Direction+.--_Write five interrogative sentences, using these adverbs_:-- + +How, when, where, whither, why. + +If there is no interrogative word, the subject stands after the verb when +this is simple; after the first word of it when it is compound. + ++Examples+.--_Have you_ your lesson? _Has the gentleman_ finished? + ++Direction+.--_Write six interrogative sentences, using these words_:-- + +Is, has, can learn, might have gone, could have been found, must see. + ++Direction+.--_Change the sentences you have written in this Lesson into +declarative sentences_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 56. + +ARRANGEMENT--IMPERATIVE AND EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. + +The subject is usually omitted in the imperative sentence; but, when it is +expressed, the sentence is in the transposed order. + ++Examples+.--_Praise ye_ the Lord. _Give_ (_thou_) me three grains of corn. + ++Direction+.--_Using these verbs, write ten sentences, in five of which the +subject shall be omitted; and in five, expressed_:-- + +Remember, listen, lend, love, live, choose, use, obey, strive, devote. + +Although any sentence may without change of order become exclamatory +(Lesson 46), yet exclamatory sentences ordinarily begin with _how_ or +_what_, and are usually in the transposed order. + ++Examples+.--_How quietly_ the child sleeps! _How excellent_ is thy +loving-kindness! _What visions_ have I seen! _What a life_ his was! + ++Direction+.--_Write six exclamatory sentences with the word how modifying +(1) an adjective, (2) a verb, and (3) an adverb--in three sentences let the +verb follow, and in three precede, the subject. Write four sentences with +the word what modifying (1) an object complement and (2) an attribute +complement--in two sentences let the verb follow, and in two precede, the +subject_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 57. + +CONTRACTION OF SENTENCES. + ++Direction+.--_Contract these sentences by omitting the repeated modifiers +and prepositions, and all the conjunctions except the last_:-- + +1. Webster was a great lawyer, a great statesman, a great debater, and a + great writer. +2. By their valor, by their policy, and by their matrimonial alliances, + they became powerful. +3. Samuel Adams's habits were simple and frugal and unostentatious. +4. Flowers are so fragile, so delicate, and so ornamental! +5. They are truly prosperous and truly happy. +6. The means used were persuasions and petitions and remonstrances and + resolutions and defiance. +7. Carthage was the mistress of oceans, of kingdoms, and of nations. + ++Direction+.--_Expand these by repeating the adjective, the adverb, the +preposition, and the conjunction_:-- + +1. He was a good son, father, brother, friend. +2. The tourist traveled in Spain, Greece, Egypt, and Palestine. +3. Bayard was very brave, truthful, and chivalrous. +4. Honor, revenge, shame, and contempt inflamed his heart. + ++Direction+.--_Write six sentences, each with one of these words used four +times; and then contract them as above, and note the effect of the +repetition and of the omission_:-- + +Poor, how, with, through, or, and. + ++Direction+.--Expand these sentences by supplying subjects:-- + +1. Give us this day our daily bread. +2. Why dost stare so? +3. Thank you, sir. +4. Hear me for my cause. +5. Where hast been these six months? +6. Bless me! +7. Save us. + ++Direction+.--_Expand these by supplying the verb or some part of it_:-- + +1. Nobody there. +2. Death to the tyrant. +3. All aboard! +4. All hands to the pumps! +5. What to me fame? +6. Short, indeed, his career. +7. When Adam thus to Eve. +8. I must after him. +9. Thou shalt back to France. +10. Whose footsteps these? + ++Direction+.--_Expand these by supplying both subject and verb, and note +the loss in vivacity_:-- + +1. Upon them with the lance. +2. At your service, sir. +3. Why so unkind? +4. Forward, the light brigade! +5. Half-past nine. +6. Off with you. +7. My kingdom for a horse! +8. Hence, you idle creatures! +9. Coffee for two. +10. Shine, sir? +11. Back to thy punishment, false fugitive. +12. On with the dance. +13. Strange, strange! +14. Once more unto the breach. +15. Away, away! +16. Impossible! + ++Direction+.--_Contract these by omitting the subject or the verb_:-- + +1. Art thou gone? +2. Will you take your chance? +3. His career was ably run. +4. Are you a captain? +5. May long life be to the republic. +6. How great is the mystery! +7. Canst thou wonder? +8. May a prosperous voyage be to you. +9. Are you here? + ++Direction+.--_Contract these by omitting both subject and verb, and note +the gain in force and animation_:-- + +1. I offer a world for sale. +2. Now, then, go you to breakfast. +3. Sit you down, soothless insulter. +4. I want a word with you, wife. +5. Those are my sentiments, madam. +6. Bring ye lights there. +7. It is true, sir. +8. We will drink a health to Preciosa. +9. I offer a penny for your thoughts. +10. Whither are you going so early? + ++Direction+.--_Construct ten full sentences, using in each, one of these +adverbs or phrases or nouns, and then contract the sentences by omitting +both subject and verb_:-- + +Why, hence, to arms, silence, out, to your tents, peaches, room, for the +guns, water. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 58. + +REVIEW. + +TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16. + ++Direction+.--_Review from Lesson_ 51 _to Lesson_ 57, _inclusive_. + +Illustrate the different positions--Usual and Transposed--that the words +and phrases of a declarative sentence may take; illustrate the different +positions of the parts of an interrogative, of an imperative, and of an +exclamatory sentence; illustrate the different ways of contracting +sentences. + +Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. + +(SEE PAGES 162-165.) + +TO THE TEACHER.--See notes to the teacher, pages 30, 150. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 59. + +COMPLEX SENTENCE--ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. + ++Introductory Hints+.--The sentences given for analysis in the preceding +Lessons contain each but one subject and one predicate. They are called ++Simple Sentences+. + +_A discreet youth makes friends_. In Lesson 17 you learned that you could +expand the adjective _discreet_ into a phrase, and say, A youth of +discretion makes friends. You are now to learn that you can expand it into +an expression that asserts, and say, A youth _that is discreet_ makes +friends. This part of the sentence and the other part, _A youth makes +friends_, containing each a subject and a predicate, we call +Clauses+. + +The adjective clause _that is discreet_, performing the office of a single +word, we call a +Dependent Clause+; _A youth makes friends_, not performing +such office, we call an +Independent Clause+. + +The whole sentence, composed of an independent and a dependent clause, we +call a +Complex Sentence+. + +A dependent clause that does the work of an adjective is called an ++Adjective Clause+. + +Analysis. + +1. They that touch pitch will be defiled. + + They | will be defiled +=======|===================== + ` | + ` + ` +that ` | touch | pitch +--------|--------'------- + | + ++Explanation+.--The relative importance of the two clauses is shown by +their position, by their connection, and by the difference in the shading +of the lines. The pronoun _that_ is written on the subject line of the +dependent clause. _That_ performs the office of a conjunction also. This +office is shown by the dotted line. As modifiers are joined by slanting +lines to the words they modify, you learn from this diagram that _that +touch pitch_ is a modifier of _they_. + ++Oral Analysis+.--This is a complex sentence because it consists of an +independent clause and a dependent clause. _They will be defiled_ is the +independent clause, and _that touch pitch_ is the dependent. _That touch +pitch_ is a modifier of _they_ because it limits the meaning of _they_; the +dependent clause is connected by its subject _that_ to _they_. + +TO THE TEACHER.--Illustrate the connecting force of _who, which_, and +_that_ by substituting for them the words for which they stand, and noting +the loss of connection. + +2. The lever which moves the world of mind is the printing-press. +3. Wine makes the face of him who drinks it to excess blush for his habits. + ++Explanation+.--The adjective clause does not always modify the subject. + +4. Photography is the art which enables commonplace mediocrity to look like + genius. +5. In 1685 Louis XIV. signed the ordinance that revoked the Edict of + Nantes. +6. The thirteen colonies were welded together by the measures which Samuel + Adams framed. + ++Explanation+.--The pronoun connecting an adjective clause is not always a +subject. + +7. The guilt of the slave-trade, [Footnote: See Lesson 61, foot-note.] + which sprang out of the traffic with Guinea, rests with John Hawkins. +8. I found the place to which you referred. + + I | found | place +====|================== + | \the ` + ` + you | referred ` + ------|---------- ` + | \to ` + \ which ` + \------- + +9. The spirit in which we act is the highest matter. +10. It was the same book that I referred to. + ++Explanation+.--The phrase _to that_ modifies _referred_. _That_ connects +the adjective clause. When the pronoun _that_ connects an adjective clause, +the preposition never precedes. The diagram is similar to that of (8). + +11. She that I spoke to was blind. +12. Grouchy did not arrive at the time that Napoleon most needed him. + ++Explanation+.--A preposition is wanting. _That = in which_. (Can you find +a word that would here sound better than _that_?) + +13. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of. +14. It is to you that I speak. + ++Explanation+.--Here the preposition, which usually would stand last in the +sentence, is found before the complement of the independent clause. In +analysis restore the preposition to its usual place--It is you that I speak +_to_. _That I speak to_ modifies the subject. + +15. It was from me that he received the information. + +(_Me_ must be changed to _I_ when _from_ is restored to its usual +position.) + +16. Islands are the tops of mountains whose base is in the bed of the + ocean. + + + mountains +----------- + ` + ` base | is + ` ------|----- + ` \ + `.....\whose + ++Explanation+.--The connecting pronoun is here a possessive modifier of +_base_. + +17. Unhappy is the man whose mother does not make all mothers interesting. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 60. + +ADJECTIVE CLAUSES--CONTINUED. + +Analysis. + +1. Trillions of waves of ether enter the eye and hit the retina in the time + you take to breathe. + ++Explanation+.--The connecting pronoun _that_ [Footnote: When _whom_, +_which_, and _that_ would, if used, be object complements, they are often +omitted. Macaulay is the only writer we have found who seldom or never +omits them.] is omitted. + +2. The smith takes his name from his smoothing the metals he works on. +3. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw. +4. Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth. + ++Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted antecedent of +_whom_. Supply _him_. + +5. He did what was right. + + He | did | x +====|====================== + | ` + ` + what ` | was \ right + ---------|------------- + + ++Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted word _thing_, or +some word whose meaning is general or indefinite. [Footnote: Many +grammarians prefer to treat _what was right_ as a noun clause (see Lesson +71), the object of _did_. They would treat in the same way clauses +introduced by _whoever_, _whatever_, _whichever_. + +"_What_ was originally an interrogative and introduced substantive clauses. +Its use as a compound relative is an extension of its use as an indirect +interrogative; it is confined to clauses which may be parsed as +substantives, and before which no antecedent is needed, or permitted to be +expressed. Its possessive _whose_ has, however, attained the full +construction of a relative."--_Prof. F. A. March_.] + +6. What is false in this world below betrays itself in a love of show. +7. The swan achieved what the goose conceived. +8. What men he had were true. + +The relative pronoun _what_ here precedes its noun like an adjective. +Analyze as if arranged thus: The men _what_ (= _that_ or _whom_) _he had_ +were true. + +9. Whoever does a good deed is instantly ennobled. + ++Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted subject (_man_ or +_he_) of the independent clause. + +10. I told him to bring whichever was the lightest. +11. Whatever crushes individuality is despotism. +12. A depot is a place where stores are deposited. + + depot | is \ place +=======|============== + \A | \a ` + \where + stores | ` are deposited + -------|--------------------- + | + ++Explanation+.--The line representing _where_ is made up of two parts. The +upper part represents _where_ as a conjunction connecting the adjective +clause to _place_, and the lower part represents it as an adverb modifying +_are deposited_. As _where_ performs these two offices, it may be called a +_conjunctive adverb_. By changing _where_ to the equivalent phrase _in +which_, and using a diagram similar to (8), Lesson 59, the double nature of +the conjunctive adverb will be seen. + +13. He raised the maid from where she knelt. (Supply _the place_ + before _where_.) +14. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. +15. Shylock would give the duke no reason why he followed a losing suit + against Antonio. +16. Mark the majestic simplicity of those laws whereby the operations of + the universe are conducted. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 61. + +COMPOSITION--ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. + ++COMMA--RULE.--The _Adjective Clause_, when not restrictive, is set off by +the comma.+ + ++Explanation+.--I picked the apple _that was ripe_. I picked the apple, +_which was ripe_. In the first sentence the adjective clause restricts or +limits _apple_, telling which one was picked; in the second the adjective +clause is added merely to describe the apple picked, the sentence being +nearly equivalent to, I picked the apple, _and it_ was ripe. This +difference in meaning is shown by the punctuation.[Footnote: There are +other constructions in which the relative is more nearly equivalent to _and +he_ or _and it_; as, I gave the letter to my friend, _who will return it to +you_. + +Those who prefer to let their classification be governed by the logical +relation rather than by the grammatical construction call such a sentence +compound, making the relative clause independent, or co-ordinate with its +antecedent clause. + +Such classification will often require very careful discrimination; as, for +instance, between the preceding sentence and the following: I gave the +letter to my friend, _who can be trusted_. + +But we know of no author who, in every case, governs his classification of +phrases and clauses strictly by their logical relations. Let us examine the +following sentences:-- + + John, _who did not know the law_, is innocent. John is innocent; _he + did not know the law_. John is innocent _because he did not know the + law_. + +No grammarian, we think, would class each of these three italicized clauses +as an adverb clause of cause. Do they differ in logical force? The student +should carefully note all those constructions in which the grammatical form +and the logical force differ. (See pages 119, 121, 138, 139, 142, 143.)] + ++Caution+.--The adjective clause should be placed as near as possible to +the word it modifies. + ++Direction+.--_Correct the following errors of position, and insert the +comma when needed_:-- + +1. The Knights of the Round Table flourished in the reign of King Arthur + who vied with their chief in chivalrous exploits. +2. Solomon was the son of David who built the Temple. +3. My brother caught the fish on a small hook baited with a worm which we + had for breakfast. +4. I have no right to decide who am interested. + ++Direction+.--_Construct five complex sentences, each containing an +adjective clause equivalent to one of the following adjectives_:-- +Ambitious, respectful, quick-witted, talkative, lovable. + ++Direction+.--_Change the following simple sentences to complex sentences +by expanding the participle phrases into adjective clauses_:-- + +1. Those fighting custom with grammar are foolish. +2. The Constitution framed by our fathers is the sheet-anchor of our + liberties. +3. I am thy father's spirit, doomed for a certain term to walk the night. +4. Some people, having lived abroad, undervalue the advantages of their + native land. +5. A wife and children, threatened with widowhood and orphanage, have knelt + at your feet on the very threshold of the Senate Chamber. + ++Direction+.--_Change these simple sentences to complex sentences by +expanding the infinitive phrases into adjective clauses_:-- + +1. I have many things to tell you. +2. There were none to deliver. +3. He had an ax to grind. +4. It was a sight to gladden the heart. +5. It was a din to fright a monster's ear. + ++Direction+.--_Form complex sentences in which these pronouns and +conjunctive adverbs shall be used to connect adjective clauses_:-- + +Who, which, that, what, whoever, and whatever. + +When, where, and why. + ++Direction+.--_Change "that which", in the following sentences to "what", +and "what" to "that which"; "whoever" to "he who", and "whatever" to +"anything" or "everything which"; "where" and "when" to "at", "on", or "in +which"; "wherein" to "in which"; and "whereby" to "by which"_:-- + +1. _That which_ is seen is temporal. +2. _What_ God hath joined together let not man put asunder. +3. _Whoever_ lives a pious life blesses his race. +4. _Whatever_ we do has an influence. +5. Scholars have grown old and blind, striving to put their hands on the + very spot _where_ brave men died. +6. The year _when_ Chaucer was born is uncertain. +7. The play's the thing _wherein_ I'll catch the conscience of the king. +8. You take my life in taking the means _whereby_ I live. + ++Direction+.--_Expand these possessive and explanatory modifiers into +adjective clauses_:-- + +1. A man's heart deviseth _his_ way. +2. _Reason's_ whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Lie in three + words--_health, peace_, and _competence_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 62. + ++Direction+.--_Analyze the first nine sentences in the preceding Lesson, +and write illustrative sentences as here directed_:-- + +Give an example of an adjective clause modifying a subject; one modifying a +complement; one modifying the principal word of a phrase; one modifying +some word omitted; one whose connective is a subject; one whose connective +is a complement; one whose connective is the principal word of a phrase; +one whose connective is a possessive modifier; one whose connective is +omitted; one whose connective is an adverb. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 63. + +COMPLEX SENTENCE--ADVERB CLAUSE. + ++Introductory Hints+.--_He arrived late_. You have learned that you can +expand the adverb _late_ into a phrase, and say, He arrived _at midnight_. +You are now to learn that you can expand it into a clause of +Time+, and +say, He arrived _when the clock struck twelve_. + +_He stood where I am_. The clause introduced by _where_ expresses +Place+, +and is equivalent to the adverb _here_ or to the phrase _in this place_. + +_This exercise is as profitable as it is pleasant_. The clause introduced +by _as ... as_ modifies _profitable_, telling the +Degree+ of the quality +expressed by it. + +A clause that does the work of an adverb is an +Adverb Clause+. + + +Analysis. + +The +adverb clause+ may express +time+. + +1. When pleasure calls, we listen. + + we | listen + ===|========= + | \ + `When + ` +pleasure | \ calls +---------|---\------- + | + ++Explanation+.--_When_ modifies both _listen_ and _calls_, denoting that +the two acts take place at the same time. It also connects _pleasure +calls_, as an adverb modifier, to _listen_. The offices of the conjunctive +adverb _when_ may be better understood by expanding it into two phrases +thus: We listen _at the time at which_ pleasure calls. _At the time_ +modifies _listen_, _at which_ modifies _calls_, and _which_ connects. + +The line representing _when_ is made up of three parts to picture these +three offices. The part representing _when_ as a modifier of _calls_ is, +for convenience, placed above its principal line instead of below it. + +2. While Louis XIV. reigned, Europe was at war. +3. When my father and my mother forsake me, then ths Lord will take me up. + +Lord | will take | me +======|===================== + \The | \up \ + ..\ then + ` \ + ` + `When + father \ +------------'\ \ + \my ' \ \ + ' \ \ + ' \ | \ forsake | me + 'and \----|--------------------- + ' / | + ' / + mother ' / +------------'/ + \my + + ++Explanation+.--By changing _then_ into _at the time_, and _when_ into _at +which_, the offices of these two words will be clearly seen. For +explanation of the line representing _when_, see Lesson 14 and (1) above. + +4. Cato, before he durst give himself the fatal stroke, spent the night in + reading Plato's "Immortality." [Footnote: Some prefer, in constructions + like this, to treat _before_, _ere_, _after_, _till_, _until_, and + _since_ as prepositions followed by noun clauses.] +5. Many a year is in its grave since I crossed this restless wave. + [Footnote: See (11), Lesson 38, and foot-note.] + ++Explanation+.--_Many_ here modifies _year_, or, rather, _year_ as modified +by _a_. + +6. Blucher arrived on the field of Waterloo just as Wellington was meeting + the last onslaught of Napoleon. + + Blucher | arrived +===========|=========== + | \ + \------\ + \ `as + \ just ` + \ ` + \ + Wellington | \ was meeting | onslaught + --------------|-----\------------------------ + | + ++Explanation+.--_Just_ may be treated as a modifier of the dependent +clause. A closer analysis, however would make it a modifier of _as_. _Just +as_=_just at the time at which_. _Just_ here modifies _at the time_. _At +the time_ is represented in the diagram by the first element of the _as_ +line. + +The +adverb clause+ may express +place+. + +7. Where the snow falls, there is freedom. +8. Pope skimmed the cream of good sense and expression wherever he could + find it. +9. The wind bloweth where it listeth. + +The +adverb clause+ may express +degree+. + +10. Washington was as good as he was great. + ++Explanation+.--The adverb clause _as he was great_ modifies the first +_as_, which is an adverb modifying _good_. The first _as_, modified by the +adverb clause, answers the question, Good to what extent or degree? The +second _as_ modifies _great_ and performs the office of a conjunction, and +is therefore a conjunctive adverb. Transposing, and expanding _as ... as_ +into two phrases, we have, Washington was good _in the degree in which_ he +was great. See diagram of (3) and of (20). + +11. The wiser he grew, the humbler he became. [Footnote: _The_, here, is + not the ordinary adjective _the_. It is the Anglo-Saxon demonstrative + pronoun used in an instrumental sense. It is here an adverb. The first + _the_ = _by how much_, and modifies _wiser_; the second _the_ = _by so + much_, and modifies _humbler_.] + ++Explanation+.--The words _the ... the_ are similar in office to _as ... +as_--He became humbler _in that degree in which_ he became wiser. + +12. Gold is heavier than iron. + + Gold | is \ heavier +=======|============== + | \ + ` than + ` + iron | x \ \ x + -------|--------------- + ++Explanation+.--_Heavier_ = _heavy beyond the degree_, and _than_ = _in +which_. The sentence = _Gold is heavy beyond the degree in which iron is +heavy_. _Is_ and _heavy_ are omitted. Frequently words are omitted after +_than_ and _as_. _Than_ modifies _heavy_ (understood) and connects the +clause expressing degree to _heavier_, and is therefore a conjunctive +adverb. + +13. To be right is better than to be president. + ++Explanation+.--To be right is better (good in a greater degree) than to be +president (would be good). + +14. It was so cold that the mercury froze. [Footnote: In this sentence, + also in (15) and (17), the dependent clause is sometimes termed a + clause of Result or Consequence. Clauses of Result express different + logical relations, and cannot always be classed under Degree.] + ++Explanation+.--The degree of the cold is here shown by the effect it +produced. The adverb _so_, modified by the adverb clause _that the mercury +froze_, answers the question, Cold to what degree? The sentence = It was +cold _to that degree in which_ the mercury froze. _That_, as you see, +modifies _froze_ and connects the clauses; it is therefore a conjunctive +adverb. + +15. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury. + ++Explanation+.--It was so cold as to freeze the mercury (would indicate or +require). + +16. Dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than scolding for + it. +17. He called so loud that all the hollow deep of hell resounded. +18. To preach is easier than to practice. +19. One's breeding shows itself nowhere more than in his religion. + [Footnote: For the use of _he_ instead of the indefinite pronoun _one_ + repeated, see Lesson 124.] +20. The oftener I see it, the better I like it. + + I | like | it +=====|=========== + | \ + \----\ better + \the \ + ...\ + ` \ + ` + I | ` see | it + ----|--`-------------- + ` \ + `The \ + `.....\oftener + \ + + * * * * * + +LESSON 64. + +ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED. + ++Introductory Hints+.--_He lived as the fool lives_. The adverb clause, +introduced by _as_, is a clause of +Manner+, and is equivalent to the +adverb _foolishly_ or to the phrase _in a foolish manner_. + +_The ground is wet because it has rained_. The adverb clause, introduced by +_because_, assigns the +Real Cause+ of the ground's being wet. + +_It has rained, for the ground is wet_. The adverb clause, introduced by +_for_, does not assign the cause of the raining, but the cause of our +believing that it has rained; it gives the +Evidence+ of what is asserted. +[Footnote: Evidence should be carefully distinguished from Cause. Cause +produces an effect; Evidence produces knowledge of an effect. + +Clauses of Evidence are sometimes treated as independent.] + + +Analysis. + +The +adverb clause+ may express +manner+. + +1. He died as he lived. + ++Explanation+.--He died _in the manner in which_ he lived. For diagram, see +(1), Lesson 63. + +2. The upright man speaks as he thinks. +3. As the upright man thinks so he speaks. + +(For diagram of _as_ ... _so_, see _when_ ... _then_ (3), Lesson 63.) + +4. As is the boy so will be the man. +5. The waves of conversation roll and shape our thoughts as the surf rolls + and shapes the pebbles on the shore. + +The +adverb clause+ may express +real cause+. + +6. The ground is wet because it has rained. + + ground | is \ wet +==========|============= + \The | ` + ` + ` because + ` + it | ` has rained + ----|--------------- + ++Explanation+.--_Because_, being a mere conjunction, stands on a line +wholly dotted. + +7. Slang is always vulgar, as it is an affected way of talking. +8. We keep the pores of the skin open, for through them the blood throws + off its impurities. +9. Since the breath contains poisonous carbonic acid, wise people ventilate + their sleeping rooms. +10. Sea-bathing is the most healthful kind of washing, as it combines fresh + air and vigorous exercise with its other benefits. +11. Wheat is the most valuable of grains because bread is made from its + flour. + +The +adverb clause+ may express +evidence+. + +12. God was angry with the children of Israel, for he overthrew them in the + wilderness. +13. Tobacco and the potato are American products, since Raleigh found them + here. +14. It rained last night, because the ground is wet this morning. +15. We Americans must all be cuckoos, for we build our homes in the nests + of other birds. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 65. + +ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED. + ++Introductory Hints+.--_If it rains, the ground will be wet_. The adverb +clause, introduced by _if_, assigns what, if it occurs, will be the cause +of the ground's being wet, but, as here expressed, is only a +Condition+ +ready to become a cause. + +_He takes exercise that he may get well_. The adverb clause, introduced by +_that_, assigns the cause or the motive or the +Purpose+ of his exercising. + +_The ground is dry, although it has rained_. The adverb clause, introduced +by _although_, expresses a +Concession+. It is conceded that a cause for +the ground's not being dry exists; but, in spite of this opposing cause, it +is asserted that the ground is dry. + +All these dependent clauses of real cause, evidence, condition, purpose, +and concession come, as you see, under the general head of +Cause+, +although only the first kind assigns the cause proper. + + +Analysis. + +The +adverb clause+ may express +condition+. + +1. If the air is quickly compressed, enough heat is evolved to produce + combustion. +2. Unless your thought packs easily and neatly in verse, always use prose. + (_Unless_ = _if not_.) +3. If ever you saw a crow with a king-bird after him, you have an image of + a dull speaker and a lively listener. +4. Were it not for the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, the harbors and the + rivers of Britain would be blocked up with ice for a great part of the + year. + ++Explanation+.--The relative position of the subject and the verb renders +the _if_ unnecessary. This omission of _if_ is a common idiom. + +5. Should the calls of hunger be neglected, the fat of the body is thrown + into the grate to keep the furnace in play. + +The +adverb clause+ may express +purpose+. + +6. Language was given us that we might say pleasant things to each other. + ++Explanation+.--_That_, introducing a clause of purpose, is a mere +conjunction. + +7. Spiders have many eyes in order that they may see in many directions at + one time. + ++Explanation+.--The phrases _in order that_, _so that_ = _that_. + +8. The ship-canal across the Isthmus of Suez was dug so that European + vessels need not sail around the Cape of Good Hope to reach the Orient. +9. The air draws up vapors from the sea and the land, and retains them + dissolved in itself or suspended in cisterns of clouds, that it may drop + them as rain or dew upon the thirsty earth. + +The +adverb clause+ may express +concession+. + +10. Although the brain is only one-fortieth of the body, about one-sixth of + the blood is sent to it. +11. Though the atmosphere presses on us with a load of fifteen pounds on + every square inch of surface, still we do not feel its weight. +12. Though thou shouldst bray a fool in a mortar, yet will not his + foolishness depart from him. +13. If the War of the Roses did not utterly destroy English freedom, it + arrested its progress for a hundred years. + ++Explanation+.--_If_ here = _even if_ = _though_. + +14. Though many rivers flow into the Mediterranean, they are not sufficient + to make up the loss caused by evaporation. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 66. + +COMPOSITION-ADVERB CLAUSES. + ++COMMA--RULE.--An _Adverb Clause_ is set off by the comma unless it closely +follows and restricts the word it modifies+. + ++Explanation+.--I met him in Paris, _when I was last abroad_. I will not +call him villain, _because it would be unparliamentary_. Paper was invented +in China, _if the Chinese tell the truth_. In these sentences the adverb +clauses are not restrictive, but are supplementary, and are added almost as +afterthoughts. + +Glass bends easily _when it is red-hot_. Leaves do not turn red _because +the frost colors them_. It will break _if you touch it_. Here the adverb +clauses are restrictive; each is very closely related in thought to the +independent clause, and may almost be said to be the essential part of the +sentence. + +When the adverb clause precedes, it is set off. + ++Direction+.---_Tell why the adverb clauses are or are not set off in +Lessons_ 63 _and_ 64. + ++Direction+.---_Write, after these independent clauses, adverb clauses of +time, place, degree, etc. (for connectives, see Lesson _100_), and +punctuate according to the Rule_:-- + +1. The leaves of the water-maple turn red--_time_. +2. Our eyes cannot bear the light--_time_. +3. Millions of soldiers sleep--_place_. +4. The Bunker Hill Monument stands--_place_. +5. Every spire of grass was so edged and tipped with dew--_degree_. +6. Vesuvius threw its lava so far--_degree_. +7. The tree is inclined--_manner_. +8. The lion springs upon his prey--_manner_. +9. Many persons died in the Black Hole of Calcutta--_cause_. +10. Dew does not form in a cloudy night--_cause_. +11. That thunderbolt fell a mile away--_evidence_. +12. We dream in our sleep--_evidence_. +13. Peter the Great worked in Holland in disguise--_purpose_. +14. We put salt into butter and upon meat--_purpose_. +15. Iron bends and molds easily--_condition_. +16. Apples would not fall to the ground--_condition_. +17. Europe conquered Napoleon at last--_concession_. +18. Punishment follows every violation of nature's laws--_concession_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 67. + ++COMPOSITION-ADVERB CLASSES+. + +ARRANGEMENT. + +The adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between the +parts of it, or after it. + ++Direction+.---_Think, if you can, of another adverb clause to follow each +independent clause in the preceding Lesson, and by means of a caret (^) +indicate where this adverb clause may properly stand in the sentence. Note +its force in its several positions, and attend to the punctuation. Some of +these adverb clauses can stand only at the end_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 68. + +COMPOSITION--ADVERB CLAUSES. + +An adverb clause may be contracted into a participle or a participle +phrase. + ++Example+.--_When he saw me_, he stopped = _Seeing me_, he stopped. + ++Direction+.--_Contract these complex sentences to simple ones_:-- + +1. Coral animals, when they die, form vast islands with their bodies. +2. The water will freeze, for it has cooled to 32 deg. +3. Truth, though she may be crushed to earth, will rise again. +4. Error, if he is wounded, writhes with pain, and dies among his + worshipers. +5. Black clothes are too warm in summer, because they absorb heat. + +An adverb clause may be contracted to an absolute phrase. + ++Example+.--_When night came_ on, we gave up the chase = _Night coming_ on, +we gave up the chase. + ++Direction+.--_Contract these complex sentences to simple ones_:-- + +1. When oxygen and carbon unite in the minute blood-vessels, heat is + produced. +2. It will rain to-morrow, for "Probabilities" predicts it. +3. Washington retreated from Long Island because his army was outnumbered. +4. If Chaucer is called the father of our later English poetry, Wycliffe + should be called the father of our later English prose. + +An adverb clause may be contracted to a prepositional phrase having for its +principal word (1) a participle, (2) an infinitive, or (3) a noun. + ++Direction+.--_Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional +phrase having a participle for its principal word_:-- + ++Model+.--They will call _before they leave_ the city = They will call +_before leaving_ the city. + +1. The Gulf Stream reaches Newfoundland before it crosses the Atlantic. +2. If we use household words, we shall be better understood. +3. He grew rich because he attended to his business. +4. Though they persecuted the Christians, they did not exterminate them. + ++Direction+.--_Contract each of these adverb clauses to an infinitive +phrase_:-- + ++Model+.--She stoops _that she may conquer_ = She stoops _to conquer_. + +1. The pine tree is so tall that it overlooks all its neighbors. +2. Philip II. built the Armada that he might conquer England. +3. He is foolish, because he leaves school so early in life. +4. What would I not give if I could see you happy! +5. We are pained when we hear God's name used irreverently. + ++Direction+.--_Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional +phrase having a noun for its principal word_:-- + ++Model+.--He fought _that he might obtain glory_ = He fought _for glory_. + +1. Luther died where he was born. +2. A fish breathes, though it has no lungs. +3. The general marched as he was ordered. +4. Criminals are punished that society may be safe. +5. If you are free from vices, you may expect a happy old age. + +An adverb clause may be contracted by simply omitting such words as may +easily be supplied. + ++Example+.--_When you are right_, go ahead = _When right_, go ahead. + ++Direction+.--_Contract these adverb clauses_:-- + +1. Chevalier Bayard was killed while he was fighting for Francis I. +2. Error must yield, however strongly it may be defended. + ++Explanation+.--_However_ modifies _strongly_, and connects a concessive +clause. + +3. Much wealth is corpulence, if it is not disease. +4. No other English author has uttered so many pithy sayings as Shakespeare + has uttered. + +(Frequently, clauses introduced by _as_ and _than_ are contracted.) + +5. The sun is many times larger than the earth is large. + +(Sentences like this never appear in the full form.) + +6. This is a prose era rather than it is a poetic era. + +An adverb clause may sometimes be changed to an adjective clause or phrase. + ++Example+.--This man is to be pitied, _because he has no friends_ = This +man, _who has no friends_, is to be pitied = This man, _having no friends_, +is to be pitied = This man, _without friends_, is to be pitied. + ++Direction+.--_Change each of the following adverb clauses first to an +adjective clause and then to an adjective phrase_:-- + +1. A man is to be pitied if he does not care for music. +2. When a man lacks health, wealth, and friends, he lacks three good + things. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 69. + +ANALYSIS. + ++Direction.+--_Tell the kind of adverb clause in each of the sentences in +Lesson 68, and note the different positions in which these clauses stand. + +Select two sentences containing time clauses; one, a place clause; two, +degree; one, manner; two, real cause; two, evidence; two, purpose; two, +condition; and two, concession, and analyze them_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 70. + +REVIEW. + ++Direction.+--_Compose sentences illustrating the different kinds of adverb +clauses named in Lessons 63, 64, 65, and explain fully the office of each. +For connectives, see Lesson 100. Tell why the adverb clauses in Lesson 68 +are or are not set off by the comma. Compose sentences illustrating the +different ways of contracting adverb clauses_. + ++Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.+ + +(SEE PAGES 165-168.) + +TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 71. + +THE COMPLEX SENTENCE-NOUN CLAUSE. + ++Introductory Hints.+--In Lessons 40 and 41 you learned that an infinitive +phrase may perform many of the offices of a noun. You are now to learn that +a clause may do the same. + +_Obedience_ is better than sacrifice = _To obey_ is better than sacrifice = +_That men should obey_ is better than sacrifice. The dependent clause _that +men should obey_ is equivalent to a noun, and is the +Subject+ of _is_. + +_Many people believe that the beech tree is never struck by lightning_. The +dependent clause, introduced by _that_, is equivalent to a noun, and is the ++Object Complement+ of _believe_. + +_The fact that mold, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderful_. The clause +introduced by _that_ is equivalent to a noun, and is +Explanatory+ of +_fact_. + +_A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words_. The +clause introduced by _that_ is equivalent to a noun, and is an +Attribute +Complement+ relating to _peculiarity_. + +_Your future depends very much on who your companions are_. The clause _who +your companions are_ is equivalent to a noun, and is the +Principal Term+ +of a +Phrase+ introduced by the preposition _on_. + +A clause that does the work of a noun is a +Noun Clause+. + + +Analysis. + +The +noun clause+ may be used as +subject+. + +1. That the earth is round has been proved. + + + That + -------- + ' + earth | is ' \ round +-------|-------------- + \the | | + | + / \ | has been proved +=============|================= + | + ++Explanation+.--The clause _that the earth is round_ is used like a noun as +the subject of _has been proved_. The conjunction _that_ [Footnote: "_That_ +was originally the neuter demonstrative pronoun, used to point to the fact +stated in an independent sentence; as, It was good; he saw _that_. By an +inversion of the order this became, He saw _that_ (namely) it was good, and +so passed into the form _He saw that it was good_, where _that_ has been +transferred to the accessory clause, and has become a mere sign of +grammatical subordination."--_C. P. Mason._] introduces the noun clause. + +This is a peculiar kind of complex sentence. Strictly speaking, there is +here no principal clause, for the whole sentence cannot be called a clause, +_i.e._, a part of a sentence. We may say that it is a complex sentence in +which the whole sentence takes the place of a principal clause. + +2. That the same word is used for the soul of man and for a glass of gin is + singular. +3. "What have I done?" is asked by the knave and the thief. +4. Who was the discoverer of America is not yet fully determined by + historians. + ++Explanation+.--The subject clause is here an indirect question. See Lesson +74. + +5. When letters were first used is not certainly known. +6. "Where is Abel, thy brother?" smote the ears of the guilty Cain. +7. When to quit business and enjoy their wealth is a problem never solved + by some. + ++Explanation+.--_When to quit business and enjoy their wealth_ is an +indirect question. _When to quit business = When they are to quit +business_, or _When they ought to quit business_. Such constructions may be +expanded into clauses, or they may be treated as phrases equivalent to +clauses. + +The +noun clause+ may be used as +object complement+. + +8. Galileo taught that the earth moves. + + that + ------- + ' + earth | ' moves + ------|------- + \the | + | + Galileo | taught | / \ +=========|============== + | + ++Explanation+.--Here the clause introduced by _that_ is used like a noun as +the object complement of _taught_. + +9. The Esquimau feels intuitively that bear's grease and blubber are the + dishes for his table. +10. The world will not anxiously inquire who you are. +11. It will ask of you, "What can you do?" +12. The peacock struts about, saying, "What a fine tail I have!" +13. He does not know which to choose. + +(See explanation of (7), above.) + +14. No one can tell how or when or where he will die. +15. Philosophers are still debating whether the will has any control over + the current of thought in our dreams. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 72. + +NOUN CLAUSE--CONTINUED. + +Analysis. + +The +noun clause+ may be used as +attribute complement+. + +1. A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words. +2. Tweed's defiant question was, "What are you going to do about it?" +3. The question ever asked and never answered is, "Where and how am I to + exist in the Hereafter?" +4. Hamlet's exclamation was, "What a piece of work is man!" +5. The myth concerning Achilles is, that he was invulnerable in every part + except the heel. + +The +noun clause+ may be used as +explanatory modifier+. + +6. It has been proved that the earth is round. + + that + ------- + ' +earth | is ' \ round +------|-------------- + \the | + | +It (/ \) | has been proved +==========|================== + | + ++Explanation+.--The grammatical subject _it_ has no meaning till explained +by the noun clause. + +7. It is believed that sleep is caused by a diminution in the supply of + blood to the brain. +8. The fact that mold, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderful. +9. Napoleon turned his Simplon road aside in order that he might save a + tree mentioned by Caesar. + ++Explanation+.--Unless _in order that_ is taken as a conjunction connecting +an adverb clause of purpose (see (7), Lesson 65), the clause introduced by +_that_ is a noun clause explanatory of _order_. [Footnote: A similar +explanation may be made of _on condition that, in case that_, introducing +adverb clauses expressing condition.] + +10. Shakespeare's metaphor, "Night's candles are burnt out," is one of the + finest in literature. +11. The advice that St. Ambrose gave St. Augustine in regard to conformity + to local custom was in substance this: "When in Rome, do as the Romans + do." +12. This we know, that our future depends on our present. + +The +noun clause+ may be used as +principal term+ of a +prepositional +phrase+. + +13. Have birds any sense of why they sing? + + + birds | Have | sense +=======|================ they | sing + | \any \ -----|------ + \ of | \why + \ / \ + \------------- + ++Explanation+.--_Why they sing_ is an indirect question, here used as the +principal term of a prepositional phrase. + +14. There has been some dispute about who wrote "Shakespeare's Plays." +15. We are not certain that an open sea surrounds the Pole. + ++Explanation+.--By supposing _of_ to stand before _that_, the noun clause +may be treated as the principal term of a prepositional phrase modifying +the adjective _certain_. By supplying _of the fact_, the noun clause will +become explanatory. + +16. We are all anxious that the future shall bring us success and triumph. +17. The Sandwich Islander is confident that the strength and valor of his + slain enemy pass into himself. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 73. + +COMPOSITION--NOUN CLAUSE. + ++COMMA--RULE.--The _Noun Clause_ used as attribute complement is generally +set off by the comma.+ + ++Remarks+.--Present usage seems to favor the omission of the comma with the +clause used as subject or as object complement, except where the comma +would contribute to clearness. + +The punctuation of the explanatory clause is like that of other explanatory +modifiers. See Lesson 34. But the real subject made explanatory of _it_ is +seldom set off. See next Lesson for the punctuation of noun clauses that +are questions or quotations. + ++Direction+.--_Give the reasons for the use or the omission of the comma +with the noun clauses in the preceding Lesson_. + +By using _it_ as a substitute for the subject clause, this clause may be +placed last. + ++Example+.--_That the story of William Tell is a myth_ is now believed = +_It_ is now believed _that the story of William Tell is a myth_. + ++Direction+.--_By the aid of the expletive it, transpose five subject +clauses in Lesson 71_. + +Often the clause used as object complement may be placed first. + ++Direction+.--_Transpose such of the clauses used as object complements, in +the preceding Lessons, as admit transposition. Punctuate them if they need +punctuation_. + +The noun clause may be made prominent by separating it and inserting the +independent clause between its parts, + ++Example+.--The story of William Tell, _it is now believed_, is a myth. +(Notice that the principal clause, used parenthetically, is set off by the +comma.) + ++Direction+.--_Write the following sentences, using the independent clauses +parenthetically_:-- + +1. We believe that the first printing-press in America was set up in Mexico + in 1536. +2. I am aware that refinement of mind and clearness of thinking usually + result from grammatical studies. +3. It is true that the glorious sun pours down his golden flood as cheerily + on the poor man's cottage as on the rich man's palace. + ++Direction+.--_Vary the following sentence so as to illustrate five +different kinds of noun clauses_:-- + ++Model+.-- + 1. _That stars are suns_ is the belief of astronomers. + 2. Astronomers believe _that stars are suns_. + 3. The belief of astronomers is, _that stars are suns_. + 4. The belief _that stars are suns_ is held by astronomers. + 5. Astronomers are confident _that stars are suns_. + +1. Our conclusion is, that different forms of government suit different + stages of civilization. + +The noun clause may be contracted by changing the predicate to a +participle, and the subject to a possessive. + ++Example+.--_That he was brave_ cannot be doubted = _His being brave_ +cannot be doubted. + ++Direction+.--_Make the following complex sentences simple by changing the +noun clauses to phrases_:-- + +1. That the caterpillar changes to a butterfly is a curious fact. +2. Everybody admits that Cromwell was a great leader. +3. A man's chief objection to a woman is, that she has no respect for the + newspaper. +4. The thought that we are spinning around the sun at the rate of twenty + miles a second makes us dizzy. +5. She was aware that I appreciated her situation. + +The noun clause may be contracted by making the predicate, when changed to +an infinitive phrase, the objective complement, and the subject the object +complement. + ++Direction+.--_Make the following complex sentences simple by changing the +predicates of the noun clauses to objective complements, and the subjects +to object complements_:-- + ++Model+.--King Ahasuerus commanded that _Haman should be hanged_ = King +Ahasuerus commanded _Haman to be hanged_. + +1. I believe that he is a foreigner. +2. The Governor ordered that the prisoner should be set free. +3. Many people believe that Webster was the greatest of American statesmen. +4. How wide do you think that the Atlantic ocean is? +5. They hold that taxation without representation is unjust. + ++Direction+.--_Expand into complex sentences such of the sentences in +Lesson_ 41 _as contain an objective complement and an object complement +that together are equivalent to a clause_. + +A noun clause may be contracted to an infinitive phrase. + ++Example+.--_That he should vote_ is the duty of every American citizen = +_To vote_ is the duty of every American citizen. + ++Direction+.--_Contract these noun clauses to infinitive phrases_:-- + +1. That we guard our liberty with vigilance is a sacred duty. +2. Every one desires that he may live long and happily. +3. The effect of looking upon the sun is, that the eye is blinded. +4. Caesar Augustus issued a decree that all the world should be taxed. +5. We are all anxious that we may make a good impression. +6. He does not know whom he should send. +7. He cannot find out how he is to go there. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 74. + +COMPOSITION--NOUN CLAUSE--CONTINUED. + ++QUOTATION MARKS--RULE.--Quotation marks ("") inclose a copied word or +passage+. + ++Remarks+.--Single marks (' ') inclose a quotation within a quotation. If, +within the quotation having single marks, still another quotation is made, +the double marks are again used; as, "The incorrectness of the dispatches +led Bismarck to declare, 'It will soon come to be said, "He lies like the +telegraph."'" This introduction of a third quotation should generally be +avoided, especially where the three marks come at the end, as above. + +When a quotation is divided by a parenthetical expression, each part of the +quotation is inclosed; as, "I would rather be right," said Clay, "than be +president." + +In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the +quotation marks; as, He asked, "What are you living for?" but, when a +question contains a quotation, this order is reversed; as, May we not find +"sermons in stones"? So also with the exclamation point. + ++CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--The first word of a direct quotation making +complete sense or of a direct question introduced into a sentence should +begin with a capital letter+. + ++Remarks+.--A +direct quotation+ is one whose exact words, as well as +thought, are copied; as, Nathan said to David, "_Thou art the man_." An ++indirect quotation+ is one whose thought, but not whose exact words, is +copied; as, Nathan told David _that he was the man_. The reference here of +the pronoun _he_ is somewhat ambiguous. Guard against this, especially in +indirect quotations. + +The direct quotation is set off by the comma, begins with a capital letter, +and is inclosed within quotation marks--though these may be omitted. The +indirect quotation is not generally set off by the comma, does not +necessarily begin with a capital letter, and is not inclosed within +quotation marks. + +A +direct question+ introduced into a sentence is one in which the exact +words and their order in an interrogative sentence (see Lesson 55) are +preserved, and which is followed by an interrogation point; as, Cain asked, +"_Am I my brother's keeper_?" An +indirect question+ is one which is +referred to as a question, but not directly asked or quoted as such, and +which is not followed by an interrogation point; as, Cain asked _whether he +was his brother's keeper_. + +The direct question introduced into a sentence is set off by the comma (but +no comma is used after the interrogation point), begins with a capital +letter, and is inclosed within quotation marks--though these may be +omitted. An indirect question is not generally set off by a comma, does not +necessarily begin with a capital letter, and is not inclosed within +quotation marks. + +If the direct quotation, whether a question or not, is formally introduced +(see Lesson 147), it is preceded by the colon; as, Nathan's words to David +were these: "_Thou art the man_." He put the question thus: "_Can you do +it_?" + ++Direction+.--_Point out the direct and the indirect quotations and +questions in the sentences of Lesson_ 71, _tell why they do or do not begin +with capital letters, and justify the use or the omission of the comma, the +interrogation point, and the quotation marks_. + ++Direction+.--_Rewrite these same sentences, changing the direct quotations +and questions to indirect, and the indirect to direct_. + ++Direction+.--_Write five sentences containing direct quotations, some of +which shall be formally introduced, and some of which shall be questions +occurring at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence. Change these +to the indirect form, and look carefully to the punctuation and the +capitalization._ + ++Direction+.--_Write sentences illustrating the last paragraph of the +Remarks under the Rule for Quotation Marks_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 75. + +ANALYSIS. + ++Direction+.--_Analyze the sentences given for arrangement and contraction +in Lesson_ 73. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 76. + +THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. + ++Introductory Hints+.--_Cromwell made one revolution, and Monk made +another_. The two clauses are independent of each other. The second clause, +added by the conjunction _and_ to the first, continues the line of thought +begun by the first. + +_Man has his will, but woman has her way_. Here the conjunction connects +independent clauses whose thoughts stand in contrast with each other. + +_The Tudors were despotic, or history belies them_. The independent +clauses, connected by _or_, present thoughts between which you may choose, +but either, accepted, excludes the other. + +_The ground is wet, therefore it has rained_. Here the inferred fact, the +raining, really stands to the other fact, the wetness of the ground, as +cause to effect--the raining made the ground wet. _It has rained_, _hence +the ground is wet_. Here the inferred fact, the wetness of the ground, +really stands to the other fact, the raining, as effect to cause--the +ground is made wet by the raining. But this the real, or logical relation +between the facts in either sentence is expressed in a sentence of the +compound form--an _and_ may be placed before _therefore_ and _hence_. +Unless the connecting word expresses the dependence of one of the clauses, +the grammarian regards them both as independent. + +_Temperance promotes health, intemperance destroys it_. Here the +independent clauses are joined to each other by their very position in the +sentence--connected without any conjunction. This kind of connection is +common. + +Sentences made up of independent clauses we call +Compound Sentences. + + ++DEFINITION.--A _Clause_ is a part of a sentence containing' a subject and +its predicate.+ + ++DEFINITION.--A _Dependent Clause_ is one used as an adjective, an adverb, +or a noun.+ + ++DEFINITION.--An _Independent Clause_ is one not dependent on another +clause.+ + +SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO FORM. + ++DEFINITION.--A _Simple Sentence_ is a sentence that contains but one +subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound.+ + ++DEFINITION.--A _Complex Sentence_ is a sentence composed of an independent +clause and one or more dependent clauses.+ + ++DEFINITION.--A _Compound Sentence_ is a sentence composed of two or more +independent clauses.+ + +Analysis. + ++Independent Clauses+ in the +same line+ of thought. + +1. Light has spread, and bayonets think. + + Light | has spread +=======|============= + | ' + ' + ' and + ....... + ' + ' + bayonets | ' think + ===========|========== + | + ++Explanation+.--The clauses are of equal rank, and so the lines on which +they stand are shaded alike, and the line connecting them is not slanting. +As one entire clause is connected with the other, the connecting line is +drawn between the predicates merely for convenience. + ++Oral Analysis+.--This is a compound sentence because it is made up of +independent clauses. + +2. Hamilton smote the rock of the national resources, and abundant streams + of revenue gushed forth. +3. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness + thrust upon them. + ++Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts in +contrast.+ + +4. The man dies, but his memory lives. +5. Put not your trust in money, but put your money in trust. +6. Ready writing makes not good writing, but good writing brings on ready + writing. + ++Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts in +alternation+. + +7. Be temperate in youth, or you will have to be abstinent in old age. +8. Places near the sea are not extremely cold in winter, nor are they + extremely warm in summer. + +(Here a choice is denied.) + +9. Either Hamlet was mad, or he feigned madness admirably. + +(See (16), Lesson 20.) + ++Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts one of which is an +inference+ +from the other. + +10. People in the streets are carrying umbrellas, hence it must be raining. +11. I have seen, therefore I believe. + + I | have seen +===|=========== + | ' + ' + I | ' believe + ===|='========= + |\' + \therefore + ++Explanation+.--In such constructions _and_ may be supplied, or the adverb +may be regarded as the connective. The diagram illustrates _therefore_ as +connective. + ++Independent Clauses+ joined in the sentence +without a conjunction+. + +12. The camel is the ship of the ocean of sand; the reindeer is the camel + of the desert of snow. +13. Of thy unspoken word thou art master; thy spoken word is master of + thee. +14. The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow. + ++Explanation+.--_As it were_ is an independent clause used parenthetically. +_As_ simply introduces it. + +15. Religion--who can doubt it?--is the noblest of themes for the exercise + of intellect. +16. What grave (these are the words of Wellesley, speaking of the two + Pitts) contains such a father and such a son! + + * * * * * + +LESSON 77. + +COMPOSITION--COMPOUND SENTENCE. + ++COMMA and SEMICOLON--RULE.--_Independent Clauses_, when short and closely +connected, are separated by the+ +comma; but, when the clauses are slightly +connected, or when they are themselves divided into parts by the comma, the +semi-colon is used+. + ++Remark+.--A parenthetical clause may be set oil by the comma or by the +dash, or it may be inclosed within marks of parenthesis--the marks of +parenthesis showing the least degree of connection in sense. See the last +three sentences in the preceding Lesson. + ++Examples+.-- + 1. We must conquer our passions, or our passions will conquer us. + 2. The prodigal robs his heirs; the miser robs himself. + 3. There is a fierce conflict between good and evil; but good is in the + ascendant, and must triumph at last. + +(The rule above is another example.) + ++Direction+.--_Punctuate the following sentences, and give your reasons_:-- + +1. The wind and the rain are over the clouds are divided in heaven over the + green hill flies the inconstant sun. +2. The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero tragedy represents a + disastrous event comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind + pastoral poetry describes rural life and elegy displays the tender + emotions of the heart. +3. Wealth may seek us but wisdom must be sought. +4. The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong. +5. Occidental manhood springs from self-respect Oriental manhood finds its + greatest satisfaction in self-abasement. [Footnote: In this sentence we + have a figure of speech called +Antithesis+, in which things unlike in + some particular are set over against each other. Each part shines with + its own light and with the light reflected from the other part. + Antithesis gives great force to the thought expressed by it. Sentences + containing it furnish us our best examples of +Balanced Sentences+. You + will find other antitheses in this Lesson and in the preceding.] +6. The more discussion the better if passion and personality be avoided and + discussion even if stormy often winnows truth from error. + ++Direction+.--_Assign reasons for the punctuation of the independent +clauses in the preceding Lesson_. + ++Direction+.