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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/75150-0.txt b/75150-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..47aecb1 --- /dev/null +++ b/75150-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1445 @@ + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75150 *** + + + + + + Transcriber’s Note + Italic text displayed as: _italic_ + + + + + LITTLE BLUE BOOK NO. 1050 + Edited by E. Haldeman-Julius + + X-Ray, Violet Ray + and Other Rays + + With Their Use in Modern Medicine + + Maynard Shipley + + HALDEMAN-JULIUS COMPANY + GIRARD, KANSAS + + + + + Copyright, 1926, + Haldeman-Julius Company + + PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + Page + + Introduction 4 + + Chapter I. Everyday Uses of X-Rays 5 + + Chapter II. Curative Value of X-Rays—X-Rays Cure Whooping + Cough—X-Rays for Malaria 18 + + Chapter III. Martyrs to Radiology 32 + + Chapter IV. Discovery and Nature of X-Rays 43 + + Chapter V. Ultra-Violet Light in Health and Disease—Sunlight + and Infantile Paralysis 48 + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +Highly important as are the phenomena of Radioactivity from the +physical, chemical, medical, and philosophic points of view, they +are hardly comparable in their relations to the affairs of our +everyday life to the Roentgen or X-rays, and to the invisible violet +or ultra-violet rays. The X-rays are utilized today in hundreds of +practical ways, and are vastly important also in surgery, medicine, +dentistry, and in biological investigations. It is perhaps not too much +to say that the discovery of the so-called X-rays should be numbered +among the two or three most important revelations of modern science. +This will be clearly demonstrated in the course of the chapters to +follow. + + + + +X-RAY, VIOLET RAY AND OTHER RAYS + + + + +CHAPTER I + +EVERYDAY USES OF X-RAYS + + +To enumerate and describe all the practical uses of X-rays, apart from +medicine and scientific research in general, would require a good many +more pages than can be devoted to the subject here. To take a few cases +at random, without describing the instruments and methods employed: +radiography reveals flaws in the structure of iron and steel building +and bridge materials, and in the cylinders of airplane engines, and so +avoids accidents. In England a gasoline or petrol tank was shown to +have rivet heads on the outside and none on the inside. + +Serious defects in the steel axles of railway and automobile “under +carriages” have been discovered by radiography. In one case, at least, +the axles had been drilled in the wrong position and the holes had been +simply filled with metal and covered over. An entire lot was rejected +in consequence and probably serious accidents were forestalled. + + “Cracks in castings, bad welds and weak places which do not show on + the surface of metal are perfectly clear to the searching rays. How + much would you give to _know_ that that welded part in your automobile + is really solid and perfect, that it contains no flaw to break down + some day when you are twenty miles from a machine shop? A well-known + mechanical engineer said recently that in ten years a metallurgical + X-ray machine will be as vital a part of the equipment in an + automobile repair shop, a foundry, or machine shop as it is now in a + dentist’s office.” + +We are assured by _The Iron Trade_ (73:26) that “the practice of +analyzing metals by means of X-rays is only in its infancy. There +is every reason to believe that soon great advances will be made in +determining the crystallization and therefore the properties of metals. +Students of metallurgy are well aware that the properties of metals +and other bodies depend on the nature of their crystallization. The +microscope has rendered valuable service largely because it enables +the form and arrangement of the crystalline grains to be studied. The +X-ray carries the same form of inquiry into a region 10,000 times more +minute, thereby furnishing new evidence as to crystalline structures, +so that it is now possible to see the atoms and the molecules, and +the way they form crystals. Every crystal has its characteristic +X-ray spectrum and can be identified thereby even when the individual +crystals are beyond the resolving power of the microscope and the +substance is in danger of being called amorphous. If a specimen +contains a mixture of crystalline substances, the spectrum shows the +combined effect of all the substances, and provided each individual +spectrum is known, the specimen can be analyzed.” + +The X-rays are also used to determine the quality of the fabric in +automobile tires, and even to detect irregularities in the centers of +golf balls, and to reveal why some of them fly straighter and farther +than others. + +“The professional detective, too,” says Mr. Wilfred S. Ogden (_Popular +Science Monthly_, August, 1923), “will find X-rays useful in his +business. Consider the detection of infernal machines, for example. +Two or three X-ray plates will tell an investigator just what is in a +suspicious-looking box. If it is a bomb the X-ray will show him how +to get it apart and render it harmless. Immediate detection of false +bottoms in trunks is child’s play with the X-ray. When the government +provided its customs inspectors with X-ray machines the gems which +smugglers try to hide in the linings of clothes or in hollow-handled +hairbrushes might as well be worn openly. + +“The X-rays give us one of the easiest ways to detect the alteration +of checks and other documents. It is seldom that such an alteration is +made with exactly the same ink used on the original. Inks even of the +same color, differ in the way they affect the rays. In most cases all +that is necessary to detect an alteration is to place the suspected +document for a moment under the X-rays and make a photograph of it. The +new ink used in the alteration will stand out clearly as different from +the old. + +“The industrial detective will find X-rays just as useful. The +adulteration of foods by sawdust, sand or clay; the adding of too much +filler to paper; the presence of grit in lubricating oil, all will be +revealed. + +“Another use of the rays comes home to every cook and housewife. X-rays +constitute the only sure way to tell good eggs from bad. Pass each +egg in turn through the X-rays and let its shadow fall on a chemical +screen. You will see exactly what is inside each egg. The ones +containing hopeful chicks may be rejected.” + +One of the most remarkable economic or biological uses of the X-ray +so far developed is the study of silk-worms and their diseases. The +Silk Association of America has established a laboratory—Department of +Sericulture—in the Canton Christian College, presided over by a staff +of Chinese and foreign entomologists. Here the silk-worm is X-rayed by +powerful microscopes, and all his disorders diagnosed and corrected, +says Mr. Philip A. Yountz (_Scientific American_, September, 1925). + +“Numerous autopsies on deceased members of the silk-worm tribe revealed +that from 50 to 100 percent of the worms raised in South China were +infected with diseases that made the infant mortality rate excessively +high and destroyed the value of the silk from those hardy enough to +survive. The elimination of these diseases would enable South China to +produce four or five times as much silk.” + +In Great Britain, X-rays are used in the analysis of coal, the method +being an adaptation of the X-ray stereoscope. + +In Berlin, S. Nalken, a noted criminologist, has devised an important +improvement in finger-print identification. X-ray pictures are +obtained of the finger, with the muscles and bones. This is done +without the use of any chemicals that could obstruct the delicate +furrows of the finger lines. Moreover, the finger bone is shaped +so characteristically as to aid identification. Whenever a certain +likeness of finger-lines is discovered, the bones are examined to see +if further research is necessary. + +Picture fakers have been dethroned by application of the X-ray to +paintings. Recently painted “old masters” are now easily detected. +Modern artists use white-lead, which is more opaque than the “priming” +or “sizing” used by the older artists; and the X-ray device “made in +Germany” in 1914 by Dr. Faber, and further developed by the French +expert, Dr. André Chéron, at once distinguishes the old from the new. +One picture by Van Ostade, of men drinking at a table, proved to be a +fraud when submitted to the X-ray; it had been painted over a study of +dead birds. Another, called “The Royal Child,” a supposed 16th century +work, now in the Louvre, was proved to have been painted during the +19th century over a picture of very much earlier date. + +During a popular lecture on the X-ray in London, before the Royal +Institution, the distinguished physicist, Prof. G. W. C. Kaye, showed +a number of radiograph slides, among which were two pictures by Dutch +painters, one representing the Madonna and the other the Crucifixion. +In the former, the Madonna appeared to be looking at something which +was non-existent in the canvas, and a radiograph proved the missing +object was a child which some former owner of the picture had painted +out. In the second picture, a woman in the attitude of prayer was found +to have been painted over what was in the original the figure of a man +in monk’s garb. + +The first X-ray pictures ever taken of a mummy were completed by +scientists at the American Museum of Natural History, New York City. +The pictures showing the skeleton in detail are expected to be a great +aid in studying the development of bone formations in the evolution of +man. This first subject of the scientists’ X-ray was a South American +Indian mummy. Fake mummies, like false gems, are instantly detected by +X-ray methods. + +One of the methods used for detecting the theft of diamonds at the +mines is to examine the workmen with X-rays. Of course, a fluoroscope +is used to make the X-ray image visible, and this is the type used in +any regular X-ray work. + +The X-rays are now being used in shoe-stores—“foot-o-scope” +instruments—to enable shoe salesmen to see the bones of a customer’s +foot and thus make correct fittings of shoes. + +A few years ago there arrived from Germany a new kind of mechanical +doll. “A secret mechanism inside enabled it to walk, sit down or stand +up, and to do other unusual things. The importer in possession of the +sample doll would not allow it to be opened. But one of the competitors +borrowed the doll. He had promised not to open it. But he made some +X-ray photographs of it. Now he is manufacturing these dolls himself.” + +During the World War every effort was made to introduce contraband +materials into Germany and if it had not been for the all-seeing eye of +the Roentgen ray, it would have been impossible to prevent materials of +the utmost importance to the enemy from reaching him by way of neutral +countries. Efforts were made repeatedly to smuggle rubber and copper by +burying them in bales or bundles of other materials. It would have been +impossible to have made a minute investigation of every bale that was +shipped, but by means of X-rays it was possible to see through these +bundles and packages and locate any substances that were more or less +opaque to the rays. + +The X-ray has been found useful for examining timber up to 18 inches +thick for internal knots, resin pockets, cracks and other defects. + +“When submarines were active and the supply of the best kinds of wood +was uncertain, it was necessary to make some of the wooden parts out +of small pieces of ordinary wood fitted and glued together. The way +these pieces were joined and fastened was extremely important. A bit of +weak glue inside some little strut might mean a disastrous collapse in +the air. But real inspection seemed impossible, for the places where +important faults might exist were hidden from view. Finally scientists +solved the problem by building an X-ray apparatus with which they could +look into the inside of each built-up airplane part and tell whether it +held some little imperfection which might prove dangerous. + +“This ‘internal inspection’ of wooden articles by X-ray has been +applied, since the war, to many other articles. Hidden joints inside +high-class furniture and cabinet work, invisible knots and flaws inside +the wood itself, can be determined easily by X-ray examination.” (W. S. +Ogden). + +_The Scientific American_ (September, 1924) published an abstract of +a paper read before the _Deutschen Bunsen-Gesellschaft_, in which +Dr. D. Coster showed that “the relations between the X-ray spectra of +the different elements are so simple that, in some respects, they are +more useful for purposes of chemical analysis than ordinary luminous +spectra. An important advantage is the fact that the X-ray spectrum +of an element is quite independent of the nature of the compound +containing it. It is easy to detect the presence in a mixture of +which not more than one milligram is available. Certain precautions +are necessary in examining the X-ray spectra; although the number of +lines for each element is comparatively limited, recent observations +have shown the existence of a number of weaker lines; in addition to +this, with the high voltages now generally used, not only the spectrum +of the first order, but also those of higher orders appear. Slight +impurities in the material of the anticathode, and in the subject +under examination, also give their lines, so that there are often +various possibilities to be considered before a given line can be +explained. Not only the wave length, but also the typical appearance +of the suspected lines must be considered, as well as their relative +intensity. By measuring photometrically the intensity of the spectral +lines it is possible, in some cases, to obtain a quantitative estimate +of the amount of an element present in a mixture.” + +Another method of rapid analysis of material in the laboratory by +the use of X-rays in a much shorter time than that required by the +older chemical methods is that devised by Professor Urbain, of the +Minero-Chemical Laboratory at the Sorbonne, with the assistance of +Eugene Delaunay. Mr. Delaunay, who did the actual work of testing the +new X-ray method, says there is no risk of error. + +By employment of X-rays the scientist is now able to ascertain the +arrangement of the atoms and molecules within the crystal “network” +(structure—or “space lattice” of the crystal).[1] The results are +obtained from the study of the reflection and refraction of the rays by +the crystals, or, more precisely, the successive rows of molecules in +the crystal. These act toward the extremely short X-rays in the same +way as a grating spectroscope does to ordinary light-rays. + +Man’s ability to lengthen the ultra-violet end of the spectrum is +limited by his capacity to provide a diffraction grating, or a mineral +prism, which can split up light-waves of increasingly greater frequency +(or shortness). The width of a grating space (a fine line on speculum +metal, which acts as a minute mirror) must be comparable to the wave +length of the light. Previous to the discoveries of Prof. Max von +Laue in Munich (now in Zurich), and Prof. William Henry Bragg, of the +University of London, no grating or other material was known whose +spaces were as small as the wave length of X-rays. Laue conceived the +brilliant idea that the regular arrangement of the atoms in a crystal +might serve the purpose. They did. Bragg, and later his son, Prof. W. +L. Bragg, of the University of Manchester, followed up the work of Laue +with results of immeasurable value to science. + +A very important relation between the atomic number of an element +and its X-ray spectrum was discovered by the brilliant young English +physicist, H. G. T. Moseley (1888-1915), in his 26th year, a year +before his death by a Turkish bullet at the Dardanelles. While +analyzing the characteristic X-rays which are given off when any kind +of substance is bombarded with cathode rays, Moseley found that the +atoms of all the different substances emit radiations or groups of +radiations which are extraordinarily similar, but which differ in their +wave lengths as we proceed from substance to substance; the frequencies +(wave lengths) change by definite steps as one progresses from elements +of lower to elements of higher atomic weights. Through Moseley’s +epoch-making discovery we now know that each of the 92 elements, +from hydrogen to uranium, is built up by successive additions of one +positive charge (proton) and one negative electron, and that the atomic +numbers—from 1 to 92—correspond to the number of protons and electrons +in each successively heavier (and more complex) atom. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] This phase of our subject can only be alluded to in this little +book. For an authoritative yet easily understood exposition of the +subject, see Bragg, W. H. and W. L., “X-Rays and Crystal Structure”; +also Kaye, G. W. C., “X-Rays”; and, for more advanced reading, +deBroglie, Maurice, “X-Rays”. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +CURATIVE VALUE OF X-RAYS + + +In my Little Blue Book on Radium (No. 1000), it is shown that the +“emanation” and the “gamma rays” of radioactive substances are being +used to great advantage in our hospitals, but that certain dangers to +the patient’s normal cells attended employment of these radiations. + +It is gratifying to note that successful X-ray treatments are now +being given in cases of cancer, rays being produced—under high-tension +currents—that are almost identical with the gamma rays of radium. + +Moreover, the X-rays have a double value in medicine. In the first +place, they are used as an aid to diagnosis, forming those branches of +radiotherapy known as radioscopy and radiography. Then they are also +used to great advantage in the alleviation or cure of certain maladies. +By means of radioscopic or radiographic examination it may be found +that there is a tumor in the chest, and as a result of that diagnosis +it may be decided to institute treatment (radiotherapy) by means of +X-rays or radium rays or the two combined. + +The method of employing extremely penetrating X-rays—under high voltage +and amperage—seems to have been first used in Germany, during the World +War, but was soon developed to a high degree of efficiency in France, +England, and the United States, especially by Dr. William Duane, +professor of biophysics at Harvard. + +As early as 1919, Professor Dessauer, in Germany, produced the +penetrating X-rays by means of a high-tension current ranging from +170,000 to 240,000 volts. It was later found, that rays at 200,000 +volts became homogeneous, so that a further increase was considered as +of no therapeutic value. + +In March, 1923, Dr. I. Seth Hirsch, head of the X-ray department of the +Bellevue Hospital in New York, gave a drastic treatment—for cancer—of +four periods of 16 hours each with the X-rays at 250,000 volts, +apparently with satisfactory results. The patient suffered no pain or +inconvenience during the treatment with the exception of occasional +nausea. A year later an experiment was made in a Philadelphia +laboratory where an X-ray treatment of 300,000 volts was used. It seems +that alleviation rather than cure has been the result of nearly all +cases where cancer had been well advanced. + +Other important improvements, meanwhile, were being introduced by the +German specialists, during the World War and later, among which was +the just mentioned method of giving large tissue-destroying doses, +requiring from ten to 15 hours; to this was added careful filtration +of the rays, and the invention of the _ionto_—a quantimeter for exact +measurements. A number of malignant diseases is reported to have +yielded to this new system of massive doses under higher voltage. But +Professor Duane has stated that neither X-rays nor the gamma rays of +radium should be considered as a permanent cure for cancer. + +Until recently the tubes in which X-rays are produced have always been +made of glass. The latest discovery is a tube made of fused silica, or +vitreosil. Vitreosil permits the passage of the short rays, will stand +a much higher