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+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75534 ***
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Note: Italics are enclosed in _underscores_. Additional
+notes will be found near the end of this ebook.
+
+
+
+
+                        THE STORY OF EXPLORATION
+
+                               EDITED BY
+
+                  J. SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., SEC. R.G.S.
+
+
+                             THE NILE QUEST
+
+                                   BY
+
+                  SIR HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                                     [_Frontispiece_
+
+SPEKE (from a Drawing by the Author).]
+
+
+
+
+                             THE NILE QUEST
+
+                              A RECORD OF
+                         THE EXPLORATION OF THE
+                           NILE AND ITS BASIN
+
+
+                                   BY
+                  SIR HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.
+                   (PRESIDENT OF THE AFRICAN SOCIETY)
+
+
+                 _WITH ILLUSTRATIONS FROM DRAWINGS AND
+                 PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE AUTHOR AND OTHERS_
+
+
+                     WITH MAPS BY J. G. BARTHOLOMEW
+
+
+                             [Illustration]
+
+
+                                 LONDON
+                         ALSTON RIVERS, LIMITED
+                          ARUNDEL STREET, W.C.
+                                  1906
+
+
+
+
+THE STORY OF EXPLORATION
+
+
+Probably few of the stories that tell of the achievements due to the
+curiosity of humanity have a wider or more lasting interest than that
+which is concerned with the exploration of the lands and seas, which
+give feature to the face of the earth. It is a long story, and would
+be longer still, if the men in the remote past had left any record of
+their wanderings. Even as it is, in the scanty and perplexing records
+left behind them by ancient Egyptians, Phœnicians, Carthaginians,
+Hebrews, and even Chinese, the story begins more than three thousand
+years ago and, so far as the pioneer work of exploration is concerned,
+may be taken to have practically concluded with the end of the
+nineteenth century. It seems, therefore, an opportune time to recount
+the leading episodes in this long record of incessant human effort, in
+a manner which will appeal to, and interest, all intelligent readers.
+
+In the series of volumes, which will be issued under the general title
+“The Story of Exploration,” it will be sought to make the narrative
+circle round the personality of the men who had the leading share in
+carrying on the adventurous work.
+
+Beginning with the earliest journeys of which we have any record, the
+story will be carried down stage by stage to the present day, and it
+is believed that, when complete, it will form what may be called a
+biographical history of exploration. While the work of geographical
+research in all parts of the globe will be seriously and adequately
+treated, the adventures incident to such research, which add human
+interest to it, will have due prominence given to them. In all cases
+it will be sought to obtain the co-operation of men who are recognized
+as authorities on the particular subjects with which they deal. Each
+volume will be profusely illustrated, the illustrations being selected
+for their appropriateness to the text, while every assistance will be
+given to the reader by means of carefully executed maps.
+
+                                                        J. SCOTT KELTIE.
+
+
+
+
+PREFATORY NOTE
+
+
+When the author of this book was composing his recent work on the
+Uganda Protectorate, he was led through the history of its discovery
+into the general consideration of Nile exploration, since it was in the
+search for the Nile sources that the territories now forming the Uganda
+Protectorate were laid bare to the gaze of the civilised world. But as
+anything like a detailed review of the exploration of the Nile basin
+by the Caucasian race would have unduly extended a book dealing more
+particularly with Uganda, he gladly took advantage of the suggestion
+made by Dr. Scott Keltie (Editor of this series) that these studies
+should be applied to the present volume, which is one of a series on
+the history of great geographical discoveries.
+
+It is not for the author to say that his book on the Nile Quest will
+prove interesting; but he has striven to make it as accurate as
+possible, and he hopes it may be permanently useful as a faithful
+record of the names and achievements of those who solved the greatest
+geographical secret, after the discovery of America, which remained for
+the Caucasian’s consideration.
+
+                                                         H. H. JOHNSTON.
+
+  LONDON, 1903.
+
+
+
+
+ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
+
+
+The Editor and the Author desire to acknowledge, with thanks, the loan
+of photographs, letters, or maps for the illustration of this book,
+from Sir John Kirk, G.C.M.G., Mrs. Murdoch (_née_ Speke), Mr. J. F.
+Cunningham, Mr. W. G. Doggett, Mr. Theodore Tinne, Mr. T. Douglas
+Murray, Lady Baker, Mr. Oscar Neumann, Mr. J. E. S. Moore, Major Gwynn,
+Major Austin, Mr. J. Thomson, The African Society, Mr. S. Crispin, and
+Mr. Warry.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  Chapter                                                           Page
+       I. The Dawn of Nile Exploration                                 1
+
+      II. The Greeks interest Europe in the Nile Question             14
+
+     III. Abyssinians and Jews                                        30
+
+      IV. Islamites and Italians                                      37
+
+       V. A Summary of the Ancients’ Knowledge of the Nile            42
+
+      VI. Portugal and Abyssinia                                      45
+
+     VII. French Inquiries and D’Anville’s Maps                       65
+
+    VIII. Bruce and the Nile: Sonnini, Browne, and Bonaparte          73
+
+      IX. Muhammad Ali opens up the White Nile                        91
+
+       X. Missionaries and Snow-Mountains                            111
+
+      XI. Burton and Speke                                           115
+
+     XII. Speke and the Nile Quest                                   125
+
+    XIII. Speke in Uganda                                            150
+
+     XIV. From the Victoria Nyanza to Alexandria                     160
+
+      XV. Samuel Baker and the Albert Nyanza                         174
+
+     XVI. Alexandrine Tinne and Theodor von Heuglin                  192
+
+    XVII. Schweinfurth and the Basin of the Bahr-al-Ghazal           201
+
+   XVIII. Schweinfurth’s Achievements and Descriptions               216
+
+     XIX. Stanley confirms Speke                                     223
+
+      XX. Gordon and his Lieutenants.--Junker and the Nile-Congo
+              Water-parting                                          230
+
+     XXI. Joseph Thomson, Mt. Elgon, and Kavirondo Bay               246
+
+    XXII. Emin Pasha                                                 250
+
+   XXIII. Stanley discovers the Mountains of the Moon and Lake
+              Albert Edward.--The End of Emin                        259
+
+    XXIV. German Explorers determine the Southern Limits of the
+              Nile Basin                                             265
+
+     XXV. Geographical Work in the Uganda Protectorate               269
+
+    XXVI. The Eastern Basin of the Nile                              276
+
+   XXVII. Conclusion                                                 293
+
+  XXVIII. The Geography of the Nile Basin                            299
+
+
+  APPENDIX I. The Roll of Fame of those who started on the Nile
+                Quest                                                319
+
+  APPENDIX II. Bibliography                                          322
+
+  INDEX                                                              329
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  SPEKE (from a drawing by the author)                    _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                                  _Page_
+   1. The Nile and the Pyramids                                        4
+
+   2. The Mountains of the Moon                                       23
+
+   3. The Course of the Nile according to Ptolemy                     24
+
+   4. An Arab Trader (Maskati)                                        40
+
+   5. Dapper’s Map (Amsterdam: 1686) giving the falsified results
+          of Portuguese explorations                                  58
+
+   6. D’Anville’s Map of the Nile Basin                               70
+
+   7. The Branching _Hyphæne_ Palm                                    75
+
+   8. Bruce’s Map of the Nile Sources                                 80
+
+   9. Portrait of James Bruce                                         86
+
+  10. Map of Africa by Williamson, London, 1800                       90
+
+  11. Blue Nile, twenty miles east of Fazokl                          93
+
+  12. Ferdinand Werne                                                 96
+
+  13. Whale-headed Stork (_Balæniceps rex_)                          100
+
+  14. John Petherick                                                 102
+
+  15. Map published in Penny Magazine of 1852                        108
+
+  16. The River Sobat                                                111
+
+  17. Rev. Dr. J. Ludwig Krapf                                       112
+
+  18. A Swahili Arab Trader                                          117
+
+  19. Sketch Map by Burton and Speke, 1858                           123
+
+  20. John Hanning Speke, at the age of 17                           126
+
+  21. Burton’s idea of the Nile Sources, December, 1864              127
+
+  22. James Augustus Grant                                           132
+
+  23. A Mnyamwezi Porter                                             135
+
+  24. A Hima of Mpororo near Karagwe                                 144
+
+  25. Speke’s Tragelaph                                              146
+
+  26. The Ripon Falls, from the west bank                            151
+
+  27. A View in Uganda                                               152
+
+  28. The Nile at the Isamba Rapids, looking North                   160
+
+  29. Ripon Falls, from Bugunga                                      162
+
+  30. View of Napoleon Gulf, from Jinja                              163
+
+  31. The last Map issued to illustrate Speke’s Theories, 1865       170
+
+  32. Speke’s Handwriting                                            172
+
+  33. Samuel Baker, 1865                                             176
+
+  34. A Native of Unyoro                                             184
+
+  35. Alexandrine Tinne                                              192
+
+  36. On the Jur River: Sudd blocking the Channel                    195
+
+  37. Letter of Miss Tinne to her nephew                             198
+
+  38. Georg Schweinfurth, 1875                                       203
+
+  39. Shiluks                                                        211
+
+  40. “Papyrus, fifteen feet high”                                   218
+
+  41. A Path through the Forest                                      220
+
+  42. Schweinfurth’s Map                                             223
+
+  43. The Victoria Nyanza                                            226
+
+  44. Stanley’s idea of the Victoria Nyanza, 1880                    228
+
+  45. The Victoria Nile flowing towards Lake Kioga                   232
+
+  46. Nuërr Village, Sobat River                                     241
+
+  47. Joseph Thomson and Wilhelm Junker                              242
+
+  48. A Stern-wheel Steamboat forcing its way up the Jur (Sue)
+          or main affluent of the Bahr-al-Ghazal                     245
+
+  49. N.E. corner of Victoria Nyanza (with Samia Hills in
+          distance)                                                  247
+
+  50. Joseph Thomson                                                 248
+
+  51. Emin Pasha                                                     252
+
+  52. Raphia Palms by a Central African stream                       257
+
+  53. Sir Henry Stanley, G.C.B.                                      261
+
+  54. Shores of the Victoria Nyanza near Emin Pasha Gulf             262
+
+  55. Dr. Franz Stuhlmann                                            264
+
+  56. A Native of Unyamwezi from near south shores of Victoria
+          Nyanza                                                     267
+
+  57. Sir Frederic D. Lugard                                         269
+
+  58. G. F. Scott-Elliott                                            271
+
+  59. Dr. Donaldson-Smith                                            272
+
+  60. Cutting the Sudd                                               274
+
+  61. Dr. C. Beke                                                    281
+
+  62. Natives of the Baro (Upper Sobat)                              284
+
+  63. Colonel J. B. Marchand                                         286
+
+  64. Gorge of the River Baro (Upper Sobat)                          287
+
+  65. Berta Negroes                                                  289
+
+  66. A Berta Village in the Matongwe Mountains                      291
+
+  67. The Nile in Egypt                                              293
+
+  68. Nubia: a “Washout” on the Sudan Railway                        294
+
+  69. Tropical Forest at Entebbe, on the northwest shores of the
+          Victoria Nyanza                                            295
+
+  70. Napoleon Gulf, looking South                                   302
+
+  71. The Birth of the Victoria Nile, at the Ripon Falls             304
+
+  72. On Lake Albert Edward (North-west Coast)                       305
+
+  73. In the Libyan Desert                                           315
+
+  74. Orographical Features of the Nile Basin                        328
+
+  75. Land Surface Features of the Nile Basin                        328
+
+
+
+
+THE NILE QUEST
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE DAWN OF NILE EXPLORATION
+
+
+The first men who entered Egypt and travelled up the valley of the
+Nile came, almost unquestionably, from the east, and were part of
+those radiations from the central focus of humanity, India. It is
+possible that the first men who entered the valley of the Nile from
+this direction may have been of so primitive, simian, and undetermined
+a type--so “Neanderthaloid”--as not to belong definitely to any one
+of the three main species of humanity. At that distant time, however
+(let us say at the end of the Pleistocene period or beginning of the
+Quaternary Epoch), there was undoubtedly a land connection over the
+south as well as over the north end of the Red Sea, joining Arabia to
+Ethiopia as well as to Egypt; and across this bridge came many types
+of Asiatic mammals, also man,--possibly in the form of a low Negroid,
+a type represented to-day (much changed and modified, of course) by
+the Congo Pygmies and South African Bushmen. As regards the history
+of humanity, however, the valley of the Nile has been divided into
+two very distinct parts. The southern half of its basin--in common
+with all Africa south of the Sahara and the fifteenth degree of north
+latitude--was peopled from the east, through southern Arabia, and by
+the Negro species in the main. Egypt proper and the adjoining regions
+of Arabia once lay within the domain of the Negroid Pygmies, but
+these indigenes were overwhelmed at a relatively early period by more
+or less “negrified” branches of the Caucasian stock coming from the
+direction of Syria or from Libya. Before the dawn of the historical
+epoch--say nine thousand years ago--an element in the population of
+Lower Egypt certainly showed Bushmen affinities. These steatopygous
+Bushmen were perhaps Proto-negroes, who may have branched off from
+the Nigritic stock when first that species reached the Mediterranean
+regions. This Bushman element in Egypt was for some time distinct,
+prior to the historical period, as the characteristic type of the
+servile class. Following on these dwarfish people came races bearing
+some slight resemblance to the Dravidians of India or the Brahuis of
+Baluchistan,--a somewhat Australoid stock which has left traces in
+Elam and around the shores of the Persian Gulf. Then came an aquiline
+type of nearly pure Caucasian stock, usually known by Egyptologists as
+the “Khafra” race. This probably arrived from Syria or Cyprus. But the
+men of the northern half of the Nile basin who fathered the principal,
+dominating type of ancient and modern Egyptian emigrated seemingly
+from the direction of Galaland, Somaliland, or Abyssinia. In these
+countries, or originally perhaps in southern Arabia, there was formed a
+handsome race mainly of Caucasian stock, but which had mingled somewhat
+considerably with the Proto-negroes and Dravidians in Arabia and in
+northeast Africa, and so had acquired darker skins, and hair with
+more or less tendency to curl. The men of this race, like the modern
+Somali or Gala, and the inhabitants of southern Arabia, grew thin and
+wedge-shaped beards. Their lips were full, their noses straight and
+finely shaped. Their degenerate descendants continue to exist with but
+little altered facial type in the Danākil, Somali, and Gala of the
+present day; but in the northern half of the Nile valley they became
+in time the main stock of the Egyptian population. They also, it would
+seem, profoundly modified Negro Africa; for while on the one hand
+they started out by a series of race movements and conquests from the
+direction of Abyssinia to invade and mould Egypt, on the other (though
+more faint-heartedly) they advanced in a southwesterly direction to
+influence Negro Africa. They have formed aristocracies in the countries
+round the head-waters of the White Nile. Their influence on the Negro
+races has been widespread, permeating, even though faintly, in a
+handsome physical type and remarkable form of language, to Zululand
+on the south and perhaps westward across the continent to the Congo,
+the Cross River, and the Atlantic coast. This Hamitic race (as it is
+called for want of a better word), which made its first home--and
+retains as its last--the highlands of Abyssinia and the plateaux and
+arid coastlands of Afar, Somaliland, and the Gala countries, has
+been the mainstay of Ancient Egypt, and also, together with its not
+distantly related Libyan brethren, the main human agent in saving the
+Negro from slipping back into the life of the anthropoid ape.
+
+[Illustration: THE NILE AND THE PYRAMIDS.]
+
+The valley of the Lower Nile, however, attracted many invasions from
+Europe and Asia, and from Libya (northwest Africa), where the dominant
+race was mainly of Iberian stock.[1] Dynasties rose and fell, often
+coincident with the invasion of Egypt by one race of conquerors after
+another. All these races (with the exception perhaps of the Hittites)
+belonged to various types of the Caucasian species. The Hittites
+possibly may have introduced a slight element of the Mongolian. In
+the earliest historical period Egypt and the lower valley of the
+Nile does not seem to have been markedly severed in its interracial
+relations from the far greater portion of the Nile basin which lies
+to the south of the fifteenth degree of north latitude. Egyptians
+penetrated no doubt without much difficulty up the Nile valley into
+and among the Negro tribes of the Central Sudan and Equatoria. The
+Ancient Egyptians may have had--must have had--a certain proportion of
+Negro or Negroid in their composition; beside the drop of Negro blood
+in their Hamitic ancestors, they must have absorbed the earlier
+Negroid population of their country and have imported and intermarried
+with Negro slaves. But they were fully Caucasian in the vivid interest
+they took in nature, and in their desire to depict all the striking
+forms of life around them, especially when such forms had anything of
+novelty. Prof. Flinders Petrie has, I believe, recently discovered a
+vase of immeasurable antiquity of the “Pre-Dynastic” period in Lower
+Egypt which is incised with a delineation of the Kudu antelope.[2]
+Other and later relics would seem to show that the Egyptians were
+acquainted with the chimpanzee of the Bahr-al-Ghazal regions, the
+Pygmies who once inhabited the western part of the Upper Nile basin,
+and many forms of the Tropical African fauna. But after these early
+historical times there appears to have come about a severance of
+relations between Egypt and the Upper Nile, though an overland route
+to the Land of Punt (Somaliland) either through Abyssinia or to the
+west of that elevated region nearly always existed unclosed to traffic.
+It is noteworthy that the Ancient Egyptians themselves do not appear
+ever to have penetrated up the main stream of the Nile much above its
+junction with the Bahr-al-Ghazal, no doubt owing to the obstruction
+of the sudd. Their traders may have travelled into many parts of the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal region, and possibly even westward in the direction
+of Lake Chad,--westward, it may be, even across the western Sudan
+to the Niger,--yet there is not the slightest indication of their
+ever having journeyed up the main White Nile to the snow-mountains
+and the equatorial lakes. But they traded for thousands of years
+with the men of Punt (Somaliland) by sea and by land; and there is
+evidence to show that the peoples of Somaliland and Galaland (who had
+by repeated prehistoric invasions permeated the Upper Nile basin and
+left aristocracies behind them) traded anciently--say, in pre-Islamic
+times--southwestward to Lake Rudolf, and round Lake Rudolf to the
+present Turkana country, the neighbourhood of Mount Elgon, and even to
+the northeastern shores of the Victoria Nyanza.
+
+The Ancient Egyptians seem to have known the main Nile as far as
+Khartum, and the Blue Nile up to its source in Lake Tsana. They
+exercised intermittently some kind of rule over the northern and
+western escarpment of Abyssinia, and are said to have sent criminals
+and political exiles to die of cold on the snowy heights of the Samien
+range. But they appear to have displayed little knowledge or curiosity
+concerning the ultimate source of the _White_ Nile. No doubt the vast
+marshes and obstructions of the sudd which characterised the course of
+the Nile above its confluence with the Bahr-al-Ghazal, the generally
+hopeless nature of this country with its utter absence of anything
+like high land, of minerals, or of a trading population, discouraged
+the practical-minded Egyptians from pursuing their researches in that
+direction. The Nile itself they called _Hapi_, which was also the name
+of the Nile God. It was sometimes spoken of as _Pi Yuma_, or “the
+River.”[3] Its valley they called Atr, Atur, Aur (Modern Coptic =
+_Eiōr_).[4]
+
+Several foreign dynasties ruled over Ancient Egypt,--Arabian and
+Libyan,--and for centuries at a time the energies of Egypt were mainly
+concentrated on domestic work under these foreign task-masters or
+insurrections to expel the hated rulers. The original civilisation of
+Egypt rose rapidly to a great and wonderful height at a period which
+may be as remote, historically, as about seven thousand years ago. The
+main source of their civilisation seems to have been the introduction
+into the country of copper implements instead of and in addition to
+those of improved stone and flint manufacture. A wonderful development
+of pictorial art occurred concurrently with this brilliant rise in
+civilisation, and this early Egyptian art is of a realistic character
+from which all subsequent Egyptian pictorial or sculptured art has been
+a degeneration. At this time they easily impressed the Negroes of
+the south and the Libyans of the west with their power, and it was no
+doubt a matter of ease for Egyptian expeditions to penetrate into the
+Sudan from the countries of Abyssinia and Galaland. Gold and precious
+or gaudy stones were sought for in the east and southeast. Ivory,
+slaves, gums, perfumes, and strange beasts were obtained from the south
+and southwest. But no doubt Ancient Egyptians in their extensions of
+political or commercial influence introduced amongst the Negro tribes
+the knowledge of working metals. They also gave to them all those
+domestic animals and cultivated plants now existing in Tropical Africa
+which are not of a far later American or Indian origin (that is,
+introduced by the Portuguese and Arabs). By instructing the Negroes
+in this indirect manner in the arts of civilisation, and by spreading
+among them, no doubt, the use of metal weapons (which were probably
+as good as those used by the Egyptians themselves), there came a time
+when--to use a term once much employed by the European pioneer--the
+black men became “saucy” and objected to be harried, bullied, assessed,
+and exploited by the lordly Egyptian. The Negro race at this time, too,
+was becoming infiltrated by the same splendid stock--the Hamites--as
+had so largely composed the ruling population of Egypt. Here and
+there, no doubt, Negro tribes submitted willingly to be governed by
+Hamitic princes (as has been the case in Uganda and Unyoro), and, thus
+ruled, offered sharp opposition to Egyptian encroachments. Egyptian
+interest, therefore, in the sources of the Nile died away, especially
+as in the revival of native Egyptian power and in the expulsion of
+foreign dynasties the thoughts of Egypt were all bent on the conquest
+and retention of Syria, Asia Minor, and Cyprus. These lands were more
+desirable in their eyes than the appalling wastes of the Sahara, the
+sun-smitten Sudan, the cold mountains of Abyssinia, or the fetid
+marshes of the Nile Negroes.
+
+Almost older than the civilisation of Egypt was that of Mesopotamia,
+the reflex action of which on the Hamites of western Arabia and
+Abyssinia and on the inhabitants of the Nile Delta may have provoked
+the civilisation of Egypt. Empires rose, declined, fell, and were
+revived in the valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris, and their
+influence over Arabia and Syria produced in those countries a stirring
+of commerce and invention and a desire for distant enterprise. The
+Phœnicians, who were originally an Arab people of the Persian Gulf,
+forced their way across the barren wastes of northern Arabia to the
+coasts of Syria, leaving behind, however, colonies of bold navigators
+at the northern end of the Persian Gulf. The Phœnicians, by the
+building of more seaworthy boats, and probably by the development of
+sails, soon traversed the Mediterranean in all directions, passed
+out through the Straits of Gibraltar, and even found their way to
+Britain long before Julius Cæsar. Their most noteworthy action in
+connection with Africa perhaps was the founding of Utica in 1100 B.C.
+and Carthage in 820 B.C., these settlements being made at no great
+distance from each other in that projection of North Africa which
+constitutes the modern state of Tunis. The Carthaginian successors of
+the Phœnicians carried on the work of discovery along the north and
+west coasts of Africa until, in the memorable voyage of Hanno, they
+had penetrated as far south in that direction as the existing colony
+of Sierra Leone. The Phœnicians as bold navigators were enlisted in
+the service of one of the last Egyptian sovereigns of a real Egyptian
+dynasty,--Neku, son of Psametik I., who succeeded to the throne of
+Egypt in 611 B.C. Evidently by this time the overland routes to the
+regions of the Upper Nile and even to Somaliland had been closed by
+hostilities with the Ethiopians and Negroes. A Phœnician expedition
+was directed to sail down the Red Sea and along the coast to the Land
+of Punt and the unknown territory beyond. According to tradition,
+this expedition sailed round the whole continent of Africa and passed
+through the Straits of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean, reaching Egypt
+from that direction.
+
+Egypt, in her several thousand years of history, had been many times
+conquered by foreign races or the leaders of foreign armies, and had
+sometimes endured the domination of strangers for five hundred years at
+a time, though Egyptian art, tradition, and religion either survived
+concurrently alongside the habits and customs of the less civilised
+rulers, or ended by Egyptianising the stranger. But there was to
+come a time when the independence of Egypt was to disappear, when the
+Egyptian language was to cease to be dominant, when, in fact, the Egypt
+of the Pharaohs and the Pyramids, of the Hieroglyph and the Mummy,
+of Ra and Aphis, Osiris, Isis, and Horus was to disappear--perhaps
+for ever; for the potent race that had so long held aloft a
+brightly-lighted lamp of civilisation has been so changed and degraded
+by the infusion of Persian, Arab, Greek, Italian, Negro, Circassian,
+Turkish, French, and Maltese blood, so often decimated by wars,
+famines, and diseases, and renewed with the tainted blood of mercenary
+armies, that, though the residuum of the population may still offer
+great facial resemblances to the vanished Egyptian type, the majesty of
+demeanour, the brilliant mental endowments of the old race have gone,
+and the rulers of Egypt to-day under the indifferent English are the
+descendants of Slavs and Turks, Arabs, Armenians, and Circassians.
+
+A ruler of Egypt, a usurper named Aahmes, had been raised to the
+kingship over Egypt by a soldier’s mutiny. He had legitimised his
+position by marrying a granddaughter of Psametik I. Carrying out a
+series of successful expeditions, he once more opened a way to the
+commerce of Nubia and the Upper Nile. He intervened in the affairs of
+Asia Minor to support a small state there against encroachments by
+the Persian conqueror Cyrus. The son of Cyrus the Great, whom we know
+as Cambyses, but whose real name was probably in Persian Kambujiya,
+resolved to punish Egypt for this interference. Aahmes, whom the
+Greeks called Amasis, died before he could resist the invasion, and
+his son, Psametik III., lost his throne and the independence of
+Egypt in the battle of Pelusium. Cambyses became the conqueror, and
+was crowned the legitimate King of Egypt. He seems to have been an
+erratic and cruel conqueror, but, like Nero, somewhat fantastically
+interested in science and exploration. He sent one great expedition
+into the Libyan Desert which was never heard of again, and is supposed
+to have perished in the sand; and he led a great army himself up the
+Nile with some vague intention of conquering the Ethiopians. His
+soldiers, however, had marched only a small distance into the desert
+when their commissariat failed, and many perished, while others became
+cannibals in their mad hunger. This disaster put a stop to any further
+efforts on the part of the Persian Overlords of Egypt. For nearly
+two hundred years Persia maintained her hold over Egypt, though for
+brief intervals native dynasties arose in this part and that part and
+flickered for a time in a state of semi-independence. Then happened
+one of the great events in the history of Egypt and of the development
+of Africa,--an event which may be paralleled by the descent on Egypt
+of Napoleon Bonaparte two thousand one hundred and thirty-one years
+later: Alexander the Great, continuing his war against the Persian
+Empire, attacked that power in Egypt and won the day. Alexander left
+in charge in Egypt one of his generals (who was perhaps also his
+illegitimate half-brother), Ptolemy. After his death Ptolemy refused to
+acknowledge the claims of Alexander’s posthumous son, and made himself
+King of Egypt. He thus founded a Greek dynasty in that country which
+lasted till the advent of the Cæsars and expired in the person of the
+world-famed Cleopatra.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE GREEKS INTEREST EUROPE IN THE NILE QUESTION
+
+
+The second division of the Caucasian species of man (the Iberian being
+the first) was the Aryan,--a race of golden-haired, pink and white
+complexioned people, with eyes that are blue, gray, or violet.[5]
+The Aryans first came into Greece as barbarians and destroyers, but
+were soon conquered by the preceding Iberian Mykenæan civilisation,
+on which they built up that Hellenic art and knowledge which are the
+foundations of European civilisation at the present day. This Hellenic
+spirit first made itself felt in Africa through the Greek colonies of
+the Cyrenaica. Greece, when it became conscious of a world beyond its
+peninsulas and islands, was strongly drawn towards Africa. The power
+of Egypt long withstood attempts at Greek colonisation, though in
+quite early days Hellenic or Hellenised Europeans were employed by the
+rulers of Egypt as mercenary soldiers. Therefore, following the line
+of least resistance, Greece planted her first African colonies between
+Egypt on the east and the settlements of the Phœnicians (Carthage) on
+the west. Due west of the narrow coast belt of Egypt is a remarkable
+projection of North Africa into the Mediterranean,--the modern Barka,
+the ancient Cyrenaica. This projection has been, several times in
+geological history, a series of islands in a larger Mediterranean, or
+it has grown into a bridge connecting Greece with Africa. The land now
+rises to heights of three thousand feet, and there is a sufficiency of
+rainfall in ordinary seasons to nourish a vegetation not much less rich
+than that of southern Italy. South of the Cyrenaica lies the Sahara
+Desert in its most aggravated form of well-nigh impassable sand dunes.
+No Greek expedition that we know of ever succeeded in crossing the
+Sahara from Cyrenaica and reaching the Sudan; but Greek influence and
+inquiries were dimly felt in Phazania (Fezzan) to the southwest, and
+the existence and prosperity of these Greek colonies in North Africa
+aroused the interest of the Greeks in matters of African exploration.
+In about 457 B.C. Herodotus (a native of Halicarnassus, a Hellenised
+state in Asia Minor under Persian rule) visited Egypt, which from 650
+B.C. onwards had been more or less thrown open to Greek enterprise by
+Psametik I. Herodotus himself travelled up the Nile as far as the First
+Cataract, and collected with some industry information from Egyptians
+and travelled Greeks as to the regions which lay beyond. From these he
+learned that the origin of the Nile was unknown, but that the river
+might come from the far west, from the region where we now know Lake
+Chad to be; that there was a civilised city of Ethiopians in the great
+bend of the Nile at Meroe (Merāwi of to-day), and that beyond this
+nothing certain was known of the Nile course. Aristotle--the great
+Greek philosopher, who was born in northern Greece in 384 B.C.--wrote
+on African discovery and recorded the news that to the southwest of
+the Nile were Pygmy races who frequently warred with the “cranes” (?
+ostriches).
+
+In B.C. 276 was born at Cyrene, in North Africa, Eratosthenes, a Greek
+geographer, who was made Librarian at Alexandria. From the information
+he collected and collated (supplied, no doubt, by Greek traders) he,
+first of all known geographers, sketched out with fair accuracy the
+course of the Nile and its two great Abyssinian affluents as far
+south as the modern Khartum. He hinted at the lake sources and first
+mentioned the Nubians.
+
+It was the conquest of Egypt from Persian domination by Alexander the
+Great which really did more to extend Greek commerce and civilisation
+and the use of the Greek language over eastern Africa and western Asia
+than has even been done at a far later date in other parts of the
+world for German commerce, knowledge, and the German language by the
+unification of Germany under Bismarck, William I., and William II.
+Greek explorers visited the Nile as far south as the junction of the
+Astapus (Blue Nile), and Greek settlements were made on the island of
+Sokotra, and possibly at other points near the mouth of the Red Sea.
+Greek traders even visited the East African coast as far as Pangani,
+opposite Zanzibar. The Greeks revealed India to Europe, and the
+commerce which sprung up there through Greek agencies on the Persian
+Gulf and the Red Sea gave unwilling navigators, in those days before
+steam force, some acquaintance with the eastern coast of Africa as far
+south as Zanzibar.
+
+Yet the Greeks in all these regions were (as subsequently happened
+with the Portuguese) but the followers of the Arabs and Phœnicians.
+Some impulse, kindred in origin, no doubt, to the evolution of the
+Phœnicians, had created an ancient civilisation in southern and western
+Arabia which perhaps reached its climax in the lofty, well-watered, and
+fertile country of Yaman. Much of southern Arabia, however, several
+thousand years ago, was less arid than at the present day. The rainfall
+was greater, and the already civilised inhabitants industriously
+preserved the precious water by dams for purposes of irrigation. This
+civilisation may be briefly styled Himyaritic or Sabæan,--perhaps the
+last name is the more comprehensive. These Sabæan Arabs of south and
+southwest Arabia, separately or in conjunction with their Phœnician
+cousins, pursued their search for metals down the east coast of Africa,
+along which they made settlements which are probably the sites of most
+of the modern emporiums of commerce on the same coast. They had reached
+the mouth of the Zambezi and ascended that river, and had penetrated
+as far south as, let us say, Delagoa Bay. It was perhaps their
+exploration of the Zambezi which led them to discover alluvial gold
+in the vicinity of that river, though they afterwards found a shorter
+route to the gold fields by way of Sofala. In this way they forestalled
+by some twenty-five hundred years modern Rhodesian enterprise, and
+gold was worked in the regions to the south of the Lower Zambezi and
+a little to the north of that river by Arabs or people of allied
+language and race almost continuously from an approximate period of
+three thousand years ago down to the arrival of the Portuguese at the
+beginning of the sixteenth century of this era. In the days before the
+appalling religious disunion brought about by the conflicts between
+Christianity and Islam there was no bitter feeling against the European
+on the part of the Arab, and Greek adventurers and traders appear to
+have penetrated freely up the Nile, and to have worked cordially with
+the Sabæan Arabs whom they found established at various points between
+India on the one hand and Zanzibar and the Red Sea on the other. The
+Greek colony on the island of Sokotra no doubt traded industriously
+with the opposite coast of Somaliland.
+
+Rome displaced Greece in Egypt in the same way that Greece had
+displaced Persia, and that Persia had closed the five thousand years
+of fighting between Libyan, Gala, Arab, and Nubian. In 168 B.C. Rome
+extended her protection over Egypt. In 30 B.C. Egypt became a Roman
+province. When the Romans really took over the administration of the
+land, they too, like the Galas, Persians, and Greeks before them, and
+the French, Turks, and English after them, began to be interested in
+the quest for the Nile sources. Each newly-arrived race of Caucasian
+conquerors in Egypt has felt the same interest. But much of the
+exploring and recording work under Roman rule was done by Greeks.
+Strabo, a native of Amasia in Pontus, on the southern shore of the
+Black Sea, who was born somewhere about 50 B.C., became, when quite a
+young man, a geographer of the Roman world. He accompanied in B.C. 24
+Ælius Gallus, the Roman Governor of Egypt, on a journey up the Nile as
+far as Philæ (beyond Assuan and the First Cataract). Pliny the Elder,
+writing some fifty years after the birth of Christ, shows us that just
+before and just after that event Greek explorers (mainly from Asia
+Minor) had been busy on the Nile above the First Cataract and perhaps
+south of Khartum. These were Bion, Dalion, and Simonides. Aristocreon
+and Basilis are also mentioned as authorities on Nile exploration, but
+not necessarily explorers themselves. Simonides, above mentioned, lived
+for five years in Meroe. Dalion is thought to have penetrated up the
+river some distance beyond Khartum. The “Meroe” which is so constantly
+mentioned by Greek and Roman writers from Herodotus to Ptolemy, was a
+name given originally to an important and flourishing city on the south
+or left bank of the Nile in Dongola,--the modern Merāwi. This place
+was also known as Napata (Egyptian, Nepet), and was the residence
+of Ethiopian (Abyssinian, Gala, Nubian) kings. Later the name Meroe
+was also applied to a place on the right bank of the Nile about one
+hundred miles south of that river’s confluence with the Atbara.
+This is probably where the Greek Simonides stayed and beyond which
+Dalion travelled. Finally, the term Meroe was applied to the “Island”
+(peninsula) formed by the Atbara, the Blue Nile, and the White Nile, a
+region formerly of great fertility.
