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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75419 ***
+
+
+
+
+
+  TEN CENT POCKET SERIES NO. 430
+  Edited by E. Haldeman-Julius
+
+  Poultry for Profit
+
+  R. A. Power
+  B. S. in Agriculture
+
+
+  HALDEMAN-JULIUS COMPANY
+  GIRARD, KANSAS
+
+
+
+
+  Copyright, 1923,
+  Haldeman-Julius Company.
+
+
+
+
+POULTRY FOR PROFIT
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE OUTLOOK
+
+
+When a business reaches the billion dollar mark per year, it is
+generally looked into by thinking people who like to know the facts of
+the case, and who want to know just why the business has reached such
+large proportions. In this little booklet I will endeavor to explain
+not only why the poultry business has grown so rapidly, but will also
+reveal the most important secrets that have contributed largely to
+its rapid growth, so that whether the reader is a farmer, a town lot
+fancier, or a student of economics, he or she will gain much by the
+reading and the studying of the principles involved.
+
+The high cost of living has forced many people to economize to the
+limit, and reduce the family budget to the minimum. People in the small
+towns and villages, especially, have sought various ways of increasing
+their earnings, and one of the most popular methods resorted to has
+been to raise a few chickens, thus utilizing the table scraps, and odds
+and ends, so that there will be no waste. It has been proved beyond a
+shadow of a doubt that chickens can be raised profitably by the person
+living in town, as well as by the farmer with his vast acres, providing
+the townsman knows a few essential principles in regard to the proper
+handling of the birds.
+
+Poultry products are becoming popular more than ever before. This
+is due in part to the increased price of beef and pork. Eggs are an
+established part of the nation’s menu, while the meat of the chicken is
+now within the means of most American families. Since these facts are
+recognized, there has been a revolution in the poultry industry itself
+to cope with the increased demand for eggs, meat, and breeding stock.
+
+Many city people have taken advantage of the opportunity of raising
+chickens, and many an old packing box, or piano box has been relieved
+of its original purpose of encasing furniture, or other articles, and
+has done its bit to act as part of a shelter for housing some back-yard
+lot of chickens. What has been done, can be done, and inasmuch as the
+value of the egg, or the carcass of the bird still maintains its high
+standard on the market, it stands to reason that the poultry industry
+is still in its infancy. Much more will be done in the future than has
+been done in the past.
+
+Consequently, there is still one industry that is not overcrowded,
+despite the great number who have taken it up, either as a vocation, or
+as an avocation. When it is considered that New York City alone cannot
+get enough eggs to supply the demand during the fall and winter months,
+and is willing to pay, and pay dearly for breakfast eggs, and that the
+vicinity of Pataluma, Cal., finds it profitable to ship its eggs across
+the continent to put them on the New York market, it can be seen quite
+clearly that there are excellent possibilities in poultry, even in just
+a small back yard flock.
+
+The remainder of this booklet will be devoted to showing the ordinary
+layman, who has had no previous knowledge or experience, how he can
+take a small flock, or a large flock, and turn it into pleasure and
+profit. However, one word of caution is necessary. Let no one attempt
+to venture upon a poultry enterprise on a big scale at first. History
+has shown countless failures in such attempts, and history has a way of
+repeating itself. It is always wiser to start moderately, and work into
+it gradually. This method always proves successful if common sense and
+moderation are exhibited.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE POULTRY BREEDS
+
+
+Before attempting to discuss the methods of raising poultry it is
+deemed advisable to first take up a discussion of the different breeds
+and their characteristics. Outside of a few fancy breeds, that are
+raised more for curiosity or show purposes, we usually think of the
+breeds of poultry as three distinct classes.
+
+The first of these three classes that we will take up for discussion
+is what is termed the egg breed. This breed is usually represented by
+such birds as the Leghorn, Ancona, Campine, Minorca, or the Houdan.
+Of these five breeds, the Leghorn and the Minorca are by far the most
+popular. There are different varieties of all these breeds, but the
+White Leghorn, and the Black Minorca are much more popular in their
+respective breeds than are any other variety. The other breeds are
+found scattered here and there, but the Leghorn and Minorca are easily
+the leading egg breeds. Both of these breeds have many birds with
+yearly records of over 300 eggs per year. Next let us consider a few of
+the important characteristics of these egg breeds.
+
+These breeds are small, light of weight, very active, and very hard to
+confine in a small inclosure. The average adult bird of these breeds
+weighs about four pounds. They are neat and attractive in appearance,
+have clean shanks, and have large head parts, which are much more
+susceptible to being frosted in cold weather, than the other breeds.
+
+The egg production of the egg breed is of the best. As has been stated,
+there are a great number of birds in this class that have records of
+over 300 eggs per year. Their eggs are white shelled, of good size,
+and rather long. However the meat of these birds, especially when
+matured, is very tough, and the active disposition of the egg breeds
+do not allow them to put on surplus flesh as with the other class of
+birds. Quick maturity is characteristic of the egg breeds, however, and
+because of this fact, they make excellent small broilers when but a few
+months old. But it is useless to put them on the market for meat when
+mature, as they will not fatten like the heavier breeds.
+
+The disposition of these breeds, as has been said, is active, nervous,
+and hard to confine. Therefore, for the person with a small lot on
+which to raise chickens, it would be well to choose a heavier breed
+that stands confinement better than these breeds. These birds are
+active in the house in winter, or on the range in summer, and owing to
+their natural tendency to roam, they are always uneasy when confined
+to a small yard. They also have excellent powers of flight, and can
+usually fly over a fence unless the fence is about eight feet high.
+
+The egg breed, owing to the activity so characteristic to such breeds,
+makes poor sitters and mothers. It is very seldom that a fowl of these
+breeds can content herself to sit on a nest of eggs three weeks, which
+is the time required to hatch the eggs. Their eggs are usually hatched
+under a general purpose hen, or with an incubator. They make poor
+mothers, because they usually like to roam too far to properly look
+after their young.
+
+Another point in favor of the egg breeds, however, is their early
+maturity. Usually these birds will mature in close to four months. This
+allows them plenty of time to get into laying condition in the fall,
+before cold weather starts, and birds that can lay eggs during the
+months of November and December are certainly an asset, as eggs always
+bring the highest prices on the market during these two months.
+
+These birds will live on less feed than any other class because of
+their small size, and their great foraging ability. However, these
+breeds are not as hardy as the heavier breeds, and will not stand
+the cold as well, because of their lack of feathers, and large combs
+and wattles. These large head parts are easily frost bitten in cold
+weather, and when this happens the birds generally stop laying until
+they have recovered from the setback. With these few words on the egg
+breed characteristics, let us next consider the general purpose breed.
+
+When we speak of general purpose breeds, we usually mean one of four
+different breeds. The Plymouth Rock, Rhode Island Red, Orpington, and
+the Wyandotte are the four leading breeds of this class. Then there
+are quite a few different varieties of each of these four breeds, such
+as the Barred Rock, the White Rock, the Buff Rock, etc. These breeds
+are very good both as egg birds, and for meat purposes, and find favor
+where ever they go. I will attempt to analyze their characteristics,
+bringing out their strong points and their weak points, as I have
+already done with the egg breeds.
+
+These breeds have been developed for egg production, and as a result,
+have many birds in the 300 egg class, as well as the strictly egg
+breeds. If any are to be disposed of, they have the ability to put
+on flesh and to bring a good price on the market for meat. When one
+realizes that usually one half of a hatch of chickens are males, and
+the other half females, it can be easily seen that the general purpose
+bird has an advantage, in the sale of the male birds, and of the
+surplus females, as they can be fed fattening feeds, and a good profit
+made from this source.
+
+The general purpose birds make excellent mothers and sitters. They
+have a broody disposition, and will set on the nest the required three
+weeks to hatch the chickens. They will also take care of their young as
+a parent should. In fact, one of the criticisms of this class of birds
+is that they are too broody, and are a nuisance in this particular.
+They are far more quiet than the egg breeds, and stand confinement with
+no apparent discomforture. They make an ideal bird for the back lot.
+
+These birds are fairly good foragers, but take a little more feed to
+maintain their upkeep than do the egg breeds. They have smaller head
+parts than the egg breeds, and a heavier coating of flesh and feathers
+thus enabling them to withstand cold weather much better than the egg
+breeds.
+
+These breeds, in most cases, have yellow shanks, long well rounded
+bodies, and weigh about six pounds at maturity. They are not as nervous
+or as active as the egg breeds, but require a month or two longer to
+mature and to get into laying condition, than the egg breeds.
+
+We will close this discussion on breed characteristics with a few words
+on the meat breeds. There are four generally recognized meat breeds.
+These are the Brahams, Cochins, Langshans, and the Cornish Game, with
+their several varieties. The adult meat bird usually weighs about
+eight pounds, but the male birds weigh even more than this, sometimes
+reaching twelve pounds or more. These birds are rather awkward and
+clumsy, in fact, so much so that they make poor sitters, as their
+awkwardness often causes them to break the eggs in the nest. They have
+an abundance of feathers and meat on their body, which makes them easy
+to winter. Generally speaking, the heavier the bird, the poorer the
+laying ability, and this is true with the meat breeds. They do not lay
+a very large number of eggs during the year, being raised mostly for
+their flesh, which is unsurpassed for table purposes. As is the custom
+with heavy animals, the meat birds are lazy and sluggish, do not roam
+far for their food, and consume a comparatively large amount of grain
+for this reason. The meat breeds take a longer period of time to gain
+maturity than any other class, the average time being about eight
+months. As has been said, they are primarily a meat breed, and it is
+for this purpose that they are mostly used. They do lay eggs, however,
+and about 100 eggs per year is a good average. They, like the general
+purpose breed, lay a brown shelled egg, while the egg breeds lay a
+white shelled egg, which brings a higher price on every market in the
+country but the Boston market. The brown shelled egg brings the higher
+price on the Boston market.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+GETTING A START
+
+
+We have now discussed quite minutely the good and bad points of the
+three main classes of birds. Each class, and each breed has its merits
+and demerits. The one who wants to make a start in raising poultry
+should choose the breed that appeals to his likes the most, and the
+one that he can realize the most success with, under the conditions
+that he will have to raise them. There is no best breed, whether it is
+chickens, cows, or hogs. They all have their good points, and their
+weak ones. It is up to each individual to pick the breed that appeals
+to him the most.
+
+Granted that you have pretty near decided the breed that you want to
+use, let us see how we can secure our first birds, if we have none as
+yet to start with. There are generally three different ways in which
+we can secure our foundation stock. The first way is by buying adult
+birds and mating them, and raising the resulting chicks. Another way is
+by purchasing hatching eggs, either from a neighbor or from a regular
+breeder or hatchery. The third way is by buying day-old chicks from
+the various hatcheries, and raising these to maturity. Let us consider
+each of these methods separately, and thereby inform ourselves on the
+advantages and disadvantages of each method.
+
+In selecting adult birds for breeding purposes, and thus relying on
+these birds to produce the hatching eggs, a few points are necessary
+to bear in mind, if one wants the best results. As these birds are to
+be the foundation of your future flock, don’t buy them too hastily,
+and also do not try to buy the cheapest birds that you can find on the
+market, as you usually get just what you pay for. Therefore, the first
+thing to do is to look through poultry papers, farm weeklies, etc., or
+to inquire locally from some neighboring breeder, and find out just
+what it will cost you for adult females. Having the desired breed in
+mind, it would be advisable to post yourself on the qualifications,
+and the disqualifications of this particular breed. Standard weight
+for the breed is an important consideration in this connection. If the
+standard weight for an adult female is five pounds, try to get females
+that weigh around six pounds. These qualifications can be found for
+every breed in the American Standard of Perfection, a book published by
+the American Poultry Association, and found in most libraries. Another
+very important factor is the health of the birds. No birds should
+be used for breeding purposes that have ever had any of the common
+poultry diseases, such as roup, chicken pox, etc., as their resulting
+chicks will also have a tendency toward this disease. Select nothing
+but healthy, vigorous birds, of standard weight and color, free from
+disease, of good body conformation, and not less than one year old.
+When pullets, or birds of less than a year old, are used for breeding,
+the result is a small egg, which hatches out a small, under-sized
+chick.
+
+If you can get in touch with your State College of Agriculture, they
+can usually inform you of some reliable breeder who can furnish you
+with the kind of birds you want. In selecting the cockerels, or male
+birds, one very good way is to buy them from an unrelated flock, and
+buy some that are especially strong where the females are weak. For
+instance, if the females that you have purchased are a little light in
+color, it would be advisable to secure males that are a little darker
+in color than the standard calls for. It is never advisable to mate
+more than ten females with one male, because if more are mated, the
+fertility of the eggs will suffer. Many successful breeders even use
+two male birds with a pen of ten females, alternating one male in the
+breeding pen every other day. Thus the fertility of the hatching egg is
+doubly assured.
+
+A cheaper method of securing the foundation stock is in buying the
+hatching eggs, but not quite as satisfactory as the first method.
+These eggs are usually sold by the sitting, amounting to fifteen
+eggs, or by the hundred. When buying by the sitting, one buys from a
+regular breeder, and pays anywhere from $1.50 up to as high as $50 per
+sitting. It is not advisable for the beginner to pay either of these
+extremes, but to plan to buy eggs not over $5 per setting. Then as you
+progress in the business, you can purchase males to mate with your
+females to gradually improve your flock. This method necessitates the
+use of an incubator, unless you can arrange with some friend who will
+loan you the use of his incubator. Of course, if you already have some
+mature birds, even of a different breed, you can set these eggs under
+these birds, when they become broody in the spring, and secure even a
+larger hatch than you can from the use of an incubator. Generally, a
+mature bird can set on about fifteen eggs, and hatch every fertile egg
+in the sitting. A more detailed discussion on incubation will be given
+in the next chapter.
+
+The third way that one can secure a start in the poultry business, is
+by buying day-old chicks. This is an industry that has grown by leaps
+and bounds in the last few years. The price generally charged for these
+day-old chicks is twice as much as is charged for the hatching eggs. A
+fair price for 100 day-old chicks is from $15 to $20. Of course, the
+quality of these chicks is inferior to the higher priced sittings of
+eggs, but if one is not so particular as to type and show purposes,
+this method is very satisfactory. The day-old chick business is
+founded upon the principle that it is not advisable to feed the chick
+for the first forty-eight hours of its life, because just before the
+chick emerges from the shell, it absorbs the remainder of the yolk of
+the egg, and it is exceedingly dangerous to feed the chick any food
+during that period, as the chick will be sure to experience digestive
+troubles, if any thing besides water and grit is given to the chicks
+for the first two days. Therefore, these chicks are placed in a well
+ventilated box and sent by parcel post often as far as a thousand
+miles, with no loss in mortality. For one that has no incubator or
+mature hens, this offers a very satisfactory method of starting out
+in the chicken business. There are commercial hatcheries all over the
+country that make a business of purchasing hatching eggs from raisers
+of purebred poultry, and hatching these eggs in mammoth incubators,
+selling the chicks as soon as hatched, in the manner described.
+
+Thus, the one interested in getting a start in poultry has an option
+on either of these three ways. The local circumstances of the purchaser
+will largely determine which method will be the best. But which ever
+method is used, let me caution you that too much care can not be given
+in finding a source that is perfectly honorable in their business
+dealings, as there has been in the past a considerable amount of unfair
+dealing on the part of some dealers in the poultry business, but I
+am glad to say that these people are fast being weeded out, and the
+tendency is now for honest, upright dealings in all three branches of
+the industry, as the dishonest people have found that their methods
+forced them out of the business. Not everybody will be independent of
+the incubator, however, so we will next discuss something in regard
+to the commercial incubator, also including and comparing the natural
+incubation of the egg.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+INCUBATION
+
+
+In order to get a better idea of artificial incubation, let us first
+examine a few facts concerning the way in which the hen hatches her
+eggs in the natural process. The fertile egg is hatched when the egg
+is subjected to a heat over 100 degrees, F., for a period of about
+twenty-one days. The mother hen, by setting on the eggs for this
+period, will bring off her hatch on the twenty-first day, if she has
+been given ordinary care. Let us see what are the principles involved
+in this natural incubation, that we may the better understand the
+artificial method of incubation.
+
+When the hen first becomes broody, and wants to sit, she might try to
+“steal her nest.” This is another way of saying that she will try to
+locate some secluded spot, and after she has succeeded in laying a
+dozen or fifteen eggs, she will then spend nearly her entire time on
+the nest, until she proudly marches back to her old haunts with a small
+clutch of chickens.
+
+It is a natural instinct of most hens to become broody in the spring
+of the year, to reproduce their kind. A constant desire to sit on the
+nest is a sure sign of broodiness. When one has the eggs to put under
+the hen to hatch, it is best first to try to secure a general purpose
+bird for this method, as they have been found the best, for reasons
+previously stated.
+
+Now let us prepare a nest for the bird, so that she will have a good
+opportunity to do her best work. We can either partition off a part
+of the chicken house, or we can fix up a nest in another building
+entirely, such as a garage, barn, or any other building that we may
+have on the premises. Next let us take some soil, and make a round
+nest, over a foot in diameter, and four or five inches deep. Then we
+will dig out the center of the nest, so as to make it hollow in the
+middle, leaving at least two inches depth in the center. Then we will
+cover this earth with a few inches of cut straw, shavings, or leaves,
+and press this covering down to conform to the shape of the soil
+foundation. We can now place our eggs for hatching in the nest, and put
+the bird on them. However, best results will be obtained if we wait
+until towards evening before we place the bird on the nest, as she will
+be more contented then. Take the bird that you have chosen and place
+her gently upon the nest of eggs. If she is at all broody, she will be
+quite contented when she feels the eggs underneath her, and settle down
+to business at once. The hen should spend practically all of the next
+three weeks upon the nest, the only time that she should be allowed to
+leave being the short time that she takes food and water twice a day.
+Having a quiet place, and giving her nourishment twice a day, she will
+be quite contented. The hen does not need any special ration during
+this time, other than one that is fairly heating. Corn is excellent
+during this period, supplemented with a few other grains, such as oats,
+wheat, etc. A sufficient amount of fresh water should be available,
+together with some kind of green food, if possible, such as cabbage or
+mangoes. The hatch will not be endangered by the hen leaving the nest
+to eat. In fact, it is beneficial to the eggs to be temporarily cooled,
+at least once a day, while the hen is off the nest for a while.
+
+The hen has a habit of turning the eggs under her every day, not only
+removing their position from the center to the outside, and vice
+versa, but also turning them over, so that perhaps the part of the egg
+that was in contact with the nest one day, will be in contact with
+the hen’s body the next day. Or, in other words, she turns it half
+way around. These are all peculiarities that we have to imitate in
+artificial incubation, if we would be successful. Now that we have seen
+the process of the natural method of incubation, let us see how the
+ingenuity of man has successfully imitated the mother hen, and made
+possible the hatching of a far greater number of chicks than the hen
+can naturally hatch.
+
+In the first place, there are a great many incubators on the market,
+some being made to sell, and others being made to use. How shall we
+determine the make to buy? That is not the easiest question in the
+world, if one has had no previous experience with incubators. Do not
+necessarily buy the incubator that is advertised the most. Sometimes
+incubator companies have to advertise extensively to do a sufficient
+volume of business. The safest way to choose an incubator, if you
+really intend to purchase one, is to get the advice of some one
+who is using one, and has had success with the machine that he has
+used. Some of the cheaper makes have the trouble of too varying a
+temperature, especially during the night. If one has to arise five or
+six times a night for three weeks to regulate the lamp to maintain a
+constant temperature, then the incubator is more bother than it is
+worth. Therefore, find out the makes of incubators that are giving
+satisfaction in your own community, if you are intending to purchase
+one, and then send for one of a similar make. However, if you have not
+enough eggs to warrant purchasing one, then try to arrange with someone
+to loan you one, or to put your eggs in with some of theirs, so as to
+eliminate this expense.
+
+There are in general two types of incubators, the hot water and the
+hot air, the latter being quite the more popular of the two. There
+are several different sizes of incubators, ranging from a fifty egg
+capacity up to a thousand egg capacity machine. An incubator with a
+hundred egg capacity is usually sufficiently large enough for the
+small poultry keeper. By running three or four hatches during the same
+season, a good number of chicks can be hatched.
+
+There are a few requirements that must be fulfilled to realize the
+best results from an incubator. First and foremost, always follow the
+instructions that come with the incubator. The manufacturers of the
+incubator know more about their incubator than you do. Another thing
+that should be borne in mind is that you must not expect every egg
+that is placed in the incubator to produce a chick. A very good hatch
+is about 75 per cent. Of course, this varies considerably, ranging all
+the way from nothing to as high as sometimes 100 per cent. Usually one
+can reasonably expect as high as a 60 per cent hatch, at least, and
+very often it goes considerably higher, according to the conditions
+under which it is run.
+
+Moisture is a prime essential for the proper running of an incubator,
+and this should be provided for. If possible, arrange to run the
+incubator in a cellar, or some damp place. This can be aided, by
+sprinkling water on the floor, etc. Care must be exercised in running
+the incubator that fire is guarded against, and some insurance
+companies make special provisions in their policies for such occasions,
+and make a slightly higher charge for their policies, because of the
+danger.
+
+Another essential condition for a successful hatch with the incubator
+is proper ventilation. Most machines are provided with something
+for the admission of fresh air. It is also necessary that the room
+containing the incubator be aired frequently to admit fresh air, but
+not in such a manner that the eggs will become chilled, or that
+too much air will be admitted so as to carry off the moisture. Most
+incubators carry proper directions so as to provide against this danger.
+
+The third condition necessary for proper running of the incubator is
+the maintenance of a constant temperature. It is usually advisable to
+have the temperature about 102 degrees F. the first week, 103 degrees
+the second week, and 104 degrees the third week. Any serious deviation
+from 103 degrees will result in a poor hatch.
+
+Now, then we will conclude this chapter with a few pointers on running
+the incubator during the hatching period. It is always well to run the
+incubator a day or two empty, so as to get the idea of how to best
+maintain the required temperature. Clean the lamp thoroughly before
+running, and then during the hatch, always tend to the lamp after the
+eggs have been turned, and never before, because if the hands are
+smeared with kerosene, some of this is bound to be left on the shells,
+which will result in a poor hatch. Do not allow the lamp to be in a
+draft, and clean the wick every day, so as to prevent the lamp from
+smoking.