temperature than glass, and is much stronger. This means +more continuous service from X-rays. + +According to Dr. Francis C. Wood, director of the Crocker Institute +of Cancer Research of Columbia University, a marked advance in the +treatment of cancer has been made possible by a new type of X-ray +tube, the invention of Dr. C. T. Ulrey, of the Westinghouse Company. +The new tube has a higher emissive power—in other words, it is as if +the candle-power of an ordinary lamp were increased six-fold. It is +besides designed for use with higher voltages than have previously +been practical in Roentgenology. The result is to reduce the necessary +exposure from two or three hours per patient to 20 minutes, and to +increase the life of the tubes. Incidentally, the new tube gives a +greater proportion of the type of rays that cure certain forms of +cancer, and less of the sort that attack healthy tissue. + +A revolutionary discovery by Dr. Jacques Forestier, of Aix-les-Bains, +France, for which a gold medal was awarded him in 1925 by the French +Academy, has made possible a method of exact diagnosis by X-rays +heretofore deemed by many workers impossible of attainment. + +As is well known, it is not difficult to make an X-ray picture of +the bones of the body. They are so much denser than the soft parts +of the body that, even with the ordinary photographic plate, it has +been possible to photograph them fairly well. By pumping the stomach +full of gas or air—which are highly transparent to the X-rays—and +then applying the X-ray, it has sometimes been possible to locate the +beginnings of cancer of the stomach, and the place of malignant growth. + +Another method in common use is to give the patient about a pint of +some substance opaque to X-rays, such as bismuth carbonate, thus making +it possible to record the passage of the mixture, the outline of the +stomach and the intestines thus being made visible. In this way ulcers +of the stomach have been frequently located. + +Bismuth and similar substances could not be injected into the brain +or spinal cord, on account of their poisonous effect on the highly +sensitive cells of these regions. Now, thanks to the method discovered +by Dr. Forestier, the cavities of the brain and spine can be safely +explored, as well as the network of bronchial tubes in the lung—the +so-called “bronchial tree.” + +In an interview with Mr. David Dietz, Dr. Forestier said (in part): + +“I make use of a French oil called lipiodol. It is a chemical compound +composed of poppyseed oil and iodine. The chemical previously had been +used as a treatment for certain diseases, such as goiter. But no one +had ever thought of using it in X-ray work. + +“I noticed that where patients had been treated with lipiodol opaque +spots appeared when X-ray pictures were made of the treated parts. It +occurred to me, therefore, that lipiodol could be used as a means of +making photographs. + +“Accordingly, in company with Dr. Sicard of Paris, I began to +experiment. We worked with animals until we were convinced of the +correctness of our method. When we were sure that it was safe we tried +it on human beings. I have used it in more than 5,000 cases in Europe +without having a single adverse result. + +“The lipiodol is injected into the brain cavity or the canal of the +spinal cord or the bronchial tubes and then a regular X-ray photograph +is made. The oil renders the injected part opaque to X-rays and they +show up as sharp black images in the photographs. + +“The method is of particular value when a patient is suffering from +paralysis which has been caused by a pressure of a tumor or growth +somewhere along the spinal cord. In this case a drop of the oil is +injected into the spinal canal at the base of the brain. In a healthy +patient it would immediately travel to the base of the spine. But +in the paralyzed patient it only travels as far as the point of +compression. The X-ray picture therefore reveals the drop of oil as a +black spot. The surgeon then knows the exact spot at which to operate +in order to find the growth causing the pressure, which in turn results +in paralysis. + +“In diagnosing the lungs with the use of lipiodol the injection in the +bronchial tree enables the X-ray worker to tell at once whether the +patient is suffering from diseases of the bronchial tubes themselves, +or from diseases of the lung tissue, such as tuberculosis.” + +It is gratifying to be able to relate that along with the improvements +already described, progress has also been made in the preparation of +photographic plates required by the radiographer. Until recently no +photographic plate had been made which fully met the requirements of +X-ray work, and there was little contrast in X-ray photographs. They +were all much too sensitive to the longer (visible) wave lengths, and +produced blurring effects. + +Early in 1921 an excellent photographic plate, 25 times more rapid than +anything previously known, was invented by Dr. Leonard A. Levey, a +prominent member of the Roentgen Society. It makes an X-ray photograph +of the vital organs of the living body whose movements have hitherto +blurred the images on the ordinary photographic plate. Distinct +pictures of the heart, lungs and stomach can now be made. Dr. Levey has +made snapshot photographs of the heart, lungs and kidneys. All were +taken in a flash with the X-rays on the new plate. + +Dr. H. Becher has called the attention of Americans to the achievement +of Dr. Schleussner, an eminent German authority in photochemical +matters, who has succeeded, after years of investigation, in +sensitizing photographic plates for X-ray use by an addition of certain +organic salts which are absorbed by the grains of silver bromide on the +photographic plate. The plate thus formed is very responsive to the +soft rays of an X-ray tube. The soft rays are relatively longer than +the hard Roentgen rays. One could compare the soft rays to blue-violet +light, if their effects on this new photographic plate are used for the +comparison. Photographs taken with such plates give very contrasting +effects. + +On the “Neo-Roentgen plate” the effect of the yellow light was almost +nil. For this reason, developing the plate is considerably facilitated, +as the plate can be exposed to yellow light and the attendant, who need +not be a skilled operator, can examine the plate in a rather brilliant +light without necessarily guessing at possible results. The examination +of the plate under a ruby light is, therefore, completely done away +with. It follows that if the new X-ray plate should come into general +use, much clearer X-ray photographs would be possible; the time of +exposure could be decreased; an unskilled operator could develop the +plate in a room flooded with yellow light. Such improved plates are now +being extensively used. + +While not attempting to enumerate all the special affections to which +X-ray therapy is now being successfully applied, a few uses may be +mentioned. + + +X-RAYS CURE WHOOPING COUGH + +In a preliminary report published in the _Medical and Surgical Journal_ +(Boston), Dr. Henry I. Bowditch and Dr. Ralph D. Leonard express the +belief that a valuable cure for whooping cough has been found in X-ray +treatment of this disease, which has stubbornly resisted most, if not +all, of the other remedies applied. + +Definite improvement was noted in most of 26 cases of active pertussis +(whooping cough) treated with the X-ray, the subjects of which ranged +in age from three months to 40 years, with disease stages from one to +ten weeks. The physicians added that they could not give any rational +explanation of the action through which the X-ray appeared to produce +beneficial results. The report said: + +“Each patient received three or four applications of the X-ray at +intervals of two or three days.” + +Many of these cases have not been observed sufficiently long to +determine the final result. Nevertheless, “it is evident to us that +there resulted a definite improvement in these patients which cannot +be explained by mere accident.... It does not seem likely that [the +beneficial result] is due to any direct bactericidal property of the +X-ray. + +“We feel warranted in classifying a small percentage of these 26 cases +under the heading of “prompt cures.” By this we mean that after two or +three applications of X-rays, covering a period of six days, the spasms +and whoops entirely disappeared and the patients were clinically well, +except for, possibly, a very slight cough. + +“The bulk of the cases, however, we have classified as relieved. This +group consists of perhaps 70 percent of the total. By relieved we mean +that there has been a gradual diminution in the number of spasms. + +“There is a small percentage of cases, perhaps 10 to 15 percent, which +apparently were not relieved. In this group are included one moribund +case and one rather difficult feeding case. + +“While our evidence so far is not sufficient to warrant any definite +conclusions, we have the feeling that the X-ray at the present time may +be of more value in the treatment of pertussis than any other form of +treatment, including serum.” + + +X-RAYS FOR MALARIA + +An Italian physician, Dr. Antonio Pais, of Venice, has since 1916 +been successfully treating malaria by means of X-rays. This treatment +is, however, not employed as a substitute for quinine, but merely to +reinforce its action. The X-rays are directed toward the region of the +spleen, and the effect is to reduce its enlargement. At the same time +the composition of the blood is modified. The success obtained by Dr. +Pais has, according to the _Bibliothèque Universelle et Révue Suisse_ +(Lausanne), been so great that the Italian Government decided to +introduce his method of treatment into the military hospitals. + +Since the war the treatment has been studied by Prof. B. Grassi, who +made a report, at an Italian scientific meeting, in which he declared +the action of X-rays upon chronic malaria to be “truly marvelous.” The +_Bibliothèque Universelle_ says, regarding earlier treatments: + +“The attempt was made by them to destroy the parasite contained in the +spleen. But it is now known that the X-rays employed for therapeutic +action have no effect upon micro-organisms, although they may be +injurious to the elements of the blood. In the method devised by Dr. +Pais, the X-rays are employed to stimulate the functioning of the +spleen, of the marrow, and of the lympathic elements by means of +slight but prolonged excitation; they are employed in infinitesimal +doses—homeopathically, so to speak. Thus the result is absolutely +different as well as the method.” + +Dr. James B. Murphy demonstrated that accompanying cancer grafts on +immune animals there occurs a general increase in the circulating +lymphocytes and hyperplasia of the lymphoid tissue. When the lymphoid +tissue of immune animals was destroyed, the immunibility was annulled. +Two methods of increasing the lymphocytes have been found, namely, +diffuse small doses of X-rays, and dry heat. Mice with lymphocytosis +induced by these agents show Increased resistance to replants of their +own tumors. The results afford ground for hope of human application. +(Reported in _Scientific American Monthly_, January, 1920, page 96.) + +It has been found that actively growing tissue, whether normal +or pathological, is the most susceptible to X-rays, and it is +comparatively easy to sterilize a number of species of animals +without otherwise injuring them. (Prof. James W. Mayor, _Science_, +September 23, 1921.) C. R. Bardeen found that X-rays prevent worms from +regenerating lost parts. Observations of the effect of exposure to +X-rays on the fertility of animals were described in a paper by Prof. +L. H. Snyder of the North Carolina College of Agriculture. Exposure of +male rats to X-rays, he said, had rendered them sterile at the end of +two months, the animals regaining fertility when no longer subjected to +the rays. + +If not handled with due caution and skill, X-rays may do more harm +than good, provoking malignant growths as well as retarding their +development. As early as 1911, Otto Heese published a record of 54 +cases of cancer caused by means of improper handling of these powerful +rays. + +In the early days of X-ray therapy the nature and effects of these +radiations were wholly unknown. Operators did not hesitate to test +and adjust their tubes by throwing the shadow of their hands on the +flouroscope. X-rays do not make objects visible to the human eye, and +to see the effects of them it is necessary to interpose a special +screen between the eyes and object through which the X-rays are to +penetrate. The cardboard screen is coated with a fluorescent substance, +such as barium-platinum-cyanide, or calcium tungstate. This screen is +best placed in one end of a black wooden or pasteboard box, against the +other end of which the eyes are placed when in use. + +This screen under the influence of X-rays becomes luminous and enables +one to see shadows or silhouettes of objects of denser material +interposed between the eyes and the X-ray tube, when the tube is in +operation. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +MARTYRS TO RADIOLOGY + + +It was not until several years after the discovery of X-rays by +Roentgen, in December, 1895—after operators had been severely burned +in laboratories and hospitals all over the world, and surgeons and +physicians began to compare notes, that the pathological effects of +X-rays were discovered and understood. + +Says John Macy (in his memorial volume on Walter James Dodd, heroic +victim of 50 separate operations due to X-ray burn): + +“It is easy now to understand what was happening to Dodd and his +contemporaries. In a modern X-ray machine the strength of the current, +the quality of the spark, all the conditions, are determined by +metrical instruments. In the early days the operator tested his tube +and adjusted it by throwing the shadow of his hand on the fluoroscope; +by the look of the shadow he judged how the machine was behaving. First +he used the left hand until that became too sore, then the right. And +until devices were found to focus and confine the rays, the face of the +operator was exposed, and sometimes the neck and chest were burned. +A limited exposure to the X-ray is as harmless as a walk in the +sunlight. It is the repeated, continuous bombardment of the ray that is +calamitous. Dodd and the other pioneers lived in the X-ray.” + +John L. Bauer was the first victim of the X-ray, in 1906. He was +followed in 1914 by Henry Green, who, although he knew he was doomed, +and in spite of the fact that he had become almost helpless physically +because so much flesh had been cut away in amputating cancerous +growths, persisted in his work to the end. + +Major Eugene Wilson Caldwell of the Medical Reserve Corps of the United +States Army, the inventor of the Caldwell liquid interrupter and +other devices for therapeutic use, lost his life in 1918. Dr. Charles +Infroit of the Salpetrière Hospital, Paris, died on November 29, 1920. +One of Dr. Infroit’s hands became infected in 1898 as a result of his +continuous use of the X-ray, and an operation was performed. After that +he had 24 other operations, 22 of them performed in the last ten years +of his life, the last on August 1, 1920, when his right arm and left +wrist were amputated. + +Dr. Charles Vaillant, whose heroic services to humanity have made +necessary 13 amputations until now he is armless, on February 19, +1923, received from United States Ambassador Herrick the Carnegie +plaque, while the cravat of the Paris Gold Medal of the French Legion +of Honor was conferred upon the martyr. Physicians say further +amputations are inevitable, and that these will result in Vaillant’s +death. + +In 1921, the eminent English radiologists, Dr. Cecil Lyster and Dr. +Ironside Bruce, and Dr. Adolphe Leroy of the St. Antonie Hospital in +Paris, died martyrs to their noble profession. “All of these men went +knowingly to death. Perhaps they did not take their sacrifices in the +spirit of the saint, possessed by a vision of suffering humanity. +Theirs may have been the ardor of the scientist, the endurance of a +worker who hears the challenge of nature’s silence and goes to battle. +But in themselves they express the powerful urge of a spirit that longs +to see, to feel, to know, and to possess all the mysteries of the +universe. It is the same spirit that makes men rebel and agonize for +a better order of humanity. These men seem better than the world that +produces them. But each of them, when he dies, may pull the rest of +humanity a little closer to his level.” + +Dr. Frederick Henry Baetjer of Johns Hopkins Hospital has only two of +his ten fingers left. He lost the other eight as the result of burns +received in X-ray experimentation. + +Dr. Francis Carter Wood, X-Ray and radium expert of the Crocker Special +Fund Cancer Laboratory of New York, calls particular attention to +the fact that “the deaths which are occurring now are the results of +repeated exposures ten or more years ago, when no one knew what the +effect of the rays might be. The burns suffered then were the result of +continuous exposure without protection against the rays. One exposure, +or a moderate number of them, would do no harm; but before the present +perfection of the apparatus it was necessary to adjust the focus for +each picture, and the operator would do this by looking at his bare +hands through the fluoroscope. This resulted in chronic burns, and the +burned flesh formed a fertile soil for cancer. Lead one-quarter of an +inch thick will stop both radium and X-rays.” + +In Dr. Wood’s opinion, workers in X-rays today “need not suffer any ill +effects except through their own carelessness.” + +A discovery which promises to put an end to the dangers to life and +limb risked by those who engage in working with X-rays was communicated +to the Academy of Sciences of Paris as early as May, 1920. It is the +result of experiments by Dr. Pesch of the Faculty of Montpelier, who +himself is one of the sufferers from X-rays, and who has long been +seeking the means of protecting his young confrères. + +He found that deep red rays are antagonistic to the ultra-violet +rays which produce irritation and burning of the skin, and certain +oxidations. Thus, by the simultaneous application of both rays he +secures immunity for X-ray workers. He has already proved that erythema +can be prevented by the application of red rays. Daniel Berthelot, who +announced the discovery to the Academy, recalled that as long ago as +1872 the antagonism of extreme rays of the spectrum had been foreseen +by Becquerel in his study of phosphorescence. + +Dr. Pesch employs a filter composed of a plastic material that allows +only the red and yellow rays to pass. It is claimed that by means of +this filter not only are the X-rays made harmless, but its employment +effects a cure for radio-dermatitis, the affection which has maimed or +killed so many of the early workers in X-ray therapy. + +According to Dr. G. Contremoulins, Chief of the principal laboratory +of the Paris hospitals, whose researches and experiments were begun +in February, 1896, the usual methods of protection even today are not +always adequate. Says he (in _La Démocratie Nouvelle_, Paris, April, +1921): + +“Young radiologists, especially those born of the war, take no heed +of the experience acquired by their elders, being quite convinced +that the glasses, gloves and aprons containing lead offer a perfect +protection—they even imagine that strictly speaking they might get +along without them. + +“Like a child which hides behind a wooden door to shield itself from +the bullets of a machine gun, our young radiologists believe they are +safe when they have donned their gloves and examine their patients +behind a sheet of lead glass. But, unfortunately, these enable them +only to avoid those superficial skin affections caused by the most +absorbable rays of the spectrum. + +“But they receive, alas, those other radiations which are more +penetrating, and these slowly produce lesions of all the ductless +glands in the body, whose internal secretions we now know to be of such +vital importance in the bodily economy.” + +The modern employment of 200,000 volts under three milliamperes gives +rise to the need of great caution in the use of X-rays. Even the +health of persons in adjoining rooms or buildings, Dr. Contremoulins +believes may be imperiled. In the _Popular Science Monthly_ for +October, 1921, this veteran radiologist makes some startling +revelations. To quote a few passages: + +“In April, 1896, five months after the discovery of X-rays—or Roentgen +rays, as they are also named in honor of their discoverer—a pose of +eight hours was required for a correct radiograph of a profile head, +the tube being placed ten inches from the sensitive plate. + +“In April, 1921, a similar image was obtained in four hours at a +distance of 90 yards from the apparatus. This means that the radiation +with modern apparatus is more than 20,000 times stronger than was +possible in 1896. + +“With the very weak radiation that I have used for my experiments, +corresponding to the ordinary radiographic and radioscopic work, it has +been easy for me to obtain images of metallic objects and human bones +placed on a sensitive plate 15 feet from the radiating source, although +the rays pass directly through a slab of marble an inch thick, a sheet +of lead one-tenth of an inch thick, and a flooring eight inches deep, +built of oak boards and rough plaster. + +“Fifty feet from this same source I have been able in four hours to fog +a photographic plate placed behind a wall of brick and stone 20 inches +thick. Also in the same time I have obtained a correct radiograph +of a skull and a crab, 262 feet from the X-ray machine. All these +experiments were made with a 17-centimeter spark and two milliamperes +of current. + +“If photographic plates are so readily affected by these rays, we must +admit that animal cells also are affected to an appreciable degree. +The X-rays that are being used to cure a patient may at the same time +inflict radio-dermatitis on other persons exposed to their influence in +adjoining rooms or buildings. Nothing will suffice for safety but to +cover the walls and floors of X-ray rooms with sheets of lead from a +quarter to half an inch thick, according to the power of the source and +its distance from the lining.... + +“Biologic reactions from X-rays take two forms. The first is a skin +lesion known as radio-dermatitis, caused by the skin’s absorbing a +large quantity of radiations. The second results from the improvements +in X-ray tubes and the use of filters absorbing the radiations of +long wave length, currently named ‘soft radiation.’ This reaction +takes place deep beneath the skin upon the active cells that are the +most vulnerable. It is principally the internal secretion glands that +are affected. Among those who continually receive even weak doses, +a gradual lessening of vitality takes place, leading slowly to a +physiological impoverishment that inevitably carries them off sooner or +later.” + +Dr. Contremoulins was able to escape serious injury up to the outbreak +of the World War, but is now a victim of his services to wounded +soldiers. As a result of his efforts—and due also, partly, to suits +brought against a Paris physician by neighbors who alleged that their +health had been impaired, resulting (perhaps) in two cases of cancer—a +thorough-going investigation was undertaken by the French Ministry of +Hygiene. + +Dr. Declere of the Academy of Medicine presided over a committee which +included Mme. Curie, M. Becquerel, a radiologist; Dr. Vaillant and a +number of specialists. A leading member of the Academy said he did +not believe that X-rays menaced persons who did not come into direct +contact with them. + +“I intend to study the question by three methods,” he said. “First, we +shall make a purely physical examination, studying the action of the +rays and in what measure they exert themselves at certain distances. +Second, we shall experiment with the living tissues of rabbits, trying +various distances several hours a day and noting the effect on the +red and white corpuscles and glands of the animals. Then, since it +is impossible to make such experiments on human bodies, we shall +collect data based on 25 years’ experience with X-rays to see whether +physicians in close contact have been burned.” + +While X-ray treatment cannot be said to _cure_ a deep-seated cancer, +it is undoubtedly being given with highly beneficial results in many +cases, alleviating much suffering and retarding the growth of malignant +tissues. + +As is well known, tuberculosis can advance to a dangerous stage before +it exhibits physical symptoms recognizable by physicians. The X-ray +not only brings to light incipient consumption, but reveals the exact +place and extent of the lesion. Any abnormalities of the alimentary +tract, also, may readily be brought to view, as well as certain effects +produced on certain arteries, due to arterio-sclerosis or to angina +pectoris (a very painful form of heart disease). + +It has been well said that “the list of diseases, the presence and +extent of which are betrayed or confirmed by the X-ray, would fill +pages and would include most of the enemies to human health. Among them +may be mentioned many forms of tuberculosis, occult abscesses whose +ramifying consequences physicians were once unable to refer to their +source, tumors, cancers, kidney stones, gastric ulcers, diseases of the +heart.” + +The martyrdom of radiologists has not been in vain. + +In cases of emergency, X-ray diagnosis may now be given patients in +their own homes. A surgical X-ray outfit that can be carried in an +ambulance and taken to the bedside of a patient too ill for removal +to a hospital passed a successful trial in England, thus adapting an +emergency war-time arrangement to civilian use. A generator in the +ambulance operates the tube, which has a special mounting that enables +it to be placed over the patient’s bed, and adjusted for height and +position by hand-wheels. The control apparatus is mounted on a separate +stand, and connected with the ambulance outside by a cable wound on a +reel. Provision is made for developing the exposed plates at once, so +that a diagnosis can be made in a few minutes. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +DISCOVERY AND NATURE OF X-RAYS + + +In March, 1923, there passed from this world one of the most beautiful +exemplars of the true scientific spirit that earth has ever seen—Dr. +William Conrad Roentgen, F.R.S., Professor of Experimental Physics in +the University of Munich, the discoverer of X- or Roentgen Rays. + +Born at Lennep, on March 27, 1845, Professor Roentgen filled a number +of important posts before his death in 1923, in which year he was +awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics—an award which brought with it a +gift of $40,000. Although suffering from the poverty which resulted in +Germany as an aftermath of the World War, Professor Roentgen refused to +utilize the Nobel Prize award for his own personal uses. He gave the +entire sum to a research society to enable other students to carry on +their investigations. + +While occupying the chair of Professor of Physics and Director of the +Physical Institute at Würzburg, Dr. Roentgen made the discovery—in +1895—for which his name is chiefly known—though his researches led to +important advances in several other departments of physics. + +While experimenting with a highly exhausted vacuum tube on the +conductivity of electricity through gases, Dr. Roentgen noticed that +a paper screen covered with potassium platinocyanide—a phosphorescent +substance—which chanced to be lying nearby, became fluorescent under +action of some radiation emitted from the tube, which at the time +was enclosed in a box of black cardboard. Professor Roentgen then +found, by experiment, that this heretofore unknown radiation had the +power to pass through various substances which are impenetrable to +ordinary light-rays. He found that if a thick piece of metal—a coin, +for example,—were placed between the tube and a plate covered with the +phosphorescent substances, a sharp shadow was cast upon the plate. On +the other hand, thin plates of aluminum and pieces of wood cast only +partial shadows. + +Thus was it demonstrated that the rays which produced the +phosphorescence on the glass of the vacuum tube could penetrate bodies +quite opaque to ordinary light-rays. Like ordinary light, these rays +affected a photographic plate; but owing to their peculiar behavior in +regard to reflection and refraction, Roentgen was led to put forward +the hypothesis that the rays were due to longitudinal, rather than +to transverse waves in the “ether.” They will ionize gases, but +they cannot be reflected, polarized or deflected by a magnetic or +electric field, as are ordinary light-rays. (It has been shown that the +_scattered_ secondary rays show polarization.) + +Being in doubt as to the real nature of these penetrating rays, +Roentgen called them “X-rays.” + +In 1896 Professor Roentgen was the recipient of the Rumford Medal of +the Royal Society. This honor was shared by his compatriot Philipp +Lenard. Lenard was the discoverer of the rays emanating from the outer +surface of a plate composed of (any) material permeable by cathode +rays. By impinging on solids, the cathode rays (negative electrons) +generate X-rays. “Lenard rays,” which are similar in all their known +properties to cathode rays projected from the cathode of a vacuum tube, +do not emanate from the cathode. (Unlike the X-rays, cathode rays may +be deflected from their natural course along “straight lines” by the +application of a magnetic or electric field.) Professor Lenard, as also +Hertz, discoverer of the now well-known “wireless waves,” had already +demonstrated that a portion of the cathode rays could pass through a +thin film of a metal such as aluminum. + +When Roentgen rays (X-rays) are allowed to fall upon any substance, the +matter emits cathodic (or secondary Roentgen) rays. “The characteristic +secondary radiation may be compared with the phosphorescence produced +by ultra-violet light, and the cathodic secondary rays with the +photoelectric effect” (Sir J. J. Thomson).[2] + +The penetrating power (“hardness”) of these rays appears to be +determined solely by the nature of the elements in the emitting +substance. The velocity of the cathodic (or secondary Roentgen) rays +seems to be quite independent of the matter exposed to the primary +rays, but increases as the hardness (penetrating power) of the primary +Roentgen rays increases. + +The _character_ of the emitted rays, in brief, appears to be quite +unaffected by the chemical or physical condition of the element. +Red-hot iron, for example, exhibits the same characteristic Roentgen +radiation as iron at room temperature. But the _penetrating power_ +(hardness) of this characteristic (emitting) radiation increases +gradually and continuously with increasing atomic weight of the +emitting elements. The complete independence of the penetrating power +of the characteristic Roentgen radiation from external surroundings +indicates strongly that it is closely connected with the nature of the +nuclei (“cores”) of the atoms giving rise to it. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[2] When ultra-violet light is allowed to fall upon a metal it causes +the metal to emit electrons and thus to acquire a positive charge, the +velocity of the emitted electrons being exactly proportional to the +frequency of the incident light. Or when light of X-ray type falls +upon the surface of almost any substance, it takes hold of an electron +in the atoms of that surface and hurls it out into space with a speed +exactly proportional to the wave length of the light. This phenomenon +is known as the photoelectric effect. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +ULTRA-VIOLET LIGHT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE + + +That both the compound rays of ordinary sunlight and ultra-violet rays +(“artificial sunlight”) are highly effective in the treatment of a +number of complaints is now well known. They are both in general use +for the external treatment of rickets, tuberculosis, and a number of +other diseases. Light-rays are also applied to hasten the healing of +wounds. + +The use of the sun as a healing agent seems first to have been +developed in a scientific way by Dr. Neils R. Finsen, a young Danish +physician who was later awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine. His +original researches were undertaken toward the end of the 19th century. +Then Dr. Rollier opened the first sunlight clinic in 1903, and in 1910 +established his school at Leysin, in the Alps. Dr. Rollier is now +treating about 1,000 patients, mostly afflicted with various forms of +tuberculosis of the bone. The sun cure is also used to some extent for +pulmonary tuberculosis, and with considerable success. (See my _Man’s +Debt to the Sun_, Little Blue Book No. 808, Chapter IV.) + +According to Dr. Rollier, exposure of the diseased to the sun’s rays is +efficacious in the treatment of anemia, malnutrition, bone and gland +infections and various types of tuberculosis, and is a body builder for +convalescents. On the outskirts of San Rafael, California, is a novel +sun sanitarium, Helios Sanitarium, modeled after the Alpine sanitaria +of Dr. Rollier. + +Two investigators have recently studied the comparative germ-destroying +power of the blood in healthy and ill persons, before and after +exposure to sunlight. It was found that the germ-killing power of the +blood was increased when the sun bath lasted for a certain length of +time. It was shown that too long or too short an exposure decreased the +blood’s power. It was decreased also in patients who had fever. Several +other conditions were found to influence the results. Physicians +believe that several points of practical value may emerge from these +experiments. One important and useful result is that they offer a new +method to guide and gauge the effects of treatment in tuberculosis and +other diseases. + +The practice of X-ray treatment (since 1910 included under the more +general term _radiotherapy_) includes treatment not only by X-rays, +but also by all kinds of rays—treatment by heat, by the sun’s rays, by +ultra-violet rays, and even by violet rays. The rays of radioactive +substances used in medicine come under the etymological term of +radiotherapy. But in general practice, amongst radiologists, the term +is applied to treatment by X-rays alone. Nevertheless, it is now well +established that the ultra-violet rays are not only bactericidal, but +that they also play an important role in the treatment of certain +diseases, and in the maintenance of good health. On the other hand, +these rays produce a certain irritability among persons of the white +race in the tropics, which cannot be regarded as healthful in their +general effects. + +Since the amount of ultra-violet light coming from the sun has been +shown by Abbott to be variable, it may be that some of the irritability +which seems to be general among the inmates of our public institutions +on certain days is due to this change in the sun’s outpour of +ultra-violet radiation. As Dr. E. E. Free remarked not long ago: + +“Put these facts together. Ultra-violet rays affect life. The amount of +ultra-violet coming from the sun is variable. Does this mean that some +of the obscure, day by day variations of health can be due to this? +Some days everybody seems happy and cheerful. Other days everybody +is depressed. Still other days are breeders of ‘nerves.’ Maybe the +ultra-violet does it. Maybe not. Doubtless the investigators will find +out presently.” + +Recent experiments at the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, +conducted under the direction of Dr. John W. Gowen, have led to the +important discovery that milk from cows that have been treated with +ultra-violet light, from mercury-vapor quartz lamps, contains a much +larger amount of the substance—presumably a vitamine, or vitamines—that +prevents rickets in children and young animals. At any rate, it was +found that the milk from cows deprived of sunlight and ultra-violet +light was quite deficient in the anti-rachitic factor. Animals and +birds fed on the sunless milk uniformly developed rickets. + +The Holstein-Friesian cows used in the experiments were of nearly the +same age and calving date and all received like treatment as to feed, +temperature, etc., and stood side by side in the same barn. “Throughout +the treatment,” says Dr. Gowen, “these cows did not leave the barn. For +one month none of the cows received ultra-violet light. For the second +month two cows received ultra-violet light 15 minutes a day, generated +from a Cooper-Hewitt alternating current light at three feet above +their backs. For the third month these cows received ultra-violet +light for 30 minutes a day under the same conditions. In the meantime +Rhode Island Red chickens were allowed to develop rickets, shown both +clinically and by X-ray photographs. They were divided into two lots, +one lot of these chickens receiving milk from the ultra-violet cows, +the other of two lots of chickens, milk from the control cows. Both +lots received all the milk they wished. + + The chickens have now been under treatment 50 days. The lot receiving + milk from cows exposed to ultra-violet light are in good condition + with no appearance of rickets in X-ray plates. The lot receiving + normal milk has moved progressively toward more extreme clinical + and X-ray rickets. The experiment was repeated, using the milk from + these same cows on White Leghorn chickens showing clinical and X-ray + rickets. Five chickens were in each lot. After 38 days’ treatment four + of the lot receiving milk from the ultra-violet cows are almost cured + of rickets, showing only a very slight stiffness. The fifth chicken + shows some stiffness. Four of the lot receiving the normal milk show + constantly increasing symptoms of the more advanced stages of clinical + rickets. + + These results point to the conclusion that more of the substance + necessary to cure rickets is absorbed by the cow exposed to + ultra-violet light and secreted by her in her milk. The cows + prevented from receiving ultra-violet light are not able to secrete + this anti-rachitic substance in sufficient quantities to cure or + allay the process of clinical rickets. The results thus point to an + environmental factor transmitted by the cow to her offspring through + the medium of her milk. They further suggest that the high incidence + of rickets in children during the late winter months is due to their + mothers not receiving ultra-violet light either during pregnancy or + while in lactation. Furthermore, it would appear that cows’ milk + produced especially for baby-feeding should be from cows which have + access to ultra-violet light either from the sun or from some other + source. + +Dr. C. C. Little of the University of Maine, and his associates, fully +demonstrated the value of sunlight to animal life through experiments +on a flock of 233 chicks. The chicks were divided into three groups and +all were given the same diet. One group was kept in natural sunlight, +the second was kept in sunlight that went through window glass, and +the third was given both natural sunlight and extra ultra-violet rays +produced artificially. The last class grew the best. The class that got +only natural sunlight grew normally. The class kept behind window glass +all developed bone disease. The glass of the greenhouse allowed the +light of the sun and the heat of infra-red rays to get through. But it +screened out the ultra-violet waves. + +The beneficent effects of invisible ultra-violet rays are seen in +both the organism exposed to them and the food consumed. This is true +whether the rays come direct from the sun or by means of a quartz lamp. +Ordinary glass lamps prevent the ultra-violet rays from passing out. +But not all kinds of foodstuffs by any means are favorably affected by +the rays. Only those foods which contain fat seem to be materially +improved. The value of milk and of cod liver oil is greatly enhanced by +exposure to the rays. Dr. Benjamin Kramer has been highly successful in +treating babies affected with rickets by subjecting milk itself to the +action of ultra-violet light.