+
+The Emperor Nero, though the Beast of the Apocalypse, had a certain
+genial interest in geography. He despatched--or caused to be
+despatched--an expedition under two centurions in about the year 66
+A.D., to discover, if possible, the source or sources of the White
+Nile. Before dealing with Egypt the Romans had taken over control of
+the old Greek colonies of the Cyrenaica and on the coast of Tripoli.
+This had led (A.D. 19) to their having extensive relations with the
+Berber kingdom of Fezzan, with whom and with the Tawareq people of
+Garama to the south they maintained friendly relations. Through this
+friendly co-operation a Roman expedition under Septimus Flaccus had in
+the year 50 A.D. (perhaps) reached to some trans-Saharan place like
+Bilma. Much later, about 150 A.D., another expedition under Julius
+Maternus joined forces with the friendly Berber King of Garama, and
+actually travelled to the vicinity of Lake Chad, or, as some think,
+to the oasis of Air or Asben farther to the west. It was a country
+which they called Agisymba, and abounded in rhinoceroses. From this
+expedition the Romans derived some inkling of the possibilities, beyond
+the sandy wastes and sun-smitten rocks of the Sahara Desert, of a
+fertile Sudan, populated with an excellent material for slaves. But a
+hundred years earlier they had realised the enormous difficulties which
+attended any enterprise (in the days before camels were used in Africa)
+across the Sahara Desert, and this gave them an added desire to follow
+up the Nile and ascertain its practicability as a waterway into Negro
+Africa.
+
+Nero’s two centurions were passed on by Roman prefects to friendly
+Nubian chiefs, one of whom ruled the principality of Meroe along the
+main Nile between Atbara and the Blue Nile confluence. Furnished with
+boats which they later exchanged for dug-out canoes, they appear to
+have ascended the Nile above Fashoda, and possibly above the confluence
+between the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the Kir or White Nile. At any rate they
+got far enough south to come in contact with the Great Marsh which
+extends from the vicinity of Fashoda to the frontiers of the Uganda
+Protectorate. Their passage was stopped by the accumulation of water
+vegetation which we now know as the “sudd.” Some writers on ancient
+geography believe that the two centurions penetrated as far south as
+the sixth degree of north latitude, or the verge of the Bari country.
+At any rate they got well into the land of the naked Nile Negroes.
+Their discouraging reports seem to have put an end to any further Roman
+enterprise in the matter.
+
+Greek traders in Egypt prospered greatly under the peace imposed by the
+Roman Empire. Their commerce with Arabia, East Africa, and India grew
+to a wonderful development in the first century after Christ. About 77
+A.D. was published by a Greek of Alexandria the celebrated “Periplus of
+the Red Sea,” a pilot’s manual not unlike the modern Admiralty “sailing
+directions.” This “Periplus” shows us that the Greeks by the middle of
+the first century knew the Zanzibar coast very well under the name of
+Azan or Azania.
+
+Among these Greek merchants trading with India was one Diogenes,
+who, on returning from a voyage to India in about 50 A.D., landed on
+the East African coast at Rhaptum (Pangani or the mouth of the river
+Rufu?). Thence, he said, he “travelled inland for a twenty-five days’
+journey, and arrived in the vicinity of the two great lakes and the
+snowy range of mountains whence the Nile draws its twin sources.” As
+nothing is recorded about his return journey, it is more probable that
+he merely conversed on the coast with Arab settlers and traders who
+told him that at a distance of twenty-five days’ march in the interior
+began a series of great lakes from two of which were derived the twin
+sources of the White Nile; that farther to the south of the most
+western of these two lakes was a range of mountains of great altitude
+covered with snow and ice, and named for their brilliant appearance of
+white the Mountains of the Moon. The Nile, he was told, united its twin
+head-streams at a point to the north of these two great lakes, and
+then flowed through marshes until it joined the River of Abyssinia (the
+Blue Nile), and so reached the regions of the known.
+
+[Illustration: THE MOUNTAINS OF THE MOON: A GLIMPSE ON ONE OF
+RUWENZORI’S HIGHEST PEAKS.]
+
+This story was told by Diogenes to a Syrian geographer called
+Marinus of Tyre, who published it in his geographical works in the
+first century of the Christian era. The writings of Marinus of Tyre
+disappeared, probably with the dispersal of the Alexandrian Library,
+but fortunately for us at the present day all that portion of them
+dealing with the sources of the Nile was quoted almost _in extenso_
+by another geographer, Claudius Ptolemæus, a Greek-Egyptian, born at
+Ptolemais in the Delta of the Nile, and resident at Alexandria (perhaps
+in connection with the celebrated Library). Ptolemy (as he is currently
+and incorrectly called) wrote in about the year 150 A.D., and therefore
+to Ptolemy is commonly attributed the first clearly expressed theory
+as to the main origin of the White Nile, the twin lakes (Victoria and
+Albert), and the great snowy range called the Mountains of the Moon
+(Ruwenzori).[6] Neither Marinus of Tyre nor Claudius Ptolemæus was the
+first person to hint at this origin of the Nile. Besides Eratosthenes
+and Pliny there are indications in various records of the two centuries
+before Christ that the idea of the White Nile issuing from two great
+lakes and passing through a vast marshy region before it reached
+Ethiopia was vaguely known. The idea had perhaps even reached the ears
+of Cambyses and of such of the earlier Ptolemies as may have cared for
+geographical speculations. The bearers of the news would undoubtedly
+have been men of the Gala (Abyssinian, Somali, Cushite) race, who at
+that distant period of time seem to have freely penetrated through
+the lands of the brutish and unarmed Negroes. No doubt many a Greek
+adventurer in passing along the east coast of Africa brought back
+tidings similar to those of Diogenes, but his grain fell among the
+rocks, and the only definite record of the existence of this theory as
+to the Nile’s origin is the story of Diogenes preserved through the
+industry of Marinus of Tyre and Claudius Ptolemæus of Alexandria.
+
+[Illustration: THE COURSE OF THE NILE, ACCORDING TO PTOLEMY.
+
+From the oldest version of Ptolemy’s Map in existence, about 930 A.D.,
+preserved in Mount Athos Monastery.]
+
+The recording of travellers’ tales as to the twin lake sources of
+the main Nile stream and the existence of a great snowy range called
+the Mountains of the Moon was not the only contribution made by
+Claudius Ptolemæus to Nile geography. The Egyptian Greek indeed was
+a geographical giant compared with any of his predecessors, nor was
+the height of his knowledge concerning the geography of Europe, Asia,
+and Africa reached and passed until the fifteenth century of the
+present era, some twelve hundred years after his death. The results
+of the later Crusades, intercourse with the Arabs, and the journeys
+of Marco Polo and other enterprising Venetians had brought in some
+cases confirmation of Ptolemy’s theories, had corrected some of his
+errors, and had filled up gaps in his information. But as regards the
+geography of Africa more especially, Ptolemy remained ostensibly the
+great authority until the end of the fifteenth century, although, as
+already mentioned in a footnote, the latest editions of Ptolemy’s
+maps (the latest ascribed to Ptolemy was published about 1485) show
+that the geographers at the closing part of the fifteenth century,
+consciously or unconsciously, touched up Ptolemy’s work by later
+information received from Arabs, Italians, and Turks. Ptolemy discussed
+with much detail the whole course of the Nile so far as it lay to any
+extent within the regions of the known. He described the approximate
+outline of its course about as far as the present site of Berber,
+which district he describes as the Greater Primis, a name which Sir
+E. H. Bunbury takes to be identical with the locality of Primnis[7]
+rumoured by Strabo. Above this point Ptolemy applies the name of Meroe
+(so often attributed to settlements or districts in Dongola) to that
+great peninsula which is so nearly enclosed between the Atbara, the
+main and the Blue Niles. Ptolemy indeed, and most writers of earlier
+and later days, believed this district to be an actual island.[8]
+The junction of the Blue and the White Niles is wrongly placed by
+Ptolemy in latitude 12° north, instead of 15° 40′, and from this point
+southwards Ptolemy’s proposed latitudes of places on the White Nile
+became increasingly incorrect, so that by him the Nile system was
+carried a little too far to the south of the equator. South of the site
+of modern Khartum Ptolemy had but little information to go upon, other
+than the account of the Centurions’ voyage; but from such suggestions
+as he could obtain, together with the story of Diogenes, he guessed
+that the twin sources of the White Nile joined their streams into one
+river at 2° north latitude. This junction described with the knowledge
+of later days would be equivalent to the exit of the Nile from Lake
+Albert, the real latitude of this point being 2° 25′--an uncommonly
+good guess on Ptolemy’s part. Ptolemy, however, imagined nothing quite
+like Lake Albert, but thought that the waters coming respectively from
+the two great equatorial lakes effected their junction at a point some
+two hundred and fifty miles north of the western lake source (Lake
+Albert); for he surmises that this lake lies approximately under the
+sixth degree of south latitude (its southernmost extremity is in 1° 10′
+north of the equator). His hypothetical Lake Victoria lies under or
+extends to the seventh degree of south latitude, instead of no farther
+than about 3° 30′ south. Ptolemy, however, was careful to discriminate
+between the lake sources of the White Nile and the lake (Tsana) from
+which the Blue Nile issues in the highlands of Abyssinia. This sheet
+of water he calls definitely Coloe, and states that it is the source of
+the river Astapus (or Blue Nile). It is thought that Strabo also made
+allusion to Lake Tsana under the name of Psebo. It is probable that
+both Strabo and Ptolemy heard of this lake source of the Astapus or
+Blue Nile from Greek traders who had penetrated Abyssinia; for, during
+the first centuries after Christ, Axum (then called Auxuma) had become
+an important trading-centre which was reached from Adulis (Adulis
+being a port on the Red Sea not far from the modern Masawa). Ptolemy’s
+location of Lake Tsana, however, like the equatorial lakes, is too far
+to the south. His sketch of the main course of the Atbara (Astaboras)
+on the one hand, and of the Blue Nile (Astapus) on the other, would not
+be very incorrect, but for the fact that he makes these streams unite
+somewhere in the latitude of Khartum and then separate again, their
+northern separation enclosing the island of Meroe. The Græcicised names
+of Astapos (Blue Nile) and Astaboras (Atbara) were recorded before
+the days of Ptolemy by Eratosthenes, but were not applied in the same
+definite way to the Blue Nile and the Atbara. Eratosthenes sometimes
+applies the name of Astapos to the main stream of the Nile and not
+specially to the Blue Nile. He also mentions that the main stream of
+the Nile is called Astasobas. It is evident that in these words we have
+corruptions of local names, possibly derived from Nubian, or it may be
+from Hamitic languages. Astaboras needs but little identification with
+the Atbara. Astapus (Greek = Astapos) is not clearly recognizable under
+the modern Abyssinian name of the Blue Nile,--Abai. The second part of
+Astasobas certainly recalls the name Sobat, which besides being applied
+by the Sudanese Arabs to the Baro or Sobat is also sometimes given by
+them or by the Nile Negroes to the main course of the White Nile south
+of Khartum. Asta may have been some Ethiopian term meaning “river.”
+
+The present writer is unable to understand why that able geographer,
+Mr. E. G. Ravenstein, has doubted the identification of Ruwenzori with
+Ptolemy’s Mountains of the Moon. It must be obvious, when all facts
+are considered, that Ruwenzori was the principal germ of this idea.
+The Greek traders at Rhapta (Pangani) no doubt had some idea of the
+existence of Kilimanjaro, but it is doubtful whether either the single
+dome of Kilimanjaro or the gleaming pinnacle of Kenia would impress the
+imagination so strongly as the whole brilliant range of Ruwenzori’s
+four or five snow-peaks and thirty miles of glaciation. On such
+occasions, as when this range is visible from a distance, and broadside
+on, the dark blue forested slopes merge into the morning mists of the
+lowlands, leaving the splendid phantasmagoria of cream-coloured snow
+and gray rock floating in the sky like an exaggerated lunar landscape.
+Ptolemy places this range, as he does his lakes, too far to the south,
+and associates it more with the modern country of Unyamwezi than
+with the region between the two lakes Albert and Victoria. But no
+doubt then, as in Speke’s day, Ruwenzori and Lake Albert were reached
+by Greek adventurers, by Sabæan Arabs, or by natives who served
+as intermediaries, by way of the established trade route through
+Unyamwezi. This word, which means “the Land of the Moon,” appears to
+be rather old for a Bantu place name: Unyamwezi indeed seems in the
+history of Bantu migrations to have played an important part, and to
+have been one of those many sub-centres from which great dispersals of
+the Bantu races took place. Indeed the Zulus (who were probably the
+dreaded Mazimba or Bazimba spoken of by the Portuguese) seem to have
+halted in their cannibal days in Unyamwezi before they descended on
+South Africa in the sixteenth century. Ruwenzori is not, after all,
+such a very long journey to the northwest of Unyamwezi, and it is very
+possible that the returning travellers, having stated that they reached
+the Nile sources and these wonderful snow-mountains through the Land of
+the Moon thus caused this lunar name to be applied by Ptolemy to the
+Ruwenzori range.
+
+Though not an explorer, Ptolemy stands (for his age) in the highest
+rank of Nile geographers; but he had to wait something like seventeen
+hundred and forty years before Sir Henry Stanley, by his discovery
+of the Semliki, the Ruwenzori snow-range, and the last problems of
+the Nile sources, did justice to that remarkable foreshadowing of the
+main features of the Nile system due to the genius of the Alexandrian
+geographer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+ABYSSINIANS AND JEWS
+
+
+The race of the Greek kings who ruled over Egypt after the death of
+Alexander the Great and until 30 B.C., and later, again, the Byzantine
+Emperors of Eastern Rome did much to implant Hellenic civilisation and
+the use of the Greek language in Egypt, and their influence extended
+over Abyssinia, where the kings of Ethiopian race (Gala dashed with
+Arab and Jew) admired and imitated them in much the same manner as
+the second Emperor of the French was admired and imitated by the
+lesser potentates of Germany. The history of Abyssinia--if it is to be
+written with regard to truth--is still obscure. This country of lofty
+mountains and temperate climate is bordered on the east by the land of
+Afar, an inhospitable desert inhabited by fierce Hamites (Danākil). On
+the south its mountains are connected by plateaux and ridges with the
+highlands of East Africa, but are separated by much arid and parched
+country from the regions of the modern Uganda protectorate. On the
+west the mountains of Abyssinia descend in terraces to the plains of
+the central Nile. Here the torrid climate is that of the Sudan, but
+the country is better watered by the rivers which rise in Abyssinia,
+and by a fairly regular rainfall. On the extreme north the Abyssinian
+mountains almost overhang the coast of the Red Sea, and are no doubt
+visible in clear weather from the opposite Arabian shore. The mountains
+of Yaman are remarkably similar in many points to those of Abyssinia,
+and the people of Yaman when they were seized with a desire to emigrate
+in search of fresh homes were no doubt drawn to this distant land of
+mountains just visible in the west. Originally no doubt Abyssinia was
+peopled by the same dwarf Bushman race as that which formed the lowest
+stratum of all the African populations. Then a portion of the country
+came into the possession of the big black Negroes who still inhabit its
+western flanks. These again are superseded and partially absorbed by
+the superior race of the Hamites, the ancestors of the Gala, Somali,
+and Ancient Egyptian. This Hamite race of Caucasian stock with some
+Negroid intermixture forms the basis of the Abyssinian population at
+the present day. But in the early days of Sabæan enterprise--say four
+thousand to three thousand years ago--Abyssinia was conquered by Sabæan
+Arabs from Yaman. At many subsequent periods Abyssinia and Yaman (the
+Red Sea acting as no barrier) were governed by the same dynasty, and
+when Yaman came under Persian influence that influence also penetrated
+Abyssinia. In this manner Abyssinia early developed a trade with India,
+and even served as an emporium for the introduction of Indian wares
+into Egypt on the one hand and the remote parts of eastern equatorial
+Africa on the other. The Queen of Saba (Sheba) is no doubt in many
+respects a legendary personage, but if she had any real historical
+existence she is another instance of an Arab ruler who governed both
+Abyssinia and Yaman. She may or may not have visited Solomon, but there
+is no doubt that in the time of that Jewish king some intercourse was
+kept up between the kingdom of Israel in its brief flicker of power
+and prosperity, and the coasts of the Red Sea and southern Arabia.
+After the smashing up of the Hebrew state by the Assyrians there are
+good reasons for assuming that a number of the dispersed Israelites
+migrated to Abyssinia, as no doubt they did to other parts of the
+Sabæan Empire. Jewish monotheism always had a certain fascination (in
+the days before Christianity and Islam) for the peoples of Arabia and
+of Mauritania. This influence was most felt after the final destruction
+of Jerusalem by the Romans and the subsequent dispersal of the Jews
+in all directions. Several princes in southwestern Arabia adopted
+the Jewish faith, more or less, and the Jewish settlers in Abyssinia
+also appear to have acted as missionaries in converting the savage,
+nominally Semitic, partly Gala rulers of Abyssinia to the principles
+of the Jewish faith, into which they wove Jewish legends, such as the
+glory and power of Solomon. A similar influence impressed on the Arab
+mind the Solomon of the legends. The real son of David was no doubt an
+unimportant Semitic prince who borrowed a little civilisation from his
+Phœnician, Egyptian, and Sabæan neighbours. But the Greek influence
+emanating from Egypt displaced for a time the Persian and Jewish
+culture in Abyssinia. In the northern parts of that (then) collection
+of Arab and Gala kingdoms, Greek began to be used as a second language,
+the speech of the Court itself being a foreign tongue (Ge’ez), derived
+from the Himyaritic or some early south Semitic language.
+
+Auxuma--the modern Auxum--in the kingdom or province of Tigre
+(northeastern Abyssinia) and near the more modern town of Adua, became
+an important trade centre, frequented by many Greek merchants, some
+of whom seem to have occasionally returned to their homes in Egypt by
+way of the Atbara and the Nile. Others forestalled the Portuguese by
+entering into trade relations or actually undertaking journeys which
+revealed to them the existence of Lake Tsana and the upper waters of
+the Blue Nile.
+
+Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Byzantine Greek, who traded with India in
+the early part of the sixth century of our era, called at the port of
+Adulis (near Masawa) in 520 A.D. He discovered at this place a monument
+which contained two separate inscriptions. The monument was apparently
+one erected at the orders of Ptolemy III. (Philadelphus), who reigned
+in Egypt from 285 to 247 B.C. This Ptolemy led and sent expeditions
+which made a partial conquest of the coast regions of northern
+Abyssinia, and added to the Egyptian Empire of that day a good deal of
+what now constitutes the modern Italian colony of Eritrea.[9]
+
+On the same monument some four hundred and seventy years later, in
+about 127 A.D., a Semitic Abyssinian king (possibly Ela-Auda) recorded
+in turn his own victories and extensions of rule. These conquests seem
+to have done much to carry the Abyssinian (Semitic as distinct from
+Hamitic) arms as far south as the ninth degree of north latitude. Other
+indications would show that from this time onwards to about the tenth
+century A.D. Abyssinian influence and conquests extended southward
+intermittently to the vicinity of Lake Rudolf (the northern end of that
+lake). Owing to these conquests, Christianity was carried as far south
+as the modern province of Kaffa, and northwestwards along the course
+of the Blue Nile to the site of the modern Khartum; for at one time
+Abyssinian suzerainty or rule extended almost to the verge of Kordofan
+on the west.[10]
+
+The introduction of Islam among the Somalis, among some of the Gala
+tribes, and all round the north and west of Abyssinia in the centuries
+that followed the eleventh, checked any further spread of Christianity,
+and limited--even curtailed--the political aspirations of Abyssinia.
+In the sixteenth century a Muhammadan ruler--Muhammad Granye--arose
+in the Danākil country (Tajurra Bay), and practically smashed the
+Ethiopian Christian power in Abyssinia, which did not recover from the
+ravages of these Muhammadan (Arab and Somali) armies for a century or
+more. Soon after the wars of Muhammad Granye the heathen Galas[11]
+from the south and southwest entered Abyssinia in force, and it was a
+long time before the Semitic rulers of that country could bring them
+under control. The arrival of the Portuguese (to be described in the
+next chapter) gave a fillip to the power of the Christian Semites of
+Abyssinia, mainly through the introduction of guns and gunpowder. It is
+possible, indeed, that at different times after the commencement of the
+Christian era Abyssinian raiders may have ridden south on their slave,
+ivory, and cattle-hunting expeditions as far as the vicinity of Mount
+Elgon. At the present day their raiders come almost to the frontiers
+of Busoga, for there is no tsetse fly in all the district between
+Abyssinia and the Victoria Nyanza; therefore, as the Abyssinians have
+possessed horses for several thousand years, there has been little to
+stop their making rapid expeditions into the Land of the Blacks. In
+this way they may have raided and traded as far south as the Victoria
+Nyanza and as far west as the White Nile, bringing back with them
+for the edification of the Greeks stories of the Great Lakes and
+Snow-mountains, and assisting, perhaps, to distribute over the lands
+now comprised within the Uganda Protectorate those remarkable blue
+Egyptian beads of unknown antiquity which have been referred to by the
+present writer in his book, “The Uganda Protectorate,” as being some
+slight indication of ancient trading relations between the countries of
+the Great Lakes and those under the dominion of Egypt.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ISLAMITES AND ITALIANS
+
+
+When Egypt had become part of the Byzantine dominions, all interest in
+the Nile sources had died away, and men’s minds were mainly centred on
+religious controversies of greater or less violence. Greek Christianity
+penetrated to Abyssinia and south of Abyssinia to countries not far
+from the north end of Lake Rudolf. Most of the Nubian kingdoms became
+nominally Christian, and Christianity was the religion of the people
+on the Nile banks as far south as the confluence of the Blue and White
+Niles. It is thought by the missionaries of the White Fathers’ Mission
+to Uganda that the sign of the cross and the idea of baptism, with one
+or two other practices found in the old heathen religions of Unyoro and
+Uganda, may have reached those countries from Abyssinia. Greek and Arab
+Christians in the first six centuries of the Christian era certainly
+penetrated to the East African coast, but after the official adoption
+of Christianity by the Roman Empire all mundane knowledge began to
+decay. Christianity inspired a contempt for science, and the only ideas
+of geography which floated about the world were connected with the
+wanderings of propagandists or pilgrimages to the shrines of saints.
+Arab enterprise, moreover, in these sad centuries suffered a curious
+eclipse. Far to the south, in Zambezia, no doubt the invasion of the
+country by the earlier and later sections of the Bantu Negroes brought
+about the destruction of Sabæan power; and the somewhat degenerate
+successors of the Sabæans from the south coast of Arabia only occupied
+the coast emporiums dotted along the littoral from Somaliland to Sofala.
+
+Then came one of the great landmarks of the world’s history, a movement
+productive of a little good and some harm to civilisation. Christianity
+had first been organised as a socialistic religion, grafting on to
+the beautiful and indisputable precepts of its Founder the reaction
+of poor, ignorant, starved, and enslaved people against the unmoral
+philosophy, unequal wealth, and excessive materialism of the time. It
+then grew to be a somewhat dismal faith, taking no heed of the beauty
+of this world and of mundane opportunities for happiness; and above
+all it waged an active warfare with sexuality, not merely curbing
+immorality, but (wisely or unwisely) opposing polygamy and advocating
+celibacy. The Arab and the North African were not ripe for such a
+faith, and Judaism had already biassed them against the polytheistic
+tendencies of Greek Christianity. Muhammad, the prophet of western
+Arabia, founded on a basis of phallic worship and animistic belief
+the third great Semitic religion--Islam. His teaching was a direct
+challenge to Christianity, and soon became iconoclastic in every sense
+of the word. Though the Persian, Syrian, and Iberian elements of the
+Arab Empire for a time revived and perpetuated in somewhat grotesque
+aspect the science of Greece, the art of Persia, and the lore of India,
+the Muhammadan religion sealed most parts of Africa to European and
+Christian research. It is true, however, that the conquests of Islam
+enabled Arabs to penetrate further into the interior of tropical Africa
+than before, though from the dawn of civilisation they had been the
+most constant explorers of the eastern part of that continent.
+
+The Arabs began to mention names connected with the Niger and the
+western Sudan to the geographers of Italy and Sicily. Under the impulse
+of Islamic, Persian, and Arab colonies the east coast of Africa and
+the north coast of Madagascar came partially under Muhammadan rule in
+the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Arabs there carrying on almost
+continuously the commercial enterprise founded by their predecessors
+and brothers, the Phœnicians and Sabæans. Invasion after invasion
+crossed from Arabia, and passed over the lowlands surrounding Abyssinia
+to the central Sudan; or higher up, through Egypt, to Mauritania.
+But the Arabs who crossed the Nile in the latitudes of Khartum and
+Assuan made no attempts to follow the White Nile, the Blue Nile, or
+the Bahr-al-Ghazal to their sources,--left in fact all the Nile basin
+above the confluence of the Blue and White rivers absolutely untouched
+and unexplored. Egypt itself came under Arab rule in 640 A.D., and
+subsequently formed an independent principality under the Fatimite
+Khalifs.
+
+The Crusades brought French, Germans, and English, Aragonese and
+Flemings to the Delta of the Nile in more or less disastrous
+expeditions against the Saracen power,--a power which was fast becoming
+that of the Turk. A curious relic of these crusading days in the Nile
+Delta is or was (for the present writer is not aware if they still
+exist) several Spanish (originally Aragonese) monasteries, which were
+established with the consent of the Muhammadan rulers of Egypt in order
+to mitigate the woes of Christian captives and to arrange terms for
+their release.
+
+[Illustration: AN ARAB TRADER (MASKATI).]
+
+Venice, however,--which had somewhat held aloof from the religious
+ardour of the Crusades in order to build up a great commerce with the
+Muhammadan East,--Venice became during the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries the great neutral go-between for the trade of India, Persia,
+Egypt, Arabia, and Syria with the Byzantine Empire and the rest of
+Europe. Venetians (in Arab dress, of course) ran less risk than other
+Europeans when travelling in Egypt in the days before the Portuguese
+discoveries. Through the Venetians Europe became acquainted with
+several strange African beasts which were brought from the Sudan
+for public exhibition in Muhammadan Egypt, and in this way European
+interest in the sources of the Nile was occasionally revived. It
+is remarkable to reflect that the name of Venice will probably
+never die out (as far as etymology is concerned) in the very heart
+of Africa. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and perhaps
+later, Venice manufactured in her arsenals improved types of guns.
+She also acted as an intermediary in exchanging muskets (manufactured
+elsewhere in Europe) with the Arabs and Turks, who at that time could
+not construct these firearms for themselves. Thus the Turks and Arabs
+became accustomed to call any improved type of musket a “Venetian”
+(Bunduqi).[12] In this way the name of the most beautiful city in the
+world has penetrated beyond the explorations of any European into
+the very heart of Africa, as it has also circulated through all the
+Muhammadan East.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+A SUMMARY OF THE ANCIENTS’ KNOWLEDGE OF THE NILE
+
+
+The next page in the history of the Nile Quest is marked by the coming
+of the Portuguese; but before we proceed to consider what effect this
+movement had on the revelation of Africa to the knowledge of the
+Caucasian species, let us sum up briefly the purport of the foregoing
+chapters:--
+
+1. The lands through which the Nile flows were inhabited some ten
+thousand years ago--let us say at a guess--by Pygmies in the north,
+east, and southwest, and elsewhere by big black Negroes, these types
+being offshoots from the original Negro Asiatic stem.
+
+At some such period as ten thousand years ago northeast Africa was
+repeatedly invaded from Arabia by a branch of the Caucasian race--the
+Hamites--which in Arabia had absorbed a certain proportion of early
+Negro and Dravidian[13] blood. About the same time in Egypt itself
+there were invasions of other Caucasian immigrants; some perhaps of
+the Dravidian stock still met with in Baluchistan and India, and
+others of Libyan (Iberian, Algerian) race. There had also been early
+minglings between the big black Negroes on the Central Nile and Hamite
+invaders which had resulted in further hybrids such as the Nubians or
+“Ethiopians.” These Ethiopians constantly invaded and raided Egypt,
+thus mingling with the Caucasian Egyptians, but also at other times
+acted as middlemen between civilised Egypt and the utterly barbarous
+countries of the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the Sudan; they brought to Egypt
+knowledge of the Pygmies and such of the bigger beasts of Africa as had
+become extinct in Egypt before the arrival of intelligent man. Through
+these Nubians the Egyptians occasionally had glimmering ideas as to the
+sources of the White Nile.
+
+2. The Egyptians kept up a fairly constant communication with Abyssinia
+and Somaliland by sea and overland. They had a fair knowledge of the
+geographical features of Abyssinia and of the origin and source of the
+Blue Nile. Moreover, through the ancestors of the Galas and Somalis
+they came slightly into contact with the peoples of Lake Rudolf and the
+Victoria Nyanza.
+
+3. The Greeks, who began to travel in Egypt five hundred years before
+Christ, expressed some curiosity about the origin of the Nile, and
+communicated this inquiring spirit to the Romans. This resulted for a
+time in the knowledge of the White Nile as far south as Fashoda.
+
+4. The Arabs of western and southern Arabia very early in the history
+of civilisation developed a culture scarcely inferior to that of the
+Egyptians, and entered into trading and colonising relations with
+Abyssinia and Somaliland, and with the East African coastlands as far
+south as the modern Rhodesia. From their settlements on the Zanzibar
+coast (such as Mombasa) they probably journeyed inland on trading
+expeditions, or else the natives, who came to trade with them at the
+coast, gave them geographical information. In one or other way they
+learnt the existence of great lakes and snow-mountains. These stories
+the Arabs passed on to inquiring Greeks as far back as two thousand
+years ago; and an account which was an uncommonly near guess at the
+truth was given to the reading world during the first two centuries
+after the birth of Christ by writers on geography like Marinus of Tyre
+and Claudius Ptolemæus of Alexandria.
+
+5. This was the high-water mark of knowledge concerning the sources of
+the White Nile for something like eighteen hundred years. Information
+on the subject in the interval began to grow less rather than more.
+The stories of the Nile lakes were, however, revived after the Arab
+invasions of northeast Africa in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
+and were communicated to the European world of the Renaissance through
+the intermediary of the Saracen writers of Sicily, the theologians of
+Rome, and the merchants of Venice.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+PORTUGAL AND ABYSSINIA
+
+
+Portugal was created by the crusading spirit. The King of Castile, who
+had become the leading prince in the northern half of Spain, despatched
+a young Burgundian adventurer, Count Henry, to advance on the Douro
+from Galicia (in the northwest corner of the Spanish peninsula) and
+to drive the Moors into the sea,--either the Atlantic Ocean or the
+Straits of Gibraltar. Count Henry drove them at any rate half-way down
+that western coastland of the Spanish peninsula which we now call
+Portugal.[14] Lisbon was only eventually conquered from the Moors by
+the help of a large party of English volunteers who stopped to aid
+in this struggle with the Moslem while on their way to a Crusade in
+the Holy Land. Steadily, bit by bit, Count Henry and his successors,
+the kings of Portugal, drove the Moors southward into and out of the
+little province of Algarve, and then, flushed with continuous success,
+crossed the Straits, attacked them in Morocco, and added a large part
+of the present Empire of Morocco to the possessions of the Portuguese
+Crown.[15] These brilliant successes awoke a great spirit of discovery
+in Portugal,--a spirit fomented and encouraged by that noble and
+far-sighted man, Prince Henry the Navigator, who had himself shared in
+the Morocco wars. Rapidly the limits of the Portuguese explorations
+extended. First they rounded Cape Bojador on the northwest coast of
+Africa. Then they reached Sierra Leone, the gold coast, Benin (where
+they powerfully affected native art and industry), the Niger Delta, the
+Cameroons, the Congo, Angola, and the Cape of Good Hope. Once having
+passed this promontory, whence they had once retired baffled, their
+great navigator, Vasco da Gama, carried on the exploration of the
+coasts of Africa eastward and northward to Mombasa and thence to India.
+Succeeding vessels explored the Red Sea, and the expeditions they
+conveyed attempted to get into touch with Abyssinia, where, according
+to the rumours brought home by crusaders and Italian merchants from
+Egypt, there lay a Christian country ruled by a pious monarch, John
+the Priest.[16] But before ever Vasco da Gama had rounded the Cape of
+Good Hope, the Portuguese, by contact with the Moors, had heard of Arab
+settlements on the East Coast of Africa, and of the insular character
+of the great continent. Their government, therefore, in 1486 despatched
+on a journey to Egypt, India, and eastern Africa Pero de Covilhaõ to
+spy out the land.
+
+This was a very risky journey in those days when the jealousy of Venice
+was added to the fanaticism of the Moslems. But Pero de Covilhaõ
+fulfilled his mission. He visited Egypt, the Red Sea, and India. He
+then, on his return journey, touched at many of the Arab ports on the
+East African coast. Finally he disembarked at Masawa, and travelled
+to Abyssinia, the first intelligent European to enter that country
+for a very long period of time,--the first, in fact, since the Greek
+merchants and missionaries who traded and travelled under the Byzantine
+Empire. The King of Abyssinia was so delighted with the advent of this
+white man, yet so suspicious of his country’s motives, that he was
+detained as an unwilling guest in Abyssinia for several years, and
+died when on his way home. But the Portuguese fleet came to Masawa in
+1520 with an embassy which remained in the country of Abyssinia for
+six years. In this embassy were the priests Bermudez and Francisco
+Alvarez. Alvarez afterwards (about 1550) wrote an interesting account
+of Abyssinia, describing more especially the province of Tigre, and
+alluding to the Atbara (there known as the Takaze) as the main Nile.
+
+Bermudez became for a time the primate or patriarch of Abyssinia. The
+Jesuit missionaries, for the most part Portuguese, strove hard to
+replace the corrupt Greek Christianity of the country by the Latin
+rite. This action not unnaturally set up against them a strong body of
+opponents in the native Abyssinian priesthood. For a time, however,
+the civilisation they introduced, and their trading connection with
+India, made a great impression on the king and chieftains of Ethiopia,
+until, as will be seen later on, the country became suspicious of
+Portuguese intentions, observing the facility with which parts of
+East Africa, India, and the shores of the Persian Gulf had been
+conquered and occupied by the Portuguese. But before this jealousy
+was to culminate in the expulsion of the Portuguese from Abyssinia
+one hundred years later, the Christian rulers of that country were
+forced to appeal to Portugal for help and armed intervention. As
+already mentioned in Chapter V., an attack on Abyssinia had been made
+by a Muhammadan chieftain of the Danakil country,--Muhammad Granye,
+or Muhammad the Lame. This man was probably of Somali race, and ruled
+the country round about Tajurra Bay,--the French Somaliland of to-day.