+
+After the first few days, the eggs should be turned at least once a
+day, and even better, twice a day. This is to imitate the mother hen,
+who does this on the nest. If the eggs are not turned, then the embryo
+of the chick will adhere to the shell of the egg, and either die, or be
+crippled beyond hope.
+
+We must imitate the mother hen again in the artificial incubation of
+chicks, in regard to cooling. We saw in the previous chapter, how the
+hen leaves her nest occasionally to take food and water, with no ill
+effects on the hatch. Likewise we must cool the eggs in the incubator.
+This can usually best be accomplished while turning the eggs. Five or
+ten minutes a day are usually sufficient for the proper cooling, unless
+it is near the end of the hatch, when twenty or thirty minutes can be
+used for this purpose with safety.
+
+On the seventh and the fourteenth day, it is a good plan to test the
+eggs in the incubator, so that the infertile eggs may be removed. This
+is done by a process known as candling. Hold each egg up in front of a
+light and note the appearance of the interior of the egg. This can be
+done by making a hole in a box, that will fit over a light or lamp, and
+then holding the eggs up to the light, showing through the hole, which
+should be in line with the flame. If the egg appears clear, free from
+any dark spots, then the egg can be taken out of the incubator, as it
+is not fertile, and will not hatch. However, if the egg shows a dark
+spot, about the size of a bean, and you can detect small blood vessels
+running from it, then you may be assured that the egg is coming along
+in good shape, and will hatch out in due time.
+
+With these points well in mind, one will have little difficulty in
+properly running an incubator, providing he has a reliable machine to
+begin with. Of the matters considered in this chapter, probably the
+most important factor of all is the constant maintenance of a uniform
+temperature. Now, then, let us consider that the chicks are pipping the
+shells and are ready to start out in life. We will therefore consider
+the care of the chicks in the next chapter, until they are able to care
+for themselves.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+BROODING
+
+
+Whether we hatched the eggs by means of an incubator, or bought the
+day-old chicks, if we have no mother hen to care for the chicks after
+they are hatched, we must take care of them ourselves. This is called
+the brooding period. Unless the hatch is quite late, which, by the way,
+is not desirable, we will have to arrange to supply some cheap, simple
+form of artificial heat, to prevent the young chickens from getting
+chilled. This is accomplished in several different ways, but we will
+only discuss the more common ways here.
+
+There are several different makes of readymade brooders on the market,
+but one can in a few hours spare time, construct a brooder that will
+answer the purpose. The chief part of the brooder is the source of
+heat. Usually these heaters can be bought for a few dollars, and placed
+in a good box supplied with a little litter on the bottom.
+
+A common arrangement with brooder equipments is to have two
+compartments, one where a hover is placed, and the rest of the
+brooder constituting a run for the chicks. The two compartments are
+usually partitioned off from each other, allowing just enough room
+at the bottom of the partition to allow the chicks to pass from one
+compartment to the other. In the hover compartment is placed the
+heater, and a metal canopy, so that the heat will be held down close to
+the floor, where the chicks are located. At first, the chicks should be
+confined to this hover entirely, because they are liable to get lost if
+they wander away from the hover, and consequently die from chilling.
+The temperature of the hover compartment during the first week should
+be about 96 degrees F., and each succeeding week it should be lowered
+by at least two degrees. This can be done by controlling the lamp,
+or what ever heater is used, or by gradually raising or lowering the
+canopy over the chicks. This method gradually toughens the chicks up,
+so that they can soon be let out doors. After the first week or so,
+they should be encouraged to get out into the other compartment for
+exercise, as this will aid in making them hardy. After the first few
+weeks of the life of the chicks are past, they will need less care and
+attention. These first few weeks are the critical weeks of the bird’s
+life. After the chicks get accustomed to the temperature out in the
+run of the brooder, it is advisable to cut a small hole at the run end
+of the brooder box, so that on pleasant days they can run outside on
+the ground around the brooder. In this case, however, they must not be
+allowed to run very far at first, and only for a short while until they
+gradually become accustomed to the practice.
+
+Another important consideration in raising the young chick to maturity
+is the matter of food. Probably no other thing is responsible for such
+a high mortality in young chicks, as is improper feeding. We have
+learned in a previous chapter that it is exceedingly dangerous to feed
+the chick anything in the line of food for the first two days of its
+life. Many people are afraid the chicks will die if not fed immediately
+after hatching, and hasten to feed the chick all that it will eat.
+Unless the chick is endowed with a wonderful digestive system, it
+will succumb to this over-feeding through digestive disorders. It
+is permissible to put a little grit before the chick at this time,
+because the chick has no teeth, and never will have, so they eat the
+grit, and this grit passes down to the gizzard, which grinds the food
+in place of grinding with the teeth, as with other animals. Fresh
+water is also good for the chick during this period, as the water
+quenches their thirst, and makes them livelier. Towards the end of the
+second day, it is well to feed the chick a little sour skim milk, or
+buttermilk. Sour milk is superior to the sweet milk for two reasons.
+First, the sour skim milk has bacteria that aid in digestion, and
+secondly, it will be found that it will be hard to keep the milk sweet
+all the time, and by feeding sweet milk part of the time, and then
+letting it become sour, digestive troubles are liable to develop.
+Hence, by having it sour all the time, no danger from this source will
+be experienced.
+
+Now, we are ready to consider what kind of grain we shall feed the
+chick. On the third day we can start to feed a little grain. What is
+known as pinhead oatmeal is very good to start the young chick out on.
+Some feed hard boiled eggs and dried bread for the first feeding with
+good results. It is important to note that only enough of this first
+solid food should be fed that they can clean up in a short time. Keep
+them hungry, and remember that it is much safer to under feed than to
+over feed.
+
+For the next week, or so, a scratch ration, composed of cracked corn,
+pinhead oatmeal, cracked wheat, together with a little grit, and finely
+ground oyster shells can be fed. This can be fed in the litter, so that
+the chicks have to exercise to get it. In fact, that is just what we
+mean by a scratching ration; one composed of whole or cracked grains,
+mixed in with the litter, so that the chicks will have to scratch for
+their feed, and thereby obtain the exercise necessary to their health.
+If a little green feed of any kind can be added, so much the better.
+Green grass is excellent to throw into the chicks.
+
+After two weeks or more of this kind of feed, it is well to supplement
+this ration with a dry mash. A dry mash is a feed composed of ground
+feeds, that require no work on the part of the bird to grind. Feeds
+like wheat bran, ground oats, corn meal, etc., are good examples of
+such feeds. Wheat bran is especially well liked by these young birds,
+and it is recommended that they be allowed to have this as a large
+part of their dry mash. This feed should not be fed in the litter, as
+the cracked grains, but placed in some such container as a pan, or
+better still, in a regular feed hopper. It can readily be seen that
+if this finely ground grain was scattered in the litter, it would be
+largely lost and wasted. Also, if put in a pan, the pan must be low
+enough to be accessible to the birds, and covered over in such a manner
+that the chicks will not get in and walk around in it. A homemade
+hopper can be easily built, so that the chicks can just get their heads
+in, and no more. Do not forget that the sour skim milk or buttermilk
+must be fed all this time. In fact, this part of the feed should be fed
+right through the bird’s life, as it supplies the animal protein, which
+is so necessary to the proper development of the bird’s growth.
+
+Now, then, just a few more words in closing this chapter on brooding.
+We should aim to toughen the birds up as quickly as possible, so
+that when they are about two months old, no artificial heat will
+be necessary, and if the birds are of a late hatch, this can be
+accomplished much sooner. Encourage them to get out of doors as
+quickly as possible, and to get green feed.
+
+A very serious cause of death among young chickens is from disease.
+White diarrhoea is probably one of the most common of these diseases,
+and unfortunately, one of the most fatal. If the droppings are of a
+white, watery nature, with an offensive odor, you may well believe
+that this disease is present, and the thing to do is to get the birds
+thus affected out of the way at once, and disinfect with some good
+disinfectant. However, if the precautions are taken that are set forth
+in this booklet, no danger of this dreaded disease can be anticipated.
+
+Now that we have got the chicks along through the brooding period, let
+us next consider just how we shall raise these chicks to maturity, so
+as to get them ready to lay eggs, or to make a good meat carcass.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+REARING CHICKS TO MATURITY.
+
+
+One of the chief things to remember in raising young chicks to maturity
+is that we must keep them growing at all times. A check in their
+growth will retard their growth severely, and this must be avoided
+by the one that wants his chicks to get into winter laying condition
+before the cold weather comes. We will now consider a few important
+factors that are necessary to bring our chicks along to rapid growth.
+
+Of course, where free, unrestricted range is possible, the chicks
+will progress faster than when cooped up in a small yard. If no free
+range is possible, it will be found advantageous to at least let
+the chicks run about the yard of the lot. In this manner, they can
+pick up considerable food in the shape of worms, insects, etc., that
+will furnish valuable growing food for them. Let me repeat again the
+necessity of having milk in some form as a constituent of the chicks’
+food. Any food that comes from an animal, whether it be milk or a part
+of the animal itself, is highly essential to the growth of the chick.
+Such foods contain an element known as vitamines, which scientists have
+recently discovered contribute greatly to the growth and upkeep of a
+growing animal. Vitamines are also found to some extent in green feeds,
+such as carrots, cabbages, mangoes, etc. Even well cured alfalfa hay
+contains this important element. It is quite obvious, therefore, that
+if the chicks are out roaming around the yard or range, they not only
+secure the exercise that is necessary for their proper development,
+but they also pick up insects, as has been mentioned, and considerable
+green feed, such as grass, weeds, and various other odds and ends.
+
+If a fair sized lot or range is to be had, then it will be found a
+great aid to make a little house for the chicks to live in during the
+nights on the range, although care must be exercised that they be
+protected from enemies, such as rats, crows, skunks, weasels, owls,
+etc. Such a house need not be expensive at all if it be made out of an
+old packing box that will protect the chicks from rain and enemies.
+
+Another quite essential feature for the promotion of the maximum growth
+of the chicks during the warm summer months is the provision for shade.
+If there are some trees about the yard or range, this will answer the
+purpose satisfactorily, but if there are no trees where the chicks
+roam, then some artificial shade is advised. Some people plant corn
+for this purpose, allowing the chicks to range among the corn plants
+when the corn has grown sufficiently high. The chicks will not harm the
+corn, so two ends can be accomplished by this means. Others provide
+this shade by gathering old brush together and making an artificial
+shade in this manner. During the hot days of summer, the chicks will
+suffer from the heat to a marked degree if exposed to the hot rays of
+the sun. An ideal method used on many farms is to place the chicks in
+the orchard, where there is an orchard, and let the chicks roam in the
+shade of the orchard trees.
+
+Where birds are necessarily confined to a small yard, one method that
+has been worked out satisfactorily, is to fence the yard off into two
+or more divisions, and to plow up the land. Then various crops can be
+sown at different intervals, so that when one range, or division, is
+consumed by the chicks, they can be turned into another division where
+the forage crop is up and ready to be consumed. As soon as the chicks
+are turned out of the first lot, this lot can be immediately plowed up
+again, and some more seeds planted, so that this range will be ready
+for the chicks when the second lot furnishes no more nourishment for
+them. It might be added here that many town flocks of full grown
+birds are maintained, by this very system, and it has worked out very
+nicely. Such grains as buckwheat, rye, oats, peas, and soy beans are
+all excellent crops to sow in this manner, using oats and peas for the
+first crop, because they mature quicker than the other crops mentioned.
+
+If the chicks have access to a fair amount of range they will not need
+a great deal of grain as a ration. However, it is always advisable
+to feed some grains to keep the birds continually growing as fast as
+possible. It has been proved conclusively that the first gains made by
+the growing chicks are the cheapest, in regard to the cost of feed, so
+let us keep this in mind during the time when we have them on range.
+To accomplish this end, it is well to have a dry mash of the kind of
+grains that are fairly rich in the substance called protein always
+available in the hopper. The reason for this need of protein feed is
+simply that the growing bird uses this element largely in the growth
+of its body. Protein goes to make up the bony framework of the body,
+and the muscles, tendons, etc. Therefore, feeds containing protein,
+or a fair amount of it at least, should be ground up, and kept before
+the birds. Oats, bran, or middlings, wheat and barley, are all fairly
+rich in protein, and some of these feeds, in a finely ground condition,
+should be included. It is also well to add some corn meal, although
+this feed is not high in protein, it supplies a great amount of energy
+for the bird to move around with. As soon as the birds are old enough
+commence to feed cracked grains. As has been said in a previous
+chapter, the bird has no teeth, so must rely upon grit to grind this
+feed in the gizzard.
+
+Therefore, unless the birds have a wide range, this grit must be
+artificially supplied. Then the birds can help themselves to their
+needs, and suffer no digestive troubles. Fresh water must be before
+the birds at all times, and if no natural source is available, such
+as a running stream or brook, then fresh water must be placed in some
+sanitary container out in the yard or range.
+
+From four to six months from the time the chick is hatched, it should
+be ready to start laying eggs. The chick first has to get its growth
+and maturity, and then there is an apparent resting period for a few
+weeks, to allow the organs of the bird to get ready for egg production.
+We will next consider how we shall feed these birds, granting that we
+now have them ready to produce the eggs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION
+
+
+As has been said in an earlier chapter, to get the maximum egg
+production, three things are essential. They are: good foundation
+stock, proper housing, and proper feeding. We may have the best chicken
+house in the world, and the highest priced stock obtainable, but if we
+do not feed our birds the right kind of food, all our other efforts are
+in vain. Let us consider first a few facts concerning the composition
+of the egg, and then we will be able to understand more intelligently
+why we should feed the laying bird these certain feeds.
+
+About 14 per cent of the composition of the egg is protein, 10 per
+cent fat, and the remainder, except the shell, is water. Now it must
+be remembered that the ordinary protein supply of most food materials
+is relatively low. Corn contains about 7 per cent digestible protein,
+oats and barley about 9 per cent, and bran about 12 per cent. The
+roughages are considerably lower, while green feeds carry about one or
+two per cent protein. From this we can get an idea about the necessity
+of watching the feeding to the extent that this valuable constituent
+is sufficiently supplied. Furthermore, the hen that is producing these
+eggs needs a fair amount of this protein for further growth and body
+upkeep. Another point worth remembering is the fact that the bird, or
+any other animal, through natural instinct, always sees to it that the
+first requirement, that of bodily growth and upkeep are maintained
+first with the food they are given, so that to get the most from the
+birds, let us not hold them down to just a maintenance ration, but give
+them enough in addition so that they can not only maintain their body
+requirements properly, but also have enough food material to yield a
+product.
+
+The ration for the laying hen should consist of the two forms of grain;
+first, the whole or cracked grains that comprise the scratch ration,
+and which should always be thrown in the litter, so that they will
+have to exercise to get it, and second, the dry mash, or a mixture
+of various grains that are ground up and fed in hoppers. As has been
+stated before, this grinding of the feed is simply to make it easily
+digestible. Furthermore, such finely ground grains usually contain a
+higher percentage of protein than the other grains. By this is meant
+that feeds like bran, oilmeal, etc., are quite a bit higher in protein
+than are grains like corn, wheat, barley, etc.
+
+The next important feed requirement for the laying hen should be
+a mineral feed of some kind. With many farm and city flocks this
+important consideration is entirely ignored. Many times the reason
+for poor egg production rests solely in the lack of proper mineral
+foods. When it is considered that about 12 percent of the entire egg is
+composed of shell material, it can readily be seen that the feeding of
+this material is important, and worthy of attention. We can give the
+laying bird all the rich feeds that we can buy, but if we withhold from
+her the material that goes to form the shell, then the bird will be
+unable to lay her eggs because she has no shell to cover the egg. There
+are different sources of mineral food, but all authorities are agreed
+that oyster shells form the most economical source of shell material.
+These oyster shells can be bought at grocery stores, or poultry supply
+houses. This material should be placed in a box or, better still, a
+hopper, where it will be accessible to the birds at all times. Clam
+shells, lime rock grit, and dry bone in small sizes are other sources
+of mineral matter, and possibly even better results can be obtained by
+adding a small quantity of these other feeds to the oyster shells, but
+plan to have oyster shells as the basis of the mineral supply. Charcoal
+is sometimes fed to chickens with good results. Some birds eat this,
+while others will not. It is claimed that charcoal aids in regulating
+the digestive system of the fowl. One can try this out to satisfy his
+own ideas in this regard.
+
+Animal feed is the next class of feeds that we will consider in the
+feeding of our laying flock. It is the testimony of poultrymen that
+when they hang up a fresh piece of meat in the poultry house, such as
+a part of a calf, an old horse, rabbit, or any other such carcass,
+the birds always respond with a much higher yield in egg production.
+This simply reinforces the statement made in a previous chapter, that
+animal protein of some kind is needed by the birds if they are to do
+their best. If meat is supplied, care must be exercised that it does
+not spoil before it is consumed. It is better to put in small pieces at
+a time, so that the birds will eat it up quickly. If this meat can be
+run through a grinder of some kind, it will be eaten much more readily
+than if it has to be torn to pieces by the birds. Milk of some kind is
+also an animal protein, as has been repeated here several times. Meat
+meal or tankage contains a high percentage of protein, and as this is
+an animal product, it is an economical feed.
+
+Water is our last class of feeds for the laying hen. This can be
+supplied in two ways. The first way is from the water direct, placed
+in some kind of a pan that is covered so that the birds can not soil
+the water, by perching on the edge of the pan, etc. Fresh water should
+be before the birds at all times, as we have just learned a few pages
+back that about 65 per cent of the egg is composed of water. Besides
+this, the birds need water for their body requirements. In the winter
+when the birds spend practically all of their time in the poultry
+house, and can not have the opportunity of picking up grass, and other
+green feeds, we can supply water to them in the form of some kind of
+green feeds, such as sprouted oats, cabbages, mangoes, or any other
+vegetables to be had. All these feeds are to be recommended highly,
+as they not only are composed largely of water, but add bulk to the
+ration, and aid in keeping the bird laxative. Sprouted oats can be
+raised in shallow pans, and given to the birds in small quantities
+at a time. It is usually advisable to have several pans of sprouting
+oats say, for instance, one for every day in the week, so that a fresh
+supply can be given to the birds every morning. Nearly every supply
+house has patent oat sprouters to sell at reasonable prices. Cabbages
+and mangoes are also fed extensively to the laying birds during the
+winter months, but provision must be made before hand to raise them in
+the summer, and to properly store them in the fall, so that they will
+be fresh when taken out of storage for feeding. One very good way to do
+this is to pile them together in a basement and cover them with sand.
+
+Let us next consider a few practical grain rations, that have been
+tried out by successful poultry men. These rations are always
+classified as scratch rations and dry mash rations. One very good
+ration is as follows: Scratch Feed, 3 parts cracked corn, 1 part wheat,
+1 part oats, 1 part barley. Dry mash, 1½ part bran, 1½ part middlings,
+1 part corn meal, 1 part meat scraps or tankage. Another very good
+practical ration is composed as follows: Scratch feed, 3 parts corn,
+1 part oats, and 1 part barley. Dry mash, one part each of bran,
+middlings, ground corn, ground oats and meat scraps. These feeds should
+always be measured by weight, and not by bulk.
+
+Now, then, just a few words in regard to the feeding of these grains.
+Always send the birds to roost with full crops. This is especially
+important during cold weather. It is much better if they be allowed to
+fill up on scratch grain rather than dry mash. The scratch ration is
+more bulky than the mash feed, and helps in keeping the bird warm. In
+fact, many successful poultry men close the hopper of their dry mash
+ration during the afternoon, and thus make the birds take the scratch
+feed in the litter, thereby encouraging the birds to obtain exercise,
+also.
+
+We will close this chapter with a brief discussion on a recent
+development in the system of feeding birds. This is in regard to the
+introduction of artificial light. This practice has successfully passed
+beyond the “fad” stage and is now being used by successful poultry men
+all over the country. By supplying this extra light, the working day
+is thereby lengthened to the extent that the light is prolonged, and
+consequently, gives the bird a day similar to a summer day in length.
+The birds, by having this extra period of light, work just that much
+longer, and as a result, they are able to make more eggs. Everywhere
+this system has been given a trial, it has been found a paying
+proposition. One very common method in supplying this light is by
+connecting the alarm clock to the electric lighting system and setting
+the alarm at a period around four or five o’clock in the morning. This
+throws on the light in the chicken house, and then when the owner
+arises in the morning, he can go out and turn out the lights if it is
+light enough to do so by that time.
+
+Thus we have considered the main points in feeding for egg production.
+While we have some of these important feeding principles still fresh in
+our mind, let us in the next chapter consider feeding birds for their
+flesh, because one very important part of the poultry business lies in
+the feeding of birds for meat. In the ordinary flock of birds, there
+are always some that we want to dispose of, such as the male birds and
+the culls of the females. If we know how to fatten these, we will be
+that much better off financially.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+FEEDING FOR MEAT PRODUCTION
+
+
+The primary object in feeding birds for the market is to get them well
+covered with flesh, so that they will be plump all over. It is the
+difference in the weight of the bony skeleton and the weight of the
+well filled out carcass that determines the amount of edible meat on
+the bird. Hence our object in this process is to put on as much surplus
+flesh as we can.
+
+Usually there are three classes of birds that are put on the market
+for meat purposes. They are roasters, broilers, and old hens. Roasting
+chickens are very common on the market, and the object is large size
+with a tender carcass. These can be either pullets or cockerels, or
+capons. They are often put on the market during the late fall or early
+winter, and bring the highest prices at that time.
+
+Broilers are birds about three or four months old, forced along to
+a rapid growth, but still possessing tender flesh. This offers an
+excellent way of disposing of the male birds, since usually the sex of
+the young birds can be distinguished at about two months of age.
+
+Old hens constitute the third division of the meat classes placed upon
+the market, and are generally composed of those birds that are through
+laying, or the ones that have been found to be unprofitable. Their
+meat is usually much tougher than the first two mentioned classes, and
+consequently used in city restaurants for meat pies, etc.