[3] + +As early as 1923, it had been shown by feeding experiments with +various types of animals at the University of Wisconsin that sunlight +was acting either directly upon the animal or upon its food. The +same dietary was found to produce contradictory results. It was +established—especially by H. Steenbock and E. B. Hart—that sunlight is +indispensable to man and beast, in that it is the determinant of the +efficiency with which calcium can be assimilated and retained. (See +their report, _Journal of Biological Chemistry_, Vol. 62, page 577, +1925.) Calcium, it is pointed out, needs to be conserved because in +proportion to the body needs it is not found abundantly in foods and +feeds. Steenbock and Hart tell us that sunlight plays the particular +rôle of conservator “by virtue of its content of ultra-violet +radiations of approximately 250 to 302 millimicrons in wave-length, +but unfortunately these are not present in sufficient degree to provide +a wide margin of safety for the animal. As a result we have rickets +in the young and poor dentition, restricted lactation, abortion and +impoverishment of the skeleton in lime to a dangerous extent in the +adult.... The ultra-violet rays bring their effect through the medium +of certain compounds widely distributed in plant and animal tissue, so +that practically any foodstuff can be ‘anti-rachitically’ activated. +‘Make hay while the sun shines’ is more than a mere poetic slogan, +for hay made in the dark is devoid of rickets-preventing properties” +(_Science_, December 4, 1925). + +The careful experiments of J. S. Hughes showed that chickens receiving +a standard scratch feed and mash, supplemented with sprouted oats and +buttermilk, developed rickets (weak legs) when deprived of direct +sunlight. Chicks receiving the same feed but given sun baths developed +normally, although they were confined in a very small pen, with little +opportunity to exercise. Light from ordinary electric bulbs had very +little, if any, beneficial action. Light from the Hereus mercury arc +lamp was very beneficial. Cod liver oil also proved to be effective in +preventing rickets in chickens as in mammals.[4] + +That such fats as olive oil and lard may be activated by exposure +to ultra-violet rays and used as a substitute for cod liver oil in +the treatment of rickets is evidenced by experiments reported by the +Department of Agricultural Chemistry of the University of Wisconsin. +In the series of experiments now published, olive oil and lard were +exposed to the action of the ultra-violet rays from a powerful +mercury-vapor quartz lamp, for periods of time ranging from half an +hour to 17 hours. + +After exposure to the rays these fats were fed to a group of +experimental rats in which rickets had been produced, and the activated +olive oil and lard were found to have the same beneficial results +that follow the administration of cod liver oil. The weight of the +rats increased and an analysis of the bones showed an increase in the +calcium content. + +Some of the activated olive oil, which had been stored in a stoppered +bottle, showed no change in potency ten months later. It was found +also that the fats might be activated by the rays from the open carbon +arc, the iron arc, and sunlight; but that exposure for such prolonged +periods as 17 hours destroyed their potency. This destruction took +place even on cod liver oil.[5] + +It has long been known that human tissue is more actively changed by +light when it has been “sensitized.” Quinine, esculin, fluoresceine, +etc., are examples of tissue sensitizers, in addition to their +other effects. The most powerful of all known sensitizers is +haemato-porphyrin—or simply “porphyrin.” This sensitizer is a purple +substance closely allied to the haemoglobin that gives blood its red +color. Subtracting its iron and albumin from haemoglobin by appropriate +chemical processes leaves porphyrin. This substance reacts strongly to +the ultra-violet rays, in rare cases causing a disease which turns the +teeth to a deep purple hue. Victims of this uncommon ailment have to +wear gloves constantly, and when going out of doors during the day time +must put on heavy veils.[6] Porphyrin is capable of dissolving the red +corpuscles of the most dissimilar animals in the presence of sunlight. +But neither the haemato-porphyrin nor the light alone is capable of +injuring the animals. Only the combined effect of the two can harm +them. A physician experimentally injected an exceedingly minute +quantity into himself and then exposed himself to a moderate light, and +became very ill. + +Hausmann found that even the diffused sunlight of an early spring +day in Vienna was sufficient to cause the death of white mice which +had been subjected to small quantities of this strange substance. +Dr. E. C. Van Leersum, of Holland, proved by experiments with rats +that the utilization of lime by our bodies can be controlled almost +at will by this “sensitization” process. Rickets, or a condition +indistinguishable from rickets, can be produced or cured by proper +control of the sensitization. + + +SUNLIGHT AND INFANTILE PARALYSIS + +An article by Science Service, quoted in _Science_, September 11, 1925, +says: + + Another of the dreaded diseases of childhood, infantile paralysis, + which, like rickets, graduates large quotas of cripples, has responded + to the good influence of the sun’s rays. Dr. G. Murray Levick, medical + director of the Heritage Craft Schools at Chailey, Sussex (England), + who originated the treatment, said that no other method has ever had + as good results as this in the treatment of infantile paralysis. + + Dr. Levick first deduced that neurasthenia in grown-ups and rickets + in the young are due to the same cause. Both these diseases, he + claims, are nutritional disturbances of the nerve centers affecting + the bones in the young, and the nervous systems in the old. The action + of sunlight on the skin forms a substance which is carried into the + blood and feeds the nerve centers as well as the bones. His success in + treating neurasthenia with sun’s rays led him to apply it to cases of + infantile paralysis, a disease which is a severe shock to the nervous + system and which results in muscular atrophy. Under the action of + sunlight a renutrition of nerve centers takes place. + + Synthetic sunlight produced by him with an electric arc light of his + own invention proved as good as natural sunlight, and could be better + regulated to the patient’s endurance. He used two distinct kinds of + light-rays, the short ultra-violet rays for nerve nutrition, and the + long red and infra-red rays for muscle treatment. Red rays, as can + be seen when the hand is held up against the sunlight, penetrate + the flesh to a considerable extent, and can therefore stimulate the + sleeping muscle. + + Dr. Levick warns that immediate success must not be expected. He has + found constant improvement where short daily treatments were continued + over a period of several years. While the method may not be effective + in extreme cases, it is nevertheless a test which will soon show after + a few treatments whether any rejuvenation of the nerve fiber is taking + place. + +It is now admitted that the (red) heat-waves may play some part in +heliotherapy—exposure to direct sunlight for medical purposes. Dr. +Lazarus-Barlow, Professor of Experimental Pathology in the University +of London, concludes that even though heat-rays may also play some +part in curative processes, “experience of the treatment of wounds by +sunlight in France during the World War indicated that a degree of +benefit arises from exposure to sunlight which cannot be attributable +to warmth and ultra-violet rays. On the other hand, in the Finsen light +treatment of lupus (a tubercular affection of the skin of the face, +occurring in several forms) and in the treatment of tuberculosis at +high altitudes, ultra-violet rays play a predominant part.” + +As the ultra-violet rays penetrate but a fraction of a millimeter into +the epithelium, “it is uncertain how the rays act.” The suggestion is +here ventured that since the recently discovered Millikan Rays are +particularly powerful under the same conditions that make application +of the ultra-violet rays practicable as a therapeutic agency, it may +later be found that these highly penetrating rays, of exceedingly short +wave length, aid greatly in effecting some of the cures now attributed +wholly to the longer (and less penetrating) ultra-violet rays or the +much shorter X-rays.[7] + +Professor Lazarus-Barlow calls attention to the fact that it is +precisely those tubercular persons who tan easily who are said to +derive the greatest benefit from a sojourn at high altitude. + +Very remarkable is a recently adopted machine which “pours ultra-violet +light through a funnel down the throat of a patient.” The new +apparatus, first used in London, is employed for treatment of various +mouth and throat diseases, “thus making it possible for patients to +take internal baths of artificial sunlight” (_Science_, February 26, +1926). + +In England, where the sky is so often overclouded, it is natural that +much attention has been given to ultra-violet ray therapy. A recent +press dispatch tells us: + +“London recently had 23 consecutive days on which no beam of the sun +could force its way through the mantle of cloud and fog which spread +over that section of England. Now the Britons are making artificial +suns that may be available for both indoor and outdoor illumination. +Arc lights throwing powerful ultra-violet rays are being installed in +beauty shops and hotels, and patrons are given opportunity to bathe +their bodies in this brilliance. These rays are being billed as more +potent than sun baths, and citizens who have small chance to see the +orb of day get their sunshine and their medicine at one swoop.” + +Two Indian scientists, S. S. Bhatnagar and R. B. Lal, of the University +of the Punjab, Lahore, discovered in 1925 that germs grow faster +when exposed to “polarized” light than to ordinary light. (Ordinary +light—according to the undulatory theory—is due to vibrations +transverse to the direction of the ray, but varying so rapidly as +to show no particular direction of their own, the fronts of the +light-waves crisscrossing at all angles. When, by any means, these +vibrations are given a definite direction, the light is said to be +_polarized_, the fronts of the waves being all arranged in the same +direction, though the path of the rays may be plane, elliptical, +circular, or rotary, according to the method of polarization employed.) + +The Indian experimenters took cultures of the germs of typhoid fever +and cholera, and exposed one set to ordinary light, and another to a +beam of polarized light. The latter multiplied much faster than did the +germs under ordinary light. + +It was demonstrated in 1925 by Dr. Elizabeth S. Semmens, of Bedford +College, London, that the digestion of starch takes place more readily +under polarized light than in ordinary light. + +Prolonged exposure to the ultra-violet rays will destroy any germs +known to science. (Cathode rays—which are shorter than ultra-violet +rays—will kill not only germs, but insects as well, by means of a +device developed by Prof. W. D. Coolidge.) + +“Bacteria,” says Dr. Coolidge, “have been rayed, and an exposure of +a tenth of a second has been found sufficient to kill even highly +resistant bacterial spores. Fruit flies, upon being rayed for a small +fraction of a second, instantly showed almost complete collapse, and in +a few hours were dead.” + +This may lead to the application of cathode rays as a germicide, but +their effect on higher forms of life shows that their unskilled use +would be most dangerous. For example, Dr. Coolidge relates: + +“The ear of a rabbit was rayed over a circular area one centimeter +in diameter for one second. After several days a scab formed which +fell off a few days later, taking the hair with it. Two weeks later a +profuse growth of snow-white hair started which soon became much longer +than the original gray hair. Another area was rayed for 50 seconds. In +this case, scabs developed on both sides of the ear, which scabs later +fell out, leaving a hole. The edge of this hole is now covered with +snow-white hair.” + +A very interesting problem to scientists relates to the question as +to whether or not insects are color-blind. It may be that we now have +at least a partial answer to this vexed question, and in terms of +ultra-violet radiations. + +Dr. Frank E. E. Germann, of Cornell University, calls attention to some +recent experiments which show conclusively that at least one kind of +insects (flies) have a range of vision in the ultra-violet, just as +we have in the visible spectrum. It was also made “perfectly evident +that flowers do have their characteristic ultra-violet radiations” +(_Science_, March 26, 1926, page 325). It is due “to our own egotism +that we call the insect color-blind.” + +A given type of insect might in reality be visiting flowers of the +same color as far as it was concerned, while to us it appeared to +be visiting flowers of all colors. “Might not two flowers, one red +and one blue, both give out the same group of wave lengths in the +ultra-violet, and thus be identical in color to an insect seeing only +the ultra-violet? Moreover, what is to prevent two different kinds of +red flowers from giving out two entirely different sets of wave lengths +in the ultra-violet, and thus appearing to have entirely different +colors to an insect?” + +In a very real sense, science is only at the beginning of the +discoveries it will yet make in its investigations of the nature and +action of ultra-violet, cathode and X-rays. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[3] It is interesting to note in this connection that Kuzelmass and +McQuarrie have suggested that oxidation of cod liver oil gives rise to +ultra-violet radiation. (See _Science_, September 19, 1924.) + +[4] Paper read before the 66th meeting of the American Chemical +Society, held in Milwaukee, Wis., September 10th to 14th, 1923. + +[5] Dr. Harriette Chick and her co-workers of the Vienna University +Child Clinic discovered, first, that the action of cod liver oil on +the bone-lesions of rickets has an exact parallel in that of the +ultra-violet rays of sunlight, or of the rays from a mercury-vapor +quartz lamp; and, second, that the oil and the rays were effective +substitutes the one for the other. See my _Man’s Debt to the Sun_, +Little Blue Book No. 808, page 49. + +[6] The only creature that has porphyrin as part of its normal +body-covering is a tropical bird called the touraco, parts of whose +feathers are dyed a brilliant red by a porphyrin-copper compound known +as turacin. This pigment is remarkable also because it seems to be the +only normal occurrence of copper as a coloring compound in feathers or +skin. Turacin is soluble in weak alkali, so that when it rains and the +bird comes into contact with such alkaline solutes as frequently occur +in nature, the turacin bleaches out! Although porphyrin is rare as a +normal coloring in adult animals, it is the commonest pigment found in +the shells of birds’ eggs. Almost all eggs, from the hen’s brown to the +robin’s blue, contain it. + +[7] The length of the very short X-rays was accurately determined by a +new method developed by Compton and Doan in 1925, and was found to be +about three billionths of an inch. + + + + + Transcriber’s Notes + + pg 19 Changed: In March, 1923, Dr. I. Seth Hirsh + to: In March, 1923, Dr. I. Seth Hirsch + + pg 42 Changed: unable to refer to their soure + to: unable to refer to their source + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75150 *** diff --git a/75150-h/75150-h.htm b/75150-h/75150-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bfed732 --- /dev/null +++ b/75150-h/75150-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2209 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title> + Little Blue Book No. 1050 | Project Gutenberg + </title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h2,h3 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +p { + margin-top: .51em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .49em; + text-indent: 1em; +} + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: 33.5%; + margin-right: 33.5%; + clear: both; +} + +hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} + +div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} +h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} +table.autotable { border-collapse: collapse; } + +.tdl {text-align: left;} +.tdr {text-align: right; line-height: 1.5em; vertical-align: bottom;} + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: small; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; + text-indent: 0; + color: #A9A9A9; +} /* page numbers */ + +.blockquot { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +.center {text-align: center;} + +/* Images */ + +img { + max-width: 100%; + height: auto; +} + + +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; + page-break-inside: avoid; + max-width: 100%; +} + +/* Footnotes */ +.footnotes {border: 1px dashed;} + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:small; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; +} + +.fs70 {font-size: 70%} +.fs80 {font-size: 80%} +.fs120 {font-size: 120%} +.fs150 {font-size: 150%} + +.no-indent {text-indent: 0em;} +.bold {font-weight: bold;} + +h2 {font-size: 130%; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.6em; word-spacing: .3em;} + + </style> +</head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75150 ***</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 85%"> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt=""> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<table class="autotable"> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">LITTLE BLUE BOOK NO.</td> +<td class="tdl" rowspan="2" style="font-size: 30pt; padding-left: .25em;">1050</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Edited by E. Haldeman-Julius</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h1>X-Ray, Violet Ray<br> +and Other Rays</h1> + +<p class="center no-indent">With Their Use in Modern Medicine</p> + +<p class="center no-indent fs120">Maynard Shipley</p> +<br> +<br> + +<p class="center no-indent">HALDEMAN-JULIUS COMPANY<br> +GIRARD, KANSAS +</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="center no-indent"> +Copyright, 1926,<br> +Haldeman-Julius Company</p> +<br> +<br> + +<p class="center no-indent fs80">PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA +</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS">TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2> +</div> + +<table class="autotable"> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdr">Page</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Introduction</td> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Chapter I.</td> +<td class="tdl">Everyday Uses of X-Rays</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Chapter II.</td> +<td class="tdl">Curative Value of X-Rays—X-Rays Cure Whooping Cough—X-Rays for Malaria</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Chapter III.</td> +<td class="tdl">Martyrs to Radiology</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Chapter IV.</td> +<td class="tdl">Discovery and Nature of X-Rays</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Chapter V.</td> +<td class="tdl">Ultra-Violet Light in Health and Disease—Sunlight and Infantile Paralysis</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</h2> +</div> + +<p>Highly important as are the phenomena of +Radioactivity from the physical, chemical, medical, +and philosophic points of view, they are +hardly comparable in their relations to the +affairs of our everyday life to the Roentgen or +X-rays, and to the invisible violet or ultra-violet +rays. The X-rays are utilized today in +hundreds of practical ways, and are vastly important +also in surgery, medicine, dentistry, +and in biological investigations. It is perhaps +not too much to say that the discovery of the +so-called X-rays should be numbered among the +two or three most important revelations of +modern science. This will be clearly demonstrated +in the course of the chapters to follow.