+In alliance with the Arabs and Turks, he not only created the Somali
+kingdom of Adel, but ravaged the greater part of Abyssinia. His policy
+was distinctly anti-Christian, and it is conceivable that he might
+have extinguished for ever the Christian Semite rule over Abyssinia
+but for the intervention of the Portuguese. The Emperor David, about
+1530, managed to send emissaries (probably Jesuit priests) to Lisbon
+to implore the assistance of the King of Portugal. The result was that
+Dom Estevaõ da Gama (son of the celebrated Vasco[17]) as Portuguese
+Admiral entered the Red Sea with the Portuguese fleet, and landed
+at Masawa four hundred Portuguese under the command of his brother
+Christophoro da Gama. The Portuguese brought with them firearms, with
+which apparently the Muhammadan invaders of Abyssinia were at first
+unprovided. They threw into the struggle with the Somalis and Arabs
+all the crusading ardour with which their ancestors had driven the
+Moors out of Portugal. Christophoro da Gama was a heroic figure, a
+very paladin. He excited the admiration of his Somali opponent, who
+at one stage of the struggle offered him a safe conduct to the coast
+and the means of departing from Abyssinia worth all the honours of
+war. Nevertheless, the four hundred Portuguese inflicted reverse after
+reverse on the thousands that followed the banner of Muhammad Granye,
+who at that time was practically master even of the mountainous regions
+of Abyssinia. Some of the Portuguese went to the assistance of the
+fugitive Emperor of Abyssinia. Those that remained under Christophoro
+da Gama, despite the constant defeats they inflicted on superior
+numbers, gradually found themselves isolated and vastly outnumbered.
+The Turks had taken alarm at Portuguese successes, and had sent to
+Muhammad Granye’s assistance a train of artillery, while two thousand
+Arabs with muskets crossed over from Mokha and joined the Somalis. Thus
+reinforced, Muhammad Granye attacked the Portuguese entrenched camp,
+which he ultimately carried, when the unfortunate Christophoro da Gama
+had one arm broken and his knee shattered. A few of the Portuguese
+escaped and joined the Abyssinians, but most of them were slaughtered
+by Muhammad Granye. Christophoro da Gama, however, though wounded,
+managed with ten of his men to escape on horseback to a forest. Here he
+was captured by Muhammad Granye, who, after inflicting much torture on
+him, offered, in admiration of his bravery, to set him at liberty and
+assist him to return to India, if only he would abjure Christianity.
+The blazing indignation with which he answered this proposal so enraged
+Muhammad Granye that he struck off his head with a sword. The body of
+Dom Christophoro was then cut into quarters and his remains buried in
+separate places. Ultimately, however, the bones are supposed to have
+been gathered together by Roman Catholic Abyssinians, and some seventy
+years later the skull of the martyr was thought to have been found by
+Jeronimo Lobo.
+
+Amongst the Portuguese who escaped slaughter at the hands of Muhammad
+Granye was Pedro Leon, who had been body-servant to Christophoro da
+Gama. Assisted by the advice of this little band of Portuguese heroes,
+the Emperor of Abyssinia at last made a successful stand against the
+Muhammadan invader. In the furious battle which ensued, the Portuguese
+directed all their energies against that part of the Somali army
+where Muhammad Granye was commanding. Pedro Leon, filled with a holy
+rage, singled out the Somali king from amongst his men, and shot him
+through the head with a musket. Muhammad Granye did not die at once,
+but managed to escape for some distance from the battlefield, being
+always, however, resolutely followed on horseback by Pedro Leon. At
+last Muhammad fell down dead, and Leon, having satisfied himself of
+the fact, cut off one of his ears to prove to the Emperor of Abyssinia
+that it was he who had avenged Dom Christophoro. After the death of
+their leader the Muhammadan forces melted away, and Christian Abyssinia
+slowly recovered from the greatest crisis in its fortunes prior to the
+Italian invasion of 1896.
+
+In 1615[18] a notable advance in Nile exploration was made. Father
+Pedro Paez was shown by the Abyssinians the sources of the Blue Nile
+on the Sagada or Sakala Mountain in the western part of the province
+of Gojam. Paez mentions that the river, before it enters Lake Tsana,
+is styled the Jemma, a term which scarcely differs from its name at
+the present day. He also alludes to, though he does not describe very
+carefully, Lake Tsana.
+
+In 1622 Father Jeronimo Lobo left Lisbon and proceeded to Goa, whence,
+after staying for more than a year, he started for Abyssinia. News
+had reached the Portuguese at Goa, from such of the missionaries as
+remained in Abyssinia, that the Emperor of that country had decided to
+join the Roman Church. A pressing demand was made for more Portuguese
+missionaries to strengthen this conversion, and the missionaries
+were advised to enter Ethiopia by way of the river Nile, through
+Dongola and Sennar. Unfortunately the secretary to the missionaries
+in Abyssinia mixed up the word Dancala (Dongola) with the country of
+the Danakil (on the Red Sea),[19] and advised the Jesuits at Goa to
+land at Zeila (Somaliland), and make their way through the Danakil
+country to Abyssinia. It was attempted to carry out this unfortunate
+advice. The eight missionaries who started from Goa were to divide
+into two companies, one to go to Zeila, and the other to land at
+Melinda (Malindi) on the Zanzibar coast, and thence make their way
+overland to Abyssinia,--rather a “large order” at that date (to use
+modern slang). Those that went by sea to Zeila were seized by the
+Turks, though finally released at the intercession of the Emperor
+of Abyssinia, who bribed the Turkish Pasha with the present of a
+zebra.[20] The other four missionaries, among whom Lobo was one, were
+again divided into two lots. Two of the fathers that were to attempt
+entering southern Abyssinia from Somaliland were duly landed at Zeila.
+A Muhammadan chieftain who was styled king of the country (probably in
+the neighbourhood of Tajurra Bay) seized these unfortunate missionaries
+and threw them into prison. In spite of the entreaties of the Emperor
+of Abyssinia, this Muhammadan chieftain (some relation of the Muhammad
+Granye who had been killed by the Portuguese when he invaded Abyssinia
+seventy years previously) finally had the Jesuits beheaded.
+
+Father Lobo and a companion were conveyed by a Portuguese ship to the
+island of Lamu on the Zanzibar coast. Thence with great difficulty
+they made their way in a boat along the coast to the mouth of the Juba
+River, where they came into contact with the “Galles,”[21] probably the
+existing Ogadein Somalis. These boisterous people soon made it apparent
+to the missionaries that any journey overland from Kismayu to Zeila
+and Abyssinia was an impossibility; so, after many hardships, they
+eventually made their way back to Mombasa and India.
+
+In 1625[22] Lobo and his companion once more started for Abyssinia, and
+this time sailed past Sokotra Island and Cape Guardafui, and finally
+landed at Baylur (Bailul), a port opposite Mokha, on the coast of
+the little known Danakil country. Here they received a very friendly
+reception, owing to the precautions taken by the Emperor of Abyssinia;
+and the two Portuguese missionaries actually made their way through
+the country of the fierce Danakil and across the salt deserts and
+blazing steppes of that inhospitable region, which along the same route
+has probably never since been traversed by Europeans. “Our clothes
+tattered, and our feet bloody,” they climbed the Abyssinian mountains,
+rejoicing at the cool temperature, running water, and singing birds,
+and at length reached the Jesuit settlement of Fremona.[23] After
+undergoing many risks and dangers owing to the hostility with which
+the Abyssinians of Tigre regarded the Latin Christianity introduced
+by the Jesuits, Lobo started for the kingdom of Damot, which is in
+the southern part of Abyssinia proper, between the Blue Nile and Lake
+Tsana. Prior to his crossing the Blue Nile, he had paid a ceremonial
+visit to the Emperor of Abyssinia. He mentions that the Blue Nile
+(which he not unnaturally considers to be the main stream) is called
+by the Abyssinians Abavi. This may be an older form than Abai, and is
+perhaps a little nearer to the Hellenised Astapus. The Blue Nile, he
+found, as his predecessor Paez had declared, takes its rise on the
+declivity of a mountain called Sakala (Sagada), some distance to the
+south-southwest of Lake Tsana. The source of the Blue Nile he describes
+as follows: “This spring, or rather these two springs, are two holes,
+each about two feet in diameter, a short distance from each other. One
+is about five feet and a half in depth.... The other, which is somewhat
+less, has no bottom. We were assured by the inhabitants that none had
+ever been found. It is believed here that these springs are the vents
+of a great subterranean lake, and they have this circumstance to favour
+their opinion: that the ground is always moist, and so soft that the
+water boils up under foot as one walks upon it. This is more remarkable
+after rain, for then the ground yields and sinks so much that I believe
+it is chiefly supported by roots of trees that are interwoven one with
+another.” Father Lobo declares that the infant Blue Nile (which bears
+the name of Jimma) only enters Lake Tsana[24] on the southwest to
+leave that lake not far from its entry, turning abruptly to the east
+and south. It crosses Lake Tsana only at one end, “with so violent
+a rapidity that the waters of the Nile may be distinguished through
+all the passage, which is six leagues.” Fifteen miles from the point
+where the Nile leaves Lake Tsana it “forms one of the most beautiful
+waterfalls in the world,” under which Father Lobo rested himself “for
+the sake of the coolness.” He was charmed “with the thousand delightful
+rainbows which the sunbeams painted on the water in all their shining
+and lovely colours. The fall of this mighty stream from so great a
+height makes a noise which may be heard from a considerable distance,
+and the mist rising from this fall of water may be seen much further
+than the noise can be heard.” Father Lobo notes that at the cataracts
+which succeeded this splendid fall there was a bridge of timber (logs)
+over which the whole Abyssinian army had recently passed, but he goes
+on to state that the Emperor had since built a bridge of one arch in
+the same place, for which purpose masons were imported from India. This
+stone bridge was the first erected in Abyssinia.
+
+Father Lobo makes a truthful observation regarding the source of the
+Nile floods, believing them to arise rather from the excessive rainfall
+on the high mountains of Abyssinia than from the melting of the snows
+in the summer. He declares, in fact, that he only saw snow on the
+Samien and Namera mountains, and in small quantity.
+
+As to the country of Damot, to the south of Lake Tsana, in which he
+was sent to reside for a time, he expatiates enthusiastically on its
+beauty, fertility, and perfect climate. He also describes here--first
+of all Europeans--the wild banana, or Ensete, the name of which he
+declares means “the tree for hunger,” though it is difficult to
+understand, from our subsequent knowledge of the wild banana and from
+Father Lobo’s description, how it can be used as an article of food,
+as its fruit is almost inedible, while the leaves and watery trunk are
+quite unfit for food.
+
+But Lobo’s residence in Damot was not lengthy, as, owing to the jealous
+suspicions of the Abyssinians, he was sent back to reside with the
+rest of the Jesuits in Tigre. Their settlement of Fremona, where
+some hundred Portuguese priests and seminarists were established,
+was attacked by the Abyssinians. The Portuguese defended themselves
+bravely, and for a time there was a truce. The friendly Emperor of
+Abyssinia had died, and the subsidiary chiefs all believed that
+Portugal intended to invade and annex Abyssinia. The prowess of the
+four hundred Portuguese who in the preceding century had, as the
+allies of the Abyssinians, completely routed the Muhammadan invaders,
+made them feel that a few thousand Portuguese warriors would soon add
+Abyssinia to the Portuguese Empire. At this juncture the Portuguese
+sent a strong expedition to chastise the Sultan of Tajurra who had
+killed the missionaries.
+
+After attempting to flee from Abyssinia and make their way to the coast
+of the Red Sea, the whole of the Portuguese colony of Fremona was
+handed over to the Turks at Masawa, and by them sent to Suakin. They
+underwent cruel sufferings at the hands of the Turks, but some of the
+missionaries, including Father Lobo, were allowed to ransom themselves,
+and return in a ship to India. Here Lobo endeavoured to induce the
+Viceroy of Portuguese India to send an expedition against the Turks of
+Suakin in order to release the priests that were left in their hands;
+but the viceroy declined to take this step without the consent of the
+Portuguese Government. Accordingly Father Lobo started for Lisbon, was
+shipwrecked on the coast of Natal, fell into the hands of the Dutch,
+but in spite of his extraordinary hardships, and difficulties wellnigh
+insurmountable, actually returned to Portugal; whence he went to plead
+at Rome the cause of Latin Christianity in Abyssinia. The missionaries
+left in the hands of the Turks at Suakin were eventually ransomed, and
+returned to India. The few Portuguese missionaries who for one cause or
+another were left in Abyssinia were all killed by the Abyssinians.
+
+[Illustration: DAPPER’S MAP (AMSTERDAM, 1686).
+
+Giving the falsified results of Portuguese explorations in East Africa.]
+
+Portuguese contact with Abyssinia, the Portuguese conquest of Zanzibar
+and long occupation of Mombassa very naturally led to this people
+acquiring in their intercourse with Arabs and Abyssinians some idea
+of the geography of inner Africa,--ideas which were added to by the
+information collected on the West Coast. Nevertheless, strange to say,
+they were less correct in their surmises than Claudius Ptolemæus.
+The maps of the Nile and the geography of inner Africa which
+they formed on the reports of their explorers and missionaries were
+altogether misleading. Their delineation of the whole interior of
+the western half of Africa bears absolutely no correspondence to
+actuality in geographical features; moreover, they were so ignorant of
+the simplest principles of hydrography as to make one lake give rise
+to several great rivers.[25] The only element of truth in all their
+guesses at the inner waterways of Africa lay in their delineation of
+Abyssinia. They put down with some likeness to actuality the Blue
+Nile, and they named correctly the principal countries that lie to the
+south of Abyssinia proper. But this contribution was vitiated by the
+exaggerations regarding distances,--exaggerations perpetrated chiefly
+by map-makers,--so that the Blue Nile and its tributaries, and such
+provinces as Gojam, Kaffa, Shoa, etc., instead of lying a considerable
+distance north of the equator, were dragged far to the south of the
+line, and these features were even made to encroach on the basin of
+the Congo. A good idea of the extent of Portuguese knowledge and fable
+concerning the geography of inner Africa may be obtained from a glance
+at the celebrated Vatican map of Africa which, from information derived
+from the Portuguese and from the Abyssinian converts, was painted
+on one of the panels of a gallery at the Vatican in the seventeenth
+century.
+
+Several Portuguese adventurers were despatched in the sixteenth century
+across Africa from west to east to strike the Nile, but they were never
+heard of any more. Credit must be given to the Portuguese Jesuits
+for amassing much accurate knowledge regarding the scenery, people,
+and products of Abyssinia. There is a wonderfully interesting and
+very beautiful piece of tapestry in the Governor’s Palace at Valletta
+(Malta), which it is supposed was executed early in the eighteenth
+century from the information supplied by the Portuguese Jesuits. The
+characteristic fauna and flora, domestic animals, houses, and natives
+of Abyssinia are portrayed in this tapestry with great fidelity to
+nature. Later in the eighteenth century Portugal began to take up with
+some earnestness the scientific exploration of such African territories
+as remained to her after the revolt and the attacks of the East Coast
+Arabs, but these journeys and their results do not come within the
+scope of the present volume. Portuguese influence over Abyssinia had
+disappeared by the end of the seventeenth century, and almost all
+that remains of it is the name which the civilised world applies to
+this country. In the southeastern part of this powerful African state
+is the river Hawash, or Habash, which attempts to reach the Red Sea
+but finally expires in the barren sands of the Danakil country. The
+name of this river had been applied by the Arabs to the Semiticised
+people living north and west of its course. “Habash, Habshi”[26] was
+transmuted through the Portuguese speech to Abessi, Abessim, Abessinia.
+This in time was further misspelt in French and English as Abyssinie,
+Abyssinia.
+
+The Turks had always viewed with a great deal of jealousy and anger
+the attempts of Portugal to establish herself as mistress of the
+navigation of the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, and Arabian
+Sea. Consequently the Turks occupied and held Masawa, and drove away
+Europeans in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries from easy contact
+with Abyssinia, which between 1633 and 1769 was only visited by one
+European, a French doctor named Poncet (1698).
+
+Several Abyssinian converts of the Portuguese missionaries who had
+become devotedly attached to the Roman Catholic form of the Christian
+faith had proceeded to Italy for further instructions. Indeed, all
+through the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries
+Abyssinians constantly journeyed to Italy. They were able to traverse
+the Muhammadan countries of Nubia and Egypt very easily, either
+disguised as Copts or affecting to be Muhammadans. From the ports of
+Egypt they easily made their way to Venice or to Naples as traders.
+Four of these Christian Abyssinians, one of them known as Gregory, were
+established at Rome in the middle of the seventeenth century.
+
+At Erfurt in Saxony was born, in 1624, the celebrated Ludolf, whose
+real name was Hiob Leutholf. Ludolf at an early age exhibited a
+remarkable talent for acquiring languages, and he had a special bent
+for the Semitic tongues. Having been entrusted with a secret mission
+to Rome by the Swedish Ambassador at Paris, Leutholf, or Ludolf,
+encountered in Rome these four Abyssinians. He spent three years in
+enthusiastically studying Amharic, and also the older liturgical tongue
+of Ethiopia, the Gez or Ge’ez. By the help of these Abyssinians he
+compiled a grammar of the Amharic, and dictionaries of that tongue and
+of the Ge’ez. He also wrote a history of Ethiopia; but, above all (as
+far as this book is concerned), he did important work in elucidating
+the geography of the northeastern portion of the Nile basin, and the
+information he received from Gregory and the other Abyssinians he
+carefully collated with the works of the Portuguese Jesuits. Although
+Ludolf never visited even Egypt, he did a great deal to assist the
+map-makers of his time to delineate the course of the Blue Nile and
+of the Atbara with its various affluents. Ludolf passed a good many
+years of his life in the diplomatic service of the Duke of Saxe-Gotha.
+Curiously enough, he not only visited England repeatedly, but became
+an Anglophil, and desired to establish trading connections between
+England and Abyssinia. The troubles consequent on James II.’s reign,
+and the jealous opposition of the Coptic Church in Egypt baulked his
+scheme, which was much taken up in high quarters in England, and which
+might, if it had been carried out, have strangely anticipated events
+in northeast Africa by establishing British influence in Egypt and
+Abyssinia at the end of the seventeenth century.
+
+Attracted towards the mystery of the Nile and of the so-called
+Christian civilisation of Abyssinia, that Duke of Saxe-Gotha who had
+taken Ludolf into his diplomatic service caused another Saxon, named
+Michael Wansleb (born at Erfurt), to learn Amharic first of all from
+Ludolf, and then to go to Abyssinia. Here he was expected to explore,
+and also to collect liturgies and other books likely to throw light on
+the Abyssinian version of Christianity, which the Duke believed would
+be found to be in harmony with Lutheranism. Wansleb never succeeded in
+getting to Abyssinia, but journeyed for some distance up the Nile and
+wrote on the subject of Egypt, publishing also in London, between 1661
+and 1671, a number of Abyssinian liturgies and dissertations on the
+Amharic language.
+
+In 1668 the then recently founded Royal Society in England took up
+the question of the Portuguese explorations of the Nile sources,
+and ordered that the translation of a Portuguese manuscript by Sir
+Peter Wyche should be printed and published. This little work is
+described as “A Short Relation of the River Nile, etc.: Writings by an
+Eye-witness who lived many years in the Abyssine Empire.” Sir Peter
+Wyche probably did little else than translate and collate what seemed
+to him the most interesting extracts from the works of Paez and Lobo.
+These works were seemingly written first of all in Portuguese, but
+were never printed in that language. Paez’ manuscript was translated
+into Latin and published at Rome in 1652 by the Jesuit Athanasius
+Kircher. The Portuguese manuscript of Jeronimo Lobo was translated at
+length into English, and published in London by the Jesuit father F.
+Balthazar Tellez. Seemingly, however, this book was issued either in a
+Portuguese or a Latin version at Lisbon in 1670. It was translated into
+French from the original Portuguese manuscript by M. Le Grand in the
+early part of the eighteenth century, and this translation, with some
+additional matter, was rendered into English and published in London in
+1735.
+
+The Royal Society’s paraphrase of which Sir Peter Wyche was author
+contains no new matter, but its date is worthy of remark,--1668.
+It would seem as though Sir Peter Wyche had had access to Lobo’s
+manuscript, or to the joint works of Lobo and Paez, before the actual
+publication of Lobo’s book in 1670. It is further remarkable as showing
+the intelligent interest taken in these geographical questions at that
+day by the cultivated classes in England.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+FRENCH INQUIRIES AND D’ANVILLE’S MAPS
+
+
+Towards the close of the seventeenth century Louis XIV. of France
+had begun to make the influence of his country widely felt in the
+Mediterranean, though before his time Richelieu had cast an eye over
+the Levant with the idea of supporting French commerce. Louis XIV.
+even entered into an alliance with Turkey, in which he cut rather a
+foolish figure, but which at any rate enabled him to send Frenchmen to
+report on the trade of Egypt. It is stated that the result of these
+inquiries was a scheme for the conquering and colonising of Egypt
+which was laid before that monarch and remained in the archives of the
+French government until it caught the attention of Napoleon Bonaparte
+when he rose to power. Louis XIV. either did not notice the project
+or put it aside; but nevertheless, during half of the seventeenth
+and the whole of the eighteenth century Frenchmen were beginning to
+interest themselves in the exploration of Egypt, Abyssinia, and the
+Nile. When the Portuguese missionaries were irrevocably expelled from
+Abyssinia, or were slaughtered in that country by Abyssinians, or died
+under the hands of the Turks of Masawa or Suakin, it was suggested to
+the Pope that perhaps French missionaries might prove more acceptable
+to Ethiopia. Not a few Roman Catholic Abyssinians found their way
+to Rome during the seventeenth century, where, as we know, they
+imparted very valuable information to the learned Saxon philologist
+Ludolf. These Ethiopians seem to have conveyed the idea to the Papal
+Court that it was not so much Roman Christianity that was objected
+to as the political ambitions of the Portuguese. But later on in the
+seventeenth century _any_ missionaries teaching the Latin rite had
+become unacceptable to the Abyssinians, and the project of sending
+French Capuchins to take the place of the Portuguese Jesuits came to
+nothing. But the Emperor of Abyssinia had one reason for regretting
+the expulsion of the Jesuits,--an expulsion to which he personally
+was less favourable than were his powerful vassal chiefs of Tigre and
+Amhara,--he had relied on the Portuguese Jesuits for medical treatment.
+
+At the close of the seventeenth century an agent of the then ruler of
+Abyssinia was suffering from stone, and stood in urgent need of a good
+surgeon. His agent in Egypt (Haji Ali) was instructed to inquire for
+the services of a European who could operate, and at first endeavoured
+to find one amongst the Franciscan missionaries, who were Italians.
+But the Consul of France at Alexandria, hearing of this, resolved to
+obtain the post for a French physician, and eventually Jacques Charles
+Poncet, a surgeon from the Franche Comté, was engaged, and it was
+decided that he should journey to Abyssinia accompanied by Father
+Brèvedent, a French Jesuit. They reached the country of Sennar in
+1699. Soon afterwards Father Brèvedent died, but Poncet succeeded in
+reaching Abyssinia, and afforded medical assistance to the Emperor.
+But his arrival in the country, together with the rumour that he was
+being followed by French Jesuit priests (who as a matter of fact were
+massacred in Egypt), so aroused the animosities of the Abyssinian
+clerics that he was hurried out of the country, and returned to Europe
+(Rome) in 1700. Notwithstanding his experiences, he mixed himself up
+with the intrigues of an Abyssinian agent and a priest at Rome for the
+despatch of French missionaries to Abyssinia. The Pope was prudent in
+the matter, and determined to find out the truth by a Maronite priest,
+Gabriel, whom he despatched from Cairo. Poncet, however, returned to
+Egypt in 1703, was joined by a Jesuit, and set out for Jidda in Arabia,
+but the mission came to grief. He quarrelled with the Abyssinian envoy,
+Murat, whose pretensions to represent the Abyssinian government were
+probably mythical, but who had accompanied Poncet to Italy. Poncet
+never succeeded in returning to Abyssinia, but instead drifted away to
+Persia and died at Ispahan.
+
+Louis XIV. now took the matter up, urged to interference in the
+affairs of Abyssinia by the French Consul at Alexandria. He decided
+to despatch a mission to Ethiopia to open up diplomatic relations
+with the Christian Emperor. Janus de Noir, le Sieur du Roule, was
+appointed envoy and placed at the head of this mission. The consent
+of the Turkish government was given to the passage through Egypt.
+The expedition left France at the end of 1703, and after a stormy
+voyage of four months (!) landed at Alexandria. Thence it pursued its
+way to Cairo, and so on up the Nile and the Blue Nile to the country
+of Sennar, a region at that time to a great extent under Abyssinian
+political influence. Here the cupidity and suspicion of the local
+chieftain were aroused. The mission was attacked, and M. du Roule was
+massacred. The Emperor of Abyssinia expressed perfunctory regrets, and
+then, to use a modern phrase, “the incident was closed,” Abyssinia
+being in such an unattackable position as to make any French reprisals
+impossible.
+
+Here perhaps may be mentioned a curious attempt at Nile exploration
+which in an indirect way was connected with French enterprise at this
+period. The failure of M. du Roule to reach Abyssinia made a great
+impression on the mind of a Frenchman named Joseph le Roux, Count of
+Desneval. This nobleman had been in the Danish navy for many years,
+leaving that service in 1739 with the rank of Rear Admiral. All this
+time he had been giving his attention with laborious stupidity to
+the Nile problem, and was convinced that he “had found the proper
+key to enter these regions,” by studying in Denmark the reports of
+unsuccessful travellers. Accordingly, in 1739, he started with his wife
+for Cairo, accompanied by Lieutenant Norden, a Dane. None of the party
+knew a word of Arabic. The expedition first got into trouble at Cairo
+through the haughty manners of the Countess, who, becoming involved
+in a street row, slashed at the people right and left with a pair of
+scissors. Count Desneval penetrated some distance into Nubia, and his
+lieutenant, Norden, went as far (possibly) as Berber, which he mentions
+under its older name of Ibrim. But the Count was obliged to turn back,
+and Norden was imprisoned by the Turkish Governor, and barely escaped
+to Egypt with his life. The Count then resolved on an extraordinary
+expedition. He decided to obtain a commission from Spain and start with
+a fleet of ships to circumnavigate Africa, enter the Red Sea, and so
+proceed to Abyssinia. But becoming involved in the war which was then
+raging between Spain and England, his ship was captured by the British,
+and he was sent as a prisoner of war to Lisbon, where his projects of
+Nile exploration came to an end.
+
+The Dutch in the seventeenth century, and some of the Rhenish
+geographers of western Germany, had published remarkable maps of
+Africa, but with the exception of the west and south, these maps, in
+so far as the Nile basin was concerned, were based on the information
+presented to the world by the Portuguese Jesuits Alvarez, Paez, and
+Lobo, and on the interesting information concerning the geography of
+Abyssinia collected by the Saxon philologist Ludolf when communing in
+Italy with the Abyssinian envoys. These maps, as already related, did
+injustice to the Portuguese by enormously exaggerating the area of
+Abyssinia. In fact, Abyssinian geography was extended by these Dutch
+interpreters of Portuguese travel notes far into the south and west of
+Africa, so that Abyssinian place names such as Gojam, Kaffa, Enarea,
+and the lakes and rivers of Abyssinia were pushed down to the vicinity
+of the Zambezi, and right across the Congo basin. These maps, however,
+continued to maintain European interest in African exploration, while
+the French consuls in Egypt and early British travellers in that
+country began to transmit information (derived for the most part from
+Copts and Circassians) regarding the main course of the Nile.
+
+In 1772 a French cartographer of a much higher order than had hitherto
+appeared--D’Anville--published a notable map of Africa, in which
+he cleared away much of the fantastic geography which the Dutch
+and Germans had developed from the explorations of the Portuguese.
+D’Anville’s map of Africa marks an important stage in the exploration
+of the Nile basin, as it approaches the maps of to-day much more
+than any previous chart. The outline of the African coast is given
+more correctly than heretofore, while D’Anville brushes away the
+exaggerations of Dutch and Portuguese cartographers, who had gradually
+extended the geography of Abyssinia till they had connected with the
+Nile all the main rivers of Africa in an absurd system of natural
+canalisation.
+
+[Illustration: D’ANVILLE’S MAP OF THE NILE BASIN.
+
+(Published 1729; Revised 1772.)]
+
+Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d’Anville was born at Paris in 1697. From
+his boyhood he devoted himself to the study of geography, and met with
+considerable encouragement from the learned societies of Paris and from
+the Court. D’Anville’s geography of Abyssinia was mainly based on the
+information collected by the Portuguese missionaries and by Ludolf.
+The result is so strikingly like the map subsequently constructed by
+Bruce as the result of his explorations, that it shows how very much
+information had already been collected by the Portuguese. The last
+edition of this map bears the date 1772, a date which is one year
+before Bruce could make the result of his explorations known. Were
+these dates not certain, it would almost have seemed as if D’Anville
+had obtained access to Bruce’s information and used it in his geography
+of Abyssinia. A great mistake in D’Anville’s map, however, is made in
+the delineation of the course of the Nile in its great Dongola bend.
+Here the Nile is made to approach the Red Sea at least a hundred miles
+nearer than is the case. There is a fairly correct suggestion of the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal (which is named) and the Bahr-al-Arab. The White Nile
+above the confluence of the Bahr-al-Ghazal is indicated more timidly.
+Its course passes through a somewhat vague lake, which may be due to a
+rumour of Lake Albert. Beyond this lake the sources of the White Nile
+are divided, and made to flow from two lakelets ten degrees north of
+the equator. To the south of these ultimate sources is the range of the
+Mountains of the Moon.
+
+On D’Anville’s map may be seen for the first time several modern place
+and river names connected with the Nile, such as Shendi (spelled
+Shanedi) and Bahr-al-Ghazal. Such other terms as Sennar, the Boran
+Gala tribe, and the Shankala Negroes are also given; but these were
+first mentioned by the Portuguese and by the Abyssinian teachers of
+Ludolf one hundred years earlier. There is also a hint at the Unyamwezi
+country south of the Victoria Nyanza under the name of Moenemuji,
+though this also was first mentioned by the Portuguese.
+
+D’Anville, who followed to some extent the Sicilian maps of the
+eleventh century in his delineation of the Nile and inner Africa, made
+the opposite mistake to Ptolemy and the Portuguese. They carried the
+main Nile and the geography of Abyssinia many degrees too far to the
+south. D’Anville placed the sources of the Nile and the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+something like ten degrees too far to the north. At the same time his
+map marked a considerable advance in the correct delineation of Nile
+geography as well as in that of the Niger and the Zambezi.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+BRUCE AND THE NILE: SONNINI, BROWNE, AND BONAPARTE
+
+
+At the beginning of the eighteenth century there was a decline in
+Muhammadan fanaticism which in the preceding centuries had so zealously
+guarded the portals of African discovery. This was partly due to the
+increase of friendliness and commercial relations between England and
+France on the one hand and the Turkish Empire on the other. Consuls
+were established to safeguard the interests of British merchants in
+the tributary Turkish states of Barbary and in Egypt. Another stimulus
+to friendly relations was the coffee trade. Coffee had been introduced
+from Turkey into Europe in the seventeenth century. By the beginning of
+the eighteenth the demand for it in the civilised countries of northern
+and central Europe became so great that British and French ships began
+to ply on the Red Sea and in the Levant merely for the transport of
+coffee from the ports of southern Arabia to Suez, and thence (_via_
+Alexandria) to France and England. It became possible for Frenchmen
+and Englishmen to travel in Turkish Egypt without undue risk of
+maltreatment, especially if they obtained permission to do so through
+their consuls.
+
+Almost the first English traveller to start on the Nile quest in the
+eighteenth century was Richard Pococke, a learned divine (Doctor of
+Laws and Fellow of the Royal Society), who afterwards became Bishop of
+Meath. Pococke was remarkable for his knowledge of Greek. He travelled
+a great deal in the Levant between 1737 and 1740, and made at least two
+journeys to Egypt, during which he followed the Nile up to the First
+Cataract. At that period the description of the journey from England to
+Egypt has a rather modern sound. The traveller proceeds without much
+difficulty overland from Calais to Leghorn, and from this Tuscan port
+sails round Sicily to Alexandria, sometimes to Rosetta.
+
+The book in which Pococke describes his adventures and researches[27]
+is also in advance of its times, and in printing and illustrations
+might well have been credited to the beginning of the nineteenth
+century. Pococke devoted himself mainly to making plans and drawings
+of Egyptian monuments, Coptic churches, and Muhammadan mosques.
+He collected a great many Greek inscriptions (amongst others, the
+interesting Greek and Latin sentences scratched on the legs of Memnon),
+and besides many plans and drawings of buildings which illustrate his
+book, are some excellent pictures of plants characteristic of Egypt.
+Especially noteworthy are the botanical drawings of the branching
+Hyphæne palm. These etchings would not be out of place in the most
+modern work on Africa. Pococke ascended the Nile to the First Cataract,
+then the limit of Turkish rule.
+
+[Illustration: THE BRANCHING _Hyphæne_ PALM (_Hyphæne thebaica_).
+
+Taken from interior of Nasr Fort (R. Sobat).]
+
+One amusing feature in Pococke’s sumptuous volumes is the number of
+dedications to British statesmen and notabilities of that date. The
+book in general is dedicated to the Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery,
+“Groom of the Stole to His Majesty George II.” His careful map of the
+Nile from the First Cataract to the Mediterranean is dedicated to Lord
+Carteret, “First Secretary to the King.” The map of Cairo and its
+environs (a very interesting one with reference to the modern growth
+of the city) is inscribed to the Earl of Stafford. These dedications,
+however, seem to foreshadow a growing interest on the part of English
+noblemen in the problem of the Nile,--an interest which, as will now be
+shown, played such a part in the expedition of Bruce.
+
+James Bruce was the first of the great group of notable British
+explorers who between them in a century and a half have laid bare
+to the world nearly every notable feature in the geography of the
+Nile basin. This remarkable Scotchman was born at Kinnaird House,
+Stirlingshire, in 1730. He was the son of a land-owner, and was
+educated at Harrow. Soon after leaving school he was put (against his
+will) into the wine trade with Spain and northern Portugal. In this
+pursuit he visited Galicia and the northwest coast of the Spanish
+peninsula. His trade, never very successful, was interrupted by the
+war with Spain, which broke out in 1758. Bruce conceived a plan for
+landing a British force at Ferrol, in Galicia, and to prosecute this
+idea he obtained an introduction to the Earl of Halifax, then president
+of the Board of Trade. George Montagu Dunk, second Earl of Halifax,
+was a widely read man,[28] who took an interest in many subjects,
+amongst others the mystery of the Nile. He is a curious link in that
+chain of persons who have contributed efforts toward the revelation
+to the civilised world of the whole course of this wonderful river.
+Lord Halifax brushed aside the scheme for landing a force at Ferrol
+as unnecessary and impracticable. But he began to consult Bruce about
+the Nile Quest, as a man who had travelled considerably about Europe
+even at that period--his travels having been undertaken to assuage
+the grief caused by the loss of his wife. Bruce took up the matter
+with energy. Lord Halifax, therefore, secured for him the appointment
+of consul at Algiers, with the idea that this place and post would
+enable Bruce to prepare for the exploration of the Nile by learning
+Arabic and acquiring information concerning the interior of Africa.
+Apparently the consulate at Algiers in those days was not harassed with
+any restrictions regarding residence; indeed, Bruce’s consular duties
+appear to have been merely nominal, for he was only a year at Algiers,
+and spent it in the study of Arabic and Turkish.[29] In 1763 Bruce
+started on a remarkable tour through Tunis and Tripoli, in which he
+drew and measured (with the aid of a professional Italian draughtsman)
+the wonderful Roman ruins in those countries. He then extended his
+journeys to the islands of Rhodes and Cyprus, and explored Syria and
+Palestine. The greater part of the drawings which he made of buildings
+in all these Mediterranean lands are now stored in the British Museum.