+
+In fattening birds for the market, a somewhat different procedure is
+followed than in feeding for egg production. We found that in feeding
+for egg production we encouraged the birds in every way possible to
+take all the exercise that they could get. We do just the opposite
+in putting flesh on the birds. We restrict their exercise as much as
+possible, and pen them up in small quarters so that their feed largely
+goes to nothing but putting flesh on their bodies. It can easily be
+seen that when birds are roaming around, exercising more or less all
+day long, that there is little chance for them to get very fat.
+
+Now as to the nature of the feed for fattening these birds. We will
+still need some protein feeds, but not as much as in the case of
+feeding for eggs. However, we will need feeds which are quite rich in
+carbohydrates and fat. These are easily obtained and are relatively
+cheap. Corn is an excellent ration for this purpose.
+
+Since the birds are confined to small pens, and exercise restricted,
+it becomes evident that digestion becomes an important factor here.
+Therefore, it is advisable to have plenty of grit before the birds at
+all times, so that their food will be properly ground.
+
+We must not get the idea, just because we are feeding for flesh, that
+the birds should be stuffed to their limit with feed. To do so, would
+be to have a lot of the birds off feed, and consequently we would be
+worse off than not to feed them enough. It is best to plan to feed them
+about three times a day, and to feed them all that they will cleanup in
+a certain length of time, as from twenty minutes to half an hour. Some
+are successful in feeding only twice a day, instead of three times a
+day.
+
+Corn is usually the basis of fattening rations and should always
+have a prominent place in the ration. Here again, milk in some form
+is excellent to supply some of the protein that is needed. Corn must
+be supplemented by other grains, such as oats, barley or middlings,
+provided they are in a finely ground condition. Some feeders follow the
+plan of feeding part of these grains in the form of a wet mash, using
+the skim milk to moisten the mash, but when this is done, care must
+be exercised in seeing that the mash is cleaned up at every feeding,
+otherwise the trough will become mouldy, with bad results to the birds.
+
+There has come into use within recent years a method of fattening
+birds by what is known as crate fattening. This is practiced
+considerably by some of the big packing companies. The birds are
+bought up from the surrounding territory and brought into the central
+fattening station. They are then placed in small pens, or batteries,
+as they are called, and fed a ration composed largely of skim milk and
+corn meal, with a few other feeds added, such as red dog flour, bran,
+etc. This is mixed into a thin, pasty feed, and fed the birds from a
+trough running along in front of the pens. They are fed this way for a
+period of two weeks or more, and are then taken out, dressed, and sold
+to the big city markets as milk fed chickens, and always bring several
+cents a pound more on the market than other poultry, because of the
+tenderness of the flesh. In this process, even greater care must be
+exercised in watching the feeding of the birds, and only feed that they
+will cleanup in about fifteen or twenty minutes.
+
+Crate feeding has appealed to many town lot poultry men, who have
+bought up culls of the neighboring territory, put them in small crates
+or pens, and fed them this milk feed for a few weeks and then marketed
+them, securing the top prices on the market.
+
+We have now discussed the most important items connected with the
+feeding of the birds for various purposes. Let us now examine the
+living quarters of the birds, and see if we can improve the housing
+conditions in which the birds live during the winter months.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+COMMON FAULTS OF POULTRY HOUSES
+
+
+If you were to take a trip through the surrounding country, with
+the intention of inspecting the living quarters of farm poultry,
+in general, you would discover some of the most wretched houses
+imaginable. All of our intelligent feeding would be of little use
+if we penned our chickens up in a coop with little sunlight, poor
+ventilation, cold, damp floors, drafty sides, and foul, damp air. It
+doesn’t cost any more to build a poultry house with correct principles
+involved, than it does to build one that lacks these essential
+features. The birds care very little about the appearance of the house.
+They want fresh dry air, freedom from drafts, a warm floor, and plenty
+of sunshine.
+
+One of the most common faults with most poultry houses is the matter of
+ventilation. When poultry raising was first looked upon as a promising
+business, many men erected houses containing a large proportion of
+glass. It was thought that the sunshine was the only necessary feature
+for the birds under winter conditions, and they made their chicken
+houses veritable hot houses. But the results were not as had been
+anticipated. It was found that while the houses were fairly warm in
+the day time, they cooled off considerable at night, and poor results
+were obtained from this wide range between the day temperature and the
+night temperature. Then another step was taken by these pioneers. They
+decided to heat their houses artificially. But even this system did not
+bring forth the big yield of eggs that had been hoped for. In all this
+expensive procedure, a very important element had been overlooked, and
+that was the matter of fresh air.
+
+About twenty years ago, there was devised a poultry house that was a
+radical departure from this previous type of house. It was called
+the open front house, and gave surprisingly good results, where all
+previous types had failed, as regards egg production. This house was
+constructed briefly as follows: It was of the shed roof type; that is,
+had just one slant in the roof, the highest pitch being in front, and
+the lowest pitch in the rear. It had plenty of window light in the
+front side, about half of the south side, or front, being devoted to
+windows. The rest of the front was left open, save for a thin muslin
+curtain to cover the open space during bad weather. These curtains
+were tacked to wooden frames, and swung on hinges, so that they could
+be swung in to cover the open space at will. The most remarkable thing
+about the system was that the hens began to lay eggs, when proper
+feeding was obtained. Later, this led to the conclusion, now generally
+accepted, that the birds can stand considerable cold, providing it is
+not a damp cold, and that the temperature of the house is considerably
+more uniform between night and day than was the case with the glass
+house.
+
+As a result many poultrymen who are making money with poultry use
+some such system as the open front house with various changes. They
+have found that fresh air is an absolute requirement to get the best
+results. But this matter brought out a few more interesting facts. It
+was found that dampness was a big drawback to egg production in cold
+weather. If the damp foul air, breathed out by the chickens, could not
+escape from the poultry building, the chickens did not have the health
+and vigor that they did in well ventilated houses. Consequently, the
+curtain helped considerably in allowing the fresh air to come in, and
+for the foul air to go out. The damp air, being heavily laden with
+moisture, settled to the bottom of the house, where the birds scratch,
+and unless the curtains extend fairly well down near the bottom of
+the house, the damp air has not a very good chance to escape, and
+consequently, there will be more or less moisture even with this type
+of house, if the damp air has no chance to escape.
+
+Another common fault with a great many poultry buildings is that they
+are drafty. The walls should all be air tight, except the south wall,
+or front, as has been mentioned. If there is a draft in the house the
+birds will contract a cold, and will take a prolonged vacation from
+their job of laying eggs. It is not uncommon to find a crack in the
+wall, just behind the perches of the house, and when we consider that
+in such houses the birds stay all night in a direct draft, it is little
+wonder that they appear so unhealthy.
+
+There are a few other common faults that we will consider before
+bringing this chapter to a close. It is often found that there are too
+many birds cramped into a small house. It is a good plan to allow at
+least four square feet of floor space for each bird that you winter.
+For instance, if we were planning on having one hundred birds this
+winter, we could have a house built twenty-five feet long, and sixteen
+feet deep. Multiplying these two figures, gives us four hundred square
+feet. Dividing this product by four, gives us allowance for one hundred
+birds. Then, lastly, the floor, itself. Too often the floor is cold.
+If a cement floor, we should cover it with about six or eight inches
+of good, clean, dry litter. Even if made of wood, a good substantial
+litter should be maintained. The best litter is probably of straw,
+but peat moss is fast gaining favor at present, where straw is not
+obtainable. With these few objections to guard against, let us next
+discuss just how we shall go about constructing a poultry house that
+will overcome the faults mentioned.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+HOUSING POULTRY FOR PROFIT.
+
+
+In discussing plans for a modern poultry house, let it be mentioned at
+the outset that this does not necessarily mean that our modern house
+will be expensive, any more than the one that is built on old ideas. In
+fact, many of the older houses were much more expensive than the modern
+houses of today. As long as the poultry building includes the necessary
+principles for the birds’ well-being, and this can be accomplished with
+little added expense, that is all that is necessary.
+
+In commenting upon the common faults of most poultry houses in the
+previous chapter, we found that they generally lack one, or all of
+such items as ventilation, dryness, sunlight, adequate floor space,
+protection from rats, protection from extremes of temperature, and
+simplicity of design. In arranging for a better house for our birds,
+let us plan to keep these factors in mind, so as to get the most from
+our birds.
+
+Whether we are to build a new poultry house, or to remodel an old one,
+we can design it so that all of these factors will be in evidence. If
+we have an old poultry house, or if we can buy cheaply an old poultry
+coop, that has fairly good lumber in it, we can probably do the
+remodeling somewhat cheaper than if we have to buy all new lumber. If
+we do purchase all new lumber, it is not advisable to get cheap lumber,
+but buy the first grade, because it is necessary that the walls of the
+house be air tight, and this is seldom possible with cheap lumber.
+
+We will first consider briefly the possibilities of remodeling an old
+poultry house. Probably the first thing that we will do is to cut some
+openings in the front of the house for windows and curtains. From
+one-half to two-thirds of the front should be devoted to window lights.
+The remainder should be left for the muslin curtains to allow for fresh
+air to enter, and for foul air to pass out. These should not be cut
+up too high, but start at least a foot below the roof, and have the
+window lights extend at least half way down the front of the house. The
+curtains should extend quite a bit further down to the bottom of the
+house, to allow the foul air sufficient opportunity to escape.
+
+We should next examine the other walls and roof to make sure that they
+are not drafty, nor leak water. Usually these walls can be patched
+up with other boards, or heavy roofing paper, so that no draft is
+possible. In northern climates, where weather below zero is common,
+best results will be obtained by having two thicknesses of walls, to
+protect against cold nights. Roofing paper is excellent to put between
+the two walls, or even on the outside to aid in this matter. If the
+roof leaks, it might be advisable to re-shingle part of it, and here
+again roofing paper helps in making it weather tight.
+
+We must next examine the floor. If a wooden floor, then it is advisable
+to raise the house up from the ground about six inches, supporting it
+with posts. Some people follow the plan of placing old tin pans or
+plates upside down at the top of these posts and then setting the house
+on, thereby eliminating the danger of rats, as the rats cannot climb
+over the tin pans. If the house is to be a permanent structure it will
+be found best to lay a concrete floor, as this floor will last for all
+time, and will not need repairing. Such a floor is rat proof, but must
+be covered with a good litter.
+
+If a new house is to be constructed, then it will be best to follow
+the principles laid down for a remodeled house to the extent of the
+open front, weather tight walls and roof, good floor, and dry living
+conditions. Wood is the most popular material that is used in building
+chicken houses. Generally, 2 by 4s placed about two feet apart are
+used for studding. Matched lumber or rough lumber aided by battens or
+roofing paper compose the walls, this making them free from drafts. The
+matched lumber is generally placed on the studding horizontally. The
+lumber should be dry and free from knot holes, and well nailed together.
+
+For the roof, shingles can be used, or some of the prepared roofing
+paper on the market now has given good results. For quite flat roofs,
+two or three ply roofing paper is preferred to the shingles.
+
+We will now discuss the common types of poultry houses. The most
+popular type and the cheapest, is the shed roof house. This house is
+usually about eight feet high in front, slanting gradually to the rear
+to a height of about five feet. It just has one slant, and, as has been
+said, is cheaper to build than other types of houses. It is also much
+easier to keep warm in the winter, because of the low roof, which means
+less space has to be heated by the birds. Instead of curtain front
+houses in such a type of poultry house, many poultry men are using
+bafflers to let in the air. These bafflers are similar to a blind used
+to shade living houses in some parts of the country. They are composed
+of slats less than an inch apart, and placed in a slanting position,
+rather than vertical or horizontal.
+
+The gable roof house is another popular type. This differs from the
+shed roof type of house in that its roof comes to a peak, with two
+pitches, such as most modern bungalow dwelling houses have. This system
+leaves a larger space at the top of the house, and is not as warm as
+the shed roof type. It also costs more to build. However, it possesses
+the advantage of allowing a straw loft to be placed at the top of the
+house, which is an excellent way to get rid of excess moisture, when
+it can be expelled no other way. The straw has the power to absorb the
+excess moisture during the winter, but should be removed in the spring,
+as it furnishes an excellent hiding place for mites, an insect that we
+will discuss more thoroughly in a later chapter.
+
+The half monitor type is not so popular as the two types already named,
+and costs considerably more than either of the two previous types
+discussed. This type of house has an arrangement similar to two shed
+roof houses, facing each other, the rear house being somewhat higher
+than the front house. Of course, such houses have their advantages, but
+for the one who would start with moderation in the poultry business,
+the shed roof, or the gable roof type will be far more attractive.
+We have discussed the types of houses in this chapter. The fixtures,
+or chicken furniture, has so far been omitted. Let us go inside of
+our modern chicken house now, and see what is needed in the line of
+equipment to complete our efficient egg production.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+INTERIOR FIXTURES FOR THE LAYING HOUSES
+
+
+There are certain devices that save a great deal of labor for the
+poultry man, and also give the birds a more contented atmosphere. We
+will start in with the floor. I want to repeat here, briefly, what has
+already been said in regard to the litter on the floor of the house.
+Birds with cold feet cannot be healthy. If the floor is covered with a
+six-inch litter of straw, or shavings, the floor will be warm, and they
+can be given a scratching ration that will make them exercise for their
+food. By all means do not fail to have a good litter of some kind on
+the floor during the late fall and winter months.
+
+The birds are rather peculiar creatures, when it comes to retiring for
+the night. They do not seek a place to lay down, but they look for
+something that will resemble a limb of a tree, where they can perch
+during the night. Man has therefore supplied something along this
+line, by erecting round poles, made of wood, so that the birds will
+have a convenient place to rest for the night. A few precautions must
+be guarded against here, however, as very few poultry men have given
+their birds suitable perches yet. The perches should be round, about
+two inches in diameter, and erected on the same level with each other.
+Too many perches are arranged in a ladder formation, having the rear
+perch the highest, and the front perch the lowest. When the birds get
+ready to go to roost, there is always an argument as to which bird
+will have the rear roost, as they all want the highest place to roost,
+or perch. If the perches are all on the same level, then there is no
+preference, and things are more peaceful at roosting time. We should
+plan on allowing about ten inches per bird for perching room. Plan to
+have a distance of about fourteen inches between each perch, or pole.
+Arrange these perches at the rear of the house, running parallel with
+the rear wall.
+
+All modern poultry men have what is known as a dropping board under the
+perches, so that the droppings will not fall in the scratching litter
+and soil this part of the scratching area. These dropping boards are
+usually placed about six inches under the perches, and extend as far
+forward as the perches do. This makes the job of cleaning the poultry
+house quite a simple operation. It is advisable to sprinkle some sand
+over the dropping boards to absorb the moisture and bad odor.
+
+We have to give the birds a comfortable, well secluded place to lay
+their eggs. This is sometimes done by placing the nests, or the part
+facing the front wall, covered over with a board, that can be raised
+by means of a hinge, when collecting the eggs. The hen can be made to
+enter the nest from the rear, and if conditions are so that the nest
+is darkened, then the hen will prefer this place to any other place in
+the house. Nests can also be placed along the front wall, underneath
+the windows, or on either side of the house. However, up to the present
+time, below the dropping boards seems to be the most popular place for
+the nests with most poultry men.
+
+Every poultry house should have a dust box. This is a box partially
+filled with dust or fine soil, and placed in the front part of the
+house, so that it will be in the sunlight. The birds appreciate such a
+device, and will use it generously, as this aids them in fighting off
+insects that prey upon them.
+
+Suitable containers for food and water should be provided, and kept
+clean. The drinking fountains are of various designs, and one can
+buy these very cheaply. They are usually jars or cans inverted, so
+that the water will come out in a small opening at the bottom, just
+large enough for the bird to stick its head in. The food containers,
+for the dry mash are generally of the hopper kind, having a box-like
+container with a trough at the bottom, so that the food falls down into
+the small trough by gravity as the birds consume it. Thus, in a good
+sized hopper, a week’s ration of mash can be put in the hopper without
+further attention.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+LICE AND MITES
+
+
+While we have interior fixtures of the poultry house fresh in mind let
+us turn our attention briefly to the study of parasites that live on
+the hen, and that are detrimental to her progress. There are quite a
+few various insects that depend upon the hen for their existence, but
+for our purposes we can consider them in a general class of lice and
+mites, as the treatment for each class is practically the same.
+
+Let us first consider the case of lice. These insects live upon the
+body of the hen, eating the flesh, and dead skin as it peels off. They
+never leave the hen, and if conditions are favorable, will lay their
+eggs on her body, thus multiplying rapidly if precautions are not taken
+to look after this matter. It is always well to treat a setting hen for
+lice before she is placed on the nest, and then once or twice after she
+has started her job, because these lice will very readily transfer from
+the mother hen to the young chicks, as soon as hatched, and a great
+many chicks die every year from these lice. It is a splendid idea to
+grease all baby chicks, especially those hatched by natural incubation,
+with blue ointment, around the head parts, and wings. The hens can also
+be greased in a similar manner over the whole body.
+
+Here is where the dust box that we discussed briefly in the previous
+chapter comes in, as the birds, wallowing in the box of dust, smother
+the lice, by shaking the dust into the pores of the bird’s body. A
+rather recent method of combating lice on birds is now fast gaining
+favor. This is the Sodium Floride treatment. This is best used only on
+a mild day, however, as the birds are quite wet after their treatment
+under this method. The treatment is usually given as follows: Take an
+ordinary wash tub, and fill nearly full with not too cold water. For
+every gallon of water in the tub, add one ounce of sodium floride,
+obtainable at any drug store. Dip the hen in this solution, tail
+first, being sure to have a firm grasp on her so she will not splash
+the water over. Dip her in this manner about three times, so that the
+solution comes up in under the feathers. This method has been found
+to be very effective. In extreme cases, where the lice are very bad,
+another similar treatment can be given each bird about a month later.
+Other good materials to apply to the bird’s body, besides those already
+mentioned, are sweet oil, vaseline, and lard.
+
+Now we come to another pest that is a little harder to get rid of
+than the body lice. The mites, which are so bothersome to most
+poultry, have the peculiar habit of staying on the birds only during
+the night, creeping down at daylight to some crack or crevice to hide
+until darkness again forces the birds to go to roost. These mites are
+even more destructive in their work than are the body lice. They are
+generally found in any crack or crevice about the perches. Here they
+can obscure themselves, and be very close to their prey when ready to
+begin their work at night. While the lice are eating insects, the mites
+are sucking insects, and suck the blood of the birds during the night.
+When the mite is hungry, he is of a yellowish color. When filled up,
+however, with a good meal of blood, he is red. The mite is very small,
+and is similar in construction to a spider.
+
+If a flock of chickens are believed to be suffering from mites, and
+there are very few, by the way, that are not troubled with these
+pests, then it would be advisable first, to whitewash the poultry
+house thoroughly, not only the roosting quarters, but the walls and
+other fixtures inside the house. Kerosene is quite frequently used to
+spray the nests with, but has not the lasting power that some of the
+coal tar products possess. Recently, wood preservatives have been used
+for the purposes of ridding the poultry house of mites, and very good
+results have been obtained from this method.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+POULTRY DISEASES
+
+
+It is not to be supposed that poultry, living under the artificial
+conditions that man has ordained for them, can be entirely free from
+diseases. In fact, very few poultry men can say that they have not had
+some kind of disease affect their flock. Most diseases are contagious,
+so it is important to be on the watch for any symptoms of anything out
+of the ordinary. Sanitation plays a very important part in keeping the
+flock free from diseases, and clean methods should always prevail. Do
+not allow the house to become filthy and foul smelling. It is always a
+good precaution to disinfect the poultry premises at least once a year
+with a good whitewash or some strong disinfectant. This is about the
+same as taking out a life insurance policy for the flock.
+
+Dampness is probably about the most common cause for diseases. Disease
+germs always multiply more rapidly in damp, dark quarters. Therefore
+the advice given in an early chapter about keeping the poultry house
+light and well ventilated, will bear repetition. If one is accustomed
+to watching his birds as to their physical condition, he will be able
+to notice the symptoms of any on-coming disease in time to isolate the
+bird thus affected, before the disease has a chance to spread, if it
+is a contagious disease. By watching a bird thus isolated, and also
+looking very carefully for any further symptoms in the flock, one can
+do considerable in checking the disease. The old adage, “An ounce of
+prevention is worth a pound of cure,” certainly is true in this case.
+
+Indigestion is a very common ailment with poultry, especially with
+those birds that are fed heavy for egg production. Usually a little
+laxative material placed in the drinking water, and making more of
+their ration a scratching ration, in order to induce exercise, is
+probably as simple and effective a treatment as can be given.
+
+Roup, chicken pox, and canker are also very common poultry diseases.
+These three diseases are all supposed to be due to a small organism
+which multiply very rapidly, and acts mostly on the skin of the bird.
+These diseases are not similar in appearance, however, despite the fact
+that their source is the same.
+
+Roup attacks the mucous membrane lining of the nose, and eye. These
+parts become red and inflamed, and infected with a pus formation. This
+disease is spread largely through the drinking water, and is prevalent
+in the spring when it is damp. Keep the birds healthy and vigorous,
+provide proper ventilation, and have things as dry as possible, and
+little should be feared from this source.
+
+Chicken pox makes its appearance on the comb and wattles, and also on
+the face of the bird, by small pockets on these parts. The remedy is
+the same in this case as has been stated for roup, except that if only
+a few birds have contracted the disease, each bird can be taken in hand
+and given individual treatment, by removing the crust over the sores,
+and applying a good disinfectant.
+
+Canker manifests itself by pale yellow spots on the inside of the
+mouth. This is best treated, as soon as discovered, by scraping off
+this light yellow material, and applying a good disinfectant.
+
+All of these last three named diseases are caused by the same
+conditions, and by avoiding these conditions very little trouble will
+be experienced in this malady. Birds that have had any of the above
+mentioned diseases should never be used for breeding purposes, as their
+offspring will have a predisposition to the same ailment.
+
+Sometimes the perches are placed too high in the chicken house, and
+the birds have to jump too far to reach the floor. When this happens,
+a hard lump often forms on the sole of the foot. This is sometimes
+called bumble foot, and is usually evident in the chicken’s walk.