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span></p> + +<p class="center no-indent fs150">X-RAY, VIOLET RAY AND OTHER RAYS</p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I<br> +<span class="fs70">EVERYDAY USES OF X-RAYS</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>To enumerate and describe all the practical +uses of X-rays, apart from medicine and scientific +research in general, would require a good +many more pages than can be devoted to the +subject here. To take a few cases at random, +without describing the instruments and methods +employed: radiography reveals flaws in the +structure of iron and steel building and bridge +materials, and in the cylinders of airplane engines, +and so avoids accidents. In England a +gasoline or petrol tank was shown to have +rivet heads on the outside and none on the +inside.</p> + +<p>Serious defects in the steel axles of railway +and automobile “under carriages” have been +discovered by radiography. In one case, at +least, the axles had been drilled in the wrong +position and the holes had been simply filled +with metal and covered over. An entire lot +was rejected in consequence and probably serious +accidents were forestalled.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Cracks in castings, bad welds and weak +places which do not show on the surface of +metal are perfectly clear to the searching rays. +How much would you give to <em>know</em> that that +welded part in your automobile is really solid +and perfect, that it contains no flaw to break +down some day when you are twenty miles +from a machine shop? A well-known mechanical +engineer said recently that in ten years a +metallurgical X-ray machine will be as vital a +part of the equipment in an automobile repair +shop, a foundry, or machine shop as it is now +in a dentist’s office.”</p> +</div> + +<p>We are assured by <cite>The Iron Trade</cite> (73:26) +that “the practice of analyzing metals by means +of X-rays is only in its infancy. There is every +reason to believe that soon great advances will +be made in determining the crystallization and +therefore the properties of metals. Students of +metallurgy are well aware that the properties +of metals and other bodies depend on the nature +of their crystallization. The microscope +has rendered valuable service largely because it +enables the form and arrangement of the crystalline +grains to be studied. The X-ray carries +the same form of inquiry into a region 10,000 +times more minute, thereby furnishing new evidence +as to crystalline structures, so that it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span> +now possible to see the atoms and the molecules, +and the way they form crystals. Every +crystal has its characteristic X-ray spectrum +and can be identified thereby even when the +individual crystals are beyond the resolving +power of the microscope and the substance is +in danger of being called amorphous. If a +specimen contains a mixture of crystalline substances, +the spectrum shows the combined effect +of all the substances, and provided each +individual spectrum is known, the specimen +can be analyzed.”</p> + +<p>The X-rays are also used to determine the +quality of the fabric in automobile tires, and +even to detect irregularities in the centers of +golf balls, and to reveal why some of them +fly straighter and farther than others.</p> + +<p>“The professional detective, too,” says Mr. +Wilfred S. Ogden (<cite>Popular Science Monthly</cite>, +August, 1923), “will find X-rays useful in his +business. Consider the detection of infernal +machines, for example. Two or three X-ray +plates will tell an investigator just what is +in a suspicious-looking box. If it is a bomb +the X-ray will show him how to get it apart +and render it harmless. Immediate detection +of false bottoms in trunks is child’s play with +the X-ray. When the government provided its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> +customs inspectors with X-ray machines the +gems which smugglers try to hide in the linings +of clothes or in hollow-handled hairbrushes +might as well be worn openly.</p> + +<p>“The X-rays give us one of the easiest ways +to detect the alteration of checks and other +documents. It is seldom that such an alteration +is made with exactly the same ink used +on the original. Inks even of the same color, +differ in the way they affect the rays. In most +cases all that is necessary to detect an alteration +is to place the suspected document for a +moment under the X-rays and make a photograph +of it. The new ink used in the alteration +will stand out clearly as different from the +old.</p> + +<p>“The industrial detective will find X-rays +just as useful. The adulteration of foods by +sawdust, sand or clay; the adding of too much +filler to paper; the presence of grit in lubricating +oil, all will be revealed.</p> + +<p>“Another use of the rays comes home to +every cook and housewife. X-rays constitute +the only sure way to tell good eggs from bad. +Pass each egg in turn through the X-rays and +let its shadow fall on a chemical screen. You +will see exactly what is inside each egg. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span> +ones containing hopeful chicks may be rejected.”</p> + +<p>One of the most remarkable economic or +biological uses of the X-ray so far developed is +the study of silk-worms and their diseases. The +Silk Association of America has established a +laboratory—Department of Sericulture—in the +Canton Christian College, presided over by a +staff of Chinese and foreign entomologists. +Here the silk-worm is X-rayed by powerful +microscopes, and all his disorders diagnosed +and corrected, says Mr. Philip A. Yountz +(<cite>Scientific American</cite>, September, 1925).</p> + +<p>“Numerous autopsies on deceased members +of the silk-worm tribe revealed that from 50 +to 100 percent of the worms raised in South +China were infected with diseases that made +the infant mortality rate excessively high and +destroyed the value of the silk from those +hardy enough to survive. The elimination of +these diseases would enable South China to +produce four or five times as much silk.”</p> + +<p>In Great Britain, X-rays are used in the analysis +of coal, the method being an adaptation +of the X-ray stereoscope.</p> + +<p>In Berlin, S. Nalken, a noted criminologist, +has devised an important improvement in finger-print +identification. X-ray pictures are obtained<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> +of the finger, with the muscles and +bones. This is done without the use of any +chemicals that could obstruct the delicate furrows +of the finger lines. Moreover, the finger +bone is shaped so characteristically as to aid +identification. Whenever a certain likeness of +finger-lines is discovered, the bones are examined +to see if further research is necessary.</p> + +<p>Picture fakers have been dethroned by application +of the X-ray to paintings. Recently +painted “old masters” are now easily detected. +Modern artists use white-lead, which is more +opaque than the “priming” or “sizing” used by +the older artists; and the X-ray device “made +in Germany” in 1914 by Dr. Faber, and further +developed by the French expert, Dr. André +Chéron, at once distinguishes the old from the +new. One picture by Van Ostade, of men drinking +at a table, proved to be a fraud when submitted +to the X-ray; it had been painted over +a study of dead birds. Another, called “The +Royal Child,” a supposed 16th century work, +now in the Louvre, was proved to have been +painted during the 19th century over a picture +of very much earlier date.</p> + +<p>During a popular lecture on the X-ray in +London, before the Royal Institution, the distinguished +physicist, Prof. G. W. C. Kaye,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> +showed a number of radiograph slides, among +which were two pictures by Dutch painters, one +representing the Madonna and the other the +Crucifixion. In the former, the Madonna appeared +to be looking at something which was +non-existent in the canvas, and a radiograph +proved the missing object was a child which +some former owner of the picture had painted +out. In the second picture, a woman in the +attitude of prayer was found to have been +painted over what was in the original the +figure of a man in monk’s garb.</p> + +<p>The first X-ray pictures ever taken of a mummy +were completed by scientists at the American +Museum of Natural History, New York +City. The pictures showing the skeleton in detail +are expected to be a great aid in studying +the development of bone formations in the +evolution of man. This first subject of the +scientists’ X-ray was a South American Indian +mummy. Fake mummies, like false gems, are +instantly detected by X-ray methods.</p> + +<p>One of the methods used for detecting the +theft of diamonds at the mines is to examine +the workmen with X-rays. Of course, a fluoroscope +is used to make the X-ray image visible, +and this is the type used in any regular +X-ray work.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span></p> + +<p>The X-rays are now being used in shoe-stores—“foot-o-scope” +instruments—to enable shoe +salesmen to see the bones of a customer’s foot +and thus make correct fittings of shoes.</p> + +<p>A few years ago there arrived from Germany +a new kind of mechanical doll. “A secret +mechanism inside enabled it to walk, sit down +or stand up, and to do other unusual things. +The importer in possession of the sample doll +would not allow it to be opened. But one of +the competitors borrowed the doll. He had +promised not to open it. But he made some +X-ray photographs of it. Now he is manufacturing +these dolls himself.”</p> + +<p>During the World War every effort was made +to introduce contraband materials into Germany +and if it had not been for the all-seeing +eye of the Roentgen ray, it would have been +impossible to prevent materials of the utmost +importance to the enemy from reaching him +by way of neutral countries. Efforts were made +repeatedly to smuggle rubber and copper by +burying them in bales or bundles of other materials. +It would have been impossible to have +made a minute investigation of every bale that +was shipped, but by means of X-rays it was +possible to see through these bundles and +packages and locate any substances that were +more or less opaque to the rays.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span></p> + +<p>The X-ray has been found useful for examining +timber up to 18 inches thick for internal +knots, resin pockets, cracks and other defects.</p> + +<p>“When submarines were active and the supply +of the best kinds of wood was uncertain, +it was necessary to make some of the wooden +parts out of small pieces of ordinary wood +fitted and glued together. The way these pieces +were joined and fastened was extremely important. +A bit of weak glue inside some little +strut might mean a disastrous collapse in the +air. But real inspection seemed impossible, for +the places where important faults might exist +were hidden from view. Finally scientists +solved the problem by building an X-ray apparatus +with which they could look into the +inside of each built-up airplane part and tell +whether it held some little imperfection which +might prove dangerous.</p> + +<p>“This ‘internal inspection’ of wooden articles +by X-ray has been applied, since the war, to +many other articles. Hidden joints inside high-class +furniture and cabinet work, invisible +knots and flaws inside the wood itself, can be +determined easily by X-ray examination.” (W. +S. Ogden).</p> + +<p><cite>The Scientific American</cite> (September, 1924) +published an abstract of a paper read before<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> +the <em>Deutschen Bunsen-Gesellschaft</em>, in which +Dr. D. Coster showed that “the relations between +the X-ray spectra of the different elements +are so simple that, in some respects, +they are more useful for purposes of chemical +analysis than ordinary luminous spectra. An +important advantage is the fact that the X-ray +spectrum of an element is quite independent +of the nature of the compound containing it. +It is easy to detect the presence in a mixture +of which not more than one milligram is available. +Certain precautions are necessary in examining +the X-ray spectra; although the number +of lines for each element is comparatively +limited, recent observations have shown the +existence of a number of weaker lines; in addition +to this, with the high voltages now generally +used, not only the spectrum of the first +order, but also those of higher orders appear. +Slight impurities in the material of the anticathode, +and in the subject under examination, +also give their lines, so that there are often +various possibilities to be considered before a +given line can be explained. Not only the +wave length, but also the typical appearance +of the suspected lines must be considered, as +well as their relative intensity. By measuring +photometrically the intensity of the spectral +lines it is possible, in some cases, to obtain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> +a quantitative estimate of the amount of an +element present in a mixture.”</p> + +<p>Another method of rapid analysis of material +in the laboratory by the use of X-rays in a +much shorter time than that required by the +older chemical methods is that devised by +Professor Urbain, of the Minero-Chemical Laboratory +at the Sorbonne, with the assistance of +Eugene Delaunay. Mr. Delaunay, who did the +actual work of testing the new X-ray method, +says there is no risk of error.</p> + +<p>By employment of X-rays the scientist is now +able to ascertain the arrangement of the atoms +and molecules within the crystal “network” +(structure—or “space lattice” of the crystal).<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> +The results are obtained from the study of the +reflection and refraction of the rays by the +crystals, or, more precisely, the successive rows +of molecules in the crystal. These act toward +the extremely short X-rays in the same way as +a grating spectroscope does to ordinary light-rays.</p> + +<p>Man’s ability to lengthen the ultra-violet end +of the spectrum is limited by his capacity to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> +provide a diffraction grating, or a mineral +prism, which can split up light-waves of increasingly +greater frequency (or shortness). +The width of a grating space (a fine line on +speculum metal, which acts as a minute mirror) +must be comparable to the wave length +of the light. Previous to the discoveries of +Prof. Max von Laue in Munich (now in Zurich), +and Prof. William Henry Bragg, of the University +of London, no grating or other material +was known whose spaces were as small as the +wave length of X-rays. Laue conceived the +brilliant idea that the regular arrangement of +the atoms in a crystal might serve the purpose. +They did. Bragg, and later his son, Prof. W. +L. Bragg, of the University of Manchester, followed +up the work of Laue with results of immeasurable +value to science.</p> + +<p>A very important relation between the atomic +number of an element and its X-ray spectrum +was discovered by the brilliant young English +physicist, H. G. T. Moseley (1888-1915), in his +26th year, a year before his death by a Turkish +bullet at the Dardanelles. While analyzing the +characteristic X-rays which are given off when +any kind of substance is bombarded with cathode +rays, Moseley found that the atoms of +all the different substances emit radiations or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> +groups of radiations which are extraordinarily +similar, but which differ in their wave lengths +as we proceed from substance to substance; the +frequencies (wave lengths) change by definite +steps as one progresses from elements of lower +to elements of higher atomic weights. Through +Moseley’s epoch-making discovery we now +know that each of the 92 elements, from hydrogen +to uranium, is built up by successive additions +of one positive charge (proton) and +one negative electron, and that the atomic +numbers—from 1 to 92—correspond to the number +of protons and electrons in each successively +heavier (and more complex) atom.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> This phase of our subject can only be alluded to +in this little book. For an authoritative yet easily +understood exposition of the subject, see Bragg, W. +H. and W. L., “X-Rays and Crystal Structure”; +also Kaye, G. W. C., “X-Rays”; and, for more advanced +reading, deBroglie, Maurice, “X-Rays”.</p> + +</div> +</div> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II<br> +<span class="fs70">CURATIVE VALUE OF X-RAYS</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>In my Little Blue Book on Radium (No. +1000), it is shown that the “emanation” and +the “gamma rays” of radioactive substances +are being used to great advantage in our hospitals, +but that certain dangers to the patient’s +normal cells attended employment of these +radiations.</p> + +<p>It is gratifying to note that successful X-ray +treatments are now being given in cases of +cancer, rays being produced—under high-tension +currents—that are almost identical with +the gamma rays of radium.</p> + +<p>Moreover, the X-rays have a double value in +medicine. In the first place, they are used as +an aid to diagnosis, forming those branches +of radiotherapy known as radioscopy and radiography. +Then they are also used to great advantage +in the alleviation or cure of certain +maladies. By means of radioscopic or radiographic +examination it may be found that there +is a tumor in the chest, and as a result of that +diagnosis it may be decided to institute treatment<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> +(radiotherapy) by means of X-rays or +radium rays or the two combined.</p> + +<p>The method of employing extremely penetrating +X-rays—under high voltage and amperage—seems +to have been first used in Germany, +during the World War, but was soon developed +to a high degree of efficiency in France, England, +and the United States, especially by Dr. +William Duane, professor of biophysics at Harvard.</p> + +<p>As early as 1919, Professor Dessauer, in Germany, +produced the penetrating X-rays by +means of a high-tension current ranging from +170,000 to 240,000 volts. It was later found, that +rays at 200,000 volts became homogeneous, so +that a further increase was considered as of no +therapeutic value.</p> + +<p>In March, 1923, Dr. I. Seth Hirsch, head of the +X-ray department of the Bellevue Hospital in +New York, gave a drastic treatment—for cancer—of +four periods of 16 hours each with the +X-rays at 250,000 volts, apparently with satisfactory +results. The patient suffered no pain +or inconvenience during the treatment with +the exception of occasional nausea. A year +later an experiment was made in a Philadelphia +laboratory where an X-ray treatment of +300,000 volts was used. It seems that alleviation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> +rather than cure has been the result of +nearly all cases where cancer had been well +advanced.</p> + +<p>Other important improvements, meanwhile, +were being introduced by the German specialists, +during the World War and later, among +which was the just mentioned method of giving +large tissue-destroying doses, requiring from +ten to 15 hours; to this was added careful filtration +of the rays, and the invention of the +<em>ionto</em>—a quantimeter for exact measurements. +A number of malignant diseases is reported to +have yielded to this new system of massive +doses under higher voltage. But Professor +Duane has stated that neither X-rays nor the +gamma rays of radium should be considered as +a permanent cure for cancer.</p> + +<p>Until recently the tubes in which X-rays are +produced have always been made of glass. The +latest discovery is a tube made of fused silica, +or vitreosil. Vitreosil permits the passage of +the short rays, will stand a much higher temperature +than glass, and is much stronger. +This means more continuous service from +X-rays.