+
+At last, in the summer of 1786, Bruce landed at Alexandria, accompanied
+by the Italian artist-assistant, Balugano. He ascended the Nile as
+far as Assuan. Then, crossing the desert to the Red Sea coast, he
+took ship and sailed to Jiddah, the port of the Hajaz. After four
+months spent on the coast of Arabia, where apparently he met with
+no fanaticism, he sailed over to Masawa, the port of Abyssinia, and
+from this point travelled to the then capital, Gondar in Tigre. The
+Emperor of Abyssinia received him with great favour, gave him military
+rank, and enabled him to reach the course of the Blue Nile, which
+Bruce always held to be the main stream. Striking the Blue Nile in
+the country of Gojam near its exit from Lake Tsana, Bruce crossed the
+stream by its masonry bridge and travelled due west of the source of
+the river in the western part of Gojam. Bruce fixed with approximate
+correctness the latitude of the source of the Blue Nile on Sagada
+Mountain, and also the longitude, by observation of the first satellite
+of Jupiter. The latitude he fixed at 10° 55′ 25″, the longitude at 36°
+55′ 30″ east of Greenwich. The present writer is not aware that any
+subsequent observations have much upset these computations of Bruce’s.
+The latitude of the Blue Nile source is, therefore, approximately 11°
+north. As the Jesuits guessed it at 12°, they were not so much out
+in a surmise which, after all, was based on nothing but vague dead
+reckoning, and one cannot sympathise with Bruce when he sneers at them
+for their error. Bruce, in fact, was very bitter against the memory of
+Paez and Lobo when he learned from D’Anville that these missionaries
+had preceded him as discoverers of the Blue Nile sources. He admits the
+genuineness of Paez’ reports, but endeavours to show that Lobo merely
+copied Paez’ description, and did not himself visit the sources of the
+Blue Nile. In this contention I think he is unjust. There is certainly
+a great deal of correspondence between the accounts of Paez and Lobo,
+but Lobo enters into more detail than Paez, and as, after all, he
+is describing the same features, it is hardly surprising that his
+description should so closely parallel that of the man who preceded him
+by some ten years. As there is no doubt that Lobo was in the country
+round about Lake Tsana in the year 1625 or 1626, it would be surprising
+if he had not attempted to see the sources of the famous river.
+
+Bruce brings out as strongly as the Jesuits the fact that the river
+Jimma, which rises on Sagada Mountain, flows with a strong observable
+current in a circular course through the southern part of Lake Tsana.
+Lake Tsana, indeed, would seem to be nothing but a huge volcanic
+crater which has been filled up by the Blue Nile. He calculates the
+approximate altitude of these sources at forty-eight hundred and
+seventy feet. Near the village of Sakala or Sagada is a marsh at the
+bottom of the Mountain of Gish. In this marsh there is a hillock of
+a circular form a few feet above the surface of the marsh, a more or
+less artificial altar raised by the people to the sources of their
+Nile. In the middle of this hillock is a hole, artificially made, or
+at least enlarged by the hand of man, and kept clear of grass or other
+aquatic plants. The water in it is perfectly pure and limpid, but has
+no ebullition or motion of any kind observable on its surface, though
+it overflows into a shallow trench running round the mound and entering
+the water in an eastward direction. The principal fountain of the
+Blue Nile is only about three feet across. Ten feet distant from this
+first source is another, only eleven inches broad. This would seem to
+be the deepest of the three sources, and the one which was pronounced
+unsoundable by Lobo. The water from these fountains is good, tasteless,
+and intensely cold.
+
+Following by land the course of the Blue Nile down stream till he
+reached the confluence with the White Nile at the site of Khartum,
+Bruce then turned northwards and descended the main Nile to Berber.
+From this point he travelled across the Nubian desert to Korosko, which
+place he reached with the greatest difficulty, very many dying from
+thirst on the way. Having been obliged to abandon his caravan in the
+desert, he started back from Korosko with fresh camels and guides, and
+recovered his baggage from the desert. Bruce’s journeys in Abyssinia
+and along the course of the Nile had occupied him nearly three years,
+from the middle of 1770 to the beginning of 1773. From Alexandria he
+made his way to Marseilles during a brief interval of peace between
+England and France. The cultivated Frenchmen of that day received him
+with the greatest kindness and _empressement_, and he spent some time
+in Paris conferring with Buffon and other scientific men. But in Paris
+he learned to his great chagrin that he was not the original discoverer
+of the source of the (Blue) Nile. D’Anville, the great map-maker,
+was able to prove to him that Lake Tsana and the main course of the
+Bahr-al-Azrak had been made known to Europe by the journeys of the
+Jesuit priests Paez and Lobo. Moreover this geographer attempted to
+convince Bruce that the Blue Nile was not the main stream, and that the
+mystery of the Nile sources remained at least two-thirds unexplored.
+It is curious, in fact, to reflect that D’Anville, by his industrious
+gathering up of all floating information, especially from French
+consuls in Egypt, was far more correct in his delineation of the Nile
+basin than Bruce himself, though D’Anville had published his map a year
+before Bruce’s arrival in Paris.
+
+[Illustration: BRUCE’S MAP OF THE NILE SOURCES.]
+
+On account of this chagrin, or for other reasons, Bruce delayed[30]
+the publication of his travels for seventeen years after his return
+to England. They were not published (in five volumes) until 1790.
+Strange to say, Bruce’s admirable work, though so truthful[31] and
+convincing as one reads it now, was received with universal incredulity
+in Great Britain. Among the stories selected for special derision was
+the account constantly repeated by Bruce of the Abyssinian custom
+of bleeding cattle and drinking their blood, and, still more, of
+cutting raw flesh off the living animal, which is then turned out to
+graze (or at least that is the flippant rendering of the contemporary
+critic). As a matter of fact, these customs had been already reported
+by the Jesuits from one to two hundred years previously, nor is there
+any reason to suppose that Bruce departed from the exact truth in
+describing contemporary Abyssinian customs. A hundred years later East
+African travellers like New, Von der Decken, Joseph Thomson, and the
+author of this book, noticed similar customs as regards blood-drinking
+on the part of the Masai and the Bantu races of Kilimanjaro and Kikuyu.
+The same writers constantly make allusion to the love of raw flesh
+on the part of most of the East African pastoral races, many of whom
+are more or less related to the Galas in blood (the foundation of the
+Abyssinian population is Gala). The actual truth about the cutting
+of steaks from the living animal seems to be this. It was sometimes
+customary (even if the custom has wholly died out at the present day)
+to slaughter a beast by degrees. The great arteries and the vital parts
+were avoided, and the palpitating, hot flesh was cut off strip by strip
+and devoured. But in all probability the creature was not as a general
+rule expected to live long after part of its flesh was removed. It was
+generally finished within two or three hours. Bruce, if I remember
+rightly, only relates one instance where, after two pieces of flesh
+had been removed from the buttocks of a cow, the skin was fastened up
+over the wound and the creature was driven on a little further to be
+finished on a later occasion. A summarised extract from Bruce’s travels
+gives a vivid description of the way the Abyssinians feasted on raw
+meat:--
+
+    “In the capital, where one is safe from surprise at all times, or
+    in the country villages, when the rains have become so constant
+    that the valleys will not bear a horse to pass them, or that men
+    cannot venture far from home through fear of being surrounded by
+    sudden showers in the mountains; in a word, when a man can say
+    he is safe at home, and the spear and shield are hung up in the
+    hall, a number of people of the best fashion in the villages, of
+    both sexes, courtiers in the palaces or citizens in the town, meet
+    together to dine between twelve and one o’clock. A long table is
+    set in the middle of a large room, and benches beside it for a
+    number of guests who are invited. Tables and benches the Portuguese
+    introduced amongst them, but bull hides spread upon the ground
+    served them before, as they now do in the camp and country.
+
+    “A cow or bull, one or more, as the company is numerous, is brought
+    close to the door and its feet strongly tied. The skin that hangs
+    down under its chin and throat is cut only so deep as to arrive at
+    the fat, of which it totally consists, and by the separation of
+    a few small blood-vessels six or seven drops of blood only fall
+    upon the ground. They have no stone bench or altar upon which
+    these cruel assassins lay the animal’s head in this operation.
+    The author, indeed, begs their pardon for calling them assassins,
+    as they are not so merciful as to aim at the life, but, on the
+    contrary, to keep the beast alive till he is nearly eaten up.
+    Having satisfied the Mosaic law, according to their conception, by
+    pouring these six or seven drops upon the ground, two or more of
+    them fall to work. On the back of the beast, and on each side of
+    the spine they cut skin deep; then, putting their fingers between
+    the flesh and the skin, they begin to strip the hide of the animal
+    half-way down his ribs, and so on to the buttock, cutting the skin
+    wherever it hinders them commodiously to strip the poor animal
+    bare. All the flesh on the buttocks is then cut off, and in solid,
+    square pieces, without bones, or much effusion of blood; and the
+    prodigious noise the animal makes is a signal for the company to
+    sit down to table.
+
+    “There are then laid before every guest, instead of plates,
+    round cakes (if they may be so called) about twice as big as a
+    pancake, and something thicker and tougher. It is unleavened bread
+    of a sourish taste, far from being disagreeable, and very easily
+    digested, made of a grain called teff. It is of different colours,
+    from black to the colour of the whitest wheat bread. Three or four
+    of these cakes are generally put uppermost for the food of the
+    person opposite to whose feet they are placed. Beneath these are
+    four or five of ordinary bread and of a blackish kind. These serve
+    the master to wipe his fingers upon, and afterwards the servant
+    as bread for his dinner. Two or three servants then come, each
+    with a square piece of beef in their bare hands, laying it upon
+    the cakes of teff placed like dishes down the table, without cloth
+    or anything else beneath them. By this time all the guests have
+    knives in their hands, and their men have large crooked ones, which
+    they put to all sorts of uses during the time of war. The women
+    have small clasped knives, such as the worst of the kind made at
+    Birmingham, sold at a penny each. The company are so ranged that
+    one man sits between two women; the man with his long knife cuts
+    a thin piece, which would be thought a good beefsteak in England,
+    while you see the motion of the fibres yet perfectly distinct and
+    alive in the flesh. No man in Abyssinia, of any fashion whatever,
+    feeds himself or touches his own meat. The women take the steak
+    and cut it lengthways about the thickness of a little finger, then
+    crossways into square pieces something smaller than dice. This they
+    lay upon a piece of the teff bread strongly powdered with black
+    pepper, or Cayenne pepper, and mineral salt; they then wrap it up
+    in teff bread like a cartridge.
+
+    “In the mean time, the man having put up his knife, with each hand
+    resting on his neighbour’s knee, his body stooping, his head low
+    and forward, and mouth open very like an idiot, he turns to the one
+    whose cartridge is first ready, who stuffs the whole of it into
+    his mouth, which is so full that he is in constant danger of being
+    choked. This is a mark of grandeur. The greater the man would seem
+    to be the larger piece he takes in his mouth; and the more noise he
+    makes in chewing it the more polite he is thought to be. They have
+    indeed a proverb that says, ‘Beggars and thieves only eat small
+    pieces or without making a noise.’ Having despatched this morsel,
+    which he does very expeditiously, his next female neighbour holds
+    another cartridge which goes the same way, and so on till he has
+    finished. He never drinks till he has finished eating; and, before
+    he begins, in gratitude to the fair one that fed him, he makes up
+    two small rolls of the same kind and form; each of his neighbours
+    open their mouths at the same time, while with each hand he puts
+    their portion into their mouths. He then falls to drinking out of
+    a large handsome horn; the ladies eat till they are satisfied,
+    and then all drink together. A great deal of mirth and jokes goes
+    round, very seldom with any mixture of acrimony or ill-humour.
+
+    “During all this time the unfortunate victim at the door is
+    bleeding indeed, but bleeding little. As long as they can cut off
+    the flesh from his bones they do not meddle with the thighs or the
+    parts where the great arteries are. At last they fall upon the
+    thighs likewise, and soon afterwards the animal, bleeding to death,
+    becomes so tough that the cannibals, who have the rest of it to
+    eat, find it very hard work to separate the flesh from the bones
+    with their teeth, like dogs.
+
+    “In the mean time those within are very much elevated; love
+    lights all its fires, and everything is permitted with absolute
+    freedom. There is no coyness, no delays, no need of appointments or
+    retirement to gratify their wishes; there are no rooms but one, in
+    which they sacrifice both to Bacchus and to Venus.”
+
+Bruce’s travels are as well worth reading to-day as they were in 1790.
+A somewhat conveniently abridged edition was published in the same year
+(1790) as the five volumes appeared, but all who are taking up the
+subject of Abyssinia seriously are advised to work their way through
+the original five volumes. A sumptuously illustrated edition in eight
+volumes appeared after the author’s death, in 1805. Bruce was received
+with some honour at court on his return, but was awarded no special
+distinction. Dr. Johnson, amongst others, denounced the brilliant
+young Scotch traveller as an unscrupulous romancer; Horace Walpole
+pronounced his volumes “dull and dear.” Just as the African Association
+sprang into being and directed its efforts toward the rehabilitating
+of Bruce’s character as a truthful writer, Bruce himself died in the
+most disappointing manner by falling down the stairs at his house and
+breaking his neck. His death was occasioned by over-politeness. He was
+rushing from his study to the hall in order to be able to escort a lady
+to her carriage.
+
+Bruce was really a great traveller, an accurate observer, a splendid
+sportsman,[32] and a far-sighted “Imperialist.” In 1775 he conceived
+the need of the English rulers of India controlling the Egyptian
+route, and actually obtained from the Turkish authorities in Egypt a
+concession for the English on the shores of the Red Sea.
+
+[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF JAMES BRUCE.]
+
+As has been already mentioned, Bruce had been accorded a magnificent
+reception by the scientific men of France. Buffon especially was
+incited by Bruce’s stories to urge the French government in the
+direction of Nile exploration. Buffon had become interested in a
+young man native to Alsace, Sonnini de Manoncourt. Sonnini was born
+at Lunéville in 1751. He was the son of a Roman court official who
+had followed King Stanislas of Poland to his residence in Lorraine.
+Sonnini, the younger, who had travelled in French South America, had
+conceived the idea of a journey through Africa from north to south,
+from the Gulf of Sidra in Tripoli to the Cape of Good Hope. This
+scheme, however, when recommended to the French Foreign Office official
+who then had charge of the French establishments in the Levant, was
+deemed impracticable, and Sonnini was invited to restrict his attempts
+to a careful exploration of the Nile from Rosetta southward to the
+limits of Egyptian rule. His travels did not extend much beyond Assuan,
+but he brought back a great deal of detailed information about Upper
+Egypt, its fauna, flora, and the habits and customs of its population
+along the banks of the Nile. Sonnini’s work will always remain a useful
+book of reference. For the period at which he wrote he took a great
+interest in the question of the geographical distribution of mammals.
+He attempted to collect information regarding the gradual disappearance
+from civilised Egypt of the great fauna. In this he followed the
+inspiration of Buffon. According to Sonnini and Buffon, hippopotamuses
+only became extinct in the Lower Nile near the Mediterranean as late as
+1658. Two hippopotamuses were killed at Damietta in 1600 by an Italian
+surgeon named Federigo Zeringhi.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Nearly a hundred years before Cecil John Rhodes was brooding in his
+studies at Oriel College over the advance of British South Africa
+toward the equatorial regions, that same college at Oxford was
+nurturing other dreams of African exploration in the mind of William
+George Browne, a Londoner by birth (1768), who at seventeen became an
+undergraduate at Oriel. Browne was fired by reading Bruce’s “Travels,”
+and a year after those five volumes were published, when he was only
+twenty-three (1791), he started for Alexandria, which he reached
+after a month’s journey from England (not a bad record for those
+days). Egypt proper prior to the descent of the French under Napoleon
+must have been fairly free from Muhammadan fanaticism and distrust
+of Europeans in the second half of the eighteenth century. Not a few
+travellers--French, Italian, and English--were able to circulate in
+the dominions governed by the Mameluks. Browne first of all visited
+the oasis of Siwah. He spent a year and a half on this journey, and
+examined the whole of Egypt proper and the peninsula of Sinai. Being at
+Assiut in March or April, 1793, he heard of the caravan which, until
+quite recently, left that place annually to travel across the desert
+to Darfur. Following the same route, and in a measure attaching himself
+to the caravan, he reached Darfur after a journey of considerable
+difficulty. Here he found himself amongst such fanatical Muhammadans
+that he was practically a prisoner, and it was only by invoking the aid
+and sympathy of the Turkish authorities in Egypt that he induced the
+Sultan of Darfur to allow him to return. Even then he was not allowed
+to carry out his project of striking the White Nile from the direction
+of Darfur, and thence crossing into Abyssinia. He was obliged to return
+along the caravan route to Assiut. He then continued his travels in the
+direction of Syria, and arrived in London in 1798. After publishing an
+account of his travels, he again left England for the Levant. In 1812
+he started for Persia with the intention of exploring Central Asia.
+Between Tabriz and Teheran his caravan was attacked by robbers, and he
+was killed.
+
+The part of his book which deals with Egypt and Darfur is excellent,
+much in advance of his age and very “modern” in its accuracy,
+definiteness, and absence of gushing enthusiasm. Equally remarkable for
+the age is the soundness of his orthography in spelling local names and
+in transcribing dialects. Browne’s work still remains an authority on
+Darfur.
+
+The eighteenth century closed with some advance in the direction of
+the Nile Quest. At any rate interest in the Nile problem had revived
+in Europe. The publication at the beginning of the century, in an
+English translation from the Portuguese, of the travels undertaken by
+the Jesuit Fathers in Abyssinia,--the fact that an English statesman
+(Lord Halifax) under the second George made it possible for Bruce to
+start on his great journeys, and, lastly, the creation of the African
+Association, testified to the commencement of this interest in England.
+In France the question had been receiving attention from the end of the
+seventeenth century, but mainly for political reasons. It had occurred
+to Louis XIV. and to the ministers of his successor that Egypt, so
+loosely held by the Turk, would be an admirable base from which to
+effect the conquest of India. These ideas were not lost on Napoleon
+Bonaparte, and the eighteenth century closes with the invasion of Egypt
+by the French, an event as wonderful to the full and as far-reaching
+in its results as the conquest of the same country by the Greeks under
+Alexander the Great 2131 years previously. Alexander’s conquest of
+Egypt from the Persians, or rather from the several native Egyptian
+dynasties who were ruling under Persian suzerainty, put an end to the
+régime of Ancient Egypt and Hellenised the countries of the Lower Nile
+and of Abyssinia. The invasion of Napoleon Bonaparte broke the power
+of the Moslem, and prepared the way for the administration of Egypt
+by Europeans and Christians. Rome profited by the exploits of the
+Macedonians; England has succeeded to the task which was begun with
+such amazing brilliance by Frenchmen.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF AFRICA BY WILLIAMSON, LONDON, 1800.
+
+Giving results of Browne’s journey to Darfur, French exploration of
+lower Nile, and much Arab information from Egypt, North Africa, and
+Senegambia.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+MUHAMMAD ALI OPENS UP THE WHITE NILE
+
+
+In 1807 Jacotin published at Paris an “Atlas de l’Égypte,” which gave
+a fairly accurate survey of the Nile from the Delta to Assuan. This
+Atlas gave the results of the geographical work done by the French
+army of occupation. The splendid volumes which illustrated the other
+scientific results of Napoleon’s venture were not published until the
+Bourbons had been restored to the throne of France. They aroused,
+however, great interest in the valley of the Nile, especially by the
+account they gave of its remarkable fauna. This interest was felt as
+much in England as in France; one of the first English travellers to
+explore the Nile (as far as Korosko) after the close of the Napoleonic
+war was the Hon. Charles Leonard Irby, who, with James Mangles (both
+of them naval commanders), travelled in Egypt in 1817–1818. When
+Egypt had settled down under the iron rule of Muhammad Ali Pasha, the
+French, who had begun to conceive the idea of supporting the power of
+that adventurer, and so once more gaining control over Egypt, began
+to resume their interest in Nile exploration. In 1819 a Frenchman
+named Frederic Caillaud (of Nantes), who had been in Egypt under the
+Napoleonic régime, returned under the patronage of Louis XVIII. and
+explored the main Nile as far south as the present site of Khartum,
+and gave the first accurate account of one of the several Meroes,
+namely, that ancient Ethiopian capital which is situated on the right
+bank of the Nile about one hundred miles south of the confluence of
+the Atbara. Caillaud and his companion Letorzec also accompanied
+a military expedition under Ibrahim Pasha. This expedition (which
+resulted in the founding of Khartum[33] in 1823) explored the Blue Nile
+for a considerable distance,--as far as Fazokl. French interest in
+Nile exploration was to continue later on more merged in the service
+of the Egyptian government. But British efforts in this direction
+had not been lacking in the early part of the nineteenth century. A
+young Swiss, John Ludwig Burckhardt, born in French Switzerland in
+1784,[34] and a student of two German universities, came to England in
+1806 with a letter of introduction to Sir Joseph Banks and the African
+Association.[35] This Association accepted his proposals for African
+exploration. Burckhardt then set himself to study first in London and
+then at Cambridge, and during his residence in England attempted in the
+thoroughgoing Teutonic manner to inure himself to hardships by exposing
+himself to cold, fatigue, and hunger in many fashions. After his three
+years’ residence in England he left for Malta, and reached Aleppo
+in October, 1809. Here he thoroughly mastered Arabic, the contents
+of the Koran, and much else that appertained to the practice of the
+Muhammadan religion and the administration of its law. In 1812 he
+started from Cairo with the intention of journeying across the desert
+to Fezzan, but, changing his plans, followed the Nile to Korosko, and
+thence travelled across the Nubian Desert to Berber and Shendi. From
+this last place he travelled to Suakin and to Jiddah. From Jiddah he
+made (the first of all European Christians) the pilgrimage to Mecca.
+Returning again to Cairo and preparing once more to start for Fezzan
+and the Niger, he was seized with an illness of which he died at Cairo.
+His journeys had resulted in the collection of eight hundred volumes
+of Oriental manuscripts, all of which he sent to Cambridge University.
+All the works of this brilliant traveller and profound Orientalist were
+published after his death.
+
+[Illustration: BLUE NILE, TWENTY MILES EAST OF FAZOKL.]
+
+In 1827 Adolphe Linant (Bey), a Belgian, who subsequently called
+himself Linant de Bellefonds, took service under the British African
+Association,[36] ascended the White Nile (first of all Europeans, so
+far as we know, since Dalion the Greek), and reached a point (Al Ais)
+nearly one hundred and fifty miles south of Khartum.
+
+But the next great blow at the Nile mystery was to be struck by the
+orders of the Pasha of Egypt. Muhammad[37] Ali was the native of a
+little Vlach (Wallach) town or settlement in Albania called Cavalla.
+In appearance he might at any time have been mistaken for a Frenchman
+of eastern France, a German, or an Englishman. He was born in 1768,
+and was adopted as a son by the Governor of the town, who, as a reward
+for his bravery as a soldier, gave him his daughter in marriage. His
+three eldest sons, Ibrahim, Tusun, and Ismail, were born in Albania.
+In 1801 he was sent to Egypt with the rank of a major, rising soon to
+be colonel. When the French had evacuated Egypt, the Turks endeavoured
+to gain direct control over the country by attacking the power of the
+Mameluks or Circassian soldiery who had really ruled in the name of the
+Turks. In 1803 the British evacuated Egypt, and gradually the situation
+resolved itself into a struggle for power between the Albanian soldiery
+under Muhammad Ali and the Turks. The Albanians allied themselves at
+first with the Mameluk or Circassian party, the former rulers. At
+length, after a civil war lasting for two years, the Turkish government
+appointed Muhammad Ali to be Governor of Egypt. In 1807 the British
+attempted to reoccupy Egypt, and took possession of Alexandria. This
+action temporarily united Muhammad Ali with his enemies, the Circassian
+Beys. The British expedition ended in disaster and withdrawal. At last,
+by means of treachery and an appalling massacre, Muhammad Ali got rid
+of the Circassian party and became the undisputed master of Egypt.
+He then assisted the Porte to put down the Wahabi revolt in Arabia.
+These expeditions resulting in many military successes, the ambition
+of Muhammad Ali grew, and he desired to create for himself a perfectly
+disciplined army. To this end he decided to employ his disaffected
+troops who were opposed to innovations in discipline in conquering the
+Sudan. He commenced with Nubia, Dongola, and Sennar. From the Sudan
+were brought back numbers of the sturdy Negroes, who were drilled into
+some kind of disciplined force by French officers at Assuan. Then came
+the war with Turkey, which nearly resulted in Muhammad Ali capturing
+Constantinople. But this led to the intervention of Europe, and the
+ambition of Muhammad Ali was confined within the limits of Egypt and
+the Sudan.
+
+In 1839 the ruler of Egypt despatched the first important conquering
+and exploring expedition up the White Nile. It was accompanied by
+a French officer, Thibaut,[38] who had become a Muhammadan. This
+expedition reached as far south as north latitude 6° 30′. In 1841 a
+second expedition, which was accompanied by two Frenchmen (D’Arnaud
+and Sabatier), and by a German, Ferdinand Werne, reached the vicinity
+of Gondokoro in north latitude 4° 42′. Werne wrote an interesting and
+scientific account of this second expedition. His map of the White
+Nile from Khartum to Gondokoro is a remarkably good piece of work. A
+third expedition under the same Turkish commander (Selim Bimbashi), and
+accompanied by D’Arnaud, Sabatier, and Thibaut also reached Gondokoro.
+All these expeditions were made in sailing boats, and those that
+reached farthest were stopped by the same obstacles,--the rapids at
+Gondokoro.
+
+As far back as 1820 steamers had been introduced onto the Nile between
+the Delta and the First Cataract, mainly through French enterprise.
+Some of these steamers even plied between Cairo and Korosko. In 1846
+the first steamboat was put together on the White Nile above Khartum.
+In 1845 a Frenchman (Brun-Rollet) ascended the White Nile in a sailing
+vessel and founded a trading post in the Kich country.
+
+[Illustration: FERDINAND WERNE.]
+
+Between 1827 and 1830 a German, Prokesch von Osten, had made a correct
+survey of the Nile between Assuan and Wadi Halfa, and in the later
+forties this survey was continued under Baron von Müller as far south
+as Ambukol in Dongola. During the forties great interest concerning
+the Egyptian Sudan had arisen in Austria. Austria was not suspected
+of political views in the direction of Egypt, and therefore no doubt
+Muhammad Ali and his successors were more disposed to encourage
+Austrian missionaries than those of France or England. The Pope
+created a Bishop of Khartum in 1849, and Austrian missionaries[39] had
+founded stations on the White Nile as far distant as Gondokoro by 1850,
+in which year Dr. Ignatz Knoblecher, an Austrian missionary, extended
+his explorations a few miles beyond Gondokoro to Mount Logwek. A
+little, very little, information was collected as to the course of the
+Nile above that seventy miles of rapids which cuts off the navigation
+of the river between Nimule on the south and Gondokoro on the north. A
+vague story was collected from the Bari to the effect that this great
+river came from a considerable distance southwards and issued from a
+lake. This, no doubt, was a correct hint as to the existence of Lake
+Albert Nyanza. But at this point the information stopped.
+
+In other directions progress had been made in Nile exploration. Besides
+the Austrian Roman Catholic Mission,[40] which established stations
+chiefly in the Kich and Bari countries on the White or Mountain
+Niles, the rapid opening up of the waterways into the heart of Africa
+soon attracted pioneers of exploration, traders, and adventurers of
+several European nationalities. Far ahead of the European and the
+Turk, however, went the Nubian (the native of Dongola) and the Arab of
+Upper Egypt. These men were the real pioneers of European exploration,
+since they served as guides and transport agents to the Europeans who
+followed along the routes they opened up. These Nubians started a
+far-reaching trade in slaves, and were guilty of many barbarities. They
+made such a deep impression on the minds of the Negroes in the Nile
+basin from the Bahr-al-Ghazal to Uganda that to this day the natives
+of the Egyptian Sudan are called “Nubi” or Nubian, even though they be
+black Negroes from the equatorial regions. The Nubian slave-traders
+laid the foundation of the Sudanese regiments which were to serve
+Egypt and England in subduing and controlling Eastern Equatorial
+Africa. As the Mountain Nile (thus the main stream is called, south
+of its junction with the Bahr-al-Ghazal) led through excessively
+swampy, despairing countries, and did not reach the habitable land
+until it entered the Bari country near the rapids of Gondokoro, most
+of the exploring enterprise for fifteen years, between 1840 and 1860,
+preferred to follow the more easily navigable streams which unite to
+form the Bahr-al-Ghazal, the great western tributaries of the Nile.
+
+Among the pioneers in Nile exploration at this stage was the forerunner
+of the intelligent tourist, Mr. Andrew Melly, a member of a Liverpool
+family, though born at Geneva. Mr. Melly actually started for Khartum
+and the White Nile accompanied by his wife, two sons, and a daughter.
+His main object seems to have been that of natural history collecting.
+He took insufficient measures for living with health in a tropical
+climate; fever attacked him on his return journey, and he died near
+Shendi on his way back from Khartum. His son George wrote a book in
+two volumes describing Khartum and the Nile between that place and the
+First Cataract. This book was mainly based on the father’s journal.
+The expedition seems to have been well equipped. The provisions
+were furnished by Fortnum and Mason, who even in that early period
+(1849–1850) supplied tinned salmon.
+
+The first of the long roll of European martyrs to African fever in the
+opening up of the Sudan was Herr Baumgarten, a Swiss mining engineer,
+educated in Austria, who died at Khartum in 1839 after returning with
+Muhammad Ali, who at that period had penetrated as far south as Al
+Ais, in the Shiluk country. Brun-Rollet, a Frenchman, was perhaps the
+first European trader to establish himself on the White Nile. He ceased
+trading, however, in 1850, after having established posts as far south
+as the Bari country.
+
+In 1851 the mission station of Gondokoro was founded by Knoblecher and
+Vinci of the Austrian Mission. A short distance beyond Gondokoro, on
+the west bank of the Nile, near the modern Belgian station of Rejaf,
+is a little stony hill called by the Bari Logwek. This hill was the
+extreme point reached by the third expedition despatched from Khartum
+at the orders of Muhammad Ali in 1841, and afterwards by the Austrian
+missionary, Knoblecher, in 1848. Here the White Nile, approached from
+the north, became unnavigable owing to the rapids which obstruct the
+course of the stream during its thousand-feet fall from Dufile to
+Gondokoro. For a long time Logwek (remarkable as being the first high
+and stony land which is met with in ascending the White Nile after the
+many hundred miles’ journey through the marshes) formed the limit of
+European discovery coming from the north.
+
+About 1843 or 1844 D’Arnaud, one of the Frenchmen who accompanied the
+exploring expeditions of the Egyptian government, published a map of
+the White Nile which carried the course of the river as far south as 4°
+42′ north latitude. Towards the end of the forties further explorations
+were made from time to time west of the White Nile by a Frenchman,
+De Malzac, who at the time of his death at Khartum, in 1859 (?), was
+compiling a work on the Fauna of the White Nile.
+
+[Illustration: THE WHALE-HEADED STORK (_Balæniceps rex_).]
+
+In 1845 a Welsh[41] mining engineer named John Petherick entered the
+service of Muhammad Ali, the Pasha of Egypt. He was employed for some
+years in examining the countries of Upper Egypt, the coast of the Red
+Sea, and Kordofan for coal and other minerals, apparently with little
+or no success. In his interesting work, “Egypt, the Sudan, and Central
+Africa,” he has left us, amongst other things, a remarkably interesting
+account of Kordofan at the end of the forties of the last century,
+some twenty-five years after its conquest by the Turks from the mild
+rule of Darfur.[42] In 1848 Muhammad Ali died, and Petherick quitted
+the service of the Egyptian government. Trade in the Sudan had now
+ceased to be a government monopoly, partly owing to the efforts of
+the English Consul-General at that time. Petherick therefore resided
+at El Obeid in Kordofan for five years as a trader in gums and other
+produce. In 1853 he resolved to go in for the ivory trade on the White
+Nile and the Bahr-al-Ghazal. This great western feeder of the Nile was
+beginning to be opened up by the Nubian traders already referred to.
+For six years Petherick traded for ivory and explored some of the great
+rivers which flowed into the Bahr-al-Ghazal,--chiefly the Jur and the
+Yalo or Rōl. During the course of his explorations he was the first
+European (unless De Malzac preceded him) to reach the Nyam-nyam country
+(Mundo). He made some remarkable discoveries in natural history,--the
+splendid _Cobus maria_ or Mrs. Gray’s Waterbuck, and the _Balæniceps
+rex_ or Whale-headed Stork. Petherick’s skins of the _Balæniceps_ which
+he gave to the British Museum in 1859 were the only specimens in that
+collection for more than forty years, until they were reinforced by
+the first Whale-headed Storks obtained on the Victoria Nyanza, which
+were sent home by the author of this book. Petherick also captured
+and brought to Europe a young hippopotamus. [It is interesting to
+observe in his first book, “Egypt, the Sudan,” etc., published in 1859,
+that the classification of his bird collections is made by Dr. P. L.
+Sclater, then and until recently Secretary to the Zoölogical Society.]
+Petherick’s return to Europe with a recital of such wonders obtained
+for him considerable attention. He married in the early part of 1861,
+and was invited to take charge of a relief expedition to be sent up the
+Nile to meet Captain Speke and Grant, who were to attempt descending
+the Nile from its supposed source at the north end of the Victoria
+Nyanza.
+
+[Illustration: John Petherick.]
+
+During the latter period of Petherick’s experiences on the Nile (in
+1858), he had been appointed consular agent for the British government
+at Khartum. In 1861, before starting to return to the Sudan, he was
+given the rank of consul. He left England in 1861 with his wife
+and with an English youth named Foxcroft, who accompanied him as
+bird-stuffer and natural history collector.[43] In 1861 he despatched
+to Gondokoro, to await the arrival of Speke and Grant, an expedition
+under the Turks and Arabs, with boats full of supplies. Petherick
+and his wife, accompanied by Dr. Murie (who had joined them from
+England) and by Foxcroft, then spent some years exploring the western
+affluents of the Nile which unite in the Bahr-al-Ghazal. In this way
+they revisited the Nyam-nyam country. Petherick seems to have been
+partly trading and partly collecting information on the slave-trade and
+prosecuting Maltese slave-traders; and these investigations seem to
+have rather taken his attention from one of the objects of his mission,
+which was to insure a proper relief to Speke and Grant. How far he
+was to blame in the matter it is difficult to determine. People in
+England seem to have doubted the effectiveness of his methods to insure
+this relief, and amongst others who thought it necessary to forestall
+Petherick was Mr. (afterwards Sir Samuel) Baker, who, in 1862–1863, got
+ahead of the Pethericks (then deciding to go in person to the relief
+of the explorers), and actually arrived at Gondokoro in time to afford
+much needed assistance to the exhausted travellers. Speke appears to
+have considered that Petherick had not acted up to the assurance he
+had given to the Royal Geographical Society, who intrusted him with
+the expenditure of the relief fund. This criticism, together with the
+bitter animosity aroused by Petherick’s prosecution of slave-traders
+and reports on the misgovernment of Egyptian officials, cost him
+the confidence of the Foreign Office, and in 1864 his consulate was
+abolished. It was actually alleged by some of his enemies that he
+himself carried on a trade in slaves,--an allegation for which there
+does not seem to have been the slightest foundation. In 1865 the
+Pethericks returned to England. Petherick’s second book (“Travels in
+Central Africa”) was not published until 1869. It is impossible, after
+careful observation and a more than thirty years’ interval, to avoid
+the impression that Petherick was treated by his country with some
+ingratitude. He did a great deal to increase our knowledge of the Nile
+basin and its remarkable fauna. His collections of beasts, birds, and
+fishes enriched the British Museum. He took a number of astronomical
+observations in order to fix important points on the White Nile and in
+the region of the Bahr-al-Ghazal. He died in 1882.