+Nothing but cutting out the hard part, and washing the sore with a good
+disinfectant can remedy this condition.
+
+While frosted combs could not be called a contagious disease, we will
+discuss this matter briefly, before closing this chapter. In severe
+weather, when the temperature is below zero, and there is considerable
+dampness in the poultry house, frozen combs are quite frequent. This
+is especially true of the lighter birds, which possess larger head
+parts than do the heavier breeds. When a bird has its comb or wattles
+frozen, it will stop laying for a considerable period of time, usually
+a month at least. If birds are found on a cold winter morning with
+frozen combs, they should be treated with snow or cold water, to take
+out the frost, and then treated daily with vaseline until cured. It
+is well to provide a pole up near the roof of the poultry house, upon
+which a curtain, made of burlap or some old cloth, is arranged so that
+on cold winter nights this curtain can be lowered directly in front of
+the front perch. This will tend to protect the birds from the excessive
+cold, by conserving the heat given off by their bodies during the night.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+CULL THE FLOCK
+
+
+When the poultry industry was being established upon a business
+foundation, many of the leading breeders devised the idea of measuring
+the egg capacity of their birds by actually counting the eggs laid by
+their best birds. This practice is still followed by many poultry
+breeders, but is a job that consumes considerable time, and it can be
+seen that only those who are constantly with the flock could be able
+to do this. But within the last few years, there has been developed a
+system whereby one can tell by the external appearance of the bird just
+about what her ability as an egg producer will be in one year. A Mr.
+Hogan was the first man to notice these characteristics and his method
+has been so far perfected that most poultry keepers are quite familiar
+with it, and thereby saved the bother of trap-nesting.
+
+This culling process, as it is called, is best accomplished during
+the months of August and September. By picking up each female in the
+flock at this time, except of course the spring pullets, one can find
+out which birds are still laying, and which ones have already quit.
+It has been in the past too much the custom of farmers to go out into
+their poultry flock in the fall of the year, and pick out the birds
+that had not yet started to moult, and whose appearance was ragged and
+rather uncomely. These birds would be picked out by the farmer, or
+in many cases his wife, and sent to market as meat birds, and they
+would keep the birds who had already moulted, and whose feathers were
+in splendid color at that time. However, in the light of recent facts
+brought out by this culling process, we now know that these rather
+ragged, unsightly birds were our best layers, and should have been kept
+because they had been working continuously, not taking the time off to
+quit laying and look pretty, as had their more lazy companions. There
+are still a great number of people that cling to the old method, but
+the light is dawning, and it will probably be but a short while before
+practically everyone interested in poultry will know of this culling
+method, and who can in a brief examination of a bird tell quite readily
+whether she should be kept or sold.
+
+We will now discuss the various methods by which a bird can be judged
+as to her egg laying ability. No one sign can be relied upon, but the
+different signs taken together should form the final judgment. One can
+usually tell something about the bird by her general habits. The good
+layer is a busy hen. She is happy, singing, and not as afraid of the
+attendant as is the loafer. As this hen usually eats more than the
+non-layer, she is usually found busily scratching in the litter for
+the food material with which she makes her eggs. The good layer is
+always the first off the roost in the morning, and the last one to go
+to roost at night. Watch out for the timid, crafty hen that stays on
+the outskirts of the flock. She is lazy, inactive, and the quicker she
+is sent to the butcher, the better. Another very good aid in forming
+judgment as to the ability of the birds, is to go around the roosts at
+night, after the birds have all gone to roost. Feel of their crops. The
+good layer that has been working hard to get together food material for
+her eggs will have a full crop, while her lazy companions, that are not
+so interested in producing eggs, will have a fairly empty crop at this
+time. Little items such as I have mentioned here will tell considerable
+about the ability of the birds. It is a fact that there are any number
+of birds in America that lay only a few dozen eggs per year, but are
+kept the year round, because the owner has had no way of knowing the
+producers from the non-producers.
+
+As has been already brought out, the heavy layers molt late. Often
+they continue laying up until October and November. If you have hens
+nearly naked of feathers in October or November, just rest assured
+that these are your most profitable birds, and that they did not quit
+laying to put on a pretty coat of feathers in the middle of the summer.
+You should mark these birds in some manner, so that you can use them
+as breeders for the coming winter, because, if they are mated with a
+cockerel, that is the son of a good layer, your strain will be greatly
+improved, because these birds will transmit their laying ability to
+their offspring.
+
+A good laying hen will have a long, broad, and deep, rectangular body,
+with top and bottom lines parallel. This large sized body is essential
+to the hen, so that she will have sufficient room to digest enough food
+to make her eggs. A broad back is also necessary for proper room for
+the reproductive organs that make the egg. The head of the good layer
+is always of a healthy appearance. The good layer has a short stubby
+beak, or bill, and gracefully curved, as compared to the long shapeless
+bill of the loafer. The eyes are prominent, and stick out similar to a
+shoe button, rather than sunken in. The combs and wattles are red, and
+not pale, as in the non-layer.
+
+The good layer will not have the bright colored yellow, after she has
+been laying for a short while, that the loafer will have. This is
+because she uses this yellow pigment in making the yolk of her eggs,
+so that as her laying period proceeds, she becomes more and more faded
+in her bill, eye lids, ear lobes, and shanks. Consequently, if some of
+your birds have a faded appearance, don’t condemn them, they are the
+hardest workers in your flock. Furthermore, the hen with worn toe-nails
+is one that should be kept, because this shows us quite clearly that
+she uses them considerably in scratching for her feed.
+
+Now let us examine the anatomy of the hen a little more closely so that
+we can get some more evidence for or against the hen in question. One
+of the most common ways, nowadays, in picking out the laying hen is to
+examine what is known as the pelvic bones. These are found on either
+side of the vent, towards the rear of the body. They are generally
+called the lay bones by most poultry men. They both mean the same.
+Now these bones tell a vivid story. These bones are usually measured
+by the fingers, or as to how many fingers can be inserted between the
+two bones. A poor layer will have a thick, grizzly covering of meat
+over the lay, or pelvic bones, and just about the width of one finger
+can be inserted between them. This shows us quickly that she is not
+a layer. Then, lets compare this poor layer to the good layer. Here
+we find something different. There is just a slight covering over the
+pelvic bones. The meat is thin and spare. If we feel of the bones, we
+find them quite thin and pliable. We next try to insert as many fingers
+between the two bones as possible. We will find that we can insert at
+least two fingers, and probably three, if our fingers are not too wide.
+The heavier the hen is laying, the wider the distance between the bones.
+
+Now, while we have the bird, let us look a little further into this
+bird’s conformation. The keel bone, or rear end of the breast bone, can
+be used as one unit, and the lay bones as the other unit of measure.
+See how many fingers you can get between the lay bones and the keel
+bone. Even for a small breed you should easily get in the width of
+three fingers, and for a larger breed you should get in the width of
+four fingers. This measures the hen’s capacity for feed.
+
+This distance between the lay bones and the keel bone is called the
+abdomen. We can tell considerable about the hen by the texture of the
+abdomen skin. If the skin is tough, and meaty, we can say right away
+that she is not a good hen, but if the skin is tender, pliable, and
+soft, then we can feel assured that she must be kept in the flock.
+
+These are the principal features in selecting the laying hen. If
+one can get these principles in mind, and go out into his flock and
+separate the hens into two flocks, and keep these two flocks apart for
+a while, he would discover some interesting things. For instance, cull
+out the poor hens and put them in one pen. Possibly you will have the
+largest pen, when you have finished, composed of the poor layers. Keep
+the good hens in another pen separated from the poor ones. Keep feeding
+the same feeds as you had been doing before you separated the flock
+into two pens. Now, for a few weeks, compare the daily egg record of
+the two flocks. You will find that there is about as much difference
+as between night and day. Now, to bring the lesson home a little more
+forceful, just figure out what it costs you per day to keep these star
+boarders, and see if you think culling is a paying proposition. Most
+every agricultural college has a bulletin printed on culling giving
+essentially the same information as I have given, but they usually have
+quite a few illustrations that will make the procedure a little more
+clearer than I have done.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+PRESERVING EGGS FOR WINTER
+
+
+It was deemed advisable to add a few words in this little booklet in
+regard to collecting eggs when they are cheap, and storing them away
+for the part of the year when eggs are high priced. During the months
+of March, April, May, and June eggs are the cheapest on the market,
+due to the fact that the birds are all laying during these few months,
+and consequently, the supply far exceeds the average demand. If we
+pay fifteen cents for a dozen of eggs in April, or May, and then in
+December we pay sixty cents or more for the same product, then it can
+easily be seen that it is a paying proposition to store some of these
+cheap spring eggs for winter use. We will now take up the method of
+storing these spring eggs for our December breakfast.
+
+To make this process about 100 per cent efficient, it is best to candle
+the eggs first, before storing them away. This process of candling has
+been explained in a previous chapter. If the air cell, at the blunt
+end of the egg is small, then we may be sure that the egg is of recent
+origin. If the contents look clear, and the yolk is not loose, inside
+the shell, then we need have no fears as to the edibility of the egg.
+One very good way, for one not accustomed to candling, is to examine
+a few in front of the light, and then break a few in a dish, so as
+to get the proper relation fixed in mind. If we can secure eggs that
+are infertile, we will not have to throw out hardly any eggs in this
+process.
+
+In preparing to preserve our eggs for winter, there are several
+methods used by people who follow this practice. Some just pack the
+eggs in sawdust in a box or barrel, but this method is not always
+reliable. There are two standard ways of preserving these eggs. One is
+in using waterglass, and the other is the use of lime water solution.
+Both methods are reliable, but the first named method seems to be the
+more popular of the two. In either case, earthen crocks or wooden pails
+are the best containers. Neither of these solutions affects them. A
+three gallon container is large enough to preserve ten dozen eggs.
+For this sized container, about six quarts of the solution will be
+necessary.
+
+We will discuss the waterglass method first. Procure the amount of
+waterglass that you will need for this year at a drug store. Use this
+at the rate of one pint of waterglass to nine pints of water. Before
+mixing the two liquids, boil the water, and let it cool. Then mix the
+two liquids, in the proportion stated, and place in container. Then add
+the eggs, (about ten dozen to this mixture), and store in a cool place.
+Be sure that there is about two or three inches of the solution above
+the eggs, and add a little water occasionally to replace the water lost
+by evaporation.
+
+The lime solution is mixed a little differently. Slack about two pounds
+of quick lime in a small quantity of hot water. After this has slacked,
+add it to about two gallons of water, and then add one pound of salt.
+Stir this in a thorough manner, and then allow the mixture to settle.
+There will then be found a sediment in the bottom of the solution. Pour
+off the clear liquid, and use this as the preservative material. Then
+keep the same as directions given for the waterglass preparation. In
+this manner, one can have table eggs the year round at a reasonable
+price.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+SELLING THE PRODUCT
+
+
+We have discussed the main points to be considered in raising various
+poultry products in this little booklet. However, much of our success
+in the poultry business will depend on our ability to obtain the top
+prices for our products after we have raised them. In fact, this is
+the cry all over the country now among the farming population. The
+various agricultural agencies that have heretofore spent considerable
+time and effort in teaching the farmer to raise a large quantity of
+good products, have apparently accomplished this result, and now these
+same agencies are trying to organize the farmers into selling their
+products so that they can receive a higher price for them.
+
+The farmer usually has no time to devote to the special marketing of
+his crop, as he is too busy raising farm products, so attempts at
+co-operative marketing have been made. There have been many failures
+in this method in the past, but now the farmer realizes that this
+system is really his only salvation, and he is receiving the idea of
+co-operation in a better mood than he did in the past. However, for
+the one living in town, with but a small flock of birds, more time
+can usually be devoted to this end of the business, with splendid
+returns. Many town lot poultry keepers can sell all the eggs that they
+can get just around to their neighbors, who are usually glad to pay a
+little more than the market price for the assurance that the eggs are
+strictly fresh. However, if one has a fairly good yield of winter eggs,
+and is not content to sell the eggs to his neighbors at around market
+price, there are other methods that can bring much higher returns.
+
+Some poultry raisers get in touch with local or neighboring hotels and
+restaurants, and agree to let these parties have their entire output
+of eggs at a certain margin above market price. For instance, it is
+a common method to make an agreement with such parties to sell them
+their eggs at ten cents above market prices. If the market quotations
+for fresh eggs were thirty-two cents for a certain day, the hotel
+keeper would pay forty-two cents, if the eggs were delivered on this
+day. Usually, the restaurant or hotel is glad to pay this premium over
+the market price, because he takes quite a chance with store eggs, in
+that some of them are often stale, and this is a matter that reflects
+against his business. Also, if such an agreement can be made, the hotel
+or restaurant man can advertise the fact that he serves nothing but
+fresh eggs, which is good business for him.
+
+When one is getting a big yield daily, he can usually plan to sell
+his eggs by the case to city commission men, who will always pay a
+good premium over local markets. If one has not enough eggs to sell a
+case once or twice weekly in such a manner, this difficulty is often
+overcome by combining with neighbors who are willing to take the proper
+care in producing clean, fresh eggs for market. However, such neighbors
+must be in sympathy with what is expected for fresh eggs, and who have
+the courage to refrain from putting in eggs that are not clean and
+fresh. If one case is sent in to these commission men and the quality
+of the eggs is not of first class, quite a dockage will be deducted
+from the check, and your reputation will thereby suffer. Never wash
+eggs that are soiled, but use them in your own kitchen, as the washing
+will remove the natural bloom, or fine powder that is found on the
+untouched egg. One can secure clean eggs by keeping the bedding in the
+nests clean.
+
+There is always a splendid opportunity to sell hatching eggs in the
+spring of the year, if one has had the foresight to get started in
+purebred poultry. There is always a large demand for hatching eggs
+and most hatcheries can not fill their orders. For the one engaged in
+the poultry business, even on a small scale, this offers a splendid
+opportunity, especially when eggs are selling cheap on the market, as
+they do in the spring of the year, to divide the mature birds up into
+small pens of about ten females to one good male bird, and sell these
+eggs at anywhere from $1.50 a setting to as much as you can get. The
+higher the quality of the stock, the more money one can demand for such
+hatching eggs.
+
+Then there is another good source of revenue from selling adult birds
+for breeding purposes. If your flock is composed of good individuals,
+you should experience little difficulty in selling your surplus
+birds from $5 up. A little well planned advertising is often a good
+thing to do, to let people know what you have got for sale. Often an
+advertisement in the local paper, or a rural weekly will bring in many
+inquiries in regard to the birds or eggs that you have to sell.
+
+Probably a cheaper way of advertising, if you really have good birds,
+is to show a pen, consisting of four females and one male, at some of
+the neighboring poultry shows. If you can succeed in winning a premium,
+this will be a splendid factor in your efforts in selling breeding
+stock. It is usually permissible to place a little card on the outside
+of your pen at the poultry show, giving your name and address, and
+stating that you have breeding stock for sale, or that you are now
+taking orders for hatching eggs in the spring.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+IN CONCLUSION
+
+
+I have tried to explain in this little booklet that there is a splendid
+opportunity for one to engage in the poultry industry, whether it be
+on a large scale, or a small scale. There is considerable pleasure as
+well as profit in this work, for the one that is posted on a few of the
+essential principles, as has been laid down in this short treatise. It
+will probably be well to repeat a few facts that should be remembered
+first, however, before closing.
+
+Do not expect to make a great amount of money from your poultry the
+first year. Getting started right in the poultry business will cost
+something, so for the first year, if you just break even you will
+do well. Plan to learn as you go along. Every poultry raiser should
+take at least one poultry journal, to keep posted on the latest facts
+concerning the business. These journals always carry a great amount of
+advertising matter in regard to stock for breeding and in regard to
+poultry house equipment, etc. Many useful ideas can be secured from
+pretty near every issue of a standard paper.
+
+Get acquainted with the other poultry people in your own locality. This
+is especially true in regard to those who have the same breed that you
+have. If your locality boasts of a poultry association, become a member
+of this association. You can then get much valuable information in
+regard to your business.
+
+Get in touch with your state agricultural college, and especially with
+the poultry department. Write to them and ask them to send you all
+the bulletins that they have published on poultry, and tell them to
+place you on their mailing list, so that any future bulletins that
+they may publish will be sent you free of charge. Then the U. S. Dept.
+of Agriculture has many excellent bulletins on different branches
+of the poultry industry that are worth sending for. It is located
+at Washington, D. C. Another splendid thing, if you can succeed in
+interesting others in your community, would be to send to the Motion
+Picture Lab., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Wash., D. C., and have them
+send you their film on culling, entitled, “Select the Laying Hen.” It
+certainly brings out in a splendid manner, just how to cull your flock.
+Most any moving picture house would be glad to run this reel free of
+charge. The only expense of securing this film is the transportation
+charges from Washington, D. C., to your home town.
+
+With these parting words on the betterment of your flock, remember that
+poultry work has its ups and downs, like any other business. However,
+for one willing to inform himself on the business, a very pleasurable
+and profitable experience may be anticipated.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+The books listed below are in cloth binding and can be secured from
+Haldeman-Julius Company, Clothbound Book Department, Girard, Kansas.
+The prices quoted include carriage charges.
+
+Success With Hens, Robert Joos. Cloth. $1.35 postpaid.
+
+My Poultry Day by Day, Alfred Gibson. Cloth. $3.15 postpaid.
+
+International Poultryman’s Handbook. Cloth. Illustrated. $1.10 postpaid.
+
+Anatomy of the Fowl, Kaupp. Cloth. Illustrated. $3.65 postpaid.
+
+Poultry Culture, Hygiene and Sanitation, Kaupp. Cloth. Illustrated.
+$3.15 postpaid.
+
+Mating and Breeding of Poultry, Lamon & Slocum. Cloth. $2.65 postpaid.
+
+
+
+
+  Transcriber’s Notes
+
+  pg 8 Changed: content herself to set on a nest of eggs
+            to: content herself to sit on a nest of eggs
+
+  pg 22 Changed: from the center to the outside, and vica versa
+             to: from the center to the outside, and vice versa
+
+  pg 24 Changed: There are seval different sizes
+             to: There are several different sizes
+
+  pg 24 Changed: The manufacturors of the incubator
+             to: The manufacturers of the incubator
+
+  pg 25 Changed: by springling water on the floor
+             to: by sprinkling water on the floor
+
+  pg 33 Changed: green fed of any kind can be added
+             to: green feed of any kind can be added
+
+  pg 55 Changed: It was though that the sunshine
+             to: It was thought that the sunshine
+
+  pg 69 Changed: and dead skin as it peals off
+             to: and dead skin as it peels off
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75419 ***
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+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75419 ***</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 85%">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover">
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center no-indent fs120 wsp">TEN CENT POCKET SERIES NO. 430<br>
+<span class="fs90">Edited by E. Haldeman-Julius</span></p>
+
+<h1>Poultry for Profit</h1>
+
+<p class="center no-indent wsp"><span class="fs150">R. A. Power</span><br>
+B. S. in Agriculture</p>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<p class="center no-indent fs120">HALDEMAN-JULIUS COMPANY<br>
+GIRARD, KANSAS
+</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center no-indent">
+Copyright, 1923,<br>
+Haldeman-Julius Company.<br>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center no-indent fs150 wsp">POULTRY FOR PROFIT</p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br>
+<span class="fs70">THE OUTLOOK</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>When a business reaches the billion dollar
+mark per year, it is generally looked into by
+thinking people who like to know the facts of
+the case, and who want to know just why the
+business has reached such large proportions.
+In this little booklet I will endeavor to explain
+not only why the poultry business has grown
+so rapidly, but will also reveal the most important
+secrets that have contributed largely
+to its rapid growth, so that whether the reader
+is a farmer, a town lot fancier, or a student of
+economics, he or she will gain much by the
+reading and the studying of the principles involved.</p>
+
+<p>The high cost of living has forced many
+people to economize to the limit, and reduce
+the family budget to the minimum. People in
+the small towns and villages, especially, have
+sought various ways of increasing their earnings,
+and one of the most popular methods resorted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span>
+to has been to raise a few chickens, thus
+utilizing the table scraps, and odds and ends,
+so that there will be no waste. It has been
+proved beyond a shadow of a doubt that chickens
+can be raised profitably by the person living
+in town, as well as by the farmer with his
+vast acres, providing the townsman knows a
+few essential principles in regard to the proper
+handling of the birds.</p>
+
+<p>Poultry products are becoming popular more
+than ever before. This is due in part to the
+increased price of beef and pork. Eggs are
+an established part of the nation’s menu, while
+the meat of the chicken is now within the
+means of most American families. Since these
+facts are recognized, there has been a revolution
+in the poultry industry itself to cope with
+the increased demand for eggs, meat, and breeding
+stock.</p>
+
+<p>Many city people have taken advantage of
+the opportunity of raising chickens, and many
+an old packing box, or piano box has been relieved
+of its original purpose of encasing furniture,
+or other articles, and has done its bit
+to act as part of a shelter for housing some
+back-yard lot of chickens. What has been done,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span>
+can be done, and inasmuch as the value of the
+egg, or the carcass of the bird still maintains
+its high standard on the market, it stands to
+reason that the poultry industry is still in its
+infancy. Much more will be done in the future
+than has been done in the past.</p>
+
+<p>Consequently, there is still one industry that
+is not overcrowded, despite the great number
+who have taken it up, either as a vocation, or
+as an avocation. When it is considered that
+New York City alone cannot get enough eggs
+to supply the demand during the fall and winter
+months, and is willing to pay, and pay dearly
+for breakfast eggs, and that the vicinity of
+Pataluma, Cal., finds it profitable to ship its
+eggs across the continent to put them on the
+New York market, it can be seen quite clearly
+that there are excellent possibilities in poultry,
+even in just a small back yard flock.</p>
+
+<p>The remainder of this booklet will be devoted
+to showing the ordinary layman, who has had
+no previous knowledge or experience, how he
+can take a small flock, or a large flock, and
+turn it into pleasure and profit. However,
+one word of caution is necessary. Let no one
+attempt to venture upon a poultry enterprise<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span>
+on a big scale at first. History has shown
+countless failures in such attempts, and history
+has a way of repeating itself. It is always
+wiser to start moderately, and work into it
+gradually. This method always proves successful
+if common sense and moderation are
+exhibited.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br>
+<span class="fs70">THE POULTRY BREEDS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Before attempting to discuss the methods of
+raising poultry it is deemed advisable to first
+take up a discussion of the different breeds and
+their characteristics. Outside of a few fancy
+breeds, that are raised more for curiosity or
+show purposes, we usually think of the breeds
+of poultry as three distinct classes.</p>
+
+<p>The first of these three classes that we will
+take up for discussion is what is termed the
+egg breed. This breed is usually represented
+by such birds as the Leghorn, Ancona, Campine,
+Minorca, or the Houdan. Of these five
+breeds, the Leghorn and the Minorca are by
+far the most popular. There are different varieties
+of all these breeds, but the White Leghorn,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span>
+and the Black Minorca are much more popular
+in their respective breeds than are any other
+variety. The other breeds are found scattered
+here and there, but the Leghorn and Minorca
+are easily the leading egg breeds. Both of
+these breeds have many birds with yearly records
+of over 300 eggs per year. Next let us
+consider a few of the important characteristics
+of these egg breeds.</p>
+
+<p>These breeds are small, light of weight, very
+active, and very hard to confine in a small inclosure.