</p> + +<p>According to Dr. Francis C. Wood, director +of the Crocker Institute of Cancer Research of +Columbia University, a marked advance in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> +treatment of cancer has been made possible by +a new type of X-ray tube, the invention of Dr. +C. T. Ulrey, of the Westinghouse Company. +The new tube has a higher emissive power—in +other words, it is as if the candle-power of +an ordinary lamp were increased six-fold. It +is besides designed for use with higher voltages +than have previously been practical in Roentgenology. +The result is to reduce the necessary +exposure from two or three hours per patient +to 20 minutes, and to increase the life of +the tubes. Incidentally, the new tube gives a +greater proportion of the type of rays that cure +certain forms of cancer, and less of the sort +that attack healthy tissue.</p> + +<p>A revolutionary discovery by Dr. Jacques +Forestier, of Aix-les-Bains, France, for which +a gold medal was awarded him in 1925 by the +French Academy, has made possible a method +of exact diagnosis by X-rays heretofore deemed +by many workers impossible of attainment.</p> + +<p>As is well known, it is not difficult to make +an X-ray picture of the bones of the body. They +are so much denser than the soft parts of the +body that, even with the ordinary photographic +plate, it has been possible to photograph them +fairly well. By pumping the stomach full of +gas or air—which are highly transparent to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span> +X-rays—and then applying the X-ray, it has +sometimes been possible to locate the beginnings +of cancer of the stomach, and the place +of malignant growth.</p> + +<p>Another method in common use is to give +the patient about a pint of some substance +opaque to X-rays, such as bismuth carbonate, +thus making it possible to record the passage +of the mixture, the outline of the stomach and +the intestines thus being made visible. In this +way ulcers of the stomach have been frequently +located.</p> + +<p>Bismuth and similar substances could not be +injected into the brain or spinal cord, on account +of their poisonous effect on the highly +sensitive cells of these regions. Now, thanks +to the method discovered by Dr. Forestier, the +cavities of the brain and spine can be safely +explored, as well as the network of bronchial +tubes in the lung—the so-called “bronchial +tree.”</p> + +<p>In an interview with Mr. David Dietz, Dr. +Forestier said (in part):</p> + +<p>“I make use of a French oil called lipiodol. +It is a chemical compound composed of poppyseed +oil and iodine. The chemical previously +had been used as a treatment for certain diseases,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> +such as goiter. But no one had ever +thought of using it in X-ray work.</p> + +<p>“I noticed that where patients had been +treated with lipiodol opaque spots appeared +when X-ray pictures were made of the treated +parts. It occurred to me, therefore, that lipiodol +could be used as a means of making photographs.</p> + +<p>“Accordingly, in company with Dr. Sicard +of Paris, I began to experiment. We worked +with animals until we were convinced of the +correctness of our method. When we were +sure that it was safe we tried it on human +beings. I have used it in more than 5,000 cases +in Europe without having a single adverse +result.</p> + +<p>“The lipiodol is injected into the brain cavity +or the canal of the spinal cord or the bronchial +tubes and then a regular X-ray photograph is +made. The oil renders the injected part opaque +to X-rays and they show up as sharp black +images in the photographs.</p> + +<p>“The method is of particular value when a +patient is suffering from paralysis which has +been caused by a pressure of a tumor or growth +somewhere along the spinal cord. In this case +a drop of the oil is injected into the spinal +canal at the base of the brain. In a healthy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> +patient it would immediately travel to the base +of the spine. But in the paralyzed patient it +only travels as far as the point of compression. +The X-ray picture therefore reveals the drop of +oil as a black spot. The surgeon then knows +the exact spot at which to operate in order to +find the growth causing the pressure, which +in turn results in paralysis.</p> + +<p>“In diagnosing the lungs with the use of +lipiodol the injection in the bronchial tree enables +the X-ray worker to tell at once whether +the patient is suffering from diseases of the +bronchial tubes themselves, or from diseases of +the lung tissue, such as tuberculosis.”</p> + +<p>It is gratifying to be able to relate that along +with the improvements already described, progress +has also been made in the preparation of +photographic plates required by the radiographer. +Until recently no photographic plate +had been made which fully met the requirements +of X-ray work, and there was little contrast +in X-ray photographs. They were all +much too sensitive to the longer (visible) wave +lengths, and produced blurring effects.</p> + +<p>Early in 1921 an excellent photographic plate, +25 times more rapid than anything previously +known, was invented by Dr. Leonard A. Levey, +a prominent member of the Roentgen Society. +It makes an X-ray photograph of the vital organs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> +of the living body whose movements have +hitherto blurred the images on the ordinary +photographic plate. Distinct pictures of the +heart, lungs and stomach can now be made. +Dr. Levey has made snapshot photographs of +the heart, lungs and kidneys. All were taken +in a flash with the X-rays on the new plate.</p> + +<p>Dr. H. Becher has called the attention of +Americans to the achievement of Dr. Schleussner, +an eminent German authority in photochemical +matters, who has succeeded, after +years of investigation, in sensitizing photographic +plates for X-ray use by an addition of +certain organic salts which are absorbed by +the grains of silver bromide on the photographic +plate. The plate thus formed is very +responsive to the soft rays of an X-ray tube. +The soft rays are relatively longer than the +hard Roentgen rays. One could compare the +soft rays to blue-violet light, if their effects +on this new photographic plate are used for the +comparison. Photographs taken with such +plates give very contrasting effects.</p> + +<p>On the “Neo-Roentgen plate” the effect of the +yellow light was almost nil. For this reason, +developing the plate is considerably facilitated, +as the plate can be exposed to yellow light and +the attendant, who need not be a skilled operator,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> +can examine the plate in a rather brilliant +light without necessarily guessing at possible +results. The examination of the plate +under a ruby light is, therefore, completely +done away with. It follows that if the new +X-ray plate should come into general use, much +clearer X-ray photographs would be possible; +the time of exposure could be decreased; an +unskilled operator could develop the plate in a +room flooded with yellow light. Such improved +plates are now being extensively used.</p> + +<p>While not attempting to enumerate all the +special affections to which X-ray therapy is +now being successfully applied, a few uses may +be mentioned.</p> + + +<h2><span class="fs70">X-RAYS CURE WHOOPING COUGH</span></h2> + +<p>In a preliminary report published in the +<cite>Medical and Surgical Journal</cite> (Boston), Dr. +Henry I. Bowditch and Dr. Ralph D. Leonard +express the belief that a valuable cure for +whooping cough has been found in X-ray treatment +of this disease, which has stubbornly +resisted most, if not all, of the other remedies +applied.</p> + +<p>Definite improvement was noted in most of +26 cases of active pertussis (whooping cough) +treated with the X-ray, the subjects of which +ranged in age from three months to 40 years,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> +with disease stages from one to ten weeks. +The physicians added that they could not give +any rational explanation of the action through +which the X-ray appeared to produce beneficial +results. The report said:</p> + +<p>“Each patient received three or four applications +of the X-ray at intervals of two or +three days.”</p> + +<p>Many of these cases have not been observed +sufficiently long to determine the final result. +Nevertheless, “it is evident to us that there resulted +a definite improvement in these patients +which cannot be explained by mere accident.... +It does not seem likely that [the beneficial +result] is due to any direct bactericidal +property of the X-ray.</p> + +<p>“We feel warranted in classifying a small +percentage of these 26 cases under the heading +of “prompt cures.” By this we mean that after +two or three applications of X-rays, covering a +period of six days, the spasms and whoops entirely +disappeared and the patients were clinically +well, except for, possibly, a very slight +cough.</p> + +<p>“The bulk of the cases, however, we have +classified as relieved. This group consists of +perhaps 70 percent of the total. By relieved +we mean that there has been a gradual diminution +in the number of spasms.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span></p> + +<p>“There is a small percentage of cases, perhaps +10 to 15 percent, which apparently were +not relieved. In this group are included one +moribund case and one rather difficult feeding +case.</p> + +<p>“While our evidence so far is not sufficient to +warrant any definite conclusions, we have the +feeling that the X-ray at the present time may +be of more value in the treatment of pertussis +than any other form of treatment, including +serum.”</p> + +<h2><span class="fs70">X-RAYS FOR MALARIA</span></h2> + +<p>An Italian physician, Dr. Antonio Pais, of +Venice, has since 1916 been successfully treating +malaria by means of X-rays. This treatment +is, however, not employed as a substitute +for quinine, but merely to reinforce its action. +The X-rays are directed toward the region of +the spleen, and the effect is to reduce its enlargement. +At the same time the composition +of the blood is modified. The success obtained +by Dr. Pais has, according to the <cite>Bibliothèque +Universelle et Révue Suisse</cite> (Lausanne), been +so great that the Italian Government decided +to introduce his method of treatment into the +military hospitals.</p> + +<p>Since the war the treatment has been studied +by Prof. B. Grassi, who made a report, at an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> +Italian scientific meeting, in which he declared +the action of X-rays upon chronic malaria +to be “truly marvelous.” The <cite>Bibliothèque +Universelle</cite> says, regarding earlier treatments:</p> + +<p>“The attempt was made by them to destroy +the parasite contained in the spleen. But it is +now known that the X-rays employed for therapeutic +action have no effect upon micro-organisms, +although they may be injurious to +the elements of the blood. In the method devised +by Dr. Pais, the X-rays are employed to +stimulate the functioning of the spleen, of the +marrow, and of the lympathic elements by +means of slight but prolonged excitation; they +are employed in infinitesimal doses—homeopathically, +so to speak. Thus the result is absolutely +different as well as the method.”</p> + +<p>Dr. James B. Murphy demonstrated that accompanying +cancer grafts on immune animals +there occurs a general increase in the circulating +lymphocytes and hyperplasia of the lymphoid +tissue. When the lymphoid tissue of immune +animals was destroyed, the immunibility was +annulled. Two methods of increasing the lymphocytes +have been found, namely, diffuse +small doses of X-rays, and dry heat. Mice with +lymphocytosis induced by these agents show +Increased resistance to replants of their own +tumors. The results afford ground for hope of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> +human application. (Reported in <cite>Scientific +American Monthly</cite>, January, 1920, page 96.)</p> + +<p>It has been found that actively growing +tissue, whether normal or pathological, is the +most susceptible to X-rays, and it is comparatively +easy to sterilize a number of species +of animals without otherwise injuring them. +(Prof. James W. Mayor, <cite>Science</cite>, September 23, +1921.) C. R. Bardeen found that X-rays prevent +worms from regenerating lost parts. Observations +of the effect of exposure to X-rays on +the fertility of animals were described in a +paper by Prof. L. H. Snyder of the North Carolina +College of Agriculture. Exposure of male +rats to X-rays, he said, had rendered them +sterile at the end of two months, the animals +regaining fertility when no longer subjected +to the rays.</p> + +<p>If not handled with due caution and skill, +X-rays may do more harm than good, provoking +malignant growths as well as retarding their +development. As early as 1911, Otto Heese +published a record of 54 cases of cancer caused +by means of improper handling of these powerful +rays.</p> + +<p>In the early days of X-ray therapy the nature +and effects of these radiations were wholly +unknown. Operators did not hesitate to test<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> +and adjust their tubes by throwing the shadow +of their hands on the flouroscope. X-rays do +not make objects visible to the human eye, and +to see the effects of them it is necessary to +interpose a special screen between the eyes +and object through which the X-rays are to +penetrate. The cardboard screen is coated +with a fluorescent substance, such as barium-platinum-cyanide, +or calcium tungstate. This +screen is best placed in one end of a black +wooden or pasteboard box, against the other +end of which the eyes are placed when in use.</p> + +<p>This screen under the influence of X-rays +becomes luminous and enables one to see +shadows or silhouettes of objects of denser +material interposed between the eyes and the +X-ray tube, when the tube is in operation.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III<br> +<span class="fs70">MARTYRS TO RADIOLOGY</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>It was not until several years after the discovery +of X-rays by Roentgen, in December, +1895—after operators had been severely burned +in laboratories and hospitals all over the +world, and surgeons and physicians began to +compare notes, that the pathological effects of +X-rays were discovered and understood.</p> + +<p>Says John Macy (in his memorial volume +on Walter James Dodd, heroic victim of 50 +separate operations due to X-ray burn):</p> + +<p>“It is easy now to understand what was +happening to Dodd and his contemporaries. In +a modern X-ray machine the strength of the +current, the quality of the spark, all the conditions, +are determined by metrical instruments. +In the early days the operator tested +his tube and adjusted it by throwing the +shadow of his hand on the fluoroscope; by the +look of the shadow he judged how the machine +was behaving. First he used the left hand +until that became too sore, then the right. +And until devices were found to focus and confine +the rays, the face of the operator was exposed, +and sometimes the neck and chest were +burned. A limited exposure to the X-ray is as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> +harmless as a walk in the sunlight. It is the +repeated, continuous bombardment of the ray +that is calamitous. Dodd and the other pioneers +lived in the X-ray.”</p> + +<p>John L. Bauer was the first victim of the +X-ray, in 1906. He was followed in 1914 by +Henry Green, who, although he knew he was +doomed, and in spite of the fact that he had +become almost helpless physically because so +much flesh had been cut away in amputating +cancerous growths, persisted in his work to the +end.</p> + +<p>Major Eugene Wilson Caldwell of the Medical +Reserve Corps of the United States Army, the +inventor of the Caldwell liquid interrupter and +other devices for therapeutic use, lost his life +in 1918. Dr. Charles Infroit of the Salpetrière +Hospital, Paris, died on November 29, 1920. One +of Dr. Infroit’s hands became infected in 1898 +as a result of his continuous use of the X-ray, +and an operation was performed. After that +he had 24 other operations, 22 of them performed +in the last ten years of his life, the last +on August 1, 1920, when his right arm and left +wrist were amputated.</p> + +<p>Dr. Charles Vaillant, whose heroic services +to humanity have made necessary 13 amputations +until now he is armless, on February 19,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> +1923, received from United States Ambassador +Herrick the Carnegie plaque, while the cravat +of the Paris Gold Medal of the French Legion +of Honor was conferred upon the martyr. +Physicians say further amputations are inevitable, +and that these will result in Vaillant’s +death.</p> + +<p>In 1921, the eminent English radiologists, Dr. +Cecil Lyster and Dr. Ironside Bruce, and Dr. +Adolphe Leroy of the St. Antonie Hospital in +Paris, died martyrs to their noble profession. +“All of these men went knowingly to death. +Perhaps they did not take their sacrifices in +the spirit of the saint, possessed by a vision of +suffering humanity. Theirs may have been +the ardor of the scientist, the endurance of a +worker who hears the challenge of nature’s +silence and goes to battle. But in themselves +they express the powerful urge of a spirit that +longs to see, to feel, to know, and to possess +all the mysteries of the universe. It is the +same spirit that makes men rebel and agonize +for a better order of humanity. These men +seem better than the world that produces them. +But each of them, when he dies, may pull the +rest of humanity a little closer to his level.”</p> + +<p>Dr. Frederick Henry Baetjer of Johns Hopkins +Hospital has only two of his ten fingers left.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> +He lost the other eight as the result of burns +received in X-ray experimentation.</p> + +<p>Dr. Francis Carter Wood, X-Ray and radium +expert of the Crocker Special Fund Cancer +Laboratory of New York, calls particular attention +to the fact that “the deaths which are occurring +now are the results of repeated exposures +ten or more years ago, when no one +knew what the effect of the rays might be. The +burns suffered then were the result of continuous +exposure without protection against the +rays. One exposure, or a moderate number of +them, would do no harm; but before the present +perfection of the apparatus it was necessary +to adjust the focus for each picture, and the +operator would do this by looking at his bare +hands through the fluoroscope. This resulted +in chronic burns, and the burned flesh formed +a fertile soil for cancer. Lead one-quarter of +an inch thick will stop both radium and X-rays.”</p> + +<p>In Dr. Wood’s opinion, workers in X-rays today +“need not suffer any ill effects except +through their own carelessness.”</p> + +<p>A discovery which promises to put an end +to the dangers to life and limb risked by those +who engage in working with X-rays was communicated +to the Academy of Sciences of Paris<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> +as early as May, 1920. It is the result of experiments +by Dr. Pesch of the Faculty of Montpelier, +who himself is one of the sufferers from +X-rays, and who has long been seeking the +means of protecting his young confrères.</p> + +<p>He found that deep red rays are antagonistic +to the ultra-violet rays which produce irritation +and burning of the skin, and certain oxidations. +Thus, by the simultaneous application of both +rays he secures immunity for X-ray workers. +He has already proved that erythema can be +prevented by the application of red rays. +Daniel Berthelot, who announced the discovery +to the Academy, recalled that as long ago as +1872 the antagonism of extreme rays of the +spectrum had been foreseen by Becquerel in his +study of phosphorescence.</p> + +<p>Dr. Pesch employs a filter composed of a +plastic material that allows only the red and +yellow rays to pass. It is claimed that by +means of this filter not only are the X-rays +made harmless, but its employment effects a +cure for radio-dermatitis, the affection which +has maimed or killed so many of the early +workers in X-ray therapy.