+
+In 1840 a French Egyptian official, Clot Bey, engaged as private
+secretary a young French doctor of medicine, Alfred Peney. For
+something like fifteen years Dr. Peney carried on official medical
+work in Egypt. He was gradually led, however, towards Nile exploration
+through his official visits to Khartum, the Blue Nile, and Kordofan.
+He was intensely interested in ethnology and in the study of the Nile
+Negroes. French influence in Egypt during the fifties was in the
+ascendency. De Lesseps and the various officials who served France
+as agents and consuls-general at Cairo had known how to secure the
+concession for the Suez Canal. They became jealous that France should
+also secure for her citizens the glory of having discovered and traced
+the course and the sources of the Upper Nile. This blue ribbon of
+geographical discovery was already being sought for by Germans and
+Englishmen. Dr. Peney especially was continually urging his superiors
+in Cairo to organise, or induce the Viceroy Said to organise, a Nile
+research expedition under French auspices. But the choice by the
+French agent of a leader for this enterprise fell most unfortunately.
+Hanging about Cairo was a Frenchman of a type not infrequently met
+with at Levantine courts during the first eight decades of the
+nineteenth century. This was the Count d’Escayrac de Lauture. Men of
+this description were either Royalist refugees, or the sons of such,
+or they were Napoleonic noblemen who had got into financial or social
+difficulties. D’Escayrac, however, appears to have been an amiable
+dilettante, who had some pretensions to be an Egyptologist. But he was
+utterly unsuited to lead an expedition into Central Africa. He was
+elderly, vain, pompous, and extravagant. The viceroy, wishing that the
+expedition should not be too exclusively French, ordered d’Escayrac to
+recruit part of his personnel in England, Germany, and Switzerland.
+This was done, but the expedition never left Cairo for the Upper Nile.
+D’Escayrac made himself perfectly ridiculous by strutting about in a
+fantastic uniform, trailing a long sabre. His expensive scientific
+instruments were badly packed, and arrived at Cairo injured. The whole
+expedition was dissolved, owing to the bitter dislike which d’Escayrac
+inspired among his staff. The only incident in the whole of Count
+d’Escayrac’s preparations which shows him to have been in any way
+enterprising or intelligent, was his desire to secure good photographic
+views of the Upper Nile and its natives. He had provided the expedition
+with the best apparatus which could be obtained at that period (1856).
+It is curious to note that in the criticisms of his plans published at
+the time, the critics animadvert more bitterly on the extravagance of
+spending one hundred pounds on photography than on any other supposed
+mistake in d’Escayrac’s preparations.
+
+Dr. Albert Peney was to have been medical officer to the expedition.
+When it was dissolved, he started off for the White Nile on his
+own account, attaching himself, whenever opportunity offered, to
+such caravans as those of Andrea de Bono, the Maltese. Peney made a
+remarkably good map (most interesting to place on record as showing
+subsequent changes in the course of the Nile) between Bor and a place
+which he calls Nieki, which was situated on the Mountain Nile very near
+to the present site of Fort Berkeley. Peney, hearing rumours of great
+rivers to the west, crossed the range of hills which flanks the western
+bank of the Mountain Nile in the Bari country, and thus reached the
+river Yie or Yeï. This river, as we know now, flows northwest nearly
+parallel to the main Mountain Nile, and joins that river some distance
+before its junction with the Bahr-al-Ghazal. But Peney exaggerated
+the importance of this stream, and confused it with the accounts he
+heard of the many great rivers that united to form the Bahr-al-Ghazal.
+On his map he actually makes the Yie an effluent of the White Nile,
+issuing from the main stream not far from the present post of Nimule,
+and flowing northwestwards until it enters the Bahr-al-Ghazal. He thus
+transformed the whole region of the Bahr-al-Ghazal into an enormous
+island encircled by two branches of the Nile. Peney further visited the
+country to the east of Gondokoro, and was probably the first explorer
+to mention the name Latuka. This country he rightly designates Lotuka.
+Latuka is the incorrect version given to the world by Emin Pasha. The
+_Lo_ in this word is really the masculine article met with in so many
+of the Masai group of languages to which the tongue of Latuka belongs.
+The root _tuka_ (which should be properly spelled and pronounced
+_tukă_) is evidently a racial name widespread among that Negroid group
+resulting from an ancient intermixture of the Gala with the Negro, from
+which groups the Latuka, Turkana, Masai, Nandi, and Elgumi descend.[44]
+
+Dr. Peney died of blackwater fever in July, 1861, at a point on the
+Nile near Fort Berkeley. Andrea de Bono was with him at his death,
+and records the characteristics of the disease from which Dr. Peney
+died. Since the idea has been started that blackwater fever is quite a
+new disease in these regions, it is interesting to know that from all
+accounts several of the earliest European pioneers from 1848 to 1861
+appear to have died of this malady whilst exploring the Upper Nile.
+
+About the time that Peney was exploring the Mountain Nile, another
+Frenchman, Lejean, was surveying with some correctness the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal estuary, of which he published a map in 1862.
+
+[Illustration: MAP PUBLISHED IN PENNY MAGAZINE OF 1852.
+
+Which gives results of Nile exploration up to that date.]
+
+Not only Englishmen, Frenchmen, and Germans, but Italians and Maltese
+had by this time appeared as explorers, traders, and naturalists on
+the White Nile and its tributaries.[45] Some of these came as members
+of the Austrian Roman Catholic Mission. Perhaps out of jealousy
+of Austria, or with the idea of spreading North Italian trade and
+influence, the then Kingdom of Sardinia appointed Signor Vaudet
+(apparently a Piedmontese trader) Sardinian proconsul at Khartum.
+Vaudet invited out his two nephews, the brothers Poncet (one of whom
+published a book on the White Nile in 1863). Vaudet was killed by the
+Bari tribe near Gondokoro about 1859. This Bari people, now so much
+diminished by famine and by the raids of the Sudanese slave-traders
+and Dervishes, was a far more serious bar to the prosecution of
+exploration up the Mountain Nile in the direction of the great lakes
+than the rapids above Gondokoro. The Bari, no doubt, were wronged by
+the Europeans and Nubians, but they were nevertheless responsible for
+the death of not a few European explorers. But for their determined
+hostility, there is little doubt that the earlier French, Italian,
+German, and English pioneers would have found their way to Lake Albert
+long before its discovery by Baker. Indeed Giovanni Miani, a Venetian,
+got as far south as Apuddo,[46] if not farther, in the prosecution
+of his search for the rumoured lake. Miani subsequently explored the
+regions of the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the headwaters of the streams rising
+in the Nyam-nyam country. He it was who, first of all explorers,
+brought back those rumours of a watershed beyond the Nile system, with
+a great river (the Welle) flowing to the west.
+
+There seems to have been little, if any, international jealousy in
+this wonderful field of exploration between 1840 and 1860. Khartum was
+the rendezvous, the principal depot of the Europeans, and throughout
+all these years was under a Turkish governor. Life in Khartum between
+1850 and 1860 was by no means devoid of attractions. Several of the
+Europeans who made it their headquarters brought out their wives with
+them. Others were married to handsome Abyssinian women. The houses
+of Egyptian style were comfortable and cool. The place swarmed with
+strange new beasts and birds; indeed, nearly every house included a
+menagerie in one of its yards. A great slave-market brought before the
+eyes of astonished and interested Europeans nearly all the principal
+Negro types from as far west as Wadai and Darfur, from the confines
+of Abyssinia on the east, from the lands of the naked Nile Negroes on
+the south; stalwart, lighter-coloured, bearded Nyam-nyam cannibals
+from the southwest, coal-black Madi, here and there an Akka Pygmy,
+thin-shanked Dinka and Shiluk, sturdy Bongo, and handsome Gala. “There
+ain’t no Ten Commandments” might with some justice have been said of
+society at Khartum. At any rate it was much untrammelled as regards the
+more wearisome conventions of civilised life. Nobody inquired if M.
+Dubois was legally married to Mme. Dubois, and perhaps the treatment of
+the doubtful Mme. Dubois as a respectable married woman by blue-eyed
+strait-souled Mrs. Jones ended by Mme. Dubois becoming legally united
+to her spouse later on at Cairo, and finishing the rest of her life
+as a happy and perfectly respectable person. The air was full of
+wonderment. Improvements made year by year in firearms resulted in
+marvellous big-game shooting. Though there were bad fevers to be got in
+the Bahr-al-Ghazal, the climate of Khartum itself was not necessarily
+unhealthy. The post seems to have arrived across the desert on camels
+at least once a month. The tyranny, social and administrative, of the
+British military officer and his dame was not to come for many years;
+the “smart” hotel was absent; provisions were good, plentiful, and
+cheap. Those are times that the African explorer of to-day looks back
+upon with something like a sigh.
+
+[Illustration: THE RIVER SOBAT.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MISSIONARIES AND SNOW-MOUNTAINS
+
+
+Down to 1858 all that Europe knew of the Nile basin was this: The
+course of the Blue Nile had been mapped to some extent from its source
+in Lake Tsana; and the travels of Rüppell (1830–1831) (the great German
+naturalist), of another German, Joseph Russegger, of the D’Abbadies
+(the great French surveyors), of Sir William Cornwallis Harris (who
+was sent on a mission to Shoa), Théophile Le Febvre, Mansfield Parkyns
+(1840–1845), H. Dufton, and C. T. Beke had cleared up a good many blank
+spaces in the geography of Abyssinia and of the various affluents of
+the Nile flowing from the snow-mountains of that African Afghanistan
+in the direction of the Atbara, the Blue Nile, and the Sobat. The
+Sobat had been explored for a hundred miles or so, as far as steamers
+could penetrate. The White Nile had been surveyed from Khartum to the
+junction of the Bahr-al-Ghazal. South of that point, under the name
+of Mountain Nile, it and some of its branches, such as the Giraffe
+River, had also been explored, and the River of the Mountains, as the
+Upper White Nile is called by the Arabs, had been ascended to a little
+distance south of Gondokoro. The Bahr-al-Ghazal, the great western
+feeder of the Nile, and several of its more important affluents, such
+as the Jur, had been made known, and the existence of the Nyam-nyam
+cannibal country ascertained. But the ultimate sources of the Nile
+stream were still undiscovered. This problem was now to be attacked
+from two very different directions.
+
+In 1829 the Church Missionary Society had resolved to attempt the
+evangelisation of Abyssinia, and sent missionaries to the northern part
+of that country. Amongst these missionaries, in 1840, was a Würtemberg
+student named Ludwig Krapf, sent to prospect in northern Abyssinia. But
+the Abyssinians eventually resented this missionary enterprise, and
+Krapf and some others were expelled from the country in 1842.
+
+[Illustration: REV. DR. L. LUDWIG KRAPF.]
+
+Hearing good accounts of the more genial nature of the Zanzibar
+Arabs and of their Maskat ruler, Krapf journeyed down the East Coast
+of Africa and visited the Sayyid of Zanzibar (Majid); he obtained
+permission from this Arab viceroy[47] to settle at Mombasa and
+establish a Christian mission there. Krapf was soon joined by John
+Rebman (another Würtemberger). Both were well-educated men, who had
+been trained at Tübingen, at Basle, and in Rebman’s case at an English
+missionary college. They acquired a knowledge of Arabic, and soon
+added to it an intimate acquaintance with several African tongues.
+Their intercourse with the Arabs and the Negroes at Mombasa and its
+vicinity soon opened their ears to remarkable stories of the unknown
+interior. Already the Arabs were pushing farther and farther inland
+from these ports on the Zanzibar coast, and some of them had reached
+Lake Tanganyika, while they had also heard rumours of the Victoria
+Nyanza. The natives further told the missionaries of the wonderfully
+high mountains distant from ten to thirty days’ march from the coast,
+the tops of which were covered with “white stuff.” By 1850, through the
+agency of the Church Missionary Society, Rebman and Krapf were able
+to report from their own observation the existence of snow-mountains
+nearly under the equator, Rebman having discovered Kilimanjaro in
+1848, while in the following year Krapf not only confirmed this
+discovery, but pushed his way far enough inland to catch a glimpse of
+Mount Kenya, the distance of which from the coast he underestimated.
+The missionaries also sent to Europe about the same time stories of
+a great inland sea. They had gathered up the reports of Lake Nyasa,
+Tanganyika, and the Victoria Nyanza, and had imagined these separate
+sheets of water to be only parts of a huge, slug-shaped lake as big
+as the Caspian Sea. They also reported the separate existence of Lake
+Baringo. These stories they illustrated by a map (Erhardt and Rebman)
+published in 1855. Their stories of snow-mountains in equatorial Africa
+only drew down on them for the most part the ridicule of English
+geographers, among whom was a wearisome person, Mr. Desborough Cooley,
+who published fine-spun theories based on a fantastic interpretation
+of African etymology; but their stories were believed in France, and
+they were awarded a medal by the Paris Geographical Society. They also
+impressed an American poet, Bayard Taylor, who in 1855 wrote some
+stirring lines on Kilimanjaro:--
+
+     “Remote, inaccessible, silent, and lone--
+      Who from the heart of the tropical fervours
+      Liftest to heaven thine alien snows.”
+
+These stories from the missionaries revived the interest in Ptolemy’s
+Geography. The Nile lakes were once more believed in, especially as the
+discovery of Kenya and Kilimanjaro appeared to confirm the stories of
+the Mountains of the Moon. This idea indeed was additionally favoured
+by the fact that the missionaries often referred to their hypothetical
+lake as the Sea of Unyamwezi, which name they rightly explained as
+meaning (we know not why) the “Land of the Moon.”[48]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+BURTON AND SPEKE
+
+
+Nile exploration from the north had stopped in 1851 at the rapids south
+of Gondokoro. It was now felt that the problem should be attacked
+from other directions. In 1839 the British government had formally
+annexed Aden at the southwestern corner of Arabia as a coaling station
+for ships plying between Suez and India. Aden is opposite the Somali
+coast, and has been for many centuries the outpost of civilisation
+with which the Somali have traded. It was impossible to possess Aden
+long without desiring to become acquainted with the character of the
+African coast across the gulf, especially as Aden depended so much
+on Somaliland for its supplies of meat, grain, and fodder, and the
+ostrich feathers, ivory, and skins sold in the Aden bazaars. Aden
+was, and is still, under the government of India, and officers of the
+Indian army soon found their way across to Somaliland on authorised
+or unauthorised surveys. Among these was Lieutenant Cruttenden, who
+collected some new information about the sterile country beyond the
+coast. In 1854 a remarkable man came to Aden as an officer in the
+Indian garrison,--Lieutenant Richard Francis Burton, fresh from
+his wonderful journey as a pilgrim to Mecca. Burton induced the
+authorities to support him in a project for entering inner East Africa
+through Somaliland, and thus perhaps striking at the sources of the
+Nile. Another explorer in the bud, Lieutenant John Hanning Speke,
+reached Aden soon afterwards, and obtained permission to join Burton’s
+expedition.
+
+Whilst waiting for a time thought to be favourable for travelling
+southwards into the Ogadein country, Burton went off alone on a
+remarkably plucky journey to the mysterious city of Harrar, to-day a
+frontier town of Abyssinia. Harrar, lying to the south of that Rift
+valley, which can be traced after a few interruptions from the Gulf of
+Tajurra right down into British and German East Africa, was a walled
+city inhabited by a Semitic people, or rather a people still retaining
+the use of a Semitic dialect akin to those of Abyssinia and South
+Arabia.
+
+Speke did a good deal to increase our knowledge of the remarkable fauna
+of Somaliland, but the Burton-Speke expedition into that country got no
+great distance inland, and ended in disaster, owing to the suspicions
+of the Somali. The expedition was attacked close to the seashore at
+Berbera. One of the party, Lieutenant Stroyan, was killed. Speke was
+severely, and Burton slightly wounded. Speke is of opinion that much
+of this disaster was due to the mismanagement of Burton. He considers
+that if, when the expedition was first organised, instead of fussing
+about mysterious visits to Harrar and waiting for this thing and that
+thing, the whole expedition had started off boldly for the interior,
+the Somali would have had no time to cultivate suspicion, and would
+have opposed no resistance. It is quite conceivable that Speke was
+right, and that if the expedition had started with promptitude it might
+have reached the confines of Shoa or the Gala country in the direction
+of modern British East Africa. As it was, the attack on Burton’s
+expedition closed for some thirty years any attempt at penetrating the
+mysterious country of the Somali, with its remarkable mammalian fauna
+and its as yet unexplained ruins.[49]
+
+[Illustration: A SWAHILI ARAB TRADER.]
+
+Burton’s attention was now drawn to the stories of the Mombasa
+missionaries. With some difficulty he obtained from the Foreign Office,
+the East India Company, and the Royal Geographical Society funds to
+equip an expedition which should start from the Zanzibar coast in
+search of the great lake. As Speke had lost over five hundred pounds
+worth of private property in the disaster which fell on the Somali
+expedition, Burton invited him to join this new expedition as his
+lieutenant. Burton had been distracted for a time from this idea by
+the Crimean War, but when peace was declared, he obtained the sanction
+of the Geographical Society to his plans, and started with Speke for
+India to smooth the difficulties placed in his way by the Indian
+government. At the very end of 1856 the explorers reached Zanzibar.
+While the expedition was being organised at Zanzibar, Burton and Speke
+visited Pemba, Mombasa, and the mission station ten miles in the
+interior. Fired by the stories of the snow-mountains and the rumour
+of the great lake of Ukerewe,[50] Speke proposed that they should
+bring their expedition to Mombasa and start for the lake by way of
+Kilimanjaro. The Masai, however, were raiding the country right up
+to within ten miles of Mombasa, and in consequence Burton was afraid
+to take this route. The explorers visited the mountainous country of
+Usambara, which is close to the coast, and then returned to Zanzibar.
+The original instructions, however, of the Royal Geographical Society
+(which had found the bulk of the funds) had been: “The great object
+of the expedition is to penetrate inland, from Kilwa or some other
+place on the East Coast of Africa, and make the best of its way to
+the reputed Lake of Nyasa.” Burton found, however, that the Arabs of
+Kilwa were strongly opposed to white men penetrating the interior
+in that direction. He therefore decided to choose the line of least
+resistance at Bagamoyo, and go along the now beaten track of the Arabs
+to Ujiji. When Burton and Speke reached Unyamwezi (Kaze) at the close
+of 1857, they were received with much kindness and courtesy by the
+Zanzibar Arabs established there, especially by Sheikh Snay, who had
+been the first Arab to reach Uganda. Snay promptly cleared up the
+mystery of the missionaries’ great lake, telling the explorers that
+it was three different lakes (Nyasa, Tanganyika, and Victoria) rolled
+into one. The Arabs had also heard through the Banyoro rumours of
+European vessels travelling up the White Nile to the Bari country.
+Burton was continually prostrated with fever during this stay in
+Unyamwezi, so that the command of the expedition and the solution of
+its difficulties temporarily devolved on Speke. The main trouble, as
+on all these expeditions, was with the question of transport. It was
+very difficult to obtain porters to proceed in any direction north or
+west of Unyamwezi. At last they induced a number of their paid-off men
+who had accompanied them through the coast lands to rejoin and convey
+the loads as far as Ujiji. In that way Burton and Speke discovered
+Lake Tanganyika, and Speke thought (wrongly) that in the great tilted
+plateau which they ascended on the east, and from which they looked
+down on the beautiful blue waters of the lake, he had discovered the
+Mountains of the Moon.
+
+After a somewhat half-hearted exploration of the northern portion
+of Tanganyika in an Arab dau, during which they heard and partially
+verified the fact that no river flowed out of Tanganyika on the north,
+but that the Rusizi flowed _into_ the lake[51] in that direction, they
+returned to Ujiji, and from this point made their way back to Kaze in
+Unyamwezi. Here Burton again became ill. Speke with some difficulty
+obtained from him permission to travel northwards in search of the Lake
+of Bukerebe. Burton yielded his consent reluctantly, and appears to
+have given but grudging assistance in the shape of men and guides. Full
+of energy, however, Speke gathered together a caravan, which crossed
+Unyamwezi and Usukuma, and on the 30th of July, 1858, he saw the Mwanza
+creek, one of the southernmost gulfs of the Victoria Nyanza. The
+extremity of this he named “Jordans Nullah.”[52] Travelling northwards
+along this creek, on August 3d (1858), early in the morning, Speke
+saw the open waters of a great lake with a sea horizon to the north.
+Much of the horizon was shut in by great and small islands, but Speke
+detected through their interstices the vast extent of open water which
+stretched to the north.
+
+He realised to the full the wonder of his discovery, and the obvious
+probability that this mighty lake would prove to be the main
+headwaters of the White Nile. Even Speke, however, failed to appreciate
+then or subsequently the full extent of the Nyanza’s area. He only
+guessed its breadth at over one hundred miles, and its length from
+north to south at under two hundred. Speke inquired from the natives
+the name of this freshwater sea, and they replied “Nyanza,” which in
+varying forms such as Nyanja, Nyasa, Mwanza, Kianja, Luanza (according
+to prefix), is a widespread Bantu root for a large extent of water,--a
+river or a lake. To this term Speke added the name of Victoria after
+the Queen of England. The following extract from his book, “What Led to
+the Discovery of the Source of the Nile,” gives his first impressions
+of the great lake:--
+
+    “The caravan, after quitting Isamiro, began winding up a long but
+    gradually inclined hill [which, as it bears no native name, I shall
+    call Somerset] until it reached its summit, when the vast expanse
+    of the pale blue waters of the Nyanza burst suddenly upon my gaze.
+    It was early morning. The distant sea-line of the north horizon
+    was defined in the calm atmosphere between the north and the west
+    points of the compass; but even this did not afford me any idea
+    of the breadth of the lake, as an archipelago of islands, each
+    consisting of a single hill, rising to a height two hundred or
+    three hundred feet above the water, intersected the line of vision
+    to the left; while on the right the western horn of the Ukerewe
+    Island cut off any further view of its distant waters to the
+    eastward of north. A sheet of water--an elbow of the sea, however,
+    at the base of the low range on which I stood--extended far away
+    to the eastward, to where, in the dim horizon, a hummock-like
+    elevation of the mainland marked what I understood to be the south
+    and east angle of the lake. The important islands of Ukerewe and
+    Mzita, distant about twenty or thirty miles, formed the visible
+    north shore of this firth. The name of the former of these islands
+    was familiar to us as that by which this long-sought lake was
+    usually known. It is reported by the natives to be of no great
+    extent, and though of no considerable elevation, I could discover
+    several spurs stretching down to the water’s edge from its central
+    ridge of hills. The other island, Mzita, is of greater elevation,
+    of a hog-backed shape, but being more distant its physical features
+    were not so distinctly visible.
+
+    “In consequence of the northern islands of the Bengal Archipelago
+    before-mentioned obstructing the view, the western shore of the
+    lake could not be defined: a series of low hill-tops extended in
+    this direction as far as the eye could reach; while below me, at
+    no great distance, was the _débouchure_ of the creek which enters
+    the lake from the south, and along the banks of which my last
+    three days’ journey had led me. This view was one which even in a
+    well-known and explored country would have arrested the traveller
+    by its peaceful beauty. The islands, each swelling in a gentle
+    slope to a rounded summit, clothed with wood between the rugged,
+    angular, closely-cropping rocks of granite, seemed mirrored in the
+    calm surface of the lake, on which I here and there detected a
+    small black speck,--the tiny canoe of some Muanza fisherman. On the
+    gently shelving plain below me blue smoke curled among the trees,
+    which here and there partially concealed villages and hamlets,
+    their brown thatched roofs contrasting with the emerald-green of
+    the beautiful aloes, the coral flower-branches of which cluster in
+    such profusion round the cottages, and form alleys and hedgerows
+    about the villages as ornamental as any garden shrub in England.
+    But the pleasure of the mere view vanished in the presence of those
+    more intense and exciting emotions which are called up by the
+    consideration of the commercial and geographical importance of the
+    prospect before me.
+
+    “I no longer felt any doubt that the lake at my feet gave birth to
+    that interesting river, the source of which has been the subject
+    of so much speculation, and the object of so many explorers.
+    The Arabs’ tale was proved to the letter. This is a far more
+    extensive lake than the Tanganyika; ‘so broad that you could not
+    see across it, and so long that nobody knew its length.’ I had now
+    the pleasure of perceiving that a map I had constructed on Arab
+    testimony, and sent home to the Royal Geographical Society before
+    leaving Unyanyembe, was so substantially correct in its general
+    outlines I had nothing whatever to alter. Further, as I drew that
+    map after proving their first statements about the Tanganyika,
+    which were made before my going there, I have every reason to feel
+    confident of their veracity relative to their travels north through
+    Karagwe, and to Kibuga in Uganda.”
+
+[Illustration: SKETCH MAP BY BURTON AND SPEKE, 1858.
+
+From the Original in the possession of the Royal Geographical Society.]
+
+Unable to delay longer in his exploration of the southern shores of
+the Victoria Nyanza, as he had promised to rejoin Burton by a certain
+date, Speke returned to Kaze in Unyanyembe, to find his companion vexed
+at the great discovery which he had made. Speke did not pursue the
+argument as to the Victoria Nyanza being the main source of the Nile.
+The two men journeyed together on more or less bad terms to Zanzibar,
+where Burton remained to wind up the affairs of the expedition, Speke
+returning direct to England. Here the wonderful news he brought
+prompted the Royal Geographical Society to gather together the funds
+for a fresh expedition, which was to enable Speke to make good his
+discovery of the lake, and to prove to the satisfaction of the
+scientific world that this sheet of water was the ultimate source of
+the White Nile.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+SPEKE AND THE NILE QUEST
+
+
+John Hanning Speke was born on May 27, 1827, at Orleigh Court,
+Bideford, North Devon. His father’s family had its seat in
+Somersetshire, near the pretty old town of Ilminster, and was of
+ancient descent. The name was spelled L’Espec in Norman times, and
+apparently meant a spike or porcupine quill (the family crest was a
+porcupine).[53] Speke’s mother was a Miss Hanning of Dillington Park,
+also in Somerset. He was one of four sons, and had several sisters. As
+his father (Mr. William Speke), after he came into the family place
+of Jordans near Ilminster, had two church livings to dispose of, he
+was desirous that two at least of his sons might be brought up to
+the Church. John Hanning and Edward Speke (who was killed at Delhi)
+declined such a career, however, and wished to go into the army. Speke
+was a restless boy, who detested school, declaring that a sedentary
+life made him ill. Whenever he could escape from his masters, he was
+always out in the woods and on the heaths, displaying a great devotion
+to natural history and sport.
+
+When only seventeen his mother, who was acquainted with the Duke of
+Wellington, obtained for her two sons, John and Edward, commissions
+in the Indian army. The Duke asked to see the boys, and congratulated
+their mother on two such fine young fellows coming forward for service
+in India. Edward Speke, as already mentioned, was killed during the
+Indian mutiny at the siege of Delhi. John Hanning Speke himself,
+between the ages of seventeen and twenty-two, had seen a good deal of
+military service in India, and took part in the last Sikh war, having
+been at the battles of Ramnagar, Sedulapur, Chilianwala, and Guzerat.
+
+In 1849 he first entertained the idea of exploring equatorial Africa.
+Prior to this date he had shot a great deal in India, and subsequently
+explored southwestern Tibet. His first interest in Africa lay in
+the possibility of amassing magnificent zoölogical collections to
+illustrate the fauna of that wide stretch of country which lay between
+South Africa and Abyssinia. He wished to supplement the researches of
+Rüppell on the northeast and of Harris, Gordon Cumming, and others in
+the far south. Even at that date Speke desired to land at some point on
+the East African coast, and strike across to the Nile, descending the
+Nile to Egypt with his zoölogical collections.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN HANNING SPEKE.
+
+At the age of 17, on first receiving his commission in the Indian Army.]
+
+He obtained furlough in the autumn of 1854, and proceeded to Aden
+with the intention of landing on the opposite coast of Somaliland.
+Arrived at Aden, his plans met with stubborn opposition from Colonel
+Sir James Outram, the Resident, who not only opposed Speke’s journeys,
+but even those which were officially ordered by the Bombay government
+to be conducted by Richard Burton. But the Bombay government, in regard
+to the latter plan, insisted on Sir James Outram withdrawing his
+opposition. Sir James Outram then attached Speke to this expedition,
+knowing him to be a good surveyor. Speke had in fact mapped a good deal
+of southwestern Tibet, and was thoroughly at home with the sextant. The
+results of this venture have been described in the preceding chapter.
+The Somali expedition led to Speke’s accompanying Burton in 1857.
+
+Speke returned to England alone on the 8th of May, 1859. The day after
+his arrival Sir Roderick Murchison, President of the Royal Geographical
+Society, decided that Speke was to be sent back as soon as possible to
+substantiate his discovery of the Victoria Nyanza, and to ascertain its
+connection with the Nile system. But although funds were soon secured
+by public subscription, it was deemed advisable by Speke that the new
+expedition should not start for nearly a year. Captain James Augustus
+Grant, who had shot with Speke in India, begged leave to accompany him
+as his lieutenant.
+
+[Illustration: BURTON’S IDEA OF THE NILE SOURCES, DEC. 1864.]
+
+Burton returned to England in 1859, somewhat chagrined to hear of
+the enthusiasm with which Speke’s discovery of the Victoria Nyanza
+had been received,--an enthusiasm which to some extent had put the
+revelation of Lake Tanganyika in the shade. Burton nevertheless was
+awarded, in 1860, the Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical Society,
+and in returning thanks for this honour, he uttered a handsome
+acknowledgment of Speke’s services as surveyor on this expedition
+to the great lakes. But the two men were evidently on bad terms,
+and though the fault of their disaccord may have lain with Burton’s
+conduct, the world knew of it first through the writings of Speke in
+“Blackwood’s Magazine,” and later (in 1864) in the republication of
+these Blackwood articles with additions under the title of “What Led to
+the Discovery of the Source of the Nile.” In these works Speke makes
+certain stinging references to Burton. So far as an impartial verdict
+can be arrived at, Speke in all probability spoke the truth; but he
+was perhaps unduly hard on his companion, for whom he had evidently a
+great personal dislike and some degree of contempt. In some respects
+Speke’s own education had been defective (at least, we are told that he
+was so much of a truant as to receive but little schooling before going
+to India). He may, therefore, have been unable to appreciate to the
+full Burton’s undoubted talents. Yet again, in reading Speke’s books
+it would occur to no one to say that he was deficient in education.
+He had become an admirable geographer, a keen naturalist; and whether
+his writing was or was not without grace of style, it was certainly
+pithy and to the point. His great book, the “Discovery of the Source
+of the Nile,” is good reading all through, and strikes one who, like
+the present writer, has been over much of the same ground, as being
+singularly truthful. It is as good a book as any that Burton himself
+ever wrote on Africa, not excepting even the excellent “Lake Regions.”
+Speke was a fine figure of a man,--tall and handsome in an English
+style, with blue eyes and a brown beard. There is no doubt that he
+impressed the natives favourably wherever he went as being a man and
+a gentleman. Yet there was a little hardness in his disposition,
+something pitiless in his criticisms of Burton. Burton’s own attacks on
+Speke scarcely appeared in a public form until four years after Speke
+had returned to Africa. They were angry, and somewhat clumsy, but not
+so incisive as Speke’s criticisms of Burton. Burton’s chief revenge lay
+in endeavouring for many years to prove that Speke had made no very
+great discovery; that his Victoria Nyanza was not the greatest lake in
+Africa and the main source of the Nile, but a network of swamps and
+lakelets. Burton hailed with delight Sir Samuel Baker’s description
+of the Albert Nyanza as being the ultimate origin of the White Nile.
+To meet this view he, against his own convictions, tried to make the
+Rusizi River flow out of the north end of Tanganyika instead of flowing
+into that lake, in the hope that Tanganyika was thus connected with
+Lake Albert,--a fact which, if proved, would dwarf the discovery of
+the Victoria Nyanza into insignificance. To this end he published a
+map, and endeavoured to persuade every geographer who would listen
+to him that the Victoria Nyanza was more than half a myth, and that
+its contribution to the Nile waters was insignificant compared to the
+supply received from the western chain of lakes.
+
+Speke’s character was that of many an officer in the British army.
+Though his family claimed Norman descent, his physique was emphatically
+Anglo-Saxon. Born almost without fear, he had perhaps too ready a
+contempt for others of weaker nerve who could better weigh the chances
+of danger and the counsels of prudence. Speke was a splendid shot,
+and accurate in those astronomical observations necessary to the
+determination of geographical positions. He had a good knowledge of
+Hindustani,[54] but not that great readiness in picking up languages
+which was Burton’s forte. Yet he was perfectly honest about this, as
+about every talent which he possessed or lacked. On the other hand, his
+great dislike of Burton sometimes made him unjust in denying to his
+companion the qualities of mind he really possessed. Burton’s _résumé_
+of ethnological information concerning the East African tribes from the
+Zanzibar coast to Uganda and the shores of Tanganyika is masterly, and
+due to the most careful note-taking. It may not, perhaps, be out of
+place if I quote a few lines from a letter written by Sir Samuel Baker
+to a correspondent:[55]--
+
+    “Speke comes first as a geographer and African explorer. He was
+    superior to Burton as a painstaking, determined traveller, who
+    worked out his object for the real love of geographical research,
+    without the slightest jealousy of others.... But Burton excelled
+    Speke in cleverness and general information, though he was not so
+    reliable. Speke was a splendid fellow in every way.... Grant (his
+    companion) was one of the most loyal and charming creatures in the
+    world. Perfectly unselfish, he adored Speke, and throughout his
+    life he maintained an attitude of chivalrous defence of Speke’s
+    reputation.... They were all friends of mine.”
+
+There is little doubt that Burton, who had displayed such cool
+courage on his journey to Mecca, had received a shock over the Somali
+attack on his camp in 1854, from which he never wholly recovered. His
+proceedings in connection with the Tanganyika journey were marked by
+something approaching timidity. It is probable that had Speke been in
+command of this expedition much more would have been done than was
+actually accomplished. Feeling this very strongly, and realising that
+he had contributed a good deal of his private funds to the resources
+of this and the preceding Somali expedition, Speke considered himself
+quite justified in hurrying home with the news of the expedition’s
+discoveries, the more so because Burton had snubbed him for his pains
+in connection with the Victoria Nyanza. I do not think it can be said
+that he ever treated Burton unfairly, but there was perhaps in his
+behaviour a touch of hardness and a lack of generosity. He heartily
+disliked Burton, and that was the reason.