+The average adult bird of these breeds
+weighs about four pounds. They are neat and
+attractive in appearance, have clean shanks, and
+have large head parts, which are much more
+susceptible to being frosted in cold weather,
+than the other breeds.</p>
+
+<p>The egg production of the egg breed is of
+the best. As has been stated, there are a great
+number of birds in this class that have records
+of over 300 eggs per year. Their eggs are
+white shelled, of good size, and rather long.
+However the meat of these birds, especially
+when matured, is very tough, and the active
+disposition of the egg breeds do not allow
+them to put on surplus flesh as with the other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span>
+class of birds. Quick maturity is characteristic
+of the egg breeds, however, and because of this
+fact, they make excellent small broilers when
+but a few months old. But it is useless to put
+them on the market for meat when mature, as
+they will not fatten like the heavier breeds.</p>
+
+<p>The disposition of these breeds, as has been
+said, is active, nervous, and hard to confine.
+Therefore, for the person with a small lot on
+which to raise chickens, it would be well to
+choose a heavier breed that stands confinement
+better than these breeds. These birds are
+active in the house in winter, or on the range
+in summer, and owing to their natural tendency
+to roam, they are always uneasy when confined
+to a small yard. They also have excellent
+powers of flight, and can usually fly over
+a fence unless the fence is about eight feet
+high.</p>
+
+<p>The egg breed, owing to the activity so characteristic
+to such breeds, makes poor sitters
+and mothers. It is very seldom that a fowl of
+these breeds can content herself to sit on a
+nest of eggs three weeks, which is the time
+required to hatch the eggs. Their eggs are
+usually hatched under a general purpose hen,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span>
+or with an incubator. They make poor mothers,
+because they usually like to roam too far to
+properly look after their young.</p>
+
+<p>Another point in favor of the egg breeds,
+however, is their early maturity. Usually these
+birds will mature in close to four months. This
+allows them plenty of time to get into laying
+condition in the fall, before cold weather starts,
+and birds that can lay eggs during the months
+of November and December are certainly an
+asset, as eggs always bring the highest prices
+on the market during these two months.</p>
+
+<p>These birds will live on less feed than any
+other class because of their small size, and
+their great foraging ability. However, these
+breeds are not as hardy as the heavier breeds,
+and will not stand the cold as well, because of
+their lack of feathers, and large combs and
+wattles. These large head parts are easily frost
+bitten in cold weather, and when this happens
+the birds generally stop laying until they have
+recovered from the setback. With these few
+words on the egg breed characteristics, let
+us next consider the general purpose breed.</p>
+
+<p>When we speak of general purpose breeds,
+we usually mean one of four different breeds.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span>
+The Plymouth Rock, Rhode Island Red, Orpington,
+and the Wyandotte are the four leading
+breeds of this class. Then there are quite a
+few different varieties of each of these four
+breeds, such as the Barred Rock, the White
+Rock, the Buff Rock, etc. These breeds are
+very good both as egg birds, and for meat purposes,
+and find favor where ever they go. I
+will attempt to analyze their characteristics,
+bringing out their strong points and their weak
+points, as I have already done with the egg
+breeds.</p>
+
+<p>These breeds have been developed for egg
+production, and as a result, have many birds in
+the 300 egg class, as well as the strictly egg
+breeds. If any are to be disposed of, they have
+the ability to put on flesh and to bring a good
+price on the market for meat. When one
+realizes that usually one half of a hatch of
+chickens are males, and the other half females,
+it can be easily seen that the general purpose
+bird has an advantage, in the sale of the male
+birds, and of the surplus females, as they can
+be fed fattening feeds, and a good profit made
+from this source.</p>
+
+<p>The general purpose birds make excellent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span>
+mothers and sitters. They have a broody disposition,
+and will set on the nest the required
+three weeks to hatch the chickens. They will
+also take care of their young as a parent should.
+In fact, one of the criticisms of this class of
+birds is that they are too broody, and are a
+nuisance in this particular. They are far more
+quiet than the egg breeds, and stand confinement
+with no apparent discomforture. They
+make an ideal bird for the back lot.</p>
+
+<p>These birds are fairly good foragers, but
+take a little more feed to maintain their upkeep
+than do the egg breeds. They have smaller
+head parts than the egg breeds, and a heavier
+coating of flesh and feathers thus enabling
+them to withstand cold weather much better
+than the egg breeds.</p>
+
+<p>These breeds, in most cases, have yellow
+shanks, long well rounded bodies, and weigh
+about six pounds at maturity. They are not as
+nervous or as active as the egg breeds, but
+require a month or two longer to mature and
+to get into laying condition, than the egg
+breeds.</p>
+
+<p>We will close this discussion on breed characteristics
+with a few words on the meat breeds.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span>
+There are four generally recognized meat
+breeds. These are the Brahams, Cochins,
+Langshans, and the Cornish Game, with their
+several varieties. The adult meat bird usually
+weighs about eight pounds, but the male birds
+weigh even more than this, sometimes reaching
+twelve pounds or more. These birds are
+rather awkward and clumsy, in fact, so much so
+that they make poor sitters, as their awkwardness
+often causes them to break the eggs in
+the nest. They have an abundance of feathers
+and meat on their body, which makes them
+easy to winter. Generally speaking, the heavier
+the bird, the poorer the laying ability, and
+this is true with the meat breeds. They do not
+lay a very large number of eggs during the
+year, being raised mostly for their flesh, which
+is unsurpassed for table purposes. As is the
+custom with heavy animals, the meat birds are
+lazy and sluggish, do not roam far for their
+food, and consume a comparatively large
+amount of grain for this reason. The meat
+breeds take a longer period of time to gain
+maturity than any other class, the average time
+being about eight months. As has been said,
+they are primarily a meat breed, and it is for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span>
+this purpose that they are mostly used. They
+do lay eggs, however, and about 100 eggs per
+year is a good average. They, like the general
+purpose breed, lay a brown shelled egg, while
+the egg breeds lay a white shelled egg, which
+brings a higher price on every market in the
+country but the Boston market. The brown
+shelled egg brings the higher price on the
+Boston market.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br>
+<span class="fs70">GETTING A START</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>We have now discussed quite minutely the
+good and bad points of the three main classes
+of birds. Each class, and each breed has its
+merits and demerits. The one who wants to
+make a start in raising poultry should choose
+the breed that appeals to his likes the most,
+and the one that he can realize the most success
+with, under the conditions that he will
+have to raise them. There is no best breed,
+whether it is chickens, cows, or hogs. They
+all have their good points, and their weak ones.
+It is up to each individual to pick the breed
+that appeals to him the most.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span></p>
+
+<p>Granted that you have pretty near decided
+the breed that you want to use, let us see how
+we can secure our first birds, if we have none
+as yet to start with. There are generally three
+different ways in which we can secure our
+foundation stock. The first way is by buying
+adult birds and mating them, and raising the
+resulting chicks. Another way is by purchasing
+hatching eggs, either from a neighbor or
+from a regular breeder or hatchery. The third
+way is by buying day-old chicks from the various
+hatcheries, and raising these to maturity.
+Let us consider each of these methods separately,
+and thereby inform ourselves on the
+advantages and disadvantages of each method.</p>
+
+<p>In selecting adult birds for breeding purposes,
+and thus relying on these birds to produce
+the hatching eggs, a few points are necessary
+to bear in mind, if one wants the best
+results. As these birds are to be the foundation
+of your future flock, don’t buy them too
+hastily, and also do not try to buy the cheapest
+birds that you can find on the market, as you
+usually get just what you pay for. Therefore,
+the first thing to do is to look through poultry
+papers, farm weeklies, etc., or to inquire locally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span>
+from some neighboring breeder, and find out
+just what it will cost you for adult females.
+Having the desired breed in mind, it would be
+advisable to post yourself on the qualifications,
+and the disqualifications of this particular
+breed. Standard weight for the breed is an
+important consideration in this connection. If
+the standard weight for an adult female is five
+pounds, try to get females that weigh around
+six pounds. These qualifications can be found
+for every breed in the American Standard of
+Perfection, a book published by the American
+Poultry Association, and found in most libraries.
+Another very important factor is the
+health of the birds. No birds should be used
+for breeding purposes that have ever had any
+of the common poultry diseases, such as roup,
+chicken pox, etc., as their resulting chicks will
+also have a tendency toward this disease.
+Select nothing but healthy, vigorous birds, of
+standard weight and color, free from disease,
+of good body conformation, and not less than
+one year old. When pullets, or birds of less
+than a year old, are used for breeding, the result
+is a small egg, which hatches out a small,
+under-sized chick.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span></p>
+
+<p>If you can get in touch with your State College
+of Agriculture, they can usually inform
+you of some reliable breeder who can furnish
+you with the kind of birds you want. In selecting
+the cockerels, or male birds, one very
+good way is to buy them from an unrelated
+flock, and buy some that are especially strong
+where the females are weak. For instance, if
+the females that you have purchased are a
+little light in color, it would be advisable to
+secure males that are a little darker in color
+than the standard calls for. It is never advisable
+to mate more than ten females with one
+male, because if more are mated, the fertility
+of the eggs will suffer. Many successful breeders
+even use two male birds with a pen of ten
+females, alternating one male in the breeding
+pen every other day. Thus the fertility of the
+hatching egg is doubly assured.</p>
+
+<p>A cheaper method of securing the foundation
+stock is in buying the hatching eggs, but not
+quite as satisfactory as the first method. These
+eggs are usually sold by the sitting, amounting
+to fifteen eggs, or by the hundred. When buying
+by the sitting, one buys from a regular
+breeder, and pays anywhere from $1.50 up to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span>
+as high as $50 per sitting. It is not advisable
+for the beginner to pay either of these extremes,
+but to plan to buy eggs not over $5
+per setting. Then as you progress in the business,
+you can purchase males to mate with
+your females to gradually improve your flock.
+This method necessitates the use of an incubator,
+unless you can arrange with some friend
+who will loan you the use of his incubator.
+Of course, if you already have some mature
+birds, even of a different breed, you can set
+these eggs under these birds, when they become
+broody in the spring, and secure even a
+larger hatch than you can from the use of an
+incubator. Generally, a mature bird can set
+on about fifteen eggs, and hatch every fertile
+egg in the sitting. A more detailed discussion
+on incubation will be given in the next chapter.</p>
+
+<p>The third way that one can secure a start
+in the poultry business, is by buying day-old
+chicks. This is an industry that has grown by
+leaps and bounds in the last few years. The
+price generally charged for these day-old chicks
+is twice as much as is charged for the hatching
+eggs. A fair price for 100 day-old chicks is
+from $15 to $20. Of course, the quality of these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span>
+chicks is inferior to the higher priced sittings
+of eggs, but if one is not so particular as to
+type and show purposes, this method is very
+satisfactory. The day-old chick business is
+founded upon the principle that it is not advisable
+to feed the chick for the first forty-eight
+hours of its life, because just before the
+chick emerges from the shell, it absorbs the
+remainder of the yolk of the egg, and it is exceedingly
+dangerous to feed the chick any food
+during that period, as the chick will be sure to
+experience digestive troubles, if any thing besides
+water and grit is given to the chicks for
+the first two days. Therefore, these chicks
+are placed in a well ventilated box and sent
+by parcel post often as far as a thousand miles,
+with no loss in mortality. For one that has
+no incubator or mature hens, this offers a very
+satisfactory method of starting out in the
+chicken business. There are commercial hatcheries
+all over the country that make a business
+of purchasing hatching eggs from raisers of
+purebred poultry, and hatching these eggs in
+mammoth incubators, selling the chicks as soon
+as hatched, in the manner described.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, the one interested in getting a start<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span>
+in poultry has an option on either of these
+three ways. The local circumstances of the
+purchaser will largely determine which method
+will be the best. But which ever method is
+used, let me caution you that too much care
+can not be given in finding a source that is
+perfectly honorable in their business dealings,
+as there has been in the past a considerable
+amount of unfair dealing on the part of some
+dealers in the poultry business, but I am glad
+to say that these people are fast being weeded
+out, and the tendency is now for honest, upright
+dealings in all three branches of the industry,
+as the dishonest people have found that
+their methods forced them out of the business.
+Not everybody will be independent of the incubator,
+however, so we will next discuss something
+in regard to the commercial incubator,
+also including and comparing the natural incubation
+of the egg.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br>
+<span class="fs70">INCUBATION</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>In order to get a better idea of artificial incubation,
+let us first examine a few facts concerning
+the way in which the hen hatches her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span>
+eggs in the natural process. The fertile egg
+is hatched when the egg is subjected to a heat
+over 100 degrees, F., for a period of about
+twenty-one days. The mother hen, by setting
+on the eggs for this period, will bring off her
+hatch on the twenty-first day, if she has been
+given ordinary care. Let us see what are the
+principles involved in this natural incubation,
+that we may the better understand the artificial
+method of incubation.</p>
+
+<p>When the hen first becomes broody, and
+wants to sit, she might try to “steal her nest.”
+This is another way of saying that she will try
+to locate some secluded spot, and after she has
+succeeded in laying a dozen or fifteen eggs,
+she will then spend nearly her entire time on
+the nest, until she proudly marches back to her
+old haunts with a small clutch of chickens.</p>
+
+<p>It is a natural instinct of most hens to become
+broody in the spring of the year, to reproduce
+their kind. A constant desire to sit
+on the nest is a sure sign of broodiness. When
+one has the eggs to put under the hen to hatch,
+it is best first to try to secure a general purpose
+bird for this method, as they have been
+found the best, for reasons previously stated.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span></p>
+
+<p>Now let us prepare a nest for the bird, so
+that she will have a good opportunity to do her
+best work. We can either partition off a part
+of the chicken house, or we can fix up a nest
+in another building entirely, such as a garage,
+barn, or any other building that we may have
+on the premises. Next let us take some soil,
+and make a round nest, over a foot in diameter,
+and four or five inches deep. Then we will
+dig out the center of the nest, so as to make
+it hollow in the middle, leaving at least two
+inches depth in the center. Then we will cover
+this earth with a few inches of cut straw, shavings,
+or leaves, and press this covering down
+to conform to the shape of the soil foundation.
+We can now place our eggs for hatching
+in the nest, and put the bird on them. However,
+best results will be obtained if we wait
+until towards evening before we place the bird
+on the nest, as she will be more contented
+then. Take the bird that you have chosen
+and place her gently upon the nest of eggs.
+If she is at all broody, she will be quite contented
+when she feels the eggs underneath her,
+and settle down to business at once. The hen
+should spend practically all of the next three<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span>
+weeks upon the nest, the only time that she
+should be allowed to leave being the short
+time that she takes food and water twice a
+day. Having a quiet place, and giving her
+nourishment twice a day, she will be quite contented.
+The hen does not need any special
+ration during this time, other than one that is
+fairly heating. Corn is excellent during this
+period, supplemented with a few other grains,
+such as oats, wheat, etc. A sufficient amount
+of fresh water should be available, together
+with some kind of green food, if possible, such
+as cabbage or mangoes. The hatch will not be
+endangered by the hen leaving the nest to eat.
+In fact, it is beneficial to the eggs to be temporarily
+cooled, at least once a day, while the
+hen is off the nest for a while.</p>
+
+<p>The hen has a habit of turning the eggs
+under her every day, not only removing their
+position from the center to the outside, and
+vice versa, but also turning them over, so that
+perhaps the part of the egg that was in contact
+with the nest one day, will be in contact
+with the hen’s body the next day. Or, in other
+words, she turns it half way around. These
+are all peculiarities that we have to imitate in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span>
+artificial incubation, if we would be successful.
+Now that we have seen the process of the
+natural method of incubation, let us see how
+the ingenuity of man has successfully imitated
+the mother hen, and made possible the
+hatching of a far greater number of chicks than
+the hen can naturally hatch.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, there are a great many
+incubators on the market, some being made to
+sell, and others being made to use. How shall
+we determine the make to buy? That is not
+the easiest question in the world, if one has
+had no previous experience with incubators.
+Do not necessarily buy the incubator that is
+advertised the most. Sometimes incubator
+companies have to advertise extensively to do
+a sufficient volume of business. The safest
+way to choose an incubator, if you really intend
+to purchase one, is to get the advice of
+some one who is using one, and has had success
+with the machine that he has used. Some of
+the cheaper makes have the trouble of too varying
+a temperature, especially during the night.
+If one has to arise five or six times a night
+for three weeks to regulate the lamp to maintain
+a constant temperature, then the incubator<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span>
+is more bother than it is worth. Therefore,
+find out the makes of incubators that are giving
+satisfaction in your own community, if you
+are intending to purchase one, and then send
+for one of a similar make. However, if you
+have not enough eggs to warrant purchasing
+one, then try to arrange with someone to loan
+you one, or to put your eggs in with some
+of theirs, so as to eliminate this expense.</p>
+
+<p>There are in general two types of incubators,
+the hot water and the hot air, the latter being
+quite the more popular of the two. There are
+several different sizes of incubators, ranging from
+a fifty egg capacity up to a thousand egg capacity
+machine. An incubator with a hundred
+egg capacity is usually sufficiently large enough
+for the small poultry keeper. By running three
+or four hatches during the same season, a good
+number of chicks can be hatched.</p>
+
+<p>There are a few requirements that must be
+fulfilled to realize the best results from an
+incubator. First and foremost, always follow
+the instructions that come with the incubator.
+The manufacturers of the incubator know more
+about their incubator than you do. Another
+thing that should be borne in mind is that you<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span>
+must not expect every egg that is placed in the
+incubator to produce a chick. A very good
+hatch is about 75 per cent. Of course, this
+varies considerably, ranging all the way from
+nothing to as high as sometimes 100 per cent.
+Usually one can reasonably expect as high as
+a 60 per cent hatch, at least, and very often
+it goes considerably higher, according to the
+conditions under which it is run.</p>
+
+<p>Moisture is a prime essential for the proper
+running of an incubator, and this should be
+provided for. If possible, arrange to run the
+incubator in a cellar, or some damp place. This
+can be aided, by sprinkling water on the floor,
+etc. Care must be exercised in running the incubator
+that fire is guarded against, and some
+insurance companies make special provisions
+in their policies for such occasions, and make
+a slightly higher charge for their policies, because
+of the danger.</p>
+
+<p>Another essential condition for a successful
+hatch with the incubator is proper ventilation.
+Most machines are provided with something
+for the admission of fresh air. It is also necessary
+that the room containing the incubator be
+aired frequently to admit fresh air, but not in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span>
+such a manner that the eggs will become
+chilled, or that too much air will be admitted
+so as to carry off the moisture. Most incubators
+carry proper directions so as to provide
+against this danger.</p>
+
+<p>The third condition necessary for proper running
+of the incubator is the maintenance of a
+constant temperature. It is usually advisable
+to have the temperature about 102 degrees F.
+the first week, 103 degrees the second week,
+and 104 degrees the third week. Any serious
+deviation from 103 degrees will result in a poor
+hatch.</p>
+
+<p>Now, then we will conclude this chapter with
+a few pointers on running the incubator during
+the hatching period. It is always well to
+run the incubator a day or two empty, so as to
+get the idea of how to best maintain the required
+temperature. Clean the lamp thoroughly
+before running, and then during the hatch, always
+tend to the lamp after the eggs have
+been turned, and never before, because if the
+hands are smeared with kerosene, some of this
+is bound to be left on the shells, which will result
+in a poor hatch. Do not allow the lamp<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span>
+to be in a draft, and clean the wick every day,
+so as to prevent the lamp from smoking.</p>
+
+<p>After the first few days, the eggs should
+be turned at least once a day, and even better,
+twice a day. This is to imitate the mother hen,
+who does this on the nest. If the eggs are not
+turned, then the embryo of the chick will adhere
+to the shell of the egg, and either die,
+or be crippled beyond hope.</p>
+
+<p>We must imitate the mother hen again in the
+artificial incubation of chicks, in regard to
+cooling. We saw in the previous chapter, how
+the hen leaves her nest occasionally to take
+food and water, with no ill effects on the hatch.
+Likewise we must cool the eggs in the incubator.
+This can usually best be accomplished
+while turning the eggs. Five or ten minutes
+a day are usually sufficient for the proper cooling,
+unless it is near the end of the hatch,
+when twenty or thirty minutes can be used
+for this purpose with safety.</p>
+
+<p>On the seventh and the fourteenth day, it is
+a good plan to test the eggs in the incubator,
+so that the infertile eggs may be removed.
+This is done by a process known as candling.
+Hold each egg up in front of a light and note<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span>
+the appearance of the interior of the egg. This
+can be done by making a hole in a box, that
+will fit over a light or lamp, and then holding
+the eggs up to the light, showing through the
+hole, which should be in line with the flame.