</p> + +<p>According to Dr. G. Contremoulins, Chief of +the principal laboratory of the Paris hospitals, +whose researches and experiments were begun<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> +in February, 1896, the usual methods of protection +even today are not always adequate. Says +he (in <cite>La Démocratie Nouvelle</cite>, Paris, April, +1921):</p> + +<p>“Young radiologists, especially those born of +the war, take no heed of the experience acquired +by their elders, being quite convinced +that the glasses, gloves and aprons containing +lead offer a perfect protection—they even imagine +that strictly speaking they might get along +without them.</p> + +<p>“Like a child which hides behind a wooden +door to shield itself from the bullets of a machine +gun, our young radiologists believe they +are safe when they have donned their gloves +and examine their patients behind a sheet of +lead glass. But, unfortunately, these enable +them only to avoid those superficial skin affections +caused by the most absorbable rays of +the spectrum.</p> + +<p>“But they receive, alas, those other radiations +which are more penetrating, and these slowly +produce lesions of all the ductless glands in +the body, whose internal secretions we now +know to be of such vital importance in the +bodily economy.”</p> + +<p>The modern employment of 200,000 volts under +three milliamperes gives rise to the need<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> +of great caution in the use of X-rays. Even +the health of persons in adjoining rooms or +buildings, Dr. Contremoulins believes may be +imperiled. In the <cite>Popular Science Monthly</cite> +for October, 1921, this veteran radiologist +makes some startling revelations. To quote a +few passages:</p> + +<p>“In April, 1896, five months after the discovery +of X-rays—or Roentgen rays, as they +are also named in honor of their discoverer—a +pose of eight hours was required for a correct +radiograph of a profile head, the tube being +placed ten inches from the sensitive plate.</p> + +<p>“In April, 1921, a similar image was obtained +in four hours at a distance of 90 yards from +the apparatus. This means that the radiation +with modern apparatus is more than 20,000 +times stronger than was possible in 1896.</p> + +<p>“With the very weak radiation that I have +used for my experiments, corresponding to the +ordinary radiographic and radioscopic work, it +has been easy for me to obtain images of metallic +objects and human bones placed on a sensitive +plate 15 feet from the radiating source, +although the rays pass directly through a slab +of marble an inch thick, a sheet of lead one-tenth +of an inch thick, and a flooring eight +inches deep, built of oak boards and rough +plaster.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span></p> + +<p>“Fifty feet from this same source I have +been able in four hours to fog a photographic +plate placed behind a wall of brick and stone +20 inches thick. Also in the same time I have +obtained a correct radiograph of a skull and a +crab, 262 feet from the X-ray machine. All +these experiments were made with a 17-centimeter +spark and two milliamperes of current.</p> + +<p>“If photographic plates are so readily affected +by these rays, we must admit that animal +cells also are affected to an appreciable +degree. The X-rays that are being used to cure +a patient may at the same time inflict radio-dermatitis +on other persons exposed to their +influence in adjoining rooms or buildings. +Nothing will suffice for safety but to cover the +walls and floors of X-ray rooms with sheets of +lead from a quarter to half an inch thick, according +to the power of the source and its distance +from the lining....</p> + +<p>“Biologic reactions from X-rays take two +forms. The first is a skin lesion known as +radio-dermatitis, caused by the skin’s absorbing +a large quantity of radiations. The second +results from the improvements in X-ray tubes +and the use of filters absorbing the radiations +of long wave length, currently named ‘soft +radiation.’ This reaction takes place deep beneath<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span> +the skin upon the active cells that are +the most vulnerable. It is principally the internal +secretion glands that are affected. +Among those who continually receive even +weak doses, a gradual lessening of vitality +takes place, leading slowly to a physiological +impoverishment that inevitably carries them +off sooner or later.”</p> + +<p>Dr. Contremoulins was able to escape serious +injury up to the outbreak of the World War, +but is now a victim of his services to wounded +soldiers. As a result of his efforts—and due +also, partly, to suits brought against a Paris +physician by neighbors who alleged that their +health had been impaired, resulting (perhaps) +in two cases of cancer—a thorough-going investigation +was undertaken by the French Ministry +of Hygiene.</p> + +<p>Dr. Declere of the Academy of Medicine presided +over a committee which included Mme. +Curie, M. Becquerel, a radiologist; Dr. Vaillant +and a number of specialists. A leading member +of the Academy said he did not believe that +X-rays menaced persons who did not come into +direct contact with them.</p> + +<p>“I intend to study the question by three +methods,” he said. “First, we shall make a +purely physical examination, studying the action<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> +of the rays and in what measure they +exert themselves at certain distances. Second, +we shall experiment with the living tissues of +rabbits, trying various distances several hours +a day and noting the effect on the red and +white corpuscles and glands of the animals. +Then, since it is impossible to make such experiments +on human bodies, we shall collect +data based on 25 years’ experience with X-rays +to see whether physicians in close contact have +been burned.”</p> + +<p>While X-ray treatment cannot be said to +<em>cure</em> a deep-seated cancer, it is undoubtedly being +given with highly beneficial results in +many cases, alleviating much suffering and retarding +the growth of malignant tissues.</p> + +<p>As is well known, tuberculosis can advance +to a dangerous stage before it exhibits physical +symptoms recognizable by physicians. The +X-ray not only brings to light incipient consumption, +but reveals the exact place and extent +of the lesion. Any abnormalities of the +alimentary tract, also, may readily be brought +to view, as well as certain effects produced on +certain arteries, due to arterio-sclerosis or to +angina pectoris (a very painful form of heart +disease).</p> + +<p>It has been well said that “the list of diseases,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> +the presence and extent of which are +betrayed or confirmed by the X-ray, would fill +pages and would include most of the enemies to +human health. Among them may be mentioned +many forms of tuberculosis, occult abscesses +whose ramifying consequences physicians were +once unable to refer to their source, tumors, +cancers, kidney stones, gastric ulcers, diseases +of the heart.”</p> + +<p>The martyrdom of radiologists has not been +in vain.</p> + +<p>In cases of emergency, X-ray diagnosis may +now be given patients in their own homes. A +surgical X-ray outfit that can be carried in an +ambulance and taken to the bedside of a patient +too ill for removal to a hospital passed a successful +trial in England, thus adapting an +emergency war-time arrangement to civilian +use. A generator in the ambulance operates +the tube, which has a special mounting that +enables it to be placed over the patient’s bed, +and adjusted for height and position by hand-wheels. +The control apparatus is mounted on +a separate stand, and connected with the ambulance +outside by a cable wound on a reel. +Provision is made for developing the exposed +plates at once, so that a diagnosis can be made +in a few minutes.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV<br> +<span class="fs70">DISCOVERY AND NATURE OF X-RAYS</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>In March, 1923, there passed from this world +one of the most beautiful exemplars of the true +scientific spirit that earth has ever seen—Dr. +William Conrad Roentgen, F.R.S., Professor of +Experimental Physics in the University of +Munich, the discoverer of X- or Roentgen Rays.</p> + +<p>Born at Lennep, on March 27, 1845, Professor +Roentgen filled a number of important posts +before his death in 1923, in which year he was +awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics—an award +which brought with it a gift of $40,000. Although +suffering from the poverty which resulted +in Germany as an aftermath of the +World War, Professor Roentgen refused to utilize +the Nobel Prize award for his own personal +uses. He gave the entire sum to a research +society to enable other students to carry on +their investigations.</p> + +<p>While occupying the chair of Professor of +Physics and Director of the Physical Institute +at Würzburg, Dr. Roentgen made the discovery—in +1895—for which his name is chiefly known—though +his researches led to important advances +in several other departments of physics.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span></p> + +<p>While experimenting with a highly exhausted +vacuum tube on the conductivity of electricity +through gases, Dr. Roentgen noticed that a +paper screen covered with potassium platinocyanide—a +phosphorescent substance—which +chanced to be lying nearby, became fluorescent +under action of some radiation emitted from +the tube, which at the time was enclosed in a +box of black cardboard. Professor Roentgen +then found, by experiment, that this heretofore +unknown radiation had the power to pass +through various substances which are impenetrable +to ordinary light-rays. He found that +if a thick piece of metal—a coin, for example,—were +placed between the tube and a plate +covered with the phosphorescent substances, +a sharp shadow was cast upon the plate. On +the other hand, thin plates of aluminum and +pieces of wood cast only partial shadows.</p> + +<p>Thus was it demonstrated that the rays +which produced the phosphorescence on the +glass of the vacuum tube could penetrate +bodies quite opaque to ordinary light-rays. Like +ordinary light, these rays affected a photographic +plate; but owing to their peculiar behavior +in regard to reflection and refraction, +Roentgen was led to put forward the hypothesis +that the rays were due to longitudinal, rather +than to transverse waves in the “ether.” They<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> +will ionize gases, but they cannot be reflected, +polarized or deflected by a magnetic or electric +field, as are ordinary light-rays. (It has been +shown that the <em>scattered</em> secondary rays show +polarization.)</p> + +<p>Being in doubt as to the real nature of these +penetrating rays, Roentgen called them “X-rays.”</p> + +<p>In 1896 Professor Roentgen was the recipient +of the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society. +This honor was shared by his compatriot +Philipp Lenard. Lenard was the discoverer of +the rays emanating from the outer surface of a +plate composed of (any) material permeable +by cathode rays. By impinging on solids, the +cathode rays (negative electrons) generate X-rays. +“Lenard rays,” which are similar in all +their known properties to cathode rays projected +from the cathode of a vacuum tube, do +not emanate from the cathode. (Unlike the X-rays, +cathode rays may be deflected from their +natural course along “straight lines” by the +application of a magnetic or electric field.) +Professor Lenard, as also Hertz, discoverer of +the now well-known “wireless waves,” had already +demonstrated that a portion of the +cathode rays could pass through a thin film of +a metal such as aluminum.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span></p> + +<p>When Roentgen rays (X-rays) are allowed to +fall upon any substance, the matter emits cathodic +(or secondary Roentgen) rays. “The +characteristic secondary radiation may be compared +with the phosphorescence produced by +ultra-violet light, and the cathodic secondary +rays with the photoelectric effect” (Sir J. J. +Thomson).<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<p>The penetrating power (“hardness”) of these +rays appears to be determined solely by the nature +of the elements in the emitting substance. +The velocity of the cathodic (or secondary +Roentgen) rays seems to be quite independent +of the matter exposed to the primary rays, but +increases as the hardness (penetrating power) +of the primary Roentgen rays increases.</p> + +<p>The <em>character</em> of the emitted rays, in brief, +appears to be quite unaffected by the chemical +or physical condition of the element. Red-hot +iron, for example, exhibits the same characteristic +Roentgen radiation as iron at room temperature.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> +But the <em>penetrating power</em> (hardness) +of this characteristic (emitting) radiation +increases gradually and continuously with +increasing atomic weight of the emitting elements. +The complete independence of the penetrating +power of the characteristic Roentgen +radiation from external surroundings indicates +strongly that it is closely connected with the +nature of the nuclei (“cores”) of the atoms +giving rise to it.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> When ultra-violet light is allowed to fall upon +a metal it causes the metal to emit electrons and +thus to acquire a positive charge, the velocity of +the emitted electrons being exactly proportional to +the frequency of the incident light. Or when light +of X-ray type falls upon the surface of almost any +substance, it takes hold of an electron in the atoms +of that surface and hurls it out into space with a +speed exactly proportional to the wave length of +the light. This phenomenon is known as the photoelectric +effect.</p> +</div> +</div> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span></p> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V<br> +<span class="fs70">ULTRA-VIOLET LIGHT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>That both the compound rays of ordinary +sunlight and ultra-violet rays (“artificial sunlight”) +are highly effective in the treatment of +a number of complaints is now well known. +They are both in general use for the external +treatment of rickets, tuberculosis, and a number +of other diseases. Light-rays are also applied +to hasten the healing of wounds.</p> + +<p>The use of the sun as a healing agent seems +first to have been developed in a scientific way +by Dr. Neils R. Finsen, a young Danish physician +who was later awarded the Nobel Prize +in Medicine. His original researches were undertaken +toward the end of the 19th century. +Then Dr. Rollier opened the first sunlight +clinic in 1903, and in 1910 established his school +at Leysin, in the Alps. Dr. Rollier is now treating +about 1,000 patients, mostly afflicted with +various forms of tuberculosis of the bone. The +sun cure is also used to some extent for pulmonary +tuberculosis, and with considerable success. +(See my <cite>Man’s Debt to the Sun</cite>, Little +Blue Book No. 808, Chapter IV.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span></p> + +<p>According to Dr. Rollier, exposure of the diseased +to the sun’s rays is efficacious in the +treatment of anemia, malnutrition, bone and +gland infections and various types of tuberculosis, +and is a body builder for convalescents. +On the outskirts of San Rafael, California, is +a novel sun sanitarium, Helios Sanitarium, modeled +after the Alpine sanitaria of Dr. Rollier.</p> + +<p>Two investigators have recently studied the +comparative germ-destroying power of the +blood in healthy and ill persons, before and +after exposure to sunlight. It was found that +the germ-killing power of the blood was increased +when the sun bath lasted for a certain +length of time. It was shown that too long or +too short an exposure decreased the blood’s +power. It was decreased also in patients who +had fever. Several other conditions were found +to influence the results. Physicians believe +that several points of practical value may +emerge from these experiments. One important +and useful result is that they offer a new +method to guide and gauge the effects of treatment +in tuberculosis and other diseases.</p> + +<p>The practice of X-ray treatment (since 1910 +included under the more general term <em>radiotherapy</em>) +includes treatment not only by X-rays, +but also by all kinds of rays—treatment by +heat, by the sun’s rays, by ultra-violet rays, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> +even by violet rays. The rays of radioactive +substances used in medicine come under the +etymological term of radiotherapy. But in general +practice, amongst radiologists, the term is +applied to treatment by X-rays alone. Nevertheless, +it is now well established that the +ultra-violet rays are not only bactericidal, but +that they also play an important role in the +treatment of certain diseases, and in the maintenance +of good health. On the other hand, +these rays produce a certain irritability among +persons of the white race in the tropics, which +cannot be regarded as healthful in their general +effects.</p> + +<p>Since the amount of ultra-violet light coming +from the sun has been shown by Abbott to be +variable, it may be that some of the irritability +which seems to be general among the inmates +of our public institutions on certain days is due +to this change in the sun’s outpour of ultra-violet +radiation. As Dr. E. E. Free remarked +not long ago:</p> + +<p>“Put these facts together. Ultra-violet rays +affect life. The amount of ultra-violet coming +from the sun is variable. Does this mean that +some of the obscure, day by day variations of +health can be due to this? Some days everybody +seems happy and cheerful. Other days +everybody is depressed. Still other days are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> +breeders of ‘nerves.’ Maybe the ultra-violet +does it. Maybe not. Doubtless the investigators +will find out presently.”</p> + +<p>Recent experiments at the Maine Agricultural +Experiment Station, conducted under the direction +of Dr. John W. Gowen, have led to the +important discovery that milk from cows that +have been treated with ultra-violet light, from +mercury-vapor quartz lamps, contains a much +larger amount of the substance—presumably a +vitamine, or vitamines—that prevents rickets +in children and young animals. At any rate, +it was found that the milk from cows deprived +of sunlight and ultra-violet light was quite deficient +in the anti-rachitic factor. Animals and +birds fed on the sunless milk uniformly developed +rickets.</p> + +<p>The Holstein-Friesian cows used in the experiments +were of nearly the same age and +calving date and all received like treatment as +to feed, temperature, etc., and stood side by +side in the same barn. “Throughout the treatment,” +says Dr. Gowen, “these cows did not +leave the barn. For one month none of the +cows received ultra-violet light. For the second +month two cows received ultra-violet light 15 +minutes a day, generated from a Cooper-Hewitt +alternating current light at three feet above +their backs. For the third month these cows<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> +received ultra-violet light for 30 minutes a day +under the same conditions. In the meantime +Rhode Island Red chickens were allowed to develop +rickets, shown both clinically and by X-ray +photographs. They were divided into two +lots, one lot of these chickens receiving milk +from the ultra-violet cows, the other of two lots +of chickens, milk from the control cows. Both +lots received all the milk they wished.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The chickens have now been under treatment 50 +days. The lot receiving milk from cows exposed +to ultra-violet light are in good condition with no +appearance of rickets in X-ray plates. The lot receiving +normal milk has moved progressively toward +more extreme clinical and X-ray rickets. The +experiment was repeated, using the milk from these +same cows on White Leghorn chickens showing +clinical and X-ray rickets. Five chickens were in +each lot. After 38 days’ treatment four of the lot +receiving milk from the ultra-violet cows are almost +cured of rickets, showing only a very slight +stiffness. The fifth chicken shows some stiffness. +Four of the lot receiving the normal milk show +constantly increasing symptoms of the more advanced +stages of clinical rickets.