+
+[Illustration: JAMES AUGUSTUS GRANT.]
+
+In James Augustus Grant (as is indicated by the quotation from Sir
+Samuel Baker’s letter) Speke had found a companion after his own heart.
+Grant was a handsome Scotchman of the “Iberian” type,--black hair,
+dark eyes, dark eyebrows, clear complexion. In later life the hair and
+the beard turned white, but the face remained singularly youthful. Of
+Grant Sir Samuel Baker writes: “He was the most unselfish man I ever
+met; amiable and gentle to a degree that might to a stranger denote
+weakness, but, on the contrary, no man could be more determined in
+character or unrelenting when once he was offended.” Grant, like
+Speke, was a sportsman; he was also--in a somewhat uninstructed way--a
+zoölogist and a botanist. The botany of Africa, in fact, was his
+principal hobby. He painted cleverly in water-colours, and did more
+than anybody else, down to a quite recent date, to put before our
+eyes some idea of the beautiful coloration of African wild flowers.
+He published at his own expense, through the Linnæan Society, three
+volumes illustrating the more notable features of his botanical
+collections. Although most of these flowers were drawn for him by
+scientific draughtsmen, his own sketches supplied the means for an
+accurate coloration which could no longer be ascertained from the dried
+specimens. In this particular Grant has made an important contribution
+to African research.
+
+Before leaving England Speke made arrangements, through the British
+consul at Zanzibar, to send on an instalment of porters and property
+to Unyamwezi, intending to follow his old route to the Victoria
+Nyanza. The Indian government, which has often done so much to assist
+the opening up or the settlement of eastern Africa, gave to Speke’s
+expedition fifty carbines and twenty thousand rounds of ammunition, and
+lent him as many surveying instruments as were required. The government
+of India also put at his disposal rich presents (gold watches) for such
+Arabs as had assisted him on the former expedition.
+
+Petherick, whose explorations have been treated of in the previous
+chapter, had recently arrived in England from the Upper Nile, and had
+been promoted to be British Consul. Speke, before he left England,
+made arrangements with Petherick to place boats at his disposal at
+Gondokoro, and to send a party of men in the same direction to collect
+ivory and to wait about in the vicinity of Gondokoro in order to
+assist him when he should reach that part of the Nile. Petherick was
+also invited to ascend the Asua River (then thought to be a branch of
+the Nile instead of an affluent) in case it should be another means
+of communication with the Victoria Nyanza. Speke and Grant journeyed
+out by way of the Cape, and at Cape Town stayed for a while with the
+great Sir George Grey, who, taking the greatest interest in their
+undertaking, induced the Cape government to grant the sum of three
+hundred pounds to be spent in buying baggage mules. With these mules
+were sent ten Hottentot mounted police. From Cape Town the expedition
+was conveyed on a gunboat to Zanzibar. At the commencement of October,
+1860, Speke’s expedition was organised, and he started for the
+interior. His expedition consisted of one corporal and nine privates
+of the Hottentot police; one jemadar and twenty-five privates of the
+Baluch soldiery of the Sultan of Zanzibar; one Arab caravan leader
+and seventy-five freed slaves; one kirongozi or guide and one hundred
+negro porters; two black valets, who had both been man-of-war’s men and
+could speak Hindustani; Frij, the black cook (also from a man-of-war),
+and the invaluable “Bombay,” who was interpreter and factotum. (The
+expedition took with it twelve transport mules and three donkeys, also
+twenty-two goats for milk and meat. The Hottentots soon broke down in
+health, and took to riding the donkeys, the mules being loaded with
+ammunition.) The white men, as a rule, had to walk. The Hottentots
+were sometimes useful as camp cooks, but they suffered so much from
+fever as to become a burden to the expedition.
+
+[Illustration: A MNYAMWEZI PORTER.]
+
+    “My first occupation [writes Speke][56] was to map the country.
+    This is done by timing the rate of march with a watch, making
+    compass bearings along the road, or any conspicuous marks,--as, for
+    instance, hills off it,--and by noting the watershed,--in short,
+    all topographical objects. On arrival in camp every day came the
+    ascertaining, by boiling-point thermometer, of the altitude of the
+    station above the sea-level; of the latitude of the station by
+    the meridian altitude of a star taken with a sextant; and of the
+    compass variation by azimuth. Occasionally there was the fixing
+    of certain crucial stations at intervals of sixty miles or so, by
+    lunar observations ... for determining the longitude, by which the
+    original-timed course can be drawn out with certainty on the map by
+    proportion.... The rest of my work, besides sketching and keeping a
+    diary, which was the most troublesome of all, consisted in making
+    geological and zoölogical collections. With Captain Grant rested
+    the botanical collections and thermometrical registers. He also
+    undertook the photography. The rest of our day went in breakfasting
+    after the march was over,--a pipe, to prepare us for rummaging
+    the fields and villages to discover their contents for scientific
+    purposes,--dinner close to sunset, and tea and a pipe before
+    turning in at night.”
+
+Speke noticed in Uzegura deposits of pisolitic limestone in which
+marine fossils are observable. He draws attention to the interesting
+fact that a limestone formation occurs with a few breaks almost
+continuously from the southwest coast of Portugal, through North
+Africa, Egypt, and part of the Somali country, across Arabia to eastern
+India.[57] In connection with this it may be mentioned as a point of
+great interest that Mr. C. W. Hobley (Sub-Commissioner in the East
+Africa Protectorate) discovered deposits of limestone in the Nyando
+valley, about forty miles from the northeast corner of the Victoria
+Nyanza.
+
+Speke’s expedition travelled on with little trouble as far as Usagara.
+The complete harmony which existed at all times between Speke and Grant
+contributed much to the smoothness of the arrangements. At Usagara,
+however, they had trouble with one of their caravan leaders (Baraka).
+The Hottentots became increasingly sick and helpless, and Captain Grant
+was seriously ill with fever. However, they pushed on to that East
+Coast range of terraced mountains which is nowadays dotted with not a
+few mission and government stations. There is charming and fantastic
+scenery in these mountains, which rise in parts to an altitude of seven
+thousand feet. From Usagara were sent back some of the Hottentots, a
+collection of natural history specimens, and the camera. Speke had
+greatly desired to illustrate the scenery of equatorial Africa by means
+of photography,--a most serious undertaking in the sixties. Grant
+worked the apparatus, but was rendered so ill by the heat of the dark
+tent that Speke decided to abandon photography and to rely instead on
+his companion’s drawings.
+
+Ugogo, which is a rolling plateau to the west of the Usagara range,
+gave the travellers some trouble. Here, as elsewhere, there was famine,
+owing to the scarcity of water and the incessant raids on the part
+of the Masai from the north or the Wahehe from the south. The Wagogo
+themselves are a truculent people, who have given serious annoyance to
+caravans during the last hundred years. They speak a Bantu language,
+but have very much more the physical aspect of the Nilotic tribes to
+the north, being, like them, very much addicted to nudity.[58] On the
+plains of Ugogo Grant killed the largest and handsomest of all the
+gazelles, which had henceforth borne his name.[59]
+
+In Ugogo Speke also records the existence of that strange archaic type
+of dog, the _Otocyon_, a specimen of which he killed. On the western
+frontier of Ugogo the expedition was menaced with serious trouble. The
+rapacious native chief made increasing demands on them for taxes. A
+number of their porters deserted, and their Wanyamwezi carriers who
+had agreed to replace the missing men were scared away by the threats
+of the Wagogo. In addition, the rainy season had come on, and was
+unusually heavy, flooding the country in all directions. The expedition
+would have come to grief but for the game shot by its leaders, which
+kept the men from starvation. It was only got out of its difficulties
+at last by the friendly help of the Arabs of Unyamwezi, who sent
+seventy porters to the relief of the explorers. When Speke reached the
+borders of Unyamwezi and took stock of his position, he found that
+six of his Hottentots were dead or had been sent back to the coast
+in charge of several free porters, that twenty-five of the Sultan of
+Zanzibar’s slaves and ninety-eight of the original Wanyamwezi porters
+had deserted, all the mules and donkeys were dead, and half of his
+property had been stolen.
+
+Unyamwezi, “the Land of the Moon,” is a remarkable part of eastern
+Africa. Practically it consists of nearly all the land lying between
+the Victoria Nyanza on the north and the vicinity of Lake Rukwa on
+the south. It is longer (from north to south) than it is broad. Prior
+to the German occupation it had ceased to be a single kingdom, and
+was divided into a number of small and mutually hostile states only
+united by the common bond of the Kinyamwezi language. This varies a
+good deal in dialect, though it has distinctive features of its own.
+In Usukuma to the north it offers more resemblance to the languages
+of the Uganda Protectorate; on the south it links on in some way with
+the languages of the Nyasa-Tanganyika plateau. How the country became
+associated with the moon is not known; for the most part of it is an
+undulating plateau, with occasional rift valleys that contain salt or
+fresh water pools. A great part of its drainage goes towards Tanganyika
+or Lake Rukwa. The language of its people is typically Bantu, but
+they would seem to be a very mixed race physically. Some of them have
+the ugly features of the Congo Pygmies; others again are strikingly
+like the Galas and the Bahima. The bulk of the nation consists of tall
+and very muscular Negroes, with thoroughly Negro features. They are
+celebrated as porters, being able to carry burdens twice as heavy as
+could be offered to any other carriers. They have also a keen instinct
+for trade, and it is supposed that, first of all Bantu nations of the
+East African interior, they opened up communications with the coast.
+There has been trade going on between the Zanzibar coast and Unyamwezi
+for at least five centuries,--a trade, however, which has been subject
+to prolonged interruptions. The Zanzibar Arabs did not settle in the
+country until a hundred years ago.
+
+Conversing with the Arabs of Unyamwezi, Speke again heard from them
+of “a wonderful mountain to the northward of Karagwe[60] so high and
+steep that no one could ascend it. It was seldom visible, being up in
+the clouds, where white matter--snow or hail--fell on it.” The Arabs
+also spoke of the other lake, which was salt and also called Nyanza,
+but quite different from the Victoria.[61] From the Arabs Speke also
+heard of the naked Nile Negroes to the north and east of Unyoro, and
+of those of them (the Lango) who, like the Turkana farther east, wear
+their hair in enormous bags down the back. They told him that Lake
+Tanganyika was drained by the Marungu River.[62] Some of this knowledge
+Speke perverted to fit in with erroneous and preconceived notions. At
+this interval of time, however, one is surprised at the correctness
+of geographical information given to Burton, Speke, and Baker by the
+Arabs. One is still more surprised that the constant hints as to the
+great snow-mountain range of Ruwenzori should have so often fallen on
+deaf ears.
+
+In Unyamwezi Speke’s further progress was much delayed, owing to the
+difficulty in getting porters. The country to the east from which he
+had come was convulsed with wars between the Arabs and the natives.
+In these wars figured, as a bandit leader of handsome appearance and
+remarkable adventures, the celebrated Manwa Sera, a dispossessed
+Unyamwezi chief. In the course of these wars Speke’s principal friends
+amongst the Arabs were killed or disappeared. Amongst them was the
+celebrated Snay, the first Arab to enter Uganda, and in fact the
+first non-Negro to convey the news of the existence of Uganda to the
+civilised world. On the northwest trouble was threatened by the warlike
+country of Usui, whose chief, Suwarora, blocked the way to Karagwe by
+his extortions. To the west and north also the country was being raided
+by the Watuta, a mysterious race of warlike nomads who were said to
+be of Zulu origin, and were, according to all accounts, the furthest
+extension of the great Zulu invasion of East Africa, which took place
+in the first half of the nineteenth century.
+
+Speke attempted to recruit porters in the northern parts of Unyamwezi,
+but without success. He therefore returned to the headquarters of the
+Arabs at Kaze, and from this point sent back the last of the Hottentots
+to the coast. Speke, seeing that he could get no farther without
+bringing some order into the country, negotiated a peace between Manwa
+Sera and the Arabs. The peace with Manwa Sera broke down. Finally Speke
+decided to leave Bombay and Grant behind in northern Unyamwezi with the
+loads which it was impossible to transport. With such porters as he had
+he pushed on to the northwest and entered Buzinza, the first country
+ruled by Bahima chiefs.[63] Speke remarks rightly that specimens of
+this Hamitic (Gala) aristocracy extend from the south shores of the
+Victoria Nyanza southwards as far as the Fipa country and the edges of
+the Nyasa-Tanganyika Plateau. On pages 128 to 134 of his book[64] Speke
+gives an excellent description of the maddening extortions of a petty
+African chief. This behaviour on the chief’s part should be borne in
+mind when the armchair geographer is inclined to lay all the blame on
+the European and Arab for commencing wars with Negro tribes.
+
+From February to October Speke had the most trying experiences which
+were to await him on this journey. He travelled backwards and forwards
+from Kaze to Uzinza, endeavouring in all possible ways to get porters
+to carry him to Usui. In these journeys he caught a severe cold, the
+effects of which lasted for months in a most distressing cough, and
+some disease of the chest which he could not diagnose. His caravans
+were robbed, though the goods were sometimes recovered. Several of his
+Swahili headmen turned traitors; Bombay alone was faithful. Grant, when
+he had recovered from fever, marched and countermarched. But Speke
+had fortunately managed months before to send on word of his coming
+to Suwarora, Chief of Usui, who himself was a vassal of Rumanika, the
+great Hima ruler of Karagwe. Suwarora sent an envoy with his mace to
+invite Speke to proceed at once to his court. This intervention made a
+good impression on the treacherous chief of Buzinza, Lumeresi. Much of
+the stolen property was recovered, and the expedition obtaining a few
+porters started for Usui in October, 1861.
+
+Grant was left behind with such of the property as could not be
+removed. Speke, when he left Buzinza, “was a most miserable spectre in
+appearance, puffing and blowing at each step he took, with shoulders
+drooping and left arm hanging like a dead log, which he was unable to
+swing.” At last, after incredible worries and trouble, occasioned by
+the demands for “hongo” (tribute) on the part of every petty chief
+whose territories they crossed, they reached the large country of
+Usui or Busui at the southwest corner of the Victoria Nyanza. Usui is
+“a most convulsed looking country of well-rounded hills composed of
+sandstone.... Cattle were numerous, kept by the Wahuma (Bahima), who
+would not sell their milk to us because we ate fowls and a bean called
+_maharagwe_.” In Usui the caravan was incessantly worried at night
+by the attacks of thieves until one of these was killed, whereupon
+the Basui congratulated the expedition, saying that the slain man was
+a wonderful magician. “They thought us wonderful men, possessed of
+supernatural powers.” Suwarora and his fellow-chief Vikora were most
+exacting in their demands for hongo. At last, after heart-breaking
+delays, they got away out of Suwarora’s country.
+
+Between Usui and Karagwe was one of those no man’s lands, which at
+times are such a relief to the harassed traveller,--a land in which
+he can enjoy the beauty of the landscapes, the excitement of sport in
+complete freedom from the harassing attentions of Negro tribes. In
+this lovely wilderness they were greeted by officers sent to their
+assistance by Rumanika, who said, “Rumanika has ordered us to bring
+you to his palace at once, and wherever you stop a day, the village
+officers are instructed to supply you with food at the King’s expense;
+for there are no taxes gathered from strangers in the Kingdom of
+Karagwe.” Speke noted the little lake of Urigi, and learned from the
+natives that this was the remains of a much larger sheet of water. They
+declared, in fact, that this lake had formerly extended far to the
+southwards in the direction of Tanganyika, having been at one time a
+considerable gulf of the Victoria Nyanza.
+
+For the first time since leaving the coast they travelled day after day
+through beautiful and attractive scenery, in which rhinoceroses, both
+“white” and black, and herds of hartebeest mingled with the splendid
+long-horned cattle of the natives. Speke and Grant shot several
+square-lipped “white” rhinoceroses. (Stanley subsequently did the same
+in this country of Karagwe. Though it has since been shot on the Upper
+Nile, this creature is now becoming extinct in East Equatorial Africa.)
+“Leaving the valley of Uthenja, we rose over the spur of Nyamwara, and
+found we had attained the delightful altitude of five thousand feet.
+Oh, how we enjoyed it!--every one feeling so happy at the prospect
+of meeting the good king Rumanika. Rumanika the king and his brother
+Nyanaji were both of them men of noble appearance and size.... They had
+fine oval faces, large eyes, and high noses, denoting the best blood
+of Abyssinia. Having shaken hands in true English style, which is the
+peculiar custom of the men of this country, the ever-smiling Rumanika
+begged us to be seated on the ground opposite to him, and at once
+wished to know what we thought of Karagwe, for it had struck him his
+mountains were the finest in the world; and the lake, too, did we not
+admire it?”
+
+[Illustration: A HIMA OF MPORORO, NEAR KARAGWE.]
+
+Speke subsequently went to see the queens and princesses of this
+royal family, who, by means of a milk diet, were kept immoderately fat.
+Of one of them he writes: “She could not rise; and so large were her
+arms that between the joints the flesh hung down like large, stuffed
+puddings. Then in came their children, all models of the Abyssinian
+type of beauty, and as polite in their manners as thoroughbred
+gentlemen.”
+
+Rumanika and his brothers received their presents with a graceful
+gratitude which was striking after the ill manners of the Negro chiefs
+in Unyamwezi and Usui. Rumanika begged Speke to remain a little while
+in his country so that he might send on word of his coming to the
+King of Uganda. Speke consented to do so, and when walking about
+the vicinity of the king’s capital, descried the distant cone of
+Mfumbiro. This he at once identified with the Mountains of the Moon
+and with the story of the snow-capped peaks. It is curious, seeing how
+friendly were all the Bahima, and what facilities were given to him for
+travelling about the country of Karagwe, that he made no attempt to
+enter Ruanda whilst waiting to go on to the north, and thus obtain a
+nearer acquaintance with the Mountains of the Moon. Had he done so, he
+might perchance have caught a glimpse of Ruwenzori. Grant’s drawing of
+Mfumbiro and other volcanoes (since explored by many travellers) is a
+truthful one.
+
+In Rumanika’s country Speke discovered the water tragelaph which now
+bears his name (_Limnotragus spekei_). This creature has the hoofs
+very much prolonged, so as to enable it to walk on floating vegetation
+and marshy ground. Speke at once discerned that this creature was
+closely allied to the water tragelaph found by Livingstone on Lake
+Ngami.
+
+[Illustration: SPEKE’S TRAGELAPH (_Limnotragus spekei_).]
+
+The existence of this Bahima[65] aristocracy in the countries west
+and south of the Victoria Nyanza was not reported for the first time
+in Speke’s account of his second journey to the Victoria Nyanza.
+First of all, in the early fifties, the Zanzibar Arabs brought to the
+coast--either at Mombasa or Zanzibar--accounts of a race of “white”
+men who lived on the Mountains of the Moon. Burton, analysing these
+stories at Kaze in Unyamwezi, reduced them to accounts of Bahima, who
+were believed to have the features and complexion of Abyssinians.
+Speke’s arrival in Buzinza and Karagwe made us partially acquainted
+with the facts. We now know that at some relatively remote period not
+less than two thousand years ago the lands between the Victoria and
+Albert Nyanzas were invaded from the northeast by a Caucasian race
+allied to the Gala and the Egyptian. These ancestors of the Bahima
+mingled to some extent with the indigenous Negroes, and so somewhat
+darkened the colour of their skins and acquired hair more like the
+Negro’s wool. This pastoral people brought with them herds of cattle
+from the direction of Abyssinia or Galaland,--cattle with enormous
+horns, sometimes over three feet in length. This breed of cattle is
+found at the present day in southern and western Abyssinia. It is also
+depicted--with other breeds on the Egyptian monuments. It is supposed
+to be allied in origin to the stock which gave rise to the ordinary
+humped cattle of India,--the Zebu type. These oxen with enormous
+horns--horns which are not only very long but sometimes very large
+in girth--are found westwards as far as the vicinity of Lake Chad,
+and in a more degenerate type farther west still, to the sources of
+the Niger. It might be thought that they were also related to the
+long-horned cattle of South Africa, but it is sometimes asserted that
+the long-horned South African cattle owe their main origin to the
+introduction of Spanish breeds by the Portuguese, the cattle met with
+by the first Europeans in South Africa having belonged to the humped
+zebu type.
+
+The Bahima once founded an empire which stretched from the northern
+limits of Unyoro and the Victoria Nile westward to the Congo Forest and
+southward to the coast of Tanganyika. This ancient Empire of Kitara
+split up into a number of states governed for the most part by Hima
+dynasties, though in Uganda the native kings became more and more Negro
+in aspect through their fathers’ intermarriage with Negro women. But
+for the most part friendly relations subsisted between all the states
+into which the Empire of Kitara was subdivided; it was only in more
+recent times that the existing blood feud sprang up between Unyoro and
+Uganda. The Bahima were reverenced and admired by the mass of the Negro
+population as the descendants of supernatural beings who had brought
+to these lands what little civilisation they possessed. Intermarriage
+constantly took place between the dynasties of Buzinza, Usui, Karagwe,
+Ruanda, Mpororo, Ankole, Unyoro, and Uganda. This and other causes for
+intercommunication gave intelligent chiefs like Rumanika a considerable
+grasp of African geography. These chiefs knew that their world was
+bounded on the west by the impenetrable Congo Forest. They knew all
+about Tanganyika, the Victoria Nyanza, the Masai countries, the course
+of the Nile as far north as Gondokoro, and even the existence of Lake
+Rudolf. Perhaps also they had a glimmering knowledge not only of
+the “Turks” on the White Nile (which was the case), but also of the
+existence of men like themselves in Galaland and Abyssinia. Speke and
+subsequent travellers found these Hima sovereigns and their courts
+very different to the petty Negro states of East Africa. Besides the
+recognised king (a member of a long dynasty), there were regularly
+established Court officials and functionaries, and an orderly system
+of government. Travellers like Speke were not slow to appreciate the
+influence which this Gala invasion of equatorial Africa had on the
+Negro types. We now begin to feel that this Negrified Caucasian has
+interpenetrated most parts of Negro Africa between the Cameroons and
+Zanzibar, and between the northern limits of the Sudan and Natal.
+In the western prolongation of Africa something like the same
+infiltration of a superior race has been brought about by the Tawareqs
+of the Sahara. This Libyan race is also of the Caucasian family, more
+directly so indeed than the curly-haired Gala, who, mixing with the
+Libyan, laid the foundation of Ancient Egyptian civilisation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+SPEKE IN UGANDA
+
+
+Speke and Grant both seem to have taken the shape and existence of the
+Victoria Nyanza for granted. No doubt from the highlands of Karagwe and
+Buddu they occasionally caught glimpses of the distant Nyanza; besides
+which the chiefs and the Arabs spoke of its existence as a fact which
+could be ascertained by one or two days’ journey to the east. Speke was
+more concerned himself with losing no time in getting to the point at
+which the Nile left the Victoria Nyanza. He made little or no attempt
+to delineate the coast line of that lake with any accuracy, and as
+we know, he placed the west coast much too far to the east, reducing
+the lake to almost two-thirds of its actual area. Seeing how near he
+marched to the coast in Buddu, it is curious that he got no sight of
+the large archipelago of the Sese Islands,[66] which can be sighted
+from a distance of many miles. There is no indication of these islands
+on his map. Apparently he made no attempts to check his computation
+of the altitude of the Victoria Nyanza, which in 1858 he computed
+at 3740 feet (an estimate not far off the correct one of 3775 feet).
+All the other altitudes taken by his boiling-point thermometer seem to
+be too low. His surmise that the Ripon Falls are only 3308 feet above
+sea-level is more than four hundred feet too low; and if his altitudes
+in northern Unyamwezi are correct (which I doubt), the waters of the
+Victoria Nyanza must be a huge, pent-up dam which would flood large
+tracts of German East Africa.
+
+[Illustration: THE RIPON FALLS FROM THE WEST BANK.]
+
+Grant had to be left behind in Karagwe, owing to an ulcerated leg.
+Speke decided upon going to Uganda alone, but despatched the head-man
+of his caravan, Baraka, with a companion to the north of Unyoro,
+providing him with a letter to Petherick. He himself entered Uganda
+(first of all Europeans to do so) on the 16th of January, 1862.
+He travelled along the coast country of Buddu, and soon began to
+appreciate the beauty of the land.
+
+    “I felt inclined to stop here a month, everything was so very
+    pleasant. The temperature was perfect. The roads, as indeed they
+    were everywhere, were as broad as our coach roads, cut through the
+    long grasses, straight over the hills and down through the woods
+    in the dells,--a strange contrast to the wretched tracks in all
+    adjacent countries. The huts were kept so clean and so neat, not a
+    fault could be found with them; the gardens the same. Wherever I
+    strolled I saw nothing but richness, and what ought to be wealth.
+    The whole land was a picture of quiescent beauty, with a boundless
+    sea in the background. Looking over the hills, it struck the fancy
+    at once that at one period the whole land must have been at a
+    uniform level with their present tops, but that, by the constant
+    denudation it was subjected to by the frequent rains, it had been
+    cut down and sloped into those beautiful hills and dales which now
+    so much please the eye; for there were none of those quartz dykes
+    I had seen protruding through the same kind of aqueous formations
+    in Usui and Karagwe, nor were there any other sorts of volcanic
+    disturbance to distort the quiet aspect of the scene.”
+
+[Illustration: A VIEW IN UGANDA.]
+
+Speke found an Uganda not much smaller in area than that Negro kingdom
+is to-day. It lacked the large slices of Unyoro which were cut off and
+added to Uganda after the commencement of the British Protectorate,
+but it probably wielded a political influence over Busoga on the east
+and Toro on the west, since denied to it. The population of this
+kingdom in those days was computed at not far under four millions. Its
+administrators at the present time are doubtful if the same kingdom
+possesses eight hundred thousand inhabitants. The roads then were as
+broad and as well kept as they are now. It is sad to think that the
+people were possibly happier. True, their despotic ruler--whom they
+regarded with almost religious veneration--slaughtered and tortured
+those who frequented his Court; but the people at large were little
+affected by these deeds of cruelty, even if they did not regard them
+with that disinterested admiration which the Negro always accords to a
+display of force. Syphilis had wrought but slight ravages amongst them;
+indeed, it was a disease of but recent introduction (coming from
+the Nile).[67] No religious feuds had begun. The people believed their
+monarch to be the mightiest on earth, and themselves to be the happiest
+folk, living in a real paradise. For beauty the land can hardly be
+matched elsewhere in Africa. The one indisputable flaw in the climate
+is the frequency of dangerous thunderstorms. But for these reminders
+of a harsher law the Baganda might well have looked back on their life
+under Mutesa and his predecessors as one of ideal happiness. They had
+plenty to eat. Their banana groves provided the staple of their diet
+unfailingly. In addition, the rich soil grew such legumens and cereals
+as they required. The rivers, lakes, and marshes swarmed with fish.
+Cattle throve. Goats, sheep, and fowls were abundant. Bark cloth from
+the fig-trees and carefully dressed skins provided the clothing they
+were so scrupulous to wear; for they shuddered at open indecency,
+and yet led the most licentious lives, licentiousness then paying no
+penalty in the spread of malignant diseases. This would be the way in
+which the average Muganda might look back on the past. Of course there
+was another side to the picture, no doubt. The paradisaical, unmoral
+lives of easy indulgence in their banana groves ill fitted them in the
+long run to cope with the attacks of stronger races. Fate led them
+under the British ægis after the country had been brought to something
+like ruin by ten years of civil war, and ten years of wretched
+misgovernment at the hands of a wicked sovereign. Had the British
+Protectorate not been declared, it is futile to suppose the country
+could have retained its independence. It would have been annexed by
+Germany or France, have been added to the Congo Free State or to the
+Egyptian Sudan.[68] If by some miracle it had escaped any one of these
+masters, it would have fallen victim later on to the Abyssinian raiders
+of the present day.
+
+Speke found the country governed by a worshipped despot, Mutesa,
+who had just succeeded to a throne which had been in existence for
+something like four hundred and fifty years in an unbroken dynasty
+originally of Hima origin. This despot was a young man of agreeable
+countenance, with somewhat negroid features but a yellowish-brown skin.
+He had the large, liquid eyes characteristic of all the princes and
+princesses of this family. He lived in palaces which, though built
+of palm trunks, reeds, and grass were often imposing in appearance,
+with roofs rising to fifty feet above the ground. The interior of
+these dwellings had a raised floor of mud, hard as cement, and was
+divided into compartments by reed screens. The floor would be strewn
+with a soft carpet of fine fragrant grass, on which leopard skins and
+beautifully dressed ox-hides were laid down. The towns consisted
+mainly of collections of these straw-thatched dwellings surrounded by
+large gardens and banana groves, and fenced off from the outer world
+by tall reed fences so plaited as to produce an agreeably variegated
+aspect. Speke and his companion, and the Swahili porters with them,
+noticed the resemblance offered by this beautifully “tidy” country of
+Uganda to the civilised coast belt of Zanzibar. Negro savagery was
+far removed, especially in sanitary matters, where the arrangements
+were quite equal to those in force in England one hundred years
+ago. The religion of the country consisted of a worship paid to a
+large number of Ba-lubari or spirits, some of which were obviously
+ancestral, and others the personification of earth, air, or water
+forces.[69] The ministers of this religion were the Ba-mandwa or
+sorcerer-priests. Originally these priests were of the Bahima stock.
+Indeed, this religion which prevails amongst so many tribes in western
+and equatorial Africa seems to have had (like the Bahima aristocracy)
+a Hamitic origin, and to have come originally from the regions east of
+the White Nile.
+
+Mutesa’s Court was remarkable for its hierarchy of officials. The
+principal minister is now the Katikiro, but was formerly styled
+Kamuraviona. He was formerly the commander-in-chief, though now no
+longer associated with such office. Some functions were hereditary,
+such as the Pokino or Governor of Buddu; but these hereditary posts
+were formerly the recognition of the existence of feudatory princes.
+The Kimbugwe was formerly the guardian of the king’s navel string and
+the keeper of his drums. The Mugema was the commissioner in charge
+of the royal tombs; Kasuju was the guardian of the king’s sisters;
+Mukwenda was his treasurer; Kauta was the steward of his kitchen;
+Seruti his head brewer; and so forth. In course of time many of these
+functions were purely honorary. The system seems to have come, like so
+much else of the civilisation of Uganda, from the Hamitic invaders, and
+it bears a curious resemblance to the origin of similar functionaries
+in the courts of Europe.
+
+Society also was divided much as it is in our own world. There were
+the Royal Family and its collateral branches, known as Balángira, or
+princes. The princesses were called Bambeja. The Baronage was styled
+Bakungu. Then there was an upper class of functionaries known as
+Batongoli, while the peasants were classed as Bakopi.
+
+Speke--handsome, manly, kindly, and straightforward--became an immense
+favourite with the volatile tyrant of Uganda, with the queens (for
+there were several queens--dowagers, mothers, consorts--at once in
+Uganda), with the nobles, and with the people. “My beard,” he writes,
+“engrossed the major part of most conversations; all the Baganda
+said they would come out in future with hairy faces.” The Royal
+Family of Uganda, he also remarks, gave orders without knowing how
+they were to be carried out, and treated all practical arrangements
+as trifling details not worth their attention; so that Speke and his
+caravan sometimes found themselves not very well off for food. The
+king or the queen-mother had said, “Let them be fed,” but ministers
+were not equally eager to see the royal largesse awarded. The handsome
+young king was extremely trying to deal with, as he put a great many
+questions and seldom waited for the answers. His slavish courtiers were
+constantly on their bellies, uttering incessant expressions of “Thank
+you very much” (“Niyanzi-ge”) for whatever their chief was pleased to
+do, say, or show to them. Not infrequently Speke intervened to save
+the lives of queens or pages who for a nothing were condemned to a
+cruel execution. On one occasion a picnic on the shores of the Victoria
+Nyanza was attended by the following incident. One of Mutesa’s wives,--
+
+    “a most charming creature, and truly one of the best of the lot,
+    plucked a fruit and offered it to the king, thinking, doubtless,
+    to please him greatly; but he, like a madman, flew into a towering
+    passion, said it was the first time a woman had ever had the
+    impudence to offer him anything, and ordered the pages to seize,
+    bind, and lead her off to execution. These words were no sooner
+    uttered by the king than the whole bevy of pages slipped their cord
+    turbans from their heads, and rushed like a pack of cupid beagles
+    upon the fairy queen, who, indignant at the little urchins daring
+    to touch her majesty, remonstrated with the king, and tried to
+    beat them off like flies, but was soon captured, overcome, and
+    dragged away, crying on the names of the Kamuraviona and ‘Mzungu’
+    (myself) for help and protection; whilst Lubuga, the pet sister,
+    and all the other women clasped the king by his legs, and kneeling,
+    implored forgiveness for their sister. The more they craved for
+    mercy, the more brutal he became, till at last he took a heavy
+    stick and began to belabour the poor victim on the head. Hitherto I
+    had been extremely careful not to interfere with any of the king’s
+    acts of arbitrary cruelty, knowing that such interference, at an
+    early stage, would produce more harm than good. This last act of
+    barbarism, however, was too much for my English blood to stand; and
+    as I heard my name, ‘Mzungu,’[70] imploringly pronounced, I rushed
+    at the king, and staying his uplifted arm, demanded from him the
+    woman’s life. Of course I ran imminent risk of losing my own in
+    thus thwarting the capricious tyrant; but his caprice proved the
+    friend of both. The novelty of interference even made him smile,
+    and the woman was instantly released.”
+
+Speke had quitted Grant in January, 1862. The two travellers did
+not meet again till the end of May in the same year. Grant had been
+constantly ill, and had been unable to make any survey of the lake
+shore. It was not till the 7th of July that Speke and Grant obtained
+leave to quit the capricious king on their journey eastwards to the
+Nile. The day before they started Speke notes:--
+
+    “On the way home one of the king’s favourite women overtook us,
+    walking, with her hands behind her head, to execution, crying
+    ‘Nyawo’ in the most pitiful manner. A man was preceding her,
+    but did not touch her; for she loved to obey the orders of her
+    king voluntarily, and in consequence of previous attachment was
+    permitted as a mark of distinction to walk free. Wondrous world! It
+    was not ten minutes since we parted from the king, yet he had found
+    time to transact this bloody piece of business.”
+
+On the following morning the king replied to Speke’s farewell remarks
+“with great feeling and good taste.” The king followed him with his
+courtiers in a procession to his camp, and exhorted the porters to
+follow the travellers through fire and water. “Then, exchanging adieus
+again, he walked ahead in gigantic strides up the hill, the pretty
+favourite of his harem, Lubuga, beckoning and waving with her little
+hands, and crying, ‘Bana! Bana!’[71] All showed a little feeling at the
+severance. We saw them no more.”