--_Using the copulative and, the adversative but, and the +alternative or or nor, form compound sentences out of the following simple +sentences, and give the reasons for your choice of connectives_:-- + +Read not that you may find material for argument and conversation. The rain +descended. Read that you may weigh and consider the thoughts of others. Can +the Ethiopian change his skin? Righteousness exalteth a nation. The floods +came. Great was the fall of it. Language is not the dress of thought. Can +the leopard change his spots? The winds blew and beat upon that house. Sin +is a reproach to any people. It is not simply its vehicle. It fell. + +Compound sentences may be contracted by using but once the parts common to +all the clauses, and compounding the remaining parts. + ++Example+.--_Time_ waits for no man, and _tide waits for no man_ = _Time_ +and _tide wait for no man_. + ++Direction+.--_Contract these compound sentences, attending carefully to +the punctuation_:-- + +1. Lafayette fought for American independence, and Baron Steuben fought for + American independence. +2. The sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn open the mind to + benevolence, and the sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn dispose + the mind for contemplation. +3. The spirit of the Almighty is within us, the spirit of the Almighty is + around us, and the spirit of the Almighty is above us. + +A compound sentence may be contracted by simply omitting from one clause +such words as may readily be supplied from the other. + +_Example_.--He is witty, _but he is vulgar_ = He is witty _but vulgar_. + ++Direction+.--_Contract these sentences_:-- + +1. Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, but it should not be the + web. +2. It is called so, but it is improperly called so. +3. Was Cabot the discoverer of America, or was he not the discoverer of + America? +4. William the Silent has been likened to Washington, and he has justly + been likened to him. +5. It was his address that pleased me, and it was not his dress that + pleased me. + +A compound sentence may sometimes be changed to a complex sentence without +materially changing the sense. + ++Example+.--_Take care of the minutes_, and the hours will take care of +themselves = _If you take care of the minutes_, the hours will take care of +themselves. (Notice that the imperative form adds force.) + ++Direction+.--_Change these compound sentences to complex sentences_:-- + +1. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you. +2. Govern your passions, or they will govern you. +3. I heard that you wished to see me, and I lost no time in coming. +4. He converses, and at the same time he plays a difficult piece of music. +5. He was faithful, and he was rewarded. + ++Direction+.--_Change one of the independent clauses in each of these +sentences to a dependent clause, and then change the dependent clause to a +participle phrase_:-- + ++Model+.--The house was built upon a rock, _and therefore_ it did not fall += The house did not fall, _because_ it was built upon a rock = The house, +_being built_ upon a rock, did not fall. + +1. He found that he could not escape, and so he surrendered. +2. Our friends heard of our coming, and they hastened to meet us. + ++Direction+.--_Using and, but, and or as connectives, compose three +compound sentences, each containing three independent clauses_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 78. + +COMPLEX AND COMPOUND CLAUSES. + ++Introductory Hints+.--_Sun and moon and stars_ obey. Peter the Great went +_to Holland, to England_, and _to France_. _I came, I saw, I conquered_. +Here we have co-ordinate words, co-ordinate phrases, and co-ordinate +clauses, that is, words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order. + +Leaves fall _so very quietly_. They ate _of the fruit from the tree in the +garden_. Regulus would have paused _if he had been the man that he was +before captivity had unstrung his sinews_. Here just as the word modifier +_quietly_ is itself modified by _very_, and _very_ by _so_; and just as +_fruit_, the principal word in a modifying phrase, is modified by another +phrase, and the principal word of that by another: so _man_, in the adverb +clause which modifies _would have paused_, is itself modified by the +adjective clause _that he was_, and _was_ by the adverb clause _before +captivity had unstrung his sinews_. These three dependent clauses in the +complex clause modifier, like the three words and the three phrases in the +complex word modifier and the complex phrase modifier, are not co-ordinate, +or of equal rank. + +_Mary married Philip; but Elizabeth would not marry, although Parliament +frequently urged it, and the peace of England demanded it_. This is a +compound sentence, composed of the simple clause which precedes _but_ and +the complex clause which follows it--the complex clause being composed of +an independent clause and two dependent clauses, one co-ordinate with the +other, and the two connected by _and_. + + +Analysis. + +The +clauses+ of +complex+ and +compound+ sentences may themselves be ++complex+ or +compound+. + +insects +---------- + ` ` ` + ` ` `which | are admired + ` ` `=====|============= + ` ` | ' + ` ` ' x + ` ` ..... + ` ` ' + ` `which | are decorated + ` ======|=============== + ` | ' + ` 'and + ` ........ + ` ' + ` which | soar ' + `======|======= + | + + hour | had passed +=========|============= + \The |` ' + ` ' and + ` ....... + ` ' +opportunity | ` had escaped +============|==`============ + \the | ` \ + ` ' + ` ' + `' + ` + `while + ` + he | ` tarried + ----|------------- + | + that + ----- + ' + earth | ' is \ round + =========|======'======== + | ' + that ' and + ----- ...... + ' ' + it | ' revolves ' + ===|='============'= + | +He | proved | / \ +====|============= + | + ++Explanation+.--The first diagram illustrates the analysis of the compound +adjective clause in (3) below. Each adjective clause is connected to +_insects_ by _which_. _And_ connects the co-ordinate clauses. The second +diagram shows that the clause _while he tarried_ modifies both predicates +of the independent clauses. _While_ modifies _had passed, had escaped_, and +_tarried_, as illustrated by the short lines under the first two verbs and +the line over _tarried_. The office of _while_ as connective is shown by +the dotted lines. The third diagram illustrates the analysis of a complex +sentence containing a compound noun clause. + +1. Sin has a great many tools, but a lie is a handle which fits them all. +2. Some one has said that the milkman's favorite song should be, "Shall we + gather at the river?" +3. Some of the insects which are most admired, which are decorated with the + most brilliant colors, and which soar on the most ethereal wings, have + passed the greater portion of their lives in the bowels of the earth. +4. Still the wonder grew, that one small head could carry all he knew. +5. When a man becomes overheated by working, running, rowing, or making + furious speeches, the six or seven millions of perspiration tubes pour + out their fluid, and the whole body is bathed and cooled. +6. Milton said that he did not educate his daughters in the languages, + because one tongue was enough for a woman. [Footnote: In _tongue_, as + here used, we have a +Pun+--a witty expression in which a word agreeing + in sound with another word, but differing in meaning from it, is used in + place of that other.] +7. Glaciers, flowing down mountain gorges, obey the law of rivers; the + upper surface flows faster than the lower, and the center faster than + the adjacent sides. +8. Not to wear one's best things every day is a maxim of New England + thrift, which is as little disputed as any verse in the catechism. +9. In Holland the stork is protected by law, because it eats the frogs and + worms that would injure the dikes. +10. It is one of the most marvelous facts in the natural world that, though + hydrogen is highly inflammable, and oxygen is a supporter of + combustion, both, combined, form an element, water, which is + destructive to fire. +11. In your war of 1812, when your arms on shore were covered by disaster, + when Winchester had been defeated, when the Army of the Northwest had + surrendered, and when the gloom of despondency hung, like a cloud, over + the land, who first relit the fires of national glory, and made the + welkin ring with the shouts of victory? [Footnote: The _when_ clauses + in (11), as the _which_ clauses in (3), are formed on the same plan, + have their words in the same order. This principle of +Parallel + Construction+, requiring like ideas to be expressed alike, holds also + in phrases, as in (10) and (14), Lesson 28, and in (14) and (15), + Lesson 46, and holds supremely with sentences in the paragraph, as is + explained on page 168. Parallel construction contributes to the + clearness, and consequently to the force, of expression.] + + * * * * * + +LESSON 79. + +EXPANSION. + ++Participles+ may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+. + ++Direction+.--_Expand the participles in these sentences into the clauses +indicated_:-- + +1. Simon Peter, having a sword, drew it. (Adjective clause.) +2. Desiring to live long, no one would be old. (Concession.) +3. They went to the temple, suing for pardon. (Purpose.) +4. White garments, reflecting the rays of the sun, are cool in summer. + (Cause.) +5. Loved by all, he must have a genial disposition. (Evidence.) +6. Writing carefully, you will learn to write well. (Condition.) +7. Sitting there, I heard the cry of "Fire!" (Time.) +8. She regrets not having read it. (Noun clause.) +9. The icebergs floated down, cooling the air for miles around, + (Independent clause.) + ++Absolute phrases+ may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+. + ++Direction+.--_Expand these absolute phrases into the clauses indicated_:-- + +1. Troy being taken by the Greeks, Aeneas came into Italy. (Time.) +2. The bridges having been swept away, we returned. (Cause.) +3. A cause not preceding, no effect is produced. (Condition.) +4. All things else being destroyed, virtue could sustain itself. + (Concession.) +5. There being no dew this morning, it must have been cloudy or windy last + night. (Evidence.) +6. The infantry advanced, the cavalry remaining in the rear. (Independent + clause.) + ++Infinitive+ phrases may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+. + ++Direction+.--_Expand these infinitive phrases into the clauses +indicated_:-- + +1. They have nothing to wear. (Adjective clause.) +2. The weather is so warm as to dissolve the snow. (Degree.) +3. Herod will seek the young child to destroy it. (Purpose.) +4. The adversative sentence faces, so to speak, half way about on _but_. + (Condition.) +5. He is a fool to waste his time so. (Cause.) +6. I shall be happy to hear of your safe arrival. (Time.) +7. He does not know where to go. (Noun clause.) + ++Direction+.--_Complete these elliptical expressions_:-- + +1. And so shall Regulus, though dead, fight as he never fought before. +2. Oh, that I might have one more day! +3. He is braver than wise. +4. What if he is poor? +5. He handles it as if it were glass. +6. I regard him more as a historian than as a poet. +7. He is not an Englishman, but a Frenchman. +8. Much as he loved his wealth, he loved his children better. +9. I will go whether you go or not. +10. It happens with books as with mere acquaintances. +11. No examples, however awful, sink into the heart. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 80. + +MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. + +Analysis. + +1. Whenever the wandering demon of Drunkenness finds a ship adrift, he + steps on board, takes the helm, and steers straight for the + Maelstrom.--_Holmes_. +2. The energy which drives our locomotives and forces our steamships + through the waves comes from the sun.--_Cooke_. +3. No scene is continually loved but one rich by joyful human labor, smooth + in field, fair in garden, full in orchard.--_Ruskin_. +4. What is bolder than a miller's neck-cloth, which takes a thief by the + throat every morning?--_German Proverb_. +5. The setting sun stretched his celestial rods of light across the level + landscape, and smote the rivers and the brooks and the ponds, and they + became as blood.--_Longfellow_. +6. Were the happiness of the next world as closely apprehended as the + felicities of this, it were a martyrdom to live.--_Sir T. Browne_. +7. There is a good deal of oratory in me, but I don't do as well as I can, + in any one place, out of respect to the memory of Patrick + Henry.--_Nasby_. +8. Van Twiller's full-fed cheeks, which seemed to have taken toll of + everything that went into his mouth, were curiously mottled and streaked + with dusky red, like a spitzenburg apple.--_Irving_. +9. The evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is, that it is + robbing the human race.--_Mill_. +10. There is no getting along with Johnson; if his pistol misses fire, he + knocks you down with the butt of it.--_Goldsmith_. +11. We think in words; and, when we lack fit words, we lack fit + thoughts.--_White_. +12. To speak perfectly well one must feel that he has got to the bottom of + his subject.--_Whately_. +13. Office confers no honor upon a man who is worthy of it, and it will + disgrace every man who is not.--_Holland_. +14. The men whom men respect, the women whom women approve, are the men and + women who bless their species.--_Parton_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 81. + +MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. + +Analysis. + +1. A ruler who appoints any man to an office when there is in his dominions + another man better qualified for it sins against God and against the + state.--_Koran_. +2. We wondered whether the saltness of the Dead Sea was not Lot's wife in + solution.--_Curtis_. +3. There is a class among us so conservative that they are afraid the roof + will come down if you sweep off the cobwebs.--_Phillips_. +4. Kind hearts are more than coronets; and simple faith, than Norman + blood.--_Tennyson_. +5. All those things for which men plow, build, or sail obey + virtue.--_Sallust_. +6. The sea licks your feet, its huge flanks purr very pleasantly for you; + but it will crack your bones and eat you for all that.--_Holmes_. +7. Of all sad words of tongue or pen the saddest are these: "It might have + been."--_Whittier_. +8. I fear three newspapers more than a hundred thousand bayonets. + --_Napoleon_. +9. He that allows himself to be a worm must not complain if he is trodden + on.--_Kant_. +10. It is better to write one word upon the rock than a thousand on the + water or the sand.--_Gladstone_. +11. A breath of New England's air is better than a sup of Old England's + ale.--_Higginson_. +12. We are as near to heaven by sea as by land.--_Sir H. Gilbert_. +13. No language that cannot suck up the feeding juices secreted for it in + the rich mother-earth of common folk can bring forth a sound and lusty + book.--_Lowell_. +14. Commend me to the preacher who has learned by experience what are human + ills and what is human wrong.--_Boyd_. +15. He prayeth best who loveth best all things both [Footnote: See Lesson + 20.] great and small; for the dear God, who loveth us, he made and + loveth all.--_Coleridge_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 82. + +REVIEW. + +Show that an adjective may be expanded into an equivalent phrase or clause. +Give examples of adjective clauses connected by _who, whose, which, what, +that, whichever, when, where, why_, and show that each connective performs +also the office of a pronoun or that of an adverb. Give and illustrate +fully the Rule for punctuating the adjective clause, and the Caution +regarding the position of the adjective clause. Show that an adjective +clause may be equivalent to an Infinitive phrase or a participle phrase. + +Show that an adverb may be expanded into an equivalent phrase or clause. +Illustrate the different kinds of adverb clauses, and explain the office of +each and the fitness of the name. Give and explain fully the Rule for the +punctuation of adverb clauses. Illustrate the different positions of adverb +clauses. Illustrate the different ways of contracting adverb clauses. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 83. + +REVIEW. + +Illustrate five different offices of a noun clause. Explain the two +different ways of treating clauses introduced by _in order that_, etc. +Explain the office of the expletive _it_. Illustrate the different +positions of a noun clause used as object complement. Show how the noun +clause may be made prominent. Illustrate the different ways of contracting +noun clauses. Give and illustrate fully the Rule for quotation marks. +Illustrate and explain fully the distinction between direct and indirect +quotations, and the distinction between direct and indirect questions +introduced into a sentence. Tell all about their capitalization and +punctuation. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 84. + +REVIEW. + +Illustrate and explain the distinction between a dependent and an +independent clause. Illustrate and explain the different ways in which +independent clauses connected by _and, but, or_, and _hence_ are related in +sense. Show how independent clauses may be joined in sense without a +connecting word. Define a clause. Define the different kinds of clauses. +Define the different classes of sentences with regard to form. Give the +Rule for the punctuation of independent clauses, and illustrate fully. +Illustrate the different ways of contracting independent clauses. +Illustrate and explain the difference between compound and complex word +modifiers; between compound and complex phrases; between compound and +complex clauses. Give participle phrases, absolute phrases, and infinitive +phrases, and expand them into different kinds of clauses. What three parts +of speech may connect clauses? + +GENERAL REVIEW. + +TO THE TEACHER.--This scheme will be found very helpful in a general +review. The pupils should be able to reproduce it except the Lesson +numbers. + +Scheme for the Sentence. + +(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.) + ++PARTS.+ + + +Subject.+ + Noun or Pronoun (8). + Phrase (38, 40). + Clause (71). + + +Predicate.+ + Verb (11). + + +Complements.+ + +Object.+ + Noun or Pronoun (28). + Phrase (38, 40). + Clause (71). + +Attribute.+ + Adjective (29, 30). + Participle (37). + Noun or Pronoun (29, 30). + Phrase (37, 40). + Clause (72). + +Objective.+ + Adjective (31). + Participle (37). + Noun (or Pronoun) (31). + Phrase (37, 41). + + +Modifiers.+ + Adjectives (12). + Adverbs (14). + Participles (37). + Nouns and Pronouns (33, 35). + Phrases (17, 37, 38, 40, 41). + Clauses (59, 60, 63, 64, 65). + + +Connectives.+ + Conjunctions (20, 64, 65, 71, 76). + Pronouns (59, 60). + Adverbs (60, 63, 64). + + +Independent Parts+ (44). + ++Classes.+ + +Meaning.+ Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, Exclamatory (46). + +Form.+ Simple, Complex, Compound (76). + +Additional Selections. + +TO THE TEACHER.--We believe that you will find the preceding pages +unusually full and rich in illustrative selections; but, should additional +work be needed for reviews or for maturer classes, the following selections +will afford profitable study. Let the pupils discuss the thought and the +poetic form, as well as the logical construction of these passages. We do +not advise putting them in diagram. + + + Speak clearly, if you speak at all; + Carve every word before you let it fall.--_Holmes_. + + The robin and the blue-bird, piping loud, + Filled all the blossoming orchards with their glee; + The sparrows chirped as if they still were proud + Their race in Holy Writ should mentioned be; + And hungry crows, assembled in a crowd, + Clamored their piteous prayer incessantly, + Knowing who hears the ravens cry, and said, + "Give us, O Lord, this day, our daily bread!" + --_Longfellow_, + + Better to stem with heart and hand + The roaring tide of life than lie, + Unmindful, on its flowery strand, + Of God's occasions drifting by. + Better with naked nerve to bear + The needles of this goading air + Than, in the lap of sensual ease, forego + The godlike power to do, the godlike aim to know. + --_Whittier_. + + Then to side with Truth is noble when we share her wretched crust, + Ere her cause bring fame and profit, and 't is prosperous to be just; + Then it is the brave man chooses, while the coward stands aside, + Doubting in his abject spirit, till his Lord is crucified.--_Lowell_. + + +Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. + +TO THE TEACHER.--These and similar "Exercises" are entirely outside of the +regular lessons. They are offered to those teachers who may not, from lack +of time or of material, find it convenient to prepare extra or +miscellaneous work better suited to their own needs. + +The questions appended to the following sentences are made easy of answer, +but in continuing such exercises the teacher will, of course, so frame the +questions as more and more to throw responsibility on the pupil. + +It will be evident that this work aims not only to enforce instruction +given before Lesson 17, but, by an easy and familiar examination of words +and groups of words, to prepare the way for what is afterwards presented +more formally and scientifically. ADAPTED FROM IRVING'S "SKETCH BOOK." + +1. From this piazza the wondering Ichabod entered the hall. +2. This hall formed the center of the mansion and the place of usual + residence. +3. Here, rows of resplendent pewter, ranged on a long dresser, dazzled his + eyes. +4. In one corner stood a huge bag of wool ready to be spun. +5. In another corner stood a quantity of linsey-woolsey just from the loom. +6. Ears of Indian corn and strings of dried apples and peaches hung in gay + festoons along the walls. +7. These were mingled with the gaud of red peppers. +8. A door left ajar gave him a peep into the best parlor. +9. In this parlor claw-footed chairs and dark mahogany tables shone like + mirrors. +10. Andirons, with their accompanying shovel and tongs, glistened from + their covert of asparagus tops. [Footnote: _Asparagus tops_ were + commonly used to ornament the old-fashioned fireplace in summer.] +11. Mock-oranges and conch-shells decorated the mantelpiece. +12. Strings of various-colored birds' eggs were suspended above it. +13. A corner-cupboard, knowingly left open, displayed immense treasures of + old silver and well-mended china. + ++The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Find the two chief words in each +of the first three sentences. As a part of the sentence what is each of +these words called? To what class of words, or part of speech, does each +belong? Notice that in the fourth and the fifth sentence the subject is put +after the predicate. Change the order of words and read these sentences. +Read in their regular order the two chief words of each. In the sixth +sentence what word says, or asserts, something about both ears and strings? +In the ninth sentence put _what_ before the predicate _shone_ and find two +nouns that answer the question. In the eleventh sentence what two things +does _decorated_ tell something about? In the seventh sentence _these_ +stands for what two nouns, or names, found in the preceding sentence? Find +the subject and the predicate of each sentence from the sixth to the +thirteenth inclusive. To what class of words does each of these chief parts +belong? Find in these sentences nouns that are not subjects. Find several +compound nouns the parts of which are joined with the hyphen. + +_The_ and _wondering_ in the first sentence go with what noun? The group of +words _from this piazza_ goes with what word? In the second sentence put +_what_ before, and then after, _formed_, and find the names that answer +these questions. What does _of the mansion_ go with? What does _of usual +residence_ describe? In the third sentence what word tells where the +dazzling occurred? Find a group of three words telling what the rows were +composed of. What group of words tells the position of the rows? In the +fourth sentence what group of words shows where the bag stood? _Of wool +ready to be spun_ describes what? _A_ and _huge_ are attached to what? + +TO THE TEACHER.--We have here suggested some of the devices by which pupils +may be led to see the functions of words and phrases. We recommend that +this work be varied and continued through the selection above and through +others that may easily be made. Such exercises, together with the more +formal and searching work of the regular lessons, will be found of +incalculable value to the pupil. They will not only afford the best mental +discipline but will aid greatly in getting thought and in expressing +thought. + ++The Force and the Beauty of the Description above.--+ Can you find any +reason why we are invited to see this picture through the eyes of the +interested and wondering Ichabod? Do you think the word _wondering_ well +chosen and suggestive? Look through this picture carefully and tell what +there is that indicates thrift, industry, and prosperity. Find more common +expressions for _center of the mansion_ and _place of usual residence_. +Notice in the third sentence the effect of _resplendent_ and _dazzled_. How +is a similar effect produced in the ninth and the tenth sentence? You see +that this great artist in words does not here need to repeat his language. +We can easily imagine that he could produce the same effect in a great +variety of ways. In the fourth sentence does the expression _ready to be +spun_ tell what is actually seen, or what is only suggested? What is gained +by this expression and by _just from the loom_ in the next sentence? Do you +think an unskillful artist would have used _in gay festoons?_ Read the +seventh and make it more common but less quaint. Do you think the picture +gains, or loses, by representing the door as "ajar" instead of wide open? +Why? Can you see any similar effect from introducing _their covert_ in the +tenth sentence? What does the expression _knowingly left open_ suggest to +you? This selection from Irving illustrates the +Descriptive+ style of +writing. + +SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK. + +In the description above we have taken some liberties with the original, +for we have broken it up into single sentences. The parts of this picture +as made by Irving were smoothly and delicately blended together. + +You may rewrite this description; and, where it can be done to advantage, +you may join the sentences neatly together. Perhaps some of these sentences +may be changed to become parts of other sentences, + +TO THE TEACHER.--It will be found profitable for pupils to break up for +themselves into short sentences model selections from classic English, and, +after examining the structure and style as suggested above, to note and, so +far as possible, explain how these were blended together in the original. A +written reproduction of the selection may then be made from memory. + +This study of the thought, the structure, and the style of the great +masters in language must lead to a discriminating taste for literature; and +the effect upon the pupil's own habits of thought and expression will +necessarily be to lift him above the insipid, commonplace matter and +language that characterize much of the so-called "original" composition +work. + +In the study of these selections, especially in the work of copying, the +rules for punctuation, and other rules, formally stated further on, may +easily be anticipated informally. + +For composition work more nearly original the class might read together or +discuss, descriptions of home scenes; then, drawing from imagination or +experience, they might make descriptions of their own. In these +descriptions different persons might be introduced, with their attitudes, +employments, and acts of hospitality. + +For exercises in narration pupils might write about trips to these homes, +telling about the preparation, the start, the journey, and the reception. +(For studies on narrative style, see pages 157-162.) + +To insure thoroughness, all such compositions should he short. + + +Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. + +ADAPTED FROM IRVING'S "SKETCH BOOK." + +1. Every window and crevice of the vast barn seemed bursting forth with the + treasures of the farm. +2. The flail was busily resounding within from morning till night. +3. Swallows and martins skimmed twittering about the eaves. +4. Rows of pigeons were enjoying the sunshine on the roof. +5. Some sat with one eye turned up as if watching the weather. +6. Some sat with their heads under their wings or buried in their bosoms. +7. Others were swelling and cooing and bowing about their dames. +8. Sleek, unwieldy porkers were grunting in the repose and abundance of + their pens. +9. From these pens sallied forth, now and then, troops of sucking pigs, as + if to snuff the air. +10. A stately squadron of snowy geese was riding in an adjoining pond, + convoying whole fleets of ducks. +11. Regiments of turkeys were gobbling through the farmyard. +12. Guinea fowls fretted about, like ill-tempered housewives, with their + peevish, discontented cry. +13. Before the barn-door strutted the gallant cock, clapping his burnished + wings, and crowing in the pride and gladness of his heart--sometimes + tearing up the earth with his feet, and then generously calling his + ever-hungry family of wives and children to enjoy the rich morsel which + he had discovered. + ++The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--In the first sentence _seemed_ +asserts something about what two things? _Every_ goes with what word or +words? What word or words does the phrase _of the vast barn_ make more +definite in meaning? The two words _window_ and _crevice_ are joined +together by what word? The group of words _bursting forth with the +treasures of the farm_ describes what? Notice that _bursting_ also helps +_seemed_ to say something about window and crevice. _Seemed_ does not make +sense, but _seemed bursting_ does. What does _forth_ modify? What does +_with the treasures of the farm_ modify? In the third sentence what two +nouns form the subject of _skimmed?_ What connects these two nouns? In the +fourth what word tells what the rows were enjoying? In the fifth _turned up +as if watching the weather_ describes what? _As if watching the weather_ +goes with what? The expression introduced by _as if_ is a shortened form. +Putting in some of the words omitted, we have _as if they were watching the +weather. They were watching the weather_, if standing by itself, would make +a complete sentence. You see that one sentence may be made a part of +another sentence. What does each of the two phrases _under their wings_ and +_buried in their bosoms_ describe? What connects these two phrases? In the +seventh sentence _were_ is understood before _cooing_ and before _bowing_. +How many predicate verbs do you find, each asserting something about the +pigeons represented by _others_? Why are these verbs not separated by +commas? What two nouns form the principal part of the phrase in the eighth +sentence? What connects these two nouns? Read the ninth sentence and put +the subject before the predicate. You may now explain _as if to snuff the +air_, remembering that a similar expression in the fifth sentence was +explained. In the tenth sentence _convoying whole fleets of ducks_ +describes what? Does _convoying_ assert anything about the squadron? Change +it into a predicate verb. In the twelfth sentence find one word and two +phrases joined to _fretted_. _Clapping, crowing, tearing_, and _calling_, +in the thirteenth, all describe what? Notice that all the other words +following the subject go with these four. Find the three words that answer +the questions made by putting _what_ after _clapping, tearing, calling_. +What phrase tells the cause of crowing? The phrase _to enjoy the rich +morsel which he had discovered_ tells the purpose of what? _Which he had +discovered_ limits the meaning of what? The pronoun _which_ here stands for +_morsel_. _Which he had discovered_ = _He had discovered morsel_. Here you +will see a sentence has again been made a part of another sentence. Notice +that without _which_ there would be no connection. + +TO THE TEACHER.--It may be well to let the pupils complete the examination +of the structure of the sentences above and point out nouns, verbs, +pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs. + +It will be noticed that in the questions above we especially anticipate the +regular lessons that follow Lesson 27. This we do in all such "Exercises." + ++The Beauty and the Force of the Description above+.--Why may we say that +this farmyard scene is surrounded by an atmosphere of plenty, happiness, +and content? Which do you prefer, the first sentence above, or this +substitute for it: "The large barn was entirely full of the products of the +farm"? Give every reason that you can find for your preference. We often +speak of a barn or storehouse as "bursting with plenty," or of a table as +"groaning with a load of good things," when there is really no bursting nor +groaning. Such expressions are called +Figures of Speech+. Examine the +second sentence and compare it with the following: "The men were busy all +day pounding out the grain with flails." Do the words _busily resounding_ +joined to _flail_ bring into our imagination men, grain, pounding, sound, +and perhaps other things? A good description mentions such things and uses +such words as will help us to see in imagination many things not mentioned. +In the third sentence would you prefer _skimmed_ to _flew_? Why? Compare +the eighth sentence with this: "Large fat hogs were grunting in their pens +and reposing quietly with an abundant supply of food." _Sleek, unwieldy +porkers_ would be too high-sounding an expression for you to use +ordinarily, but it is in tone with the rest of the description. _In the +repose and abundance of their pens_ is much better than the words +substituted above. It is shorter and stronger. It uses instead of the verb +_reposing_ and the adjective _abundant_ the nouns _repose_ and _abundance_, +and makes these the principal words in the phrase. Repose and abundance are +thus made the striking features of the pen. Arrange the ninth sentence in +as many ways as possible and tell which way you prefer. Is a real squadron +referred to in the tenth sentence? and were the geese actually convoying +fleets? These are figurative uses of words. What can you say of _regiments_ +in the eleventh? In the twelfth Guinea fowls are compared to housewives. +Except in this one fancied resemblance the two are wholly unlike. Such +comparisons frequently made by _as_ and _like_ are called +Similes+. If we +leave out _like_ and say, "Guinea fowls are fretting housewives," we have a +figure of speech called +Metaphor+. This figure is used above when flocks +are called "squadrons" and "fleets." In the thirteenth sentence notice how +well chosen and forceful are the words _strutted, gallant, burnished, +generously, ever-hungry, rich morsel_. See whether you can find substitutes +for these italicized words. Were the wings actually burnished? What can you +say of this use of _burnished_? + +SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK. + +The sentences in the description above, when read together, have a somewhat +broken or jerky effect. You may unite smoothly such as should be joined. +The fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh can all be put into one. There is +danger of making your sentences too long. Young writers find it difficult +to make very long sentences perfectly clear in meaning. + +TO THE TEACHER.--While the pupils' thoughts and style are somewhat toned up +by the preceding exercises, it may he well to let them write similar +descriptions drawn from their reading, their observation, or their +imagination. + +If the compositions contain more than two or three short paragraphs each, +it will be almost impossible to secure good work. + +Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. + +FROM FRANKLIN'S "AUTOBIOGRAPHY." + +1. I was dirty from my journey, my pockets were stuffed out with shirts and +stockings, and I knew no soul nor where to look for lodging. 2. I was +fatigued with traveling, rowing, and want of rest; I was very hungry; and +my whole stock of cash consisted of a Dutch dollar and about a shilling in +copper. 3. The latter I gave the people of the boat for my passage, who at +first refused it on account of my rowing; but I insisted on their taking +it. + +1. Then I walked up the street, gazing about, till near the markethouse I +met a boy with bread. 2. I had made many a meal on bread, and, inquiring +where he got it, I went immediately to the baker's he directed me to, in +Second Street, and asked for biscuit, intending such as we had in Boston; +but they, it seems, were not made in Philadelphia. 3. Then I asked for a +three-penny loaf, and was told they had none such. 4. So not considering or +knowing the difference of money, or the greater cheapness and the names of +his bread, I bade him give me three-penny worth of any sort. 5. He gave me, +accordingly, three great puffy rolls. 6. I was surprised at the quantity, +but took it; and, having no room in my pockets, walked off with a roll +under each arm, and eating the other. + + * * * * * + ++The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Break up sentence 1, paragraph 1, +into three distinct sentences, and tell what changes this will make in +capitals and punctuation. Do the same for 2. Which read more closely +together, and are more closely connected, the parts of 2, or of 1? How is +this shown to the eye? Analyze the first two sentences you made from 1. +Find two object complements of _knew_, one a noun and the other a group of +five words. Find in 2 a phrase whose principal part is made up of three +nouns. What have you learned about the commas used with these nouns? In +making separate sentences of 3 what words do you change or drop? Are these +the words that bind the parts of 3 together? What noun is used adverbially +after _gave_? Supply a preposition and then tell what phrases modify +_gave_. Find the object complement of _gave_. What modifies _refused_ by +telling when? What, by telling _why_? + +In 1, paragraph 2, who is described as gazing about? What does _gazing +about_ modify? Read the group of words that tells how far or how long +Franklin walked up the street. Notice that this whole group is used like an +adverb. Find in it a subject, a predicate, and an object complement. Drop +_till_ and see whether the parts of 1 make separate sentences. What word, +then, binds these two sentences into one? Read 2 and make of it three +distinct sentences by omitting the first _and_ and the word _but_. The +second of these three sentences just made contains several sentences which +are not so easily separated, as some are used like single words to make up +the main, or principal, sentence. In this second part of 2 find the leading +subject and its two predicates. Find a phrase belonging to _I_ and +representing Franklin as doing something. Put _what_ after _inquiring_ and +find the object complement. What phrase belongs to _went_, telling where? +_He directed me to (whom)_ belongs to what? Who is represented as +intending? _Intending such as we had in Boston_ belongs to what? _As we had +in Boston_ goes with what? Notice that _it seems_ is a sentence thrown in +loosely between the parts of another sentence. Such expressions are said to +be parenthetical. Notice the punctuation. + +Notice that _gazing, inquiring, intending, considering, knowing_, and +_having_ are all modifiers of _I_ found in the different sentences of +paragraph 2. Put _I_ before any one of these words, and you will see that +no assertion is made. These words illustrate one form of the verb (the +participle), and _look_ in 1, paragraph 1, illustrates the other form (the +infinitive), spoken of in Lesson 11 as not asserting. Change each of these +participles to a predicate, or asserting form, and then read the sentences +in which these predicates are found. You will notice that giving these +words the asserting form makes them more prominent and forcible--brings +them up to a level with the other predicate verbs. Participles are very +useful in slurring over the less important actions that the more important +may have prominence. Show that they are so used in Franklin's narrative. + +Examine the phrase _with a roll under each arm, and eating the other_, and +see if you do not find an illustration of the fact that even great men +sometimes make slips. Does _other_ properly mean one of three things? Try +to improve this expression. + ++The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs+.--The sentences above, as you +see, stand in two groups. Those of each group are more closely related to +one another than they are to the sentences of the other group. Do you see +how? In studying this short selection you may find the general topic, or +heading, to be something like this: _My First Experiences in Philadelphia_. +Now examine the first group of sentences and see whether its topic might +not be put thus: _My Condition on Reaching Philadelphia_. Then examine the +sentences of the second group and see whether all will not come under this +heading: _How I Found Something to Eat_. You see that even a short +composition like this has a general topic with topics under it. As _sub_ +means _under_, we will call these under topics _sub-topics_. There are two +groups of sentences in this selection because there are two distinct +sub-topics developed. The sentences of each group stand together because +they jointly develop one sub-topic. + +A group of sentences related and held together by a common thought we call +a +Paragraph+. How is the paragraph indicated to the eye? What help is it +to the reader to have a composition paragraphed? What, to the writer to +know that he must write in paragraphs? + ++The Style of the Author+.--This selection is mainly +Narrative+. The +matter is somewhat tame, and the expression is commonplace. The words are +ordinary, and they stand in their usual place. Figures of speech are not +used. Yet the piece has a charm. The thoughts are homely; the expression is +in perfect keeping; the style is clear, simple, direct, and natural. The +closing sentence is slightly humorous. Benjamin Franklin trudging along the +street, hugging a great roll of bread under each arm, and eating a third +roll, must have been a laughable sight. + +Have you ever known boys and girls in writing school compositions, or +reporters in writing for the newspapers, to use large words for small +ideas, and long, high-sounding phrases and sentences for plain, simple +thoughts? Have you ever seen what could be neatly said in three or four +lines "padded out" to fill a page of composition paper or a column in a +newspaper? + +When Franklin said. "My pockets were stuffed out with shirts and +stockings," he said a homely thing in a homely way; that is, he fitted the +language to the thought. To fit the expression to the thought on every +occasion is the perfection of style. If Franklin had been a weak, foolish +writer, his sentence might have taken this form:-- + +"Not having been previously provided with a satchel or other receptacle for +my personal effects, my pockets, which were employed as a substitute, were +protruding conspicuously with extra underclothing." + +Compare this sentence with Franklin's and point out the faults you see in +the substitute. Can you find anything in the meaning of _provided_ that +makes previously unnecessary? Do you now understand what Lowell meant when, +in praise of Dryden, he said, "His phrase is always a short cut to his +sense"? + +TO THE TEACHER.--What is here taught of the paragraph and of style will +probably not be mastered at one reading. It will be found necessary to +return to it occasionally, and to refer pupils to it for aid in their +composition work. + +SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK. + +TO THE TEACHER.--We suggest that the pupils reproduce from memory the +extract above, and that other selections of narrative be found in the +Readers or elsewhere and studied as above. + +The pupils may be able to note to what extent the narrative follows the +order of time and to what extent it is topical. They may also note the +amount of description it contains. They should, so far as possible, find +the topic for each paragraph, thus making an outline for a composition to +be completed from reproduction. + +It will now require little effort to write simple original narratives of +real or imagined experiences. + + * * * * * + +Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. + +FROM C. D. WARNER'S "MY SUMMER IN A GARDEN." + +1. In the driest days, my fountain became disabled; the pipe was stopped +up. 2. A couple of plumbers, with the implements of their craft, came out +to view the situation. 3. There was a good deal of difference of opinion +about where the stoppage was. 4. I found the plumbers perfectly willing to +sit down and talk about it--talk by the hour. 5. Some of their guesses and +remarks were exceedingly ingenious; and their general observations on other +subjects were excellent in their way, and could hardly have been better if +they had been made by the job. 6. The work dragged a little--as it is apt +to do by the hour. + +1. The plumbers had occasion to make me several visits. 2. Sometimes they +would find, upon arrival, that they had forgotten some indispensable tool; +and one would go back to the shop, a mile and a half, after it; and his +comrade would await his return with the most exemplary patience, and sit +down and talk--always by the hour. 3. I do not know but it is a habit to +have something wanted at the shop. 4. They seemed to me very good workmen, +and always willing to stop, and talk about the job or anything else, when I +went near them. 5. Nor had they any of that impetuous hurry that is said to +be the bane of our American civilization. 6. To their credit be it said +that I never observed anything of it in them. 7. They can afford to wait. +8. Two of them will sometimes wait nearly half a day, while a comrade goes +for a tool. 9. They are patient and philosophical. 10. It is a great +pleasure to meet such men. 11. One only wishes there was some work he could +do for them by the hour. + ++The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--How can you make the last part of +1 express more directly the cause of becoming disabled? Would you use a +semicolon to separate the sentences thus joined, or would you use a comma? +Give a reason for the comma after _days_, Find in 2 an adverb phrase that +expresses purpose. Use an equivalent adjective in place of _a couple of_. +Explain the use of _there_ in 3. What adjective may be used in place of +_good_ in _a good deal_? What long complex phrase modifies _deal_? Put +_what_ after the preposition _about_ and find a group of words that takes +the place of a noun. Find in this group a subject and a predicate. Find in +4 an objective complement. Find a compound infinitive phrase and tell what +it modifies. Notice that the dash helps to show the break made by repeating +_talk_. When 5 is divided into two sentences, what word is dropped? This, +then, must be the word that connected the two sentences. Notice that the +two main parts of 5 are separated by a semicolon. This enables the writer +to show that the two main divisions of 5 are more widely separated in +meaning than are the parts of the second division where the comma is used. +Give the three leading predicate verbs in 5 and their complements. _If they +had been made by the job_ is joined like an adverb to what verb? What is +the predicate of this modifying group? + +The infinitive phrase in 1, paragraph 2, modifies what? Is _me_, or +_visits_, the object complement of _make_? Put _what_ after _would find_ in +2 and get the object complement. Can you make a sentence of this group? +What are its principal parts? Does the writer make an unexpected turn after +_talk_? How is this shown to the eye? Put _what_ after _do know_ in 3 and +find the object complement. Can you make a sentence of this object +complement? What phrase can you put in place of the pronoun _it_ without +changing the sense? By using the word _it_, a better arrangement can be +made. What group of words in 5 is used like an adjective to modify _hurry_? +Change the pronoun _that_ to _hurry_ and make a separate sentence of this +group. What word, then, must have made an adjective of this sentence and +joined it to _hurry_? What is the object complement of _can afford_ in 7? +Supply a preposition after _will wait_ in 8, and then find two groups of +words that tell the time of waiting. Find a subject and a predicate in the +second group. What explains _it_ in 10? Find the object complement of +_wishes_ in 11. What is the subject of _was_? The office of _there_? After +_work_ supply the pronoun _that_ and tell the office of the group it +introduces. What is the object complement of _could do_? What connects this +group to _work_? + ++The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs+.--There are two distinct sets +of sentences in this selection--distinct because developing two distinct +sub-topics. Accordingly, there are two paragraphs. Let us take for the +general topic _The Visits of the Plumbers_. Let us see whether all the +sentences of the first paragraph will not come under the sub-topic _First +Visit_, and those of the second under the sub-topic _Subsequent Visits_. +The sentences of each paragraph should be closely related to one another +and to the sub-topic. They should stand in their proper order. Do the +paragraphs above stand such tests? If they do, they possess the prime +quality of +Unity+. + ++The Author's Style+.--This selection we may call +Narrative+, though there +are descriptive touches in it. It is a story of what? Is the story clearly +told throughout? If not, where is it obscure? Is it made interesting and +entertaining? Is Mr. Warner here giving us a bit of his own experience? Or +do you think he is drawing upon his imagination? Would you call the style +plain, or does it abound with metaphors, similes, or other figures of +speech? Are the sentences generally long, or generally short? What are the +faults or foibles of these real or fancied plumbers? Does the author speak +of them in a genial and lenient way? or is he hostile, and does he hold up +their foibles to scorn and derision? Does he make us laugh with, or does he +make us laugh at, the plumbers? If the former, the style is humorous; if +the latter, the style is satirical or sarcastic. Would you call Mr. +Warner's quality of style +Humor+? or that +form of wit+ known as +Satire+? +Is our author's use of it delicate and refined? or is it gross and coarse? +Does it stop short of making its object grotesque, or not? Can you name any +writers whose humor or satire is coarse? + +SUGGESTIONS FOB COMPOSITION WORK. + +TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, pages 159, 160. + +Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. + +FROM BEECHER'S "LECTURES TO YOUNG MEN." + +1. Indolence inclines a man to rely upon others and not upon himself, to +eat their bread and not his own. 2. His carelessness is somebody's loss; +his neglect is somebody's downfall. 3. If he borrows, the article remains +borrowed; if he begs and gets, it is as the letting out of waters--no one +knows where it will stop. 4. He spoils your work, disappoints your +expectations, exhausts your patience, eats up your substance, abuses your +confidence, and hangs a dead weight upon all your plans; and the very best +thing an honest man can do with a lazy man is to get rid of him. + +1. Indolence promises without redeeming the pledge; a mist of forgetfulness +rises up and obscures the memory of vows and oaths. 2. The negligence of +laziness breeds more falsehoods than the cunning of the sharper. 3. As +poverty waits upon the steps of indolence, so upon such poverty brood +equivocations, subterfuges, lying denials. 4. Falsehood becomes the +instrument of every plan. 5. Negligence of truth, next occasional +falsehood, then wanton mendacity--these three strides traverse the whole +road of lies. + +1. Indolence as surely runs to dishonesty as to lying. 2. Indeed, they are +but different parts of the same road, and not far apart. 3. In directing +the conduct of the Ephesian converts, Paul says, "Let him that stole steal +no more; but rather let him labor, working with his hands the thing which +is good." 4. The men who were thieves were those who had ceased to work. 5. +Industry was the road back to honesty. 6. When stores are broken open, the +idle are first suspected. + + * * * * * + ++The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Find in 1 two compound infinitive +phrases and tell their use. Supply the words omitted from the last part of +each compound. What shows that the parts of 2 are not closely connected? +Would a conjunction bring them more closely together? If a conjunction is +used, would you change the punctuation? A sentence that unites with another +to make one greater sentence we call a _clause_. Read the first part of 2 +and change _somebody's_ first to a phrase and then to a clause used like an +adjective. What distinction can you make between the use of the semicolon +and the use of the comma in 3? The clause _if he borrows_ is joined like an +adverb to what verb? _If he begs and gets_? What pronoun more indefinite +than _your_ might take its place in 4? What noun? Explain the use of the +semicolon and the comma in 4. Supply _that_ after _thing_ and tell what +clause is here used like an adjective. Find the office of _that_ by placing +it after _do_. Find in 4 an infinitive phrase used as attribute complement. + +Change the phrase in 1, paragraph 2, to a clause. Find in 2 the omitted +predicate of the clause introduced by _than_. Find a compound subject in 3. +Are _negligence_, _falsehood_, and _mendacity_, in 5, used as subjects? +Explain their use and punctuation. (See Remark, Lesson 45.) + +In 3, paragraph 3, how are the words borrowed from Paul marked? Change the +quotation from Paul so as to give his thought but not his exact words. Are +the quotation marks now needed? In 3 and 4 find clauses introduced by +_that_, _which_, and _who_, and used like adjectives. + ++The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs+.--You can easily learn the +sub-topic, or thought, each of these paragraphs develops. See whether you +can find it in the first sentence of each. Give the three sub-topics. Put +together the three thoughts established in these paragraphs and tell what +they prove. What they prove is that for which Mr. Beecher is contending; it +may be written at the head of the extract as the general topic. What merits +of the paragraph, already treated, are admirably illustrated in this +extract? + ++The Style of the Author+.--This selection is neither descriptive nor +narrative; it is +Argumentative+. Mr. Beecher is trying to establish a +certain proposition, and in the three paragraphs is giving three reasons, +or arguments, to prove its truth. But the argument is not all thought, is +not purely intellectual. It is suffused with feeling, is impassioned. Mr. +Beecher's heart is in his work. This feeling warms and colors his style, +and stimulates his fancy. As a consequence, figures of speech abound. + +Notice that in 1, paragraph 1, the thought is repeated by means of the +infinitive phrases. Read the words _Indolence inclines a man_ with each of +the four infinitive phrases that follow. You will see that the thought is +repeated. It is first expressed in a general way; by the aid of the second +phrase we see the same thought from the negative side; the third phrase +makes the statement more specific; the fourth puts the specific statement +negatively. The needless repetition of the same thought in different words +is one of the worst faults in writing. But Mr. Beecher's repetition is not +needless. By every repetition here, Mr. Beecher makes his thought clearer +and stronger. Examine the other sentences of this paragraph and see whether +they enforce the leading thought by illustration, example, or consequence. + +In what sentence is the style made +energetic+ by the aid of short +predicates? How does the alternation of short sentences with long +throughout the extract affect you? The alternation of plain with figurative +sentences? Can you show that the author's style has +Variety+? Pick out the +metaphors in 1, 2, 3, and 5, paragraph 2; and in 1 and 2, paragraph 3. Pick +out the comparisons, or similes, in 3, paragraph 1, and in 3, paragraph 2. +Figures of speech should add clearness and force. If you think these do, +tell how. _Indolence_ in 1 and 3, paragraph 2, and _laziness_ in 2, +introduce us to another figure. Something belonging to the men, a quality, +is made to represent the men themselves. Such a figure is called ++Metonymy+. + +SUGGESTIONS FOB COMPOSITION WORK. + +TO THE TEACHER.--Exercises in argumentative writing may be continued by +making selections from the discussion of easy topics. + +For original work we suggest debates on current topics. Compositions should +be short. + + +Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. + +EXTRACT FROM DANIEL WEBSTER. + +1. The assassin enters, through the window already prepared, into an +unoccupied apartment. 2. With noiseless foot he paces the lonely hall, half +lighted by the moon; he winds up the ascent of the stairs and reaches the +door of the chamber. 3. Of this he moves the lock, by soft and continued +pressure, till it turns on its hinges without noise; and he enters, and +beholds his victim before him. + +1. The face of the innocent sleeper is turned from the murderer, and the +beams of the moon, resting on the gray locks of his aged temple, show him +where to strike. 2. The fatal blow is given! and the victim passes, without +a struggle or a motion, from the repose of sleep to the repose of death. 3. +It is the assassin's purpose to make sure work; and he plies the dagger, +though it is obvious that life has been destroyed by the blow of the +bludgeon. 4. He even raises the aged arm that he may not fail in his aim at +the heart, and places it again over the wounds of the poniard. 5. To finish +the picture, he explores the wrist for the pulse. 6. He feels for it, and +ascertains that it beats no longer. 7. It is accomplished. 8. The deed is +done. + +1. He retreats, retraces his steps to the window, passes out through it as +he came in, and escapes. 2. He has done the murder. No eye has seen him, no +ear has heard him. 3. The secret is his own, and it is safe. + +1. Ah! gentlemen, that was a dreadful mistake. 2. Such a secret can be safe +nowhere. 3. The whole creation of God has neither nook nor corner where the +guilty can bestow it, and say it is safe. 4. Not to speak of that eye which +pierces through all disguises and beholds everything as in the splendor of +noon, such secrets of guilt are never safe from detection even by men. 5. +True it is, generally speaking, that "Murder will out." 6. True it is that +Providence hath so ordained, and doth so govern things, that those who +break the great law of heaven by shedding man's blood seldom succeed in +avoiding discovery. + + * * * * * + ++The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Do the phrases in 1, paragraph +1, stand in their usual order, or are they transposed? In what different +places may they stand? Does either phrase need to be transposed for +emphasis or for clearness? Explain the punctuation. Begin 2 with _the +lonely hall_, and notice that the sentence is thrown out of harmony with +the other sentences, and that the assassin is for the moment lost sight of. +Can you tell why? Notice that in the latter part of 2 the door is +mentioned, and that 3 begins with _of this_, referring to the door. Can you +find any other arrangement by which 3 will follow 2 so naturally? Can you +change 3 so as to make the reference of _it_ clearer? What is the office of +the _till_ clause? Does the clause following the semicolon modify anything? +Would you call such a clause _dependent_, or would you call it +_independent_? Explain the punctuation of 3. + +Give the effect of changing _resting_ in 1, paragraph 2, to the assertive +form. Find in 1 a pronoun used adverbially and a phrase used as object +complement. Expand the phrase into a clause. Give the modifiers of _passes_ +in 2. Read the first part of 3 and put the explanatory phrase in place of +_it_. What is the office of the _though_ clause? Find in this a clause +doing the work of a noun and tell its office. In 4 would _his_ in place of +_the_ before _aged_ and before _heart_ be ambiguous? If so, why? Find in +this paragraph an infinitive phrase used independently. Find the object +complement of _ascertains_ in 6. Are 7 and 8 identical in meaning? + +Give the modifiers of _passes_ in paragraph 3. Explain the _as_ clause. +What does _that_ in 1, paragraph 4, stand for? What kind of clause is +introduced by _where_ in 3? By _which_ in 4? Expand the _as_ clause in 4 +and tell its office. Find in 4 and 5 an infinitive phrase and a participle +phrase used independently. Tell the office of the _that_ clauses in 5 and +6, and of the _who_ clause in 6. + ++The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs+.--Look (1) at the order of the +sentences in each paragraph, and (2) at the order of the paragraphs +themselves. Neither order could be changed without making the stream of +events run up hill, for each order is the order in which the events +happened. Look (3) at the unity of each paragraph, and (4) at the larger +unity of the four paragraphs--that of each paragraph determined by the +relation of each sentence to the sub-topic of the paragraph, and that of +the four paragraphs determined by their relation to the general topic of +the extract. We add that the obvious reference of the repeated _he_ to the +same person, and of _that_ and _secret_ in paragraph 4 demonstrates both +unities. Look (5), and lastly, at the fact that the sub-topic of each +paragraph is found in the first line of each paragraph. Could Webster have +done more to make his thought seen and felt? + ++The Style of the Author.