</p> + +<p>These results point to the conclusion that more +of the substance necessary to cure rickets is absorbed +by the cow exposed to ultra-violet light and +secreted by her in her milk. The cows prevented +from receiving ultra-violet light are not able to secrete +this anti-rachitic substance in sufficient quantities +to cure or allay the process of clinical rickets. +The results thus point to an environmental factor +transmitted by the cow to her offspring through +the medium of her milk. They further suggest +that the high incidence of rickets in children during +the late winter months is due to their mothers +not receiving ultra-violet light either during pregnancy +or while in lactation. Furthermore, it would +appear that cows’ milk produced especially for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> +baby-feeding should be from cows which have access +to ultra-violet light either from the sun or +from some other source.</p> +</div> + +<p>Dr. C. C. Little of the University of Maine, +and his associates, fully demonstrated the value +of sunlight to animal life through experiments +on a flock of 233 chicks. The chicks were +divided into three groups and all were given the +same diet. One group was kept in natural sunlight, +the second was kept in sunlight that went +through window glass, and the third was given +both natural sunlight and extra ultra-violet +rays produced artificially. The last class grew +the best. The class that got only natural sunlight +grew normally. The class kept behind +window glass all developed bone disease. The +glass of the greenhouse allowed the light of the +sun and the heat of infra-red rays to get +through. But it screened out the ultra-violet +waves.</p> + +<p>The beneficent effects of invisible ultra-violet +rays are seen in both the organism exposed +to them and the food consumed. This is +true whether the rays come direct from the sun +or by means of a quartz lamp. Ordinary glass +lamps prevent the ultra-violet rays from passing +out. But not all kinds of foodstuffs by +any means are favorably affected by the rays. +Only those foods which contain fat seem to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> +materially improved. The value of milk and of +cod liver oil is greatly enhanced by exposure to +the rays. Dr. Benjamin Kramer has been highly +successful in treating babies affected with +rickets by subjecting milk itself to the action +of ultra-violet light.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> + +<p>As early as 1923, it had been shown by feeding +experiments with various types of animals +at the University of Wisconsin that sunlight +was acting either directly upon the animal or +upon its food. The same dietary was found +to produce contradictory results. It was established—especially +by H. Steenbock and E. B. +Hart—that sunlight is indispensable to man +and beast, in that it is the determinant of the +efficiency with which calcium can be assimilated +and retained. (See their report, <cite>Journal +of Biological Chemistry</cite>, Vol. 62, page 577, 1925.) +Calcium, it is pointed out, needs to be conserved +because in proportion to the body needs +it is not found abundantly in foods and feeds. +Steenbock and Hart tell us that sunlight plays +the particular rôle of conservator “by virtue of +its content of ultra-violet radiations of approximately<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> +250 to 302 millimicrons in wave-length, +but unfortunately these are not present in sufficient +degree to provide a wide margin of +safety for the animal. As a result we have +rickets in the young and poor dentition, restricted +lactation, abortion and impoverishment +of the skeleton in lime to a dangerous extent +in the adult.... The ultra-violet rays bring +their effect through the medium of certain compounds +widely distributed in plant and animal +tissue, so that practically any foodstuff can be +‘anti-rachitically’ activated. ‘Make hay while +the sun shines’ is more than a mere poetic +slogan, for hay made in the dark is devoid of +rickets-preventing properties” (<cite>Science</cite>, December +4, 1925).</p> + +<p>The careful experiments of J. S. Hughes +showed that chickens receiving a standard +scratch feed and mash, supplemented with +sprouted oats and buttermilk, developed rickets +(weak legs) when deprived of direct sunlight. +Chicks receiving the same feed but +given sun baths developed normally, although +they were confined in a very small pen, with +little opportunity to exercise. Light from ordinary +electric bulbs had very little, if any, +beneficial action. Light from the Hereus mercury +arc lamp was very beneficial. Cod liver<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> +oil also proved to be effective in preventing +rickets in chickens as in mammals.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<p>That such fats as olive oil and lard may be +activated by exposure to ultra-violet rays and +used as a substitute for cod liver oil in the +treatment of rickets is evidenced by experiments +reported by the Department of Agricultural +Chemistry of the University of Wisconsin. +In the series of experiments now published, +olive oil and lard were exposed to the action of +the ultra-violet rays from a powerful mercury-vapor +quartz lamp, for periods of time ranging +from half an hour to 17 hours.</p> + +<p>After exposure to the rays these fats were +fed to a group of experimental rats in which +rickets had been produced, and the activated +olive oil and lard were found to have the same +beneficial results that follow the administration +of cod liver oil. The weight of the rats increased +and an analysis of the bones showed +an increase in the calcium content.</p> + +<p>Some of the activated olive oil, which had +been stored in a stoppered bottle, showed no +change in potency ten months later. It was +found also that the fats might be activated by +the rays from the open carbon arc, the iron<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> +arc, and sunlight; but that exposure for such +prolonged periods as 17 hours destroyed their +potency. This destruction took place even on +cod liver oil.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> + +<p>It has long been known that human tissue is +more actively changed by light when it has +been “sensitized.” Quinine, esculin, fluoresceine, +etc., are examples of tissue sensitizers, +in addition to their other effects. The most +powerful of all known sensitizers is haemato-porphyrin—or +simply “porphyrin.” This sensitizer +is a purple substance closely allied to the +haemoglobin that gives blood its red color. +Subtracting its iron and albumin from haemoglobin +by appropriate chemical processes leaves +porphyrin. This substance reacts strongly to +the ultra-violet rays, in rare cases causing a +disease which turns the teeth to a deep purple +hue. Victims of this uncommon ailment have +to wear gloves constantly, and when going out +of doors during the day time must put on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> +heavy veils.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Porphyrin is capable of dissolving +the red corpuscles of the most dissimilar +animals in the presence of sunlight. But +neither the haemato-porphyrin nor the light +alone is capable of injuring the animals. Only +the combined effect of the two can harm them. +A physician experimentally injected an exceedingly +minute quantity into himself and then exposed +himself to a moderate light, and became +very ill.</p> + +<p>Hausmann found that even the diffused sunlight +of an early spring day in Vienna was +sufficient to cause the death of white mice +which had been subjected to small quantities +of this strange substance. Dr. E. C. Van Leersum, +of Holland, proved by experiments with +rats that the utilization of lime by our bodies +can be controlled almost at will by this “sensitization”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> +process. Rickets, or a condition +indistinguishable from rickets, can be produced +or cured by proper control of the sensitization.</p> + +<h2><span class="fs70">SUNLIGHT AND INFANTILE PARALYSIS</span></h2> + +<p>An article by Science Service, quoted in +<cite>Science</cite>, September 11, 1925, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Another of the dreaded diseases of childhood, infantile +paralysis, which, like rickets, graduates +large quotas of cripples, has responded to the good +influence of the sun’s rays. Dr. G. Murray Levick, +medical director of the Heritage Craft Schools at +Chailey, Sussex (England), who originated the +treatment, said that no other method has ever had +as good results as this in the treatment of infantile +paralysis.</p> + +<p>Dr. Levick first deduced that neurasthenia in +grown-ups and rickets in the young are due to the +same cause. Both these diseases, he claims, are +nutritional disturbances of the nerve centers affecting +the bones in the young, and the nervous +systems in the old. The action of sunlight on the +skin forms a substance which is carried into the +blood and feeds the nerve centers as well as the +bones. His success in treating neurasthenia with +sun’s rays led him to apply it to cases of infantile +paralysis, a disease which is a severe shock to the +nervous system and which results in muscular +atrophy. Under the action of sunlight a renutrition +of nerve centers takes place.</p> + +<p>Synthetic sunlight produced by him with an electric +arc light of his own invention proved as good +as natural sunlight, and could be better regulated +to the patient’s endurance. He used two distinct +kinds of light-rays, the short ultra-violet rays for +nerve nutrition, and the long red and infra-red +rays for muscle treatment. Red rays, as can be +seen when the hand is held up against the sunlight, +penetrate the flesh to a considerable extent, +and can therefore stimulate the sleeping muscle.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span></p> + +<p>Dr. Levick warns that immediate success must +not be expected. He has found constant improvement +where short daily treatments were continued +over a period of several years. While the method +may not be effective in extreme cases, it is nevertheless +a test which will soon show after a few +treatments whether any rejuvenation of the nerve +fiber is taking place.</p> +</div> + +<p>It is now admitted that the (red) heat-waves +may play some part in heliotherapy—exposure +to direct sunlight for medical purposes. Dr. +Lazarus-Barlow, Professor of Experimental +Pathology in the University of London, concludes +that even though heat-rays may also +play some part in curative processes, “experience +of the treatment of wounds by sunlight +in France during the World War indicated that +a degree of benefit arises from exposure to sunlight +which cannot be attributable to warmth +and ultra-violet rays. On the other hand, in +the Finsen light treatment of lupus (a tubercular +affection of the skin of the face, occurring +in several forms) and in the treatment of +tuberculosis at high altitudes, ultra-violet rays +play a predominant part.”</p> + +<p>As the ultra-violet rays penetrate but a fraction +of a millimeter into the epithelium, “it is +uncertain how the rays act.” The suggestion +is here ventured that since the recently discovered +Millikan Rays are particularly powerful +under the same conditions that make application<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> +of the ultra-violet rays practicable as +a therapeutic agency, it may later be found +that these highly penetrating rays, of exceedingly +short wave length, aid greatly in effecting +some of the cures now attributed wholly to +the longer (and less penetrating) ultra-violet +rays or the much shorter X-rays.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> + +<p>Professor Lazarus-Barlow calls attention to +the fact that it is precisely those tubercular +persons who tan easily who are said to derive +the greatest benefit from a sojourn at high +altitude.</p> + +<p>Very remarkable is a recently adopted machine +which “pours ultra-violet light through +a funnel down the throat of a patient.” The +new apparatus, first used in London, is employed +for treatment of various mouth and +throat diseases, “thus making it possible for +patients to take internal baths of artificial sunlight” +(<cite>Science</cite>, February 26, 1926).</p> + +<p>In England, where the sky is so often overclouded, +it is natural that much attention has +been given to ultra-violet ray therapy. A recent +press dispatch tells us:</p> + +<p>“London recently had 23 consecutive days on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> +which no beam of the sun could force its way +through the mantle of cloud and fog which +spread over that section of England. Now the +Britons are making artificial suns that may +be available for both indoor and outdoor illumination. +Arc lights throwing powerful ultra-violet +rays are being installed in beauty shops +and hotels, and patrons are given opportunity +to bathe their bodies in this brilliance. These +rays are being billed as more potent than sun +baths, and citizens who have small chance to +see the orb of day get their sunshine and their +medicine at one swoop.”</p> + +<p>Two Indian scientists, S. S. Bhatnagar and +R. B. Lal, of the University of the Punjab, +Lahore, discovered in 1925 that germs grow +faster when exposed to “polarized” light than +to ordinary light. (Ordinary light—according +to the undulatory theory—is due to vibrations +transverse to the direction of the ray, but varying +so rapidly as to show no particular direction +of their own, the fronts of the light-waves +crisscrossing at all angles. When, by any +means, these vibrations are given a definite +direction, the light is said to be <em>polarized</em>, the +fronts of the waves being all arranged in the +same direction, though the path of the rays +may be plane, elliptical, circular, or rotary, according +to the method of polarization employed.)</p> + +<p>The Indian experimenters took cultures of +the germs of typhoid fever and cholera, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span> +exposed one set to ordinary light, and another +to a beam of polarized light. The latter multiplied +much faster than did the germs under +ordinary light.</p> + +<p>It was demonstrated in 1925 by Dr. Elizabeth +S. Semmens, of Bedford College, London, +that the digestion of starch takes place more +readily under polarized light than in ordinary +light.</p> + +<p>Prolonged exposure to the ultra-violet rays +will destroy any germs known to science. +(Cathode rays—which are shorter than ultra-violet +rays—will kill not only germs, but insects +as well, by means of a device developed +by Prof. W. D. Coolidge.)</p> + +<p>“Bacteria,” says Dr. Coolidge, “have been +rayed, and an exposure of a tenth of a second +has been found sufficient to kill even highly +resistant bacterial spores. Fruit flies, upon +being rayed for a small fraction of a second, +instantly showed almost complete collapse, and +in a few hours were dead.”</p> + +<p>This may lead to the application of cathode +rays as a germicide, but their effect on higher +forms of life shows that their unskilled use +would be most dangerous. For example, Dr. +Coolidge relates:</p> + +<p>“The ear of a rabbit was rayed over a circular +area one centimeter in diameter for one +second. After several days a scab formed +which fell off a few days later, taking the hair +with it. Two weeks later a profuse growth +of snow-white hair started which soon became +much longer than the original gray hair. Another +area was rayed for 50 seconds. In this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> +case, scabs developed on both sides of the ear, +which scabs later fell out, leaving a hole. The +edge of this hole is now covered with snow-white +hair.”</p> + +<p>A very interesting problem to scientists relates +to the question as to whether or not insects +are color-blind. It may be that we now +have at least a partial answer to this vexed +question, and in terms of ultra-violet radiations.</p> + +<p>Dr. Frank E. E. Germann, of Cornell University, +calls attention to some recent experiments +which show conclusively that at least +one kind of insects (flies) have a range of +vision in the ultra-violet, just as we have in the +visible spectrum. It was also made “perfectly +evident that flowers do have their characteristic +ultra-violet radiations” (<cite>Science</cite>, March +26, 1926, page 325). It is due “to our own +egotism that we call the insect color-blind.”</p> + +<p>A given type of insect might in reality be +visiting flowers of the same color as far as it +was concerned, while to us it appeared to be +visiting flowers of all colors. “Might not two +flowers, one red and one blue, both give out the +same group of wave lengths in the ultra-violet, +and thus be identical in color to an insect seeing +only the ultra-violet? Moreover, what is to +prevent two different kinds of red flowers from +giving out two entirely different sets of wave +lengths in the ultra-violet, and thus appearing +to have entirely different colors to an insect?”</p> + +<p>In a very real sense, science is only at the +beginning of the discoveries it will yet make in +its investigations of the nature and action of +ultra-violet, cathode and X-rays.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> It is interesting to note in this connection that +Kuzelmass and McQuarrie have suggested that oxidation +of cod liver oil gives rise to ultra-violet radiation. +(See <cite>Science</cite>, September 19, 1924.)</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Paper read before the 66th meeting of the American +Chemical Society, held in Milwaukee, Wis., +September 10th to 14th, 1923.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Dr. Harriette Chick and her co-workers of the +Vienna University Child Clinic discovered, first, +that the action of cod liver oil on the bone-lesions +of rickets has an exact parallel in that of the ultra-violet +rays of sunlight, or of the rays from a mercury-vapor +quartz lamp; and, second, that the oil +and the rays were effective substitutes the one for +the other. See my <cite>Man’s Debt to the Sun</cite>, Little +Blue Book No. 808, page 49.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> The only creature that has porphyrin as part +of its normal body-covering is a tropical bird called +the touraco, parts of whose feathers are dyed a +brilliant red by a porphyrin-copper compound +known as turacin. This pigment is remarkable also +because it seems to be the only normal occurrence +of copper as a coloring compound in feathers or +skin. Turacin is soluble in weak alkali, so that +when it rains and the bird comes into contact with +such alkaline solutes as frequently occur in nature, +the turacin bleaches out! Although porphyrin is +rare as a normal coloring in adult animals, it is +the commonest pigment found in the shells of birds’ +eggs. Almost all eggs, from the hen’s brown to the +robin’s blue, contain it.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> The length of the very short X-rays was accurately +determined by a new method developed by +Compton and Doan in 1925, and was found to be +about three billionths of an inch.</p> + +</div> +</div> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter transnote"> +<h2 class="nobreak bold fs150" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> + +<ul><li>pg 19 Changed: In March, 1923, Dr. I. Seth Hirsh<br> +<span style="padding-left: 2em">to: In March, 1923, Dr. I. Seth Hirsch</span></li> + +<li>pg 42 Changed: unable to refer to their soure<br> +<span style="padding-left: 2em">to: unable to refer to their source</span></li> +</ul> +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75150 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/75150-h/images/cover.jpg b/75150-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ae2852d --- /dev/null +++ b/75150-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. 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