+If the egg appears clear, free from any dark
+spots, then the egg can be taken out of the
+incubator, as it is not fertile, and will not
+hatch. However, if the egg shows a dark spot,
+about the size of a bean, and you can detect
+small blood vessels running from it, then you
+may be assured that the egg is coming along in
+good shape, and will hatch out in due time.</p>
+
+<p>With these points well in mind, one will
+have little difficulty in properly running an incubator,
+providing he has a reliable machine
+to begin with. Of the matters considered in
+this chapter, probably the most important factor
+of all is the constant maintenance of a uniform
+temperature. Now, then, let us consider
+that the chicks are pipping the shells and are
+ready to start out in life. We will therefore
+consider the care of the chicks in the next
+chapter, until they are able to care for themselves.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br>
+<span class="fs70">BROODING</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Whether we hatched the eggs by means of an
+incubator, or bought the day-old chicks, if we
+have no mother hen to care for the chicks
+after they are hatched, we must take care of
+them ourselves. This is called the brooding
+period. Unless the hatch is quite late, which,
+by the way, is not desirable, we will have to
+arrange to supply some cheap, simple form of
+artificial heat, to prevent the young chickens
+from getting chilled. This is accomplished in
+several different ways, but we will only discuss
+the more common ways here.</p>
+
+<p>There are several different makes of readymade
+brooders on the market, but one can in
+a few hours spare time, construct a brooder
+that will answer the purpose. The chief part
+of the brooder is the source of heat. Usually
+these heaters can be bought for a few dollars,
+and placed in a good box supplied with a little
+litter on the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>A common arrangement with brooder equipments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span>
+is to have two compartments, one where
+a hover is placed, and the rest of the brooder
+constituting a run for the chicks. The two
+compartments are usually partitioned off from
+each other, allowing just enough room at the
+bottom of the partition to allow the chicks to
+pass from one compartment to the other. In
+the hover compartment is placed the heater,
+and a metal canopy, so that the heat will be
+held down close to the floor, where the chicks
+are located. At first, the chicks should be confined
+to this hover entirely, because they are
+liable to get lost if they wander away from the
+hover, and consequently die from chilling. The
+temperature of the hover compartment during
+the first week should be about 96 degrees F.,
+and each succeeding week it should be lowered
+by at least two degrees. This can be done by
+controlling the lamp, or what ever heater is
+used, or by gradually raising or lowering the
+canopy over the chicks. This method gradually
+toughens the chicks up, so that they can soon
+be let out doors. After the first week or so,
+they should be encouraged to get out into the
+other compartment for exercise, as this will
+aid in making them hardy. After the first few<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span>
+weeks of the life of the chicks are past, they
+will need less care and attention. These first
+few weeks are the critical weeks of the bird’s
+life. After the chicks get accustomed to the
+temperature out in the run of the brooder, it
+is advisable to cut a small hole at the run end
+of the brooder box, so that on pleasant days
+they can run outside on the ground around the
+brooder. In this case, however, they must not
+be allowed to run very far at first, and only
+for a short while until they gradually become
+accustomed to the practice.</p>
+
+<p>Another important consideration in raising
+the young chick to maturity is the matter of
+food. Probably no other thing is responsible
+for such a high mortality in young chicks, as
+is improper feeding. We have learned in a
+previous chapter that it is exceedingly dangerous
+to feed the chick anything in the line of
+food for the first two days of its life. Many
+people are afraid the chicks will die if not fed
+immediately after hatching, and hasten to feed
+the chick all that it will eat. Unless the chick
+is endowed with a wonderful digestive system,
+it will succumb to this over-feeding through
+digestive disorders. It is permissible to put<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span>
+a little grit before the chick at this time, because
+the chick has no teeth, and never will
+have, so they eat the grit, and this grit passes
+down to the gizzard, which grinds the food in
+place of grinding with the teeth, as with other
+animals. Fresh water is also good for the chick
+during this period, as the water quenches their
+thirst, and makes them livelier. Towards the
+end of the second day, it is well to feed the
+chick a little sour skim milk, or buttermilk.
+Sour milk is superior to the sweet milk for two
+reasons. First, the sour skim milk has bacteria
+that aid in digestion, and secondly, it will be
+found that it will be hard to keep the milk
+sweet all the time, and by feeding sweet milk
+part of the time, and then letting it become
+sour, digestive troubles are liable to develop.
+Hence, by having it sour all the time, no danger
+from this source will be experienced.</p>
+
+<p>Now, we are ready to consider what kind of
+grain we shall feed the chick. On the third
+day we can start to feed a little grain. What
+is known as pinhead oatmeal is very good to
+start the young chick out on. Some feed hard
+boiled eggs and dried bread for the first feeding
+with good results. It is important to note<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span>
+that only enough of this first solid food should
+be fed that they can clean up in a short time.
+Keep them hungry, and remember that it is
+much safer to under feed than to over feed.</p>
+
+<p>For the next week, or so, a scratch ration,
+composed of cracked corn, pinhead oatmeal,
+cracked wheat, together with a little grit, and
+finely ground oyster shells can be fed. This
+can be fed in the litter, so that the chicks have
+to exercise to get it. In fact, that is just what
+we mean by a scratching ration; one composed
+of whole or cracked grains, mixed in with the
+litter, so that the chicks will have to scratch
+for their feed, and thereby obtain the exercise
+necessary to their health. If a little green
+feed of any kind can be added, so much the
+better. Green grass is excellent to throw into
+the chicks.</p>
+
+<p>After two weeks or more of this kind of feed,
+it is well to supplement this ration with a dry
+mash. A dry mash is a feed composed of
+ground feeds, that require no work on the part
+of the bird to grind. Feeds like wheat bran,
+ground oats, corn meal, etc., are good examples
+of such feeds. Wheat bran is especially well
+liked by these young birds, and it is recommended<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span>
+that they be allowed to have this as a
+large part of their dry mash. This feed should
+not be fed in the litter, as the cracked grains,
+but placed in some such container as a pan, or
+better still, in a regular feed hopper. It can
+readily be seen that if this finely ground grain
+was scattered in the litter, it would be largely
+lost and wasted. Also, if put in a pan, the pan
+must be low enough to be accessible to the
+birds, and covered over in such a manner that
+the chicks will not get in and walk around
+in it. A homemade hopper can be easily built,
+so that the chicks can just get their heads in,
+and no more. Do not forget that the sour skim
+milk or buttermilk must be fed all this time.
+In fact, this part of the feed should be fed
+right through the bird’s life, as it supplies the
+animal protein, which is so necessary to the
+proper development of the bird’s growth.</p>
+
+<p>Now, then, just a few more words in closing
+this chapter on brooding. We should aim to
+toughen the birds up as quickly as possible,
+so that when they are about two months old,
+no artificial heat will be necessary, and if the
+birds are of a late hatch, this can be accomplished
+much sooner. Encourage them to get<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span>
+out of doors as quickly as possible, and to get
+green feed.</p>
+
+<p>A very serious cause of death among young
+chickens is from disease. White diarrhoea is
+probably one of the most common of these
+diseases, and unfortunately, one of the most
+fatal. If the droppings are of a white, watery
+nature, with an offensive odor, you may well
+believe that this disease is present, and the
+thing to do is to get the birds thus affected
+out of the way at once, and disinfect with some
+good disinfectant. However, if the precautions
+are taken that are set forth in this booklet, no
+danger of this dreaded disease can be anticipated.</p>
+
+<p>Now that we have got the chicks along
+through the brooding period, let us next consider
+just how we shall raise these chicks to
+maturity, so as to get them ready to lay eggs,
+or to make a good meat carcass.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br>
+<span class="fs70">REARING CHICKS TO MATURITY.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the chief things to remember in raising
+young chicks to maturity is that we must
+keep them growing at all times. A check in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span>
+their growth will retard their growth severely,
+and this must be avoided by the one that wants
+his chicks to get into winter laying condition
+before the cold weather comes. We will now
+consider a few important factors that are necessary
+to bring our chicks along to rapid growth.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, where free, unrestricted range is
+possible, the chicks will progress faster than
+when cooped up in a small yard. If no free
+range is possible, it will be found advantageous
+to at least let the chicks run about the yard of
+the lot. In this manner, they can pick up considerable
+food in the shape of worms, insects,
+etc., that will furnish valuable growing food for
+them. Let me repeat again the necessity of
+having milk in some form as a constituent of
+the chicks’ food. Any food that comes from an
+animal, whether it be milk or a part of the
+animal itself, is highly essential to the growth
+of the chick. Such foods contain an element
+known as vitamines, which scientists have recently
+discovered contribute greatly to the
+growth and upkeep of a growing animal. Vitamines
+are also found to some extent in green
+feeds, such as carrots, cabbages, mangoes, etc.
+Even well cured alfalfa hay contains this important<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span>
+element. It is quite obvious, therefore,
+that if the chicks are out roaming around the
+yard or range, they not only secure the exercise
+that is necessary for their proper development,
+but they also pick up insects, as has
+been mentioned, and considerable green feed,
+such as grass, weeds, and various other odds
+and ends.</p>
+
+<p>If a fair sized lot or range is to be had, then
+it will be found a great aid to make a little
+house for the chicks to live in during the
+nights on the range, although care must be exercised
+that they be protected from enemies,
+such as rats, crows, skunks, weasels, owls, etc.
+Such a house need not be expensive at all if
+it be made out of an old packing box that will
+protect the chicks from rain and enemies.</p>
+
+<p>Another quite essential feature for the promotion
+of the maximum growth of the chicks
+during the warm summer months is the provision
+for shade. If there are some trees about
+the yard or range, this will answer the purpose
+satisfactorily, but if there are no trees
+where the chicks roam, then some artificial
+shade is advised. Some people plant corn for
+this purpose, allowing the chicks to range<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span>
+among the corn plants when the corn has grown
+sufficiently high. The chicks will not harm
+the corn, so two ends can be accomplished by
+this means. Others provide this shade by
+gathering old brush together and making an
+artificial shade in this manner. During the hot
+days of summer, the chicks will suffer from the
+heat to a marked degree if exposed to the hot
+rays of the sun. An ideal method used on many
+farms is to place the chicks in the orchard,
+where there is an orchard, and let the chicks
+roam in the shade of the orchard trees.</p>
+
+<p>Where birds are necessarily confined to a
+small yard, one method that has been worked
+out satisfactorily, is to fence the yard off into
+two or more divisions, and to plow up the land.
+Then various crops can be sown at different
+intervals, so that when one range, or division,
+is consumed by the chicks, they can be turned
+into another division where the forage crop is
+up and ready to be consumed. As soon as the
+chicks are turned out of the first lot, this lot
+can be immediately plowed up again, and some
+more seeds planted, so that this range will be
+ready for the chicks when the second lot furnishes
+no more nourishment for them. It might<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span>
+be added here that many town flocks of full
+grown birds are maintained, by this very system,
+and it has worked out very nicely. Such
+grains as buckwheat, rye, oats, peas, and soy
+beans are all excellent crops to sow in this
+manner, using oats and peas for the first crop,
+because they mature quicker than the other
+crops mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>If the chicks have access to a fair amount
+of range they will not need a great deal of
+grain as a ration. However, it is always advisable
+to feed some grains to keep the birds
+continually growing as fast as possible. It
+has been proved conclusively that the first
+gains made by the growing chicks are the
+cheapest, in regard to the cost of feed, so let
+us keep this in mind during the time when
+we have them on range. To accomplish this
+end, it is well to have a dry mash of the kind
+of grains that are fairly rich in the substance
+called protein always available in the hopper.
+The reason for this need of protein feed is
+simply that the growing bird uses this element
+largely in the growth of its body. Protein goes
+to make up the bony framework of the body,
+and the muscles, tendons, etc. Therefore, feeds<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span>
+containing protein, or a fair amount of it at
+least, should be ground up, and kept before the
+birds. Oats, bran, or middlings, wheat and
+barley, are all fairly rich in protein, and some
+of these feeds, in a finely ground condition,
+should be included. It is also well to add some
+corn meal, although this feed is not high in
+protein, it supplies a great amount of energy
+for the bird to move around with. As soon as
+the birds are old enough commence to feed
+cracked grains. As has been said in a previous
+chapter, the bird has no teeth, so must
+rely upon grit to grind this feed in the gizzard.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, unless the birds have a wide
+range, this grit must be artificially supplied.
+Then the birds can help themselves to their
+needs, and suffer no digestive troubles. Fresh
+water must be before the birds at all times,
+and if no natural source is available, such as
+a running stream or brook, then fresh water
+must be placed in some sanitary container out
+in the yard or range.</p>
+
+<p>From four to six months from the time the
+chick is hatched, it should be ready to start laying
+eggs. The chick first has to get its growth
+and maturity, and then there is an apparent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span>
+resting period for a few weeks, to allow the
+organs of the bird to get ready for egg production.
+We will next consider how we shall feed
+these birds, granting that we now have them
+ready to produce the eggs.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br>
+<span class="fs70">FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>As has been said in an earlier chapter, to
+get the maximum egg production, three things
+are essential. They are: good foundation stock,
+proper housing, and proper feeding. We may
+have the best chicken house in the world, and
+the highest priced stock obtainable, but if we
+do not feed our birds the right kind of food,
+all our other efforts are in vain. Let us consider
+first a few facts concerning the composition
+of the egg, and then we will be able to
+understand more intelligently why we should
+feed the laying bird these certain feeds.</p>
+
+<p>About 14 per cent of the composition of the
+egg is protein, 10 per cent fat, and the remainder,
+except the shell, is water. Now it
+must be remembered that the ordinary protein
+supply of most food materials is relatively low.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span>
+Corn contains about 7 per cent digestible protein,
+oats and barley about 9 per cent, and bran
+about 12 per cent. The roughages are considerably
+lower, while green feeds carry about
+one or two per cent protein. From this we can
+get an idea about the necessity of watching the
+feeding to the extent that this valuable constituent
+is sufficiently supplied. Furthermore,
+the hen that is producing these eggs needs a
+fair amount of this protein for further growth
+and body upkeep. Another point worth remembering
+is the fact that the bird, or any other
+animal, through natural instinct, always sees
+to it that the first requirement, that of bodily
+growth and upkeep are maintained first with
+the food they are given, so that to get the most
+from the birds, let us not hold them down to
+just a maintenance ration, but give them
+enough in addition so that they can not only
+maintain their body requirements properly, but
+also have enough food material to yield a
+product.</p>
+
+<p>The ration for the laying hen should consist
+of the two forms of grain; first, the whole or
+cracked grains that comprise the scratch ration,
+and which should always be thrown in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span>
+litter, so that they will have to exercise to get
+it, and second, the dry mash, or a mixture of
+various grains that are ground up and fed in
+hoppers. As has been stated before, this grinding
+of the feed is simply to make it easily digestible.
+Furthermore, such finely ground
+grains usually contain a higher percentage of
+protein than the other grains. By this is meant
+that feeds like bran, oilmeal, etc., are quite a
+bit higher in protein than are grains like corn,
+wheat, barley, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The next important feed requirement for the
+laying hen should be a mineral feed of some
+kind. With many farm and city flocks this important
+consideration is entirely ignored. Many
+times the reason for poor egg production rests
+solely in the lack of proper mineral foods.
+When it is considered that about 12 percent
+of the entire egg is composed of shell material,
+it can readily be seen that the feeding of this
+material is important, and worthy of attention.
+We can give the laying bird all the rich feeds
+that we can buy, but if we withhold from her
+the material that goes to form the shell, then
+the bird will be unable to lay her eggs because
+she has no shell to cover the egg. There are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span>
+different sources of mineral food, but all authorities
+are agreed that oyster shells form the
+most economical source of shell material. These
+oyster shells can be bought at grocery stores,
+or poultry supply houses. This material should
+be placed in a box or, better still, a hopper,
+where it will be accessible to the birds at all
+times. Clam shells, lime rock grit, and dry
+bone in small sizes are other sources of mineral
+matter, and possibly even better results can
+be obtained by adding a small quantity of these
+other feeds to the oyster shells, but plan to
+have oyster shells as the basis of the mineral
+supply. Charcoal is sometimes fed to chickens
+with good results. Some birds eat this, while
+others will not. It is claimed that charcoal
+aids in regulating the digestive system of the
+fowl. One can try this out to satisfy his own
+ideas in this regard.</p>
+
+<p>Animal feed is the next class of feeds that
+we will consider in the feeding of our laying
+flock. It is the testimony of poultrymen that
+when they hang up a fresh piece of meat in
+the poultry house, such as a part of a calf, an
+old horse, rabbit, or any other such carcass, the
+birds always respond with a much higher yield<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span>
+in egg production. This simply reinforces the
+statement made in a previous chapter, that
+animal protein of some kind is needed by the
+birds if they are to do their best. If meat is
+supplied, care must be exercised that it does
+not spoil before it is consumed. It is better
+to put in small pieces at a time, so that the
+birds will eat it up quickly. If this meat can
+be run through a grinder of some kind, it will
+be eaten much more readily than if it has to
+be torn to pieces by the birds. Milk of some
+kind is also an animal protein, as has been repeated
+here several times. Meat meal or tankage
+contains a high percentage of protein, and
+as this is an animal product, it is an economical
+feed.</p>
+
+<p>Water is our last class of feeds for the laying
+hen. This can be supplied in two ways.
+The first way is from the water direct, placed
+in some kind of a pan that is covered so that
+the birds can not soil the water, by perching
+on the edge of the pan, etc. Fresh water should
+be before the birds at all times, as we have
+just learned a few pages back that about 65
+per cent of the egg is composed of water. Besides
+this, the birds need water for their body<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span>
+requirements. In the winter when the birds
+spend practically all of their time in the poultry
+house, and can not have the opportunity of
+picking up grass, and other green feeds, we
+can supply water to them in the form of some
+kind of green feeds, such as sprouted oats,
+cabbages, mangoes, or any other vegetables to
+be had. All these feeds are to be recommended
+highly, as they not only are composed largely
+of water, but add bulk to the ration, and aid
+in keeping the bird laxative. Sprouted oats can
+be raised in shallow pans, and given to the
+birds in small quantities at a time. It is usually
+advisable to have several pans of sprouting
+oats say, for instance, one for every day in the
+week, so that a fresh supply can be given to
+the birds every morning. Nearly every supply
+house has patent oat sprouters to sell at reasonable
+prices. Cabbages and mangoes are also
+fed extensively to the laying birds during the
+winter months, but provision must be made
+before hand to raise them in the summer, and
+to properly store them in the fall, so that they
+will be fresh when taken out of storage for feeding.
+One very good way to do this is to pile<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span>
+them together in a basement and cover them
+with sand.</p>
+
+<p>Let us next consider a few practical grain
+rations, that have been tried out by successful
+poultry men. These rations are always
+classified as scratch rations and dry mash rations.
+One very good ration is as follows:
+Scratch Feed, 3 parts cracked corn, 1 part
+wheat, 1 part oats, 1 part barley. Dry mash,
+1½ part bran, 1½ part middlings, 1 part corn
+meal, 1 part meat scraps or tankage. Another
+very good practical ration is composed as follows:
+Scratch feed, 3 parts corn, 1 part oats,
+and 1 part barley. Dry mash, one part each of
+bran, middlings, ground corn, ground oats and
+meat scraps. These feeds should always be
+measured by weight, and not by bulk.</p>
+
+<p>Now, then, just a few words in regard to
+the feeding of these grains. Always send the
+birds to roost with full crops. This is especially
+important during cold weather. It is
+much better if they be allowed to fill up on
+scratch grain rather than dry mash. The
+scratch ration is more bulky than the mash
+feed, and helps in keeping the bird warm. In
+fact, many successful poultry men close the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span>
+hopper of their dry mash ration during the
+afternoon, and thus make the birds take the
+scratch feed in the litter, thereby encouraging
+the birds to obtain exercise, also.</p>
+
+<p>We will close this chapter with a brief discussion
+on a recent development in the system
+of feeding birds. This is in regard to the introduction
+of artificial light. This practice has
+successfully passed beyond the “fad” stage and
+is now being used by successful poultry men
+all over the country. By supplying this extra
+light, the working day is thereby lengthened to
+the extent that the light is prolonged, and consequently,
+gives the bird a day similar to a
+summer day in length. The birds, by having
+this extra period of light, work just that much
+longer, and as a result, they are able to make
+more eggs. Everywhere this system has been
+given a trial, it has been found a paying proposition.
+One very common method in supplying
+this light is by connecting the alarm clock to
+the electric lighting system and setting the
+alarm at a period around four or five o’clock in
+the morning. This throws on the light in the
+chicken house, and then when the owner arises
+in the morning, he can go out and turn out the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span>
+lights if it is light enough to do so by that
+time.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we have considered the main points in
+feeding for egg production. While we have
+some of these important feeding principles still
+fresh in our mind, let us in the next chapter
+consider feeding birds for their flesh, because
+one very important part of the poultry business
+lies in the feeding of birds for meat. In the
+ordinary flock of birds, there are always some
+that we want to dispose of, such as the male
+birds and the culls of the females. If we know
+how to fatten these, we will be that much
+better off financially.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br>
+<span class="fs70">FEEDING FOR MEAT PRODUCTION</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>The primary object in feeding birds for the
+market is to get them well covered with flesh,
+so that they will be plump all over. It is the
+difference in the weight of the bony skeleton
+and the weight of the well filled out carcass
+that determines the amount of edible meat on
+the bird. Hence our object in this process is
+to put on as much surplus flesh as we can.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span></p>
+
+<p>Usually there are three classes of birds that
+are put on the market for meat purposes. They
+are roasters, broilers, and old hens. Roasting
+chickens are very common on the market, and
+the object is large size with a tender carcass.
+These can be either pullets or cockerels, or
+capons. They are often put on the market during
+the late fall or early winter, and bring the
+highest prices at that time.</p>
+
+<p>Broilers are birds about three or four months
+old, forced along to a rapid growth, but still
+possessing tender flesh. This offers an excellent
+way of disposing of the male birds, since
+usually the sex of the young birds can be distinguished
+at about two months of age.</p>
+
+<p>Old hens constitute the third division of the
+meat classes placed upon the market, and are
+generally composed of those birds that are
+through laying, or the ones that have been
+found to be unprofitable. Their meat is usually
+much tougher than the first two mentioned
+classes, and consequently used in city restaurants
+for meat pies, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In fattening birds for the market, a somewhat
+different procedure is followed than in
+feeding for egg production. We found that in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span>
+feeding for egg production we encouraged the
+birds in every way possible to take all the exercise
+that they could get. We do just the
+opposite in putting flesh on the birds. We restrict
+their exercise as much as possible, and
+pen them up in small quarters so that their
+feed largely goes to nothing but putting flesh
+on their bodies. It can easily be seen that
+when birds are roaming around, exercising
+more or less all day long, that there is little
+chance for them to get very fat.</p>
+
+<p>Now as to the nature of the feed for fattening
+these birds. We will still need some protein
+feeds, but not as much as in the case of
+feeding for eggs. However, we will need feeds
+which are quite rich in carbohydrates and fat.