+--This selection is largely +Narrative.+ Its +leading facts were doubtless supplied by the testimony given in the case; +but much of the matter must have come from the imagination of Mr. Webster. +Everything is so skillfully and vividly put that the story, touched with +description, has all the effect of an argument. One quality of it is its +clearness, its perspicuity. It is noticeable also that very little imagery +is used, that the language is plain language. But it is impossible to read +these paragraphs without being most profoundly impressed with their energy, +their force. + +The style is forcible because (1) the +subject-matter+ is +easily grasped+; +(2) because +simple words+ are +used+, words understood even by children; +because (3) these +words+ are +specific+ and +individual+, not generic; +because (4) of the grateful +variety of sentences+; (5) because of the ++prevalence of short sentences+; because (6) of the +repetition of the +thought+ in successive sentences; because (7), though the murder took place +some time before, Webster speaks as if it were +now taking place+ in our +very sight. Find proof of what we have just said--proof of (2), in +paragraphs 1 and 3; proof of (3), in sentences 3, 4, and 5, paragraph 2; +proof of (4), throughout; of (5) and (6), in paragraphs 3 and 4; and of +(7), in the first three paragraphs. + +In paragraph 3, a remarkable sameness prevails. The sentences here are +framed largely on one plan. They are mostly of the same length. The order +of the words in them is the same; often the words are the same; and, even +when they are not, those in one clause or sentence seem to suggest those in +the next. This sameness is not accidental. The more real the murderer's +fancied security is made in this paragraph to appear, the more startling in +the next paragraph will be the revelation of his mistake. Hence no novelty +in the words or in their arrangement is allowed to distract our attention +from the dominant thought. The sentences are made to look and sound alike +and to be alike that their effect may be cumulative. The principle of ++Parallel Construction+, the principle that sentences similar in thought +should be similar in form, is here allowed free play. + +TO THE TEACHER.--Do not be discouraged should your pupils fail to grasp at +first all that is here taught. They probably will not fully comprehend it +till they have returned to it several times. It will, however, be +impossible for them to study it without profit. The meaning will grow upon +them. In studying our questions and suggestions the pupils should have the +"Extract" before them, and should try to verify in it all that is taught +concerning it. + + * * * * * + +PARTS OF SPEECH SUBDIVIDED + +LESSON 85. + +CLASSES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. + ++Introductory Hints+.--You have now reached a point where it becomes +necessary to divide the eight great classes of words into subclasses. + +You have learned that nouns are the names of things; as, _girl_, _Sarah_. +The name _girl_ is held in common by all girls, and hence does not +distinguish one girl from another. The name _Sarah_ is not thus held in +common; it does distinguish one girl from other girls. Any name which +belongs in common to all things of a class we call a +Common Noun+; and any +particular name of an individual, distinguishing this individual from +others of its class, we call a +Proper Noun+. The "proper, or individual, +names" which in Rule 1, Lesson 8, you were told to begin with capital +letters are proper nouns. + +Such a word as _wheat_, _music_, or _architecture_ does not distinguish one +thing from others of its class; there is but one thing in the class denoted +by each, each thing forms a class by itself; and so we call these words +common nouns. + +In Lesson 8 you learned that pronouns are not names, but words used instead +of names. Any one speaking of himself may use _I_, _my_, etc., instead of +his own name; speaking to one, he may use _you_, _thou_, _your_, _thy_, +etc., instead of that person's name; speaking of one, he may use _he_, +_she_, _it_, _him_, _her_, etc., instead of that one's name. These little +words that by their form denote the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one +spoken of are called +Personal Pronouns+. + +By adding _self_ to _my_, _thy_, _your_, _him_, _her_, and _it_, and +_selves_ to _our_, _your_, and _them_, we form what are called +Compound +Personal Pronouns+, used either for emphasis or to reflect the action of +the verb back upon the actor; as, _Xerxes himself_ was the last to cross +the Hellespont; The _mind_ cannot see _itself_. + +If a noun, or some word or words used like a noun, is to be modified by a +clause, the clause is introduced by _who_, _which_, _what_, or _that_; as, +I know the man _that_ did that. These words, relating to words in another +clause, and binding the clauses together, are called +Relative Pronouns+. +By adding _ever_ and _soever_ to _who_, _which_, and _what_, we form what +are called the +Compound Relative Pronouns+ _whoever_, _whosoever_, +_whichever_, _whatever_, etc., used in a general way, and without any word +expressed to which they relate. + +If the speaker is ignorant of the name of a person or a thing and asks for +it, he uses _who_, _which_, or _what_; as, _Who_ did that? These pronouns, +used in asking questions, are called +Interrogative Pronouns+. + +Instead of naming things a speaker may indicate them by words pointing them +out as near or remote; as, Is _that_ a man? What is _this_? or by words +telling something of their number, order, or quantity; as, _None_ are +perfect; The _latter_ will do; _Much_ has been done. Such words we call ++Adjective Pronouns+. + + +DEFINITIONS. + ++A _Noun_ is the name of anything+. [Footnote: Most common nouns are +derived from roots that denote qualities. The root does not necessarily +denote the most essential quality of the thing, only its most obtrusive +quality. The sky, a shower, and scum, for instance, have this most +noticeable feature; they are a cover, they hide, conceal. This the root ++sku+ signifies, and _sku_ is the main element in the words _sky_, _shower_ +(Saxon _scu:r_), and _scum_ that name these objects, and in the adjective +_obscure_. + +A noun denoting at first only a single quality of its object comes +gradually, by the association of this quality with the rest, to denote them +all. + +Herein proper nouns differ from common. However derived, as _Smith_ is from +the man's office of smoothing, or _White_ from his color, the name soon +ceases to denote quality, and becomes really meaningless.] + ++A _Common Noun_ is a name which belongs to all things of a class+. + ++A _Proper Noun_ is the particular name of an individual+. + ++Remark+.--It may be well to note two classes of common nouns--_collective_ +and _abstract_. A +Collective Noun+ is the name of a number of things taken +together; as, _army_, _flock_, _mob_, _jury_. An +Abstract Noun+ is the +name of a quality, an action, a being, or a state; as, _whiteness_, +_beauty_, _wisdom_, (the) _singing_, _existence_, (the) _sleep_. + ++A _Pronoun_ is a word used for a noun+. [Footnote: In our definition and +general treatment of the pronoun, we have conformed to the traditional +views of grammarians; but it may be well for the student to note that +pronouns are something more than mere substitutes for nouns, and that their +primary function is not to prevent the repetition of nouns. + +1. Pronouns are not the names of things. They do not, like nouns, lay hold +of qualities and name things by them. They seize upon relations that +objects sustain to each other and denote the objects by these relations. +_I_, _you_, and _he_ denote their objects by the relations these objects +sustain to the act of speaking; _I_ denotes the speaker; _you_, the one +spoken to; and _he_ or _she_ or _it_, the one spoken of. _This_ and _that_ +denote their objects by the relative distance of these from the speaker; +_some_ and _few_ and _others_ indicate parts separated from the rest. +Gestures could express all that many pronouns express. + +2. It follows that pronouns are more general than nouns. Any person, or +even an animal or a thing personified, may use _I_ when referring to +himself, _you_ when referring to the one addressed, and _he_, _she_, _it_, +and _they_ when referring to the person or persons, the thing or things, +spoken of--and all creatures and things, except the speaker and the one +spoken to, fall into the last list. Some pronouns are so general, and hence +so vague, in their denotement that they show the speaker's complete +ignorance of the objects they denote. In, _Who_ did it? _Which_ of them did +you see? the questioner is trying to find out the one for whom _Who_ +stands, and the person or thing that _Which_ denotes. To what does _it_ +refer in, _it_ rains; How is _it_ with you? + +3. Some pronouns stand for a phrase, a clause, or a sentence, going before +or coming after. _To be_ or _not to be_--_that_ is the question. _It_ is +doubtful _whether the North Pole will ever be reached_. _The sails turned, +the corn was ground_, after _which_ the wind ceased. _Ought you to go_? I +cannot answer _that_. In the first of these sentences, _that_ stands for a +phrase; in the last, for a sentence. _It_ and _which_ in the second and +third sentences stand for clauses. + +4. _Which_, retaining its office as connective, may as an adjective +accompany its noun; as, I craved his forbearance a little longer, _which +forbearance_ he allowed me.] + ++A _Personal Pronoun_ is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker, +the one spoken to, or the one spoken of+. + ++A _Relative Pronoun_ is one that relates to some preceding word or words +and connects clauses+. + ++An _Interrogative Pronoun_ is one with which a question is asked+. + ++An _Adjective Pronoun_ is one that performs the offices of both an +adjective and a noun+. + +The simple personal pronouns are:--_I, thou, you, he, she, and it_. + +The compound personal pronouns are:--_Myself, thyself, yourself, himself, +herself, and itself_. + +The simple relative pronouns are:--_Who, which, that_, and _what_. +[Footnote: _As_, in such sentences as this: Give such things _as_ you can +spare, may be treated as a relative pronoun. But by expanding the sentence +_as_ is seen to be a conjunctive adverb--Give such things _as those are +which_ you can spare. + +_But_ used after a negative is sometimes called a "negative relative" = +_that not_; as, There is not a man here _but_ would die for such a cause. +When the sentence is expanded, _but_ is found to be a preposition--There is +not a man here _but_ (= _except_) the one who would die, etc.] + +The compound relative pronouns are:-- + +_Whoever or whosoever, whichever_ or _whichsoever_, _whatever_ or +_whatsoever_. + +The interrogative pronouns are:-- + +_Who, which_, and _what_. + +Some of the more common adjective pronouns are:-- + +All, another, any, both, each, either, enough, few, former, latter, little, +many, much, neither, none, one, other, same, several, such, that, these, +this, those, whole, etc. [Footnote: The adjective pronouns _this, that, +these_, and _those_ are called +Demonstrative+ pronouns. _All, any, both, +each, either, many, one, other_, etc. are called +Indefinite+ pronouns +because they do not point out and particularize like the demonstratives. +_Each, either_, and _neither_ are also called +Distributives+. + +But for the fact that such words as _brave, good_, etc. in the phrases _the +brave_, _the good_, etc. describe--which pronouns never do--we might call +them adjective pronouns. They may be treated as nouns, or as adjectives +modifying nouns to be supplied. + +Some adjectives preceded by _the_ are abstract nouns; as, the _grand_, the +_sublime_, the _beautiful_.] + +The word, phrase, or clause in the place of which a pronoun is used is +called an +Antecedent+. + ++Direction+.--_Point out the pronouns and their antecedents in these +sentences_:-- + +Jack was rude to Tom, and always knocked off his hat when he met him. To +lie is cowardly, and every boy should know it. Daniel and his companions +were fed on pulse, which was to their advantage. To lie is to be a coward, +which one should scorn to be. To sleep soundly, which is a blessing, is to +repair and renew the body. + ++Remark+.--When the interrogatives _who_, _which_, and what introduce +indirect questions, it is not always easy to distinguish them from +relatives whose antecedents are omitted. For example--I found _who_ called +and _what_ he wanted; I saw _what_ was done. The first sentence does not +mean, I found the _person who_ called and the _thing that_ he wanted. +"_Who_ called" and "_what_ he wanted" here suggest questions--questions +referred to but not directly asked. I saw _what_ was done = I saw the +_thing that_ was done. No question is suggested. + +It should be remembered that _which_ and _what_ may also be interrogative +adjectives; as, _Which_ side won? _What_ news have you? + ++Direction+.--_Analyze these sentences, and parse all the pronouns_:-- + +1. Who steals my purse steals trash. +2. I myself know who stole my purse. +3. They knew whose house was robbed. +4. He heard what was said. +5. You have guessed which belongs to me. +6. Whom the gods would destroy they first make mad. +7. What was said, and who said it? +8. It is not known to whom the honor belongs. +9. She saw one of them, but she cannot positively tell which. +10. Whatever is done must be done quickly. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 86. + +CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS. + +TO THE TEACHER.--In the recitation of all Lessons containing errors for +correction, the pupils' books should be closed, and the examples should be +read by you. To insure care in preparation, and close attention in the +class, read some of the examples in their correct form. Require specific +reasons. + ++Caution+.--Avoid _he_, _it_, _they_, or any other pronoun when its +reference to an antecedent would not be clear. Repeat the noun instead, +quote the speaker's exact words, or recast the sentence. + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and relieve these sentences of their +ambiguity_:-- + ++Model+.--The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave _him_, +_he_ would die = The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave +_his father, his father_ would die. Lysias promised his father never to +abandon _his_ friends = Lysias gave his father this promise: "I will never +abandon _your_ (or _my_) friends." + +1. Dr. Prideaux says that, when he took his commentary to the bookseller, + he told him it was a dry subject. +2. He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought + he had better go home. + +(This sentence may have four meanings. Give them all, using what you may +suppose were the speaker's words.) + +3. A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not because he was so short. +4. Charles's duplicity was fully made known to Cromwell by a letter of his + to his wife, which he intercepted. +5. The farmer told the lawyer that his bull had gored his ox, and that it + was but fair that he should pay him for his loss. + ++Caution+.--Do not use pronouns needlessly. + ++Direction+.--_Write, these sentences, omitting needless pronouns_:-- + +1. It isn't true what he said. +2. The father he died, the mother she followed, and the children they were + taken sick. +3. The cat it mewed, and the dogs they barked, and the man he shouted. +4. Let every one turn from his or her evil ways. +5. Napoleon, Waterloo having been lost, he gave himself up to the English. + ++Caution+.--In addressing a person, do not, in the same sentence, use the +two styles of the pronoun. + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- + +1. Thou art sad, have you heard bad news? +2. You cannot always have thy way. +3. Bestow thou upon us your blessing. +4. Love thyself last, and others will love you. + ++Caution+.--The pronoun _them_ should not be used for the adjective +_those_, nor the pronoun _what_ for the conjunction _that_. [Footnote: +_What_ properly introduces a noun clause expressing a direct or an indirect +question, but a declarative noun clause is introduced by the conjunction +_that_. _But_ may be placed before this conjunction to give a negative +force to the noun clause. + +This use of _but_ requires careful discrimination. For example--"I have no +fear _that_ he will do it"; "I have no fear _but that_ he will do it." The +former indicates certainty that he will not do it, and the latter certainty +that he will do it. "No one doubts but that he will do it" is incorrect, +for it contains three negatives--_no_, _doubts_, and _but_. Two negatives +may be used to affirm, but not three. The intended meaning is, "_No_ one +_doubts_ that he will do it," or "_No_ one believes _but_ that he will do +it," or "Every one _believes_ that he will do it." + +_But what_, for _but that_ or _but_, is also incorrectly used to connect an +adverb clause; as, "He is not so bad _but what_ he might be worse." For +this office of _but_ or _but that_ in an adverb clause, see Lesson 109, +fourth "Example" of the uses of _but_.] + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- + +1. Hand me them things. +2. Who knows but what we may fail? +3. I cannot believe but what I shall see them men again. +4. We ought to have a great regard for them that are wise and good. + ++Caution+.--The relative _who_ should always represent persons; _which_, +brute animals and inanimate things; _that_, persons, animals, and things; +and _what_, things. The antecedent of _what_ should not be expressed. + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- + +1. Those which say so are mistaken. +2. He has some friends which I know. +3. He told that what he knew. +4. The dog who was called Fido went mad. +5. The lion whom they were exhibiting broke loose. +6. All what he saw he described. +7. The horse whom Alexander rode was named Bucephalus. + ++Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these +five Cautions_. + +LESSON 87. + +CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS--CONTINUED. + ++Caution+.--Several connected relative clauses relating to the same +antecedent require the same relative pronoun. + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- + +1. It was Joseph that was sold into Egypt, who became governor of the land, + and which saved his father and brothers from famine. +2. He who lives, that moves, and who has his being in God should not forget + him. +3. This is the horse which started first, and that reached the stand last. +4. The man that fell overboard, and who was drowned was the first mate. + ++Caution+.--When the relative clause is not restrictive, [Footnote: See +Lesson 61.] _who_ or _which_, and not _that_, is generally used. + ++Example+.--Water, _which_ is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, covers +three-fourths of the earth's surface. + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- + +1. The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air, that is a compound of oxygen. + and nitrogen. +2. Longfellow, that is the most popular American poet, has written + beautiful prose. +3. Time, that is a precious gift, should not be wasted. +4. Man, that is born of woman, is of few days and full of trouble. + ++Caution+.--The relative _that_ [Footnote: _That_ is almost always +restrictive. However desirable it may seem to confine _who_ and _which_ to +unrestrictive clauses, they are not confined to them in actual practice. + +The wide use of _who_ and _which_ in restrictive clauses is not accounted +for by saying that they occur after _this_, _these_, _those_, and _that_, +and hence are used to avoid disagreeable repetitions of sounds. This may +frequently be the reason for employing _who_ and _which_ in restrictive +clauses; but usage authorizes us to affirm (1) that _who_ and _which_ stand +in such clauses oftener without, than with, _this_, _these_, _those_, or +_that_ preceding them, and (2) that they so stand oftener than _that_ +itself does. Especially may this be said of _which_.] should be used +instead of _who_ or _which_ (1) when the antecedent names both persons and +things; (2) when _that_ would prevent ambiguity; and (3) when it would +sound better than _who_ or _which_, _e. g._, after _that_, _same_, _very_, +_all_, the interrogative _who_, the indefinite _it_, and adjectives +expressing quality in the highest degree. + ++Example+.--He lived near a _pond that_ was a nuisance. (_That_ relates to +_pond_--the pond was a nuisance. _Which_ might have, for its antecedent, +_pond_, or the whole clause _He lived near a pond_; and so its use here +would be ambiguous.) + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- + +1. The wisest men who ever lived made mistakes. +2. The chief material which is used now in building is brick. +3. Who who saw him did not pity him? +4. He is the very man whom we want. +5. He is the same who he has ever been. +6. He sent his boy to a school which did him good. +7. All who knew him respected him. +8. It was not I who did it. +9. That man that you just met is my friend. + ++Caution+.--The relative clause should be placed as near as possible to the +word which it modifies. + ++Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:-- + +1. The pupil will receive a reward from his teacher who is diligent. +2. Her hair hung in ringlets, which was dark and glossy. +3. A dog was found in the street that wore a brass collar. +4. A purse was picked up by a boy that was made of leather. +5. Claudius was canonized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of + man. +6. He should not keep a horse that cannot ride. + ++Caution+.--When _this_ and _that_, _these_ and _those_, _the one_ and _the +other_ refer to things previously mentioned, _this_ and _these_ refer to +the last mentioned, and _that_ and _those_ to the first mentioned; _the +one_ refers to the first mentioned, and _the other_ to the last mentioned. +When there is danger of obscurity, repeat the nouns. + ++Examples+.--_High_ and _tall_ are synonyms: _this_ may be used in speaking +of what grows--a tree; _that_, in speaking of what does not grow--a +mountain. Homer was a genius; Virgil, an artist: in _the one_ we most +admire the man; in _the other_, the work. + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- + +1. Talent speaks learnedly at the bar; tact, triumphantly: this is + complimented by the bench; that gets the fees. +2. Charles XII. and Peter the Great were sovereigns: the one was loved by + his people; the other was hated. +3. The selfish and the benevolent are found in every community; these are + shunned, while those are sought after. + ++Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these +five Cautions_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 88. + +CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS--CONTINUED. + +Miscellaneous Errors. + ++Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these sentences violate, and correct +the errors_:-- + +1. He who does all which he can does enough. +2. John's father died before he was born. +3. Whales are the largest animals which swim. +4. Boys who study hard, and that study wisely make progress. +5. There are miners that live below ground, and who seldom see the light. +6. He did that what was right. +7. General Lee, that served under Washington, had been a British officer. +8. A man should sit down and count the cost who is about to build a house. +9. They need no spectacles that are blind. +10. They buy no books who are not able to read. +11. Cotton, that is a plant, is woven into cloth. +12. Do you know that gentleman that is speaking? +13. There is no book which, when we look through it sharply, we cannot find + mistakes in it. +14. The reporter which said that was deceived. +15. The diamond, that is pure carbon, is a brilliant gem. +16. The brakemen and the cattle which were on the train were killed. +17. _Reputation_ and _character_ do not mean the same thing: the one + denotes what we are; the other, what we are thought to be. +18. Kosciusko having come to this country, he aided us in our Revolutionary + struggle. +19. What pleased me much, and which was spoken of by others, was the + general appearance of the class. +20. There are many boys whose fathers and mothers died when they were + infants. +21. Witness said that his wife's father came to his house, and he ordered + him out, but he refused to go. +22. Shall you be able to sell them boots? +23. I don't know but what I may. +24. Beer and wine are favorite drinks abroad: the one is made from grapes; + the other, from barley. +25. There is one marked difference between shiners and trout; these have + scales, and those have not. +26. They know little of men, who reason thus. +27. Help thyself, and Heaven will help you. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 89. + +CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. + ++Introductory Hints+.--You learned in Lesson 12 that, in the sentences +_Ripe apples are healthful, Unripe apples are hurtful_, the adjectives +_ripe_ and _unripe_ limit, or narrow, the application of _apples_ by +describing, or by expressing certain qualities of the fruit. You learned +also that _the_, _this_, _an_, _no_, _some_, and _many_ limit, or narrow, +the application of any noun which they modify, as _apple_ or _apples_, by +pointing out the particular fruit, by numbering it, or by denoting the +quantity of it. + +Adjectives which limit by expressing quality are called +Descriptive +Adjectives+; and those which limit by pointing out, numbering, or denoting +quantity are called +Definitive Adjectives+. + +Adjectives modifying a noun do not limit, or narrow, its application (1) +when they denote qualities that always belong to the thing named; as, +_yellow_ gold, the _good_ God, the _blue_ sky; or (2) when they are +attribute complements, denoting qualities asserted by the verb; as, The +fields were _green_; The ground was _dry_ and _hard_. + + ++DEFINITIONS+. + ++An _Adjective_ is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+.[Footnote: +Pronouns, like nouns, are often modified by an "appositive" adjective, that +is, an adjective joined loosely without restricting: thus--_Faint_ and +_weary_, _he_ struggled on or, _He_, _faint_ and _weary_, struggled on. +Adjectives that complete the predicate belong as freely to pronouns as to +nouns.] + ++A _Descriptive Adjective_ is one that modifies by expressing quality+. + ++A _Definitive Adjective_ is one that modifies by pointing out, numbering, +or denoting quantity+.[Footnote: The definitive adjectives _one_, _two_, +_three_, etc.; _first_, _second_, _third_, etc. are called +Numeral+ +adjectives. _One_, _two_, _three_, etc. are called +Cardinal+ numerals; and +_first_, _second_, _third_--etc. are called +Ordinal+ numerals] + +The definitive adjectives _an_ or _a_ and _the_ are commonly called ++Articles+. _An_ or _a_ is called the _Indefinite Article_, and _the_ is +called the _Definite Article_. + +A noun may take the place of an adjective. + ++Examples+.--_London_ journals, the _New York_ press, _silver_ spoons, +_diamond_ pin, _state_ papers, _gold_ bracelet. + ++Direction+.--_Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives +below, and name such as do not limit_:-- + +Able statesmen, much rain, ten mice, brass kettle, small grains, Mansard +roof, some feeling, all men, hundredth anniversary, the Pitt diamond, the +patient Hannibal, little thread, crushing argument, moving spectacle, the +martyr president, tin pans, few people, less trouble, this toy, any book, +brave Washington, Washington market, three cats, slender cord, that libel, +happy children, the broad Atlantic, The huge clouds were dark and +threatening, Eyes are bright, What name was given? Which book is wanted? + ++Direction+.--_Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives in +Lessons 80 and 81, and tell whether they denote color, motion, shape, +position, size, moral qualities, or whether they modify in some other way_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 90. + +CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. + ++Caution+.--_An_ and _a_ are different forms of _one_. _An_ is used before +vowel sounds. For the sake of euphony, _an_ drops _n_ and becomes _a_ +before consonant sounds.[Footnote: Some writers still use _an_ before words +beginning with unaccented _h_; as, _an historian_.] + ++Examples+.--_An_ inkstand, _a_ bag, _a_ historian, _a_ humble petition, +_an_ hour (_h_ is silent), _a_ unit (_unit_ begins with the consonant sound +of _y_), such _a_ one (_one_ begins with the consonant sound of _w_). ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- + +A heir, a inheritance, an hook, an ewer, an usurper, a account, an uniform, +an hundred, a umpire, an hard apple, an hero. + ++Caution.+--_An_ or _a_ is used to limit a noun to one thing of a class--to +any one. _The_ is used to distinguish (1) one thing or several things from +others, and (2) one class of things from other classes. + ++Explanation.+--We can say _a horse_, meaning _any one horse_; but we +cannot say, _A gold_ is heavy, This is a poor kind of a _gas_, William Pitt +received the title of _an earl_ because _gold, gas,_ and _earl_ are here +meant to denote each the whole of a class, and a limits its noun to one +thing of a class. + +_The horse_ or _the horses_ must be turned into _the lot_. Here _the_ +before _horse_ distinguishes a certain animal, and the before horses +distinguishes certain animals, from others of the same class; and _the_ +before _lot_ distinguishes the field from the yard or the stable--things in +other classes. _The horse_ is a noble animal. Here _the_ distinguishes +_this class_ of animals from other classes. But we cannot say, _The man_ +(meaning the race) is mortal, _The anger_ is a short madness, _The truth_ +is eternal, _The poetry_ and _the painting_ are fine arts, because _man, +anger, truth, poetry,_ and _painting_ are used in their widest sense, and +name things that are sufficiently distinguished without _the_. + ++Direction.+--_Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors_:-- + +1. This is another kind of a sentence. +2. Churchill received the title of a duke. +3. A _hill_ is from the same root as _column_. +4. Dog is a quadruped. +5. I expected some such an offer. +6. The woman is the equal of man. +7. The sculpture is a fine art. +8. Unicorn is kind of a rhinoceros. +9. Oak is harder than the maple. + ++Caution.+--Use _an_, _a_, or _the_ before _each_ of two or more connected +adjectives, when these adjectives modify different nouns, expressed or +understood; but, when they modify the same noun, the article should not be +repeated. + ++Explanation+.--_A cotton and a silk umbrella_ means two umbrellas--one +cotton and the other silk; the word umbrella is understood after _cotton_. +_A cotton and silk umbrella_ means one umbrella partly cotton and partly +silk; _cotton_ and _silk_ modify the same noun--_umbrella_. _The wise and +the good_ means two classes; _the wise and good_ means one class. + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors_:-- + +1. The Northern and Southern Hemisphere. +2. The Northern and the Southern Hemispheres. +3. The right and left hand. +4. A Pullman and Wagner sleeping-coach. +5. The fourth and the fifth verses. +6. The fourth and fifth verse. +7. A Webster's and Worcester's dictionary. + ++Caution+.--Use _an_, _a_, or _the_ before each of two or more connected +nouns denoting things that are to be distinguished from each other or +emphasized. + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- + +1. There is a difference between the sin and sinner. +2. We criticise not the dress but address of the speaker. +3. A noun and pronoun are alike in office. +4. Distinguish carefully between an adjective and adverb. +5. The lion, as well as tiger, belongs to the cat tribe. +6. Neither the North Pole nor South Pole has yet been reached. +7. The secretary and treasurer were both absent. + +(_The secretary and treasurer was absent_--referring to one person--is +correct.) + ++Caution+.--_A few_ and _a little_ mean _some_ as opposed to _none_; _few_ +means _not many_, and _little_ means _not much_. + ++Examples+.--He saved _a few_ things and _a little_ money from the wreck. +_Few_ shall part where many meet. _Little_ was said or done about it. + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- + +1. There are a few pleasant days in March, because it is a stormy month. +2. He saved a little from the fire, as it broke out in the night. +3. Few men live to be & hundred years old, but not many. +4. Little can be done, but not much. + ++Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these +Cautions_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 91. + +CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES--CONTINUED. + ++Caution+.--Choose apt adjectives, but do not use them needlessly; avoid +such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it. + ++Remark+.--The following adjectives are obviously needless: _Good_ virtues, +_verdant_ green, _painful_ toothache, _umbrageous_ shade. + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution carefully, and correct these errors_:-- + +1. It was splendid fun. +2. It was a tremendous dew. +3. He used less words than the other speaker. +4. The lad was neither docile nor teachable. +5. The belief in immortality is common and universal. +6. It was a gorgeous apple. +7. The arm-chair was roomy and capacious. +8. It was a lovely bun, but I paid a frightful price for it. + ++Caution+.--So place adjectives that there can be no doubt as to what you +intend them to modify. If those forming a series are of different rank, +place nearest the noun the one most closely modifying it. If they are of +the same rank, place them where they will sound best--generally in the +order of length, the shortest first. + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- + +1. A new bottle of wine. +2. The house was comfortable and large. +3. A salt barrel of pork. +4. It was a blue soft beautiful sky. +5. A fried dish of bacon. +6. We saw in the distance a precipitous, barren, towering mountain. +7. Two gray fiery little eyes. +8. A docile and mild pupil. +9. A pupil, docile and mild. + ++Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these +two Cautions_. + +Miscellaneous Errors. + ++Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these expressions violate, and +correct the errors_:-- + +1. I can bear the heat of summer, but not cold of winter. +2. The North and South Pole. +3. The eldest son of a duke is called _a marquis_. +4. He had deceived me, and so I had a little faith in him. +5. An old and young man. +6. A prodigious snowball hit my cheek. +7. The evil is intolerable and not to be borne. +8. The fat, two lazy men. +9. His penmanship is fearful. +10. A white and red flag were flying. +11. His unusual, unexpected, and extraordinary success surprised him. +12. He wanted a apple, an hard apple. +13. A dried box of herrings. +14. He received a honor. +15. Such an use! +16. The day was delightful and warm. +17. Samuel Adams's habits were unostentatious, frugal, and simple. +18. The victory was complete, though a few of the enemy were killed or + captured. +19. The truth is mighty and will prevail. +20. The scepter, the miter, and coronet seem to me poor things for great + men to contend for. +21. A few can swim across the Straits of Dover, for the width is great and + the current strong. +22. I have a contemptible opinion of you. +23. She has less friends than I. + +LESSON 92. + +CLASSES OF VERBS AND ADVERBS. + ++Introductory Hints+.--You learned in Lesson 28 that in saying _Washington +captured_ we do not fully express the act performed. Adding _Cornwallis_, +we complete the predicate by naming the one that receives the act that +passes over from the doer. _Transitive_ means _passing over_, and so all +verbs that represent an act as passing over from a doer to a receiver are +called +Transitive Verbs+. If we say _Cornwallis was captured by +Washington_, the verb is still transitive; but the object, _Cornwallis_, +which names the receiver, is here the subject of the sentence, and not, as +before, the object complement. You see that the object, the word that names +the receiver of the act, may be the subject, or it may be the object +complement. + +All verbs that, like _fall_ in _Leaves fall_, do not represent the act as +passing over to a receiver, and all that express mere being or state of +being are called +Intransitive Verbs+. + +A verb transitive in one sentence; as, He _writes_ good English, may be +intransitive in another; as, He _writes_ well--meaning simply He _is_ a +good _writer_. A verb is transitive only when an object is expressed or +obviously understood. + +_Washington captured Cornwallis_. Here _captured_ represents the act as +having taken place in past time. _Tense_ means _time_, and hence this verb +is in the past tense. _Cornwallis captured, the war speedily closed_. Here +_captured_ is, as you have learned, a participle; and, representing the act +as past at the time indicated by _closed_, it is a past participle. Notice +that _ed_ is added to _capture_ (final _e_ is always dropped when _ed_ is +added) to form its past tense and its past participle. All verbs that form +the past tense and the past participle by adding _ed_ to the present are +called +Regular Verbs+. + +All verbs that do not form the past tense and the past participle by adding +_ed_ to the present; as, _fall, fell, fallen; go, went, gone_, are called ++Irregular Verbs+. + + +_Early, hereafter, now, often, soon, presently_, etc., used to modify any +verb--as, _will go_ in, I _will go soon_--by expressing time, are called ++Adverbs of Time+. + +_Away, back, elsewhere, hence, out, within_, etc., used to modify any +verb--as, _will go_ in, I _will go away_--by expressing direction or place, +are called +Adverbs of Place+. + +_Exceedingly, hardly, quite, sufficiently, too, very_, etc., used to modify +a word--as the adjective _hot_ in, The tea is _very hot_--by expressing +degree, are called +Adverbs of Degree+. + +_Plainly, so, thus, well, not_, [Footnote: It may be worth remarking that +while there are many negative nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and +conjunctions in oar language, negation is more frequently expressed in +English by the adverb than by any other part of speech--than by all other +parts of speech. A very large per cent of these adverbs modify the verb. +That is to say, it is largely through the adverb that what the predicate +expresses is declared not to be true of the thing named by the subject. It +is very suggestive that much of what is said consists of denial--is taken +up in telling not what is true of things but what is not true of them. + +"The negative particle in our language is simply the consonant +n+. In +Saxon it existed as a word +ne+; but we have lost that word, and it is now +a letter only, which, enters into many words, as into _no, not, nought, +none, neither, nor, never_."--_Earle_. + +_No_ and _yes_ (_nay_ and _yea_), when used to answer Questions, show how +the thought presented is regarded, and may therefore be classed with +adverbs of manner. They are sometimes called _independent adverbs_. They +seem to modify words omitted in the answer but contained in the question; +as, Did you see him? _No_ = I did _no_ (_not_) see him; Will you go? _Yes_. +The force of _yes_ may be illustrated by substituting _certainly_--Will you +go? _Certainly_. _Certainly_ I will go, or I will _certainly_ go. As _no_ +and _yes_ represent or suggest complete answers, they may be called ++sentence-words+.] etc., used to modify a word--as, _spoke_ in, He _spoke +plainly_--by expressing manner, are called +Adverbs of Manner+. + +_Hence, therefore, why_, etc., used in making an inference or in expressing +cause--as, It is dark, _hence_, or _therefore_, the sun is down; _Why_ is +it dark?--are called +Adverbs of Cause+. + +Some adverbs fall into more than one class; as, _so_ and _as_. + +Some adverbs, as you have learned, connect clauses, and are therefore +called +Conjunctive Adverbs+. + + +DEFINITIONS. + ++A _Verb_ is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being+. + +CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING. + ++A _Transitive Verb_ is one that requires an object+. [Footnote: The ++object+ of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the +action, may be the +object complement+, or it may be the +subject+; as, +Brutus stabbed _Caesar_; _Caesar_ was stabbed by Brutus. See page 187.] + ++An _Intransitive Verb_ is one that does not require an object+. + +CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO FORM. + ++A _Regular Verb_ is one that forms its past tense and past participle by +adding _ed_ to the present+. + ++An _Irregular Verb_ is one that does not form its past tense and past +participle by adding _ed_ to the present+. + + ++An _Adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. +[Footnote: Adverbs have several exceptional uses. They may be used +independently; as, _Now, there_ must be an error here. They may modify a +phrase or a preposition; as, He came _just_ in time; It went _far_ beyond +the mark. They may modify a clause or a sentence; as, He let go _simply_ +because he was exhausted; _Certainly_ you may go. + +It may also be noted here that adverbs are used interrogatively; as, _How, +when_, and _where_ is this to be done? and that they may add to the office +of the adverb that of the conjunction; as, I go _where_ I am sent.] + +CLASSES OF ADVERBS. + ++_Adverbs of Time_ are those that generally answer the question+, _When?_ + ++_Adverbs of Place_ are those that generally answer the question+, _Where?_ + ++_Adverbs of Degree_ are those that generally answer the question+, _To +what extent?_ + ++_Adverbs of Manner_ are those that generally answer the question+, _In +what way?_ + ++_Adverbs of Cause_ are those that generally answer the question+, _Why?_ + ++Direction+.--_Point out the transitive and the intransitive, the regular +and the irregular verbs in Lesson_ 14, _and classify the adverbs_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 93. + +CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. + ++Caution+.--Choose apt adverbs, but do not use them needlessly or instead +of other forms of expression; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate +it. + ++Examples+.--I could _ill_ (not _illy_) afford the time. Do _as_ (not +_like_) I do. A diphthong is _the union of_ two vowels (not _where_ or +_when_ two vowels unite) in the same syllable. _This_ (not _this here_ or +_this 'ere_) sentence is correct. He wrote _that_ (not _how that_) he had +been sick. The belief in immortality is _universally_ held (not +_universally_ held _everywhere_). His nose was _very_ (not _terribly_ or +_frightfully_) red, + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these +errors_.-- + +1. I returned back here yesterday. +2. He had not hardly a minute to spare. +3. The affair was settled amicably, peaceably, and peacefully. +4. It was awfully amusing. +5. This 'ere knife is dull. +6. That 'ere horse has the heaves. +7. A direct quotation is when the exact words of another are copied. +8. I do not like too much sugar in my tea. +9. He seldom or ever went home sober. +10. The belief in immortality is universally held by all. +11. I am dreadfully glad to hear that. +12. This is a fearfully long lesson. +13. He said how that he would go. + ++Caution+.--So place adverbs that there can be no doubt as to what you +intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. They seldom stand +between _to_ and the infinitive. [Footnote: Instances of the "cleft, or +split, infinitive"--the infinitive separated from its _to_ by an +intervening adverb--are found in Early English and in English all the way +down, Fitzedward Hall and others have shown this. + +But there can be no question that usage is overwhelmingly against an +adverb's standing between _to_ and the infinitive. Few writers ever place +an adverb there at all; and these few, only an occasional adverb, and that +adverb only occasionally. + +Whether the adverb should be placed before the _to_ or after the infinitive +is often a nice question, sometimes to be determined by the ear alone. It +should never stand, however, where it would leave the meaning ambiguous or +in any way obscure.] + ++Examples+.--_I only_ rowed across the river = _I only_ (= _alone_, an +adjective), and no one else, rowed etc., or = I _only rowed_ etc., +but+ +did not _swim_ or _wade_. I rowed _only across_ the river = _across_, not +_up_ or _down_ etc. I rowed across the _river only_ = the _river only_, not +the _bay_ etc. _Merely to see_ (not _to merely see_) her was sufficient. +_Not every collegian_ is a scholar (not _Every collegian_ is _not_ a +scholar). + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these +errors_:-- + +1. I have thought of marrying often. +2. We only eat three meals a day. +3. He hopes to rapidly recruit. +4. All is not gold that glitters. +5. He tries to distinctly speak. +6. He tries distinctly to speak. +7. All that glitters is not gold. +8. His sagacity almost appears miraculous. + ++Caution+.--Unless you wish to affirm, do not use two negative words so +that they shall contradict each other. [Footnote: _Not in_frequently we use +two negatives to make an affirmation; as, He is _not un_just; _No_ man can +do _nothing_.] + ++Examples+.--No one _has_ (not _hasn't_) yet reached the North Pole. _No +un_pleasant circumstance happened (proper, because it is intended to +affirm). + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these +errors_:-- + +1. No other reason can never be given. +2. He doesn't do nothing. +3. He isn't improving much, I don't think. +4. There must be something wrong when children do not love neither father + nor mother. +5. He isn't no sneak. +6. Charlie Ross can't nowhere be found. + ++Caution+.--Do not use adverbs for adjectives or adjectives for adverbs. + ++Examples+.--The moon looks _calm_ and _peaceful_ (not _calmly_ and +_peacefully_, as the words are intended to describe the moon). The moon +looks down _calmly_ and _peacefully_ on the battlefield (not _calm_ and +_peaceful_, as the words are intended to tell how she performs the act). I +slept _soundly_ (not _good_ or _sound_). + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these +errors_:-- + +1. It was a softly blue sky. +2. The river runs rapid. +3. You must read more distinct. +4. It was an uncommon good harvest. +5. She is most sixteen. +6. The discussion waxed warmly. +7. The prima donna sings sweet. +8. She is miserable poor. +9. My head feels badly. +10. He spoke up prompt. +11. He went most there. +12. He behaved very bad. +13. This is a mighty cold day. + ++Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these +four Cautions_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 94. + +CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS-CONTINUED. + +Miscellaneous Errors. + ++Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these sentences violate, and correct +the errors_:-- + +1. Begin it over again. +2. This can be done easier. +3. The house is extra warm. +4. Most every one goes there. +5. I have a pencil that long. +6. He hasn't his lesson, I don't believe. +7. A circle can't in no way be squared. +8. This is a remarkable cold winter. +9. The one is as equally deserving as the other. +10. Feathers feel softly. +11. It is pretty near finished. +12. Verbosity is when too many words are used. +13. It is a wonderful fine day. +14. He is some better just now. +15. Generally every morning we went to the spring. +16. I wish to simply state this point. +17. He tried to not only injure but to also ruin the man. +18. The lesson was prodigiously long. +19. The cars will not stop at this station only when the bell rings. +20. He can do it as good as any one can. +21. Most everybody talks so. +22. He hasn't yet gone, I don't believe. +23. He behaved thoughtlessly, recklessly, and carelessly. +24. That 'ere book is readable. +25. I will not go but once. +26. I can't find out neither where the lesson begins nor where it ends. +27. They were nearly dressed alike. +28. The tortured man begged that they would kill him again and again. +29. The fortune was lavishly, profusely, and prodigally spent. +30. I am real glad to see you. +31. We publish all the information, official and otherwise. + +LESSON 95. + +PREPOSITIONS. + ++DEFINITION.--A _Preposition_ is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, +and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word +modified.+ + +Composition. + ++Direction+.--_We give below a list of the prepositions in common use. Make +short sentences in which each of these shall be aptly used. Use two or +three of them in a single sentence if you wish_:-- + +Aboard, +about, +above, +across, +after, +against, +along, +amid, +amidst, +among, +amongst, +around, +at, +athwart, +before, +behind, +below, +beneath, +beside, +besides, +between, +betwixt, +beyond, +but, +by, +down, +ere, +for, +from, +in, +into, +of, +on, +over, +past, +round, +since, +through, +throughout, +till, +to, +toward, +towards, +under, +underneath, +until, +unto, +up, +upon, +with, +within, +without. + ++Remarks+.--_Bating_, _concerning_, _during_, _excepting_, +_notwithstanding_, _pending_, _regarding_, _respecting_, _saving_, and +_touching_ are still participles in form and sometimes are such in use. But +in most cases the participial meaning has faded out of them, and they +express mere relations. + +_But_, _except_, and _save_, in such a sentence as, All _but_ or _except_ +or _save him_ were lost, are usually classed with prepositions. + +The phrases _aboard of_, _according to_, _along with_, _as to_, _because +of_ (by cause of), _from among_, _from between_, _from under_, _instead of_ +(in stead of), _out of_, _over against_, and _round about_ may be called +compound prepositions. But _from_ in these compounds; as, He crawled _from +under the ruins_, really introduces a phrase, the principal term of which +is the phrase that follows _from_. + +Many prepositions become adverbs when the noun which ordinarily follows +them is omitted; as, He rode _past_; He stands _above_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 96. + +CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS. + ++To the Teacher+.--Most prepositions express relations so diverse, and so +delicate in their shades of distinction that a definition of them based +upon etymology would mislead. A happy and discriminating use of +prepositions can be acquired only by an extended study of good authors. We +do below all that we think it prudent or profitable to do with them. He +should he a man of wide and careful reading who assumes to teach pupils +that such prepositions, and such only, should be used with certain words. +Nowhere in grammar is dogmatism more dangerous than here. That grammarian +exceeds his commission who marks out for the pupils' feet a path narrower +than the highway which the usage of the best writers and speakers has cast +up. [Footnote: Take a single illustration. Grammarians, in general, teach +that _between_ and _betwixt_ "refer to two," are used "only when two things +or sets of things are referred to." Ordinarily, and while clinging to their +derivation, they are so used, but are they always, and must they be? "There +was a hunting match agreed upon betwixt a lion, an ass, and a fox."-- +_L'Estrange_. "A Triple Alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden."-- +_J. B. Green_. "In the vacant space between Persia, Syria, Egypt, and +Ethiopia."--_Gibbon_. "His flight between the several worlds."--_Addison_. +"The identity of form between the nominative, accusative, and vocative +cases in the neuter." --_G. P. Marsh_. "The distinction between these three +orders has been well expressed by Prof. Max Mueller."--_W. D. Whitney_. +"Between such dictionaries as Worcester's, The Imperial, and Webster's."-- +_B. G. White_. "Betwixt the slender boughs came glimpses of her ivory +neck."--_Bryant_. With what clumsy circumlocutions would our speech be +filled if prepositions could never slip the leash of their etymology! What +simple and graceful substitute could be found for the last phrase in this +sentence, for instance: There were forty desks in the room with ample space +_between them_? + +"We observe that _between_ is not restricted to two."--_Imperial +Dictionary_. "In all senses _between_ has been, from its earliest +appearance, extended to more than two. It is still the only word available +to express the relation of a thing to many surrounding things severally and +individually--_among_ expressing a relation to them collectively and +vaguely: we should not say, 'The choice lies among the three candidates,' +or 'to insert a needle among the closed petals of a flower.'"--_The New +English Dictionary_. + +We have collected hundreds of instances of _between_ used by good writers +with three or more. + +Guard against such expressions as _between each_ page; a choice _between +one_ of several.] + ++Direction+.--_We give below a few words with the prepositions which +usually accompany them. Form short sentences containing these words +combined with each of the prepositions which follow them, and note +carefully the different relations expressed by the different +prepositions_:-- + +(Consult the dictionary for both the preposition and the accompanying +word.) + +Abide _at, by, with_; accommodate _to, with_; advantage _of, over_; agree +_to, with_; angry _at, with_; anxious _about, for_; argue _against, with_; +arrive _at, in_; attend _on_ or _upon, to_; careless _about, in, of_; +communicate _to, with_; compare _to, with_; consists _in, of_; defend +_against, from_; die _by, for, of_; different _from_; disappointed _in, +of_; distinguish _by, from_; familiar _to, with_; impatient _for, of_; +indulge _in, with_; influence _on, over, with_; insensible _of, to_; sat +_beside_; many _besides_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 97. + +CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED. + ++Direction+.--_Do with the following words as with those above_:-- + +Inquire _after, for, into, of_; intrude _into, upon_; joined _to, with_; +liberal _of, to_; live _at, in, on_; look _after, for, on_; need _of_; +obliged _for, to_; part _from, with_; placed _in, on_; reconcile _to, +with_; regard _for, to_; remonstrate _against, with_; sank _beneath, in, +into_; share _in, of, with_; sit _in, on_ or _upon_; smile _at, on_; +solicitous _about, for_; strive _for, with, against_; taste _for, of_; +touch _at, on_ or _upon_; useful _for, in, to_; weary _of, in, with_; yearn +_for, towards_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 98. + +CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED. + ++Caution+.--Great care must be used in the choice of prepositions. + ++Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:-- + +1. This book is different to that. +2. He stays to home. +3. They two quarreled among each other. +4. He is in want for money. +5. I was followed with a crowd. +6. He fell from the bridge in the water. [Footnote: _In_ denotes motion or + rest in a condition or place; _into_, change from one condition or place + into another. "When one is outside of a place, he may be able to get + _into_ it; but he cannot do anything _in_ it until he has got _into_ + it."] +7. He fought into the Revolution. [See previous footnote] +8. He bears a close resemblance of his father. +9. He entered in the plot. +10. He lives at London. +11. He lives in the turn of the road. +12. I have need for a vacation. +13. The child died with the croup. +14. He took a walk, but was disappointed of it. +15. He did not take a walk; he was disappointed in it. +16. He was accused with felony. +17. School keeps upon Monday. +18. Place a mark between each leaf. +19. He is angry at his father. +20. He placed a letter into my hands. +21. She is angry with your conduct. +22. What is the matter of him? +23. I saw him over to the house. +24. These plants differ with each other. +25. He boards to the hotel. +26. I board in the hotel. +27. She stays at the North. +28. I have other reasons beside these. [Footnote: Beside = _by the side + of_; besides = _in addition to_.] +29. You make no use with your talents. +30. He threw himself onto the bed. +31. The boys are hard to work. +32. He distributed the apples between his four brothers. +33. He went in the park. +34. You can confide on him. +35. He arrived to Toronto. +36. I agree with that plan. +37. The evening was spent by reading. +38. Can you accommodate me in one of those? +39. What a change a century has produced upon our country! +40. He stays to school late. +41. The year of the Restoration plunged Milton in bitter poverty. +42. The Colonies declared themselves independent from England. +43. I spent my Saturdays by going in the country, and enjoying myself by + fishing. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 99. + +CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED.[Footnote: "A preposition is a +feeble word to end a sentence _with_," we are told. Sentences (10) and +(13), Lesson 59, (2), Lesson 60, and many in succeeding Lessons violate the +rule so carelessly expressed. + +Of this rule, laid down without regard to usage and thoughtlessly repeated, +Prof. Austin Phelps says, "A preposition as such is by no means a feeble +word;" and he quotes a burst of feeling from Rufus Choate which ends thus: +"Never, so long as there is left of Plymouth Rock a piece large enough to +make a gunflint _of_!" "This," Professor Phelps says, "is purest idiomatic +English." He adds, "The old Scotch interrogative, 'What _for_?' is as pure +English in written as in colloquial speech." + +Sentences containing two prepositions before a noun are exceedingly common +in English--"The language itself is inseparable _from_, or essentially a +part _of_, the _thoughts_." Such sentences have been condemned, but the +worst that can be urged against them is, that they lack smoothness. But +smoothness is not always desirable. + +Sentences containing a transitive verb and a preposition before a noun are +very common--"Powerless to _affect_, or to be affected _by_, the _times_."] + +CAUTION.--Do not use prepositions needlessly. + +DIRECTION.--_Correct these errors_:-- + +1. I went there at about noon. +2. In what latitude is Boston in? +3. He came in for to have a talk. +4. I started a week ago from last Saturday. +5. He was born August 15, in 1834. +6. A good place to see a play is at Wallack's. +7. He went to home. +8. I was leading of a horse about. +9. By what states is Kentucky bounded by? +10. His servants ye are to whom ye obey. +11. Where are you going to? +12. They admitted of the fact. +13. Raise your book off of the table. +14. He took the poker from out of the fire. +15. Of what is the air composed of? +16. You can tell by trying of it. +17. Where have you been to? +18. The boy is like to his father. +19. They offered to him a chair. +20. This is the subject of which I intend to write about. +21. Butter brings twenty cents for a pound. +22. Give to me a knife. +23. I have a brother of five years old. +24. To what may Italy be likened to? +25. In about April the farmer puts in his seed. +26. Jack's favorite sport was in robbing orchards. +27. Before answering of you, I must think. +28. He lives near to the river. +29. Keep off of the grass. + ++Caution+.--Do not omit prepositions when they are needed. + ++Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:-- + +1. There is no use going there. +2. He is worthy our help. +3. I was prevented going. +4. He was banished the country. +5. He is unworthy our charity. +6. What use is this to him? +7. He was born on the 15th August, 1834. +8. Adam and Eve were expelled the garden. +9. It was the size of a pea. +10. Egypt is the west side of the Red Sea. +11. His efforts were not for the great, but the lowly. +12. He received dispatches from England and Russia. + ++Direction+.--_Point out the prepositions in Lessons_ 80 _and_ 81, _and +name the words between which, in sense, they show the relation_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 100. + +CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND OTHER CONNECTIVES. + ++Introductory Hints+.--The stars look down upon the roofs of the living +_and_ upon the graves of the dead, _but neither_ the living _nor_ the dead +are conscious of their gaze. Here _and_, _but_, _neither_, and _nor_ +connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order, and so are +called +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+. Both clauses may be independent, or both +dependent but of equal rank. + +At the burning of Moscow, it seemed _as_ [it would seem] _if_ the heavens +were lighted up _that_ the nations might behold the scene. Here _as_, _if_, +and _that_ connect each a lower, or subordinate, clause to a clause of +higher rank, and hence are called +Subordinate Conjunctions+. One clause +may be independent and the other dependent, or both dependent but of +unequal rank. + + ++DEFINITIONS.+ + ++A _Conjunction_ is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses+. +[Footnote: Some of the co-ordinate conjunctions, as _and_ and _but_, +connect, in thought, sentences separated by the period, and even connect +paragraphs. In analysis and parsing, we regard only the individual sentence +and treat such connectives as introductory.] + ++_Co-ordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses +of the same rank+. + ++_Subordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect clauses of different rank+. + ++Remark+.--Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper; some are +relative pronouns; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in +addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the +conjunction, take its office upon themselves and connect the clauses. + +To THE TEACHER.