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+FROM VICTORIA NYANZA TO ALEXANDRIA
+
+
+On the 28th of July, 1862, Speke stood by the side of the Ripon Falls,
+where the Victoria Nile leaves the great Nyanza at the head of Napoleon
+Gulf. Grant had gone off with a portion of the expedition on the more
+direct route to Unyoro. Speke had reached the Victoria Nile first of
+all below its exit from the lake, and describes the scene as follows:--
+
+    “It was the very perfection of the effect aimed at in a highly
+    kept park, with a magnificent stream of from six to seven hundred
+    yards wide, dotted with islets and rocks,--the former occupied by
+    fishermen’s huts, the latter by birds and crocodiles basking in the
+    sun,--flowing between fine, high grassy banks, with rich trees and
+    plantains in the background, where herds of topi and hartebeest
+    could be seen grazing, while the hippopotami were snorting in the
+    water and bustards and guineafowl were rising at our feet.”
+
+[Illustration: THE NILE AT THE ISAMBA RAPIDS (looking North).
+
+Where Speke first struck it.]
+
+Marching up the left bank of the Nile towards the lake, he thus
+describes that river at the Isamba rapids:--
+
+    “The water ran deep between its banks, which were covered with fine
+    grass, soft cloudy acacia, and festoons of lilac convolvuli, whilst
+    here and there, where the land had slipped above the rapids,
+    bared spaces of red earth could be seen, like that of Devonshire;
+    there, too, the waters, impeded by a natural dam, seemed like a
+    huge mill pond, sullen and dark, in which two crocodiles, lying
+    about, were looking out for prey. From the high banks I looked down
+    upon a line of sloping wooded islets lying across the stream, which
+    divide its waters, and, by interrupting them, cause at once both
+    dam and rapids. The whole was more fairy-like, wild, and romantic
+    than--I must confess that my thoughts took that shape--anything I
+    ever saw outside of a theatre. It was exactly the sort of place,
+    in fact, where, bridged across from one side-slip to the other, on
+    a moonlight night, brigands would assemble to enact some dreadful
+    tragedy. Even the Wangwana (Zanzibaris) seemed spellbound at the
+    novel beauty of the sight, and no one thought of moving till hunger
+    warned us that night was setting in, and we had better look out for
+    lodgings.”
+
+Speke describes the Ripon Falls, where the Nile leaves the lake, as by
+far the most interesting sight he had ever seen in Africa. The falls
+are stemmed by rocky islands and crowned by magnificent trees.[72]
+
+    “It was a sight that attracted one to it for hours,--the roar of
+    the waters, the thousands of passenger-fish, leaping at the falls
+    with all their might, the Basoga and Baganda fishermen coming
+    out in boats and taking post on all the rocks with rod and hook,
+    hippopotami and crocodiles lying sleepily on the water, the ferry
+    at work above the falls, and cattle driven down to drink at the
+    margin of the lake. The scene made, in all, with the pretty nature
+    of the country,--small hills, grassy-topped, with trees in the
+    folds, and gardens on the lower slopes,--as interesting a picture
+    as one could wish to see.”
+
+This was Speke’s furthest point eastward in connection with Nile
+discovery. He confesses in his book that he has missed much by not
+going through Busoga to see the northeast corner of the lake. Had
+he done so, he might have cleared up at the very beginning the most
+disputed portion of that lake’s geography. At the northeast corner
+of the Victoria Nyanza is a long and narrow gulf which we now term
+Kavirondo Bay. This gulf figures on Speke’s map as a semi-independent
+Lake Baringo. Stanley, in his circumnavigation, wholly overlooked it,
+as its mouth is blocked by islands. Joseph Thompson read a quarter of
+the riddle. One-half was guessed by Mr. C. W. Hobley, and the remaining
+quarter was cleared up by an expedition under Commander Whitehouse.
+
+[Illustration: RIPON FALLS, FROM BUGUNGA, WHERE SPEKE FIRST SAW THEM.]
+
+These falls of the Nile were named after the Earl de Grey and Ripon,
+then President of the Royal Geographical Society; and the gulf of
+the Victoria Nyanza, from which the Nile issued, was called Napoleon
+Channel after the then Emperor of the French. Speke and his party, with
+their Baganda guides, got into canoes, and paddled some distance down
+the Nile north of the Isamba rapids. But just as they were nearing Lake
+Kioga (of whose existence Speke was ignorant) they passed an important
+town on the left bank of the Nile which was an outpost of Unyoro,
+under a semi-independent chief. Here the party was received with the
+greatest hostility, and obliged to give up the river route. Speke
+struck inland to the waters of the Luajali, which he wrongly believed
+to be another outlet of the Victoria Nyanza, and shortly afterwards
+met Grant, who was on his return journey from the capital of Unyoro.
+After some hesitation they decided to join forces and march on Unyoro
+overland. By this means they entirely lost count of the course of the
+Victoria Nile for some distance, and of the existence of the great
+lakes Kioga and Kwania. As they crossed the boundary line and entered
+Unyoro, Speke writes:--
+
+    “This first march was a picture of all the country to its capital:
+    an interminable forest of small trees, bush, and tall grass, with
+    scanty villages, low huts, and dirty-looking people clad in skins;
+    the plantain, sweet potato, sesamum, and ulezi (millet) forming
+    the chief edibles, besides goats and fowls; whilst the cows, which
+    are reported to be numerous, were kept, as everywhere else where
+    pasture-lands are good, by the wandering, unsociable Wahuma, and
+    were seldom seen. No hills, except a few scattered cones, disturb
+    the level surface of the land, and no pretty views ever cheer
+    the eye. Uganda is now entirely left behind; we shall not see
+    its like again; for the further one leaves the equator, and the
+    rain-attracting influences of the Mountains of the Moon, vegetation
+    decreases proportionately with the distance.”
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF NAPOLEON GULF, FROM JINJA.]
+
+Speke had sent on, many months in advance, his head-man, Baraka, to
+await him in Unyoro, and possibly to convey letters to Petherick. But
+for this action in all probability a peaceful entry into Unyoro would
+have been refused, as the Baganda were much detested there for their
+predatory raids. Kamurasi, King of Unyoro, was very nearly as big a
+scoundrel and as inhospitable to strangers as his son Kabarega, who is
+now residing in the Seychelles Islands. After innumerable difficulties
+caused by the caprices of Mutesa and the jealousies subsisting between
+the Baganda and Banyoro, and the fierce suspicions of Kamurasi, they
+reached the capital of that monarch who considered himself to be the
+legitimate emperor over all the lands once ruled by the Bahima race.
+This capital was situated then on a peninsula between the Kafu River
+and the Nile, on what is now the soil of Uganda. The Kafu River, which
+is a broad, marshy stream rising not far from the Albert Nyanza, is the
+present boundary between the two kingdoms. Speke wrongly believed it to
+be another outlet of the Nile.
+
+For nine days Speke and his companion were kept waiting before the
+suspicious king could make up his mind to see them. From the 9th of
+September to the 9th of November the whole expedition was detained
+at the Court of this greedy tyrant. At his Court they heard of the
+existence of a large lake, “Lutanzige,” to the west,[73] and asked
+permission to go and see it. This was refused, and thus another
+opportunity of adding an important piece of information to Nile
+discovery was denied to Speke, who could have travelled to and from
+the coast of Lake Albert in three weeks instead of wasting two months
+at Kamurasi’s Court. However, during this long stay Speke managed to
+send Bombay with some of Kamurasi’s men down the Nile and through
+the Lango and Acholi countries to Petherick’s outpost. After Bombay’s
+return with this cheering news, Speke was more than ever impatient to
+get away. Kamurasi attempted to delay the departure under one pretext
+or another, no doubt with the object of bleeding the expedition of more
+and more gifts. At last, on the 9th of November, they descended the
+Kafu River to its junction with the Nile, and found themselves on the
+broad Nile, still lake-like in extent, owing to the vicinity of Lake
+Kioga. In this manner, some travelling by canoe and some by land, they
+reached the Karuma Falls, from which point they left the Nile, marching
+across the marshy and then steppe-like countries of the Acholi, and
+came first into touch with the influence of Egypt at Faloro, on the
+borders of the Madi country. Here they met a Sudanese named Muhammad
+Wad-el-Mek,--quite black, but dressed like an Egyptian and talking
+Arabic. Muhammad was in command of some two hundred Sudanese, who,
+by their association with Egypt, were known as Turks by the natives.
+Muhammad Wad-el-Mek at first professed to be Petherick’s employé, and
+then confessed that he was really the head-man of a Maltese trader
+named De Bono. These were the men that Petherick had arranged with De
+Bono were to come into touch with Speke’s expedition.
+
+Here, however, they met with some disappointment. Instead of being
+allowed to proceed directly to Gondokoro, Muhammad Wad-el-Mek sought
+to detain them by alleging that no boats would be waiting for them
+at Gondokoro at that season (December). The usual heart-breaking
+delays took place. Speke decided from this point (Faloro) to send back
+Kijwiga,--a fairly faithful Unyoro guide, who had been with him now,
+one way and the other, about a year, having originally been sent to
+greet him in Uganda. Meantime Muhammad, De Bono’s agent, went off to
+the southward with his men to fight one African chief on behalf of
+another so as to secure a large quantity of ivory.
+
+Speke was shocked, during his stay in Unyoro, at the abominable way
+in which the “Turks” treated the inoffensive Madi natives. At last,
+on the 12th of January, 1863, Speke, disgusted and hopeless at the
+delay, started ahead to a village called Panyoro. He was followed
+up by Muhammad’s men, and they arrived at the Nile near the modern
+station of Afuddu (close to the junction of the river Asua and the
+Nile). At this place they found a tree with the letters M. I. inscribed
+on its bark. This was the remains of an attempt on the part of the
+Venetian traveller Miani to carve his name on a tree so as to give some
+information to Speke, who had long been expected in this direction. At
+this place there was another halt, which Speke and Grant employed in
+killing game, and giving a great deal of the meat thus acquired to the
+natives.
+
+On the first of February they started again, Muhammad having procured
+porters by the most arbitrary methods. They followed the Nile down to
+the confluence of the Asua River. This stream Speke imagined to flow
+out of what we now call Kavirondo Bay. It is strange that so great a
+geographer should have had such elementary notions about hydrography.
+He gives the Victoria Nyanza something like four principal outlets,
+much as the Portuguese in earlier days provided lakes in the centre
+of Africa which fed impartially the Congo, the Nile, and the Zambezi.
+Crossing the Asua, they emerged along the Nile rapids until they
+arrived at the verge of the Bari country. One serious attack was made
+on them, but was met by the determined measures taken by Muhammad.
+
+At last, on the 15th of February, 1863, they walked into Gondokoro.
+Here their first inquiry was for Petherick. “A mysterious silence
+ensued; we were informed that Mr. De Bono was the man we had to thank
+for the assistance we had received in coming from Madi.” Hurrying down
+through the ruins of the abandoned Austrian Mission to the bank of the
+river, where a line of vessels was moored, the explorers suddenly saw
+Mr. Samuel Baker marching towards them. “What joy this was I cannot
+tell. We could not talk fast enough, so overwhelmed were we both to
+meet again.”[74]
+
+Mr. Samuel Baker had conceived the idea of going to meet Speke at the
+head waters of the Nile. He and his wife (the present Lady Baker)
+arrived at Khartum, and there received much information and assistance
+from Petherick in the furtherance of their work. As to Petherick
+himself, he arrived with his wife also a few days after Speke reached
+Gondokoro. Speke seems to have been rather hard on this man. We know
+that Petherick went up the river to Gondokoro in 1862, expecting to
+get news of Speke, and not imagining that he could have lost something
+like a year of travel by his delays in Unyamwezi, Uganda, and Unyoro.
+Being unable to remain indefinitely at Gondokoro without news of the
+travellers, he arranged with De Bono to send Muhammad and his men in
+the direction of Unyoro to found a post where Speke might be awaited.
+As we know, these orders were carried out. Petherick was naturally
+obliged to think of his own means of livelihood, for he was an unpaid
+consul. He therefore went on an ivory-trading expedition west of
+the Mountain Nile, knowing, of course, that Baker would be awaiting
+the travellers, and that runners from the direction of Gondokoro
+would keep him advised as to their approach. He and his wife reached
+Gondokoro only a few days after Speke had arrived there. Speke,
+however, refused all assistance at their hands, and decided to return
+to Khartum on Baker’s dahabiah. Speke’s adverse report on Petherick,
+combined with the intrigues of the Turks, who disliked his opposition
+to the slave-trade, practically ruined Petherick, as we have seen in a
+previous chapter.
+
+The journey of this wonderful expedition from Gondokoro down the Nile
+(Speke mistaking the origin and course of its affluents as he went
+along, so that his map in this respect is very incorrect) was broken
+at Khartum, whence the Europeans and Negroes travelled across the
+desert to Egypt. Of the hundred-odd porters who left Zanzibar with this
+expedition in 1860, nineteen (including Bombay) reached Cairo with
+Speke and Grant, the remainder having deserted, died, or been sent back
+from various points. These survivors were generously treated by Speke,
+who gave them an extra year’s pay as a gratuity, and orders for land
+and marriage portions on their reaching Zanzibar. He also provided for
+their free passage from Suez to Zanzibar via the Seychelles Islands.
+Somehow or other they went on by mistake to Mauritius, where they were
+treated most generously by the little colony. Thence they were sent in
+safety to Zanzibar. From this point several of these men subsequently
+journeyed with Stanley and other African explorers. Bombay, “Captain
+of the Faithful,” died in 1886 (?), having been in receipt during the
+last years of his life of a regular pension from the Royal Geographical
+Society.
+
+Speke and Grant returned to England in the spring of 1863. By December
+in that year Speke had finished his great book, the “Discovery of the
+Source of the Nile.” Speke, soon after his return, was received by the
+present king. In the autumn of 1863 he was given an ovation in the
+county of Somerset worthy of his achievements. “Punch” accorded him
+a cartoon drawn by Tenniel, but the British government did _nothing_
+for him, unless there can be attributed to its influence the paltry
+satisfaction of granting to him through the Heralds College supporters
+and an additional motto to his coat of arms. By this grant his family
+is now entitled to add a hippopotamus and a crocodile as supporters to
+their shield, a crocodile to their crest, the flowing Nile to their
+coat of arms, and the additional motto, “Honor est a Nilo.”
+
+[Illustration: THE LAST MAP ISSUED TO ILLUSTRATE SPEKE’S THEORIES,
+1865.]
+
+Meantime Burton had become a British consul on the West Coast of
+Africa, and was returning to England in 1864. Speke had published
+articles in “Blackwood” and a book which, as already related, made
+uncomplimentary references to his former companion. The two great
+travellers were invited to meet at the British Association at Bath in
+1864 and discuss their different views as to the Nile sources; for
+Burton, as a tit-for-tat, had published a work in collaboration with
+Petherick, in which he sought to prove that Speke’s discovery of the
+Victoria Nyanza was unimportant. Taking advantage of the traveller’s
+admission that he had touched but seldom the shores of this great
+lake, he denied its existence, and reduced it to a mere assemblage of
+pools and swamps. Speke, before quitting Baker at Gondokoro, had told
+him much of the Luta Nzige or Western Lake which had some connection
+with the Nile, and Baker (as will be subsequently set forth) had
+followed Speke’s indications with success, and discovered and named
+the Albert Nyanza. His exaggeration of the length of this sheet of
+water had convinced Burton that Speke was altogether mistaken, and
+that he himself was wrong in having earlier stated that the Rusizi
+River flowed into and not out of the north end of Tanganyika. (Neither
+Speke nor Burton actually saw the Rusizi.) Burton therefore turned
+the Rusizi into an effluent of Tanganyika, and made it a connection
+between that lake and the Albert Nyanza. Had he had any glimmerings
+of lakes Kivu, Albert Edward, and the Semliki, he would no doubt have
+been still more certain of his hypothesis. As it was, Speke’s theories
+have been shown subsequently to have been very near the whole truth.
+The Victoria Nyanza is the main source of the Nile, though that river
+finds another reservoir in the great swampy lakes of Kioga and Kwania
+(which again receive much of the drainage of Mount Elgon), and a most
+important contribution from the Albert Nyanza; for this last lake
+is the receptacle of all the drainage of the Ruwenzori snow range.
+At the time, however, Speke’s theory was not sufficiently supported
+by evidence, and was certainly open to attack, the more so because
+he had blundered by giving the Victoria Nyanza so many outlets. The
+two great men were to meet and discuss their differences, and every
+one knew that underneath a mere dispute on geographical theories lay
+deep-seated bitterness of feeling. It was said that Speke, who hated
+quarrelling, and perhaps felt some compunction as to the frankness of
+his remarks concerning Burton, looked forward to this public meeting
+with great dislike, the more so as he was a poor and unready public
+speaker. But the intended conference was never to come off; on the
+21st of September, 1864, Speke, whilst out partridge-shooting on his
+father’s land at Jordans, near Ilminster, was scrambling over a stile
+with his gun at full-cock. It was just one of those little imprudences
+that even the wariest of African travellers commits when he returns to
+civilisation. Both barrels of the gun were discharged into his body,
+and he died within a few hours. The news was received by the British
+Association at Bath just as the meeting was about to commence, and
+as Burton was seated awaiting the arrival of his old comrade. This
+terrible event hushed the difference between them. Burton’s wife, a
+gifted woman, who sometimes wrote very good poetry, inscribed some very
+beautiful lines to the memory of Speke.
+
+[Illustration: SPEKE’S HANDWRITING.
+
+(Letter to Laurence Oliphant.)]
+
+We take leave here of one of the greatest of African explorers, the
+second greatest only, if Stanley is to be accounted the first. Only a
+man of extraordinary energy, determination, bravery, tact, and of iron
+constitution could have struggled through the difficulties which beset
+Speke on his route from Zanzibar to the Victoria Nyanza, and from the
+Victoria Nyanza to the navigable Nile. The purport of the expedition
+was wellnigh wrecked between Unyamwezi and the Victoria Nyanza; it
+ran many risks from the caprices of Mutesa; several times Kamurasi
+threatened it with failure in Unyoro; other dangers awaited it in the
+Madi and Bari countries, but it finally resulted in affording us the
+main solution of the Nile Quest. As the outcome of Speke’s journey,
+the Victoria Nyanza was placed on the map with some approximate
+correctness as to shape and area; the shape and size of Lake Albert
+Nyanza were guessed at with extraordinary accuracy, and the course
+of the White and Mountain Nile was foreshadowed with the same amount
+of truth as in the case of the Albert Nyanza. The remarkable Hima
+aristocracy of equatorial Africa and the barbaric court of Uganda were
+revealed to the world. Speke broke the back of the Nile mystery, just
+as Stanley did that of the Congo. It only remained henceforth to fill
+up the minor details of the map.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+SAMUEL BAKER AND THE ALBERT NYANZA
+
+
+Samuel White Baker was born in London on the 8th June, 1821, and was
+the second and eventually eldest son of Mr. Samuel Baker, a city
+merchant, who possessed large properties and sugar plantations in
+Jamaica and Mauritius. Samuel Baker, the elder, at one time maintained
+a small fleet of sailing vessels. He also became one of the first
+Directors of the Great Western Railway. His family and grandfather were
+mainly settled at Bristol, and were much connected with the navy in
+the eighteenth century. Further back still the Bakers were members of
+Parliament and Court officials. They came originally from London, then
+became a Kentish family, then moved to Dorsetshire, then to Bristol,
+and finally back again to London. Samuel Baker, the younger, was a
+typical English boy. His biographer, Mr. Douglas Murray, describes him
+as having been “of the Saxon type; a noble-looking boy, of very fair
+complexion, light hair, and fearless blue eyes.” He was “enterprising,
+mischievous, for ever getting into scrapes, and leading others into
+them; but he was never known to tell a lie or do a mean thing.” His
+career was very nearly brought to a premature close when he was twelve
+years old by an attempt to make fireworks. He ignited a small heap of
+gunpowder on the kitchen table, and caused a terrible explosion, which
+blew him to the far end of the room and burnt his arm severely.
+
+He hated school, and received most of his education from a private
+tutor and by a residence at Frankfurt in Germany. His father attempted
+to put him in his London office; and this work, though excessively
+irksome, was endured for a time, as he had early fallen in love with
+the daughter of a Gloucestershire rector, whom he married when he was
+only twenty-two. Soon after his marriage he went out to Mauritius
+with his wife, to attempt the management of his father’s estates in
+that island. But he was restless and dissatisfied with this career;
+moreover, his three children, born in three years, all died. He
+therefore started for Ceylon, to which island he was attracted by the
+stories of big-game shooting. His interest was excited in the splendid
+mountain region of the interior of Ceylon, which presents considerable
+areas for European occupations between six thousand and eight thousand
+feet in altitude. Here for nine years he worked at founding an English
+settlement of planters, which exists to this day in a flourishing
+condition, some of the land-owners being members of the Baker family.
+But his wife, who bore him many children, suffered greatly in health.
+In 1855 he returned to England, and wrote a book on Ceylon. At the
+end of that year his wife died, and Baker, after leaving his young
+children to be brought up in England, started for Constantinople, which
+he reached at the close of the Crimean War. His idea was to travel in
+Circassia, and see what advance in that direction Russia was making
+towards India; but he spent several years in a rather objectless
+fashion, shooting, fishing, and exploring in Asia Minor and Turkey in
+Europe.
+
+In 1859 he settled down as Manager-General of a British-made railway
+from the Danube to the Black Sea. Whilst this railway was being made
+he met in Hungary the lady who became his second wife.[75] The railway
+was completed in 1860, and Baker once more became restless. Big-game
+shooting in Asia Minor--splendid as it seems to have been at that
+period, when he could shoot as many bears, boars, wolves, red deer, and
+roe deer as he wished--did not content him; his thoughts turned towards
+Africa and the Nile. He arrived at Cairo with Mrs. Baker in 1861, with
+the idea of travelling up the Nile to meet Speke and Grant coming from
+Zanzibar via the Victoria Nyanza.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  _Photo by Maull & Fox._]
+
+SAMUEL BAKER, 1865.]
+
+But Baker resolved, before attempting anything so difficult as the
+exploration of the White Nile above Gondokoro, to learn something of
+African travel and Sudanese Arabic. He therefore left the main Nile
+at Berber and ascended the Atbara River, the last affluent which the
+Nile receives on its way to the Mediterranean;[76] the first running
+river encountered by the traveller ascending the Nile that can be said
+to flow through tropical Africa,--the Africa with the typical Ethiopian
+fauna and flora.
+
+    “After a scorching march of about twenty miles we arrived at
+    the junction of the Atbara River with the Nile [writes Baker];
+    throughout the route the barren sand stretched to the horizon
+    on the left, while on the right, within a mile of the Nile,
+    the soil was sufficiently rich to support a certain amount of
+    vegetation, chiefly dwarf mimosas and the _Asclepia gigantea_....
+    The Atbara has a curious appearance; in no part was it less than
+    four hundred yards in width, while in many places this breadth
+    was much exceeded. The banks were from twenty-five to thirty feet
+    deep: these had evidently been overflowed during floods, but at
+    the present time the river was dead, not only partially dry, but
+    so glaring was the sandy bed that the reflection of the sun was
+    almost unbearable. Great numbers of the _Dum_ palm (_Hyphæne
+    thebaica_) grew upon the banks.... The only shade there is afforded
+    by the evergreen Dum palms.... Many pools were of considerable
+    size and great depth. In flood time a tremendous torrent sweeps
+    down the course of the Atbara, and the sudden bends of the river
+    are hollowed out by the force of the stream to a depth of twenty
+    or thirty feet below the level of the bed. Accordingly, these
+    hollows become reservoirs of water when the river is otherwise
+    exhausted.... These pools are full of life, huge fish, crocodiles
+    of immense size, turtles, and occasionally hippopotami.... The
+    animals of the desert gazelles, hyaenas, and wild asses--are
+    compelled to resort to these crowded drinking places....
+    Innumerable doves, varying in species, throng the trees and seek
+    the shelter of the Dum palms; thousands of sand grouse arrive
+    morning and evening to drink and to depart.”
+
+In the pools of the Atbara Baker for the first time shot
+hippopotamuses. He also started fishing with a rod and line, and on one
+occasion caught an enormous “turtle.”[77]
+
+At the end of June they were nearly suffocated with the heat and dust
+of the Sudan summer, but they were to experience the effects of the
+melting of Abyssinian snows and of the descent of the tropical rains
+on that African Switzerland. On the 24th of June Baker was lying half
+asleep on his bed by the margin of the river when he fancied he heard a
+rumbling sound like distant thunder. This roar increased in volume till
+it awoke his Arabs, who rushed into the camp shouting, “The river! The
+river!”
+
+    “We were up in an instant, and my interpreter in a state of intense
+    confusion exclaimed that the river was coming down, and that the
+    supposed distant thunder was the roar of approaching water....
+    Many of the people were sleeping on the clean sand of the river’s
+    bed, and were only just in time to reach the top of the steep
+    bank before the water was on them in the darkness.... The river
+    had arrived ‘like a thief in the night.’ When morning broke I
+    stood upon the banks of a noble river, the wonder of the desert!
+    Yesterday there was a barren sheet of glaring sand with a fringe of
+    withered bush and trees upon its borders.... No bush could boast
+    of a leaf, no tree could throw a shade: crisp gum crackled upon
+    the stems of the mimosas.... In one night there was a mysterious
+    change.... An army of water was hastening to the wasted river,
+    which had become a magnificent stream some five hundred yards
+    in width and fifteen to twenty feet in depth. Bamboos and reeds
+    with trash of all kinds were hurried along the muddy waters.... I
+    realised what had occurred: the rains were falling and the snows
+    were melting in Abyssinia. These were the main source of the Nile
+    floods.”
+
+Baker left the Atbara in a land of wild asses and gazelles, and
+travelled to Kassala,--a fortress of the eastern Sudan since rendered
+famous by the struggle for its possession between Dervishes and
+Italians. Kassala is situated on the right bank of the river Mareb,
+which rises close to the Red Sea on the northern slopes of the
+Abyssinian plateau. The Mareb has every intention of reaching the Nile,
+or rather the Atbara, and no doubt did so in past epochs; but at the
+present time northwards of Kassala it loses itself in the desert.
+
+    “There was an extraordinary change [writes Baker] in the appearance
+    of the river between Gozerajup and this spot. There was no longer
+    the vast sandy desert with the river flowing through its sterile
+    course on a level with the surface of the country, but after
+    traversing an apparently perfect flat of forty-five miles of rich
+    alluvial soil, we suddenly arrived upon the edge of a deep valley,
+    between five and six miles wide, at the bottom of which, about two
+    hundred feet below the general level of the country, flowed the
+    river Atbara. On the opposite side of the valley, the same vast
+    table-lands continued to the western horizon.
+
+    “We commenced the descent towards the river; the valley was a
+    succession of gullies and ravines, of landslips and watercourses;
+    the entire hollow of miles in width had evidently been the work of
+    the river. How many ages had the rains and the stream been at work
+    to scoop out from the flat tableland this deep and broad valley?
+    Here was the giant labourer that had shovelled the rich loam upon
+    the delta of lower Egypt! Upon these vast flats of fertile soil
+    there can be no drainage except through soakage. The deep valley
+    is therefore the receptacle not only for the water that oozes from
+    its sides, but subterranean channels bursting as land-springs
+    from all parts of the walls of the valley, wash down the more
+    soluble portions of the earth, and continually waste away the
+    soil. Landslips occur during the rainy season; streams of rich mud
+    pour down the valley’s slopes, and as the river flows beneath in
+    a swollen torrent, the friable banks topple down into the stream
+    and dissolve. The Atbara becomes the thickness of pea-soup, as its
+    muddy waters steadily perform the duty they have fulfilled from age
+    to age. Thus was the great river at work upon our arrival on its
+    banks at the bottom of the valley. The Arab name, ‘Bahr-al-Aswad’
+    (black river), was well bestowed. It was the black mother of Egypt,
+    still carrying to her offspring the nourishment that had formed the
+    Delta.
+
+    “At this point of interest the journey had commenced; the deserts
+    were passed, all was fertility and life; wherever the sources of
+    the Nile might be, the Atbara was the parent of Egypt! This was my
+    first impression, to be proved hereafter.”
+
+Baker gives a fine description of the splendid type of Arab who is
+still found in the regions of the Atbara:--
+
+    “He was the most magnificent specimen of an Arab that I have ever
+    seen. Although upwards of eighty years of age, he was as erect as
+    a lance, and did not appear more than between fifty and sixty; he
+    was of Herculean stature, about six feet three inches high, with
+    immensely broad shoulders and chest, a remarkably arched nose; eyes
+    like an eagle, beneath large, shaggy, but perfectly white eyebrows;
+    a snow-white beard of great thickness descended below the middle of
+    his breast. He wore a white turban, and a white cashmere abbai or
+    long robe, from the throat to the ankles. As a desert patriarch he
+    was superb, the very perfection of all that the imagination could
+    paint, if we would personify Abraham at the head of his people.”
+
+This fine old Sheikh brought ten of his sons, most of them as tall
+as himself. He seems to have been the father of many children,--a
+fortunate circumstance for the country, though no doubt nearly all
+of his stalwart descendants were extirpated in the miserable wars
+following on the Mahdi’s revolt.
+
+Baker ascended the Atbara to its upper waters, where it is known as the
+Settit (higher up still as the Takaze). Here he had magnificent hunting
+of big game amongst the Hamran Arabs, whose extraordinary prowess with
+the sword he describes most vividly. They would follow up elephants and
+hamstring them with a single blow of their long weapons, which were
+like those of the Crusaders. (As a matter of fact, the generality of
+the Hamran swords were manufactured at Sollingen in Germany.) In this
+land Baker saw innumerable giraffes, and most of the big antelopes of
+Central Africa, including Kudu and Oryx. The country about the Upper
+Atbara below the Abyssinian highlands was exactly like an English park,
+though the trees were mainly acacias. Here and there was a gigantic
+baobab. In the waters of the river was found the now well-known
+Lung-fish, the _Protopterus_.
+
+From the upper waters of the Atbara and its many tributaries Baker,
+skirting the western terraces of Abyssinia, reached the river
+Rahad,--an Egyptian affluent of the Blue Nile which flows nearly
+parallel to the river Dinder. These two streams rise on the western
+flanks of the Abyssinian tableland, and enter the Blue Nile about one
+hundred miles southeast of Khartum. On his way down this river Baker,
+in the country of Galabat, met two German lay missionaries proceeding
+to Abyssinia in spite of the objection expressed to their presence by
+King Theodore. “One of these preachers was a blacksmith, whose iron
+constitution had entirely given way, and the little strength that
+remained he exhausted in endless quotations of texts from the Bible,
+which he considered applicable to every trifling event or expression.”
+
+In June, 1862, the Bakers reached Khartum. After a long stay at the
+Pethericks’ house, Baker decided, as already related, to go in search
+of Speke. His wife, the present Lady Baker, accompanied him. As already
+related, she was a Hungarian lady of great beauty, and possessed of
+extraordinary courage. Her fame as “_the_ Lady” (Es-sitt) still lingers
+among the Nile Negroes.
+
+It has already been shown that Baker succeeded in being the first
+European to greet Speke and Grant. He received from these travellers
+the legacy to complete their task of ascertaining definitely the
+existence of the western Nile lake (Albert), of which Speke had heard
+under the name of Luta Nzige. On the 26th of March, 1863, the Bakers
+left Gondokoro on this errand.
+
+Muhammad Wad-al-Mek, De Bono’s agent, and all the other Nubian Nile
+traders, did their very utmost to prevent Baker returning along Speke’s
+route through the Bari country. They incited his Khartum men to mutiny.
+Baker, being unable to obtain porters, owing to the excessive hostility
+of the slave-traders, employed the camels he had brought with him
+from Khartum for his transport. As the slave-traders had threatened,
+if he followed in their footsteps, to raise the natives about him, he
+determined to reach the back country of Lotuka first, and therefore
+deliberately strewed some of his goods in the way so as to delay the
+slave-traders, who stopped to pick them up. He was outdone at his own
+game, for a large caravan of “Turks” reached the Elliria country nearly
+as soon as he did. The leader of this expedition was one Ibrahim. Mrs.
+Baker resolved to see what could be done by a direct appeal to whatever
+the man might possess of generosity. The Bakers threatened that if
+he did them harm he would probably be hung at Khartum, while if he
+assisted them to see this lake, they would see he was well rewarded.
+The result was that a truce was patched up between the slave-traders
+and Baker’s small expedition. Nevertheless, a mutiny happened among
+Baker’s camel-men in the vicinity of Lotuka. Some of these men ran away
+and joined a slave-trading party, which, however, was massacred by the
+Lotuka. Henceforth Baker’s few men stuck to him faithfully, in terror
+of what might happen to them from his evil eye.
+
+Baker journeyed southward through the splendid Lotuka country,--a
+land of which we know even now scarcely more than he told us forty
+years ago. The Lotuka people are a splendid race of Negroids, with a
+good deal more Gala blood in their veins than is the case with the
+Masai, to whom they are closely allied in language, but who dwell
+very much farther to the east and south. Since the days of Baker’s
+adventure some of the Lotuka have become Muhammadans, and they are
+no longer completely nude in consequence. Their country is a very
+mountainous one, and on the whole well watered. It will probably play
+a considerable part in the future of the Uganda Protectorate. Working
+steadily south through the Madi and Acholi countries, the Bakers forded
+the Asua, the great southeastern tributary of the Mountain Nile. Here
+nearly all their porters deserted, and as their camels had died in the
+Madi country, they were obliged to abandon all loads which were not
+absolutely necessary,--such as ammunition, and presents for Kamurasi.
+
+[Illustration: A NATIVE OF UNYORO.]
+
+At length they arrived at the Karuma Falls on the Victoria Nile,
+and entered Unyoro. Their first reception in Unyoro was hostile,
+because Muhammad Wad-al-Mek had preceded them, and had made the worst
+impression by his treatment of the Banyoro. At first Baker desired to
+follow the Nile down stream till it entered the Albert Nyanza, but the
+Banyoro would not allow him to do anything of the kind, or to make
+any journey off the main road along the Victoria Nile to Kamurasi’s
+capital. Contrary to their anticipations, Kamurasi received the Bakers
+well; and this was the more fortunate, as Mr. Baker was very nearly
+dead with fever. But Kamurasi soon showed his evil nature. He refused
+to allow Baker to proceed due west to the Albert Nyanza, declaring
+that lake was distant a six months’ journey. Ibrahim, the slave and
+ivory trader, had purchased all the goods he required, and had left
+Unyoro. All Baker’s porters, except thirteen, had deserted. Finding,
+however, there was nothing more to be got out of Baker, Kamurasi
+relented, accepted a double-barrelled gun, and sent off the explorer
+and his wife with two guides and an escort of three hundred men. This
+escort, however, was soon sent back, owing to their unruly behaviour.
+Somehow or other, with such porters as could be procured from village
+to village, they managed, in the teeth of fearful misfortunes, to
+reach the Albert Nyanza at a place called Mbakovia, on the southeast
+coast. On this journey Mrs. Baker nearly died from sunstroke, and
+Baker himself was frightfully ill. But on the 16th of March, 1864,
+they had discovered a great lake “with a boundless sea-horizon to the
+southwards,” which they named the Albert Nyanza.
+
+At the time of Baker’s visit no doubt (though he does not say so)
+there was a good deal of mist about this lake,--a common feature.