+These are easily obtained and are relatively
+cheap. Corn is an excellent ration for this
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Since the birds are confined to small pens,
+and exercise restricted, it becomes evident that
+digestion becomes an important factor here.
+Therefore, it is advisable to have plenty of
+grit before the birds at all times, so that their
+food will be properly ground.</p>
+
+<p>We must not get the idea, just because we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span>
+are feeding for flesh, that the birds should be
+stuffed to their limit with feed. To do so,
+would be to have a lot of the birds off feed,
+and consequently we would be worse off than
+not to feed them enough. It is best to plan to
+feed them about three times a day, and to
+feed them all that they will cleanup in a
+certain length of time, as from twenty minutes
+to half an hour. Some are successful in feeding
+only twice a day, instead of three times a
+day.</p>
+
+<p>Corn is usually the basis of fattening rations
+and should always have a prominent place in
+the ration. Here again, milk in some form is
+excellent to supply some of the protein that
+is needed. Corn must be supplemented by
+other grains, such as oats, barley or middlings,
+provided they are in a finely ground condition.
+Some feeders follow the plan of feeding part
+of these grains in the form of a wet mash,
+using the skim milk to moisten the mash,
+but when this is done, care must be exercised
+in seeing that the mash is cleaned up at every
+feeding, otherwise the trough will become
+mouldy, with bad results to the birds.</p>
+
+<p>There has come into use within recent years<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span>
+a method of fattening birds by what is known
+as crate fattening. This is practiced considerably
+by some of the big packing companies.
+The birds are bought up from the surrounding
+territory and brought into the central fattening
+station. They are then placed in small pens,
+or batteries, as they are called, and fed a
+ration composed largely of skim milk and corn
+meal, with a few other feeds added, such as
+red dog flour, bran, etc. This is mixed into
+a thin, pasty feed, and fed the birds from a
+trough running along in front of the pens.
+They are fed this way for a period of two
+weeks or more, and are then taken out, dressed,
+and sold to the big city markets as milk fed
+chickens, and always bring several cents a
+pound more on the market than other poultry,
+because of the tenderness of the flesh. In this
+process, even greater care must be exercised
+in watching the feeding of the birds, and only
+feed that they will cleanup in about fifteen
+or twenty minutes.</p>
+
+<p>Crate feeding has appealed to many town lot
+poultry men, who have bought up culls of the
+neighboring territory, put them in small crates
+or pens, and fed them this milk feed for a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span>
+few weeks and then marketed them, securing
+the top prices on the market.</p>
+
+<p>We have now discussed the most important
+items connected with the feeding of the birds
+for various purposes. Let us now examine the
+living quarters of the birds, and see if we can
+improve the housing conditions in which the
+birds live during the winter months.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br>
+<span class="fs70">COMMON FAULTS OF POULTRY HOUSES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>If you were to take a trip through the surrounding
+country, with the intention of inspecting
+the living quarters of farm poultry,
+in general, you would discover some of the most
+wretched houses imaginable. All of our intelligent
+feeding would be of little use if we
+penned our chickens up in a coop with little
+sunlight, poor ventilation, cold, damp floors,
+drafty sides, and foul, damp air. It doesn’t
+cost any more to build a poultry house with
+correct principles involved, than it does to
+build one that lacks these essential features.
+The birds care very little about the appearance
+of the house. They want fresh dry air, freedom<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span>
+from drafts, a warm floor, and plenty of
+sunshine.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most common faults with most
+poultry houses is the matter of ventilation.
+When poultry raising was first looked upon as
+a promising business, many men erected houses
+containing a large proportion of glass. It was
+thought that the sunshine was the only necessary
+feature for the birds under winter conditions,
+and they made their chicken houses
+veritable hot houses. But the results were not
+as had been anticipated. It was found that
+while the houses were fairly warm in the day
+time, they cooled off considerable at night, and
+poor results were obtained from this wide range
+between the day temperature and the night
+temperature. Then another step was taken by
+these pioneers. They decided to heat their
+houses artificially. But even this system did
+not bring forth the big yield of eggs that had
+been hoped for. In all this expensive procedure,
+a very important element had been
+overlooked, and that was the matter of fresh
+air.</p>
+
+<p>About twenty years ago, there was devised
+a poultry house that was a radical departure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span>
+from this previous type of house. It was called
+the open front house, and gave surprisingly
+good results, where all previous types had
+failed, as regards egg production. This house
+was constructed briefly as follows: It was of
+the shed roof type; that is, had just one slant
+in the roof, the highest pitch being in front,
+and the lowest pitch in the rear. It had plenty
+of window light in the front side, about half
+of the south side, or front, being devoted to
+windows. The rest of the front was left open,
+save for a thin muslin curtain to cover the
+open space during bad weather. These curtains
+were tacked to wooden frames, and swung
+on hinges, so that they could be swung in to
+cover the open space at will. The most remarkable
+thing about the system was that the
+hens began to lay eggs, when proper feeding
+was obtained. Later, this led to the conclusion,
+now generally accepted, that the birds can
+stand considerable cold, providing it is not a
+damp cold, and that the temperature of the
+house is considerably more uniform between
+night and day than was the case with the glass
+house.</p>
+
+<p>As a result many poultrymen who are making<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span>
+money with poultry use some such system
+as the open front house with various changes.
+They have found that fresh air is an absolute
+requirement to get the best results. But this
+matter brought out a few more interesting facts.
+It was found that dampness was a big drawback
+to egg production in cold weather. If the
+damp foul air, breathed out by the chickens,
+could not escape from the poultry building, the
+chickens did not have the health and vigor that
+they did in well ventilated houses. Consequently,
+the curtain helped considerably in allowing
+the fresh air to come in, and for the
+foul air to go out. The damp air, being heavily
+laden with moisture, settled to the bottom of
+the house, where the birds scratch, and unless
+the curtains extend fairly well down near the
+bottom of the house, the damp air has not a
+very good chance to escape, and consequently,
+there will be more or less moisture even with
+this type of house, if the damp air has no
+chance to escape.</p>
+
+<p>Another common fault with a great many
+poultry buildings is that they are drafty. The
+walls should all be air tight, except the south
+wall, or front, as has been mentioned. If<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span>
+there is a draft in the house the birds will
+contract a cold, and will take a prolonged vacation
+from their job of laying eggs. It is
+not uncommon to find a crack in the wall,
+just behind the perches of the house, and when
+we consider that in such houses the birds stay
+all night in a direct draft, it is little wonder
+that they appear so unhealthy.</p>
+
+<p>There are a few other common faults that
+we will consider before bringing this chapter to
+a close. It is often found that there are too
+many birds cramped into a small house. It
+is a good plan to allow at least four square
+feet of floor space for each bird that you winter.
+For instance, if we were planning on
+having one hundred birds this winter, we could
+have a house built twenty-five feet long, and
+sixteen feet deep. Multiplying these two figures,
+gives us four hundred square feet. Dividing
+this product by four, gives us allowance
+for one hundred birds. Then, lastly, the floor,
+itself. Too often the floor is cold. If a cement
+floor, we should cover it with about six
+or eight inches of good, clean, dry litter. Even
+if made of wood, a good substantial litter should
+be maintained. The best litter is probably of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span>
+straw, but peat moss is fast gaining favor at
+present, where straw is not obtainable. With
+these few objections to guard against, let us
+next discuss just how we shall go about constructing
+a poultry house that will overcome
+the faults mentioned.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br>
+<span class="fs70">HOUSING POULTRY FOR PROFIT.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>In discussing plans for a modern poultry
+house, let it be mentioned at the outset that
+this does not necessarily mean that our modern
+house will be expensive, any more than the one
+that is built on old ideas. In fact, many of
+the older houses were much more expensive
+than the modern houses of today. As long as
+the poultry building includes the necessary
+principles for the birds’ well-being, and this can
+be accomplished with little added expense,
+that is all that is necessary.</p>
+
+<p>In commenting upon the common faults of
+most poultry houses in the previous chapter,
+we found that they generally lack one, or all
+of such items as ventilation, dryness, sunlight,
+adequate floor space, protection from rats,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span>
+protection from extremes of temperature, and
+simplicity of design. In arranging for a better
+house for our birds, let us plan to keep these
+factors in mind, so as to get the most from
+our birds.</p>
+
+<p>Whether we are to build a new poultry
+house, or to remodel an old one, we can design
+it so that all of these factors will be in evidence.
+If we have an old poultry house, or if
+we can buy cheaply an old poultry coop, that
+has fairly good lumber in it, we can probably
+do the remodeling somewhat cheaper than if
+we have to buy all new lumber. If we do purchase
+all new lumber, it is not advisable to get
+cheap lumber, but buy the first grade, because
+it is necessary that the walls of the house be
+air tight, and this is seldom possible with cheap
+lumber.</p>
+
+<p>We will first consider briefly the possibilities
+of remodeling an old poultry house. Probably
+the first thing that we will do is to cut some
+openings in the front of the house for windows
+and curtains. From one-half to two-thirds
+of the front should be devoted to window
+lights. The remainder should be left for the
+muslin curtains to allow for fresh air to enter,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span>
+and for foul air to pass out. These should
+not be cut up too high, but start at least a
+foot below the roof, and have the window lights
+extend at least half way down the front of the
+house. The curtains should extend quite a bit
+further down to the bottom of the house, to
+allow the foul air sufficient opportunity to
+escape.</p>
+
+<p>We should next examine the other walls and
+roof to make sure that they are not drafty,
+nor leak water. Usually these walls can be
+patched up with other boards, or heavy roofing
+paper, so that no draft is possible. In northern
+climates, where weather below zero is
+common, best results will be obtained by having
+two thicknesses of walls, to protect against
+cold nights. Roofing paper is excellent to put
+between the two walls, or even on the outside
+to aid in this matter. If the roof leaks, it
+might be advisable to re-shingle part of it,
+and here again roofing paper helps in making
+it weather tight.</p>
+
+<p>We must next examine the floor. If a
+wooden floor, then it is advisable to raise the
+house up from the ground about six inches,
+supporting it with posts. Some people follow<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span>
+the plan of placing old tin pans or plates upside
+down at the top of these posts and then
+setting the house on, thereby eliminating the
+danger of rats, as the rats cannot climb over
+the tin pans. If the house is to be a permanent
+structure it will be found best to lay a
+concrete floor, as this floor will last for all
+time, and will not need repairing. Such a floor
+is rat proof, but must be covered with a good
+litter.</p>
+
+<p>If a new house is to be constructed, then it
+will be best to follow the principles laid down
+for a remodeled house to the extent of the
+open front, weather tight walls and roof, good
+floor, and dry living conditions. Wood is the
+most popular material that is used in building
+chicken houses. Generally, 2 by 4s placed about
+two feet apart are used for studding. Matched
+lumber or rough lumber aided by battens or
+roofing paper compose the walls, this making
+them free from drafts. The matched lumber
+is generally placed on the studding horizontally.
+The lumber should be dry and free from knot
+holes, and well nailed together.</p>
+
+<p>For the roof, shingles can be used, or some
+of the prepared roofing paper on the market<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span>
+now has given good results. For quite flat
+roofs, two or three ply roofing paper is preferred
+to the shingles.</p>
+
+<p>We will now discuss the common types of
+poultry houses. The most popular type and
+the cheapest, is the shed roof house. This
+house is usually about eight feet high in front,
+slanting gradually to the rear to a height of
+about five feet. It just has one slant, and, as
+has been said, is cheaper to build than other
+types of houses. It is also much easier to keep
+warm in the winter, because of the low roof,
+which means less space has to be heated by
+the birds. Instead of curtain front houses in
+such a type of poultry house, many poultry
+men are using bafflers to let in the air. These
+bafflers are similar to a blind used to shade
+living houses in some parts of the country.
+They are composed of slats less than an inch
+apart, and placed in a slanting position, rather
+than vertical or horizontal.</p>
+
+<p>The gable roof house is another popular
+type. This differs from the shed roof type
+of house in that its roof comes to a peak,
+with two pitches, such as most modern bungalow
+dwelling houses have. This system leaves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span>
+a larger space at the top of the house, and is
+not as warm as the shed roof type. It also
+costs more to build. However, it possesses the
+advantage of allowing a straw loft to be placed
+at the top of the house, which is an excellent
+way to get rid of excess moisture, when it can
+be expelled no other way. The straw has the
+power to absorb the excess moisture during the
+winter, but should be removed in the spring,
+as it furnishes an excellent hiding place for
+mites, an insect that we will discuss more
+thoroughly in a later chapter.</p>
+
+<p>The half monitor type is not so popular as
+the two types already named, and costs considerably
+more than either of the two previous
+types discussed. This type of house has an
+arrangement similar to two shed roof houses,
+facing each other, the rear house being somewhat
+higher than the front house. Of course,
+such houses have their advantages, but for the
+one who would start with moderation in the
+poultry business, the shed roof, or the gable
+roof type will be far more attractive. We have
+discussed the types of houses in this chapter.
+The fixtures, or chicken furniture, has so far
+been omitted. Let us go inside of our modern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span>
+chicken house now, and see what is needed in
+the line of equipment to complete our efficient
+egg production.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br>
+<span class="fs70">INTERIOR FIXTURES FOR THE LAYING HOUSES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are certain devices that save a great
+deal of labor for the poultry man, and also
+give the birds a more contented atmosphere.
+We will start in with the floor. I want to
+repeat here, briefly, what has already been
+said in regard to the litter on the floor of the
+house. Birds with cold feet cannot be healthy.
+If the floor is covered with a six-inch litter of
+straw, or shavings, the floor will be warm, and
+they can be given a scratching ration that will
+make them exercise for their food. By all
+means do not fail to have a good litter of
+some kind on the floor during the late fall
+and winter months.</p>
+
+<p>The birds are rather peculiar creatures, when
+it comes to retiring for the night. They do not
+seek a place to lay down, but they look for
+something that will resemble a limb of a tree,
+where they can perch during the night. Man<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span>
+has therefore supplied something along this
+line, by erecting round poles, made of wood,
+so that the birds will have a convenient place
+to rest for the night. A few precautions must
+be guarded against here, however, as very few
+poultry men have given their birds suitable
+perches yet. The perches should be round,
+about two inches in diameter, and erected on
+the same level with each other. Too many
+perches are arranged in a ladder formation,
+having the rear perch the highest, and the
+front perch the lowest. When the birds get
+ready to go to roost, there is always an argument
+as to which bird will have the rear roost,
+as they all want the highest place to roost, or
+perch. If the perches are all on the same
+level, then there is no preference, and things
+are more peaceful at roosting time. We should
+plan on allowing about ten inches per bird for
+perching room. Plan to have a distance
+of about fourteen inches between each perch,
+or pole. Arrange these perches at the rear
+of the house, running parallel with the rear
+wall.</p>
+
+<p>All modern poultry men have what is known
+as a dropping board under the perches, so that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span>
+the droppings will not fall in the scratching
+litter and soil this part of the scratching area.
+These dropping boards are usually placed about
+six inches under the perches, and extend as
+far forward as the perches do. This makes
+the job of cleaning the poultry house quite a
+simple operation. It is advisable to sprinkle
+some sand over the dropping boards to absorb
+the moisture and bad odor.</p>
+
+<p>We have to give the birds a comfortable, well
+secluded place to lay their eggs. This is sometimes
+done by placing the nests, or the part
+facing the front wall, covered over with a
+board, that can be raised by means of a hinge,
+when collecting the eggs. The hen can be
+made to enter the nest from the rear, and if
+conditions are so that the nest is darkened,
+then the hen will prefer this place to any
+other place in the house. Nests can also be
+placed along the front wall, underneath the
+windows, or on either side of the house. However,
+up to the present time, below the dropping
+boards seems to be the most popular place for
+the nests with most poultry men.</p>
+
+<p>Every poultry house should have a dust box.
+This is a box partially filled with dust or fine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span>
+soil, and placed in the front part of the house,
+so that it will be in the sunlight. The birds
+appreciate such a device, and will use it generously,
+as this aids them in fighting off insects
+that prey upon them.</p>
+
+<p>Suitable containers for food and water should
+be provided, and kept clean. The drinking
+fountains are of various designs, and one can
+buy these very cheaply. They are usually jars
+or cans inverted, so that the water will come
+out in a small opening at the bottom, just large
+enough for the bird to stick its head in. The
+food containers, for the dry mash are generally
+of the hopper kind, having a box-like container
+with a trough at the bottom, so that the food
+falls down into the small trough by gravity as
+the birds consume it. Thus, in a good sized
+hopper, a week’s ration of mash can be put in
+the hopper without further attention.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.<br>
+<span class="fs70">LICE AND MITES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>While we have interior fixtures of the poultry
+house fresh in mind let us turn our attention
+briefly to the study of parasites that live on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span>
+hen, and that are detrimental to her progress.
+There are quite a few various insects that depend
+upon the hen for their existence, but for
+our purposes we can consider them in a general
+class of lice and mites, as the treatment for
+each class is practically the same.</p>
+
+<p>Let us first consider the case of lice. These
+insects live upon the body of the hen, eating
+the flesh, and dead skin as it peels off. They
+never leave the hen, and if conditions are favorable,
+will lay their eggs on her body, thus multiplying
+rapidly if precautions are not taken to
+look after this matter. It is always well to
+treat a setting hen for lice before she is placed
+on the nest, and then once or twice after she
+has started her job, because these lice will very
+readily transfer from the mother hen to the
+young chicks, as soon as hatched, and a great
+many chicks die every year from these lice.
+It is a splendid idea to grease all baby chicks,
+especially those hatched by natural incubation,
+with blue ointment, around the head parts, and
+wings. The hens can also be greased in a
+similar manner over the whole body.</p>
+
+<p>Here is where the dust box that we discussed
+briefly in the previous chapter comes in, as the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span>
+birds, wallowing in the box of dust, smother
+the lice, by shaking the dust into the pores of
+the bird’s body. A rather recent method of
+combating lice on birds is now fast gaining
+favor. This is the Sodium Floride treatment.
+This is best used only on a mild day, however,
+as the birds are quite wet after their treatment
+under this method. The treatment is
+usually given as follows: Take an ordinary
+wash tub, and fill nearly full with not too cold
+water. For every gallon of water in the tub,
+add one ounce of sodium floride, obtainable at
+any drug store. Dip the hen in this solution,
+tail first, being sure to have a firm grasp on
+her so she will not splash the water over. Dip
+her in this manner about three times, so that
+the solution comes up in under the feathers.
+This method has been found to be very effective.
+In extreme cases, where the lice are very
+bad, another similar treatment can be given
+each bird about a month later. Other good
+materials to apply to the bird’s body, besides
+those already mentioned, are sweet oil, vaseline,
+and lard.</p>
+
+<p>Now we come to another pest that is a little
+harder to get rid of than the body lice. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span>
+mites, which are so bothersome to most poultry,
+have the peculiar habit of staying on the birds
+only during the night, creeping down at daylight
+to some crack or crevice to hide until
+darkness again forces the birds to go to roost.
+These mites are even more destructive in their
+work than are the body lice. They are generally
+found in any crack or crevice about the
+perches. Here they can obscure themselves,
+and be very close to their prey when ready to
+begin their work at night. While the lice are
+eating insects, the mites are sucking insects,
+and suck the blood of the birds during the
+night. When the mite is hungry, he is of a
+yellowish color. When filled up, however, with
+a good meal of blood, he is red. The mite is
+very small, and is similar in construction to
+a spider.</p>
+
+<p>If a flock of chickens are believed to be
+suffering from mites, and there are very few,
+by the way, that are not troubled with these
+pests, then it would be advisable first, to whitewash
+the poultry house thoroughly, not only
+the roosting quarters, but the walls and other
+fixtures inside the house. Kerosene is quite
+frequently used to spray the nests with, but has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span>
+not the lasting power that some of the coal tar
+products possess. Recently, wood preservatives
+have been used for the purposes of ridding the
+poultry house of mites, and very good results
+have been obtained from this method.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.<br>
+<span class="fs70">POULTRY DISEASES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is not to be supposed that poultry, living
+under the artificial conditions that man has
+ordained for them, can be entirely free from
+diseases. In fact, very few poultry men can
+say that they have not had some kind of disease
+affect their flock. Most diseases are contagious,
+so it is important to be on the watch for any
+symptoms of anything out of the ordinary.
+Sanitation plays a very important part in keeping
+the flock free from diseases, and clean
+methods should always prevail. Do not allow
+the house to become filthy and foul smelling.
+It is always a good precaution to disinfect the
+poultry premises at least once a year with a
+good whitewash or some strong disinfectant.
+This is about the same as taking out a life
+insurance policy for the flock.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span></p>
+
+<p>Dampness is probably about the most common
+cause for diseases. Disease germs always
+multiply more rapidly in damp, dark quarters.
+Therefore the advice given in an early chapter
+about keeping the poultry house light and well
+ventilated, will bear repetition. If one is accustomed
+to watching his birds as to their
+physical condition, he will be able to notice
+the symptoms of any on-coming disease in time
+to isolate the bird thus affected, before the
+disease has a chance to spread, if it is a contagious
+disease. By watching a bird thus
+isolated, and also looking very carefully for any
+further symptoms in the flock, one can do considerable
+in checking the disease. The old
+adage, “An ounce of prevention is worth a
+pound of cure,” certainly is true in this case.</p>
+
+<p>Indigestion is a very common ailment with
+poultry, especially with those birds that are fed
+heavy for egg production. Usually a little
+laxative material placed in the drinking water,
+and making more of their ration a scratching
+ration, in order to induce exercise, is probably
+as simple and effective a treatment as can be
+given.</p>
+
+<p>Roup, chicken pox, and canker are also very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span>
+common poultry diseases. These three diseases
+are all supposed to be due to a small organism
+which multiply very rapidly, and acts mostly
+on the skin of the bird. These diseases are not
+similar in appearance, however, despite the fact
+that their source is the same.</p>
+
+<p>Roup attacks the mucous membrane lining
+of the nose, and eye. These parts become red
+and inflamed, and infected with a pus formation.