--We do not advise the memorizing of these lists. The pupils +should he able to name the different groups, and some of the most common +connectives of each group. + ++Co-ordinate Connectives.+ [Footnote: +Copulative+ conjunctions join parts +in the same line of thought; +Adversative+ conjunctions join parts +contrasted or opposed in meaning; +Alternative+ conjunctions join parts so +as to offer a choice or a denial. See Lesson 76.] + ++Copulative+.--_And_, _both_ ... _and_, _as well as_ [Footnote: The _as +well as_ in, _He, as well as I, went_; and not that in, _He is as well as I +am_.] are conjunctions proper. _Accordingly_, _also_, _besides_, +_consequently_, _furthermore_, _hence_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _now_, +_so_, _then_, and _therefore_ are conjunctive adverbs. + ++Adversative+.--_But_ and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper. _However_, +_nevertheless_, _notwithstanding_, _on the contrary_, _on the other hand_, +_still_, and _yet_ are conjunctive adverbs. + ++Alternative+.--_Neither_, _nor_, _or_, _either_ ... _or_, and _neither_ +... _nor_ are conjunctions proper. _Else_ and _otherwise_ are conjunctive +adverbs. + ++Subordinate Connectives.+ + +CONNECTIVES OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. + +_That_, _what_, _whatever_, _which_, _whichever_, _who_, and _whoever_ are +relative pronouns. _When_, _where_, _whereby_, _wherein_, and _why_ are +conjunctive adverbs. + +CONNECTIVES OF ADVERB CLAUSES. + +_Time_.--_After_, _as_, _before_, _ere_, _since_, _till_, _until_, _when_, +_whenever_, _while_, and _whilst_ are conjunctive adverbs. + +_Place_.--_Whence_, _where_, and _wherever _are conjunctive adverbs. + +_Degree_.--_As_, _than_, _that_, and _the_ are conjunctive adverbs, +correlative with adjectives or adverbs. + +_Manner_.--_As_ is a conjunctive adverb, correlative, often, with an +adjective or an adverb. + +_Real Cause_.--_As_, _because_, _for_, _since_, and _whereas_ are +conjunctions proper. + +_Evidence_.--_Because_, _for_, and _since_ are conjunctions proper. + +_Purpose_.--_In order that_, _lest_ (= _that not_), _that_, and _so that_ +are conjunctions proper. + +Condition.--Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided +that, and unless are conjunctions proper. + +_Concession_.--_Although_, _if_ (= _even if_), _notwithstanding_, _though_, +and _whether_ are conjunctions proper. _However_ is a conjunctive adverb. +_Whatever_, _whichever_, and _whoever_ are relative pronouns used +indefinitely. + +CONNECTIVES OF NOUN CLAUSES. + +_If_, _lest_, _that_, and _whether_ [Footnote: Etymologically, _whether_ is +restricted to two; but it has burst the bonds of its etymology and is very +freely used with three or more. + +The repetition of _whether_, like the use of it with three or more things, +has been condemned, but usage allows us to repeat it. + +_Whether or no_ is also allowed.] are conjunctions proper. _What_, _which_, +and _who_ are pronouns introducing questions; and _how_, _when_, _whence_, +_where_, and _why_ are conjunctive adverbs introducing questions. + ++Direction+.--_Study the lists above_, _and point out all the connectives +in Lessons_ 80 and 81, _telling which are relative pronouns_, _which are +conjunctions proper_, _and which are conjunctive adverbs_. + ++TO THE TEACHER+.--If the pupils lack maturity, or if it is found necessary +to abridge this work in order to conform to a prescribed course of study, +the six following Lessons may be omitted. The authors consider these +exercises very profitable, but their omission will occasion no break in the +course. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 101. + +COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES. + ++Direction+.--_Write twenty compound sentences whose clauses shall be +joined by connectives named in the three subdivisions of co-ordinate +connectives_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 102. + +COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED. + ++Direction+.--_Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined +by connectives of adjective clauses, and by connectives of adverb clauses +of time, place, degree, and manner_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 103. + +COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED. + ++Direction+.--_Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined +by connectives of adverb clauses of real cause, evidence, purpose, +condition, and concession, and by connectives of noun clauses_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 104. + +CONNECTIVES. + +Analysis. + ++Direction+.--_Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below, and +what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the +sentences_:-- + ++As+ may connect a clause expressing +manner+, +time+, +degree+, +cause+, +or +evidence+. + +1. Mount Marcy is not so high as Mount Washington. +2. As I passed by, I found an altar with this inscription. +3. It must be raining, as men are carrying umbrellas. +4. Ice floats, as water expands in freezing. +5. Half-learned lessons slip from the memory, as an icicle from the hand. + ++If+ may connect a clause expressing +condition+, +time+, or +concession+, +or it may introduce a +noun+ clause. + +6. If a slave's lungs breathe our air, that moment he is free. +7. If wishes were horses, all beggars might ride. + +8. Who knows if one of the Pleiads is really missing? [Footnote: Many + grammarians say that _if_ here is improperly used for _whether_. But + this use of _if_ is common with good authors in early and in modern + English.] + +9. If the flights of Dryden are higher, Pope continues longer on the wing. + ++Lest+ may connect a clause expressing +purpose+, or it may introduce a ++noun+ clause. + +10. England fears lest Russia may endanger British rule in India. +11. Watch and pray lest ye enter into temptation. + ++Since+ may connect a clause expressing +time+, +cause+, or +evidence+. + +12. It must be raining, since men are carrying umbrellas. +13. Many thousand years have gone by since the Pyramids were built. +14. Since the Puritans could not be convinced, they were persecuted. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 105. + +CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED. + +Analysis. + ++Direction+.--_Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below, and +what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the +sentences_:-- + ++That+ may connect a +noun+ clause, an +adjective+ clause, or a clause +expressing +degree+, +cause+, or +purpose+. + +1. The Pharisee thanked God that he was not like other men. +2. Vesuvius threw its lava so far that Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried. +3. The smith plunges his red-hot iron into water that he may harden the + metal. +4. Socrates said that he who might be better employed was idle. +5. We never tell our secrets to people that pump for them. + ++When+ may connect a clause expressing +time+, +cause+, or +condition+, an ++adjective+ clause or a +noun+ clause, or it may connect +co-ordinate+ +clauses. + +6. The Aztecs were astonished when they saw the Spanish horses. +7. November is the month when the deer sheds its horns. +8. When the future is uncertain, make the most of the present. +9. When the five great European races left Asia is a question. +10. When judges accept bribes, what may we expect from common people? +11. The dial instituted a formal inquiry, when hands, wheels, and weights + protested their innocence. + ++Where+ may connect a clause expressing +place+, an +adjective+ clause, or +a +noun+ clause. + +12. No one knows the place where Moses was buried. +13. Where Moses was buried is still a question. +14. No one has been where Moses was buried. + ++While+ may connect a clause expressing +time+ or +concession+, or it may +connect +co-ordinate+ clauses. + +15. Napoleon was a genius, while Wellington was a man of talents. +16. While we sleep, the body is rebuilt. +17. While Charles I. had many excellent traits, he was a bad king. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 106. + +CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED. + +Analysis. + ++Direction+.--_Use the appropriate connectives, and change these compound +sentences to complex without changing the meaning, and then analyze +them_:-- + +(Let one dependent clause be an adjective clause; let three express cause; +five, condition; and two, concession.) + +1. Caesar put the proffered crown aside, but he would fain have had it. +2. Take away honor and imagination and poetry from war, and it becomes + carnage. +3. His crime has been discovered, and he must flee. +4. You must eat, or you will die. +5. Wisdom is the principal thing, therefore get wisdom. +6. Let but the commons hear this testament, and they would go and kiss dead + Caesar's wounds. +7. Men are carrying umbrellas; it is raining. +8. Have ye brave sons? look in the next fierce brawl to see them die. +9. The Senate knows this, the Consul sees it, and yet the traitor lives. +10. Take away the grandeur of his cause, and Washington is a rebel instead + of the purest of patriots. +11. The diamond is a sparkling gem, and it is pure carbon. + ++Direction+.--_Two of the dependent clauses below express condition, and +three express concession. Place an appropriate conjunction before each, and +then analyze the sentences_:-- + +12. Should we fail, it can be no worse for us. +13. Had the Plantagenets succeeded in France, there would never have been + an England. +14. Were he my brother, I could do no more for him. +15. Were I so disposed, I could not gratify the reader. +16. Were I [Admiral Nelson] to die this moment, _more frigates_ would be + found written on my heart. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 107. + +CONSTRUCTION OF CONNECTIVES. + ++Caution+.--Some conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs may stand in +correlation with other words. _And_ may be accompanied by _both_; _as_, by +_as_, by _so_, or by _such_; _but_ (_but also_ and _but likewise_), by _not +only_; _if_, by _then_; _nor_, by _neither_; _or_, by _either_ or by +_whether_; _that_, by _so_; _the_, by _the_; _though_, by _yet_; _when_, by +_then_; and _where_, by _there_. + +Be careful that the right words stand in correlation, and stand where they +belong. + ++Examples+.--Give me neither riches _nor_ (not _or_) poverty. I cannot find +either my book _or_ (not _nor_) my hat. Dogs not only bark (not _not only +dogs_ bark) but also bite. _Not only dogs_ (not _dogs not only_) bark but +wolves also. He _was neither_ (not _neither was_) rich nor poor. + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:-- + +1. He not only gave me advice but also money. +2. A theatrical part may either imply some peculiarity of gesture or a + dissimulation of my real sentiments. +3. She not only dressed richly but tastefully. +4. Neither Massachusetts or Pennsylvania has the population of New York. +5. Thales was not only famous for his knowledge of nature but also for his + moral wisdom. +6. Not only he is successful but he deserves to succeed. +7. There was nothing either strange nor interesting. + ++Caution+.--Choose apt connectives, but do not use them needlessly or +instead of other parts of speech. + ++Examples+.--Seldom, _if_ (not _or_) ever, should an adverb stand between +_to_ and the infinitive. I will try _to_ (not _and_) do better next time. +No one can deny _that_ (not _but_) he has money. [Footnote: See foot-note, +page 176.] A harrow is drawn over the ground, _which_ (not _and which_) +covers the seed. Who doubts _that_ (not _but that_ or _but what_) Napoleon +lived [Footnote: See foot-note, page 176.] The doctor had scarcely left +_when_ (not _but_) a patient called. He has no love for his father _or_ +(not _nor_) for his mother (the negative _no_ is felt throughout the +sentence, and need not be repeated by _nor_). He was not well, _nor_ (not +_or_) was he sick (_not_ is expended in the first clause; _nor_ is needed +to make the second clause negative). + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these +errors_:-- + +1. The excellence of Virgil, and which he possesses beyond other poets, is + tenderness. +2. Try and recite the lesson perfectly to-morrow. +3. Who can doubt but that there is a God? +4. No one can eat nor drink while he is talking. +5. He seldom or ever went to church. +6. No one can deny but that the summer is the hottest season. +7. I do not know as I shall like it. +8. He said that, after he had asked the advice of all his friends, that he + was more puzzled than before. + ++Caution+.--_Else_, _other_, _otherwise_, _rather_, and adjectives and +adverbs expressing a comparison are usually followed by _than_. But _else_, +_other_, and _more_, implying something additional, but not different in +kind, may be followed by _but_ or _besides_. + ++Examples+.--A diamond is nothing _else than_ carbon. Junius was no _other +than_ Sir Philip Francis. The cripple cannot walk _otherwise than_ on +crutches. Americans would _rather_ travel _than_ stay at home. I rose +_earlier than_ I intended. He can converse on _other_ topics _besides_ +politics. + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these +errors_:-- + +1. Battles are fought with other weapons besides pop-guns. +2. The moon is something else but green cheese. +3. Cornwallis could not do otherwise but surrender. +4. It was no other but the President. +5. He no sooner saw the enemy but he turned and ran. + ++Caution+.--Two or more connected words or phrases referring to another +word or phrase should each make good sense with it. + ++Examples+.--I have always (add _said_) and still do say that labor is +honorable. Shakespeare was greater than any other poet that has (add +_lived_) or is now alive. The boy is stronger than his sister, but not so +tall (not The boy is _stronger_, but not _so tall, as_ his sister). + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these +errors_:-- + +1. Gold is heavier, but not so useful, as iron. +2. Gold is not so useful, but heavier, than iron. +3. This is as valuable, if not more so, than that. +4. Faithful boys have always and always will learn their lessons. +5. Bread is more nutritious, but not so cheap, as potatoes. +6. This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or may be + published. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 108. + +MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS. + ++Direction+.--_Correct these errors, telling what Caution each violates_:-- + +1. Carthage and Rome were rival powers: this city in Africa, and that in + Europe; the one on the northern coast of the Mediterranean, the other on + the southern. +2. The right and left lung were diseased. +3. The right and the left lungs were diseased. +4. My friend has sailed for Europe, who was here yesterday. +5. There are some men which are always young. +6. I cannot think but what God is good. +7. Thimbles, that are worn on the finger, are used in pushing the needle. +8. A told B that he was his best friend. +9. Them scissors are very dull. +10. Ethan Allen, being a rash man, he tried to capture Canada. +11. The lady that was thrown from the carriage, and who was picked up + insensible, died. +12. The eye and ear have different offices. +13. I only laugh when I feel like it. +14. This is the same man who called yesterday. +15. He was an humble man. +16. He was thrown forward onto his face. +17. A knows more, but does not talk so well, as B. +18. The book cost a dollar, and which is a great price. +19. At what wharf does the boat stop at? +20. The music sounded harshly. +21. He would neither go himself or send anybody. +22. It isn't but a short distance. +23. The butter is splendid. +24. The boy was graceful and tall. +25. He hasn't, I don't suppose, laid by much. +26. One would rather have few friends than a few friends. +27. He is outrageously proud. +28. Not only the boy skated but he enjoyed it. +29. He has gone way out West. +30. Who doubts but what two and two are four? +31. Some people never have and never will bathe in salt water. +32. The problem was difficult to exactly understand. +33. It was the length of your finger. +34. He bought a condensed can of milk. +35. The fish breathes with other organs besides lungs. +36. The death is inevitable. +37. She wore a peculiar kind of a dress. +38. When shall we meet together? +39. He talks like you do. [Footnote: The use of the verb _do_ as a + substitute for a preceding verb is one of the most remarkable idioms in + the language. In its several forms it stands for the finite forms and + for the infinitive and the participle of verbs, transitive and + intransitive, regular and irregular. It prevents repetition, and hence + is euphonic; it abbreviates expression, and therefore is energetic.] +40. This word has a different source than that. +41. No sooner did I arrive when he called. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 109. + +VARIOUS USES OF WHAT, THAT, AND BUT. + ++What+ may be used as a +relative pronoun+, an +interrogative pronoun+, a ++definitive adjective+, an +adverb+, and an +interjection+. + ++Examples+.--He did _what_ was right. _What_ did he say? _What_ man is +happy with the toothache? _What_ with confinement and _what_ with bad diet, +the prisoner found himself reduced to a skeleton (here _what_ = _partly_, +and modifies the phrase following it). _What_! you a lion? + ++That+ may be used as a +relative pronoun+, an +adjective+ +pronoun+, a ++definitive adjective+, a +conjunction+, and a +conjunctive adverb+. + ++Examples+.--He _that_ does a good deed is instantly ennobled. _That_ is +heroism. _That_ man is a hero. We eat _that_ we may live. It was so cold +_that_ the mercury froze. + ++But+ may be used as a +conjunction+, an +adverb+, an +adjective+, and a ++preposition+. + ++Examples+.--The ostrich is a bird, _but_ (adversative conjunction) it +cannot fly. Not a sparrow falls _but_ (= unless--subordinate conjunction) +God wills it. He was all _but_ (conjunction or preposition) dead = He was +all dead, _but_ he was not dead, or He was all (anything in that line) +_except_ (the climax) dead. No man is so wicked _but_ (conjunctive adverb) +he loves virtue = No man is wicked _to that degree in which_ he loves _not_ +virtue (_so_ = _to that degree_, _but_ = _in which not_). We meet _but_ +(adverb = _only_) to part. Life is _but_ (adjective = _only_) a dream. All +_but_ (preposition = _except_) him had fled. The tears of love were +hopeless _but_ (preposition = _except_) for thee. I cannot _but_ remember = +I cannot do anything _but_ (preposition = _except_) remember. There is no +fireside _but_ (preposition) has one vacant chair (_except the one which_ +has); or, regarding _but_ as a negative relative = _that not_, the sentence += There is no fireside _that_ has _not_ one vacant chair. + ++Direction+.--_Study the examples given above, point out the exact use of +what, that, and but in these sentences, and then analyze the sentences_:-- + +1. He did nothing but laugh. +2. It was once supposed that crystal is ice frozen so hard that it cannot + be thawed. +3. What love equals a mother's? +4. There is nobody here but me. +5. The fine arts were all but proscribed. +6. There's not a breeze but whispers of thy name. +7. The longest life is but a day. +8. What if the bee love not these barren boughs? +9. That life is long which answers life's great end. +10. What! I the weaker vessel? +11. Whom should I obey but thee? +12 What by industry and what by economy, he had amassed a fortune. +13. I long ago found that out. +14. One should not always eat what he likes. +15. There's not a white hair on your face but should have its effect of + gravity. +16. It was a look that, but for its quiet, would have seemed disdain. +17. He came but to return. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 110. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + +_Lesson_ 85.--Define a noun. What is the distinction between a common and a +proper noun? Why is _music_ a common noun? What is a collective noun? An +abstract noun? Define a pronoun. What are the classes of pronouns? Define +them. What is an antecedent? + +_Lesson_ 86.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting _he_, _it_, and +_they_; the needless use of pronouns; the two styles of the pronoun; the +use of _them_ for _those_, and of _what_ for _that_; and the use of _who_, +_which_, _that_, and _what_. + +_Lesson_ 87.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting connected +relative clauses; the relative in clauses not restrictive; the use of +_that_ instead of _who_ or _which_; the position of the relative clause; +and the use of _this_ and _that_, _the one_ and _the other_. + +_Lesson_ 89.--Define an adjective. What two classes are there? Define them. +What adjectives do not limit? Illustrate. + +_Lesson_ 90.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the use of the +adjectives _an_, _a_, and _the_; and the use of _a few_ and _few_, _a +little_ and _little_. + +_Lesson_ 91.--Give and illustrate the Cautious respecting the choice and +the position of adjectives. + +Lesson_ 93.--Define a verb. What are transitive verbs? Intransitive? +_Illustrate. What distinction is made between the object and the object +complement? What are regular verbs? Irregular? Illustrate. What are the +several classes of adverbs? Define them. What is a conjunctive adverb? + +_Lesson_ 93.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the choice and +the position of adverbs, the use of double negatives, and the use of +adverbs for adjectives and of adjectives for adverbs. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 111. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS--CONTINUED. + +_Lesson_ 95.--Define a preposition. Name some of the common prepositions. +What is said of some prepositions ending in _ing_? Of _but_, _except_, and +_save_? Of certain compound prepositions? When do prepositions become +adverbs? + +_Lesson_ 98.--Give and illustrate the Caution as to the choice of +prepositions. What, in general, is the difference between _in_ and _into_? + +_Lesson_ 99.--Give and illustrate the two Cautions relating to the use of +prepositions. + +_Lesson_ 100.--Define a conjunction. What are the two great classes of +conjunctions, and what is their difference? What other parts of speech +besides conjunctions connect? What are adverbs that connect called? Into +what three classes are co-ordinate connectives subdivided? Give some of the +conjunctions and the conjunctive adverbs of each class. What three kinds of +clauses are connected by subordinate connectives? The connectives of adverb +clauses are subdivided into what classes? Give a leading connective of each +class. + +_Lessons_ 104, 105.--Illustrate two or more offices of each of the +connectives _as_, _if_, _lest_, _since_, _that_, _when_, _where_, and +_while_. + +_Lesson_ 107.--Give and illustrate the four Cautions relating to the +construction of connectives. + +_Lesson_ 109.--Illustrate the offices of _what_, _that_, and _but_. + + * * * * * + +GENERAL REVIEW. + +Schemes for the Conjunction, Preposition, and Interjection. + +(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.) + + + | Co-Ordinate. | +THE CONJUNCTION. +Classes+. + Subordinate + 106-107. + | | + +THE PREPOSITION. No Classes (95, 98, 99). + +THE INTERJECTION. No Classes (20, 21). + +MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 112. + ++Introductory Hints+.--You have learned that two words may express a +thought, and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words. You +are now to learn that the meaning or use of a word may be changed by simply +changing its form. The English language has lost most of its inflections, +or forms, so that many of the changes in the meaning and the use of words +are not now marked by changes in form. These changes in the form, the +meaning, and the use of the parts of speech we call their +Modifications+. +[Footnote: Those grammarians that attempt to restrict number, case, mode, +etc.--what we here call _Modifications_--to form, find themselves within +bounds which they continually overleap. They define number, for instance, +as a form, or inflection, and yet speak of nouns "plural in form but +singular in sense," or "singular in form but plural in sense;" that is, if +you construe them rigorously, plural or singular in form but singular or +plural form in sense. They tell you that case is a form, and yet insist +that nouns have three cases, though only two forms; and speak of the +nominative and the objective case of the noun, "although in fact the two +cases are always the same in form"--the two forms always the same in form! + +On the other hand, those that make what we call _Modifications_ denote only +relations or conditions of words cannot cling to these abstract terms. For +instance, they ask the pupil to "pronounce and write the possessive of +nouns," hardly expecting, we suppose, that the "condition" of a noun will +be sounded or written; and they speak of "a noun in the singular with a +plural application," in which expression _singular_ must be taken to mean +_singular form_ to save it from sheer nonsense. + +We know no way to steer clear of Scylla and keep out of Charybdis but to do +what by the common use of the word we are allowed; viz., to take +_Modifications_ with such breadth of signification that it will apply to +meaning and to use, as well as to form. Primarily, of course, it meant +inflections, used to mark changes in the meaning and use of words. But we +shall use _Modifications_ to indicate changes in meaning and use when the +form in the particular instance is wanting, nowhere, however, recognizing +that as a modification which is not somewhere marked by form.] + +Modifications of Nouns and Pronouns. + + +NUMBER. + +_The boy shouts_. _The boys shout_. The form of the subject _boy_ is +changed by adding an _s_ to it. The meaning has changed. _Boy_ denotes one +lad; boys, two or more lads. This change in the form and the meaning of +nouns is called +Number+; the word _boy_, denoting one thing, is in the ++Singular Number+; and _boys_, denoting more than one thing, is in the ++Plural Number+. Number expresses only the distinction of one from more +than one; to express more precisely how many, we use adjectives, and say +_two boys_, _four boys_, _many_ or _several boys_. + + ++DEFINITIONS+. + ++_Modifications of the Parts of Speech_ are changes in their form, meaning, +and use+. + ++_Number_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing +or more than one.+ + ++The _Singular Number_ denotes one thing+. + ++The _Plural Number_ denotes more than one thing+. + +NUMBER FORMS. + ++RULE.--The _plural_ of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ to the +singular+. + +To this rule there are some exceptions. + +When the singular ends in a sound that cannot unite with that of _s_, _es_ +is added and forms another syllable.[Footnote: In Anglo-Saxon, _as_ was the +plural termination for a certain class of nouns. In later English, _as_ was +changed to _es_, which became the regular plural ending; as, _bird-es_, +_cloud-es_. In modern English, _e_ is dropped, and _s_ is joined to the +singular without increase of syllables. But, when the singular ends in an +_s_-sound, the original syllable _es_ is retained, as two hissing sounds +will not unite.] + ++Remark+.--Such words as _horse_, _niche_, and _cage_ drop the final _e_ +when _es_ is added. See Rule 1, Lesson 137. + ++Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns, and note +what letters represent sounds that cannot unite with the sound of +s+_:-- + +Ax _or_ axe, arch, adz _or_ adze, box, brush, cage, chaise, cross, ditch, +face, gas, glass, hedge, horse, lash, lens, niche, prize, race, topaz. + +The following nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _es_ without +increase of syllables. + ++Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:-- + +Buffalo, calico, cargo, echo, embargo, grotto, hero, innuendo, motto, +mosquito, mulatto, negro, portico (_oes_ or _os_), potato, tornado, +torpedo, veto, volcano. + +The following nouns in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _s_ only. + ++Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:-- + +Canto, domino (_os_ or _oes_), duodecimo, halo, junto, lasso, memento, +octavo, piano, proviso, quarto, salvo, solo, two, tyro, zero (_os_ or +_oes_). + +Nouns in _o_ preceded by a vowel add _s_. + +Bamboo, cameo, cuckoo, embryo, folio, portfolio, seraglio, trio. + +Common nouns [Footnote: See Rule 2, Lesson 127. In old English, such words +as _lady_ and _fancy_ were spelled _ladie_, _fancie_. The modern plural +simply retains the old spelling and adds _s_,] in _y_ after a consonant +change _y_ into _i_ and add _es_ without increase of syllables. Nouns in +_y_ after a vowel add _s_. + ++Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:-- + +Alley, ally, attorney, chimney, city, colloquy, [Footnote: _U_ after _q_ is +a consonant] daisy, essay, fairy, fancy, kidney, lady, lily, money, monkey, +mystery, soliloquy, turkey, valley, vanity. + +The following nouns change _f_ or _fe_ into _ves_. + ++Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:-- + +Beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, staff, +[Footnote: _Staff_ (a stick or support), _staves_ or _staffs_; _staff_ (a +body of officers), _staffs_. The compounds of _staff_ are regular; as, +_flagstaffs_.] thief, wharf, [Footnote: In England, generally _wharfs_.] +wife, wolf. + +The following nouns in _f_ and _fe_ are regular. + ++Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:-- + +Belief, brief, chief, dwarf, fife, grief, gulf, hoof, kerchief, proof, +reef, roof, safe, scarf, strife, waif. + +(Nouns in _ff_, except _staff_, are regular; as, _cuff_, _cuffs_.) + +The following plurals are still more irregular. + ++Direction+.--_Learn to form the following plurals_:-- + +Child, children; foot, feet; goose, geese; louse, lice; man, men; mouse, +mice; Mr., Messrs.; ox, oxen; tooth, teeth; woman, women. + +(For the plurals of pronouns, see Lesson 124.) + + * * * * * + +LESSON 113. + +NUMBER FORMS--CONTINUED. + +Some nouns adopted from foreign languages still retain their original +plural forms. Some of these take the English plural also. + ++Direction+.--_Learn to form the following plurals_:-- + +Analysis, analyses; antithesis, antitheses; appendix, appendices _or_ +appendixes; automaton, automata _or_ automatons; axis, axes; bandit, +banditti _or_ bandits; basis, bases; beau, beaux _or_ beaus; cherub, +cherubim _or_ cherubs; crisis, crises; datum, data; ellipsis, ellipses; +erratum, errata; focus, foci: fungus, fungi _or_ funguses; genus, genera; +hypothesis, hypotheses; ignis fatuus, ignes fatui; madame, mesdames; magus, +magi; memorandum, memoranda _or_ memorandums; monsieur, messieurs; nebula, +nebulae; oasis, oases; parenthesis, parentheses; phenomenon, phenomena; +radius, radii _or_ radiuses; seraph, seraphim _or_ seraphs; stratum, +strata; synopsis, synopses; terminus, termini; vertebra, vertebrae; vortex, +vortices _or_ vortexes. + +The following compound nouns, in which the principal word stands first, +vary the first word; as, _sons_-in-law. + ++Direction+.--_Form the plural of the following words_:-- + +Aid-de-camp, attorney-at-law, billet-doux, [Footnote: Plural, billets-doux, +pronounced _bil'-la:-doo:z_ ] commander-in-chief, court-martial, +cousin-german, father-in-law, hanger-on, man-of-war. + +The following, and most compounds, vary the last word; as, pailfuls, +gentle_men_. [Footnote: _Pails full_ is not a compound. This expression +denotes a number of pails, each full.] + ++Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:-- + +Courtyard, dormouse, Englishman, fellow-servant, fisherman, Frenchman, +forget-me-not, goose-quill, handful, maid-servant, man-trap, mouthful, +pianoforte, portemonnaie, spoonful, stepson, tete-a-tete, tooth-brush. + +The following nouns (except _Norman_) are not compounds of _man_--add _s_ +to all. + +Brahman, German, Mussulman, Norman, Ottoman, talisman. + +The following compounds vary both parts; as, _man-singer_, _men-singers_. + ++Direction+.--_Form the plural of each of the following nouns_:-- + +Man-child, man-servant, woman-servant, woman-singer. + +Compounds consisting of a proper name preceded by a title form the plural +by varying either the title or the name; as, the Miss _Clarks_ or the +_Misses_ Clark; but, when the title _Mrs._ is used, the name is usually +varied; as, the Mrs. _Clarks_. [Footnote: Of the two forms, the _Miss +Clarks_ and the _Misses Clark_, we believe that the former is most used by +the best authors. The latter, except in formal notes or when the title is +to be emphasized, is rather stiff if not pedantic. Some authorities say +that, when a numeral precedes the title, the name should always be varied; +as, the _two Miss Clarks_. + +The forms, the _Misses Clarks_ and the _two Mrs. Clark_, have little +authority.] + ++Direction+.--_Form the plural of the following compounds_:-- + +Miss Jones, Mr. Jones, General Lee, Dr. Brown, Master Green. + +A title used with two or more different names is made plural; as, _Drs_. +Grimes and Steele, _Messrs_. Clark and Maynard. + ++Direction+.--_Put each of the following expressions in its proper form_:-- + +General Lee and Jackson; Miss Mary, Julia, and Anna Scott; Mr, Green, +Stacy, & Co. + +Letters, figures, and other characters add the apostrophe and _s_ to form +the plural; [Footnote: Some good writers form the plural of words named +merely as words, in the same way; as, the _if's_ and _and's_; but the (') +is here unnecessary.] as, _a's, 2's, ----'s_. + ++Direction.+--_Form the plural of each of the following characters_:--S, +i, t, +, x, [Dagger], 9, 1, 1/4, [Yough], [Cyrillic: E]. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 114. + +NUMBER FORMS--CONTINUED. + +Some nouns have two plurals differing in meaning. + ++Direction.+--_Learn these plurals and their meanings:_-- + +Brother, + brothers (by blood), + brethren (of the same society). +Cannon, + cannons (individuals), + cannon (in a collective sense). +Die, + dies (stamps for coining), + dice (cubes for gaming). +Fish, + fishes (individuals), + fish (collection). [Footnote: The names of several sorts of fish, as, + _herring, shad, trout_, etc. are used in the same way. The compounds of + _fish_, as _codfish_, have the same form in both numbers.] +Foot, + feet (parts of the body), + foot (foot-soldiers). +Genius, + geniuses (men of genius), + genii (spirits). +Head, + heads (parts of the body), + head (of cattle). +Horse, + horses (animals), + horse (horse-soldiers). +Index, + indexes (tables of reference), + indices (signs in algebra). +Penny, + pennies (distinct coins), + pence (quantity in value). +Sail, + sails (pieces of canvas), + sail (vessels). +Shot, + shots (number of times fired), + shot (number of balls). + +The following nouns and pronouns have the same form in both numbers. + ++Direction.+--_Study the following list:_-- + +Bellows, corps, [Footnote: The singular is pronounced _ko:r_, the plural +_ko:rz_.] deer, gross, grouse, hose, means, odds, pains (care), series, +sheep, species, swine, vermin, who, which, that (relative), what, any, +none. + +(The following have two forms in the plural). + +Apparatus, apparatus _or_ apparatuses; heathen, heathen _or_ heathens. + +(The following nouns have the same form in both numbers when used with +numerals; they add _s_ in other cases; as, _four score, by scores_.) + +Dozen, score, yoke, hundred, thousand. + +The following nouns have no plural. + +(These are generally names of materials, qualities, or sciences.) + +Names of materials when taken in their full or strict sense can have no +plural, but they may be plural when kinds of the material or things made of +it are referred to; as, _cottons, coffees, tins, coppers_. + ++Direction.+--_Study the following list of words:_-- + +Bread, coffee, copper, flour, gold, goodness, grammar (science, not a +book), grass, hay, honesty, iron, lead, marble, meekness, milk, molasses, +music, peace, physiology, pride, tin, water. + +The following plural forms are commonly used in the singular. + +Acoustics, ethics, mathematics, politics (and other names of sciences in +_ics_), amends, measles, news. + +The following words are always plural. + +(Such words are generally names of things double or multiform in their +character.) + ++Direction+.--_Study the following list_:-- + +Aborigines, annals, ashes, assets, clothes, fireworks, hysterics, literati, +mumps, nippers, oats, pincers, rickets, scissors, shears, snuffers, suds, +thanks, tongs, tidings, trousers, victuals, vitals. + +The following were originally singular forms, but they are now treated as +plural. + +Alms (Anglo-Saxon _aelmaesse_), eaves (A. S. _efese_), riches (Norman +French _richesse_). + +The following have no singular corresponding in meaning. + +Colors (flag), compasses (dividers), goods (property), grounds (dregs), +letters (literature), manners (behavior), matins (morning service); morals +(character), remains (dead body), spectacles (glasses), stays (corsets), +vespers (evening service). + +(The singular form is sometimes an adjective.) + +Bitters, greens, narrows, sweets, valuables, etc. + +Collective nouns are treated as plural when the individuals in the +collection are thought of, and as singular when the collection as a whole +is thought of. + ++Examples+.--The _committee were_ unable to agree, and _they_ asked to be +discharged. A _committee was_ appointed, and _its_ report will soon be +made. + +(Collective nouns have plural forms; as, _committees, armies_.) + + * * * * * + +LESSON 115. + +REVIEW IN NUMBER. + ++Direction+.--_Write the plural of the singular nouns and pronouns in the +following list, and the singular of those that are plural; give the Rule or +the Remark that applies to each; and note those that have no plural, and +those that have no singular:_-- + +Hope, age, bench, bush, house, loss, tax, waltz, potato, shoe, colony, +piano, kangaroo, pulley, wharf, staff, fife, loaf, flagstaff, handkerchief, +Mr., child, ox, beaux, cherubim, mesdames, termini, genus, genius, bagnio, +theory, galley, muff, mystery, colloquy, son-in-law, man-of-war, spoonful, +maid-servant, Frenchman, German, man-servant, Dr. Smith, Messrs. Brown and +Smith, x, 1/2, deer, series, bellows, molasses, pride, politics, news, +sunfish, clothes, alms, goods, grounds, greens, who, that. + ++Direction.+--_Give five words that have no plural, five that have no +singular, and five that have the same form in both numbers._ + ++Direction.+--_Correct the following plurals, and give the Remark that +applies to each:_-- + +Stagees, foxs, mosquitos, calicos, heros, soloes, babys, trioes, chimnies, +storys, elfs, beefs, scarves, oxes, phenomenons, axises, terminuses, +genuses, mother-in-laws, aldermans, Mussulmen, teeth-brushes, mouthsful, +attorney-at-laws, man-childs, geese-quills, 2s, ms. swines. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 116. + +NUMBER FORMS IN CONSTRUCTION. + +The number of a noun may be determined not only by its form but also by the +verb, the adjective, and the pronoun used in connection with it. + ++Remark.+--_These scissors are_ so dull that I cannot use _them_. The +plurality of _scissors_ is here made known in four ways. In the following +sentence _this, is_, and _it_ are incorrectly used: _This_ scissors _is_ so +dull that I cannot use _it_. + ++Direction+.--_Construct sentences in which the number of each of the +following nouns shall be indicated by the form of the verb, by the +adjective, and by the pronoun used in connection with it_:-- + +(With the singular nouns use the verbs _is, was_, and _has been_; the +adjectives _an, one, this_, and _that_; the pronouns _he, his, him, she, +her, it_, and _its_.) + +(With the plural nouns use the verbs _are, were_, and _have been_; the +adjectives _these, those_, and _two_; the pronouns _they, their_, and +_them_.) + +Bellows, deer, fish, gross, means, series, species, heathen, trout, iron, +irons, news, eaves, riches, oats, vermin, molasses, Misses, brethren, dice, +head (of cattle), pennies, child, parent, family, crowd, meeting. + ++Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which the first three of the following +adjective pronouns shall be used as singular subjects, the fourth as a +plural subject, and the remainder both as singular and as plural +subjects_:-- + +Each, either, neither, both, former, none, all, any. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 117. + +NOUNS AND PRONOUNS--GENDER. + ++Introductory Hints+.--_The lion was caged. The lioness was caged_. In the +first sentence something is said about a male lion, and in the second +something is said about a female lion. The modification of the noun to +denote the sex of the thing which it names is called +Gender+. _Lion_, +denoting a male animal, is in the +Masculine Gender; and _lioness_, +denoting a female animal, is in the +Feminine Gender+. Names of things that +are without sex are said to be in the +Neuter Gender+. Such nouns as +_cousin, child, friend, neighbor_ are either masculine or feminine. Such +words are sometimes said to be in the _Common Gender_. + +Sex belongs to the thing; and gender, to the noun that names the thing. +Knowing the sex of the thing or its lack of sex, you know the gender of the +noun in English that names it; for in our language gender follows the sex. +But in such modern languages as the French and the German, and in Latin and +Greek, the gender of nouns naming things without reference to sex is +determined by the likeness of their endings in sound to the endings of +words denoting things with sex. The German for table is a masculine noun, +the French is feminine, and the English, of course, is neuter. [Footnote: +In Anglo-Saxon, the mother-tongue of our language, gender was grammatical, +as in the French and the German; but, since the union of the Norman-French +with the Anglo-Saxon to form the English, gender has followed sex.] + + * * * * * + ++DEFINITIONS+. + ++_Gender_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes sex+. + ++The _Masculine Gender_ denotes the male sex+. + ++The _Feminine Gender_ denotes the female sex+. + ++The _Neuter Gender_ denotes want of sex+. + +Gender Forms. + +No English nouns have distinctive neuter forms, but a lew have different +forms to distinguish the masculine from the feminine. + +The masculine is distinguished from the feminine in three ways:-- + +1st. By a difference in the ending of the words. + +2d. By different words in the compound names. + +3d. By using words wholly or radically different. + +_Ess_ is the most common ending for feminine nouns. [Footnote: The suffix +_ess_ came into the English language from the Norman-French. It displaced +the feminine termination of the mother-tongue (A. S. _estre_, old English +_ster_). The original meaning of _ster_ is preserved in _spinster_. _Er_ +(A. S. _ere_) was originally a masculine suffix; but it now generally +denotes an agent without reference to sex; as, _read-er, speak-er._] + ++Direction+.--_Form the feminine of each of the following masculine nouns +by adding e s s :--_ + +Author, baron, count, deacon, giant, god (see Rule 3, Lesson 127), heir, +host, Jew, lion, patron, poet, prince (see Rule 1, Lesson 127), prior, +prophet, shepherd, tailor, tutor. + +(Drop the vowel _e_ or _o_ in the ending of the masculine, and add _ess_.) + +Actor, ambassador, arbiter, benefactor, conductor, director, editor, +enchanter, hunter, idolater, instructor, preceptor, tiger, waiter. + +(Drop the masculine _er_ or _or_, and add the feminine _ess_.) + +Adventurer, caterer, governor, murderer, sorcerer. + +(The following are somewhat irregular.) + ++Direction+.--_Learn these forms:_-- + +Abbot, abbess; duke, duchess; emperor, empress; lad, lass; marquis, +marchioness; master, mistress; negro, negress. + +_Ess_ was formerly more common than now. Such words as _editor_ and +_author_ are now frequently used to denote persons of either sex. + ++Direction+.--_Give five nouns ending in e r or o r that may be applied to +either sex._ + +Some words, mostly foreign, have various endings in the feminine. + ++Direction+.--Learn the following forms:-- + +Administrator, administratrix; Augustus, Augusta; beau, belle; Charles, +Charlotte; Cornelius, Cornelia; czar, czarina; don, donna; equestrian, +equestrienne; executor, executrix; Francis, Frances; George, Georgiana; +Henry, Henrietta; hero, heroine; infante, infanta; Jesse, Jessie; Joseph, +Josephine; Julius, Julia _or_ Juliet; landgrave, landgravine; Louis, Louisa +_or_ Louise; Paul, Pauline; signore _or_ signor, siguora; sultan, sultana; +testator, testatrix; widower, widow. + +In some compounds distinguishing words are prefixed or affixed. + ++Direction+.--_Learn the following forms_:-- + +Billy-goat, nanny-goat; buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow; +Englishman, Englishwoman; gentleman, gentlewoman; grandfather, grandmother; +he-bear, she-bear; landlord, landlady; man-servant, maid-servant; merman, +mermaid; Mr. Jones, Mrs. or Miss Jones; peacock, peahen. + +Words wholly or radically different are used to distinguish the masculine +from the feminine. + +(This is a matter pertaining to the dictionary rather than to grammar.) + ++Direction+.--_Learn the following forms_:-- + +Bachelor, maid; buck, doe; drake, duck; earl, countess; friar _or_ monk, +nun; gander, goose; hart, roe; lord, lady; nephew, niece; sir, madam; stag, +hind; steer, heifer; wizard, witch; youth, damsel _or_ maiden. + +The pronoun has three gender forms:--Masculine _he_, feminine _she_, and +neuter _it_. [Footnote: _It_, although a neuter form, is used idiomatically +to refer to a male or a female as, _It_ was _John_; _It_ was _Mary_.] + ++Direction+.--_Give five examples of each of the three ways of +distinguishing the masculine from the feminine._ + + * * * * * + +LESSON 118. + +GENDER FORMS IN CONSTRUCTION. + +Gender as a matter of orthography is of some importance, but in grammar it +is chiefly important as involving the correct use of the pronouns _he_, +_she_, and _it_. + +When a singular noun is used so as to imply persons of both sexes, it is +commonly represented by a masculine pronoun. [Footnote: When it is +necessary to distinguish the sexes, both the masculine and the feminine +pronoun should be used; as, _Each person was required to name his or her +favorite flower._] + ++Example+.--Every _person_ has _his_ faults. + +The names of animals are often considered as masculine or feminine without +regard to the real sex. + ++Examples+.--The _grizzly bear_ is the most savage of _his_ race. The _cat_ +steals upon _her_ prey. + ++Remark+.--The writer employs _he_ or _she_ according as he fancies the +animal to possess masculine or feminine characteristics. _He_ is more +frequently employed than _she_. + +The neuter pronoun _it_ is often used with reference to animals and very +young children, the sex being disregarded. + ++Examples+.--When the _deer_ is alarmed, _it_ gives two or three graceful +springs. The little _child_ reached out _its_ hand to catch the sunbeam. + ++Remark+.--_It_ is quite generally used instead of _he_ or _she_, in +referring to an animal, unless some masculine or feminine quality seems to +predominate. + +Inanimate things are often represented as living beings, that is, they are +personified, and are referred to by the pronoun _he_ or _she_. + ++Example+.--The _oak_ shall send _his_ roots abroad and pierce thy mold. + ++Remark+.--The names of objects distinguished for size, power, or sublimity +are regarded as masculine; and the names of those distinguished for grace, +beauty, gentleness, or productiveness are considered as feminine. +Personification adds beauty and animation to style. + ++Direction+.--_Study what is said above, and then fill each of the blanks +in the following sentences with a masculine, a feminine, or a neuter +pronoun, and in each case give the reason for your selection_:-- + +1. No one else is so much alone in the universe as ---- who denies God. +2. A person's manners not unfrequently indicate ---- morals, +3. Everybody should think for ----. +4. The forest's leaping panther shall yield ---- spotted hide. +5. The catamount lies in the boughs to watch ---- prey. +6. The mocking-bird poured from ---- little throat floods of delirious + music. +7. The wild beast from ---- cavern sprang, the wild bird from ---- grove. +8. The night-sparrow trills ---- song. +9. The elephant is distinguished for ---- strength and sagacity. +10. The bat is nocturnal in ---- habits. +11. The dog is faithful to ---- master. +12. The child was unconscious of ---- danger. +13. The fox is noted for ---- cunning. +14. Belgium's capital had gathered then ---- beauty and ---- chivalry. +15. Despair extends ---- raven wing. +16. Life mocks the idle hate of ---- arch-enemy, Death. +17. Spring comes forth ---- work of gladness to contrive. +18. Truth is fearless, yet ---- is meek and modest. + ++Direction+.--_Write sentences in which the things named below shall be +personified by means of masculine pronouns_:-- + +Death, time, winter, war, sun, river, wind. + ++Direction+.--Write sentences in which the things named below shall be +personified by means of feminine pronouns:-- + +Ship, moon, earth, spring, virtue, nature, night, England. + ++Caution+.--Avoid changing the gender of the pronoun when referring to the +same antecedent. + ++Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:-- + +1. The polar bear is comparatively rare in menageries, as it suffers so + much from the heat that he is not easily preserved in confinement. +2. The cat, when it comes to the light, contracts and elongates the pupil + of her eye. +3. Summer clothes herself in green, and decks itself with flowers. +4. War leaves his victim on the field, and homes desolated by it mourn over + her cruelty. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 119. + +NOUNS AND PRONOUNS--PERSON AND CASE. + ++Introductory Hints+.--Number and gender, as you have learned, are +modifications affecting the meaning of nouns and pronouns--number being +almost always indicated by form, or inflection; gender, sometimes. There +are two modifications which do not refer to changes in the meaning of nouns +and pronouns but to their different uses and relations. These uses and +relations are not generally indicated by form, or inflection. + +_I, Paul_, have written. _Paul, thou_ art beside thyself. _He_ brought +_Paul_ before Agrippa. In these three sentences the word _Paul_ has three +different uses, though, as you see, its form is not changed. In the first +it is used to name the speaker; in the second, to name the one spoken to; +in the third, to name the one spoken of. These different uses of nouns and +pronouns and the forms used to mark these uses constitute the modification +called +Person+. _I, thou, and he_ are personal pronouns, and, as you see, +distinguish person by their form. _I_, denoting the speaker, is in the ++First Person+; _thou_, denoting the one spoken to, is in the +Second +Person+; and _he_, denoting the one spoken of, is in the +Third Person+. + +Instead of _I_ a writer or speaker may use the plural _we_; and through +courtesy it came to be customary, except among the Friends, or in the +language of prayer and poetry, to use the plural _you_ instead of _thou_. + +_The bear killed the man_. _The man killed the bear_. _The bear's grease +was made into hair oil_. In the first sentence the bear is represented as +performing an act; in the second, as receiving an act; in the third, as +possessing something. These different uses of nouns and pronouns and the +forms used to mark these uses constitute the modification called +Case+. A +noun used as subject is in the +Nominative Case+; used as object complement +it is in the +Objective Case+; and used to denote possession it is in the ++Possessive Case+. + +Some of the pronouns have a special form for each case; but of nouns the +possessive case is the only one that is now marked by a peculiar form. We +inflect below a noun from the Anglo-Saxon, [Footnote: The Anglo-Saxon cases +are nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative; the Latin are +nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, and ablative; the +English are nominative, possessive (genitive), and objective. + +ANGLO-SAXON. +Hlaford, _lord_. + Singular. Plural. +Nom. hlaford, hlaford-_as_. +Gen. hlaford-_es_, hlaford-_a_. +Dat. hlaford-_e_, hlaford-_um_. +Acc. hlaford, hlaford-_as_. +Voc. hlaford, hlaford-_as_. + +LATIN. +Dominus, _lord_. + Singular. Plural. +Nom. domin-_us_, domin-_i_. +Gen. domin-_i_, domin-_orum_. +Dat. domin-_o_, domin-_is_. +Acc. domin-_um_, domin-_os_. +Voc. domin-_e_, domin-_i_. +Ab. domin-_o_, domin-_is_. + +ENGLISH. +Lord. +Singular. +Nom. lord, +Pos. lord-_'s_, +Obj. lord; +Plural. +Nom. lord-_s_, +Pos. lord-_s'_, +Obj. lord-_s_.] + +and one from the Latin, the parent of the Norman-French, in order that you +may see how cases and the inflections to mark them have been dropped in +English. In English, prepositions have largely taken the place of case +forms, and it is thought that by them our language can express the many +relations of nouns to other words in the sentence better than other +languages can by their cumbrous machinery of inflection. + + ++DEFINITIONS+. + ++_Person_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the +speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of+. + ++The _First Person_ denotes the one speaking+. + ++The _Second Person_ denotes the one spoken to+. + ++The _Third Person_ denotes the one spoken of+. + +A noun is said to be of the first person when joined as an explanatory +modifier to a pronoun of the first person; as, _I, John_, saw these things; +_We Americans_ are always in a hurry. [Footnote: It is doubtful whether a +noun is ever of the first person. It may be said that, in the sentence _I, +John, saw these things_, John speaks of his own name, the expression +meaning, _I_, _and my name is John_, etc.] + +A noun is of the second person when used as explanatory of a pronoun of the +second person, or when used independently as a term of address; as, _Ye +crags_ and _peaks_; Idle time, _John_, is ruinous. + ++Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which there shall be two examples of +nouns and two of pronouns used in each of the three persons_. + ++Person Forms+. + +Personal pronouns and verbs are the only classes of words that have +distinctive person forms. + ++Direction+.--_From the forms of the pronouns given in Lesson 124, select +and write in one list all the first person forms; in another list, all the +second person forms; and in another, all the third person forms._ + +Person is regarded in grammar because the verb sometimes varies its form to +agree with the person of its subject; as, _I see_; _Thou seest_; _He sees_. + + ++DEFINITIONS+. + ++_Case_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes its office +in the sentence+. + ++The _Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as subject +or as attribute complement+. + ++The _Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as +possessive modifier+. + ++The _Objective Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as object +complement, or as principal word in a prepositional phrase+. + +A noun or pronoun used independently is said to be in the nominative case. + ++Examples+.--I am, _dear madam_, your friend. Alas, _poor Yorick_! _He +being dead_, we shall live. _Liberty_, it has fled! (See Lesson 44.) + +A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as the +word explained--"is put by apposition in the same case." + ++Examples+.--The first colonial _Congress_, _that_ of 1774, addressed the +_King_, _George III_. He buys is goods at _Stewart's_, the dry-goods +_merchant_. + +A noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in the objective case. + ++Examples+.--They made him _speaker_. He made it _all_ it is. + +A noun or pronoun used as attribute complement of a participle or an +infinitive is in the same case (_Nom._ or _Obj._) as the word to which it +relates as attribute. + ++Examples+.--Being an _artist_, _he_ appreciated it. I proved _it_ to be +_him_. + ++Remark+.--When the assumed subject of the participle or the infinitive is +a possessive, the attribute complement is said to be in the nominative +case; as, Its _being he_ [Footnote: The case of _he_ in these examples is +rather doubtful. The nominative and the objective forms of the pronoun +occur so rarely in such constructions that it seems impossible to determine +the usage. It is therefore a matter of no great practical importance. + +Some, reasoning from the analogy of the Latin, would put the attribute +complement of the abstract infinitive in the objective, supposing _for_ and +some other word to be understood; as, _For one to be him_, etc. Others, +reasoning from the German, to which our language is closely allied, would +put this complement in the nominative. + +The assumed subject of the infinitive being omitted when it is the same in +sense as the principal subject, _him_, in the sentence _I wish_ (_me_ or +_myself_) _to be him_, is the proper form, being in the same case as _me_.] +should make no difference. When the participle or the infinitive is used +abstractly, without an assumed subject, its attribute complement is also +said to be in the nominative case; as, To _be he_ [Footnote: See footnote +above.] is to be a scholar; _Being_ a _scholar_ is not _being_ an _idler_. + ++Direction+.--_Study carefully the Definitions and the Remark above, and +then compose sentences in which a noun or a pronoun shall be put in the +nominative case in four ways; in the objective in five ways; in the +possessive in two ways_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 120. + +ANALYSIS AND PARSING. + ++Direction.+--_Analyze the following sentences, and give the case of each +noun and pronoun:_-- + +1. Not to know what happened before we were born is to be always a child. +2. His being a Roman saved him from being made a prisoner. +3. I am this day weak, though anointed king. + ++Explanation.+--Nouns used adverbially are in the objective case because +equivalent to the principal word of a prepositional phrase. (See Lesson +35.) + +4. What made Cromwell a great man was his unshaken reliance on God. +5. Amos, the herdsman of Tekoa, was not a prophet's son. +6. Arnold's success as teacher was remarkable. + ++Explanation.+--_Teacher_, introduced by _as_ and used without a possessive +sign, is explanatory of _Arnold's_. + +7. Worship thy Creator, God; and obey his Son, the Master, King, and + Saviour of men. +8. Bear ye one another's [Footnote: For the use of _one another_, see + Lesson 124.] burdens. + ++Explanation.+--The singular _one_ is explanatory of the plural _ye_, or +_one another's_ may be treated as a compound. + +9. What art thou, execrable shape, that darest advance? +10. O you hard hearts! you cruel men of Rome! +11. Everybody acknowledges Shakespeare to be the greatest of dramatists. +12. Think'st thou this heart could feel a moment's joy, thou being absent? +13. Our great forefathers had left him naught to conquer but his country. + +(For the case of _him_ see explanation of (3) above.) + +14. I will attend to it myself. + ++Explanation+.--_Myself_ may be treated as explanatory of _I_. + +15. This news of papa's puts me all in a flutter. [Footnote: See second + foot-note, page 247.] +16. What means that hand upon that breast of thine? [Footnote: See second + foot-note, page 247.] + + * * * * * + +LESSON 121. + +PARSING. + ++TO THE TEACHER+.--We do not believe that the chief end of the study of +grammar Is to be able to parse well, or even to analyze well, though +without question analysis reveals more clearly than parsing the structure +of the sentence, and is immeasurably superior to it as intellectual +gymnastics. We would not do away with parsing altogether, but would give it +a subordinate place. + +But we must be allowed an emphatic protest against the needless and +mechanical quoting, in parsing, of "Rules of Syntax." When a pupil has said +that such a noun is in the nominative case, subject of such a verb, what is +gained by a repetition of the definition in the Rule: "A noun or a pronoun +which is the subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case"? Let the +reasons for the disposition of words, when given at all, be specific. + ++Parsing+--a word is giving its classification, its modifications, and its +syntax, _i.e._, its relation to other words. + ++Direction+.--_Select and parse in full all the nouns and pronouns found in +the first ten sentences of Lesson_ 120. _For the agreement of pronouns, see +Lesson_ 142. + ++Model for Written Parsing+.--_Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded +by James I_. + + +CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATIONS. | SYNTAX. +-----------------|-----------------------|------------------------------ + |_Per- Num- Gen-_ | +_Nouns. Kind_.|_son. ber. der. Case_.| +-----------------|-----------------------|------------------------------ +Elizabeth's Prop.| 3d Sing. Fem. Pos. | Mod. of _favorite_. +favorite Com. | 3d Sing. Mas. Nom. | Sub. of _was beheaded_. +Raleigh Prop.| 3d Sing. Mas. Nom. | Expl. Mod. of _favorite_. +James I. Prop.| 3d Sing. Mas. Obj. | Prin. word of Prep. phrase. + +TO THE TEACHER.--For exercises in parsing nouns and pronouns, see Lessons +28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 44, 46, 59, 60, 71, 73, 78, 80, and 81. Other +exercises may be selected from examples previously given for analysis, and +parsing continued as long as you think it profitable. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 122. + +CASE FORMS--NOUNS. + +Nouns have two case forms, the simple form, common to the nominative and +the objective case, and the possessive form. + ++RULE.--The _Possessive Case_ of nouns is formed in the singular by adding +to the nominative the apostrophe and the letter _s_ (_'s_); in the plural +by adding (_'_) only. If the plural does not end in _s_, (_'s_) are both +added. [Footnote: In Anglo-Saxon, _es_ was a genitive (possessive) ending +of the singular; as, _sta:n_, genitive _sta:n-es_. In old English, _es_ and +_is_ were both used. In modern English, the vowel is generally dropped, and +(') stands in its place. The use of the apostrophe has been extended to +distinguish the possessive from other forms of the plural. + +Some have said that our possessive ending is a remnant of the pronoun +_his_. Phrases like, "Mars _his_ sword," "The Prince _his_ Players," "King +Lewis _his_ satisfaction" are abundant in Early, and in Middle, English. +But it has been proved that the _his_ in such expressions is an error that +gained its wide currency largely through the confusion of early English +orthography. + +Professor Hadley has clearly shown that the Saxon termination has never +dropped out of the language, but exists in the English possessive ending +to-day.] + ++Examples+.--_Boy's, boys', men's_. + ++Remark+.--To avoid an unpleasant succession of hissing sounds, the _s_ in +the possessive singular is sometimes omitted; as, _conscience' sake_, +_goodness' sake_, _Achilles' sword_, _Archimedes' screw_ (the _s_ in the +words following the possessive here having its influence). In prose this +omission of the _s_ should seldom occur. The weight of usage inclines to +the use of _s_ in such names as _Miss Rounds's_, _Mrs. Hemans's_, _King +James's_, _witness's_, _prince's_. Without the _s_ there would be no +distinction, in spoken language, between _Miss Round's_ and _Miss Rounds'_, +_Mrs. Heman's_ and _Mrs. Hemans'_. + ++Remark+.--Pronounce the ('_s_) as a separate syllable (= _es_) when the +sound of _s_ will not unite with the last sound of the nominative. + ++Remark+.--When the singular and the plural are alike in the nominative, +some place the apostrophe after the _s_ in the plural to distinguish it +from the possessive singular; as, singular, _sheep's_; plural, _sheeps'_. + ++Direction+.--_Study the Rule and the Remarks given above, and then write +the possessive singular and the possessive plural of each of the following +nouns_:-- + +Actor, elephant, farmer, king, lion, genius, horse, princess, buffalo, +hero, mosquito, negro, volcano, junto, tyro, cuckoo, ally, attorney, fairy, +lady, monkey, calf, elf, thief, wife, wolf, chief, dwarf, waif, child, +goose, mouse, ox, woman, beau, seraph, fish, deer, sheep, swine. + +Compound names and groups of words that may be treated as compound names +add the possessive sign to the last word; as, a _man-of-war's_ rigging, the +_queen of England's_ palace,[Footnote: In parsing the words _queen_ and +_England_ separately, the ('_s_) must be regarded as belonging to _queen_; +but the whole phrase _queen of England's_ may be treated as one noun in the +possessive case.] _Frederick the Great's_ verses. + ++Remark+.--The possessive plural of such terms is not used. + +The preposition _of_ with the objective is often used instead of the +possessive case form--_David's_ Psalms = Psalms _of David_. + ++Remarks+.--To denote the source from which a thing proceeds, or the idea +of belonging to, _of_ is used more frequently than ('_s_). + +The possessive sign (_'s_) is confined chiefly to the names of persons, and +of animals and things personified. We do not say the _tree's_ leaves, but +the leaves _of the tree_. + +The possessive sign however is often added to names of things which we +frequently hear personified, or which we wish to dignify, and to names of +periods of time, and to words denoting value; as, the _earth's_ surface, +_fortune's_ smile, _eternity's_ stillness, a _year's_ interest, a _day's_ +work, a _dollar's_ worth, _two cents'_ worth. + +By the use of _of_, such expressions as _witness's statement_, +_mothers-in-law's faults_ may be avoided. + ++Direction+.--_Study carefully the principles and Remarks given above, and +then make each of the following terms indicate possession, using either the +possessive sign or the preposition of, as may seem most appropriate, and +join an appropriate name denoting the thing possessed_:-- + +Father-in-law, William the Conqueror, king of Great Britain, aid-de-camp, +Henry the Eighth, attorney-at-law, somebody else,[Footnote: In such +expressions as _everybody else's business_, the possessive sign is removed +from the noun and attached to the adjective. (See Lesson lai.) The +possessive sign should generally be placed immediately before the name of +the thing possessed.] Jefferson, enemy, eagle, gunpowder, book, house, +chair, torrent, sun, ocean, mountain, summer, year, day, hour, princess, +Socrates. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 123. + +CONSTRUCTION OF POSSESSIVE FORMS. + +As the possessive is the only case of nouns that has a distinctive +inflection, it is only with this case that mistakes can occur in +construction. + ++Caution+.--When several possessive nouns modify the same word and imply +common possession, the possessive sign is added to the last only. If they +modify different words, expressed or understood, the sign is added to +each. + ++Explanation+.--_William_ and _Henry's_ boat; _William's_ and _Henry's_ +boat. In the first example, William and Henry are represented as jointly +owning a boat; in the second, each is represented as owning a separate +boat--_boat_ is understood after _William's_. + ++Remark+.--When the different possessors are thought of as separate or +opposed, the sign may be repeated although joint possession is implied; as, +He was his _father's_, _mother's_, and _sister's_ favorite; He was the +_King's_, as well as the _people's_, favorite. + ++Direction+.--_Correct these errors, and give your reasons_:-- + +1. The Bank of England was established in William's and Mary's reign. +2. Messrs. Leggett's, Stacy's, Green's, & Co.'s business prospers. +3. This was James's, Charles's, and Robert's estate. +4. America was discovered during Ferdinand's and Isabella's reign. +5. We were comparing Caesar and Napoleon's victories. +6. This was the sage and the poet's theme. + ++Explanation+.--If an article precedes the possessive, the sign is +repeated. + +7. It was the king, not the people's, choice. +8. They are Thomas, as well as James's, books. + ++Caution+.--When a possessive noun is followed by an explanatory word, the +possessive sign is added to the explanatory word only. But, if the +explanatory word has several modifiers, or if there are more explanatory +words than one, only the principal word takes the sign. + ++Remarks+.--When a common noun is explanatory of a proper noun, and the +name of the thing possessed is omitted, the possessive sign may be added +either to the modifying or to the principal word; as, We stopped at +Tiffany, the _jeweler's_, or We stopped at _Tiffany's_, the jeweler. + +If the name of the thing possessed is given, the noun immediately before it +takes the sign. + ++Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:-- + +1. This is Tennyson's, the poet's, home. +2. I took tea at Brown's, my old friend and schoolmate's. +3. This belongs to Victoria's, queen of England's, dominion. +4. This province is Victoria's, queen of England's. +5. That language is Homer's, the greatest poet of antiquity's. +6. This was Franklin's motto, the distinguished philosopher's statesman's. +7. Wolsey's, the cardinal's, career ended in disgrace. + ++Direction+.---Tell which of the sentences above may be improved by using +other forms to denote possession. (See the following Caution.) + ++Caution+.--The relation of possession may be expressed not only by (_'s_) +and by _of_ but by the use of such phrases as _belonging to_, _property +of_, etc. In constructing sentences be careful to secure smoothness and +clearness and variety by taking advantage of these different forms. + ++Direction+.--_Improve the following sentences_:-- + +1. This is my wife's father's opinion. + ++Correction+.--This is the opinion _of my wife's father_, or _held by my +wife's father_. + +2. This is my wife's father's farm. +3. France's and England's interest differs widely. +4. Frederick the Great was the son of the daughter of George I. of England. +5. My brother's wife's sister's drawings have been much admired. +6. The drawings of the sister of the wife of my brother have been much + admired. + +_Of_ is not always equivalent to the (_'s_), + ++Explanation+.--_The president's reception_ means the reception given by +the president, but _the reception of the president_ means the reception +given to the president. + ++Direction+.--_Construct sentences illustrating the meaning of the +following expressions_:-- + +A mother's love, the love of a mother; a father's care, the care of a +father; my friend's picture, a picture of my friend. + ++Caution+.--Often ambiguity may be prevented by changing the assumed +subject of a participle from a nominative or an objective to a possessive. + ++Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:-- + +1. The writer being a scholar is not doubted. + ++Correction+.--This is ambiguous, as it may mean either that the writer is +not doubted because he is a scholar, or that the writer's scholarship is +not doubted. It should be, _The writer's being_ [Footnote: The participle +may be modified not only, as here, by a noun in the possessive but by the +articles _a_ and _the_---as said in Lesson 37. Whether it be _the imposing +a tax_ or _the issuing a paper currency.--Bagehot_. Not _a making war_ on +them, not _a leaving them_ out of mind, but _the putting_ a new +_construction_ upon them, _the taking them_ from under the old conventional +point of view.--_Matthew Arnold_. Poltroonery is _the acknowledging_ an +_infirmity_ to be incurable.--_Emerson_. _The giving_ away a man's +_money_.--_Burke_. It is not _the finding of a thing_ but _the making +something_ out of it, after it is found, that is of consequence.--_Lowell_. + +As seen in this last quotation, the participle may be followed by a +preposition and so become a pure noun (Lesson 38).] _a scholar_ is not +doubted, or _That the writer is a scholar_ is not doubted. + +2. I have no doubt of the writer being a scholar. +3. No one ever heard of that man running for office. +4. Brown being a politician prevented his election. +5. I do not doubt him being sincere. +6. Grouchy being behind time decided the fate of Waterloo. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 124. + +NUMBER AND CASE FORMS. + +Declension. + ++DEFINITION.--_Declension_ is the arrangement of the cases of nouns and +pronouns in the two numbers+. + ++Direction+.--_Learn the following declensions_:-- + +Declension of Nouns. + + LADY. BOY. MAN. +_Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural_. + +Nom. lady, ladies, boy, boys, man, men, +Pos. lady's, ladies', boy's, boys', man's, men's, +Obj. lady; ladies. boy; boys. man; men. + +Declension of Pronouns. + +PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + +FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON-- SECOND PERSON-- + _common form_ _old form_. +_Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. + +Nom. I, we,* you, you, thou, ye(++) _or_ you +Pos. my _or_ our _or_ your _or_ your _or_ thy _or_ ye(++) _or_ you + mine,+ ours, yours, yours, thine, yours, +Obj. me; us. you; you. thee; you. + + +[Footnote *: Strictly speaking, _we_ can hardly be the plural of _I_, says +Professor Sweet, for _I_ does not admit of plurality. _We_ means _I_ and +_you_, _I_ and _he_, _I_ and _she_, or _I_ and _they_, etc.] + +[Footnote +: The forms _mine_, _ours_, _yours_, _thine_, _hers_, and +_theirs_ are used only when the name of the thing possessed is omitted; as, +_Yours_ is old, _mine_ is new = _Your book_ is old, etc. _Mine_ and _thine_ +were formerly used before words beginning with a vowel sound; as, _thine +enemy_, _mine honor_. + +The expression _a friend of mine_ presents a peculiar construction. The +explanation generally given is, that _of_ is partitive, and that the +expression is equivalent to _one friend of my friends_. + +It is said that this construction can be used only when more than one thing +is possessed such expressions as _This heart of mine_, _That temper of +yours_ are good, idiomatic English. This naughty world _of ours.--Byron_. +This moral life _of mine.--Sheridan Knowles_. Dim are those heads _of +theirs.---Carlyle_. + +Some suggest that the word possessing or owning is understood after these +possessives; as, This _temper of yours_ (your possessing); others say that +_of_ simply marks identity, as does of in _city of_ (=viz.) _New York_ (see +Lesson 34). They would make the expression = _This temper, your temper_. + +The _s_ in _ours, yours, hers_, and _theirs_ is the _s_ of _his_ and _its_ +extended by analogy to _our, your, her_, and _their_, forms already +possessive. _Ours, yours, hers_, and _theirs_ are consequently double +possessives.] + +[Footnote ++: _Ye_ is used in Chaucer and in the King James version of the +Bible exclusively in the nominative, as was its original _ge__ in the +Saxon. Shakespeare uses _you_ in the nominative. _You_ (the Saxon +accusative _eow_) has now taken the place of _ye_, and is both nominative +and objective. + +THIRD PERSON--_Mas_. THIRD PERSON--_Fem_. THIRD PERSON--_Neut_. +_Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural_. +Nom. he, they, she, they, it, they, +Pos. his, their _or_ her or their _or_ its,* their _or_ + theirs, hers, theirs, theirs, +Obj. him; them. her; them. it; them. + +[Footnote *: The possessive _its_ is our only personal pronoun form not +found in Saxon. _His_, the possessive of the masculine _he_, was there the +possessive (genitive) of the neuter _hit_ also--our _it_. But it came to be +thought improper to employ _his_ to denote inanimate things as well as +animate. The literature of the 16th and 17th centuries shows a growing +sense of this impropriety, and abounds with _of it_, _thereof_, _her_, +_it_, _the_, and _it own_ in place of _his_ as the possessive of _it_. The +first appearance of the new coinage _its_ is placed in 1598. Long after its +introduction many looked askance at _its_, because of the grammatical +blunder it contains--the_ t_ in _its_ being a nominative neuter ending, and +the _s_ a possessive ending. But no one thinks now of shunning what was +then regarded as a grammatical monstrosity.] + +COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + +_Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. _ +_Nom. and Nom. and Nom. and Nom. and Nom. and Nom. and_ +_Obj. Obj. Obj. Obj. Obj. Obj._ + +myself* thyself himself; + _or_ ourselves. _or_ yourselves. herself; themselves. +ourself; yourself; itself; + +[Footnote *: The compound personal pronouns are used (1) for emphasis; as, +_I myself_ saw it: and (2) as reflexives, to turn the action of the verb +back upon the actor; as, _He_ found _himself_ deserted by his friends. They +are not the only words used in this last relation; where no obscurity would +arise, we may use the simple personal pronouns instead. And _millions_ in +those solitudes ... have laid _them_ down in their last sleep.--_Bryant_. +My uncle stopped a minute to look about _him_.--_Dickens_. + +The compound personal pronouns should not be used as subjects.] + ++Remark+.--The possessive of these pronouns is wanting. + +_Ourself_ and _we_ are used by rulers, editors, and others to hide their +individuality, and give authority to what they say. + ++Relative Pronouns+. + +_Sing. and Plu. Sing. and Plu. Sing. and Plu. Sing. and Plu._ +_Nom_. who, which, that, what, +_Pos_. whose, whose, ------, ------, +_Obj_. whom. which. that. what. + ++Remark+.--From the composition of _which_--_hwa:_-lic, or _hwaet-lic_ = +_who-like_, or _what-like_, it is evident that _whose_ is not formed from +_which_. It is, in fact, the possessive of _what_ transferred to _which_. +Much has been said against this _whose_, but it is in general use. Those +who regard usage as the final arbiter in speech need not avoid this form of +the pronoun. + ++Interrogative Pronouns+. + +The interrogative pronouns _who, which_, and _what_ are declined like the +relatives _who, which_, and _what_. + ++Compound Relative Pronouns+. + +_Singular and Plural_. _Singular and Plural_. +_Nom_. whoever, whosoever, +_Pos_. whosever, whosesoever, +_Obj_. whomever. whomsoever. + +_Whichever, whichsoever, whatever_, and _whatsoever_ do not change their +form. + ++Adjective Pronouns+. + +_This_ and _that_ with their plurals, _these_ and _those_, have no +possessive form, and are alike in the nominative and the objective. _One_ +and _other_ are declined like nouns; and _another_, declined like _other_ +in the singular, has no plural. _Either, neither, former_, and _latter_ +sometimes take the apostrophe and _s_ ('_s_) in the singular. _Each_, +_either_, and _neither_ are always singular; _both_ is always plural; and +_all, any, farmery latter, none, same, some_, and _such_ are either +singular or plural. [Footnote: On the pages immediately preceding Lesson 1, +we said that +usage+, as determined by the majority of the best writers and +speakers of the generation, is the only authority in language; and we there +explained how we are able to appeal to usage as we all along have done. In +treating of the adjective pronouns we now appeal to it again. In the first +twelve paragraphs below we give alternative expressions. Only the second of +these alternative locutions in each paragraph is allowed by many +grammarians; they utterly condemn the first. On the warrant of usage we say +that both expressions are correct. + +1. We may use +each other+ with more than two; we may use _one another_ in +such a case. We may say, "_Several_ able _men_ were in correspondence with +_each other_," or "with _one another_." + +2. We may use +one another+ with only two; we may use _each other_ in such +a case. We may say, "The _two countries_ agreed to stand by _one another_," +or "by _each other_." + +3. We may use +all, both+, and +whole+ with a preposition and a noun +following; we may use these words as adjectives qualifying the noun. We may +say, "_All of_ the _people_," "_Both of_ the _trees_," "The _whole of_ the +farm," or "_All_ the _people_," "_Both trees_," "The _whole farm_." + +4. We may use the pronouns +either+ and +neither+, as we do the +conjunctions _either_ and _neither_, with more than two; we may use _any +one_ and _none_ in such cases. We may say, "Here are _three candidates_; +you may vote for _either_ or for _neither_ of them," or "for _any one_ or +for _none_ of them." + +5. We may use +he+ or some other personal pronoun after the indefinite one; +we may repeat the _one_ in such a case. We may say, "The home _one_ must +quit, yet taking much of its life along with _him_," or "along with _one_." + +6. We may use +such+ before an adjective and its noun; we may use _so_ with +the adjective in such a case. We may say, "_Such a strong argument_," +"_Such admirable talent_," or "_So strong an argument_," "_Talent so +admirable_." + +7. We may use the plural +ones+; we may use the noun for which _ones_ +stands. We may say, "You have red roses, I have white _ones_," or "white +_roses_." + +8. We may apply +the other two+ to those that remain when one of three +things has been taken from the rest; we may use _the two others_ in such a +case. We may say, "One of them kept his ground; _the other two_ ran away," +or "_the two others_ ran away." + +9. We may use +a+ before a noun in the singular and +or two+ after it; we +may use _one or two_ before the noun in the plural. We may say, "I will go +in _a day or two_," or "in _one or two days_." + +10. We may use +either+ in the sense of _each_; we may use _each_ instead. +We may say, "He wrested the land on _either_ side of the Seine," or "on +_each_ side of the Seine." + +11. We may insert a noun, or a noun and other words, between +other+ and ++than+; we may place the _than_ immediately after _other_. We may say, "We +must look for somee _other reasons for it than_ those suggested," or "for +some _reasons for it other than_ those suggested." + +12. We may use +none+ in the plural; we may use _none_ in the singular. We +may say, "_None hear_ thy voice," or "_None hears_ thy voice." + +The paragraphs below contain noteworthy uses of adjective pronouns but no +really alternative expressions. + +13. Usage is overwhelmingly in favor of +any one else's, no one else's, +somebody else's, nobody else's+, instead of _any one's else_, etc. There is +scarcely any authority for placing the (_'s_) upon _one_ or _body_. +"Written by Dickens for his own or _any one else's_ children." This form is +common and convenient. We are advised to shun it, but we need not. + +14. Usage is also decidedly in favor of +first two, last three+, etc., +instead of _two first, three last_, etc.] + +Descriptive adjectives used as nouns are plural, and are not declined. Such +expressions as "the _wretched's_ only plea" and "the _wicked's_ den" are +exceptional. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 125. + +CASE FORMS--PRONOUNS. + +The pronouns _I_, _thou_, _he_, _she_, and _who_ are the only words in the +language that have each three different case forms. + ++Direction+.--_Study the Declensions, and correct these errors_:-- + +Our's, your's, hi's, her's, it's, their's, yourn, hisn, hern, theirn. + +Construction of Case Forms--Pronouns. + ++Caution.--I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they,+ and +who+ are +nominative+ +forms, and must not be used in the objective case. +Me, us, thee, him, her, +[Footnote: _Her_ is also a possessive.] them,+ and +whom+ are objective +forms, and must not be used in the nominative case. + +Remark.--The eight nominative forms and the seven objective forms here +given are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms in the +language. All the rules of syntax given in the grammars to guide in the use +of the nominative and the objective case apply, practically, only to these +fifteen words. + ++Direction.+--_Study carefully the Definitions and principles given under +the head of case, Lesson 119, and then correct these errors, giving your +reasons in every instance:--_ + +1. It is not me you are in love with. [Footnote: Dr. Latham defends _It is + me,_ but condemns _It is him,_ and _It is her_. Dean Alford regards as + correct the forms condemned by Latham, and asserts that _thee_ and _me_ + are correct in, "The nations not so blest as _thee_" "Such weak minister + as me may the oppressor bruise." Professor Bain justifies _If I were + him, It was her, He is better than me,_ and even defends the use of + _who_ as an objective form by quoting from Shakespeare, "_Who_ servest + thou under?" and from Steele, "_Who_ should I meet?" + + They justify such expressions as _It is me_ from the analogy of the + French _c'est moi_, and on the ground that they are "more frequently + heard than the prescribed form." But such analogy would justify _It are + them (ce sont eux)_; and, if the argument from the speech of the + uneducated is to have weight, we have good authority for _"Her ain't a + calling we: us don't belong to she."_ A course of reading will satisfy + one that the best writers and speakers in England are not in the habit + of using such expressions as _It is me_, and that these are almost, if + not quite unknown in American literature. No one has freed himself from + the influence of early associations that are in a careless moment some + vicious colloquialism may not creep into his discourse. A Violation of + every principle of grammar may be defended, if such inadvertencies are + to be erected into authority. To whatever is the prevailing, the + habitual, usage of a majority of the best writers and speakers the + grammarian should bow without question; but not to the accidental slips + of even the greatest writers, or to the common usage of the unreflecting + and the uncultivated.] + +2. She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or me. [See previous + Footnote.] +3. Who servest thou under? [See previous footnote.] +4. It was not them, it was her. +5. Its being me should make no difference. +6. Him and me are of the same age. +7. Them that study grammar talk no better than me. +8. I am not so old as her; she is older than me by ten years. +9. He was angry, and me too. +10. Who will go? Me. +11. It isn't for such as us to sit with the rulers of the land. +12. Not one in a thousand could have done it as well as him. +13. Him being a stranger, they easily misled him. +14. Oh, happy us! surrounded thus with blessings. +15. It was Joseph, him whom Pharaoh promoted. +16. I referred to my old friend, he of whom I so often speak. +17. You have seen Cassio and she together. +18. Between you and I, I believe that he is losing his mind. +19. Who should I meet the other day but my old friend? 20. Who did he refer + to, he or I? +21. Who did he choose? Did he choose you and I? +22. He that is idle and mischievous reprove. +23. We will refer it to whoever you may choose. +24. Whosoever the court favors is safe. +25. They that are diligent I will reward. +20. Scotland and thee did in each other live. +27. My hour is come, but not to render up my soul to such as thee. +28. I knew that it was him. +29. I knew it to be he. +30. Who did you suppose it to be? +31. Whom did you suppose it was? +32. I took that tall man to be he. +33. I thought that tall man was him. + +Although _than_ is not a preposition, it is sometimes followed by _whom,_ +as in the familiar passage from Milton: "Beelzebub... _than whom,_ Satan +except, none higher sat." _Than whom_ is an irregularity justified only on +the basis of good usage. _Whom_ here may be parsed as an objective case +form used idiomatically in place of _who_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 126. + +CONSTRUCTION OF CASE FORMS. + +MISCELLANEOUS--REVIEW. + +Direction.--_Correct these errors, and give your reasons:--_ + +1. Who was Joseph's and Benjamin's mother? +2. It did not occur during Washington, Jefferson, or Adams's + administration. +3. I consulted Webster, Worcester, and Walker's dictionary. +4. This state was south of Mason's and Dixon's line. +5. These are neither George nor Fanny's books. +6. Howard's, the philanthropist's, life was a noble one. +7. It is Othello's pleasure, our noble and valiant general's. +8. He visited his sons-in-law's homes. + ++Explanation.+--If the possessive plural of such nouns were used, this +would be correct; but it is better to avoid these awkward forms. + +9. A valuable horse of my friend William's father's was killed. +10. For Herodias's sake, his brother Philip's wife. +11. For the queen's sake, his sister's. +12. Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen. +13. He spoke of you studying Latin. +14. It being difficult did not deter him. +15. What need is there of the man swearing? +16. I am opposed to the gentleman speaking again. +17. He thought it was us. +18. We shall shortly see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or me. +19. I shall not learn my duty from such as thee. +20. A lady entered, whom I afterwards found was Miss B. +21. A lady entered, who I afterwards found to be Miss B. +22. Ask somebody's else opinion. +23. Let him be whom he may. +24. I am sure it could not have been them. +25. I understood it to be they. +26. It is not him whom you thought it was. +27. Let you and I try it. +28. All enjoyed themselves, us excepted. +29. Us boys enjoy the holidays. +30. It was Virgil, him who wrote the "Aeneid." +31. He asked help of men whom he knew could not help him. + +TO THE TEACHER.--These schemes and questions under the head of General +Review are especially designed to aid in securing an outline of technical +grammar. + +The questions given below may be made to call for minute details or only +for outlines. In some cases a single question may suffice for a whole +lesson. + +Scheme for the Noun. + +(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.) + +NOUN. + Uses. + Subject (4, 8). + Object Complement (28). + Attribute Complement (29, 30). + Objective Complement (31). + Adjective Modifier (33). + Adverb Modifier (35). + Principal word in Prep. Phrase (17). + Independent (44). + Classes. + Common (85). (Abstract and Collective.) + Proper (85). + Modifications. + Number. + Singular (112-116). + Plural (112-116). + Gender. + Masculine (117, 118). + Feminine (117, 118). + Neuter (117, 118). + Person. + First (119). + Second (119). + Third (119). + Case. + Nominative (119). + Possessive (119, 122, 123). + Objective (119). + +Questions on the Noun. + +1. Define the noun and its classes.--Lesson 85. + +2. Name and define the modifications of the noun.--Lessons 112, 117, 119. + +3. Name and define the several numbers, genders, persons, and +cases.--Lessons 112, 117, 119. + +4. Give and illustrate the several ways of forming the plural.--Lessons +112, 113, 114. + +5. Give and illustrate the several ways of distinguishing the +genders.--Lesson 117. + +6. How is the possessive case formed?--Lesson 122. + +7. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the +possessive forms.--Lesson 128. + ++Scheme for the Pronoun.+ + +PRONOUN. +Uses+.--Same as those of the Noun. +Classes+. Personal (85, 86, + 87). Relative (85, 86, 87). Interrogative (85). Adjective (85, 87). + +Modifications+.--Same as those of the Noun (112, 117, 118, 119, 124, + 125, 142). + +Questions on the Pronoun. + +1. Define the pronoun and its classes, and give the lists.--Lesson 85. + +2. Decline the several pronouns.--Lesson 124. + +3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the +different pronouns.--Lessons 86, 87. + +4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the number +forms, the gender forms, and the case forms.--Lessons 118, 125, 142. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 127. + +COMPARISON. + ++Introductory Hints.+--_That apple is sweet, that other is sweeter, but +this one is the sweetest._ The adjective _sweet_, expressing a quality of +the three apples, is, as you see, inflected by adding _er_ and _est_. + +Adjectives, then, have one modification, and this is marked by form, or +inflection. This modification is called +Comparison+, because it is used +when things are compared with one another in respect to some quality common +to them all, but possessed by them in different degrees. The form of the +adjective which expresses the simple quality, as _sweet_, is of the ++Positive Degree+; that which expresses the quality in a greater or a less +degree, as _sweeter_, _less sweet_, is of the +Comparative Degree+; and +that which expresses the quality in the greatest or the least degree, as +_sweetest_, _least sweet_, is of the +Superlative Degree+. + +But even the positive implies a comparison; we should not say, This _apple_ +is _sweet_, unless this particular fruit had more of the quality than +ordinary apples possess. + +Notice, too, that the adjective in the comparative and superlative degrees +always expresses the quality relatively. When we say, This _apple_ is +_sweeter than that_, or, This _apple_ is the _sweetest of the three_, we do +not mean that any one of the apples is very sweet, but only that one apple +is sweeter than the other, or the sweetest of those compared. + +The several degrees of the quality expressed by the adjective may be +increased or diminished by adverbs modifying the adjective. We can say +_very_, _exceedingly_, _rather_, or _somewhat_ sweet; _far_, _still_, or +_much_, sweeter; _by far_ or _much_ the sweetest. + +Some adverbs, as well as adjectives, are compared. + +Adjectives have one modification; viz., +Comparison+. [Footnote: Two +adjectives, _this_ and _that_, have number forms--_this_, _these_; _that_, +_those_. In Anglo-Saxon and Latin, adjectives have forms to indicate +gender, number, and case.] + ++DEFINITIONS+. + ++_Comparison_ is a modification of the adjective (or the adverb) to express +the relative degree of the quality in the things compared.+ [Footnote: +Different degrees of quantity, also, may sometimes be expressed by +comparison.] + ++The _Positive Degree_ expresses the simple quality.+ + ++The _Comparative Degree_ expresses a greater or a less degree of the +quality. + ++The _Superlative Degree_ expresses the greatest or the least degree of the +quality+. + ++RULE.--Adjectives are regularly compared by adding _er_ to the positive to +form the comparative, and _est_ to the positive to form the superlative+. + +RULES FOR SPELLING. + ++RULE I.--Final e is dropped before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as+, +_fine, finer; love, loving._ + ++Exceptions.+--The _e_ is retained (1) after _c_ and _g_ when the suffix +begins with _a_ or _o_; as, _peaceable, changeable;_ (2) after _o;_ as, +_hoeing;_ and (3) when it is needed to preserve the identity of the word; +as, _singeing, dyeing._ + ++RULE II.---Y after a consonant becomes _i_ before a suffix net beginning +with _i;_ as,+ _witty, wittier; dry, dried._ + +Exceptions.---Y does not change before 's, nor in forming the plural of +proper nouns; as, _lady's,_ the _Marys,_ the _Henrys._ + ++RULE III.--In monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, a +final consonant after a single vowel doubles before a suffix beginning with +a vowel; as+, _hot, hotter; begin, beginning._ + +Exceptions.--_X, k,_ and _v_ are never doubled, and _gas_ has _gases_ in +the plural. + +Adjectives of more than two syllables are generally compared by prefixing +_more_ and _most._ This method is often used with adjectives of two +syllables and sometimes with those of one. + ++Remark+.--_More beautiful, most beautiful_, etc. can hardly be called +degree forms of the adjective. The adverbs _more_ and _most_ have the +degree forms, and in parsing they may be regarded as separate words. The +adjective, however, is varied in sense the same as when the inflections +_er_ and _est_ are added. + +Degrees of diminution are expressed by prefixing _less_ and +_least_[Footnote: This use of an adverb to form the comparison was borrowed +from the Norman-French. But note how the adverb is compared, The Saxon +superlative ending +st+ is in _most_ and _least_; and the Saxon comparative +ending +s+, unchanged to +r+, is the last letter in _less_--changed to +r+, +as it regularly was, in coming into English, it is the _r_ in _more_. + +When it was forgotten that _less_ is a comparative, _er_ was added, and we +have the double comparative _lesser_--in use to-day. + +After the French method of comparing was introduced into English, both +methods were often used with the same adjective; and, for a time, double +comparatives and double superlatives were common; as, _worser_, _most +boldest_. In "King Lear" Shakespeare uses the double comparative a dozen +times.]; as, _valuable_, _less valuable_, _least valuable_. Most +definitive and many descriptive adjectives cannot be compared, as their +meaning will not admit of different degrees. + +Direction.--_From this list of adjectives select those that cannot be +compared, and compare those that remain:--_ + +Observe the Rules for Spelling given above. + +Wooden, English, unwelcome, physical, one, that, common, handsome, happy, +able, polite, hot, sweet, vertical, two-wheeled, infinite, witty, humble, +any, thin, intemperate, undeviating, nimble, holy, lunar, superior. + +Of the two forms of comparison, that which is more easily pronounced and +more agreeable to the ear is to be preferred. + ++Direction+.--_Correct the following_:-- + +Famousest, virtuousest, eloquenter, comfortabler, amusingest. + +Some +adverbs+ are compared by adding _er_ and _est_, and some by prefixing +_more_ and _most_. + ++Direction+.--_Compare the following_:-- + +Early, easily, fast, firmly, foolishly, late, long, often, soon, wisely. + +Some adjectives and adverbs are irregular in their comparison. + ++Direction+.--_Learn to compare the following adjectives and adverbs_:-- + +Adjectives Irregularly Compared. + +_Pos. Comp. Superlative_. +(Aft),* after, aftmost _or_ + aftermost. +Bad, | +Evil, + worse, worst. +Ill | +Far, farther, fartherest _or_ + fathermost +Fore, former, foremost _or_ + first. +(Forth), further, furtherest _or_ + furthermost. +Good, better, best. +Hind, hinder, hindmost _or_ + hindermost. +(In), inner, inmost _or_ + innermost. +Late, later _or_ latest _or_ + latter last. +Little,+ less _or_ least. + lesser, +Many _or_ more, most. +Much, +Near, nearer nearest _or_ + next. +Old, older _or_ oldest _or_ + elder, eldest. +(Out), outer _or_ outmost _or_ + utter, outermost; + utmost _or_ + uttermost. +Under, ----, undermost. +(Up), upper, upmost _or_ + uppermost. +Top, ----, topmost. + +[Footnote *: The words inclosed in curves are adverbs--the adjectives +following having no positive form.] + +[Footnote +: For the comparative and the superlative of _little_, in the +sense of small in size, _smaller_ and _smallest_ are substituted; as, +_little_ boy, _smaller_ boy, _smallest_ boy.] + +Adverbs Irregularly Compared. + +_Pos. Comp. Superlative._ + +Badly,| worse, worst. +Ill, | +Far, farther, farthest, +Forth, further, furthest. +Little, less, least, +Much, more, most. +Well, better, best. + +TO THE TEACHER.--We give below a model for writing the parsing of +adjectives. A similar form may be used for adverbs. + +Exercises for the parsing of adjectives and adverbs may be selected from +Lessons 12, 14, 29, 30, 31, 44, 46, 47, 48, 60, 63, 64, 65. + +Model for Written Parsing.--_All the dewy glades are still_. + +CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATION. |SYNTAX +-------------------|---------------|---------------------------------- +Adjectives.| Kind. | Deg. of Comp. | +All | Def. | ------ | Modifier of _glades_. +the | " | ------ | " " " +dewy | Des. | Pos. | " " " +still | " | " | Completes _are_ and modifies _glades_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 128. + +CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. + ++Caution+.--In stating a comparison avoid comparing a thing with itself. +[Footnote: A thing may, of course, be compared with itself as existing +under different conditions; as, The _star_ is _brighter to-night_; The +_grass_ is _greener to-day_.] + ++Remark+.--The comparative degree refers to two things (or sets of things) +as distinct from each other, and implies that one has more of the quality +than the other. The comparative degree is generally followed by _than_. +[Footnote: The comparative is generally used with reference to two things +only, but it may be used to compare one thing with a number of things taken +separately or together as, _He_ is no _better_ than _other men_; _It_ +contains _more_ than _all_ the _others_ combined.] + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these +errors:_-- + +1. London is larger than any city in Europe. + ++Correction+.--The second term of comparison, _any city in Europe_, +includes London, and so London is represented as being larger than itself. +It should be, _London_ is _larger_ _than any other city in Europe_, or, +_London_ is the _largest city in Europe_. + +2. China has a greater population than any nation on the globe. +3. I like this book better than any book I have seen. +4. There is no metal so useful as iron. + +(A comparison is here stated, although no degree form is employed.) + +5. All the metals are less useful than iron. +6. Time ought, above all kinds of property, to be free from invasion. + ++Caution+.--In using the superlative degree be careful to make the latter +term of the comparison, or the term introduced by _of_, include the former. + ++Remarks+.--The superlative degree refers to one thing (or set of things) +as belonging to a group or class, and as having more of the quality than +any of the rest. The superlative is generally followed by _of_. + +Good writers sometimes use the superlative in comparing two things; as, +This is the _best of the two_. But in such cases usage largely favors the +comparative; as, This is the _better of the two_. + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Remarks, and correct these +errors:_-- + +1. Solomon was the wisest of all the other Hebrew kings. + ++Correction+.--_Of_ (= _belonging to_) represents Solomon as belonging to a +group of kings, and _other_ excludes him from this group--a contradiction +in terms. It should be, _Solomon_ was the _wisest of Hebrew kings_, or +_Solomon_ was _wiser_ than _any other Hebrew king_. + +2. Of all the other books I have examined, this is the most satisfactory. +3. Profane swearing is, of all other vices, the most inexcusable. +4. He was the most active of all his companions. + +(He was not one of his own companions.) + +5. This was the most satisfactory of any preceding effort. +6. John is the oldest of any boy in his class. + ++Caution+.--Avoid double comparatives and double superlatives, and the +comparison of adjectives whose meaning will not admit of different +degrees.[Footnote: Many words which grammarians have considered incapable +of comparison are used in a sense short of their literal meaning, and are +compared by good writers; as, My _chiefest_ entertainment.--_Sheridan_. The +_chiefest_ prize.--_Byron_. _Divinest_ Melan- choly.--_Milton_. _Extremest_ +hell.--_Whittier_. _Most perfect_ harmony--_Longfellow_. _Less perfect_ +imitations.--_Macaulay_. The extension of these exceptional forms should +not be encouraged.] + + ++Direction+.--_Correct these errors:_-- + +1. A more beautifuler location cannot be found. +2. He took the longest, but the most pleasantest, route. +3. Draw that line more perpendicular. + ++Correction+.--Draw that line _perpendicular_, or more nearly +_perpendicular_. + +4. The opinion is becoming more universal. +5. A worser evil awaits us. +6. The most principal point was entirely overlooked. +7. That form of expression is more preferable. + ++Caution+.--When an adjective denoting one, or an adjective denoting more +than one, is joined to a noun, the adjective and the noun must agree in +number. + ++Remark+.--A numeral denoting more than one may be prefixed to a singular +noun to form a compound adjective; as, a _ten-foot_ pole (not a _ten-feet_ +pole), a _three-cent_ stamp. + ++Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these +errors:_-- + +1. These kind of people will never be satisfied. +2. The room is fifteen foot square; I measured it with a two-feet rule. +3. The farmer exchanged five barrel of potatoes for fifty pound of sugar. +4. These sort of expressions should be avoided. +5. We were traveling at the rate of forty mile an hour. +6. Remove this ashes and put away that tongs. + +Miscellaneous. + +1. He was more active than any other of his companions. + ++Correction+.--As he is not one of his companions, _other_ is unnecessary. + +2. He did more to accomplish this result than any other man that preceded + or followed him. +3. The younger of the three sisters is the prettier. + +(This is the construction which requires the superlative. See the second +Remark in this Lesson.) + +4. This result, of all others, is most to be dreaded. +5. She was willing to take a more humbler part. +6. Solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kings. +7. I don't like those sort of people. +8. I have the most entire confidence in him. +9. This is the more preferable form. +10. Which are the two more important ranges of mountains in North America? +11. He writes better than any boy in his class. + +GENERAL REVIEW. + +TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, page 255. + +Scheme for the Adjective. + +(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.) + +ADJECTIVE. + Uses. + Modifier (12). + Attribute Complement (29, 30). + Objective Complement (31). + Classes. + Descriptive (89-91). + Definitive (89-91). + Modification.--Comparison. + Pos. Deg. | + Comp. " + 127, 128. + Sup. " | + +Questions on the Adjective. + +1. Define the adjective and its classes.--Lesson 89. + +2. Define comparison and the degrees of comparison.--Lesson 127. + +3. Give and illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods +of comparison.--Lesson 127. + +4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of +adjectives.--Lessons 90, 91. + +5. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of comparative +and superlative forms.--Lesson 128. + +Scheme for the Adverb. + +ADVERB. + Classes. + Time. | + Place. | + Degree. + 92-94. + Manner. | + Cause. | + Modification.--Comparison. + Pos. Deg. | + Comp. " + 127, 128. + Sup. " | + +Questions on the Adverb. + +1. Define the adverb and its classes.--Lesson 92. + +2. Illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of comparison. +--Lesson 127. + +3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of adverbs. +--Lesson 93. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 129. + +MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. + +VOICE. + ++Introductory Hints+.--_He picked a rose. A rose was picked by him._ The +same thing is here told in two ways. The first verb, _picked_, shows that +the subject names the actor; the second verb, _was picked_, shows that the +subject names the thing acted upon. These different forms and uses of the +verb constitute the modification called +Voice+. The first form is in the ++Active Voice+; the second is in the +Passive Voice+. + +The active voice is used when the agent, or actor, is to be made prominent; +the passive, when the thing acted upon is to be made prominent. The passive +voice may be used when the agent is unknown, or when, for any reason, we do +not care to name the agent; as, The _ship was wrecked; Money is coined_. + + +DEFINITIONS. + ++_Voice_ is that modification of the transitive verb which shows whether +the subject names the _actor_ or the thing _acted upon_+. + ++The _Active Voice_ shows that the subject names the actor+. + ++The _Passive Voice_ shows that the subject names the thing acted upon.+ + +The passive form is compound, and may be resolved into an asserting word +(some form of the verb _be_) and an attribute complement (a past participle +of a transitive verb). An expression consisting of an asserting word +followed by an adjective complement or by a participle used adjectively may +be mistaken for a verb in the passive voice. + ++Examples.+--The coat _was_ sometimes _worn_ by Joseph (_was worn_-- +passive voice). The coat _was_ badly _worn_ (_was_--incomplete predicate, +_worn_--adjective complement). + ++Remark.+--To test the passive voice note whether the one named by the +subject is acted upon, and whether the verb may be followed by _by_ before +the name of the agent without changing the sense. + ++Direction.+---_Tell which of the following completed predicates may be +treated as single verbs, and which should not be so treated:--_ + +1. The lady is accomplished. +2. This task was not accomplished in a day. +3. Are you prepared to recite? +4. Dinner was soon prepared. +5. A shadow was mistaken for a foot-bridge. +6. You are mistaken. +7. The man was drunk before the wine was drunk. +8. The house is situated on the bank of the river. +9. I am obliged to you. +10. I am obliged to do this. +11. The horse is tired. +12. A fool and his money are soon parted. +13. The tower is inclined. +14. My body is inclined by years. + ++Direction.+--_Name all the transitive verbs in Lesson 78, and give their +voice._ + + * * * * * + +LESSON 130. + +COMPOSITION--VOICE. + +The +object complement+ of a verb in the +active voice+ becomes the ++subject+ when the verb is changed to the +passive voice.+ + ++Example.+--The Danes invaded _England = England_ was invaded by the Danes. + ++Remark.+--You will notice that in the first sentence the agent is made +prominent; in the second sentence, the receiver. + ++Direction.+--_In each of these sentences change the voice of the +transitive verb without altering the meaning of the sentence, and note the +other changes that occur:--_ + +1. Mercury, the messenger of the gods, wore a winged cap and winged shoes. +2. When the Saxons subdued the Britons, they introduced into England their + own language, which was a dialect of the Teutonic, or Gothic. +3. My wife was chosen as her wedding dress was chosen, not for a fine, + glossy surface, but for such qualities as would wear well. +4. Bacchus, the god of wine, was worshiped in many parts of Greece and + Rome. +5. The minds of children are dressed by their parents as their bodies are + dressed--in the prevailing fashion. +6. Harvey, an English physician, discovered that blood circulates. +7. The luxury of Capua, more powerful than the Roman legions, vanquished + the victorious Carthaginians. +8. His eloquence had struck them dumb. + ++Remark.+--Notice that the objective complement becomes the attribute +complement when the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice. + +9. That tribunal pronounced Charles a tyrant. +10. The town had nicknamed him Beau Seymour. +11. Even silent night proclaims my soul immortal. +12. We saw the storm approaching. + +(Notice that the objective complement is here a participle.) + +13. He kept his mother waiting. +14. We found him lying dead on the field. +15. We all believe him to be an honest man. + +(Notice that the objective complement is here an infinitive phrase.) + +16. Some, sunk to beasts, find pleasure end in pain. +17. Everybody acknowledged him to be a genius. + +The +indirect,+ or _dative,_ +object+ is sometimes made the +subject+ of a +verb in the passive voice, while the object complement is retained after +the verb. [Footnote: Some grammarians condemn this construction. It is true +that it is a violation of the general analogies, or laws, of language; but +that it is an idiom of our language, established by good usage, is beyond +controversy. + +Concerning the parsing of the noun following this passive, there is +difference of opinion. Some call it an adverbial modifier, some call it a +"retained object," and some say that it is a noun without grammatical +construction. In "I offered him money," _him_ represents the one to whom +the act was directed, and _money_ names the thing directly acted upon. In +"He was offered money," the relation of the act to the person and to the +thing is not changed; _money_ still names the thing directly acted upon.] + ++Example.+--The porter refused _him_ admittance = _He_ was refused +_admittance_ by the porter. + ++Direction.+--_Change the voice of the transitive verbs in these sentences, +and note the other changes that occur:--_ + +18. They were refused the protection of the law. +19. He was offered a pension by the government. +20. I was asked that question yesterday. +21. He told me to leave the room. + ++Explanation.+--Here the infinitive phrase is the object complement, and +_(to) me_ is used adverbially. _To leave the room = that I should leave the +room._ + +22. I taught the child to read. +23. I taught the child reading. +24. They told me that your name was Fontibell. + ++Direction.+--_Change the following transitive verbs to the passive form, +using first the regular and then the idiomatic construction_:-- + ++Model.+--_He promised me a present = A present was promised me_ (regular) += _I was promised a present_ (idiomatic). + +25. They must allow us the privilege of thinking for ourselves. +26. He offered them their lives if they would abjure their religion. + +An intransitive verb is sometimes made transitive by the aid of a +preposition. + ++Example.+--All his friends _laughed_ at him = He _was laughed at_ +(ridiculed) by all his friends. + ++Remark.+---_Was laughed at_ may be treated as one verb. Some grammarians, +however, would call _at_ an adverb. The intransitive verb and preposition +are together equivalent to a transitive verb in the passive voice. + ++Direction.+--_Change the voice of the following verbs:--_ + +27. This artful fellow has imposed upon us all. +28. The speaker did not even touch upon this topic. +29. He dropped the matter there, and did not refer to it afterward. + ++Remark.+--The following sentences present a peculiar idiomatic +construction. A transitive verb which, in the active voice, is followed by +an object complement and a prepositional phrase, takes, in the passive, the +principal word of the phrase for its subject, retaining the complement and +the preposition to complete its meaning; as, They _took care of it, It was +taken care of._ + ++Direction.+--_Put the following sentences into several different forms, +and determine which is the best:--_ + +30. His original purpose was lost sight of (forgotten). [Footnote: Some + would parse _of_ as an adverb relating to _was lost,_ and _sight_ as a + noun used adverbially to modify _was lost;_ others would treat _sight_ + as an object [complement] of _was lost;_ others would call _was lost + sight of_ a compound verb; and others, believing that the logical + relation of these words is not lost by a change of position, analyze + the expression as if arranged thus: _Sight of his original purpose was + lost._] +31. Such talents should be made much of. +32. He was taken care of by his friends. +33. Some of his characters have been found fault with as insipid. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 131. + +MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB--CONTINUED. + +MODE, TENSE, NUMBER, AND PERSON. + ++Introductory Hints.+--_James walks_. Here the walking is asserted as an +actual fact. _James may walk._ Here the walking is asserted not as an +actual, but as a possible, fact. _If James walk out, he will improve._ Here +the walking is asserted only as thought of, without regard to its being or +becoming either an actual or a possible fact. _James, walk out._ Here the +walking is not asserted as a fact, but as a command--James is ordered to +make it a fact. These different uses and forms of the verb constitute the +modification which we call +Mode.+ The first verb is in the +Indicative +Mode;+ the second in the +Potential Mode;+ the third in the +Subjunctive +Mode;+ the fourth in the +Imperative Mode.+ + +For the two forms of the verb called the +Participle+ and the +Infinitive,+ +see Lessons 37 and 40. + +_I walk. I walked. I shall walk._ In these three sentences the manner of +asserting the action is the same, but the time in which the action takes +place is different. _Walk_ asserts the action as going on in present time, +and, as +Tense+ means time, is in the +Present Tense.+ _Walked_ asserts the +action as past, and is in the +Past Tense.+ _Shall walk_ asserts the action +as future, and is in the +Future Tense.+ + +_I have walked out to-day. I had walked out when he called. I shall have +walked out by to-morrow._ Have walked asserts the action as completed at +the present, and is in the +Present Perfect Tense.+ _Had walked_ asserts +the action as completed in the past, and is in the +Past Perfect Tense.+ +_Shall have walked_ asserts action to be completed in the future, and is in +the +Future Perfect Tense.+ + +_I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. They walk._ In the second sentence _walk_ +is changed by adding +est+; in the third sentence, by adding +s.+ Verbs are +said to agree in +Person+ and +Number+ with their subjects. But this +agreement is not generally marked by a change in the form of the verb. + + ++DEFINITIONS+. + ++_Mode_ is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of +asserting the action or being+. + ++The _Indicative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a fact+. [Footnote: +In "Are you going?" or "You are going?" a fact is referred to the hearer +for his admission or denial. In "Who did it?" the fact that some person did +it is asserted, and the hearer is requested to name the person. It will be +seen that the Indicative Mode may be used in asking a question.] + ++The _Potential Mode_ asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity +of acting or being+. + ++The _Subjunctive Mode_ asserts the action or being as a mere condition, +supposition, or wish+. + ++The _Imperative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a command or an +entreaty+. + + ++The _Infinitive_ is a form of the verb which names the action or being in +a general way, without asserting it of anything+. + ++The _Participle_ is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of an +adjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being as assumed+. + ++The _Present Participle_ denotes action or being as continuing at the time +indicated by the predicate+. + ++The _Past Participle_ denotes action or being as past or completed at the +time indicated by the predicate+. + ++The _Past Perfect Participle_ denotes action or being as completed at a +time previous to that indicated by the predicate+. + + ++_Tense_ is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the +action or being+. + ++The _Present Tense_ expresses action or being as present+. + ++The _Past Tense_ expresses action or being as past+. + ++The _Future Tense_ expresses action or being as yet to come+. + ++The _Present Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at the +present time+. + ++The _Past Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at some +past time+. + ++The _Future Perfect Tense _expresses action or being to be completed at +some future time+. + ++_Number _and _Person _of a verb are those modifications that show its +agreement with the number and person of its subject+. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 132. + +FORMS OF THE VERB. + +CONJUGATION. + ++DEFINITIONS+. + ++_Conjugation_ is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb+. + ++_Synopsis _is the regular arrangement of the forms of one number and +person in all the modes and tenses+. + ++_Auxiliary Verbs _are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs.+ + +The auxiliaries are _do, did, have, had, shall, should, will, would, may, +might, can, could, must,_ and _be_ (with all its variations, see Lesson +135). + ++The _Principal Parts_ of a verb, or those from which the other parts are +derived, are the present indicative or the present infinitive, the past +indicative, and the past participle.+ + +List of Irregular Verbs. [Footnote: Grammarians have classed verbs on the +basis of their form or history as Strong (or Old) and Weak (or New). + +Strong verbs form their past tense by changing the vowel of the present +without adding anything; weak verbs form their past tense by adding _ed, +d,_ or _t._ Some weak verbs change the vowel of the present; as, _tell, +told; teach, taught._ These are weak because they add _d_ or _t._ + +Some weak verbs shorten the vowel of the present without adding anything; +as, _feed, fed; lead, led;_ and some have the present and the past alike; +as, _set, set; rid, rid._ They have dropped the past tense ending. + +The past participle of all strong verbs once ended in _en_ or _n,_ but in +many verbs this ending is now lost. + +Since most verbs form their past tense and past participle by adding _ed,_ +we call such Regular, and all others Irregular. Our irregular verbs include +all strong verbs and those that may be called "irregular weak" verbs. + +Of the _ed_ added to form the past tense of regular verbs, _d_ is what +remains of _did;_ _we did love,_ for instance, being written _love-did-we._ +This derivation of _d_ in _ed_ is questioned. The _d_ of the participle is +not from _did_ but is from an old participle suffix. The _e_ in the _ea_ of +both these forms is the old connecting vowel.] + +TO THE TEACHER.--It would be well to require the pupils, in studying and in +reciting these lists of irregular verbs, to frame short sentences +illustrating the proper use of the past tense and the past participle, +_e.g._ I _began_ yesterday; He has _begun_ to do better. In this way the +pupils will be saved the mechanical labor of memorizing forms which they +already know how to use, and they will be led to correct what has been +faulty in their use of other forms. + ++Remarks.+--Verbs that have both a regular and an irregular form are called ++Redundant.+ + +Verbs that are wanting in any of their parts, as _can_ and _may,_ are +called +Defective.+ + +The present participle is not here given as a principal part. It may always +be formed from the present tense by adding _ing._ + +In adding _ing_ and other terminations, the Rules for Spelling (see +Lesson 127) should be observed. + +The forms below in Italics are regular; and those in smaller type are +obsolete, and need not be committed to memory. + +_Present. Past. Past Par._ +Abide, abode, abode. +Awake, awoke, _awaked. + awaked._ +Be _or_ am, was, been. +Bear, bore, born, +(_bring forth_) bare, borne. +Bear, bore, borne. +(_carry_) bare, +Beat, beat, beaten, + beat. +Begin, began, begun. +Bend, bent, bent, + _bended, bended._ +Bereave, bereft, bereft, + _bereaved, bereaved._ +Beseech, besought, besought. +Bet, bet, bet, + _betted, betted._ +Bid, bade, bid, bidden, bid. +Bind, bound, bound. +Bite, bit, bitten, bit. +Bleed, bled, bled. +Blend, blent, blent, + _blended, blended._ +Bless, blest, blest, + blessed, blessed. +Blow, blew, blown. +Break, broke, broken. + brake, +Breed, bred, bred. +Bring, brought, brought. +Build, built, built. +Burn burnt, burnt, + burned, burned. +Burst, burst, burst. +Buy, bought, bought. +Can,[1] could, -----. +Cast, cast, cast. +Catch, caught, caught. +Chide, chid, chidden, + chid. +Choose, chose, chosen. +Cleave, _cleaved, cleaved._ +(_adhere_) clave, +Cleave cleft, cleft, +(_split_) clove, cloven, + clave, _cleaved._ +Cling, clung, clung. +Clothe, clad, clad, + _clothed clothed._ +(Be)Come, came, come. +Cost, cost, cost. +Creep, crept, crept. +Crow crew, _crowed._ + _crowed_, +Cut, cut, cut. +Dare, durst, _dared_. +(_venture_) _dared_, +Deal, dealt, dealt. +Dig, dug, dug, + _digged_, _digged._ +Do, did, done. +Draw, drew, drawn. +Dream, dreamt, dreamt, + _dreamed, dreamed._ +Dress drest, drest, + _dressed, dressed._ +Drink, drank, drunk. +Drive, drove, driven. +Dwell dwelt, dwelt, + _dwelled, dwelled._ +Eat, ate, eaten. +(Be) Fall, fell, fallen. +Feed, fed, fed. +Feel, felt, felt. +Fight, fought, fought. +Find, found, found. +Flee, fled, fled. +Fling, flung, flung. +Fly, flew, flown. +Forsake, forsook, forsaken. +Forbear, forbore, forborne. +Freeze, froze, frozen. +(For)Get, got, got, gotten.[2] +Gild, gilt, gilt, + _gilded, gilded._ +Gird, girt, girt, + _girded, girded._ +(For)Give, gave, given. +Go, went,[3] gone. +(En)Grave _graved, graved,_ + graven. +Grind, ground, ground. +Grow, grew, grown. +Hang, hung, hung, + _hanged, hanged_.