+This disease is spread largely through
+the drinking water, and is prevalent in the
+spring when it is damp. Keep the birds healthy
+and vigorous, provide proper ventilation, and
+have things as dry as possible, and little should
+be feared from this source.</p>
+
+<p>Chicken pox makes its appearance on the
+comb and wattles, and also on the face of the
+bird, by small pockets on these parts. The
+remedy is the same in this case as has been
+stated for roup, except that if only a few birds
+have contracted the disease, each bird can be
+taken in hand and given individual treatment,
+by removing the crust over the sores, and applying
+a good disinfectant.</p>
+
+<p>Canker manifests itself by pale yellow spots
+on the inside of the mouth. This is best<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span>
+treated, as soon as discovered, by scraping off
+this light yellow material, and applying a good
+disinfectant.</p>
+
+<p>All of these last three named diseases are
+caused by the same conditions, and by avoiding
+these conditions very little trouble will be
+experienced in this malady. Birds that have
+had any of the above mentioned diseases should
+never be used for breeding purposes, as their
+offspring will have a predisposition to the same
+ailment.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the perches are placed too high
+in the chicken house, and the birds have to
+jump too far to reach the floor. When this
+happens, a hard lump often forms on the sole of
+the foot. This is sometimes called bumble foot,
+and is usually evident in the chicken’s walk.
+Nothing but cutting out the hard part, and
+washing the sore with a good disinfectant can
+remedy this condition.</p>
+
+<p>While frosted combs could not be called a
+contagious disease, we will discuss this matter
+briefly, before closing this chapter. In severe
+weather, when the temperature is below zero,
+and there is considerable dampness in the
+poultry house, frozen combs are quite frequent.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span>
+This is especially true of the lighter birds,
+which possess larger head parts than do the
+heavier breeds. When a bird has its comb or
+wattles frozen, it will stop laying for a considerable
+period of time, usually a month at
+least. If birds are found on a cold winter
+morning with frozen combs, they should be
+treated with snow or cold water, to take out
+the frost, and then treated daily with vaseline
+until cured. It is well to provide a pole up
+near the roof of the poultry house, upon which
+a curtain, made of burlap or some old cloth,
+is arranged so that on cold winter nights this
+curtain can be lowered directly in front of the
+front perch. This will tend to protect the
+birds from the excessive cold, by conserving the
+heat given off by their bodies during the night.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.<br>
+<span class="fs70">CULL THE FLOCK</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the poultry industry was being established
+upon a business foundation, many of the
+leading breeders devised the idea of measuring
+the egg capacity of their birds by actually
+counting the eggs laid by their best birds. This<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span>
+practice is still followed by many poultry
+breeders, but is a job that consumes considerable
+time, and it can be seen that only those
+who are constantly with the flock could be able
+to do this. But within the last few years, there
+has been developed a system whereby one can
+tell by the external appearance of the bird just
+about what her ability as an egg producer will
+be in one year. A Mr. Hogan was the first
+man to notice these characteristics and his
+method has been so far perfected that most
+poultry keepers are quite familiar with it, and
+thereby saved the bother of trap-nesting.</p>
+
+<p>This culling process, as it is called, is best
+accomplished during the months of August and
+September. By picking up each female in the
+flock at this time, except of course the spring
+pullets, one can find out which birds are still
+laying, and which ones have already quit. It
+has been in the past too much the custom of
+farmers to go out into their poultry flock in
+the fall of the year, and pick out the birds
+that had not yet started to moult, and whose
+appearance was ragged and rather uncomely.
+These birds would be picked out by the farmer,
+or in many cases his wife, and sent to market<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span>
+as meat birds, and they would keep the birds
+who had already moulted, and whose feathers
+were in splendid color at that time. However,
+in the light of recent facts brought out by this
+culling process, we now know that these rather
+ragged, unsightly birds were our best layers,
+and should have been kept because they had
+been working continuously, not taking the
+time off to quit laying and look pretty, as had
+their more lazy companions. There are still
+a great number of people that cling to the old
+method, but the light is dawning, and it will
+probably be but a short while before practically
+everyone interested in poultry will know of
+this culling method, and who can in a brief
+examination of a bird tell quite readily whether
+she should be kept or sold.</p>
+
+<p>We will now discuss the various methods by
+which a bird can be judged as to her egg
+laying ability. No one sign can be relied upon,
+but the different signs taken together should
+form the final judgment. One can usually
+tell something about the bird by her general
+habits. The good layer is a busy hen. She is
+happy, singing, and not as afraid of the attendant
+as is the loafer. As this hen usually<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span>
+eats more than the non-layer, she is usually
+found busily scratching in the litter for the
+food material with which she makes her eggs.
+The good layer is always the first off the
+roost in the morning, and the last one to go
+to roost at night. Watch out for the timid,
+crafty hen that stays on the outskirts of the
+flock. She is lazy, inactive, and the quicker
+she is sent to the butcher, the better. Another
+very good aid in forming judgment as
+to the ability of the birds, is to go around
+the roosts at night, after the birds have all
+gone to roost. Feel of their crops. The good
+layer that has been working hard to get together
+food material for her eggs will have
+a full crop, while her lazy companions, that
+are not so interested in producing eggs, will
+have a fairly empty crop at this time. Little
+items such as I have mentioned here will tell
+considerable about the ability of the birds. It
+is a fact that there are any number of birds
+in America that lay only a few dozen eggs per
+year, but are kept the year round, because
+the owner has had no way of knowing the
+producers from the non-producers.</p>
+
+<p>As has been already brought out, the heavy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span>
+layers molt late. Often they continue laying
+up until October and November. If you have
+hens nearly naked of feathers in October or
+November, just rest assured that these are
+your most profitable birds, and that they did
+not quit laying to put on a pretty coat of
+feathers in the middle of the summer. You
+should mark these birds in some manner, so
+that you can use them as breeders for the
+coming winter, because, if they are mated
+with a cockerel, that is the son of a good
+layer, your strain will be greatly improved,
+because these birds will transmit their laying
+ability to their offspring.</p>
+
+<p>A good laying hen will have a long, broad,
+and deep, rectangular body, with top and bottom
+lines parallel. This large sized body is
+essential to the hen, so that she will have
+sufficient room to digest enough food to make
+her eggs. A broad back is also necessary for
+proper room for the reproductive organs that
+make the egg. The head of the good layer
+is always of a healthy appearance. The good
+layer has a short stubby beak, or bill, and
+gracefully curved, as compared to the long
+shapeless bill of the loafer. The eyes are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span>
+prominent, and stick out similar to a shoe
+button, rather than sunken in. The combs
+and wattles are red, and not pale, as in the
+non-layer.</p>
+
+<p>The good layer will not have the bright colored
+yellow, after she has been laying for a
+short while, that the loafer will have. This
+is because she uses this yellow pigment in
+making the yolk of her eggs, so that as her
+laying period proceeds, she becomes more and
+more faded in her bill, eye lids, ear lobes, and
+shanks. Consequently, if some of your birds
+have a faded appearance, don’t condemn them,
+they are the hardest workers in your flock.
+Furthermore, the hen with worn toe-nails is
+one that should be kept, because this shows
+us quite clearly that she uses them considerably
+in scratching for her feed.</p>
+
+<p>Now let us examine the anatomy of the hen
+a little more closely so that we can get some
+more evidence for or against the hen in question.
+One of the most common ways, nowadays,
+in picking out the laying hen is to examine
+what is known as the pelvic bones.
+These are found on either side of the vent,
+towards the rear of the body. They are generally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span>
+called the lay bones by most poultry
+men. They both mean the same. Now these
+bones tell a vivid story. These bones are
+usually measured by the fingers, or as to how
+many fingers can be inserted between the two
+bones. A poor layer will have a thick, grizzly
+covering of meat over the lay, or pelvic
+bones, and just about the width of one finger
+can be inserted between them. This shows
+us quickly that she is not a layer. Then,
+lets compare this poor layer to the good layer.
+Here we find something different. There is
+just a slight covering over the pelvic bones.
+The meat is thin and spare. If we feel of
+the bones, we find them quite thin and pliable.
+We next try to insert as many fingers between
+the two bones as possible. We will find
+that we can insert at least two fingers, and
+probably three, if our fingers are not too wide.
+The heavier the hen is laying, the wider the
+distance between the bones.</p>
+
+<p>Now, while we have the bird, let us look a
+little further into this bird’s conformation. The
+keel bone, or rear end of the breast bone, can
+be used as one unit, and the lay bones as
+the other unit of measure. See how many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span>
+fingers you can get between the lay bones and
+the keel bone. Even for a small breed you
+should easily get in the width of three fingers,
+and for a larger breed you should get in
+the width of four fingers. This measures the
+hen’s capacity for feed.</p>
+
+<p>This distance between the lay bones and
+the keel bone is called the abdomen. We can
+tell considerable about the hen by the texture
+of the abdomen skin. If the skin is tough,
+and meaty, we can say right away that she
+is not a good hen, but if the skin is tender,
+pliable, and soft, then we can feel assured
+that she must be kept in the flock.</p>
+
+<p>These are the principal features in selecting
+the laying hen. If one can get these principles
+in mind, and go out into his flock and
+separate the hens into two flocks, and keep
+these two flocks apart for a while, he would
+discover some interesting things. For instance,
+cull out the poor hens and put them in
+one pen. Possibly you will have the largest
+pen, when you have finished, composed of the
+poor layers. Keep the good hens in another
+pen separated from the poor ones. Keep feeding
+the same feeds as you had been doing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span>
+before you separated the flock into two pens.
+Now, for a few weeks, compare the daily egg
+record of the two flocks. You will find that
+there is about as much difference as between
+night and day. Now, to bring the lesson home
+a little more forceful, just figure out what
+it costs you per day to keep these star boarders,
+and see if you think culling is a paying
+proposition. Most every agricultural college
+has a bulletin printed on culling giving essentially
+the same information as I have given,
+but they usually have quite a few illustrations
+that will make the procedure a little more
+clearer than I have done.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.<br>
+<span class="fs70">PRESERVING EGGS FOR WINTER</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was deemed advisable to add a few words
+in this little booklet in regard to collecting eggs
+when they are cheap, and storing them away
+for the part of the year when eggs are high
+priced. During the months of March, April,
+May, and June eggs are the cheapest on the
+market, due to the fact that the birds are all
+laying during these few months, and consequently,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span>
+the supply far exceeds the average
+demand. If we pay fifteen cents for a dozen
+of eggs in April, or May, and then in December
+we pay sixty cents or more for the same
+product, then it can easily be seen that it is a
+paying proposition to store some of these
+cheap spring eggs for winter use. We will now
+take up the method of storing these spring eggs
+for our December breakfast.</p>
+
+<p>To make this process about 100 per cent
+efficient, it is best to candle the eggs first,
+before storing them away. This process of
+candling has been explained in a previous chapter.
+If the air cell, at the blunt end of the
+egg is small, then we may be sure that the egg
+is of recent origin. If the contents look clear,
+and the yolk is not loose, inside the shell, then
+we need have no fears as to the edibility of the
+egg. One very good way, for one not accustomed
+to candling, is to examine a few in
+front of the light, and then break a few in a
+dish, so as to get the proper relation fixed in
+mind. If we can secure eggs that are infertile,
+we will not have to throw out hardly any
+eggs in this process.</p>
+
+<p>In preparing to preserve our eggs for winter,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span>
+there are several methods used by people who
+follow this practice. Some just pack the eggs
+in sawdust in a box or barrel, but this method
+is not always reliable. There are two standard
+ways of preserving these eggs. One is in using
+waterglass, and the other is the use of lime
+water solution. Both methods are reliable, but
+the first named method seems to be the more
+popular of the two. In either case, earthen
+crocks or wooden pails are the best containers.
+Neither of these solutions affects them. A
+three gallon container is large enough to preserve
+ten dozen eggs. For this sized container,
+about six quarts of the solution will be necessary.</p>
+
+<p>We will discuss the waterglass method first.
+Procure the amount of waterglass that you will
+need for this year at a drug store. Use this
+at the rate of one pint of waterglass to nine
+pints of water. Before mixing the two liquids,
+boil the water, and let it cool. Then mix the
+two liquids, in the proportion stated, and place
+in container. Then add the eggs, (about ten
+dozen to this mixture), and store in a cool
+place. Be sure that there is about two or three<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span>
+inches of the solution above the eggs, and add
+a little water occasionally to replace the water
+lost by evaporation.</p>
+
+<p>The lime solution is mixed a little differently.
+Slack about two pounds of quick lime in a
+small quantity of hot water. After this has
+slacked, add it to about two gallons of water,
+and then add one pound of salt. Stir this in
+a thorough manner, and then allow the mixture
+to settle. There will then be found a sediment
+in the bottom of the solution. Pour off the
+clear liquid, and use this as the preservative
+material. Then keep the same as directions
+given for the waterglass preparation. In this
+manner, one can have table eggs the year round
+at a reasonable price.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.<br>
+<span class="fs70">SELLING THE PRODUCT</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>We have discussed the main points to be
+considered in raising various poultry products
+in this little booklet. However, much of our
+success in the poultry business will depend on
+our ability to obtain the top prices for our products
+after we have raised them. In fact, this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span>
+is the cry all over the country now among the
+farming population. The various agricultural
+agencies that have heretofore spent considerable
+time and effort in teaching the farmer to
+raise a large quantity of good products, have
+apparently accomplished this result, and now
+these same agencies are trying to organize the
+farmers into selling their products so that
+they can receive a higher price for them.</p>
+
+<p>The farmer usually has no time to devote to
+the special marketing of his crop, as he is too
+busy raising farm products, so attempts at co-operative
+marketing have been made. There
+have been many failures in this method in the
+past, but now the farmer realizes that this system
+is really his only salvation, and he is receiving
+the idea of co-operation in a better mood
+than he did in the past. However, for the one
+living in town, with but a small flock of birds,
+more time can usually be devoted to this end
+of the business, with splendid returns. Many
+town lot poultry keepers can sell all the eggs
+that they can get just around to their neighbors,
+who are usually glad to pay a little more
+than the market price for the assurance that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span>
+the eggs are strictly fresh. However, if one has
+a fairly good yield of winter eggs, and is not
+content to sell the eggs to his neighbors at
+around market price, there are other methods
+that can bring much higher returns.</p>
+
+<p>Some poultry raisers get in touch with local
+or neighboring hotels and restaurants, and agree
+to let these parties have their entire output of
+eggs at a certain margin above market price.
+For instance, it is a common method to make
+an agreement with such parties to sell them
+their eggs at ten cents above market prices.
+If the market quotations for fresh eggs were
+thirty-two cents for a certain day, the hotel
+keeper would pay forty-two cents, if the eggs
+were delivered on this day. Usually, the restaurant
+or hotel is glad to pay this premium
+over the market price, because he takes quite
+a chance with store eggs, in that some of them
+are often stale, and this is a matter that reflects
+against his business. Also, if such an
+agreement can be made, the hotel or restaurant
+man can advertise the fact that he serves nothing
+but fresh eggs, which is good business for
+him.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span></p>
+
+<p>When one is getting a big yield daily, he can
+usually plan to sell his eggs by the case to city
+commission men, who will always pay a good
+premium over local markets. If one has not
+enough eggs to sell a case once or twice weekly
+in such a manner, this difficulty is often overcome
+by combining with neighbors who are
+willing to take the proper care in producing
+clean, fresh eggs for market. However, such
+neighbors must be in sympathy with what is
+expected for fresh eggs, and who have the courage
+to refrain from putting in eggs that are
+not clean and fresh. If one case is sent in to
+these commission men and the quality of the
+eggs is not of first class, quite a dockage will
+be deducted from the check, and your reputation
+will thereby suffer. Never wash eggs that
+are soiled, but use them in your own kitchen,
+as the washing will remove the natural bloom,
+or fine powder that is found on the untouched
+egg. One can secure clean eggs by keeping the
+bedding in the nests clean.</p>
+
+<p>There is always a splendid opportunity to sell
+hatching eggs in the spring of the year, if one
+has had the foresight to get started in purebred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span>
+poultry. There is always a large demand
+for hatching eggs and most hatcheries can not
+fill their orders. For the one engaged in the
+poultry business, even on a small scale, this
+offers a splendid opportunity, especially when
+eggs are selling cheap on the market, as they
+do in the spring of the year, to divide the mature
+birds up into small pens of about ten females
+to one good male bird, and sell these
+eggs at anywhere from $1.50 a setting to as
+much as you can get. The higher the quality
+of the stock, the more money one can demand
+for such hatching eggs.</p>
+
+<p>Then there is another good source of revenue
+from selling adult birds for breeding purposes.
+If your flock is composed of good individuals,
+you should experience little difficulty
+in selling your surplus birds from $5 up.
+A little well planned advertising is often a
+good thing to do, to let people know what you
+have got for sale. Often an advertisement in
+the local paper, or a rural weekly will bring
+in many inquiries in regard to the birds or
+eggs that you have to sell.</p>
+
+<p>Probably a cheaper way of advertising, if you<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span>
+really have good birds, is to show a pen, consisting
+of four females and one male, at some
+of the neighboring poultry shows. If you can
+succeed in winning a premium, this will be a
+splendid factor in your efforts in selling breeding
+stock. It is usually permissible to place a
+little card on the outside of your pen at the
+poultry show, giving your name and address,
+and stating that you have breeding stock for
+sale, or that you are now taking orders for
+hatching eggs in the spring.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.<br>
+<span class="fs70">IN CONCLUSION</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>I have tried to explain in this little booklet
+that there is a splendid opportunity for one to
+engage in the poultry industry, whether it be
+on a large scale, or a small scale. There is considerable
+pleasure as well as profit in this
+work, for the one that is posted on a few of the
+essential principles, as has been laid down in
+this short treatise. It will probably be well to
+repeat a few facts that should be remembered
+first, however, before closing.</p>
+
+<p>Do not expect to make a great amount of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span>
+money from your poultry the first year. Getting
+started right in the poultry business will
+cost something, so for the first year, if you
+just break even you will do well. Plan to
+learn as you go along. Every poultry raiser
+should take at least one poultry journal, to
+keep posted on the latest facts concerning the
+business. These journals always carry a great
+amount of advertising matter in regard to
+stock for breeding and in regard to poultry
+house equipment, etc. Many useful ideas can
+be secured from pretty near every issue of a
+standard paper.</p>
+
+<p>Get acquainted with the other poultry people
+in your own locality. This is especially true in
+regard to those who have the same breed that
+you have. If your locality boasts of a poultry
+association, become a member of this association.
+You can then get much valuable information
+in regard to your business.</p>
+
+<p>Get in touch with your state agricultural
+college, and especially with the poultry department.
+Write to them and ask them to send you
+all the bulletins that they have published on
+poultry, and tell them to place you on their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span>
+mailing list, so that any future bulletins that
+they may publish will be sent you free of
+charge. Then the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
+has many excellent bulletins on different
+branches of the poultry industry that are worth
+sending for. It is located at Washington, D.
+C. Another splendid thing, if you can succeed
+in interesting others in your community, would
+be to send to the Motion Picture Lab., U. S.
+Dept. of Agriculture, Wash., D. C., and have
+them send you their film on culling, entitled,
+“Select the Laying Hen.” It certainly brings
+out in a splendid manner, just how to cull your
+flock. Most any moving picture house would
+be glad to run this reel free of charge. The
+only expense of securing this film is the transportation
+charges from Washington, D. C., to
+your home town.</p>
+
+<p>With these parting words on the betterment
+of your flock, remember that poultry work has
+its ups and downs, like any other business.
+However, for one willing to inform himself on
+the business, a very pleasurable and profitable
+experience may be anticipated.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The books listed below are in cloth binding
+and can be secured from Haldeman-Julius Company,
+Clothbound Book Department, Girard,
+Kansas. The prices quoted include carriage
+charges.</p>
+
+<p>Success With Hens, Robert Joos. Cloth. $1.35
+postpaid.</p>
+
+<p>My Poultry Day by Day, Alfred Gibson. Cloth.
+$3.15 postpaid.</p>
+
+<p>International Poultryman’s Handbook. Cloth.
+Illustrated. $1.10 postpaid.</p>
+
+<p>Anatomy of the Fowl, Kaupp. Cloth. Illustrated.
+$3.65 postpaid.</p>
+
+<p>Poultry Culture, Hygiene and Sanitation,
+Kaupp. Cloth. Illustrated. $3.15 postpaid.</p>
+
+<p>Mating and Breeding of Poultry, Lamon &amp;
+Slocum. Cloth. $2.65 postpaid.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter transnote">
+<h2 class="nobreak bold fs150" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2>
+
+<ul>
+<li>pg 8 Changed: content herself to set on a nest of eggs<br>
+<span style="padding-left: 2em">to: content herself to sit on a nest of eggs</span></li>
+
+<li>pg 22 Changed: from the center to the outside, and vica versa<br>
+<span style="padding-left: 2em">to: from the center to the outside, and vice versa</span></li>
+
+<li>pg 24 Changed: There are seval different sizes<br>
+<span style="padding-left: 2em">to: There are several different sizes</span></li>
+
+<li>pg 24 Changed: The manufacturors of the incubator<br>
+<span style="padding-left: 2em">to: The manufacturers of the incubator</span></li>
+
+<li>pg 25 Changed: by springling water on the floor<br>
+<span style="padding-left: 2em">to: by sprinkling water on the floor</span></li>
+
+<li>pg 33 Changed: green fed of any kind can be added<br>
+<span style="padding-left: 2em">to: green feed of any kind can be added</span></li>
+
+<li>pg 55 Changed: It was though that the sunshine<br>
+<span style="padding-left: 2em">to: It was thought that the sunshine</span></li>
+
+<li>pg 69 Changed: and dead skin as it peals off<br>
+<span style="padding-left: 2em">to: and dead skin as it peels off</span></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75419 ***</div>
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #75419 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/75419)