[4] +Have, had, had. +Hear, heard heard. +Heave hove, hove,[5] + _heaved, heaved._ +Hew, _hewed, hewed,_ + hewn. +Hide, hid, hidden, hid. +Hit, hit, hit. +(Be)Hold, held, held, + holden. +Hurt, hurt, hurt. +Keep, kept, kept. +Kneel knelt, knelt, + _kneeled, kneeled._ +Knit knit, knit, + _knitted, knitted._ +Know, knew, known. +Lade, _laded, laded,_ +(load) laden. +Lay, laid, laid. +Lead, led, led. + +[Footnote 1: Can, may, shall, will, must, and ought were originally past +forms. This accounts for their having no change in the third person.] + +[Footnote 2: Gotten is obsolescent except in forgotten.] + +[Footnote 3: _Went_ is the past of _wend,_ to _go_.] + +[Footnote 4: _Hang,_ to execute by hanging, is regular.] + +[Footnote 5: _Hove_ is used in sea language.] + + * * * * * + +LESSON 133. + +LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS--CONTINUED. + +_Present. Past. Past Par._ + +Lean, leant, leant, + _leaned, leaned_. +Leap, leapt, leapt, + _leaped, leaped_. +Learn, learnt, learnt, + _learned, learned_. +Leave, left, left. +Lend, lent, lent. +Let, let, let. +Lie, lay, lain. +(_recline_) +Light, _lighted, lighted_, + lit, lit.[1] +Lose, lost, lost. +Make, made, made. +May, might, ----. +Mean, meant, meant. +Meet, met, met. +Mow, _mowed, mowed_, + mown. +Must, ----, ----. +Ought, ----, ----. +Pay, paid, paid. +Pen, pent, pent, +(_inclose_) _penned, penned_. +Put, put, put. +Quit, quit, quit, + _quitted, quitted_. +----, quoth,[2] ----. +Rap, rapt, rapt, + _rapped, rapped_. +Read, read, read. +Rend, rent, rent. +Rid, rid, rid. +Ride, rode, ridden. +Ring, rang, rung, + _rung_, +(A)Rise, rose, risen. +Rive, _rived_, riven, + _rived_. +Run, ran, run. +Saw, _sawed, sawed_, + sawn. +Say, said, said. +See, saw, seen. +Seek, sought, sought. +Seethe, _seethed, seethed_, + sod, sodden. +Sell, sold, sold. +Send, sent, sent. +(Be)Set, set, set. +Shake, shook, shaken. +Shall, should, ------. +Shape, _shaped, shaped_, + shapen +Shave, _shaved, shaved_, + shaven. +Shear, _sheared, sheared_, + shore, shorn. +Shed, shed, shed. +Shine, shone, shone. +Shoe, shod, shod. +Shoot, shot, shot. +Show, _showed_, shown, + _showed_. +Shred, shred, shred. +Shrink, shrank, shrunk, + shrunk, shrunken. +Shut, shut, shut. +Sing, sang, sung. + sung, +Sink, sank, sunk, + sunk, sunken. +Sit, sat, sat. +Slay, slew, slain. +Sleep, slept, slept. +Slide, slid, slidden, + slid. +Sling, slung, slung. + slang +Slink, slunk, slunk. +Slit, slit, slit, + _slitted, slitted_. +Smell, smelt, smelt, + _smelled, smelled_. +Smite, smote, smitten, + smit. +Sow, _sowed_, sown, + _sowed_. +Speak, spoke, spoken. + spake, +Speed, sped, sped. +Spell, spelt, spelt, + _spelled, spelled_. +Spend, spent, spent. +Spill, spilt, spilt, + _spilled, spilled_. +Spin, spun, spun. + span, +Spit, spit, spit, + spat, spitten. +Split, split, split. +Spoil, spoilt, spoilt, + _spoiled, spoiled_. +Spread, spread, spread. +Spring, sprang, sprung. + sprung, +Stand, stood, stood. +Stave, stove, stove, + _staved, staved_. +Stay, staid, staid, + _stayed, stayed_. +Steal, stole, stolen. +Stick, stuck, stuck. +Sting, stung, stung. +Stink, stunk, stunk. + stank, +Strew, _strewed_, strewn, + _strewed_. +Stride, strode, stridden. +Strike, struck, struck, + stricken. +String, strung, strung, +Strive, strove, striven. +Strow, _strowed_, strown, + _strowed_. +Swear, swore, sworn + sware, +Sweat, sweat, sweat, + _sweated, sweated_. +Sweep, swept, swept. +Swell, _swelled_, _swelled_, + swollen. +Swim, swam, swum. + swum, +Swing, swung, swung. +Take, took, taken, +Teach, taught, taught. +Tear, tore, torn. + tare, +Tell, told, told. +Think, thought, thought. +Thrive, throve, thriven, + _thrived_, _thrived_. +Throw, threw, thrown. +Thrust, thrust, thrust. +Tread, trod, trodden, + trod. +Wake, _waked_, _waked_, + woke, woke. +Wax, _waxed_, _waxed_, + waxen. +Wear, wore, worn. +Weave, wove, woven. +Weep, wept, wept. +Wet, wet, wet. +Will, would, ----. +Win, won, won. +Wind, wound, wound. +Work, wrought, wrought, + _worked_, _worked_. +(to)wit, + wot, wist, ----. +Wring, wrung, wrung. +Write, wrote, written. + +[Footnote 1: _Lighted_ Is preferred to _lit_.] + +[Footnote 2: _Quoth_, now nearly obsolete, is used only in the first and +the third person of the past tense. _Quoth_ I = _said_ I. Other forms +nearly obsolete are sometimes met in literature; as, "_Methinks_ I scent +the morning air"; "Woe _worth_ the day." _Methinks_ (A. S. _thincan_, to +seem, not _thencan_, to think) = _seems to me_. In the sentence above, _I +scent the morning air_ is the subject, _thinks_ is the predicate, and _me_ +is a "dative," or a pronoun used adverbially. Woe _worth_ (A. S. +_weorthan_, to _be_ or _become_) the day = Woe _be_ to the day, or _Let_ +woe _be_ to the day, or _May_ woe _be_ to the day.] + + +NOTE.--Professor Lounsbury says, "Modern English has lost not a single one +[irregular, or strong, verb] since the reign of Queen Elizabeth"; and adds, +"The present disposition of the language is not only to hold firmly to the +strong verbs it already possesses but ... even to extend their number +whenever possible." And he instances a few which since 1600 have deserted +from the regular conjugation to the irregular. + +But it should be said that new English verbs, from whatever source derived, +form their past tense and participle in _ed_. So that while the regular +verbs are not increasing by desertions from the irregular, the regular +verbs are slowly gaining in number. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 134. + +FORMS OF THE VERB--CONTINUED. + +CONJUGATION [Footnote: We give the conjugation of the verb in the simplest +form consistent with what is now demanded of a text-book. Much of this +scheme might well be omitted. + +Those who wish to reject the Potential Mode, and who prefer a more +elaborate and technical classification of the mode and tense forms, are +referred to pages 373, 374. ]--SIMPLEST FORM. + +REMARK.--English verbs have few inflections compared with those of other +languages. Some irregular verbs have seven forms--+see+, +saw+, +seeing+, ++seen+, +sees+, +seest+, +sawest+; regular verbs have six--+walk+, ++walked+, +walking+, +walks+, +walkest+, +walkedst+. As a substitute for +other inflections we prefix auxiliary verbs, and make what are called +_compound_, or _periphrastic_, forms. + ++Direction+.--_Fill out the following forms, using the principal parts of +the verb walk--present +walk+; past +walked+; past participle +walked+:_-- + +INDICATIVE MODE. + +PRESENT TENSE. + + Singular. Plural. +1. (I) /Pres./, 1. (We) /Pres./, +2. (You) /Pres./, 2. (You) /Pres./, + (Thou) /Pres./+est,[1], +3. (He) /Pres./+s;[1] 3. (They) /Pres./. + +PAST TENSE. + +1. (I) /Past/, 1. (We) /Past/, +2. (You) /Past/, 2. (You) /Past/, + (Thou) /Past/+st+, +3. (He) /Past/; 3. (They) /Past/. + +FUTURE TENSE. + +1. (I) shall /Pres./, 1. (We) shall /Pres./, +2. (You) will /Pres./, 2. (You) will /Pres./, + (Thou) wil-+t+ /Pres./, +3. (He) will /Pres./; 3. (They) will /Pres./. + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. + +1. (I) have /Past Par./, 1. (We) have /Past Par./, +2. (You) have /Past Par./, 2. (You) have /Past Par./, + (Thou) ha-+st+ /Past Par./, +3. (He) ha-+s+ /Past Par./; 3. (They) have /Past Par./. + +PAST PERFECT TENSE. + +1. (I) had /Past Par./, 1. (We) had /Past Par./ +2. (You) had /Past Par./, 2. (You) had /Past Par./ + (Thou) had-+st+ /Past Par./, +3. (He) had /Past Par./; 3. (They) had /Past Par./ + +FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. + +1. (I) shall have /Past Par./, 1. (We) shall have /Past Par./, +2. (You) will have /Past Par./, 2. (You) will have /Past Par./, + (Thou) wil-+t+ have /Past Par./, + +3. (He)...will have..../Past Par./; 3. (They) will have /Past Par./. + +[Footnote 1: In the indicative present, second, singular, old style, _st_ +is sometimes added in stead of _est_; and in the third person, common +style, _es_ is added when _s_ will not unite. In the third person, old +style, _eth_ is added.] + +POTENTIAL MODE.[2] + +PRESENT TENSE. + + Singular. Plural. + +1. (I) may /Pres./, 1. (We) may /Pres./, +2. (You) may /Pres./, 2. (You) may /Pres./, + (Thou) may-+st+ /Pres./, +3. (He) may /Pres./; 3. (They) may /Pres./. + +PAST TENSE. + +1. (I) might /Pres./, 1. (We) might /Pres./, +2. (You) might /Pres./, 2. (You) might /Pres./, + (Thou) might-+st+ /Pres./, +3. (He) might /Pres./; 3. (They) might /Pres./. + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. + +1. (I) may have /Past Par./, 1. (We) may have /Past Par./, +2. (You) may have /Past Par./, 2. (You) may have /Past Par./, + (Thou) may-+st+ have /Past Par./, +3. (He) may have /Past Par./. 3. (They) may have /Past Par./. + +PAST PERFECT TENSE. + +1. (I) might have /Past Par./, 1. (We) might have /Past Par./, +2. (You) might have /Past Par./, 2. (You) might have /Past Par./, + (Thou) might-+st+ have /Past Par./, +3. (He) might have /Past Par./. 3. (They) might have /Past Par./. + +Singular. + +[Footnote 2: Those who do not wish to recognize a Potential Mode, but +prefer the unsatisfactory task of determining when _may, can, must, might, +could, would, and should_ are independent verbs in the indicative, and when +auxiliaries in the subjunctive, are referred to pages 370-374.] + +SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.[3] + +PRESENT TENSE. + +Singular. + +2. (If thou) /Pres./ 3. (If he) /Pres./ + +[Footnote 3: The subjunctive as a form of the verb is fading out of the +language. The only distinctive forms remaining (except for the verb _be_) +are the second and the third person singular of the present, and even these +ate giving way to the indicative. Such forms as If he _have loved_, etc. +are exceptional. It is true that other forms, as, If he _had known, Had_ he +_been_, _Should_ he _fall_, may be used in a true subjunctive sense, to +assert what is a mere conception of the mind, i. e., what is merely thought +of, without regard to its being or becoming a fact; but in these cases it +is not the form of the verb but the connective or something in the +construction of the sentence that determines the manner of assertion. In +parsing, the verbs in such constructions may be treated as indicative or +potential, with a subjunctive meaning. + +The offices of the different mode and tense forms are constantly +interchanging; a classification based strictly on meaning would be very +difficult, and would confuse the learner.] + +IMPERATIVE MODE.[4] + +PRESENT TENSE. + +Singular. Plural. + +2. /Pres./ (you or thou); 2. /Pres./ (you or ye). + +[Footnote 4: From such forms as _Let us sing, Let them talk_, some +grammarians make a first and a third person imperative. But _us_ is not the +subject of the verb-phrase _let-sing_, and _let_ is not of the first +person. _Us_ is the object complement of _let_, and the infinitive _sing_ +is the objective complement, having us for its assumed subject. + +Some would find a first and a third person imperative in such sentences as +"Now tread _we_ a measure"; "_Perish_ the _thought_." But these verbs +express strong wish or desire and by some grammarians are called "optative +subjunctives." "Perish the thought" = "May the thought perish," or "I +desire that the thought may perish," or "Let the thought perish."] + +INFINITIVES. + +PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. + + (To)[5] /Pres./ (To) have /Past Par./ + +[Footnote 5: _To_, as indicated by the (), is not treated as a part of the +verb. Writers on language are generally agreed that when _to_ introduces an +infinitive phrase used as an adjective or an adverb, it performs its proper +function as a preposition, meaning _toward_, _for_, etc.; as, I am inclined +_to_ believe; I came _to_ hear. When the infinitive phrase is used as a +noun, the _to_ expresses no relation; it seems merely to introduce the +phrase. When a word loses its proper function without taking on the +function of some other part of speech, we do not see why it should change +its name. In the expressions, _For_ me to do this would be wrong; _Over_ +the fence is out of danger, few grammarians would hesitate to call _for_ +and _over_ prepositions, though they have no antecedent term of relation. + +We cannot see that _to_ is a part of the verb, for it in no way affects the +meaning, as does an auxiliary, or as does the to in He was spoken to. Those +who call it a part of the verb confuse the learner by speaking of it as the +"preposition _to_" (which, as they have said, is not a preposition) "placed +before the infinitive," _i.e._, placed before that of which it forms a part +--placed before itself. + +In the Anglo-Saxon, _to_ was used with the infinitive only in the dative +case, where it had its proper function as a preposition; as, nominative +_etan_ (to eat); dative _to etanne_; accusative _e:tan_. When the dative +ending _ne_ was dropped, making the three forms alike, the _to_ came to be +used before the nominative and the accusative, but without expressing +relation. + +This dative of the infinitive, with _to_, was used mainly to indicate +purpose. When, after the dropping of the _ne_ ending, the idea of purpose +had to be conveyed by the infinitive, it became usual in Elizabethan +literature to place _for_ before the _to_, "And _for to_ deck heaven's +battlements."-_Greene_. "What went ye out _for to_ see?"-_Bible_. "Shut the +gates _for to_ preserve the town."--_K. Hen. VI., Part III_.] + +PARTICIPLES + +PRESENT PAST PAST PERFECT. +/Pres./+ing+. /Past Par./ Having /Past Par./ + ++May+, +can+, and +must+ are potential auxiliaries in the present and the +present perfect tense; +might+, +could+, +would+, and +should+, in the past +and the past perfect. + +The +emphatic+ form of the present and the past tense indicative is made by +prefixing +do+ and +did+ to the present. _Do_ is prefixed to the imperative +also. + +TO THE TEACHES.--Require the pupils to fill out these forma with other +verbs, regular and irregular, using the auxiliaries named above. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 135. + +FORMS OF THE VERB-CONTINUED. + +CONJUGATION OF THE VERB +BE+. + +[Footnote: The conjugation of _be_ contains three distinct roots--_as, be, +was_. _Am, art, is, are_ are from _as_. _Am_ = _as-m_ (_m_ is the _m_ in +_me_). _Art_ = _as-t_ (_t_ is the _th_ in _thou_). + +Be was formerly conjugated, I _be_, Thou _beest_, He _beth_ or _bes_; _We +be_, _Ye be_, _They be_.] + ++Direction+.--Learn the following forms, paying no attention to the line at +the right of each verb:-- + +INDICATIVE MODE. + +PRESENT TENSE. + _Singular. Plural._ + +1. (I) am ----, 1. (We) are ----, +2. (You) are ---- _or_ 2. (You) are ----, + (Thou) art ----, +3. (He) is ----; 3. (They) are ----. + +PAST TENSE. + +1. (I) was ----, 1. (We) were ----, +2. (You) were ---- _or_ 2. (You) were ----, + (Thou) wast ----, +3. (He) was ----; 3. (They) were ----. + +FUTURE TENSE. + +1. (I) shall be ----, 1. (We) shall be ----, +2. (You) will be ---- _or_ 2. (You) will be ----, + (Thou) wilt be ----, +3. (He) will be ----; 3. (They) will be ----. + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. + +1. (I) have been ----, 1. (We) have been ----, +2. (You) have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) have been ----, + (Thou) hast been ----, +3. (He) has been ----; 3. (They) have been ----. + +PAST PERFECT + +1. (I) had been ----, 1. (We) had been ----, +2. (You) had been ---- _or_ 2. (You) had been ----, + (Thou) hadst been ----, +3. (He) had been ----; 3. (They) had been ----. + +FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. + +1. (I) shall have been ----, 1. (We) shall have been ----, +2. (You) will have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) will have been ----, + (Thou) wilt have been ----, +3. (He) will have been ----; 3. (They) will have been ----. + +POTENTIAL MODE. + +PRESENT TENSE. + + _Singular. Plural._ +1. (I) may be ----, 1. (We) may be ----, +2. (You) may be ---- _or_ 2. (You) may be ----, + (Thou) mayst be ----, +3. (He) may be ----; 3. (They) may be ----. + +PAST TENSE. + +1. (I) might be ----, 1. (We) might be ----, +2. (You) might be ---- _or_ 2. (You) might be ----, + (Thou) mightst be ----, +3. (He) might be ----; 3. (They) might be ----. + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. + +1. (I) may have been ----, 1. (We) may have been ----, +2. (You) may have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) may have been ----, + (Thou) mayst have been ----, +3. (He) may have been ----; 3. (They) may have been ----. + +PAST PERFECT TENSE, + +1. (I) might have been ----, 1. (We) might have been ----, +2. (You) might have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) might have been ----, + (Thou) mightst have been ----, +3. (He) might have been ----; 3. (They) might have been ----. + +SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. + +PBESENT TENSE. + + _Singular. Plural._ +1. (If I) may have been ----, 1. (If we) may have been ----, +2. (If you) may have been ---- _or_ 2. (If you) may have been ----, + (If thou) mayst have been ----, +3. (If he) may have been ----; 3. (If they) may have been ----. + +PAST TENSE. + + _Singular._ +1. (If I) were -----, +2. (If you) were ----, _or_ + (If thou) wert ----, +3. (If he) were ----; + +IMPERATIVE MODE. + +PRESENT TENSE. + + _Singular. Plural._ +2. Be (you or thou) ----; 2. Be (you or ye) ----. + +INFINITIVES. + + PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. + (To) be ----. (To) have been ----. + +PARTICIPLES. + +PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. +Being ----. Been. Having been ----. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 136. + +FORMS OF THE VERB--CONTINUED. + +CONJUGATION--PROGRESSIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS. + +A verb is conjugated in the +progressive form+ by joining its present +participle to the different forms of the verb _be_. + +A transitive verb is conjugated in the +passive voice+ by joining its past +participle to the different forms of the verb _be_. + ++Remark+.--The progressive form denotes a continuance of the action or +being; as, The birds _are singing_. + +Verbs that in their simple form denote continuance--such as _love_, +_respect_, _know_--should not be conjugated in the progressive form. We +say, I _love_ the child--not I _am loving_ the child. + ++Remarks+.--The progressive form is sometimes used with a passive meaning; +as, The house _is building_. In such cases the word in _ing_ was once a +verbal noun preceded by the preposition _a_, a contraction from _on_ or +_in_; as, While the ark _was a preparing_; While the flesh _was in +seething_. In modern language the preposition is dropped, and the word in +_ing_ is treated adjectively. + +Another passive progressive form, consisting of the verb _be_ completed by +the present passive participle, has recently appeared in our language--The +house _is being built_, or _was being built_. Although condemned by many +linguists as awkward and otherwise objectionable, it has grown rapidly into +good use, especially in England, Such a form seems to be needed when the +simpler form would be ambiguous, _i.e._, when its subject might be taken to +name either the actor or the receiver; as, The child _is whipping_; The +prisoner _is trying_. Introduced only to prevent ambiguity, the so-called +neologism has pushed its way, and is found where the old form would not be +ambiguous. As now used, the new form stands to the old in about the ratio +of three to one. + ++Direction+.--_Conjugate the verb choose in the progressive form by filling +all the blanks left after the different forms of the verb be, in the +preceding Lesson, with the present participle choosing; and then in the +passive form by filling these blanks with the past participle chosen_. + +Notice that after the past participle of the verb _be_ no blank is left. +The past participle of the passive is not formed by the aid of _be_; it is +never compound. The past participle of a transitive verb is always passive +except in such forms as _have chosen, had chosen_. (See _have written_, +Lesson 138.) In the progressive, the past participle is wanting. All the +participles of the verb _choose_ are arranged in order +below. + + _Present. Past. Past Perfect_. + +_Simplest form_. Choosing, chosen, having chosen. +_Progressive form_. Being choosing,* ------, having been choosing. +_Passive form_. Being chosen, chosen, having been chosen. + +[Footnote *: This form is not commonly used.] + ++Direction+.--_Write and arrange as above all the participles of the verbs +break, drive, read, lift_. + +TO THE TEACHER.--Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate +them in the progressive and in the passive form. Require them to give +synopses of all the forms. Require them in some of their synopses to use +_it_ or some noun for the subject in the third person. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 137. + +CONJUGATION--CONTINUED. + +INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE FORMS. + +A verb may be conjugated +interrogatively+ in the indicative and potential +modes by placing the subject after the first auxiliary; as, _Does he sing?_ + +A verb may be conjugated +negatively+ by placing _not_ after the first +auxiliary; as, He _does not sing_. _Not_ is placed before the infinitive +and the participles; as, _not to sing, not singing_. + +A question with negation is expressed in the indicative and potential +modes by placing the subject and _not_ after the first auxiliary; as, _Does +he not sing?_ + ++Remark+.--Formerly, it was common to use the simple form of the present +and past tenses interrogatively and negatively thus: _Loves he? I know +not_. Such forms are still common in poetry, but in prose they are now +scarcely used. We say, _Does he love?_ _I do not know_. The verbs _be_ and +_have_ are exceptions, as they do not take the auxiliary _do_. We say, _Is +it right? Have you another?_ + ++Direction+.--_Write a synopsis in the third person, singular, of the verb +walk conjugated_ (1) _interrogatively_, (2) _negatively, and _(3) _so as to +express a question with negation. Remember that the indicative and the +potential are the only modes that can be used interrogatively._ + +To THE TEACHER.--Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate +them negatively and interrogatively in the progressive and in the passive +form. Require the pupils to give synopses of all the forms. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 138. + +MODE AND TENSE FORMS. + +COMPOUND FORMS--ANALYSIS. + +The +compound+, or +periphrastic, forms+ of the verb consisting of two +words may each be resolved into an +asserting word and a participle+ or an ++infinitive+. + +If we look at the original meaning of the forms +I do write, I shall write, +I will write+, we shall find that the so-called auxiliary is the real verb, +and that _write_ is an infinitive used as object complement. +I do write = +I do+ or +perform+ the action (_to_) write. +I shall write = I owe+ (_to_) ++write. I will write = I determine+ (_to_) +write+. + ++May write, can write, must write, might write, could write, would write+, +and +should write+ may each be resolved into an asserting word and an +infinitive. + +The forms +is writing, was written+, etc. consist each of an asserting word +(the verb _be_), and a participle used as attribute complement. + +The forms +have written+ and +had written+ are so far removed from their +original meaning that their analysis cannot be made to correspond with +their history. They originated from such expressions as _I have a letter +written_, in which _have_ ( = _possess_) is a transitive verb taking +_letter_ for its object complement, and _written_ is a passive participle +modifying _letter_. The idea of possession has faded out of _have_, and the +participle has lost its passive meaning. The use of this form has been +extended to intransitive verbs--Spring _has come_, Birds _have flown_, etc. +being now regularly used instead of the more logical perfect tense forms, +Spring _is come_, Birds _are flown_. (_Is come, are flown_, etc. must not +be mistaken for transitive verbs in the passive voice.) [Footnote: A +peculiar use of _had_ is found in the expressions _had rather go_ and _had +better go_, condemned by many grammarians who suppose _had_ to be here used +incorrectly for _would_ or _should_. Of these expressions the "Standard +Dictionary," an authority worthy of our attention, says:-- + +"Forms disputed by certain grammatical critics from the days of Samuel +Johnson, the critics insisting upon the substitution of _would_ or +_should_, as the case may demand, for _had_; but _had rather_ and _had +better_ are thoroughly established English, idioms having the almost +universal popular and literary sanction of centuries. 'I _would rather_ not +go' is undoubtedly correct when the purpose is to emphasize the element of +choice, or will, in the matter; but in all ordinary cases 'I _had rather_ +not go' has the merit of being idiomatic and easily and universally +understood. + +"If for 'You _had better_ stay at home' we substitute 'You _should better_ +stay at home,' an entirely different meaning is expressed, the idea of +expediency giving place to that of obligation." + +In the analysis of "_I had rather go_," _had_ is the predicate verb, the +infinitive _go_ is the object complement, and the adjective _rather_ +completes _had_ and belongs to _go_, i.e., is objective complement. _Had_ +(= _should hold_ or _regard_) is treated as a past subjunctive. _Rather_ is +the comparative of the old adjective _rathe_ = _early_, from which comes +the idea of preference. The expression means, "I should hold going +preferable." + +The expressions "You _had better_ stay," "I _had as lief_ not be," are +similar in construction to "I _had rather_ go." "I _had sooner_ go" is +condemned by grammarians because _sooner_ is never an adjective. If +_sooner_ is here allowed as an idiom, it is a modifier of _had_. The +expression equals, "I should more willingly have going."] + +Compounds of more than two words may be analyzed thus: +May have been +written+ is composed of the compound auxiliary +may have been+ and the +participle +written; may have been+ is composed of the compound auxiliary ++may have+ and the participle +been+; and +may have+ is composed of the +auxiliary +may+ and the infinitive +have+. _May_ is the asserting word--the +first auxiliary is always the asserting word. + ++Direction+.--_Study what has been said above and analyze the following +verbal forms, distinguishing carefully between participles that may be +considered as part of the verb and words that must be treated as attribute +complements_:-- + +1. I may be mistaken. +2. The farm was sold. +3. I shall be contented. +4. Has it been decided? +5. You should have been working. +6. The danger might have been avoided. +7. He may have been tired and sleepy. +8. She is singing. +9. I shall be satisfied. +10. The rule has not been observed. +11. Stars have disappeared. +12. Times will surely change. + +TENSE FORMS--MEANING. + +The +Present Tense+ is used to express (1) what is actually present, (2) +what is true at all times, (3) what frequently or habitually takes place, +(4) what is to take place in the future, and it is used (5) in describing +past or future events as if occurring at the time of the speaking. + ++Examples+.--I _hear_ a voice (action as present). The sun _gives_ light +(true at all times). He _writes_ for the newspapers (habitual). Phillips +_speaks_ in Boston to-morrow night (future). He _mounts_ the scaffold; the +executioners _approach_ to bind him; he _struggles, resists_, etc. (past +events pictured to the imagination as present). The clans of Culloden _are_ +scattered in fight; they _rally_, they _bleed_, etc. (future events now +seen in vision). + +The +Past Tense+ may express (1) simply past action or being, (2) a past +habit or custom, (3) a future event, and (4) it may refer to present time. + ++Examples+.--The birds _sang_ (simply past action). He _wrote_ for the +newspapers (past habit). If I _should go_, you _would miss_ me (future +events). If he _were_ here, he _would enjoy_ this (refers to present time). + +The +Future Tense+ may express (1) simply future action or being, (2) a +habit or custom as future or as indefinite in time. + ++Examples+.--I _shall write_ soon (simply future action). He _will sit_ +there by the hour (indefinite in time). + +The +Present Perfect Tense+ expresses (1) action or being as completed in +present time (_i.e._, a period of time--an hour, a year, an age--of which +the present forms a part), and (2) action or being to be completed in a +future period. + ++Examples+.--Homer _has written_ poems (the period of time affected by this +completed action embraces the present). When I _have finished_ this, you +_shall have_ it (action to be completed in a future period). + +The +Past Perfect Tense+ expresses (1) action or being as completed at some +specified past time, and (2) in a conditional or hypothetical clause it may +express past time. + ++Examples+.--I _had seen_ him when I met you (action completed at a +specified past time). If I _had had_ time, I _should have written_ (I _had_ +not time--I _did_ not _write_.) + +The +Future Perfect Tense+ expresses action to be completed at some +specified future time. + ++Example+.--I _shall have seen_ him by to-morrow noon. + ++Direction+.--_Study what has been said above about the meaning of the +tense forms, and describe carefully the time expressed by each of the +following verbs_:-- + +1. I go to the city to-morrow. +2. The village master taught his little school. +3. Plato reasons well. +4. A triangle has three sides. +5. To-morrow is the day appointed. +6. Moses has told many important facts. +7. The ship sails next week. +8. She sings well. +9. Cicero has written orations. +10. He would sit for hours and watch the smoke curl from his pipe. +11. You may hear when the next mail arrives, +12. Had I known this before, I could have saved you much trouble. +13. He will occasionally lose his temper. +14. At the end of this week I shall have been in school four years. +15. If I were you, I would try that. +16. He will become discouraged before he has thoroughly tried it. +17. She starts, she moves, she seems to feel the thrill of life along her + keel. + ++Model for Written Parsing adapted to all Parts of Speech+. _Oh! it has a +voice for those who on their sick beds lie and waste away._ + +[Transcriber's Note: The following two tables have been split to fit within +Project Gutenberg line-width requirements. The first column of each table +has been repeated for easier reference.] + + |CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATIONS. +---------|-----------------|---------------------------------------------| +Sentence.|Class. |Sub-C. |Voice.|Mode.|Tense.|Num. |Per.| Gen. |Case.| + | | | | | | | | | | +Oh! |Int. | | | | | | | | | +it |Pro. |Per. | | | |Sing.| ad.| Neut. |Nom. | +has |Vb. |Ir., Tr. | Act. | Ind.|Pres. | " | " | | | +a |Adj. |Def. | | | | | | | | +voice |N. |Com. | | | | " | " | " |Obj. | +for |Prep. | | | | | | | | | +those |Pro. |Adj. | | | |Plu. | " |M. or F.| " | +who |Pro. |Rel. | | | | " | " | " |Nom. | +on |Prep. | | | | | | | | | +their |Pro. |Per. | | | | " | " | " |Pos. | +sick |Adj. |Des. | | | | | | | | +beds |N. |Com. | | | | " | " | Neut. |Obj. | +lie |Vb. |Ir.,Int. | -- | Ind.|Pres. | " | " | | | +and |Conj. |Co-or. | | | | | | | | +waste |Vb. |Reg.,Int.| -- | " | " | " | " | | | +away. |Adv. |Place. | | | | | | | | +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- + + | | SYNTAX. +---------|-------|----------------------------------- +Sentence.|Deg. of| + | Comp.| +Oh! | |Independent. +it | |Subject of _has_. +has | |Predicate of _it_. +a | -- |Modifier of _voice_. +voice | |Object comp of _has_. +for | |Shows Rel. of _has_ to _those_. +those | |Prin. word in Prep. phrase. +who | |Subject of _lie_ and _waste_. +on | |Shows Rel. of _lie_ to _beds_. +their | |Possessive Mod. of _beds_. +sick | Pos. |Modifier of _beds_. +beds | |Prin. word in Prep. phrase. +lie | |Predicate of _who_. +and | |Connects _lie_ and _waste_. +waste | |Predicate of _who_. +away. | -- |Modifier of _waste_. +----------------------------------------------------- + +TO THE TEACHER.--For further exercises in parsing the verb and for +exercises in general parsing, select from the preceding Lessons on +Analysis. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 139 + +PARSING. + ++Direction+.--_Select and parse, according to the Model below, the verbs in +the sentences of Lesson_ 42. _For the agreement of verbs, see Lesson_ 142. + ++Model for Written Parsing--_Verbs_+.--_The Yankee, selling his farm, +wanders away to seek new lands_. + +CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATIONS. +---------------------------|------------------------------| +Verbs. | Kind. |Voice.|Mode.|Tense.|Num. |Per.| +*selling|Pr. Par., Ir., Tr.| Act. | -- | -- | -- | -- | +wanders |Reg., Int. | -- |Ind. |Pres. |Sing.| 3d.| +*seek |Inf., Ir., Tr. | Act. | -- | " | -- | | + | | | | | | | + + | SYNTAX +--------|--------- +Verbs. | +selling |Mod. of _Yankee_. +wanders |Pred. of _Yankee_. +seek |Prin. word in phrase + | Mod. of _wanders_. + +[Footnote: Participles and infinitives have neither person nor number.] + +(See Model for Written Parsing on opposite page.) + + * * * * * + +LESSON 140. + +CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE FORMS. + ++Caution+.--Be careful to give every verb its proper form and meaning. + ++Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:-- + +1. I done it myself. +2. He throwed it into the river, for I seen him when he done it. +3. She sets by the open window enjoying the scene that lays before her. + ++Explanation+.--_Lay_ (to place) is transitive, _lie_ (to rest) is +intransitive; _set_ (to place) is transitive, _sit_ (to rest) is +intransitive. _Set_ in some of its meanings is intransitive. + +4. The tide sits in. +5. Go and lay down. +6. The sun sits in the west. +7. I remember when the corner stone was lain. +8. Sit the plates on the table. +9. He sat out for London yesterday. +10. Your dress sets well. +11. The bird is setting on its eggs. +12. I laid there an hour. +13. Set down and talk a little while. +14. He has laid there an hour. +15. I am setting by the river. +16. He has went and done it without my permission. +17. He flew from justice. +18. Some valuable land was overflown. +19. She come just after you left. +20. They sung a new tune which they had not sang before. +21. The water I drunk there was better than any that I had drank before. +22. The leaves had fell. +23. I had rode a short distance when the storm begun to gather. +24. I found the water froze. +25. He raised up. +26. He run till he became so weary that he was forced to lay down. +27. I knowed that it was so, for I seen him when he done it. +28. I had began to think that you had forsook us. +29. I am afraid that I cannot learn him to do it. +30. I guess that I will stop. +31. I expect that he has gone to Boston. +32. There ain't any use of trying. +33. I have got no mother. +34. Can I speak to you? +35. He had ought to see him. + ++Explanation+.--As _ought_ is never a participle, it cannot be used after +_had_ to form a compound tense. + ++Caution+.--A conditional or a concessive clause takes a verb in the +indicative mode when the action or being is assumed as a fact, or when the +uncertainty lies merely in the speaker's knowledge of the fact. But when +the action or being in such a clause is merely thought of as a contingency, +or in such a clause the speaker prefers to put hypothetically something of +whose truth or untruth he has no doubt, the subjunctive is used. The +subjunctive is frequently used in indirect questions, in expressing a wish +for that which it is impossible to attain at once or at all, and instead of +the potential mode in independent clauses. + ++Examples+.-- + 1. If (= _since_) it rains, why do you go? + 2. If it _rains_ (now), I cannot go out. + 3. If it _rain_, the work will be delayed. + 4. Though it _rain_ to-morrow, we must march. + 5. If there _be_ mountains, there must be valleys between. + 6. Though honey _be_ sweet, one can't make a meal of it. + 7. If my friend _were_ here, he would enjoy this. + 8. Though immortality _were_ improbable, we should still believe in it. + 9. One may doubt whether the best men _be known_. + 10. I wish the lad _were_ taller. + 11. Oh! that I _were_ a Samson in strength. + 12. It _were_ better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck. + ++Explanation+.--In (1) the raining is assumed as a fact. In (2) the speaker +is uncertain of the fact. In the conditional clause of (3) and in the +concessive clause of (4) the raining is thought of as a mere contingency. +The speaker is certain of the truth of what is hypothetically expressed in +the conditional clause of (5) and in the concessive clause of (6), and is +certain of the untruth of what is hypothetically expressed in the +conditional clause of (7) and in the concessive clause of (8). There is an +indirect question in (9), a wish in (10) for something not at once +attainable and in (11) for something forever unattainable, and in (12) the +subjunctive mode is used in place of the potential. + ++Remarks+.--When there is doubt as to whether the indicative or the +subjunctive mode is required, use the indicative. + +The present subjunctive forms may be treated as infinitives used to +complete omitted auxiliaries; as, If it (_should_) _rain_, the work will be +delayed; Till one greater man (_shall_) _restore_ us, etc. This will often +serve as a guide in distinguishing the indicative from the subjunctive +mode. + +_If, though, lest, unless_, etc. are usually spoken of as signs of the +subjunctive mode, but these words are now more frequently followed by the +indicative than by the subjunctive. + ++Direction+.--_Justify the mode of the italicized verbs in the following +sentences_:-- + +1. If this _were_ so, the difficulty would vanish. +2. If he _was_ there, I did not see him. +3. If to-morrow _be_ fine, I will walk with you. +4. Though this _seems_ improbable, it is true. +5. If my friend _is_ in town, he will call this evening. +6. If he ever _comes_, we shall know it. + ++Explanation+.--In (6) and (7) the coming is referred to as a fact to be +decided in future time. + +7. If he _comes_ by noon, let me know. +8. The ship leaps, as it _were_, from billow to billow. +9. Take heed that thou _speak_ not to Jacob. +10. If a pendulum _is drawn _to one side, it will swing to the other. + ++Explanation+.--_Be_ is often employed in making scientific statements like +the preceding, and may therefore be allowed, _If a pendulum is drawn = +Whenever a pendulum is drawn_. + +11. I wish that I _were_ a musician. +12. _Were_ I so disposed, I could not gratify you. +13. This sword shall end thee unless thou _yield_. +14. Govern well thy appetite, lest sin _surprise_ thee. +15. I know not whether it _is_ so or not. +16. Would he _were_ fatter! +17. If there _were_ no light, there would be no colors. +18. Oh, that he _were_ a son of mine! +19. Though it _be_ cloudy to-night, it will be cold. +20. Though the whole _exceed_ a part, we sometimes prefer a part to the + whole. +21. Whether he _go_ or not, I must be there. +22. Though an angel from heaven _command_ it, we should not steal. +23. If there _be_ an eye, it was made to see. +24. It _were_ well it _were done_ quickly. + ++Direction+.--_Supply in each of the following sentences a verb in the +indicative or the subjunctive mode, and give a reason for your choice_:-- + +1. I wish it ---- in my power to help you. +2. I tremble lest he ----. +3. If he ---- guilty, the evidence does not show it. +4. He deserves our pity, unless his tale ---- a false one. +5. Though he ---- there, I did not see him. +6. If he ---- but discreet, he will succeed. +7. If I ---- he, I would do differently. +8. If ye ---- men, fight. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 141. + +CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE FORMS--CONTINUED. + ++Caution+.--Be careful to employ the tense forms of the different modes in +accordance with their meaning, and in such a way as to preserve the proper +order of time. + ++Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:-- + +1. That custom has been formerly quite popular. +2. Neither will they be persuaded, though one rose from the dead. +3. He that was dead sat up and began to speak. +4. A man bought a horse for one hundred dollars; and, after keeping it + three months, at an expense of ten dollars a month, he sells it for two + hundred dollars. What per cent does he gain? +5. I should say that it was an hour's ride. +6. If I had have seen him, I should have known him. +7. I wish I was in Dixie. +8. We should be obliged if you will favor us with a song. +9. I intended to have called. + ++Explanation+.--This is incorrect; it should be, _I intended to call_. The +act of calling was not completed at the time indicated by _intended_. + ++Remark+.--Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, hoping, intending, +permitting, etc. are followed by verbs denoting present or future time. +[Footnote: The "Standard Dictionary" makes this restriction: "The doubling +of the past tenses in connection with the use of _have_ with a past +participle is proper and necessary when the completion of the future act +was intended before the occurrence of something else mentioned or thought +of. Attention to this qualification, which has been overlooked in the +criticism of tense-formation and connection, is especially important and +imperative. If one says, 'I meant _to have visited_ Paris and _to have +returned_ to London before my father _arrived_ from America,' the past +[present perfect] infinitive ... is necessary for the expression of the +completion of the acts purposed. 'I meant _to visit_ Paris and _to return_ +to London before my father _arrived_ from America,' may convey suggestively +the thought intended, but does not express it."] + +The present infinitive expresses an action as present or future, and the +present perfect expresses it as completed, at the time indicated by the +principal verb. I _am glad to have met you_ is correct, because the meeting +took place before the time of being glad. + +I _ought to have gone_ is exceptional. _Ought_ has no past tense form, and +so the present perfect infinitive is used to make the expression refer to +past time. + +10. We hoped to have seen you often. +11. I should not have let you eaten it. +12. I should have liked to have seen it. +13. He would not have dared done that. +14. You ought to have helped me to have done it. +15. We expected that he would have arrived last night. +16. The experiment proved that air had weight. + ++Remark+.--What is true or false at all times is generally expressed in the +present tense, whatever tense precedes. + +There seems to be danger of applying this rule too rigidly. When a speaker +does not wish to vouch for the truth of the general proposition, he may use +the past tense, giving it the form of an indirect quotation; as, He said +that iron _was_ the most valuable of metals. The tense of the dependent +verb is sometimes attracted into that of the principal verb; as, I _knew_ +where the place _was_. + +17. I had never known before how short life really was. +18. We then fell into a discussion whether there is any beauty independent + of utility. The General maintained that there was not; Dr. Johnson + maintained that there was. +19. I have already told you that I was a gentleman. +20. Our fathers held that all men were created equal. + ++Caution+.--Use _will_ and _would_ to imply that the subject names the one +whose will controls the action; use _shall_ and _should_ to imply that the +one named by the subject is under the control of external influence. + ++Remark+.--The original meaning of _shall_ (to _owe_, to _be obliged_) and +_will_ (to _determine_) gives us the real key to their proper use. + +The only case in which some trace of the original meaning of these +auxiliaries cannot be found is the one in which the subject of _will_ names +something incapable of volition; as, The _wind will blow_. Even this may be +a kind of personification. + ++Examples+.--I _shall go_; You _will go_; He _will go_. These are the +proper forms to express mere futurity, but even here we can trace the +original meaning of _shall_ and _will_. In the first person the speaker +avoids egotism by referring to the act as an obligation or duty rather than +as something under the control of his own will. In the second and third +persons it is more courteous to refer to the will of others than to their +duty. + +I _will go_. Here the action is under the control of the speaker's will. He +either promises or determines to go. + +You _shall go_; He _shall go_. Here the speaker either promises the going +or determines to compel these persons to go; in either case the one who +goes is under some external influence. + +_Shall_ I _go?_ Here the speaker puts himself under the control of some +external influence--the will of another. + +_Will_ I _go?_--_i. e_., Is it my will to go?--is not used except to repeat +another's question. It would be absurd for one to ask what his own will is. + +_Shall_ you _go_? Ans. I _shall_. _Will_ you _go_? Ans. I _will_. _Shall_ +he _go?_ Ans. He _shall_. _Will_ he _go?_ Ans. He _will_. The same +auxiliary is used in the question that is used in the answer. + +No difficulty _shall hinder_ me. The difficulty that might do the hindering +is not to be left to itself, but is to be kept under the control of the +speaker. + +He says that he _shall go_; He says that he _will go_. Change the indirect +quotations introduced by _that_ to direct quotations, and the application +of the Caution will be apparent. + +You _will see_ that my horse is at the door by nine o'clock. This is only +an apparent exception to the rule. A superior may courteously avoid the +appearance of compulsion, and refer to his subordinate's willingness to +obey. + +They knew that I _should be_ there, and that he _would be_ there. The same +principles apply to _should_ and _would_ that apply to _shall_ and _will_. +In this example the events are future as to past time; making them future +as to present time, we have, They know that I _shall be_ there, and that he +_will be_ there. + +My friend said that he _should_ not _set_ out to-morrow. Change the +indirect to a direct quotation, and the force of _should_ will be seen. + ++Direction+.--_Assign a reason for the use of shall or will in each of the +following sentences_:-- + +1. Hear me, for I will speak. +2. If you will call, I shall be happy to accompany you. +3. Shall you be at liberty to-day? +4. I shall never see him again. +5. I will never see him again. +6. I said that he should be rewarded. +7. Thou shalt surely die. +8. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. +9. Though I should die, yet will I not deny thee. +10. Though I should receive a thousand shekels of silver in mine hand, yet + would I not put forth my hand against the king's son. + ++Direction+.--_Fill each of the following blanks with shall, will, should, +or would, and give the reasons for your choice_:-- + +1. He knew who ---- betray him. +2. I ---- be fatigued if I had walked so far. +3. You did better than I ---- have done. +4. If he ---- come by noon, ---- you be ready? +5. They do me wrong, and I ---- not endure it. +6. I ---- be greatly obliged if you ---- do me the favor. +7. If I ---- say so, I ---- be guilty of falsehood. +8. You ---- be disappointed if you ---- see it. +9. ---- he be allowed to go on? +10. ---- you be unhappy, if I do not come? + ++Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:-- + +1. Where will I leave you? +2. Will I be in time? +3. It was requested that no person would leave his seat. +4. They requested that the appointment would be given to a man who should + be known to his party. +5. When will we get through this tedious controversy? +6. I think we will have rain. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 142. + +CONSTRUCTION OF NUMBER AND PERSON FORMS. + +AGREEMENT.--VERBS--PRONOUNS. + ++Caution+.--A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. + ++Remarks+.--Practically, this rule applies to but few forms. +Are+ and ++were+ are the only plural forms retained by the English verb. In the +common style, most verbs have one person form, made by adding +s+ or +es+ +(_has_, in the present perfect tense, is a contraction of the indicative +present--_ha_(_ve_)_s_). The verb _be_ has +am+ (first person) and +is+ +(third person). + +In the solemn style, the second person singular takes the ending +est+, ++st+, or +t+, and, in the indicative present, the third person singular +adds +eth+. (See Lessons 134 and 135.) + +_Need_ and _dare_, when followed by an infinitive without _to_, are +generally used instead of _needs_ and _dares_; as, He _need_ not do it; He +_dare_ not do it. + ++Caution+.--A collective noun requires a verb in the plural when the +individuals in the collection are thought of; but, when the collection as a +whole is thought of, the verb should be singular. + ++Examples+.-- + l. The _multitude were_ of one mind. + 2. The _multitude was_ too large to number. + 3. A _number were_ inclined to turn back, + 4. The _number_ present _was_ not ascertained. + ++Caution+.--When a verb has two or more subjects connected by _and_, it +must agree with them in the plural. + ++Exceptions+.--l. When the connected subjects are different names of the +same thing, or when they name several things taken as one whole, the verb +must be singular; as, My old _friend and schoolmate is_ in town. _Bread and +milk is_ excellent food. + +2. When the connected subjects are preceded by _each, every, many a_, or +_no_, they are taken separately, and the verb agrees with the nearest; as, +_Every man, woman, and child was_ lost. + +3. When the subjects are emphatically distinguished, the verb agrees with +the first and is understood with the second; as, _Time, and patience also, +is_ needed. (The same is true of subjects connected by _as well as_; as, +_Time, as well as patience, is_ needed.) + +4. When one of the subjects is affirmative and the other negative, the verb +agrees with the affirmative; as, _Books, and not pleasure_, occupy his +time. + +5. When several subjects follow the verb, each subject may be emphasized by +making the verb agree with that which stands nearest; as, Thine _is_ the +_kingdom and_ the _power_ _and_ the _glory_. + ++Remark+.--When one of two or more subjects connected by _and_ is of the +first person, the verb is in the first person; when one of the subjects is +of the second person, and none of the first, the verb is in the second +person. _I, you, and he_ = _we_; _you and he_ = _you_. We say, _Mary and I +shall_ (not _will_) be busy to-morrow. + ++Caution+.--When two or more subjects are connected by _or_ or _nor_, the +verb agrees in person and number with the nearest; as, Neither _poverty nor +wealth was_ desired; Neither _he nor they were_ satisfied. + +When the subjects require different forms of the verb, it is generally +better to express the verb with each subject or to recast the sentence. + ++Remarks+.--When a singular and a plural subject are used, the plural +subject is generally placed next to the verb. + +In using pronouns of different persons, it is generally more polite for the +speaker to mention the one addressed first, and himself last, except when +he confesses a fault. + ++Caution+.--A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender, and +person; as, _Thou who writest_; _He who writes_; _They who write_, etc. + +The three special Cautions given above for the agreement of the verb will +also aid in determining the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent. + ++Remarks+.--The pronoun and the verb of an adjective clause relating to the +indefinite subject _it_ take, by attraction, the person and number of the +complement when this complement immediately precedes the adjective clause; +as, It is I _that am_ in the wrong; It is thou _that liftest_ me up; It is +the dews and showers _that make_ the grass grow. + +The pronoun _you_, even when singular, requires a plural verb. + ++Direction+.--_Justify the use of the following italicized verbs and +pronouns_:-- + +1. _Books is_ a noun. +2. The good _are_ great. +3. The committee _were_ unable to agree, and _they_ asked to be discharged. +4. The House _has_ decided not to allow _its_ members the privilege. +5. Three times four _is_ twelve. [Footnote: "Three times four _is_ twelve" + and "Three times four _are_ twelve" are both used, and both are + defended. The question is (see Caution for collective nouns), Is the + number four thought of as a whole, or are the individual units composing + it thought of? The expression = Four taken three times is twelve. + _Times_ is a noun used adverbially.] +6. Five dollars _is_ not too much. +7. Twice as much _is_ too much. +8. Two hours _is_ a long time to wait. +9. To relieve the wretched _was_ his pride. +10. To profess and to possess _are_ two different things. +11. Talking and eloquence _are_ not the same. +12. The tongs _are_ not in _their_ place. +13. Every one _is_ accountable for _his_ own acts. +14. Every book and every paper _was_ found in _its_ place. +15. Not a loud voice, but strong proofs _bring_ conviction. +16. This orator and statesman _has_ gone to _his_ rest. +17. Young's "Night Thoughts" _is his_ most celebrated poetical work. +18. Flesh and blood _hath_ not revealed it. +19. The hue and cry of the country _pursues_ him. +20. The second and the third Epistle of John _contain_ each a single + chapter. +21. _Man is_ masculine because _it_ denotes a male. +22. Therein _consists_ the force and use and nature of language. +23. Neither wealth nor wisdom _is_ the chief thing. +24. Either you or I _am_ right. +25. Neither you nor he _is_ to blame. +26. John, and his sister also, _is_ going. +27. The lowest mechanic, as well as the richest citizen, _is_ here + protected in _his_ right. +28. There _are_ one or two reasons. [Footnote: When two adjectives + differing in number are connected without a repetition of the noun, the + tendency is to make the verb agree with the noun expressed.] +29. Nine o'clock and forty-five minutes _is_ fifteen minutes of ten. +30. Mexican figures, or picture-writing, _represent_ things, not words. + [Footnote: The verb here agrees with _figures_, as _picture-writing_ is + logically explanatory of _figures_.] +31. Many a kind word and many a kind act _has_ been put to his credit. + ++Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:-- + +1. _Victuals_ are always plural. +2. Plutarch's "Parallel Lives" are his great work. +3. What sounds have each of the vowels? +4. "No, no," says I. +5. "We agree," says they. +6. Where was you? +7. Every one of these are good in their place. +8. Neither of them have recited their lesson. +9. There comes the boys. +10. Each of these expressions denote action. +11. One of you are mistaken. +12. There is several reasons for this. +13. The assembly was divided in its opinion. +14. The public is invited to attend. +15. The committee were full when this point was decided. +16. The nation are prosperous. +17. Money, as well as men, were needed. +18. Now, boys, I want every one of you to decide for themselves. +19. Neither the intellect nor the heart are capable of being driven. +20. She fell to laughing like one out of their right mind. +21. Five years' interest are due. +22. Three quarters of the men was discharged. +23. Nine-tenths of every man's happiness depend upon this. +24. No time, no money, no labor, were spared. +25. One or the other have erred in their statement. +26. Why are dust and ashes proud? +27. Either the master or his servants is to blame. +28. Neither the servants nor their master are to blame. +29. Our welfare and security consists in unity. +30. The mind, and not the body, sin. +31. He don't like it. +32. Many a heart and home have been desolated by drink. + +GENERAL REVIEW. + +TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, page 255*. + ++Scheme for the Verb.+ + +(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.) + +VERB. + Uses. + To assert action, being, or state.--Predicate (4, 11) + To assume action, being, or state. + Participles (37) + Infinitives (40) + Classes. + Form. + Regular (92). + Irregular (92, 132, 133). + (Redundant and Defective) + Meaning. + Transitive (92). + Intransitive (92). + Modifications. + Voice. + Active (129, 130). + Passive (129, 130). + Mode. + Indicative (131, 134-137). + Potential (131, 134-137). + Subjunctive (131, 134-137, 140). + Imperative (131, 134-137). + Tense. + Present. | + Past. | + Future. + 131, 134-138, + Present Perfect.| 140, 141. + Past Perfect. | + Future Perfect. | + Number. + Singular. + 131, 134, 135. + Plural. | + Person. + First. | + Second. + 131, 134, 135. + Third. | + Participles.--Classes. + Present. | + Past. + 131, 134, 136. + Past Perfect. | + Infinitives.-- + Present. | + Present Perfect.| 131, 134, 135. + ++Questions on the Verb+. + +1. Define the verb and its classes.--Lessons 92, 132. + +2. Define the modifications of the verb.--Lessons 129, 131. + +3. Define the several voices, modes, and tenses.--Lessons 129, 131. + +4. Define the participle and its classes.--Lesson 131. + +5. Define the infinitive.--Lesson 131. + +6. Give a synopsis of a regular and of an irregular verb in all the + different forms.--Lessons 134, 135, 136, 137. + +7. Analyze the different mode and tense forms, and give the functions of + the different tenses.--Lesson 138. + +8. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the mode + and tense forms, and of the person and number forms.--Lessons 140, 141, + 142. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 143. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + +_Lesson_ 112.--What are Modifications? Have English words many inflections? +Have they lost any? What is Number? Define the singular and the plural +number. How is the plural of nouns regularly formed? In what ways may the +plural be formed irregularly? Illustrate. + +_Lesson_ 113.--Give the plural of some nouns adopted from other languages. +How do compounds form the plural? Illustrate the several ways. How do +letters, figures, etc. form the plural? Illustrate. + +_Lesson_ 114.--Give examples of nouns having each two plurals differing in +meaning. Some which have the same form in both numbers. Some which have no +plural. Some which are always plural. What is said of the number of +collective nouns? + +_Lesson_ 116.--In what four ways may the number of nouns be determined? +Illustrate. + +_Lesson_ 117.--What is Gender? Define the different genders. What is the +difference between sex and gender? The gender of English nouns follows +what? Have English nouns a neuter form? Have all English nouns a masculine +and a feminine form? In what three ways may the masculine of nouns be +distinguished from the feminine? Illustrate. Give the three gender forms of +the pronoun. + +_Lesson_ 118.--How is gender in grammar important? When is the pronoun of +the masculine gender used? When is the neuter pronoun _it_ used? By the aid +of what pronouns are inanimate things personified? In personification, when +is the masculine pronoun used, and when is the feminine? Illustrate. What +is the Caution relating to gender? + +_Lesson_ 119.--What is Person? Is the person of nouns marked by form? +Define the three persons. When is a noun in the first person? In the second +person? What classes of words have distinctive person forms? Why is person +regarded in grammar? What is Case? Define the three cases. What is the case +of a noun used independently? Of an explanatory modifier? Of an objective +complement? Of a noun or pronoun used as attribute complement? Illustrate +all these. + +_Lesson_ 121.--What is Parsing? Illustrate the parsing of nouns. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 144. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + +_Lesson_ 122.--How many case forms have nouns, and what are they? How is +the possessive of nouns in the singular formed? Of nouns in the plural? +Illustrate. What is the possessive sign? To which word of compound names or +of groups of words treated as such is the sign added? Illustrate. Instead +of the possessive form, what may be used? Illustrate. + +_Lesson_ 123.--In what case alone can mistakes in the construction of nouns +occur? Illustrate the Cautions relating to possessive forms. + +_Lesson_ 124.--What is Declension? Decline _girl_ and _tooth_. Decline the +several personal pronouns, the relative and the interrogative. What +adjective pronouns are declined wholly or in part? Illustrate. + +_Lesson_ 125.--What words in the language have each three different case +forms? What are the nominative, and what the objective, forms of the +pronouns? + +_Lesson_ 127.--What one modification have adjectives? What is Comparison? +Define the three degrees. How are adjectives regularly compared? What are +the Rules for Spelling? Illustrate them. How are adjectives of more than +one syllable generally compared? How are degrees of diminution expressed? +Can all adjectives be compared? Illustrate. How are some adverbs compared? +Illustrate the irregular comparison of adjectives and adverbs. + +_Lesson_ 128.--To how many things does the comparative degree refer? What +does it imply? Explain the office of the superlative. What word usually +follows the comparative, and what the superlative? Give the Cautions +relating to the use of comparatives and superlatives, and illustrate them +fully. + +_Lesson_ 129.--What is Voice? Of what class of verbs is it a modification? +Name and define the two voices. When is the one voice used, and when the +other? Into what may the passive form be resolved? Illustrate. What may be +mistaken for a verb in the passive voice? Illustrate. + +_Lesson_ 130.--In changing a verb from the active to the passive, what does +the object complement become? How may an intransitive verb sometimes be +made transitive? Illustrate. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 145. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + +_Lesson_ 131.--What is Mode? Define the four modes. What is Tense? Define +the six tenses. Define the infinitive. Define the participle. Define the +classes of participles. What are the number and person of a verb? + +_Lesson_ 132.--What is Conjugation? Synopsis? What are auxiliary verbs? +Name them. What are the principal parts of a verb? What are redundant and +what are defective verbs? + +_Lesson_ 134.--How many inflectional forms may irregular verbs have? How +many have regular verbs? What is said of the subjunctive mode? Of _to_ with +the infinitive? How is a verb conjugated in the emphatic form? + +_Lesson_ 136.--How is a verb conjugated in the progressive form? How is a +transitive verb conjugated in the passive voice? Give an example of a verb +in the progressive form with a passive meaning. What does the progressive +form denote? Can all verbs be conjugated in this form? Why? Give all the +participles of the verbs _choose_, _break_, _drive_, _read_, _lift_. + +_Lesson_ 137.--How may a verb be conjugated interrogatively? Negatively? +Illustrate. How may a question with negation be expressed in the indicative +and potential modes? + +_Lesson_ 138.--Into what may the compound, or periphrastic, forms of the +verb be resolved? Illustrate fully. What is said of the participle in _have +written_, _had written_, etc.? Give and illustrate the several uses of the +six tenses. + +_Lesson_ 140.--Show how the general Caution for the use of the verb is +frequently violated. When does a conditional or a concessive clause require +the verb to be in the indicative? Illustrate. When is the subjunctive used? +Illustrate the many uses of the subjunctive. + +_Lesson_ 141.--Give and illustrate the general Caution relating to mode and +tense forms. Give and illustrate the Caution in regard to _will_ and +_would_, _shall_ and _should_. + +_Lesson_ 142.--Give and illustrate the Cautions relating to the agreement +of verbs and pronouns. Illustrate the exceptions and the Remarks. + + * * * * * + +ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. + ++Suggestions for the Study of the following Selections.+ + ++TO THE TEACHER+.--The pupil has now reached a point where he can afford to +drop the diagram--its mission for him is fulfilled. For him to continue its +use with these "Additional Examples," unless it be to outline the relations +of clauses or illustrate peculiar constructions, is needless; he will +merely be repeating that with which he is already familiar. + +These extracts are not given for full analysis or parsing. This, also, the +pupil would find profitless, and for the same reason. One gains nothing in +doing what he already does well enough--progress is not made in climbing +the wheel of a treadmill. But the pupil may here review what has been +taught him of the uses of adjective pronouns, of the relatives in +restrictive and in unrestrictive clauses, of certain idioms, of double +negatives, of the split infinitive, of the subjunctive mode, of the +distinctions in meaning between allied verbs, as _lie_ and _lay_, of +certain prepositions, of punctuation, etc. He should study the general +character of each sentence, its divisions and subdivisions, the relations +of the independent and the dependent parts, and their connection, order, +etc. He should note the +periodic structure+ of some of these sentences--of +(4) or (19), for instance--the meaning of which remains in suspense till +near or at the close. He should note in contrast the +loose structure+ of +others--for example, the last sentence in (20)--a sentence that has several +points at any one of which a complete thought has been expressed, but the +part of the sentence following does not, by itself, make complete sense. +Let him try to see which structure is the more natural, and which is the +more forcible, and why; and what style gains by a judicious blending of the +two. + +Especially should the pupil look at the thought in these prose extracts and +at the manner in which it is expressed. This will lead him to take a step +or two over into the field of literature. If the attempt is made, one +condition seems imperative--the pupil should thoroughly understand what the +author says. We know no better way to secure this than to exact of him a +careful reproduction in his own words of the author's thought. This will +reveal to him the differences between his work and the original; and bring +into relief the peculiarity of each author's style--the stateliness of De +Quincey's, for instance, the vividness of Webster's, the oratorical +character of Macaulay's, the ruggedness of Carlyle's, the poetical beauty +of Emerson's, the humor of Irving's, and the brilliancy of Holmes's--the +last lines from whom are purposely stilted, as we learn from the context. + +The pupil may see how ellipses and transpositions and imagery abound in +poetry, and how, in the use of these particulars, poets differ from each +other. He may note that poems are not pitched in the same key--that the +extracts from Wordsworth and Goldsmith and Cowper, for example, deal with +common facts and in a homely way, that the one from Lowell is in a higher +key, while that from Shelley is all imagination, and is crowded with +audacious imagery, all exquisite except in the first line, where the moon, +converted by metaphor into a maiden, has that said of her that is +inconsistent with her in her new character. + +1. It is thought by some people that all those stars which you see + glittering so restlessly on a keen, frosty night in a high latitude, and + which seem to have been sown broadcast with as much carelessness as + grain lies on a threshing-floor, here showing vast zaarahs of desert + blue sky, there again lying close, and to some eyes presenting + + "The beauteous semblance of a flock at rest," + + are, in fact, gathered into zones or _strata_; that our own wicked + little earth, with the whole of our peculiar solar system, is a part of + such a zone; and that all this perfect geometry of the heavens, these + _radii_ in the mighty wheel, would become apparent, if we, the + spectators, could but survey it from the true center; which center may + be far too distant for any vision of man, naked or armed, to reach.--_De + Quincey_ + +2. On this question of principle, while actual suffering was yet afar off, + they [our fathers] raised their flag against a power to which, for + purposes of foreign conquest and subjugation, Rome, in the height of her + glory, is not to be compared--a power which has dotted over the surface + of the whole globe with her possessions and military posts; whose + morning drum-beat, following the sun and keeping company with the hours, + circles the earth with one continuous and unbroken strain of the martial + airs of England.--_Webster_. + +3. In some far-away and yet undreamt-of hour, I can even imagine that + England may cast all thoughts of possessive wealth back to the barbaric + nations among whom they first arose; and that, while the sands of the + Indus and adamant of Golconda may yet stiffen the housings of the + charger and flash from the turban of the slave, she, as a Christian + mother, may at last attain to the virtues and the treasures of a Heathen + one, and be able to lead forth her Sons, saying, "These are my + Jewels."--_Ruskin_. + +4. And, when those who have rivaled her [Athens's] greatness shall have + shared her fate; when civilization and knowledge shall have fixed their + abode in distant continents; when the scepter shall have passed away + from England; when, perhaps, travelers from distant regions shall in + vain labor to decipher on some moldering pedestal the name of our + proudest chief, shall hear savage hymns chanted to some misshapen idol + over the ruined dome of our proudest temple, and shall see a single + naked fisherman wash his nets in the river of the ten thousand + masts,--her influence and her glory will still survive, fresh in eternal + youth, exempt from mutability and decay, immortal as the intellectual + principle from which they derived their origin, and over which they + exercise their control.--_Macaulay_. + +5. To him who in the love of Nature holds + Communion with her visible forms, she speaks + A various language; for his gayer hours + She has a voice of gladness and a smile + And eloquence of beauty, and she glides + Into his darker musings with a mild + And healing sympathy, that steals away + Their sharpness ere he is aware. When thoughts + Of the last, bitter hour come like a blight + Over thy spirit, and sad images + Of the stern agony and shroud and pall + And breathless darkness and the narrow house + Make thee to shudder and grow sick at heart,-- + Go forth under the open sky, and list + To Nature's teachings, while from all around-- + Earth and her waters and the depths of air-- + Comes a still voice.--_Bryant_. + +6. Pleasant it was, when woods were green, + And winds were soft and low, + To lie amid some sylvan scene, + Where, the long drooping boughs between, + Shadows dark and sunlight sheen + Alternate come and go; + Or where the denser grove receives + No sunlight from above, + But the dark foliage interweaves + In one unbroken roof of leaves, + Underneath whose sloping eaves + The shadows hardly move.--_Longfellow_. + +7. I like the lad who, when his father thought + To clip his morning nap by hackneyed praise + Of vagrant worm by early songster caught, + Cried, "Served him right! 'tis not at all surprising; + The worm was punished, sir, for early rising."--_Saxe_. + +8. There were communities, scarce known by name + In these degenerate days, but once far-famed, + Where liberty and justice, hand in hand, + Ordered the common weal; where great men grew + Up to their natural eminence, and none + Saving the wise, just, eloquent, were great; + Where power was of God's gift to whom he gave + Supremacy of merit--the sole means + And broad highway to power, that ever then + Was meritoriously administered, + Whilst all its instruments, from first to last, + The tools of state for service high or low, + Were chosen for their aptness to those ends + Which virtue meditates.--_Henry Taylor_. + +9. Stranger, these gloomy boughs + Had charms for him; and here he loved to sit, + His only visitant a straggling sheep, + The stone-chat, or the glancing sand-piper; + And on these barren rocks, with fern and heath + And juniper and thistle sprinkled o'er, + Fixing his downcast eye, he many an hour + A morbid pleasure nourished, tracing here + An emblem of his own unfruitful life; + And, lifting up his head, he then would gaze + On the more distant scene,--how lovely 't is + Thou seest,--and he would gaze till it became + Far lovelier, and his heart could not sustain + The beauty, still more beauteous.--_Wordsworth_. + +10. But, when the next sun brake from underground, + Then, those two brethren slowly with bent brows + Accompanying, the sad chariot-bier + Past like a shadow thro' the field, that shone + Full-summer, to that stream whereon the barge, + Pall'd all its length in blackest samite, lay. + There sat the life-long creature of the house, + Loyal, the dumb old servitor, on deck, + Winking his eyes, and twisted all his face. + So those two brethren from the chariot took + And on the black decks laid her in her bed, + Set in her hand a lily, o'er her hung + The silken case with braided blazonings, + And kiss'd her quiet brows, and, saying to her, + "Sister, farewell forever," and again, + "Farewell, sweet sister," parted all in tears.--_Tennyson_ + +11. Good name in man and woman, dear my lord, + Is the immediate jewel of their souls. + Who steals my purse steals trash; 't is something, nothing; + 'T was mine, 't is his, and has been slave to thousands; + But he that filches from me my good name + Robs me of that which not enriches him, + And makes me poor indeed.--_Shakespeare_. + +12. When I consider how my light is spent + Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, + And that one talent, which is death to hide, + Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent + To serve therewith my Maker, and present + My true account, lest he, returning, chide,-- + "Doth God exact day-labor, light denied?" + I fondly ask: but Patience, to prevent + That murmur, soon replies, "God doth not need + Either man's work or his own gifts; who best + Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best: his state + Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed, + And post o'er land and ocean without rest; + They also serve who only stand and wait." + --_Milton_.--_Sonnet on his Blindness_. + +13. Ah! on Thanksgiving Day, when from East and from West, + From North and from South come the pilgrim and guest; + When the gray-haired New-Englander sees round his board + The old broken links of affection restored; + When the care-wearied man seeks his mother once more, + And the worn matron smiles where the girl smiled before,-- + What moistens the lip, and what brightens the eye? + What calls back the past like the rich pumpkin-pie? + --_Whittier_. + +14. That orbed maiden with white fire laden, + Whom mortals call the moon, + Glides glimmering o'er my fleece-like floor, + By the midnight breezes strewn; + And wherever the beat of her unseen feet, + Which only the angels hear, + May have broken the woof of my tent's thin roof, + The stars peep behind her and peer; + And I laugh to see them whirl and flee + Like a swarm of golden bees, + When I widen the rent in my wind-built tent, + Till the calm rivers, lakes, and seas, + Like strips of the sky fallen through me on high, + Are each paved with the moon and these. + --_Shelley.--The Cloud_. + +15. Sweet was the sound, when oft, at evening's close, + Up yonder hill the village murmur rose. + There, as I passed with careless steps and slow, + The mingling notes came softened from below; + The swain responsive as the milk-maid sung, + The sober herd that lowed to meet their young, + The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool, + The playful children just let loose from school, + The watch-dog's voice that bayed the whispering wind, + And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind,-- + These all in sweet confusion sought the shade, + And filled each pause the nightingale had made. + --_Goldsmith_. + +16. To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell, + To slowly trace the forest's shady scene, + Where things that own not man's dominion dwell, + And mortal foot hath ne'er or rarely been; + To climb the trackless mountain all unseen, + With the wild flock that never needs a fold; + Alone o'er steeps and foaming falls to lean;-- + This is not solitude; 't is but to hold + Converse with nature's charms, and view her stores unrolled. + --_Byron_. + +17. The drawbridge dropped with a surly clang, + And through the dark arch a charger sprang, + Bearing Sir Launfal, the maiden knight, + In his gilded mail, that flamed so bright + It seemed the dark castle had gathered all + Those shafts the fierce sun had shot over its wall + In his siege of three hundred summers long, + And, binding them all in one blazing sheaf, + Had cast them forth; so, young and strong + And lightsome as a locust leaf, + Sir Launfal flashed forth in his maiden mail + To seek in all climes for the Holy Grail.--_Lowell_. + +18. Be it a weakness, it deserves some praise,-- + We love the play-place of our early days; + The scene is touching, and the heart is stone + That feels not at the sight, and feels at none. + The wall on which we tried our graving skill, + The very name we carved subsisting still; + The bench on which we sat while deep employed, + Tho' mangled, hacked, and hewed, not yet destroyed; + The little ones, unbuttoned, glowing hot, + Playing our games, and on the very spot, + As happy as we once, to kneel and draw + The chalky ring and knuckle down at taw, + To pitch the ball into the grounded hat, + Or drive it devious with a dexterous pat;-- + The pleasing spectacle at once excites + Such recollection of our own delights + That, viewing it, we seem almost t' obtain + Our innocent, sweet, simple years again.--_Cowper_. + +19. Considering our present advanced state of culture, and how the torch of + science has now been brandished and borne about, with more or less + effect, for five thousand years and upwards; how, in these times + especially, not only the torch still burns, and perhaps more fiercely + than ever, but innumerable rush-lights and sulphur-matches, kindled + thereat, are also glancing in every direction, so that not the smallest + cranny or doghole in nature or art can remain unilluminated,--it might + strike the reflective mind with some surprise that hitherto little or + nothing of a fundamental character, whether in the way of philosophy or + history, has been written on the subject of Clothes.--_Carlyle_. + +20. When we see one word of a frail man on the throne of France tearing a + hundred thousand sons from their homes, breaking asunder the sacred + ties of domestic life, sentencing myriads of the young to make murder + their calling and rapacity their means of support, and extorting from + nations their treasures to extend this ruinous sway, we are ready to + ask ourselves, Is not this a dream? and, when the sad reality comes + home to us, we blush for a race which can stoop to such an abject lot. + At length, indeed, we see the tyrant humbled, stripped of power, but + stripped by those who, in the main, are not unwilling to play the + despot on a narrower scale, and to break down the spirit of nations + under the same iron sway.--_Channing_. + +21. There are days which occur in this climate, at almost any season of the + year, wherein the world reaches its perfection; when the air, the + heavenly bodies, and the earth make a harmony, as if Nature would + indulge her offspring; when, in these bleak upper sides of the planet, + nothing is to desire that we have heard of the happiest latitudes, and + we bask in the shining hours of Florida and Cuba; when everything that + has life gives sign of satisfaction, and the cattle that lie on the + ground seem to have great and tranquil thoughts.---_Emerson_. + +22. Did you never, in walking in the fields, come across a large flat + stone, which had lain, nobody knows how long, just where you found it, + with the grass forming a little hedge, as it were, all round it, close + to its edges; and have you not, in obedience to a kind of feeling that + told you it had been lying there long enough, insinuated your stick or + your foot or your fingers under its edge, and turned it over as a + housewife turns a cake, when she says to herself, "It's done brown + enough by this time"? But no sooner is the stone turned and the + wholesome light of day let upon this compressed and blinded community + of creeping things than all of them which enjoy the luxury of legs--and + some of them have a good many--rush round wildly, butting each other + and everything in their way, and end in a general stampede for + underground retreats from the region poisoned by sunshine. Next year + you will find the grass growing tall and green where the stone lay; the + ground-bird builds her nest where the beetle had his hole; the + dandelion and the buttercup are growing there, and the broad fans of + insect-angels open and shut over their golden disks, as the rhythmic + waves of blissful consciousness pulsate through their glorified + being.--_Holmes_. + +23. There is a different and sterner path;--I know not whether there be any + now qualified to tread it; I am not sure that even one has ever + followed it implicitly, in view of the certain meagerness of its + temporal rewards, and the haste wherewith any fame acquired in a sphere + so thoroughly ephemeral as the Editor's must be shrouded by the dark + waters of oblivion. This path demands an ear ever open to the plaints + of the wronged and the suffering, though they can never repay advocacy, + and those who mainly support newspapers will be annoyed and often + exposed by it; a heart as sensitive to oppression and degradation in + the next street as if they were practiced in Brazil or Japan; a pen as + ready to expose and reprove the crimes whereby wealth is amassed and + luxury enjoyed in our own country at this hour as if they had been + committed only by Turks or pagans in Asia some centuries + ago.--_Greeley_. + +24. To sweeten the beverage, a lump of sugar was laid beside each cup, and + the company alternately nibbled and sipped with great decorum, until an + improvement was introduced by a shrewd and economical old lady, which + was to suspend a large lump directly over the tea-table, by a string + from the ceiling, so that it could be swung from mouth to mouth--an + ingenious expedient, which is still kept up by some families in Albany, + but which prevails without exception in Communipaw, Bergen, Platbush, + and all our uncontaminated Dutch villages.--_Irving_. + + * * * * * + +COMPOSITION. + +LESSON 146. + +SUMMARY OF RULES FOR CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. + +CAPITAL LETTERS, TERMINAL MARKS, AND THE COMMA. + ++Capital Letters+.--The first word of (1) a sentence, (2) a line of poetry, +(3) a direct quotation making complete sense or a direct question +introduced into a sentence, and (4) phrases or clauses separately numbered +or paragraphed should begin with a capital letter. Begin with a capital +letter (5) proper names (including all names of the Deity), and words +derived from them, (6) names of things vividly personified, and (7) most +abbreviations. Write in capital letters (8) the words I and 0, and (9) +numbers in the Roman notation. [Footnote: Small letters are often used in +referring to sections, chapters, etc.] + ++Period+.--Place a period after (1) a declarative or an imperative +sentence, (2) an abbreviation, (3) a number written in the Roman notation, +and (4) Arabic figures used to enumerate. + ++Interrogation Point+.--Every direct interrogative sentence or clause +should be followed by an interrogation point. + ++Exclamation Point+.--All exclamatory expressions must be followed by the +exclamation point. + ++Comma+.--Set off by the comma (1) an explanatory modifier which does not +restrict the modified term or combine closely with it; (2) a participle +used as an adjective modifier, with the words belonging to it, unless +restrictive; (3) the adjective clause when not restrictive; (4) the adverb +clause, unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies; (5) a +phrase out of its usual order or not closely connected with the word it +modifies; (6) a word or phrase independent or nearly so; (7) a direct +quotation introduced into a sentence, unless formally introduced; (8) a +noun clause used as an attribute complement; and (9) a term connected to +another by _or_ and having the same meaning. Separate by the comma (10) +connected words and phrases, unless all the conjunctions are expressed; +(11) co-ordinate clauses when short and closely connected; and (12) the +parts of a compound predicate, and other phrases, when long or differently +modified. Use the comma (13) to denote an omission of words; (14) after +_as_, _namely_, etc., introducing illustrations; and (15) when it is needed +to prevent ambiguity. + ++Direction+.--_Give the Rule for each capital letter and each mark of +punctuation in these sentences, except the colon, the semicolon, and the +quotation marks_:-- + +1. Francis II., Charles IX., and Henry III., three sons of Catherine de + Medici and Henry II., sat upon the French throne. +2. The pupil asked, "When shall I use _O_, and when shall I use _oh?_" +3. Purity of style forbids us to use: 1. Foreign words; 2. Obsolete words; + 3. Low words, or slang. +4. It is easy, Mistress Dial, for you, who have always, as everybody knows, + set yourself up above me, to accuse me of laziness. +5. He rushed into the field, and, foremost fighting, fell. +6. The Holy Land was, indeed, among the early conquests of the Saracens, + Caliph Omar having, in 637 A. D., taken Jerusalem. +7. He who teaches, often learns himself. +8. San Salvador, Oct. 12, 1492. +9. Some letters are superfluous; as, _c_ and _q_. +10. No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet To chase the glowing + hours with flying feet! + +Direction.--_Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation +in these sentences, and give your reasons:_-- + +1. and lo from the assembled crowd + there rose a shout prolonged and loud + that to the ocean seemed to say + take her o bridegroom old and gray +2. a large rough mantle of sheepskin fastened around the loins by a girdle + or belt of hide was the only covering of that strange solitary man + elijah the tishbite +3. The result however of the three years' reign or tyranny of jas ii was + that wm of orange came over from holland and without shedding a drop of + blood became a d 1688 wm in of england +4. _o_ has three sounds: 1. that in _not_; 2. that in _note_; 3. that in + _move_ +5. lowell asks and what is so rare as a day in June +6. spring is a fickle mistress but summer is more staid +7. if i may judge by his gorgeous colors and the exquisite sweetness and + variety of his music autumn is i should say the poet of the family +8. new york apr 30 1789 +9. some letters stand each for many sounds; as _a_ and _o_ + + * * * * * + +LESSON 147. + +SUMMARY OF RULES--CONTINUED. + +SEMICOLON AND COLON. + ++Semicolon+.--Co-ordinate clauses, (1) when slightly connected, or (2) when +themselves divided by the comma, must be separated by the semicolon. Use +the semicolon (3) between serial phrases or clauses having a common +dependence on something which precedes or follows; and (4) before _as_, _to +wit_, _namely_, _i_. _e_., and _that is_, when they introduce examples or +illustrations. + ++Direction+.--_Justify each capital letter and each mark of punctuation +(except the colon) in these sentences_:-- + +1. It may cost treasure, and it may cost blood; but it will stand, and it + will richly compensate for both. +2. Some words are delightful to the ear; as, _Ontario_, _golden_, _oriole_. +3. The shouts of revelry had died away; the roar of the lion had ceased; + the last loiterer had retired from the banquet; and the lights in the + palace of the victor were extinguished. +4. Send it to the public halls; proclaim it there; let them hear it who + heard the first roar of the enemy's cannon; let them see it who saw + their brothers and their sons fall on the field of Bunker Hill: and the + very walls will cry out in its support. + ++Direction+.---_Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in +these sentences, and give your reasons_:-- + +1. all parts of a plant reduce to three namely root stem and leaf +2. when the world is dark with tempests when thunder rolls and lightning + flies thou lookest in thy beauty from the clouds and laughest at the + storm +3. the oaks of the mountains fall the mountains themselves decay with years + the ocean shrinks and grows again the moon herself is lost in heaven +4. kennedy taking from her a handkerchief edged with gold pinned it over + her eyes the executioners holding her by the arms led her to the block + and the queen kneeling down said repeatedly with a firm voice into thy + hands o lord i commend my spirit + ++Colon+.--Use the colon (1) between the parts of a sentence when these +parts are themselves divided by the semicolon, and (2) before a quotation +or an enumeration of particulars when formally introduced. + ++Direction+.--_Justify each capital letter and each mark of punctuation in +these sentences_:-- + +1. You may swell every expense, and strain every effort, still more + extravagantly; accumulate every assistance you can beg and borrow; + traffic and barter with every little, pitiful German prince that sells + and sends his subjects to the shambles of a foreign country: your + efforts are forever vain and impotent. + +2. This is a precept of Socrates: "Know thyself." + ++Direction+.--_Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in +these sentences, and give your reasons_:-- + +1. the advice given ran thus take care of the minutes and the hours will + take care of themselves +2. we may abound in meetings and movements enthusiastic gatherings in the + field and forest may kindle all minds with a common sentiment but it is + all in vain if men do not retire from the tumult to the silent culture + of every right disposition + ++Direction+.---_Write sentences illustrating the several uses of the +semicolon, the colon, and the comma_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 148. + +SUMMARY OF RULES--CONTINUED. + +THE DASH, MARKS OF PARENTHESIS, APOSTROPHE, HYPHEN, QUOTATION MARKS, AND +BRACKETS. + ++Dash+.--Use the dash where there is an omission (1) of letters or figures, +and (2) of such words as _as_, _namely_, or _that is_, introducing +illustrations or equivalent expressions. Use the dash (3) where the +sentence breaks off abruptly, and the same thought is resumed after a +slight suspension, or another takes its place; and (4) before a word or +phrase repeated at intervals for emphasis. The dash may be used (5) instead +of marks of parenthesis, and may (6) follow other marks, adding to their +force. + ++Direction+.--_Justify each capital letter and each mark of punctuation in +these sentences:--_ + +1. The most noted kings of Israel were the first three--Saul; David, and + Solomon. +2. When Mrs. B---- heard of her son's disgrace, she fainted away. +3. And--"This to me?" he said. +4. Assyria, Greece, Rome, Carthage--what are they? +5. I do not rise to supplicate you to be merciful toward the nation to + which I belong,--toward a nation which, though subject to England, yet + is distinct from it. +6. We know the uses--and sweet they are--of adversity. +7. His place business is 225--229 High street. + ++Direction+.---_Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in +these sentences, and give your reasons_:-- + +1. the human species is composed of two distinct races those who borrow and + those who lend +2. this bill this infamous bill the way it has been received by the house + the manner in which its opponents have been treated the personalities to + which they have been subjected all these things dissipate my doubts +3. the account of a _____'s shame fills pp 1 19 +4. lord marmion turned well was his need and dashed the rowels in his steed + ++Marks of Parenthesis+.--Marks of parenthesis may be used to inclose what +has no essential connection with the rest of the sentence. + ++Apostrophe+.--Use the apostrophe (1) to mark the omission of letters, (2) +in the pluralizing of letters, figures, and characters, and (3) to +distinguish the possessive from other cases. + ++Hyphen+.--Use the hyphen (-) (1) to join the parts of compound words, and +(2) between syllables when a word is divided. + ++Quotation Marks+.--Use quotation marks to inclose a copied word or +passage. If the quotation contains a quotation, the latter is inclosed +within single marks. (See Lesson 74.) + ++Brackets+.--Use brackets [ ] to inclose what, in quoting another's words, +you insert by way of explanation or correction. + ++Direction+.--_Justify the marks of punctuation used in these sentences_:-- + +1. Luke says, Acts xxi. 15, "We took up our carriages [luggage], and went + up to Jerusalem." +2. The last sentence of the composition was, "I close in the words of + Patrick Henry, 'Give me liberty, or give me death.'" +3. _Red-hot_ is a compound adjective. +4. _Telegraph_ is divided thus: _tel_-_e_-_graph_. +5. The profound learning of Sir William Jones (he was master of + twenty-eight languages) was the wonder of his contemporaries. +6. By means of the apostrophe you know that _love_ in _mother's love_ is a + noun, and that i's isn't a verb. + ++Direction+.---_Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in +these sentences, and give your reasons_:-- + +1. next to a conscience void of offense without which by the bye life isnt + worth the living is the enjoyment of the social feelings +2. man the life boat +3. don't neglect in writing to dot your _is_ cross your _ts_ and make your + 7_s_ unlike your 9_s_ and don't in speaking omit the _hs_ from such + words as _which_ _when_ and _why_ or insert _rs_ in _law_ _saw_ and + _raw_ +4. the scriptures tell us take no thought anxiety for the morrow +5. The speaker said american oratory rose to its high water mark in that + great speech ending liberty and union now and forever one and + inseparable + + * * * * * + +LESSON 149. + +CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION--REVIEW. + ++Direction+.--_Give the reason for each capital letter and each mark of +punctuation in these sentences_:-- + +1. A bigot's mind is like the pupil of the eye; the more light you pour + upon it, the more it contracts. +2. This is the motto of the University of Oxford: "The Lord is my light." +3. The only fault ever found with him is, that he sometimes fights ahead of + his orders. +4. The land flowing with "milk and honey" (see Numbers xiv. 8) was a long, + narrow strip, lying along the eastern edge, or coast, of the + Mediterranean, and consisted of three divisions; namely, 1. On the + north, Galilee; 2. On the south, Judea; 3, In the middle, Samaria. +5. "What a lesson," Trench well says, "the word 'diligence' contains!" +6. An honest man, my neighbor,--there he stands-- + Was struck--struck like a dog, by one who wore + The badge of Ursini. +7. Thou, too, sail on, 0 Ship of State; + Sail on, 0 Union, strong and great. +8. O'Connell asks, "The clause which does away with trial by jury--what, + in the name of H----n, is it, if it is not the establishment of a + revolutionary tribunal?" +9. There are only three departments of the mind--the intellect, the + feelings, and the will. +10. This--trial! +11. American nationality has made the desert to bud and blossom as the + rose; it has quickened to life the giant brood of useful arts; it has + whitened lake and ocean with the sails of a daring, new, and lawful + trade; it has extended to exiles, flying as clouds, the asylum of our + better liberty. +12. As I saw him [Weoster, the day before his great reply to Col. Hayne of + South Carolina] in the evening, (if I may borrow an illustration from + his favorite amusement) he was as unconcerned and as free of spirit as + some here present have seen him while floating in his fishing-boat + along a hazy shore, gently rocking on the tranquil tide, dropping his + line here and there, with the varying fortune of the sport. The next + morning he was like some mighty admiral, dark and terrible, casting the + long shadow of his frowning tiers far over the sea, that seemed to sink + beneath him; his broad pendant [pennant] streaming at the main, the + stars and the stripes at the fore, the mizzen, and the peak; and + bearing down like a tempest upon his antagonist, with all his canvas + strained to the wind, and all his thunders roaring from his broadsides. +13. The "beatitudes" are found in Matt. v. 3--11. + +TO THE TEACHER.--If further work in punctuation is needed, require the +pupils to justify the punctuation of the sentences beginning page 314. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 150. + +QUALITIES OF STYLE. + ++Style+ is the manner in which one expresses himself. Styles differ as men +differ. But there are some cardinal qualities that all good style must +possess. + +I. +Perspicuity.+--Perspicuity is opposed to obscurity of all kinds; it +means clearness of expression. It demands that the thought in the sentence +shall be plainly seen through the words of the sentence. Perspicuity is an +indispensable quality of style; if the thought is not understood, or it is +misunderstood, its expression might better have been left unattempted. +Perspicuity depends mainly upon these few things:-- + +1. +One's Clear Understanding of What One Attempts to Say.+--You cannot +express to others more than you thoroughly know, or make your thought +clearer to them than it is to yourself. + +2. +The Unity of the Sentence.+--Many thoughts, or thoughts having no +natural and close connection with each other, should not be crowded into +one sentence. + +3. +The Use of the Right Words.+--Use such words as convey your +thought--each word expressing exactly your idea, no more, no less, no +other. Use words in the senses recognized by the best authority. Do not +omit words when they are needed, and do not use a superfluity of them. Be +cautious in the use of _he_, _she_, _it_, and _they_. Use simple +words--words which those who are addressed can readily understand. Avoid +what are called bookish, inkhorn, terms; shun words that have passed out of +use, and those that have no footing in the language--foreign words, words +newly coined, and slang. + +4. +A Happy Arrangement.+--The relations of single words to each other, of +phrases to the words they modify, and of clauses to one another should be +obvious at a glance. The sentence should not need rearrangement in order to +disclose the meaning. Sentences should stand in the paragraph so that the +beginning of each shall tally exactly in thought with the sentence that +precedes; and the ending of each, with the sentence that follows. Every +paragraph should be a unit in thought, distinct from other paragraphs, +holding to them the relation that its own sentences hold to one another, +the relation that the several parts of each sentence hold to one another. + +II. +Energy+.--By energy we mean force, vigor, of expression. In ordinary +discourse, it is not often sought, and in no discourse is it constantly +sought. We use energy when we wish to convince the intellect, arouse the +feelings, and capture the will--lead one to do something. When energetic, +we select words and images for strength and not for beauty; choose +specific, and not general, terms; prefer the concrete to the abstract; use +few words and crowd these with meaning; place subordinate clauses before +the independent; and put the strongest word in the clause, the strongest +clause in the sentence, the strongest sentence in the paragraph, and the +strongest paragraph in the discourse, last. Energetic thought seeks variety +of expression, is usually charged with intense feeling, and requires +impassioned delivery. + +III. +Imagery--Figures of Speech+.--Things stand in many relations to each +other. Some +things are (1) like each other+ in some particular; other ++things are (2) unlike each other+ in some particular; and still other ++things stand to each other (3)+ in some +other+ noteworthy +relation than+ +that of +likeness+ or +unlikeness+. Things long seen and associated by us +in any of these relations come at last readily to suggest each other. ++Figures of Speech+ are those expressions in which, departing from our +ordinary manner in speaking of things, we assert or assume any of these +notable relations. The first and great service of imagery is to the +thought--it makes the thought clearer and stronger. Imagery adds beauty to +style--a diamond brooch may adorn as well as do duty to the dress. + +A +Simile+, or +Comparison+, is a figure of speech in which we point out or +assert a likeness between things otherwise unlike; as, The gloom of +despondency _hung like a cloud_ over the land. + +A +Metaphor+ is a figure of speech in which, assuming the likeness between +two things, we bring over and apply to one of them the term that denotes +the other; as, A stately _squadron of snowy_ geese were _riding_ in an +adjoining pond. + +A +Personification+ is a figure of speech in which things are raised to a +plane of being above their own--to or toward that of persons. It +raises+ +(1) +mere things to+ the plane of +animals+; as, The _sea licks_ your feet, +its huge _flanks purr_ pleasantly for you. It raises (2) +mere animals to+ +the plane of +persons+; as, So _talked_ the spirited, sly _Snake_. It ++raises+ (3) +mere things to+ the plane of +persons+; as, _Earth_ fills her +_lap_ with pleasures of _her_ own. + +An +Antithesis+ is a figure of speech in which things mutually opposed in +some particular are set over against each other; as, The _mountains give_ +their lost children _berries_ and _water_; the _sea mocks_ their _thirst_ +and _lets_ them _die_. + +A +Metonymy+ is a figure of speech in which the name of one thing connected +to another by a relation other than likeness or unlikeness is brought over +and applied to that other. The most important of these relations are (1) +that of the +sign+ to the +thing signified+; (2) that of +cause+ to ++effect+; (3) that of +instrument+ to the +user+ of it; (4) that of ++container+ to the +thing contained+; (5) that of +material+ to the +thing +made out of it+; (6) that of +contiguity+; (7) that of the +abstract+ to +the +concrete+; and (8) that of +part+ to the +whole+ or of +whole+ to the ++part+. + +This last relation has been thought so important that the metonymy based +upon it has received a distinct name--+Synecdoche+. + ++IV. Variety+.--Variety is a quality of style opposed to monotonous +uniformity. Nothing in discourse pleases us more than light and shade. In +discourse properly varied, the same word does not appear with offensive +frequency; long words alternate with short; the usual order now and then +yields to the transposed; the verb in the assertive form frequently gives +way to the participle and the infinitive, which assume; figures of speech +sparkle here and there in a setting of plain language; the full method of +statement is followed by the contracted; impassioned language is succeeded +by the unemotional; long sentences stand side by side with short, and loose +sentences with periods; declarative sentences are relieved by interrogative +and exclamatory, and simple sentences by compound and complex; clauses have +no rigidly fixed position; and sentences heavy with meaning and moving +slowly are elbow to elbow with the light and tripping. In a word, no one +form or method or matter is continued so long as to weary, and the reader +is kept fresh and interested throughout. Variety is restful to the reader +or hearer and therefore adds greatly to the clearness and to the force of +what is addressed to him. + +TO THE TEACHER.--Question the pupils upon every point taken up in this +Lesson and require them to give illustrations where it is possible for them +to do so. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 151. + +PERSPICUITY--CRITICISM. + ++General Direction+.--_In all your work in Composition attend carefully to +the punctuation_. + ++Direction+.--_Point out the faults, and recast these sentences, making +them clear_:-- + +[Footnote: These four sentences and others in these Lessons, given just as +we found them, have been culled from school compositions.] + +1. He was locked in and so he sat still till the guard came and let him +out, as soon as he stepped out on the ground, he saw the dead and dying +laying about everywhere. +2. They used to ring a large bell at six o'clock +in the morning for us to get up, then we had half an hour to dress in, +after which we would go to Chapel exercises, then breakfast, school would +commence at nine o'clock and closed at four in the afternoon allowing an +hour for dinner from one until two then we would resume our studies until +four in the afternoon. +3. Jewelry was worn in the time of King Pharaoh +which is many thousand years before Christ in the time when the Israelites +left they borrowed all the jewels of the Egyptians which were made of gold +and silver. +4. When it is made of gold they can not of pure gold but has to +be mixed with some other metal which is generally copper which turns it a +reddish hue in some countries they use silver which gives it a whitish hue +but in the United States and England they use both silver and copper but +the English coins are the finest. + ++Direction+.--_Point out the faults, and recast these sentences, making +them clear_:-- + +(If any one of the sentences has several meanings, give these.) + +1. James's son, Charles I., before the breath was out of his body was + proclaimed king in his stead. +2. He told the coachman that he would be the death of him, if he did not + take care what he was about, and mind what he said. +3. Richelieu said to the king that Mazarin would carry out his policy. +4. He was overjoyed to see him, and he sent for one of his workmen, and + told him to consider himself at his service. +5. Blake answered the Spanish priest that if he had sent in a complaint, he + would have punished the sailors severely; but he took it ill that he set + the Spaniards on to punish them. + ++Direction+.--_So place these subordinate clauses that they will remove the +obscurity, and then see in how many ways each sentence can be arranged_:-- + +1. The moon cast a pale light on the graves that were scattered around, as + it peered above the horizon. +2. A large number of seats were occupied by pupils that had no backs. +3. Crusoe was surprised at seeing five canoes on the shore in which there + were savages. +4. This tendency will be headed off by approximations which will be made + from time to time of the written word to the spoken. +5. People had to travel on horseback and in wagons, which was a very slow + way, if they traveled at all. +6. How can brethren partake of their Father's blessing that curse each + other? +7. Two men will be tried for crimes in this town which are punishable with + death, if a full court should attend. + +Direction.--_Each of these sentences may have two meanings, supply the two +ellipses in each sentence, and remove the ambiguity:_-- + +1. Let us trust no strength less than thine. +2. Study had more attraction for him than his friend. +3. He did not like the new teacher so well as his playmates. +4. He aimed at nothing less than the crown. +5. Lovest thou me more than these? + + * * * * * + +LESSON 152. + +PERSPICUITY--CRITICISM. + +Direction.--_So place these italicized phrases that they will remove the +obscurity, and then see in how many ways each sentence can be arranged:_-- + +1. These designs any man who is a Briton _in any situation_ ought to + disavow. +2. The chief priests, mocking, said among themselves _with the scribes_, + "He saved," etc. +3. Hay is given to horses _as well as corn_ to distend the stomach. +4. Boston has forty first class grammar-schools, _exclusive of Dorchester_. +5. He rode to town, and drove twelve cows _on horseback_. +6. He could not face an enraged father _in spite of his effrontery_. +7. Two owls sat upon a tree which grew near an old wall _out of a heap of + rubbish_. +8. I spent most _on the river and in the river_ of the time I stayed there. +9. He wanted to go to sea, although it was contrary to the wishes of his + parents, _at the age of eighteen_. +10. I have a wife and six children, and I have never seen _one of them._ + ++Direction.+--_So place the italicized words and phrases in each sentence +that they will help to convey what you think is the author's thought, and +then see in how many ways each sentence can be arranged:_-- + +1. In Paris, every lady _in full dress_ rides. +2. I saw my friend when I was in Boston _walking down Tremont street_. +3. The Prince of Wales was forbidden to become king _or any other man_. +4. What is his coming or going _to you_? +5. We do those things _frequently_ which we repent of afterwards. +6. I rushed out leaving the wretch with his tale half told, + _horror-stricken at his crime_. +7. Exclamation points are scattered up and down the page by compositors + _without any mercy._ +8. I want to make a present to one who is fond of chickens _for a Christmas + gift_. + ++Direction.+--_Make these sentences clear by using simpler words and +phrases:_-- + +1. _A devastating conflagration raged_. +2. He _conducted_ her to the _altar of Hymen_. +3. A donkey has an _abnormal elongation of auricular appendages_. +4. Are you _excavating a subterranean canal?_ +5. He had no _capillary substance_ on the _summit_ of his head. +6. He made a sad _faux pas_. +7. A network is anything _reticulated or decussated, with interstices at + equal distances between the intersections_. +8. Diligence is the _sine qua non_ of success. +9. She has _donned the habiliments of woe_. +10. The _deceased_ was to-day _deposited in his last resting-place_. +11. The _inmates proceeded to the sanctuary_. +12. I have _partaken of my morning repast_. +13. He _took the initiative in inaugurating the ceremony_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 153. + +ENERGY--CRITICISM. + ++Direction+.--_Expand these brief expressions into sentences full of long +words, and note the loss of energy_:-- + +1. To your tents, 0 Israel! +2. Up, boys, and at them! +3. Indeed! +4. Bah! +5. Don't give up the ship! +6. Murder will out. +7. Oh! +8. Silence there! +9. Hurrah! +10. Death or free speech! +11. Rascal! +12. No matter. +13. Least said, soonest mended. +14. Death to the tyrant! +15. I'll none of it. +16. Help, ho! +17. Shame on you! +18. First come, first served. + ++Direction+.--_Condense each of these italicized expressions into one or +two words, and note the gain_:-- + +1. He _shuffled off this mortal coil_ yesterday. +2. The author surpassed all _those who were living at the same time with + him_. +3. To say that revelation is _a thing which there is no need of_ is to talk + wildly. +4. He _departed this life_. +5. Some say that ever _'gainst that season comes wherein our Saviour's + birth is celebrated_ this _bird of dawning_ singeth all night long. + ++Direction+.--_Change these specific words to general terms, and note the +loss in energy_:--- + +1. Don't _fire_ till _you see the whites of their eyes_. +2. _Break down_ the _dikes_, give Holland back to _ocean_. +3. _Three hundred men_ held the hosts of _Xerxes_ at bay. +4. I _sat_ at her _cradle_, I _followed_ her _hearse_. +5. Their _daggers_ have _stabbed_ Caesar. +6. When I'm _mad_, I _weigh a ton_. +7. _Burn_ Moscow, _starve back_ the _invaders_. +8. There's no use in _crying over spilt milk_. +9. In proportion as men delight in _battles_ and _bull-fights_ will they + punish by _hanging, burning_, and the _rack_. + ++Direction+.--_Change these general terms to specific words, and note the +gain in energy_:-- + +1. Anne Boleyn was _executed_. +2. It were better for him that a _heavy weight were fastened to him_ and + that he were _submerged_ in _the waste of waters_. +3. _The capital of the chosen people_ was _destroyed_ by _a Roman general_. +4. Consider the _flowers_ how they _increase in size_. +5. Caesar was _slain_ by _the conspirators_. +6. The _cities of the plain_ were _annihilated_. + ++Direction+.--_Arrange these words, phrases, and clauses in the order of +their strength, placing the strongest last, and note the gain in energy_:-- + +1. The nations of the earth repelled, surrounded, pursued, and resisted + him. +2. He was no longer consul nor citizen nor general nor even an emperor, but + a prisoner and an exile. +3. I shall die an American; I live an American; I was born an American. +4. All that I am, all that I hope to be, and all that I have in this life, + I am now ready here to stake upon it. +5. I shall defend it without this House, in all places, and within this + House; at all times, in time of peace and in time of war. +6. We must fight if we wish to be free, if we mean to preserve inviolate + our rights, if we do not mean to abandon the struggle. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 154. + +FIGURES OF SPEECH--CRITICISM. + ++Direction+.--_Name the figures of speech, and then recast a few sentences, +using plain language, and note the loss of beauty and force_:-- + +1. Lend me your _ears_. +2. Please address the _chair_. +3. The robin knows when your grapes have _cooked_ long enough in the sun. +4. A day will come when _bullets_ and _bombs_ shall be replaced by + _ballots_. +5. _Genius creates; taste appreciates what is created_. +6. Caesar were no _lion_ were not Romans _hinds_. +7. The soul of Jonathan was _knit_ to that of David. +8. _Traffic_ has _lain down_ to rest. +9. Borrowing _dulls_ _the edge_ of husbandry. +10. He will bring down my _gray hairs_ with sorrow to the grave. +11. Have you _read Froude_ or _Freeman?_ +12. The _pen_ is mightier than the _sword_. +13. If I can _catch him once upon the hip_, I will _feed fat_ the ancient + grudge I bear him. +14. The destinies of mankind were _trembling in the balance_, while _death + fell_ in showers. +15. The _threaded steel_ flies swiftly. +16. O Cassius, you are _yoked with a lamb_ that _carries anger as the flint + bears fire_. +17. I called the _New World_ into existence to redress the balance of the + Old_. +18. Nations shall _beat their swords into plowshares_, and _their spears + into pruning-hooks_. +19. The _Morn_ in _russet mantle clad walks o'er the dew_ of yon high + eastern hill. +20. _Homer_, like the _Nile_, pours out his riches with a _sudden overflow; + Virgil_, like a _river in its banks_, with a _constant stream_. +21. The air _bites_ shrewdly. +22. He doth _bestride_ the narrow world _like a Colossus_. +23. My _heart_ is in the coffin there with Caesar. +24. All _hands_ to the pumps! +25. The _gray-eyed Morn smiles_ on the _frowning Night_. +26. The good is often buried with men's _bones_. +27. Beware of the _bottle_. +28. All nations respect our _flag_. +29. The _marble_ speaks. +30. I have no _spur to prick the sides_ of my intent. +31. I _am as constant as the northern star_. +32. Then _burst_ his mighty _heart_. +33. The ice is covered with _health_ and _beauty_ on skates. +34. Lentulus returned with _victorious eagles_. +35. _Death_ hath _sucked_ the honey of thy breath. +36. Our _chains are forged_. +37. I have _bought golden_ opinions. +38. The _hearth blazed_ high. +39. His words _fell softer than snows on the brine_. +40. _Night's candles are burnt out_, and _jocund Day stands tiptoe_ on the + misty mountain top. + ++Direction+.--_In the first four sentences, use similes; in the second +four, metaphors; in the third four, personifications; in the last eight, +metonymies:--_ + +1. He _flew with the swiftness of an arrow_. +2. In battle some men _are brave_, others _are cowardly_. +3. His head is as full of plans _as it can hold_. +4. I heard a _loud_ noise. +5. Boston is the _place where_ American liberty _began_. +6. Our dispositions should grow _mild_ as we _grow old_. +7. _The stars can no longer be seen_. +8. In battle some men are _brave_, others are _cowardly_. +9. The cock tears up the ground for his family of _hens_ and _chickens_. +10. The waves _were still_. +11. The oak stretches out _its_ strong _branches_. +12. The flowers are the sweet and pretty _growths_ of the earth and sun. +13. English _vessels_ plow the seas of the two _hemispheres_. +14. Have you read _Lamb's Essays_? +15. The _water_ is boiling. +16. We have prostrated ourselves before the _king_. +17. _Wretched people_ shiver in _their_ lair of straw. +18. The _soldier_ is giving way to the _husbandman_. +19. _Swords_ flashed, and _bullets_ fell. +20. His banner led the _spearmen_ no more. + ++Remark+.--If what is begun as a metaphor is not completed as begun, but is +completed by a part of another metaphor or by plain language, we have what, +is called a _mixed metaphor_. It requires great care to avoid this very +common error. + ++Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:-- + +1. The _devouring_ fire _uprooted_ the stubble. +2. The _brittle_ thread of life may be _cut_ asunder. +3. All the _ripe fruit_ of three-score years was _blighted_ in a day. +4. _Unravel_ the _obscurities_ of this _knotty_ question. +5. We must apply the _axe_ to the _fountain_ of this evil. +6. The man _stalks_ into court like a _motionless_ statue, with the _cloak_ + of hypocrisy in his _mouth_. +7. The thin _mantle_ of snow _dissolved_. +8. I smell a _rat_, I see him _brewing_ in the air, but I shall yet _nip + him in the bud_. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 155. + +VARIETY IN EXPRESSION. + ++Remark+.--You learned in Lessons 52, 53, 54 that the usual order may give +way to the transposed; in 55, 56, that one kind of simple sentence may be +changed to another; in 57, that simple sentences may be contracted; in 61, +that adjectives may be expanded into clauses; in 67, that an adverb clause +may stand before, between the parts of, and after, the independent clause; +in 68, that an adverb clause may be contracted to a participle, a +participle phrase, an absolute phrase, a prepositional phrase, that it may +be contracted by the omission of words, and may be changed to an adjective +clause or phrase; in 73, that a noun clause as subject may stand last, and +as object complement may stand first, that it may be made prominent, and +may be contracted; in 74, that direct quotations and questions may be +changed to indirect, and indirect to direct; in 77, that compound sentences +may be formed out of simple sentences, may be contracted to simple +sentences, and may be changed to complex sentences; in 79, that +participles, absolute phrases, and infinitives may be expanded into +different kinds of clauses; and, in 130, that a verb may change its voice. + ++Direction+.--_Illustrate all these changes_. + ++Direction+.--_Recast these sentences, avoiding offensive repetitions of +the same word or the same sounds_:-- + +1. We have to have money to have a horse. +2. We sailed across a bay and sailed up a creek and sailed back and sailed + in all about fourteen miles. +3. It is then put into stacks, or it is put into barns either to use it to + feed it to the stock or to sell it. +4. This day we undertake to render an account to the widows and orphans + whom our decision will make; to the wretches that will be roasted at the + stake. +5. The news of the battle of Bunker Hill, fought on the 17th of June in the + year of our Lord 1775, roused the patriotism of the people to a high + pitch of enthusiasm. + ++Direction+.---_Using other words wholly or in part, see in how many ways +you can express the thoughts contained in these sentences_:-- + +1. In the profusion and recklessness of her lies, Elizabeth had no peer in + England. +2. Henry IV. said that James I. was the wisest fool in Christendom. +3. Cowper's letters are charming because they are simple and natural. +4. George IV., though he was pronounced the first gentleman in Europe, was, + nevertheless, a snob. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 156. + +THE PARAGRAPH. + ++The Paragraph+.--The clauses of complex sentences are so closely united in +meaning that frequently they are not to be separated from each other even +by the comma. The clauses of compound sentences are less closely united--a +comma, a semicolon, or a colon is needed to divide them. + +Between sentences there exists a wider separation in meaning, marked by a +period or other terminal point. But even sentences may be connected, the +bond which unites them being their common relation to the thought which +jointly they develop. Sentences thus related are grouped together and form, +as you have already learned, what we call a Paragraph, marked by beginning +the first word a little to the right of the marginal line. + ++Direction+.--_Notice the facts which this paragraph contains, and the +relation to each other of the clauses and the sentences expressing these +facts_:-- + +After a breeze of some sixty hours from the north and northwest, the wind +died away about four o'clock yesterday afternoon. The calm continued till +about nine in the evening. The mercury in the barometer fell, in the +meantime, at an extraordinary rate; and the captain predicted that we +should encounter a gale from the southeast. The gale came on about eleven +o'clock; not violent at first, but increasing every moment. + +1. A breeze from the north and northwest. +2. The wind died away. +3. A calm. +4. Barometer fell. +5. The captain predicted a gale. +6. It came on. +7. It increased in violence. + ++Direction+.--Give and number the facts contained in the paragraph below:-- + +I awoke with a confused recollection of a good deal of rolling and thumping +in the night, occasioned by the dashing of the waves against the ship. +Hurrying on my clothes, I found such of the passengers as could stand, at +the doors of the hurricane-house, holding on, and looking out in the utmost +consternation. It was still quite dark. Four of the sails were already in +ribbons: the winds whistling through the cordage; the rain dashing +furiously and in torrents; the noise and spray scarcely less than I found +them under the great sheet at Niagara. + ++Direction+.---_Weave the facts below into a paragraph, supplying all you +need to make the narrative smooth_:-- + +Rip's beard was grizzled. Fowling-piece rusty. Dress uncouth. Women and +children at his heels. Attracted attention. Was eyed from head to foot. Was +asked on which side he voted. Whether he was Federal or Democrat. Rip was +dazed by the question. Stared in stupidity. + ++Direction+.---_Weave the facts below into two paragraphs, supplying what +you need, and tell what each paragraph is about_:-- + +In place of the old tree there was a pole. This was tall and naked. A flag +was fluttering from it. The flag had on it the stars and stripes. This was +strange to Rip. But Rip saw something he remembered. The tavern sign. He +recognized on it the face of King George. Still the picture was changed. +The red coat gone. One of blue and buff in its place. A sword, and not a +scepter, in the hand. Wore a cocked hat. Underneath was painted--"General +Washington." + + * * * * * + +LESSON 157. + +THE PARAGRAPH. + ++Direction+.---_Weave the facts below into three paragraphs, and write on +the margin what each is about_:-- + +The Nile rises in great lakes. Runs north. Sources two thousand miles from +Alexandria. Receives two branches only. Runs through an alluvial valley. +Course through the valley is 1,500 miles. Plows into the Mediterranean. Two +principal channels. Minor outlets. Nile overflows its banks. Overflow +caused by rains at the sources. The melting of the mountain snows. Begins +at the end of June. Rises four inches daily. Rises till the close of +September. Subsides. Whole valley an inland sea. Only villages above the +surface. The valley very fertile. The deposit. The fertile strip is from +five to one hundred and fifty miles wide. Renowned for fruitfulness. Egypt +long the granary of the world. Three crops from December to June. +Productions--grain, cotton, and indigo. + +Direction.---_Weave these facts into four paragraphs, writing the margin of +each the main thought_:-- + +The robin is thought by some to be migratory. But he stays with us all +winter. Cheerful. Noisy. Poor soloist. A spice of vulgarity in him. Dash of +prose in his song. Appetite extraordinary. Eats his own weight in a short +time. Taste for fruit. Eats with a relishing gulp, like Dr. Johnson's. Fond +of cherries. Earliest mess of peas. Mulberries. Lion's share of the +raspberries. Angleworms his delight. A few years ago I had a grapevine. A +foreigner. Shy of bearing. This summer bore a score of bunches. They +secreted sugar from the sunbeams. One morning, went to pick them. The +robins beforehand with me. Bustled out from the leaves. Made shrill, +unhandsome remarks about me. Had sacked the vine. Remnant of a single +bunch. How it looked at the bottom of my basket! A humming-bird's egg in an +eagle's nest. Laughed. Robins joined in the merriment. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 158. + +PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME. + ++Direction+.--_Weave these facts into four paragraphs_:-- + +Note that the several paragraphs form a composition, or +Theme+, the +general subject of which is WOUTER VAN TWILLER (according to Diedrich +Knickerbocker). + +I. +Who he was+.--Van Twiller was a Dutchman. Born at Rotterdam. Descended +from burgomasters. In 1629 appointed governor of Nieuw Nederlandts. Arrived +in June at New Amsterdam--New York city. + +II. +Person+.--Was five feet six inches high, six feet five in +circumference. Head spherical, and too large for any neck. Nature set it on +the back-bone. Body capacious. Legs short and sturdy. A beer-barrel on +skids. Face a vast, unfurrowed expanse. No lines of thought. Two small, +gray eyes. Cheeks had taken toll of all that had entered his mouth. Mottled +and streaked with dusky red. + +III. +Habits+.--Regular. Four meals daily, each an hour long. Smoked and +doubted eight hours. Slept twelve. As self-contained as an oyster. Rarely +spoke save in monosyllables. But never said a foolish thing. Never laughed. +Perplexed by a joke. Conceived everything on a grand scale. When a question +was asked, would put on a mysterious look. Shake his head. Smoke in +silence. Observe, at length, he had doubts. Presided at the council, in +state. Swayed a Turkish pipe instead of a scepter. Known to sit with eyes +closed two hours. Internal commotion shown by guttural sounds. Noises of +contending doubts, admirers said. + +IV. +Exploits.+--Settled a dispute about accounts thus: sent for the +parties; each produced his account-book; Van T. weighed the books; counted +the leaves; equally heavy; equally thick; made each give the other a +receipt; and the constable pay the costs. Demanded why Van Rensselaer +seized Bear's Island. Battled with doubts regarding the Yankees. Smoked and +breathed his last together. + ++Direction.+---_Weave these facts into four paragraphs, write on the margin +the special topic of each, and over the whole what you think it the general +subject of the theme:--_ + +The prophets of Baal accept Elijah's challenge. They dress a bullock. Call +on Baal. Are mocked by Elijah. Leap upon the altar. Cut themselves. Blood. +Cry till the time of the evening sacrifice. No answer by fire. Elijah +commands the people to come near. Repairs an old altar with twelve stones, +one for each tribe. Digs a trench. Sacrifices. Pours water three times upon +it. Prays. Fire falls, consumes flesh, wood, stones, dust, licks up water. +People see it. Fall on their faces. Cry out twice, "The Lord, he is the +God." Take the prophets to the brook Kishon, where they are slain. Elijah +ascends Mount Carrael. Bows in prayer. "Go up now, look toward the sea." +Servant reports, "There is nothing." "Go again seven times." "Behold there +ariseth a little cloud out of the sea, like a man's hand." Orders Ahab to +prepare his chariot. Girding up his loins, he runs before Ahab to Jezreel. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 159. + +PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME. + ++Direction.+--_Weave these facts into as many paragraphs as you think there +should be, using the variety of expression insisted on in Lesson 150, and +write on the margin of each paragraph the special topic, and over the whole +the general subject of the theme:--_ + +Fort Ticonderoga on a peninsula. Formed by the outlet of Lake George and by +Lake Champlain. Fronts south; water on three sides. Separated by Lake +Champlain from Mount Independence, and by the outlet, from Mount Defiance. +Fort one hundred feet above the water. May 7, 1775, two hundred and seventy +men meet at Castleton, Vermont. All but forty-six, Green Mountain boys. +Meet to plan and execute an attack upon Fort T. Allen and Arnold there. +Each claims the command. Question left to the officers. Allen chosen. On +evening of the 9th, they reach the lake. Difficulty in crossing. Send for a +scow. Seize a boat at anchor. Search, and find small row boats. Only +eighty-three able to cross. Day is dawning when these reach the shore. Not +prudent to wait. Allen orders all who will follow him to poise their +firelocks. Every man responds. Nathan Beman, a lad, guides them to the +fort. Sentinel snaps his gun at A. Misses fire. Sentinel retreats. They +follow. Rush upon the parade ground. Form. Loud cheer. A. climbs the +stairs. Orders La Place, it is said, in the name of the great Jehovah and +the Continental Congress, to surrender. Capture forty-eight men. One +hundred and twenty cannon. Used next winter at the siege of Boston. Several +swords and howitzers, small arms, and ammunition. + ++Direction+.--_These facts are thrown together promiscuously. Classify them +as they seem to you to be related. Determine the number of paragraphs and +their order, and then do as directed above_:-- + +Joseph was Jacob's favorite. Wore fine garments. One day was sent to +inquire after the other sons. They were at a distance, tending the flocks. +Joseph used to dream. They saw him coming. Plotted to kill him. In one +dream his brothers' sheaves bowed to his. In another the sun, moon, and +stars bowed to him. Plotted to throw his body into a pit. Agreed to report +to their father that some beast had devoured Joseph. Joseph foolishly told +these to his brothers. Hated him because of the dreams and their father's +partiality. While the brothers were eating, Ishmaelites approached. They +sat down to eat. Were going down into Egypt. Camels loaded with spices. At +the intercession of Reuben they did not kill Joseph. Threw him alive into a +pit. Ishmaelites took him down into Egypt. Sold him to Potiphar. Judah +advised that he be raised from the pit. Jacob recognized the coat. Refused +comfort. Rent his clothes and put on sackcloth. They took his coat. Killed +a kid and dipped the coat in its blood. Brought it to Jacob. "This have we +found; know now whether it be thy son's coat or no." + + * * * * * + +LESSON 160. + +PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME. + ++Direction+.--_Classify these promiscuous facts, determine carefully the +number and the order of the paragraphs, and then do as directed above_:-- + +Trafalgar a Spanish promontory. Near the Straits of Gibraltar. Off +Trafalgar, fleets of Spain and France, October 21, 1805. Nelson in command +of the English fleet. The combined fleets in close line of battle. +Collingwood second in command. Had more and larger cannon than the English. +English fleet twenty-seven sail of the line and four frigates. Thirty-three +sail of the line and seven frigates. He signaled those memorable words: +"England expects every man to do his duty." Enemy had four thousand troops. +Signal received with a shout. They bore down. The best riflemen in the +enemy's boats. C. steered for the center. C. in the _Royal Sovereign_ led +the lee line of thirteen ships. A raking fire opened upon the _Victory_. N. +in the _Victory_ led the weather line. C. engaged the _Santa Anna_. +Delighted at being the first in the fire. At 1.15 N. shot through the +shoulder and back. At 12 the _Victory_ opened fire. N.'s secretary the +first to fall. Fifty fell before a shot was returned. "They have done for +me at last, Hardy," said N. They bore him below. At 2.25 ten of the enemy +had struck. The wound was mortal. At 4 fifteen had struck. The victory that +cost the British 1,587 men won. These were his last words. At 4.30 he +expired. "How goes the day with us?" he asked Hardy. "I hope none of our +ships have struck." N.'s death was more than a public calamity. "I am a +dead man, Hardy," he said. Englishmen turned pale at the news. Most +triumphant death that of a martyr. He shook hands with Hardy. "Kiss me, +Hardy." They mourned as for a dear friend. Kissed him on the cheek. Most +awful death that of the martyr patriot. The loss seemed a personal one. +Knelt down again and kissed his forehead. His articulation difficult. Heard +to say, "Thank God, I have done my duty." Seemed as if they had not known +how deeply they loved him. Most splendid death that of the hero in the hour +of victory. Has left a name which is our pride. An example which is our +shield and strength. Buried him in St. Paul's. Thus the spirits of the +great and the wise live after them. + +TO THE TEACHER--Continue this work as long as it is needed. Take any book, +and read to the class items of facts. Require them to use the imagination +and whatever graces of style are at their command, in weaving these facts +together. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 161. + +ANALYSIS OF THE SUBJECT OF THE THEME. + ++Analysis of the Subject+.--A Theme is made up of groups of sentences +called Paragraphs. The sentences of each paragraph are related to each +other, because they jointly develop a single point, or thought. And the +paragraphs are related to each other, because these points which they +develop are divisions of the one general subject of the Theme. + +After the subject has been chosen, and before writing upon it, it must be +resolved into the main thoughts which compose it. Upon the thoroughness of +this analysis and the natural arrangement of the thoughts thus derived, +depends largely the worth of the theme. These points form, when arranged, +the +Framework+ of the theme. + +Suppose you had taken _The Armada_ as your subject. Perhaps you could say +under these heads all you wish: +1. _What the Armada was_. +2. _When and by whom equipped_. +3. _Its purpose_. +4. _Its sail over the Bay of Biscay and entrance into the English Channel_. +5. _The attack upon it by Admiral Howard and his great Captains--Drake and + Hawkins_. +6. _Its dispersion and partial destruction by the storm_. +7. _The return to Spain of the surviving ships and men_. +8. _The consequences to England and to Spain_. + +Perhaps the 1st point could include the 2d and the 3d. Be careful not to +split your general subject up into very many parts. See, too, that no point +is repeated, that no point foreign to the subject is introduced, and that +all the points together exhaust the subject as nearly as may be. Look to +the arrangement of the points. There is a natural order; (6) could not +precede (5); nor (5), (4); nor (4), (1). + +TO THE TEACHER.--Question the pupils carefully upon every point taken up in +this Lesson. + ++Direction+.--_Prepare the framework of a theme on each of these +subjects_:-- + +1. The Arrest of Major Andre. +2. A Winter in the Arctic Region. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 162. + +ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS. + ++Direction+.--_Prepare the framework of a theme on each of these +subjects_:-- + +1. Battle of Plattsburg. +2. A Day's Nutting. +3. What Does a Proper Care for One's Health Demand? + + * * * * * + +LESSON 163. + +ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS. + ++Direction+.--_Prepare the framework of a theme on each of these +subjects_:-- + +1. A Visit to the Moon. +2. Reasons why one Should Not Smoke, +3. What Does a Proper Observance of Sunday Require of One? + + * * * * * + +LESSON 164. + +ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS. + ++Direction+.--_Prepare the framework of a theme on each of these +subjects_:-- + +1. The Gulf Stream. +2. A Descent into a Whirlpool. +3. What are Books Good for? + + * * * * * + +LESSON 165. + +HOW TO WRITE A THEME. + ++I. Choose a Subject+.--Choose your subject long before you are to write. +Avoid a full, round term like _Patriotism_ or _Duty_; take a fragment of +it; as, _How can a Boy be Patriotic?_ or _Duties which we Schoolmates owe +Each Other_. The subject should be on your level, should be interesting and +suggestive to you, and should instantly start in your mind many trains of +thought. + ++II. Accumulate the Material+.--Begin to think about your subject. Turn it +over in your mind in leisure moments, and, as thoughts flash upon you, jot +them down in your blank-book. If any of these seem broad enough for the +main points, or heads, indicate this. Talk with no one on the subject, and +read nothing on it, till you have thought yourself empty; and even then you +should note down what the conversation or reading suggests, rather than +what you have heard or read. + ++III. Construct a Framework+.--Before writing hunt through your material +for the main points, or heads. See to what general truths or thoughts these +jottings and those jottings point. Perhaps this or that thought, as it +stands, includes enough to serve as a head. Be sure, at any rate, that by +brooding over your material, and by further thinking upon the subject, you +get at all the general thoughts into which, as it seems to you, the subject +should be analyzed. Study these points carefully. See that no two overlap +each other, that no one appears twice, that no one has been raised to the +dignity of a head which should stand under some head, and that no one is +irrelevant. Study now to find the natural order in which these points +should stand. Let no point, to the clear understanding of which some other +point is necessary, precede that other. If developing all the points would +make your theme too long, study to see what points you can omit without +abrupt break or essential loss. + ++IV. Write+.--Give your whole attention to your work as you write, and +other thoughts will occur to you, and better ways of putting the thoughts +already noted down. In expanding the main points into paragraphs, be sure +that everything falls under its appropriate head. Cast out irrelevant +matter. Do not strain after effect or strive to seem wiser than you are. +Use familiar words, and place these, your phrases, and your clauses, where +they will make your thought the clearest. As occasion calls, change from +the usual order to the transposed, and let sentences, simple, complex, and +compound, long and short, stand shoulder to shoulder in the paragraph. +Express yourself easily--only now and then putting your thought forcibly +and with feeling. Let a fresh image here and there relieve the uniformity +of plain language. One sentence should follow another without abrupt break; +and, if continuative of it, adversative to it, or an inference from it, and +the hearer needs to be advised of this, let it swing into position on the +hinge of a fitting connective. Of course, your sentences must pass rigid +muster in syntax; and you must look sharply to the spelling, to the use of +capital letters, and to punctuation. + ++V. Attend to the Mechanical Execution+.--Keep your pages clean, and let +your handwriting be clear. On the left of the page leave a margin of an +inch for corrections. Do not write on the fourth page; if you exceed three +pages, use another sheet. When the writing is done, double the lower half +of the sheet over the upper, and fold through the middle; then bring the +top down to the middle and fold again. Bring the right-hand end toward you, +and across the top write your name and the date. This superscription will +be at the top of the fourth page, at the right-hand corner, and at right +angles to the ruled lines. + +TO THE TEACHER.--Question the pupils closely upon every point in this +Lesson. + +Additional Subjects for Themes. + +1. Apples and Nuts. +2. A Pleasant Evening. +3. My Walk to School. +4. Pluck. +5. School Friendships. +6. When my Ship Comes In. +7. Ancient and Modern Warfare. +8. The View from my Window. +9. Homes without Hands. +10. I Can. +11. My Friend Jack. +12. John Chinaman. +13. Irish Characters. +14. Robin Hood. +15. A Visit to Olympus. +16. Monday Morning. +17. My Native Town. +18. Over the Sea. +19. Up in a Balloon. +20. Queer People. +21. Our Minister. +22. A Plea for Puss. +23. Castles in Spain. +24. Young America. +25. Black Diamonds. +26. Mosquitoes. +27. A Day in the Woods. +28. A Boy's Trials. +29. The Yankee. +30. Robinson Crusoe. +31. Street Arabs. +32. Legerdemain. +33. Our Neighborhood. +34. Examinations. +35. Theatre-going. +36. Donkeys. +37. The Southern Negro. +38. A Rainy Saturday. +39. The Early Bird Catches the Worm. +40. Spring Sports +41. How Horatius Kept the Bridge. +42. Jack Frost +43. My First Sea Voyage. +44. Monkeys. +45. Grandmothers. +46. The Boy of the Story Book. +47. Famous Streets. +48. Pigeons. +49. Jack and Gill. +50. Make Haste Slowly. +51. Commerce. +52. The Ship of the Desert. +53. Winter Sports. +54. A Visit to Neptune. +55. Whiskers. +56. Gypsies. +57. Cities of the Dead. +58. Street Cries. +59. The World Owes me A Living. +60. Politeness. +61. Cleanliness Akin to Godliness. +62. Fighting Windmills. +63. Along the Docks. +64. Maple Sugar. +65. Umbrellas. +66. A Girl's Trials. +67. A Spider's Web. +68. The Story of Ruth. +69. Clouds. +70. A Country Store. +71. Timepieces. +72. Bulls and Bears. +73. Bore. +74. Our Sunday School. +75. The Making of Beer. +76. Autumn's Colors. +77. The Watched Pot Never Boils. +78. The Mission of Birds. +79. Parasites. +80. Well-begun is Half-done. +81. The Tides. +82. The Schoolmaster in "The Deserted Village." +83. A Day on a Trout Stream. +84. A Stitch in Time Saves Nine. +85. Of What Use are Flowers? +86. A Descent in a Diving Bell. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 166. + +LETTER-WRITING. + +Letters need special treatment. In writing a letter there are five things +to consider--The Heading, The Introduction, The Body of the Letter, The +Conclusion, and The Superscription. + +THE HEADING. + ++Parts+.--The Heading consists of the name of the +Place+ at which the +letter is written, and the +Date+. If you write from a city, give the +door-number, the name of the street, the name of the city, and the name of +the state. If you are at a Hotel or a School or any other well-known +Institution, its name may take the place of the door-number and the name of +the street; as may also the number of your post-office box. If you write +from a village or other country place, give your post-office address, the +name of the county, and that of the state. + +The Date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year. + ++How Written+.--Begin the Heading about an inch and a half from the top of +the page--on the first ruled line of commercial note. If the letter +occupies but a few lines of a single page, you may begin the Heading lower +down. Begin the first line of the Heading a little to the left of the +middle of the page. If it occupies more than one line, the second line +should begin farther to the right than the first, and the third farther to +the right than the second. + +The door-number, the day of month, and the year are written in figures; the +rest, in words. Bach important word begins with a capital letter, each item +is set off by the comma, and the whole closes with a period. + ++Direction+.--_Study what has teen said, and write the following +headings according to these models:_-- + +1. Ripton, Addison Co., Vt., +July 10, 1895. + +2. 250 Broadway, N. T., +June 6, 1890. + +3. Saco, Me., Feb. 25, 1887. + +4. Polytechnic Institute, +Brooklyn, N. Y., +May 3, 1888. + +1. ann arbor 5 July 1820 michigan +2. champlain co clinton n y jan 14 1800 +3. p o box 2678 1860 oct 19 chicago +4. philadelphia 670 1858 chestnut st 16 apr +5. saint nicholas new york 1 hotel nov 1855 + +THE INTRODUCTION. + ++Parts+.--The Introduction consists of the +Address+--the Name, the Title, +and the Place of Business or Residence of the one addressed--and the ++Salutation+. Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the Address. +Prefix _Mr._ to a man's name, _Messrs._ to the names of several gentlemen; +_Master_ to the name of a young lad; _Miss_ to that of an unmarried lady; +_Mrs._ to that of a married lady; _Misses_ to the names of several young +ladies; and _Mesdames_ to those of several married or elderly ladies. +Prefix _Dr._ to the name of a physician (but never _Mr. Dr._), or write +_M.D._ after it. Prefix _Rev._ to the name of a clergyman, or _Rev. Mr._ if +you do not know his Christian name; _Rev. Dr._ if he is a Doctor of +Divinity, or write _Rev._ before the name and _D.D._ after it. Prefix _His +Excellency_ to the name of the President, [Footnote: The preferred form of +addressing the President is, _To the President, Executive Mansion, +Washington, D. C._; the Salutation is simply, _Mr. President._ ] and to +that of a Governor or of an Ambassador; _Hon._ to the name of a Cabinet +Officer, a Member of Congress, a State Senator, a Law Judge, or a Mayor. If +two literary or professional titles are added to a name, let them stand in +the order in which they were conferred--this is the order of a few common +ones: _A.M., Ph.D., D.D., LL.D._ Guard against an excessive use of titles-- +the higher implies the lower. + +Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the writer's +degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed as _Sir, Dear Sir, +Rev. Sir, General, Madam_, etc.; acquaintances as _Dear Sir, Dear Madam_, +etc.; friends as _My dear Sir, My dear Madam, My dear Jones_, etc.; and +near relatives and other dear friends as _My dear Wife, My dear Boy, +Dearest Ellen_, etc. + ++How Written+.--The Address may follow the Heading, beginning on the next +line, and standing on the left side of the page; or it may stand in +corresponding position after the Body of the Letter and the Conclusion. If +the letter is of an official character or is written to an intimate friend, +the Address may appropriately be placed at the bottom of the letter; but in +ordinary business letters, it should be placed at the top and as directed +above. Never omit it from the letter except when the letter is written in +the third person. There should be a narrow margin on the left side of the +page, and the Address should begin on the marginal line. If the Address +occupies more than one line, the initial words of these lines should slope +to the right. + +Begin the Salutation on the marginal line or a little to the right of it +when the Address occupies three lines; on the marginal line or farther to +the right or to the left than the second line of the Address when this +occupies two lines; a little to the right of the marginal line when the +Address occupies one line; on the marginal line when the Address stands +below. + +Every important word in the Address should begin with a capital letter. All +the items of it should be set off by the comma; and, as it is an +abbreviated sentence, it should close with a period. Every important word +in the Salutation should begin with a capital letter, and the whole should +be followed by a comma, or by a comma and a dash. + ++Direction+.--Write these introductions according to the models:-- +1. Prof. March, Easton, Pa. + My dear Sir, + +2. Messrs. Smith & Jones, + 771 Broadway, + New York City. +Gentlemen, + +3. My dear Mother, + When, etc. + +4. Messrs. Vallette & Co., + Middlebury, Vt. + Dear Sirs, + +1. mr george platt burlington iowa sir +2. mass Cambridge prof James r lowell my dear friend +3. messrs ivison blakeman taylor & co gentlemen new york +4. rev brown dr the arlington Washington dear friend d c +5. col John smith dear colonel n y auburn + + * * * * * + +LESSON 167. + +LETTER-WRITING--CONTINUED. + +THE BODY OF THE LETTER. + ++The Beginning+.--Begin the Body of the Letter at the end of the +Salutation, and on the same line if the Introduction is long--in which case +the comma after the Salutation should be followed by a dash,--on the line +below if the Introduction is short. + ++Style+.--Be perspicuous. Paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds of +writing. Avoid blots, erasures, interlineations, cross lines, and all other +offenses against epistolary propriety. The letter "bespeaks the man." +Letters of friendship should be colloquial, chatty, and familiar. Whatever +is interesting to you will be interesting to your friends, however trivial +it may seem to a stranger. + +Business letters should be brief, and the sentences short, concise, and to +the point. Repeat nothing, and omit nothing needful. + +Official letters and formal notes should be more stately and ceremonious. +In formal notes the third person is generally used instead of the first and +the second; there is no Introduction, no Conclusion, no Signature, only the +name of the Place and the Date at the bottom, on the left side of the page, +thus:-- + +_Mr. & Mrs. A. request the pleasure of Mr. B.'s company at a social +gathering, on Tuesday evening, Nov. 15th, at eight o'clock. + +32 Fifth Ave., Nov. 5_. + +_Mr. B. accepts_ [Footnote: Or regrets that a previous engagement (or +illness, or an unfortunate event) prevents the acceptance of ----; or +regrets that on account of ---- he is unable to accept ----.] _with +pleasure Mr. & Mrs. A.'s kind invitation for Tuesday evening, Nov. 15th._ + +_Wednesday morning, Nov. 9th_. + +THE CONCLUSION. + ++Parts+.--The Conclusion consists of the +Complimentary Close+ and the ++Signature+. The forms of the Complimentary Close are many, and are +determined by the relations of the writer to the one addressed. In letters +of friendship you may use, _Your sincere, friend; Yours affectionately; +Your loving son_ or _daughter_, etc. In business letters you may use, +_Yours; Yours truly; Truly yours; Yours respectfully; Very respectfully +yours_, etc. In official letters you should be more deferential. Use, _I +have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient servant; Very respectfully, your +most obedient servant_; etc., etc. + +The Signature consists of your Christian name and your surname. In +addressing a stranger write your Christian name in full. A lady addressing +a stranger should prefix to her signature her title, _Mrs._ or _Miss_ +(placing it within marks of parenthesis), unless in the letter she has +indicated which of these titles her correspondent is to use in reply. + ++How Written+.--The Conclusion should begin near the middle of the first +line below the Body of the Letter, and, if occupying two or more lines, +should slope to the right like the Heading and the Address. Begin each line +of it with a capital letter, and punctuate as in other writing, following +the whole with a period. The Signature should be very plain. + ++Direction+.--_Write two formal notes--one inviting a friend to a social +party, and one declining the invitation._ + ++Direction+.--_Write the Conclusion of a letter of friendship, of a letter +of business, and of an official letter, carefully observing all that has +been said above._ + ++Direction+.--_Write a letter of two or three lines to your father or your +mother, and another to your minister, talcing care to give properly the +Heading in its two parts, the Introduction in its two parts, and the +Conclusion in its two parts. Let the Address in the letter to your father +or your mother stand at the bottom._ + + * * * * * + +LESSON 168. + +LETTER-WRITING--CONTINUED. + +THE SUPERSCRIPTION. + ++Parts+.--The Superscription is what is written on the outside of the +envelope. It is the same as the Address, consisting of the Name, the Title, +and the full Directions of the one addressed. + ++How Written+.--The Superscription should begin just below the middle of +the envelope and near the left edge--the envelope lying with its closed +side toward you--and should occupy three or four lines. These lines should +slope to the right as in the Heading and the Address, the spaces between +the lines should be the same, and the last line should end near the lower +right-hand corner. On the first line the Name and the Title should stand. +If the one addressed is in a city, the door-number and name of the street +should be on the second line, the name of the city on the third, and the +name of the state on the fourth. If he is in the country, the name of the +post-office should be on the second line, the name of the county on the +third, the name of the state on the fourth. The number of the post office +box may take the place of the door-number and the name of the street, or, +to avoid crowding, the number of the box or the name of the county may +stand at the lower left-hand corner. The titles following the name should +be separated from it and from each other by the comma, and every line +should end with a comma except the last, which should be followed by a +period. [Footnote: Some omit punctuation after the parts of the +Superscription. ] The lines should be straight, and every part of the +Superscription should be legible. Place the stamp at the upper right-hand +corner. + ++Direction+.--_Write six Superscriptions to real or imaginary friends +or acquaintances in different cities, carefully observing all that has +been said above._ + ++Direction+.--_Write two snort letters--one to a friend at the Astor +House, New York, and one to a stranger in the country._ + +[Illustration: Envelope with stamp in upper-right corner. Addressed to + + Master H. Buckman, + Andover, + Mass.] + +[Cursive Text: + + Ithaca, N. Y, June 15, '96. + My dear Friend, + + You tell me that you + begin the study of English Literature + next term. Let me assume the + relation of an older brother, and tender + you a word of counsel. + + Study literature, primarily, for + the thoughts it contains. Attend + to these thoughts until you understand + them and see their connection + one with another. Accept only such + as seem to you just and true, and + accept these at their proper value. + + Notice carefully the words each + author uses, see how he arranges + them, whether he puts his thought + clearly, what imagery he employs, + what allusions he makes, what + acquaintance with men, with books, + and with nature he shows, and in + what spirit he writes. + + Your study of the author should + put you in possession of his thought + and his style, and should introduce + you to the man himself. + + Pardon me these words of unsought + advice, and believe me. + + Your true friend, + John Schuyler. + + Master H. Buckman, + Andover, Mass.] + +A SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX. + +We here append a Summary of the so-called Rules of Syntax, with references +to the Lessons which treat of Construction. + +I. A noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute complement of a +predicate verb, or used independently, is in the nominative case. + +II. The attribute complement of a participle or an infinitive is in the +same case (Nom. or Obj.) as the word to which it relates. + +III. A noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in the possessive +case. + +IV. A noun or pronoun used as object complement, as objective complement, +as the principal word in a prepositional phrase, or used adverbially +[Footnote: See Lesson 35.] is in the objective case. + +V. A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as +the word explained. + + ++For Cautions, Principles, and Examples respecting the cases of nouns and +pronouns, see Lessons 119, 122, 123, 123. For Cautions and Examples to +guide in the use of the different pronouns, see Lessons 86, 87.+ + +VI. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender. + ++For Cautions, Principles, and Examples, see Lessons 118,142.+ + +VII. A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. + ++For Cautions, Examples, and Exceptions, see Lesson 142.+ + +VIII. A participle assumes the action or being, and is used like an +adjective or a noun. + ++For Uses of the Participle, see Lessons 37, 38, 39.+ + +IX. An infinitive is generally introduced by _to_, and with it forms a +phrase used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. + ++For Uses of the Infinitive, see Lessons 40, 41, 42.+ + +X. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. + ++For Cautions and Examples respecting the use of adjectives and of +comparative and superlative forms, see Lessons 90, 91, 128.+ + +XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. + ++For Cautions and Examples, see Lesson 93.+ + +XII. A preposition introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in +sense, of its principal word to the word modified. + ++For Cautions, see Lessons 98, 99.+ + +XIII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses. + ++For Cautions and Examples, see Lessons 100, 107.+ + +XIV. Interjections are used independently. + +CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. + ++Remarks+.--The scheme of conjugation presented below is from English +text-books. In some of these books the forms introduced by _should_ are +classed, not as Future, but as Secondary Past Tense forms of the +Subjunctive. + +If we substitute this scheme of conjugation for the simpler one given in +the preceding pages, we still fail to get a classification in which every +form corresponds in use to its name. The following examples will +illustrate:-- + +He _returns_ to-morrow. (Present = Future.) + +When I _have performed_ this, I will come to you. (Present Perfect = Future +Perfect.) + +If any member _absents_ himself, he shall pay a fine. (Indicative = +Subjunctive.) + +You _shall_ go. (Indicative = Imperative.) + +After memorizing all the terms and forms belonging to the conjugation here +outlined, the student will find that he has gained little to aid him in the +use of language. For instance, in this synopsis of the Subjunctive are +found nineteen forms. As there are three persons in the singular and three +in the plural, we have one hundred and fourteen subjunctive forms! How +confusing all this must be to the student, who, in his use of the +subjunctive, needs to distinguish only such as these: If he _be_, If he +_were_, If he _teach_! Beyond these, the subjunctive manner of assertion is +discovered from the structure of the sentence or the relation of clauses, +not from the conjugation of the verb. + +Those English authors and their American copyists who eliminate the +Potential Mode from their scheme of conjugation tell us that the so-called +potential auxiliaries are either independent verbs in the indicative or are +subjunctive auxiliaries. With the meager instruction given by any one or by +all of these authors, the student will find it exceedingly difficult to +determine when these auxiliaries are true subjunctives. To illustrate:-- + +1. _May_ you be happy. +2. I learn that I _may_ be able to teach. +3. He _might_ have done it if he had liked. +4. If he _should_ try, he _would_ succeed. +5. I _would_ not tell you if I _could_. +6. I _could_ not do this if I were to try. + +The forms italicized above are said to be subjunctive auxiliaries; those +below are said to be independent verbs in the indicative. + +7. He _may_ be there. +8. He _might_ ask you to go. +9. You _should_ not have done that. +10. He _would_ not come when called. +11. I _could_ do this at one time. + +We are told that _can_ and _must_ are always independent verbs in the +indicative, and that _may, might, could, would_, and _should_ are either +subjunctive auxiliaries or independent verbs parsed in the indicative, +separately from the infinitives with which they seem to combine. But in +parsing these words as separate verbs the student is left in doubt as to +whether they are transitive or intransitive, and as to the office of the +infinitives that follow. + +_Shall_ (to owe) and _will_ (to determine) are, in their original meaning, +transitive. _May, can_, and _must_ denote power (hence potential); and, as +the infinitive with which they combine names the act on which this power is +exercised, some philologists regard them as originally transitive. Among +these is our distinguished critic, Prof. Francis A. March. _May_ denotes +power from without coming from a removal of all hindrance,--hence +permission or possibility. _Can_ denotes power from within,--hence ability. +_Must_ denotes power from without coming from circumstances or the nature +of things,--hence necessity or obligation. _Should, would, might_, and +_could_ are past forms of _shall, will, may_, and _can_. + +The auxiliaries take different shades of meaning. In some constructions the +meaning is fainter or less emphatic than in others. To say just how little +of its common or original meaning _may, can, must, shall_, or _will_ must +have to be an auxiliary, and how much to be a "notional," or independent, +verb would be extremely venturesome For instance, _could_ in (6) above +expresses power or ability to do, as does _could_ in (11), yet we are told +that the former _could_ is a mere auxiliary, while the latter is an +independent verb. _May_ in (1) denotes a desired removal of all hindrance; +_may_ in (7) denotes a possible removal of hindrance. It is hard to see why +the former _may_ is necessarily a mere auxiliary, and the latter a +"notional," or independent, verb. These are some of the difficulties--not +to say inconsistencies--met by the student who is taught that there is no +Potential Mode. + +In a scholarly work revised by Skeat, Wrightson, speaking of _I may, can, +shall, or will love_, says, "These auxiliary verbs had at some time such a +clear and definite meaning that it would have been tolerably easy to +determine the case function discharged by the infinitive; but these verbs, +after passing through various shades of meaning, have at last become little +more than conventional symbols, so that it would be worse than useless to +attempt to analyze these periphrastic tenses +of our moods." + +A CONJUGATION OF TEACH. + +Active Voice. + +INDICATIVE MODE. + + +Present Indefinite............He teaches. +Present Imperfect.............He is teaching. +Present Perfect...............He has taught. +Present Perfect Continuous....He has been teaching. + +Past Indefinite...............He taught. +Past Imperfect................He was teaching. +Past Perfect..................He had taught. +Past Perfect Continuous.......He had been teaching. + +Future Indefinite.............He will teach. +Future Imperfect..............He will be teaching. +Future Perfect................He will have taught. +Future Perfect Continuous.....He will have been teaching. + +SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. + +Present Indefinite............(If) he teach. +Present Imperfect.............(If) he be teaching. +Present Perfect...............(If) he have taught. +Present Perfect Continuous....(If) he have been teaching. + +Past Indefinite...............(If) he taught. +Past Imperfect................(If) he were teaching. +Past Perfect..................(If) he had taught. +Past Perfect Continuous.......(If) he had been teaching. + +Future Indefinite.............(If) he should teach. +Future Imperfect..............(If) he should be teaching. +Future Perfect................(If) he should have taught. +Future Perfect Continuous.....(If) he should have been teaching. + +IMPERATIVE MODE. + +Present.......................Teach [thou]. + +INFINITIVE MODE. + +Present Indefinite............(To) teach. +Present Imperfect.............(To) be teaching. +Present Perfect...............(To) have taught. +Present Perfect Continuous....(To) have been teaching. + +PARTICIPLES. + +Imperfect.....................Teaching. +Perfect.......................Having taught. +Perfect Continuous............Having been teaching. + +Passive Voice. + +INDICATIVE MODE. + +Present Indefinite............He is taught. +Present Imperfect.............He is being taught. +Present Perfect...............He has been taught. + +Past Indefinite...............He was taught. +Past Imperfect................He was being taught. +Past Perfect..................He had been taught. + +Future Indefinite.............He will be taught. +Future Imperfect..............------------------------ +Future Perfect................He will have been taught. + +SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. + +Present Indefinite............(If) he be taught. +Present Imperfect.............------------------------ +Present Perfect...............(If) he have been taught. + +Past Indefinite...............(If) he were taught. +Past Imperfect................(If) he were being taught. +Past Perfect..................(If) he had been taught. + +Future Indefinite.............(If) he should be taught. +Future Imperfect..............------------------------ +Future Perfect................(If) he should have been taught. + +IMPERATIVE MODE. + +Present.......................Be [thou] taught. + +INFINITIVE MODE. + +Present Indefinite............(To) be taught. +Present Perfect...............(To) have been taught. + +PARTICIPLES. + +Imperfect.....................Being taught. +Perfect.......................Taught. +Compound Perfect..............Having been taught. + + + +INDEX. + +_A_, or _an_, uses of +_A_ and _the_ uses of distinguished +_A_ (day) _or two_, or _one or two_ (days) ++Abbreviations+ + common ones + how made and written + of names of states ++Absolute Phrases+ + definition of + diagram of + expansion of ++Adjective+ an, definition of ++Adjectives+ + apt ones to be used + +classes+ + definitive (numeral) + descriptive + +comparison+ + adjectives not compared + adjectives irregularly compared + form preferred + in _er_ and _est_ + with adverb + descriptive, used as nouns + errors in use of + having number forms + needless ones avoided + not always limiting + not used for adverbs + numeral + cardinal + ordinal + proper order of + scheme for general review + used as abstract nouns ++Adjective Clauses+ + connectives of + definition of + = adjectives + = explanatory modifiers + = independent clauses + = infinitive phrases + = participle phrases + = possessives + modifying omitted words + position of + restrictive and unrestrictive + unrestrictive, punctuation ++Adjective Complement+ + distinguished from adverb modifier ++Adjective Modifiers+ + analysis of + nouns as ++Adverb+ an definition of ++Adverbs+ + apt ones to be used + classes of + comparison of + errors in use of + expressing negation + irregular comparison of + modifying + clauses + phrases + prepositions + sentences + not used for adjectives + not used needlessly + position of + scheme for general review + sometimes like adjective attributes + +used+ + independently (note) + interrogatively (note) + with connective force (note) ++Adverb Clause+, definition of ++Adverb Clauses+ + +classes+ + cause, real + concession + condition + degree (result) + evidence + manner + place + purpose + time + +contracted+ + by omitting words + to absolute phrases + to participles and participle phrases + to prepositional phrases + = adjective clauses and phrases (note) + = adverbs + = independent clauses (note) + position of + punctuation of ++Adverbial Modifiers+ + analysis of + nouns as + parsing of ++Adversative Connectives+, list ++Adversative+, meaning of (note) +_A few, a little_, vs. _few_ and _little_ ++Agreement+ + of parts of a metaphor + of pronoun with its antecedent + of verb with the subject ++Allusion+ (note) ++Alphabet+ + definition of + perfect one what + the English imperfect how ++Alternative+, meaning of (note) ++Alternative Connectives+, list ++Ambiguity+ of pronouns, how avoided ++Analysis+ + examples for, additional + of a sentence + of subjects of themes ++Antecedent+, a clause, phrase, or word (note) ++Antithesis+ (note) +_Any body_ (or _one_) _else's_ (note) ++Apostrophe+ the ++Appositives+ ++Argumentative Style+ ++Arrangement+ ++Articles+ + +classes+ + definite + indefinite + errors in use of + repeated when + uses of _a_, or _an_, and _the_ +_As_ + introductory conjunction + relative pronoun (note) + with clauses of degree, manner, and time + with variety of clauses +_As ... as_, construction of +_As it were_, construction of ++Aspirates+ ++Assumed Subject+, what ++Attribute Complement+ + definition of + diagram of ++Auxiliary Verbs+ + +_Be_, + conjugation of + derivation of (note) +_Beside_ and _besides_ distinguished (note) +_Best of the two_ +_Between_ with three or more (note) ++Brackets+, use of +_But_ + adversative conjunction + a preposition + various uses of + with or without _that_ + with _what_ incorrect for _but that_ or _but_ + _Can_ ++Capital Letters+ + in abbreviations + in beginning sentences + in class names + in compound names + in names of the Deity + in proper names + in titles + rule for _I_ and _O_ + summary of rules for ++Case+ + defined + of attribute complement + of explanatory modifier + of noun or pronoun independent + of noun or pronoun used adverbially + of objective complement ++Cases+ + definitions of + in Anglo-Saxon and in Latin ++Case Forms+ + errors in use of + five pronouns have three + nouns have two + only eight nominative + only seven objective ++Cause+, adverbs of ++Cause Clauses+, divisible ++Classification+ + necessity of + not governed by logical relation ++Clauses+ + classes + dependent + independent + complex and compound + +dependent+ + adjective + adverb + noun + +independent+ (the thought) + in alternation + in contrast + in same line + inferred ++Collective Nouns+ + form of verb with + of what number ++Colon+ ++Comma+, rules for ++Comparison+ + adjectives without it + cautions to guide in + definition of + degree used with two + degrees of, defined...257. 268 + double, origin of + double, to be shunned + errors in use of + forms of + irregular + when adverb used + which form preferred ++Complement+ + is what + the modified is what ++Complements+ + attribute + (subjective) + object + objective ++Complex Sentences+ + definition + treatment of ++Compound Attribute Complement+ ++Compound Object Complement+ ++Compound Personal Pronouns+ ++Compound Predicate+, defined ++Compound Relative Pronouns+ ++Compound Sentence+ + changed to complex + contracted + defined + treatment of ++Compound Subject+, defined ++Condition Clauses without conjunction+ ++Conjugation+ + definition of + forms of + more elaborate form ++Conjunction a, definition of+ ++Conjunctions+ + +classes+ + co-ordinate + subordinate + +co-ordinate+ + adversative + alternative ++Conjunctions+ (cont.) + +co-ordinate+ + copulative + co-ordinate connect sentences and paragraphs + scheme for review ++Conjunctive Adverbs+ + are what + offices of ++Connectives+ + apt ones to be chosen + +co-ordinate+ + adversative + alternative + copulative + errors in use of + in correlation + introductory + +subordinate+ + of adjective clauses + of adverb clauses + of noun clauses ++Consonants+, classes of ++Contraction+ of +Sentences+ ++Co-ordinate Conjunctions+ ++Copulative+, meaning of ++Copula+, what ++Correlatives+, errors in use of + +_D_ of the _ed_ of verbs in past tense +_D_ of the _ed_ of past participles +_Dare_, without _s_ form ++Dash+ the ++Declarative Sentence+, defined ++Declension+ + defined + of interrogative pronouns + of nouns + of personal pronouns + of relative pronouns ++Degree+, adverbs of ++Descriptive Style+ ++Diminution+, degrees of ++Diagram+ + a, what + may be omitted +_Do,_ idiomatic use of + +_Each other_ + construction of + with two or more +_Ed_ of past tense and participle +_Either_ and _neither_, pronouns and conjunctions, with two or more +_Either_ may be used for _each_ ++Elocution+, object of ++Energy+ + defined + exercises in + secured how ++English Grammar+, definition of ++Epigrams+ are what ++Evidence+ distinguished from +Cause+ ++Exclamatory Sentences+ + definition of + order of words in ++Expansion+ + of absolute phrases + of infinitive phrases + of participles + of sentences ++Explanatory Modifier+ + definition of + punctuation of + ++Figures of Speech+ + basis of + definition + illustrations of + names of + uses of +_First two_, etc. ++Force+ (see +Energy+) +_For to_ + ++Gender+ + defined + distinguished from sex + of names of animals + of what importance + of pronouns, errors in + used in personification ++Gender Forms+ ++Genders+, the three defined + +_Had better, rather, sooner_ +_Hand in hand_, construction of +_Have written_, history of +_He_ or _one_ after the indefinite _one_ ++Humor+, in style ++Hyphen+, use of + ++Idea+ distinguished from object +_If_ + for even if, although + for whether + omission of + variety of uses ++Imagery+, discussion of ++Imperative Sentence+ + definition of + order of words in +_In_ and _Into_ distinguished +_In case that_, construction of ++Independent Clauses+ + definition of + joined without conjunction + punctuated ++Independent Expressions+, punctuated ++Indirect+, or +Dative+, Object ++Inference+, expressed by an independent clause ++Infinitive+ (the), + and assumed subject after _for_ + definition of + double nature of + old dative of + use of present perfect after past indicative + why called infinitive ++Infinitive Phrase+ + after a preposition + as adjective + as adjective modifier + as adverb modifier + as attribute complement + as explanatory modifier + as object complement + as objective complement + as subject + cleft or split + does not with the noun form a clause + expansion into clauses + independent +_In order that_, construction of ++Interjections+ ++Interrogation Point+, use of ++Interrogative Pronouns+ + declension + definition + list ++Interrogative Sentences+ + definition of + order of words in ++Intransitive Verbs+, definition ++Introductory Words+ ++Invitations+, form of ++Irregular Verbs+ + definition of + inflections of + list of + persistence of +_It_ + for a clause + idiomatic use of + use for animals and children + vague +_It is me_, _him_, etc. +_Just as_, construction of ++Language+ + definition of + made up of words + natural + word +_Last two_, etc. +_Lay_ and _lie_ +_Less_, the final _s_ of, and _lesser_ +_Lest_ + equaling that not + various uses of + with noun clause ++Letters+, the alphabet ++Letters+ + body of + conclusion of + heading of + illustration of + introduction of + parts of + superscription of ++Letter-Writing+ ++Loose Sentence+ +_Many a_, explanation of ++Manner+, adverbs of ++Masculine Gender+ distinguished ++Masculine Pronoun+, use of +_May_ ++Metaphor+ + definition of + exercises in use of +_Methinks_ ++Metonymy+ + definition of + exercises in use of +_Mine, thine, of mine_, etc ++Mode+ is what ++Modes+ + +classes+, + imperative + indicative + potential + subjunctive + definitions of + imperative, no 2d and 3d persons + indicative, uses of + potential omitted + subjunctive ++Modifications+, definition ++Modified Complement+ ++Modifiers+, + definition + different rank + explanatory, punctuation +_Must_ +_Myself_, explanatory + ++N+, Saxon _ne_, the negative particle ++Narrative Style+ ++Natural Language+ +_Need_, without _s_ form ++Negation+ by adverbs ++Negatives+, double +_No_ and _yes_, sentence-words +_No body_ (or _one_) _else's_ ++Nominative Forms+, eight ++Noun+ a, definition of ++Nouns+ + abstract + as adjective modifiers + as adverb modifiers + cases of + classes of + collective + common and proper + declension + gender of + number, kinds of + person of + roots of + scheme for general review ++Noun Clauses+ + as attribute complement + as explanatory modifier + as object complement + as principal term of prepositional phrase + as subject + connectives of + contraction of + definition of + position of + punctuation of ++Noun Modifier+ + explanatory (appositive) + explanatory of a sentence + possessive ++Number+ + definition of + kinds of + of noun agreeing with adjective + of nouns determined + of verbs shows what + +_0_ and _oh_ distinguished ++Object+ and +Object Complement+ distinguished ++Object+, indirect ++Object+, indirect, made subject ++Object Complement+ + becoming subject + compound + definition of + retained after verb in passive ++Objective Forms+, seven ++Objective Complement+ + an infinitive phrase + a participle + becoming an attribute complement + definition of + extended beyond its factitive sense +_Of_ + in place of possessive sign + not always indicating possession +_Of mine_, etc +_On condition that_ +_One another_ + syntax of + with two or more +_Only_, + position of + syntax of ++Order+ (words and phrases) + transposed + usual +_Other_, misuse of +_Ought_ ++Paragraph+ (the) + composition of + definition of + topics and subtopics of + unity of ++Paragraphing+, exercises in ++Parallel Construction+ ++Parenthesis+, marks of ++Parenthetical Classes+, punctuation ++Parsing+ + definition of + first step in + models for written ++Participles+ + adjectival + as adjective modifiers + as attribute complements + as mere adjectives + as mere nouns + as objective complements + as prepositions + as principal word in a phrase + definition of + expansion of + forms of + in independent phrases + misuse of + modified by _a_ and _the_ + modified by a possessive + nounal, called _gerunds, infinitives, verbal nouns_ + place of + punctuation of + used in slurring ++Passive Voice+, idiomatic constructions ++Period+, use of ++Periodic Sentence+ ++Person+ + forms + of a noun or pronoun + of a verb + why regarded in the grammar ++Personification+, the figure ++Persons+, the three defined ++Perspicuity+ + definition of + exercises in ++Phrases+ + absolute + adjective and adverb + as prepositions + complex and compound + definition of + infinitive + interchange with clauses + interchange with words + participial + position of + prepositional + punctuation of + used independently + verb ++Place+, adverbs of ++Plural Number+ ++Plural+ + ending, origin + foreign forms of + formed irregularly + formed regularly + form same as singular + forms treated as singular + no form for + of compound words + of letters, figures, etc. + of proper names + some originally singular + some words always + two forms with different meaning + without singular of like meaning ++Possessive Ending+ + added to explanatory word + ambiguity avoided by + attached to the adjective + confined to what + error respecting + errors in use of + _of_ for + of compound names + origin of + when omitted + when pronounced _es_ ++Predicate+ + adjective defined + a verb or contains one + compound + definition of + modified + noun defined + of two or more words ++Preposition+ a, defined ++Prepositions+ + becoming adverbs + ending a sentence + ending in _ing_ + errors in use of + list of + two before a noun + where sometimes found + with verb before a noun ++Pronoun+ a, defined ++Pronouns+ + agreement + Nom. and Obj. forms + +classes+ + adjective + interrogative + personal + relative + declension of + denote relations + errors in use of + need of + number + scheme for review + vagueness of ++Pronouns (Adjective)+ + _a_ (day) _or two_ + _all, both_, and _whole_ before _of_ + _any body_ (or _one_) _else's_, etc. + declension of + definition of + demonstrative + distributive + _each other_, with two or more + _either, neither_, with two or more + _either_ for _each_ + _first two, last three_, etc., + _he_, etc. after indefinite _one_ + indefinite + _none in both numbers_ + _ones_, plural + _other_ and _than_, words between + _other two_, when one of three is taken + partial list of + _such_ or _so_ with adjectives ++Pronouns (Interrogative)+ + declension + definition + list ++Pronouns (Personal)+ + avoided when + compound + consistent use of + declension + definition + _its_, history of + misuse of _them_ for _those_ + _my_ and _mine_, etc. + order of + _ours, yours_, etc., double possessives ++Pronouns (Personal)+ (cont.) + use of compound + used needlessly + _we_ hardly plural of _I_ + _we_ instead of _I_ + _ye_ has given way to _you_ ++Pronouns (Relative)+ + agreement of + compound + declension + definition + discriminated in use + omitted when + same with same antecedent + _that_ in restrictive clauses + _that_ instead of _who_ and _which_ + _what_ misused for _that_ + _who_ and _which_ restrictive and unrestrictive + with omitted antecedents ++Pun+, a ++Punctuation Marks+ + exercises in + summary of rules for ++Qualities of Style+ ++Question+, direct and indirect ++Quotation Marks+, use of ++Quotations+ + capitalization of + definition of + direct + indirect + punctuation of +_Quoth_ + ++Regular Verbs+ + definition + increasing + inflections of ++Relative Clauses+, position ++Result+, clauses of ++Review Questions+ ++Review+ of +Sentence+, scheme for + ++Satire+ ++Semicolon+, rules for ++Sentence+ (the) + balanced + contracted + defined + expanded + loose + period ++Sentences+ (classed) + +form+ + complex + compound + simple + +meaning+ + declarative + exclamatory + imperative + interrogative +_Set_ and _sit_ +_Shall_ and _will_ +_Should_ and _would_ ++Simile+, definition and exercises in ++Simple Sentences+ + definition of + treatment of +_Since_, various uses of ++Singular Number+ +_So ... as_, construction of +_Some body_ (or _one_) _else's_ ++Sounds+ and +Letters+ ++Speech+ + figures of + mechanism of ++Spelling+, rules for ++Style+ + argumentative + definition of + descriptive + illustrations + narrative + qualities of ++Subject+ + assumed, what + assumed, changed to prevent ambiguity + compound + defined + determined how ++Subject+ (_cont_.), modified, or logical ++Subjunctive Mode+ + definition of + disappearing + uses of ++Subordinate Conjunctions+ ++Subordinate Connectives+ ++Synecdoche+ ++Synopsis+ is what ++Syntax+, rules for + ++Tense+ + defined + future, how used + future perfect, how used + past, how used + past perfect, how used + present, how used + present perfect, how used ++Tenses+ + defined + emphatic form of + errors in use of + conjunctive adverb +_Than_ + errors in use of + followed by adjective + replaced by _but_, etc. + use after comparatives + with _me_ after it +_Than whom_ +_That_ and _this_, adjectives, plurals +_That_ and _this_ (Adj. Pro.) + declension + reference +_That_ (Conj.) + with cause clause + with noun clause + with purpose clause +_That_, Conj. Adv., degree clause +_That_ (Rel. Pr.) + distinguished from _who_ and _which_ + for _who_ and _which_ + generally restrictive + preposition follows +_The_, uses of +_The ... the_ + construction of + explanation of ++Themes+ + framework of + how to write them + subjects for +_The one, the other_ +_This_ ++Thought+, how expressed +_Three times_ four _is_ twelve +_To_ with infinitive + construction of + expressing relation + extension of + no part of + not expressed + position of + without relation ++Transitive Verbs+ + definition of + conjugated passively + ++Unity+ of paragraphs +_Unless_ (= _if not_) ++Usage+ + ++Variety+ + how secured + illustrations of want of ++Verb+ a, defined ++Verb+ _Be_ + an auxiliary + conjugation of + derivation of ++Verb-Phrases+ ++Verbs+ (classes) + +form+ + irregular + regular + +meaning+ + intransitive + transitive ++Verbs+ + a modern passive progressive form + analysis of compound tense forms + as nouns + auxiliary + changing their voice + conjugated in progressive form + conjugated interrogatively + conjugated negatively + conjugation of ++Verbs+ (_cont._) + defective + forms not asserting + improper forms used + indicative and potential with subjunctive meaning + inflections of + +intransitive+ + definition of + made transitive + +irregular+ + definition of + list of + persistence of + principal parts of + mode, defined + model for written parsing + number forms + number of defined + passive form compound + periphrastic forms resolved, + person forms + person of + potential auxiliaries + principal parts + redundant + +regular+ + definition of + increasing + scheme for gen. review + Strong (or Old), Weak (or New) + subjunctive form fading + tense + the _e_ and the _d_ of past tense, + the _e_ and the _d_ of past participle + +transitive+, + definition of + conjugated passively + voice ++Verbs+ (agreement of) + attracted + errors in + with and in what + with collective noun + with subjects connected by _and_ + with subjects connected by _or_ or _nor_ + with subjects emphatically distinguished + with subjects naming same thing + with subjects one affirmative and one negative + with subjects following + with subjects preceded by _each_, _every_, etc. + with subjects varying in person ++Vocal Consonants+ ++Voice+, the voices defined ++Voices+ changed ++Vowels+ +_What_ + equal to _that_ or _whom_ + in origin + misuse for _that_ + various uses of + without antecedent + +_When_ + conjunctive adverb + connecting various clauses + in adjective clauses + interrogative adverb +_Where_ + conjunctive adverb + connecting various clauses + in adjective clauses + interrogative adverb +_Whether_ + repeated + with more than two +_Whether or no_ +_Which_ + an adjective + an interrogative pronoun + a relative pronoun + clause as antecedent + composition of + declension +_Which_ and _Who_ + in restrictive clauses + in unrestrictive clauses + _that_ used for +_While_, connecting various clauses +_Will_ and _would_ ++Words+ + great number of in Eng. + spoken words what + transposed order of + use of determining the class of + usual order of + written words what ++Words+ and +Phrases+ (_cont_.) + connected, each making good sense with context + independent + independent nearly + in pairs, punctuation + interchangeable + made prominent + modifying sentences +_Worth_, a verb + +_Ye_ +_Yes_ and _No_ +_You_, verb form with + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Higher Lessons in English +by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HIGHER LESSONS IN ENGLISH *** + +This file should be named 7188.txt or 7188.zip + +Produced by Karl Hagen and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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