+The mist and the clouds seem to have prevented the travellers from
+getting any glimpse of the mass of the Ruwenzori snow-range which lay
+not many miles distant from them to the south. They also believed
+(though they were then a day’s journey from the end of the lake) that
+there was a boundless sea-horizon to the south. Their misapprehension
+of the geography of this lake has often caused surprise; but apart
+from a natural tendency to exaggerate the importance of their own
+particular lake, in looking to the southward they were looking up the
+broad valley of the Semliki, which was undoubtedly at one time--at any
+rate for a distance of some fifty miles--a southern extension of the
+Albert Nyanza. This valley was bordered on either side by cliff-like
+mountains--plateau edges--continued northwards along the coasts of the
+Albert Lake. To the west of Lake Albert the plateau tilts westwards
+towards the Congo basin. Baker called the western cliffs and the
+foothills of Ruwenzori the Blue Mountains,--a name they might very well
+continue to bear, as there is no native designation for these heights,
+which separate so abruptly and by only a few miles the basin of the
+Congo from the basin of the Nile.
+
+After a short stay at Mbakovia, the Bakers got into canoes and coasted
+along the Albert Nyanza to Magungo, where the lake is entered by the
+Victoria Nile. They ascended the Victoria Nile and discovered the
+Murchison Falls, “where the river drops in one leap one hundred and
+twenty feet into a deep basin, the edge of which literally swarms with
+crocodiles.” On their overland journey in the direction of the Karuma
+Falls, their porters again deserted, and for two months they were
+stranded, almost at death’s door, living with difficulty on wild herbs
+and mouldy flour; occasionally, but rarely, obtaining fowls from the
+natives. Once more they came within the persecution of Kamurasi, who
+pestered Baker for his assistance in a war he was carrying on against
+his relation, Fowuka. Whilst Baker was hesitating, the Nile was crossed
+by one of De Bono’s caravans of ivory-traders, who had entered into an
+alliance with Fowuka. They were just about to attack Kamurasi’s army
+(and with their one hundred and fifty guns would have easily defeated
+it) when Baker planted the British flag in Kamurasi’s camp, and
+warned De Bono’s soldiers that the Unyoro king was now under British
+protection. Overawed by Baker’s threats, the ivory-traders withdrew
+to the north side of the Nile. The only return that he received from
+Kamurasi for this service was that the latter placed every obstacle
+in his way to prevent his leaving Unyoro. At the same time Mutesa of
+Uganda, having heard of a white man’s arrival in Unyoro, and imagining
+that Kamurasi was stopping his further journey to Uganda, sent a large
+army to ravage Unyoro. Kamurasi fled to some islands in the Nile,
+and left Baker to shift for himself, without provisions or beasts
+of burden, at the Karuma Falls. From this point he managed to send
+messages to Ibrahim, the slave and ivory trader, and the latter came
+to his assistance. With the aid of Ibrahim, the Bakers, who had lost
+everything except guns and ammunition, eventually managed to return
+to Gondokoro, though they were nearly killed on the way by the Bari
+tribe, which had risen against the slave-raiders. At Gondokoro their
+troubles were not ended, for the sudd had begun to form, and obstructed
+the passage of the White Nile. Plague also had broken out in Khartum.
+But the travellers fought through all obstacles, any one of which
+might have wrecked an expedition conducted by less intrepid people,
+and reached Khartum in May, 1865. Here they remained two months to
+recuperate, and during this time they managed to secure the banishment
+of one of the slave-traders who had incited the mutiny of their men at
+Gondokoro in 1863.
+
+From Khartum they travelled to Berber down the Nile, and then started
+on camels to cross the desert to Suakin. They reached England in the
+autumn of 1865. By this time perhaps African exploration had become
+more interesting to the British government, for Baker received for his
+discoveries a well-earned knighthood,--a distinction which might very
+well have been accorded to Speke or to Grant. As a matter of fact, the
+only reward given to the last-named traveller was a C.B., which was
+awarded, not for his marvellous “Walk across Africa,” but for the
+inconspicuous services which he rendered some years later in connection
+with the Abyssinian War.
+
+As the result of the Speke and Baker explorations, so far as published
+maps were concerned, our knowledge of the Nile basin in 1865 was
+as follows: The shape and area of the Victoria Nyanza were roughly
+indicated, together with the outlet of the Victoria Nile at the Ripon
+Falls. The course of the Victoria Nile was mapped (with a good many
+blanks) from the Ripon Falls to the north end of Lake Albert Nyanza.
+Baker was able to show that there was a widening of the Victoria Nile
+opposite the eastern frontier of Unyoro, but it was some years later
+before this widening was discovered to consist of two large lakes
+(Kioga and Kwania). Baker had given an extremely exaggerated size to
+the Albert Nyanza. Speke, on the other hand, had sketched this lake
+with remarkable accuracy merely from hearsay. The course of the Nile
+from the north end of Lake Albert to its junction with the Asua River
+was quite unexplored. The rest of the course of the Mountain Nile was
+mapped as far as its junction with the Bahr-al-Ghazal, but very little
+was known about one of its branches, the Giraffe River. No further
+researches beyond those made by the Turks had taken place on the Sobat
+River.
+
+As for Sir Samuel Baker, we take leave of him here as one of the great
+explorers of the Nile. He returned to the regions of the great lakes in
+1869, having been appointed for four years in charge of an expedition
+to subdue and annex to the Egyptian Empire the equatorial regions of
+the Nile basin. This object involved him in incessant fighting in
+Unyoro, with the slave-traders between Unyoro and Gondokoro, and with
+the Bari. Some of these conflicts were forced on him; others, it is
+to be feared, he precipitated by his determination to enlarge the
+territories of the Egyptian Sudan. His time would seem to have been
+passed mainly in warfare with one enemy or another, or in laying very
+solidly the foundations of a civilised administration. His stay in
+Equatoria resulted in but little addition to our knowledge of the Nile
+and its affluents. A good many of his efforts for the welfare of the
+country were thwarted by the Egyptian Governor-General at Khartum,
+and after his departure, in 1873, some of his worst enemies among the
+slave-traders were reinstated. This much must always be recorded to
+the credit of Sir Samuel Baker’s work on the Upper Nile: he inspired
+universal respect among the fair-dealing natives; he, first of all,
+broke the back of the immense slave-trading industry which had sprung
+up on the Mountain Nile, in Unyoro, and in the Acholi countries;
+throughout these regions the natives can remember but one great and
+good administrator before the present régime, and that is Sir Samuel
+Baker. “Gordoom” Pasha is but a name, and represents little to their
+minds; Emin they only remembered as an enthusiastic naturalist, who
+did but little to check the rapine and wrong-doing of his Sudanese
+soldiers; but “Baker Basha” is, in the remembrance of the old
+people, the one heroic White man they have known: terrible in battle,
+scrupulously just, at all times kind and jovial in demeanour amongst
+friends; a born ruler over a savage people.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+ALEXANDRINE TINNE AND THEODOR VON HEUGLIN
+
+
+The journeys of Petherick and Miani in the western Nile basin
+have already been described. The very interesting region of the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal, however, had been relatively neglected by scientific
+explorers down to the beginning of the sixties of the last century.
+Petherick’s own map of these regions was not published till 1869. There
+were two obstacles to water travel in this direction: the sudd, and the
+terrible fevers which attacked Europeans. The introduction of steamers
+on the Upper Nile to some extent enabled Europeans to force their
+way up streams which were not to be penetrated by sailing-vessels.
+Quite a rendezvous had been created at a place called Mashra-ar-Rak,
+where many great streams coming from the Nyam-nyam country enter the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal, which, as a geographical term, applied to the western
+lake-like affluent of the Nile, may be said to begin its course here.
+
+[Illustration: ALEXANDRINE TINNE.]
+
+Miss Tinne, who with her German companions Von Heuglin and Steudner was
+to considerably increase our knowledge of these regions, had already,
+in 1859 and 1860, ascended the White Nile in sailing-vessels to near
+Gondokoro. In 1861 she organised a great expedition in steamers and
+boats, which was accompanied by her mother, her aunt, and, later on,
+by several scientific explorers,--such as Baron d’Ablaing, Theodor von
+Heuglin, and Dr. Steudner. This expedition was intended to explore the
+region of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, to see how far the Nile basin extended
+westward in the direction of Lake Chad, and also, if possible, to
+discover a great lake in the very heart of Africa, of which rumours had
+been brought back by Miani and others.[78]
+
+Alexandrine[79] Tinne was the daughter of Philip Frederic Tinne and
+Henrietta, Baroness van Steengracht Capellen. Her father, Philip
+Tinne, was a Dutchman, who settled in England during the wars of the
+French Revolution, the French invasion of Holland having brought his
+family into trouble. The Tinnes were of remote French Huguenot origin,
+having emigrated to Holland from Calais. But further back still they
+came from Saxony. A very far back ancestor went to the Crusades, and
+distinguished himself at Rosetta (Egypt) by clambering onto the Saracen
+battlements. He received therefrom the soubriquet of “Tinne” (in Low
+Dutch, a battlement) and a coat of arms, still used by the family,
+embodying battlements. It is remarkable that Miss Tinne’s remote
+ancestor should have sprung into fame in the thirteenth century at
+the _mouth_ of the Nile. Philip Tinne, who emigrated to England at the
+end of the eighteenth century, returned to Holland after Napoleon’s
+downfall, and married a Dutch heiress, the daughter of Admiral van
+Capellen. He died when his daughter Alexandrine was only five years
+old, leaving her the richest heiress in the Netherlands. It is said
+that when a young girl she had a serious love disappointment, and
+dismissed or lost her fiancé. To stifle her mental anguish, she
+undertook a course of travel;[80] and after staying for some time
+in the Levant and Egypt, ascended the Nile in dahabiahs to near
+Gondokoro. This journey was followed by the great expedition to the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal in 1861. It is said that this expedition was even
+provided with European lady’s-maids. Probably no equally luxurious and
+well-equipped undertaking ever started for equatorial Africa. Miss
+Tinne commenced her second Nile journey by ascending the main stream as
+far as Gondokoro, and then, returning, she explored a portion of the
+Sobat River. She set out once more with the whole party from Khartum
+in February, 1863, and entered the Bahr-al-Ghazal. This was ascended
+as far as the mouth of the Bahr-al-Hamr. From this point a journey was
+then made overland to the Jur and Kosango rivers, and to the mountains
+on the borders of the Nyam-nyam country. On this exploration the
+travellers suffered most severely from fever. Dr. Steudner and the
+Baroness van Capellen eventually died of blackwater fever, and the
+remainder of the party only managed with the greatest difficulty
+to reach Khartum in July, 1864, where further deaths occurred. The
+geographical results of this expedition were not published in full till
+1869, though Miss Tinne’s cousin printed some notes on their expedition
+at Liverpool in 1864.
+
+[Illustration: ON THE JUR RIVER: SUDD BLOCKING THE CHANNEL.]
+
+After four years spent in various places in Egypt, Algeria, and Tunis,
+Miss Tinne started from Tripoli with a very large caravan to proceed to
+Lake Chad, intending afterwards to journey from Lake Chad to the Upper
+Nile.
+
+Miss Tinne took with her two Dutch sailors to assist in the
+organisation of her caravan, several Algerian women-servants, and her
+confidential old Negress, Saadah, who was originally a slave freed by
+Miss Tinne in the Sudan. The Turkish authorities made no opposition to
+her journeys, nor do they seem to have been in any way to blame for
+the catastrophe that occurred. Unfortunately, Miss Tinne, in order
+to provide for the comfort of her followers as well as for herself,
+decided to take with her one or more iron tanks filled with water,
+which were carried by the camels. These tanks attracted much attention
+when the expedition halted for a time at Murzuk, the capital of Fezzan,
+where Turkish authority was still maintained. The rumour that they
+contained treasure in coin which was to accompany this wonderful
+princess into the heart of Africa spread from the bazaars of Murzuk
+to the Tawareq of the desert, ever on the lookout to plunder caravans
+crossing the Sahara.
+
+Miss Tinne had taken all reasonable precautions to secure the
+friendship of the Tawareq on this journey. She had sent messages to
+Ghat, an important Saharan town, to the chief Ikenukhen, with presents,
+and requests for guides. The chief replied that he would meet her
+himself at a water place on the way to Ghat, and send her the guides.
+These guides apparently concerted measures with the Arab and Tawareq
+camel-drivers of her expedition, and plans were evidently laid for her
+murder and the plunder of her goods.
+
+The expedition had halted at Wadi Aberjong to await the Tawareq chief
+Ikenukhen. On the early morning of the 1st of August Miss Tinne, in
+her tent, heard the Arab and Tawareq camel-drivers disputing about
+arranging the saddles of the Algerian women-servants. She called to the
+Dutch sailors to stop the noise, which had developed into a sham fight.
+The Dutch sailors went amongst the men to get at their own luggage
+and take their rifles. The camel-drivers stopped their sham fight and
+endeavoured to prevent the Dutch sailors obtaining their arms. Miss
+Tinne, hearing the continued clamour, came out of her tent to inquire
+its meaning. She held up her right hand to command attention. Suddenly
+there was a cry of “Strike,” and a Tawareq made a cut at her with a
+sabre, which severed her right hand almost entirely through the wrist,
+so that it hung only by tendons of skin. The poor girl endeavoured to
+replace it in position, and staggered back to her tent, where she sat
+on a box. At the same moment that the blow was aimed at her one of the
+Dutch sailors, Cornelius, was pierced through the body by a spear. The
+other, Jacobse, was killed by a sabre cut cleaving his head. Cornelius,
+with the spear passing right through him, ran into the tent and fell
+at Miss Tinne’s feet. A man followed him, pinned him to the ground
+with another spear, and fired two pistol shots into his head. Another
+Tawareq struck Miss Tinne with a sabre on the nape of the neck, which
+cut through the foulard enveloping her head, and severed the long
+plait of her hair, but did not cut through the spine. She fell forward
+to the ground, stunned. Two men then tore off most of her clothing,
+and, seizing her by the heels, dragged her out of the tent to a spot a
+few yards away, where they left her lying on the sand in the blazing
+sunshine. Her poor old Negress, Saadah, followed, and raising her head,
+gently rested it on her knee; but the Tawareq tore her away, and drove
+her back into the camp. The unfortunate Alexandrine Tinne lay where
+she was left from eight o’clock in the morning to three o’clock in the
+afternoon, when death at last ended her sufferings. At intervals she
+called piteously on her people, one by one, to bring her water, but
+none were allowed to approach her. One of her Arab servants was asked
+afterwards why they behaved so callously. He replied, “We had no arms,
+we were like women: they kept us in the tent, and threatened to kill us
+if we came out.”
+
+Her baggage was ransacked by the Arabs and Tawareq, among whom
+disputes then arose as to the allotment of the Algerian waiting-maids
+and men-servants. Strange to say, this dispute ended by both parties
+agreeing to make no slaves. The servants were each given a camel and a
+dollar, and allowed to return to Murzuk.
+
+The Pasha of Murzuk sent soldiers out to bury the bodies. They laid a
+strip of calico about thirty yards long on the sand, and wound it round
+Miss Tinne’s body by rolling it over with sticks, to avoid touching
+her. Then they put boards on each side loaded with stones, and piled
+sand over all. The two bodies of the faithful sailors were laid on each
+side of her. Men were afterwards sent out to mark the spot, but the
+sand of the desert had in the interval been blown over the place, thus
+hiding the grave of this beautiful and talented woman.[81]
+
+[Illustration: LETTER OF MISS TINNE TO HER NEPHEW JOHN.
+
+Written from Tripoli, 1869.]
+
+The leader of not a few exploring parties in Africa has been alone
+to blame for disasters to his expedition, by committing himself or
+allowing his followers to commit misdeeds sufficient to justify
+native hostility. But wherever Miss Tinne and her expeditions went in
+Africa, they left behind them nothing but the memory of considerate
+treatment, kindness, and acts of sumptuous generosity. In all the
+preparations which Miss Tinne made for crossing the Sahara, and so
+reaching the western limits of the Nile basin, she showed a desire
+to conciliate the suspicions of the people, and paid generously for
+assistance afforded. The fierce Berber tribes which range over the
+Sahara Desert from North Africa to the neighbourhood of Lake Chad,
+almost alone of all African races, have earned sharp reprisals from
+Europeans for their innumerable acts of causeless treachery to
+explorers. If ever the French occupy the district of Ghat, as they will
+eventually some day, it is to be hoped that they will bear in mind the
+massacre of Alexandrine Tinne and avenge it.
+
+This woman was the romantic figure in Nile exploration. Young and
+beautiful,[82] remarkably accomplished, a daring horsewoman, a charming
+Diana; mistress of many tongues, including Arabic, and generous to a
+fault, it is little wonder that the “Signorina” (as she was called in
+the days when most dragomen were Italian or Maltese) has lingered as a
+beautiful and gracious demi-goddess in the remembrance of such Arabs
+and Nile Negroes of the Egyptian Sudan as were not exterminated by the
+Mahdi’s revolt.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Theodor von Heuglin was a native of Würtemberg. He was a scientific
+observer and a naturalist much in the style of Schweinfurth. His
+interest in the exploration of the Nile basin was rather in the
+direction of zoölogy and anthropology. He began to travel in these
+regions in the fifties of the last century. With Munzinger, a Swiss
+(afterwards Munzinger Pasha), and Dr. Steudner, a German, he explored
+Kordofan, and the regions round Khartum. In 1862 Von Heuglin and
+Steudner joined Miss Tinne’s Nile expedition, and as her guest or alone
+on their own account, explored the affluents of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+and the main White Nile. After the death of Steudner and of Miss
+Tinne’s aunt and mother from blackwater fever, Heuglin turned away
+from these regions with some disgust, and devoted himself henceforth
+to the exploration of the healthier regions along the upper waters
+of the Blue Nile and of the Atbara. In all this part of western and
+northern Abyssinia he made valuable collections of natural history. Von
+Heuglin’s books are of very great interest, and are full of valuable
+natural history notes. His writings were published between 1860 and
+1875, generally in Germany.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+SCHWEINFURTH AND THE BASIN OF THE BAHR-AL-GHAZAL
+
+
+As already related down to 1869, but little had been placed on the map
+concerning the western tributaries of the Nile in the region now styled
+generally the Bahr-al-Ghazal Province. The Bahr-al-Ghazal itself is the
+gathering up of some nine great rivers. These unite to form a marshy,
+lake-like stream, which indeed widens out into a lake of variable
+size (Lake No) at its junction with the main or Mountain Nile. The
+great breadth of the Bahr-al-Ghazal is often disguised, and the open
+water reduced to a mere thread by an immense floating vegetable growth
+which we now know by the name of _sudd_. The name “Bahr-al-Ghazal”
+simply means a “River of Antelopes,” and is a designation given to the
+great western affluent of the Nile by the Sudanese Arabs. Rumours of
+this important contribution coming to the Nile from the west (and the
+tributary periodical streams known as the Bahr-al-Arab or Bahr-al-Hamr
+extend the Nile basin as far west as the frontiers of Wadai) reached
+even the Greek geographers two thousand years ago, and induced some
+of them to believe that the main sources of the Nile lay far to the
+west, near where Lake Chad is situated on the map. Then this was
+forgotten, and it was not until Arabs and Nubians had begun to extend
+their commerce into the Sudan, when Egypt was under Turkish rule, that
+the existence of the Bahr-al-Ghazal was again mooted. This affluent of
+the Nile was first sketched on the map with an approach to definiteness
+in 1771, when D’Anville plainly indicates its existence. In a very
+truncated form it appears on the maps of the Nile drawn from the
+surveys of the Frenchmen who accompanied the three expeditions sent by
+Muhammad Ali to conquer the Sudan between 1839 and 1841. In the forties
+of the last century Nubian slave-traders started in numbers to explore
+these regions, firstly to purchase ivory, and secondly to acquire
+slaves. The strange Nyam-nyam cannibals began to be heard of at Khartum
+about 1845. Petherick himself went in these directions in 1848. He was
+followed, as has been related, by Miani the Venetian, and by Miss Tinne
+and Von Heuglin. First of all Europeans, Miani had penetrated so far
+south up these affluents of the Bahr-al-Ghazal as to have heard from
+the Nyam-nyam people of the existence of the Welle River, which he
+reported to Petherick, and through Petherick to Speke, as a great river
+flowing steadily to the west. This was the first hint received of the
+southwestern limits of the Nile basin.
+
+But little precise information about the southern portions of this
+wonderful region had reached Europe until the work of Schweinfurth was
+completed in 1871.
+
+[Illustration: GEORG SCHWEINFURTH (1875).]
+
+Georg Schweinfurth is a native of Riga in the Baltic Provinces of
+Russia. He is consequently of German extraction. He was born in
+1837, and in the early sixties spent much time in exploring for
+botanical purposes Nubia, Upper Egypt, southwestern Abyssinia, and the
+regions between these countries and the Red Sea coast. The tropical
+luxuriance of the vegetation in the outlying districts of Abyssinia
+attracted him to further journeys towards the equator. He conceived
+the idea of visiting the then least known part of the Nile basin, the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal province. For this purpose he obtained ample funds from
+the Royal Academy of Science at Berlin. Apart from the fact that he was
+a German by descent and speech, his great explorations of the Nile were
+due entirely to German support, and must be considered one of Germany’s
+many contributions towards the Nile Quest.
+
+Schweinfurth landed at Suakin in September, 1867. Before proceeding
+on his voyage up the White Nile, he resolved to commence with a
+preliminary exploration of the mountains to the south and west of
+Suakin between the end of the Nubian Alps and the beginning of the
+Abyssinian highlands. This elevated district lies for the most part
+within the watershed of the Atbara’s tributaries, though it also sends
+down intermittent torrents to the Red Sea. In the mountains to the
+south of Suakin first appears to any traveller coming from Egypt and
+the north the characteristic vegetation of tropical Africa, especially
+such types as the dragon trees (_Dracænæ_) and arborescent euphorbias.
+These types begin at an altitude of about two thousand feet, as at that
+height they obtain some moisture, whereas lower down the country is
+mostly an arid desert. The Nubian _Dracænæ_ and those of the slopes of
+the Abyssinian tableland are relatively dwarfish (at most some twenty
+feet high) compared to the giant forms of these tree-lilies which are
+met with in equatorial Africa. Aloes, of course, grow in the same
+districts as the euphorbia and the dracæna. “Found in company with them
+is a wild, unearthly-looking plant called the ‘Karaib’ (_Bucerosia_),
+of which the branches are like wings, prickly and jagged round the
+edges like a dragon’s back. They produce clusters of brown flowers
+as large as one’s fist, which exhale a noxious and revolting smell,
+the plants themselves being swollen with a white and slimy poisonous
+juice.” Another item in this harsh vegetation is the _Sanseviera_, a
+plant belonging to the same group as the aloes, lilies, and dracænas,
+with isolated, leathery leaves like sword blades, though sometimes with
+rolled edges like a thick, leathery whip. Higher up, at altitudes of
+from four thousand to six thousand feet, the trees are covered with
+clusters of _Usnea_ lichen. On the northern spurs of the Abyssinian
+highlands is found the wild olive tree, “of low bushy shape, with
+box-like foliage.” The wild olive is found nowhere else in tropical
+Africa beyond the Abyssinian region.
+
+All watercourses with a supply of moist soil under ground just
+sufficient for a few months’ vegetation are comprehended within the
+Arab designation _Wadi_. Cheerless through the dry season, after the
+first rain their level sand flats are clothed with the most luxuriant
+flora; fresh-springing grasses put forth their pointed leaves and
+give the sward the appearance of being dotted with a myriad spikes;
+then quickly come the sprouting blades, and the river bed is like a
+waving field of corn. Half-way between Singat and Erkowit Schweinfurth
+halted at a wady of this character, which bore the name of Sarrowi. He
+writes:--
+
+    “What a prospect! How gay with its variety of hue,--green, red
+    and yellow! Nothing could be more pleasant than the shade of the
+    acacia, nothing more striking than the abundance of bloom of the
+    Abyssinian aloe, transforming the dreary sand beds into smiling
+    gardens. Green were the tabbes-grass and the acacias, yellow
+    and red were the aloes, and in such crowded masses, that I was
+    involuntarily reminded of the splendour of the tulip beds of the
+    Netherlands: but here the garden lay in a waste of gloomy black
+    stone. One special charm of a desert journey is that it is full
+    of contrasts, that it brings close together dearth and plenty,
+    death and life; it opens the eyes of the traveller to the minutest
+    benefits of nature, and demonstrates how every enjoyment is allied
+    to a corresponding deprivation.”
+
+When he reached the Nile, coming from Suakin, he was received at
+Berber by an old acquaintance, M. Lafargue, who was settled in that
+starting-point for Suakin as a merchant and French vice-consul.
+Lafargue, himself an experienced traveller on the Upper Nile, received
+the German explorers with that hearty hospitality “which many other
+desert wanderers have proved besides myself.”
+
+    “Sir Samuel Baker [writes Schweinfurth] aptly compares such
+    receptions to the oasis in the desert. No necessity for letters of
+    introduction here as with us in Europe, no hollow forms of speech,
+    exchanging courtesies which perchance mean the very reverse; no
+    empty compliment of at best a tedious dinner; but here in the
+    Egyptian Sudan we are received with free and genial amiability; all
+    Europeans are fellow-citizens, and everything is true and hearty.
+    ‘What pleases me the most is the ease with which you travel in this
+    country; you come, you go, you return again as though it were a
+    walk.’ Such were M. Lafargue’s cordial words to me. We parted well
+    pleased with one another; I shall not see him again.”
+
+About that part of the journey from Berber to Khartum by way of the
+Nile Schweinfurth gives a vivid description. For the first part of the
+voyage, as far as Shendi and Matammah, the only considerable towns in
+this district, the shore offered nothing attractive. It reminded him
+of the Egyptian valley of the Nile only in two places,--the mouth of
+the Atbara, and one spot where the renowned pyramids of Meroe formed a
+noble background.
+
+Matammah was then a populous town, but dull and unenterprising. The
+buildings, constructed of Nile earth, were insignificant in themselves,
+and irregularly crowded together in a mass like huge ant-hills; not a
+single tree afforded shade in the dreary streets, which were filthy
+with dirt.
+
+The Nile voyage below Shendi was, however, rich in the charms of
+scenery. This was especially applicable to the views afforded by the
+river islands. These islands were so many throughout the whole extent
+of the sixth cataract between the island of Marnad and the lofty
+mountain-island of Royān, “that no one pretends to know their precise
+number, and the sailors call them in consequence the ninety-nine
+islands.” The landscapes on shore afforded the traveller a treat “which
+no other river voyage could surpass.” Splendid groups of acacias, in
+three varieties, with groves of ‘holy-thorn,’ overgrown by the hanging
+foliage of graceful climbers, made the profusion of islands set in
+the surface of the water appear like bright green, luxuriant, and gay
+tangles.
+
+    “Wildly romantic on the contrary, reminding one of the Bingerloch
+    on the Rhine, are the narrow straits of Sablu where the Nile,
+    reduced to a deep mountain stream, flows between high, bare granite
+    walls that rise to several hundred feet.
+
+    “So much the more surprising appeared the breadth which the Nile
+    exhibited above this cataract, where it displays itself in a
+    majesty which it has long lost in Egypt. Below their confluence,
+    the waters of the Blue and the White Nile are distinctly visible
+    many miles apart. It is highly probable that at certain times the
+    level of the streams might show a difference of several feet; the
+    proposed establishment of a Nilometer should therefore take place
+    below the confluence, in order that with the help of the telegraph
+    accurate intelligence of its condition might be remitted to Cairo.”
+
+Schweinfurth reached Khartum on the 1st of November, 1868. He left that
+place in January, 1869, for the Bahr-al-Ghazal. Of his voyage up the
+White Nile he writes:--
+
+    “As the morning sun fell upon the low, monotonous shores of
+    the flowing river, it seemed at times almost as though it were
+    illuminating the ocean, so vast was the extent of water where the
+    current ran for any distance in a straight and unwinding course....
+    The districts along the shore mostly retained an unchanging aspect
+    for miles together. Rarely does some distant mountain or isolated
+    hill relieve the eye from the wide monotony.... The attention is
+    soon attracted by the astonishing number of geese and ducks which
+    are seen day after day. The traveller in these parts is so satiated
+    with them, fattened and roasted, that the sight creates something
+    akin to disgust. The number of cattle is prodigious: far as the eye
+    can reach they are scattered alike on either shore, whilst, close
+    at hand, they come down to the river-marshes to get their drink.
+
+    “The stream, as wide again as the Nile of Egypt, is enlivened by
+    the boats belonging to the shepherds, who row hither and thither to
+    conduct their cattle, their dogs in the water swimming patiently
+    behind.”
+
+Early on the third day he reached Getina, a considerable village
+inhabited by Hassaniah Arabs (long since wiped out by the Dervishes).
+Getina was then a favourite rendezvous of the Nile boats. The flats
+here were bright with the luxuriant green of sedges which in their
+abundant growth imparted to the banks the meadow-like character of
+European river-sides. Thousands of geese (_Chenalopex ægyptiacus_), in
+no degree disconcerted by the arrival of humans, paced the greensward.
+Although in places the right bank was bounded by sand-banks thirty
+feet high, the left appeared completely and interminably flat, and
+occasionally admitted the culture of sorghum. “This remarkable
+difference which exists between the aspect of the two banks, and
+which may be observed for several degrees, is to be explained by a
+hydrographical law, which is illustrated not only here, but likewise
+in the district of the Lower Nile. As rivers flow from southerly into
+more northern latitudes, their fluid particles are set in motion with
+increased velocity, the result of which is to drive them onwards so as
+to wash away the eastern bank, leaving a continual deposit on the west.”
+
+About two hundred miles to the south of Khartum more signs of
+Tropical Africa begin to appear. Graceful, shade-giving acacias (_A.
+spirocarpa_) grew on the river banks, where also were seen great
+masses of large-leaved shrubs, many of them covered with the beautiful
+blossoms of the _Ipomœa_ convolvulus. Hippopotamuses were abundant,
+lions were heard roaring at night, and the semi-Arab, somewhat Nubian
+population was gradually replaced by the naked, black, and lanky Shiluk
+Negroes. Great monitor lizards (_Varanus_) and snakes rustled in the
+dry grass, while _Cercopithecus_ monkeys, crowned cranes, and handsome
+red and white waterbuck diversified the aspect of the river-banks;
+huge crocodiles lay on the foreshore. In Negro Nileland Schweinfurth
+first noticed the ambatch. This is really a member of the bean tribe
+(_Herminiera elaphroxylon_), which grows in shallow water. Its leaves
+resemble those of the acacia, and its blossoms are bold, pea-like
+flowers of bright orange.
+
+    “The ambatch is distinguished for the unexampled lightness of its
+    wood, if the fungus-like substance of the stem deserves such a
+    name at all. It shoots up to fifteen or twenty feet in height, and
+    at its base generally attains a thickness of about six inches.
+    The weight of this fungus-wood is so insignificant that it really
+    suggests comparison to a feather. Only by taking it into his hands
+    could anyone believe that it were possible for one man to lift on
+    his shoulders a raft made large enough to carry eight people on
+    the water. The plant shoots up with great rapidity by the quiet
+    places on the shore, and since it roots merely in the water, whole
+    bushes are easily broken off by the force of the wind or stream,
+    and settle themselves afresh in other places. This is the true
+    origin of the grass-barriers so frequently mentioned as blocking up
+    the waters of the Upper Nile, and in many places making navigation
+    utterly impracticable. Other plants have a share in the formation
+    of these floating islands, which daily emerge like the Delos of
+    tradition; among them, in particular, the _Vossia_ grass and the
+    famous papyrus of antiquity, which at present is nowhere to be
+    found on the Nile either in Egypt or in Nubia.”
+
+Schweinfurth notices a remarkable extinct volcano called Defafang, one
+thousand feet high, which is situated some five miles from the east
+bank of the Nile, in about latitude 10° 50′ north. This extinct volcano
+was first discovered by Ferdinand Werne, who collected specimens
+of the rocks,--chiefly basaltic lava. Defafang for a long time was
+the boundary on that side of the Nile between the territory of the
+Negroes on the south and that of the more or less Arab shepherds on
+the north.
+
+[Illustration: SHILUKS.]
+
+At the village of Kaka, on the east bank of the White Nile,
+Schweinfurth observed ruins of a fort which had once been the
+headquarters of a renowned robber chief, Muhammad Kher. This man, who
+flourished between 1840 and 1855, was a Nubian, who gathered round him
+a number of well-armed Baggara Arab horsemen. He was one of the first
+of the slave-traders to show how, by means of fortified stations, it
+was possible to intimidate the Negroes of the Sudan and bring them
+into subjection. Muhammed Kher and his Arabs devastated the country
+for hundreds of miles along the banks of the Nile, exterminating
+the population in many places. At Kaka Schweinfurth found himself
+greeted by a great crowd of naked Shiluks, who, prompted by curiosity,
+assembled on the shore.
+
+    “The first sight of a throng of savages suddenly presenting
+    themselves in their native nudity is one from which no amount of
+    familiarity can remove the strange impression; it takes abiding
+    hold upon the memory, and makes the traveller recall anew the
+    civilisation he has left behind.... Although these savages are
+    altogether unacquainted with the refined cosmetics of Europe, they
+    make use of cosmetics of their own; viz., a coating of ashes for
+    protection against insects. When the ashes are prepared from wood
+    they render the body perfectly gray; when obtained from cow-dung
+    they give a rusty red tint, the hue of red devils. This colour is
+    only donned by land-owners. Ashes, dung, and the urine of cows
+    are the indispensable requisites of the toilet. The item last
+    named affects the nose of the stranger rather unpleasantly when he
+    makes use of any of their milk vessels, as, according to a regular
+    African habit, they are washed with it, probably to compensate for
+    a lack of salt.... Entirely bare of clothing, the bodies of the men
+    would not of themselves be ungraceful, but through the perpetual
+    plastering over with ashes they assume a thoroughly diabolical
+    aspect. The movements of their lean bony limbs are so languid, and
+    their repose so perfect, as not rarely to give the Shiluks the
+    resemblance of mummies; and whoever comes as a novice amongst them
+    can hardly resist the impression that in gazing at these ash-gray
+    forms he is looking upon mouldering corpses rather than upon living
+    beings.”
+
+As to the Bahr-al-Ghazal, Schweinfurth opines that the volume of
+water brought down by the Gazelle River to swell the Nile is still an
+unsolved problem. “In the contention as to which stream is entitled
+to rank as first born among the children of the great river god, the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal has apparently a claim in every way as valid as the
+Bahr-al-Jabl (Mountain Nile). In truth, it would seem to stand in the
+same relation to the Bahr-al-Jabl as the White Nile does to the Blue.
+At the season when the waters are highest the inundations of the Ghazal
+spread over a wide territory; about March, the time of year when they
+are lowest, the river settles down in its upper section into a number
+of vast pools of nearly stagnant water, whilst its lower portion runs
+off into divers narrow and sluggish channels. These channels, overgrown
+as they look with massy vegetation, conceal beneath (either in their
+open depths or mingled with the unfathomable abyss of mud) such volumes
+of water as to be in some places nearly unsoundable by moderate lengths
+of pole or cord.”
+
+At the commencement of the real Bahr-al-Ghazal, where that broad
+lake-like stream is formed by the confluence of the Dyur (Jur) and
+other rivers, there was, before the uprising of the Mahdi and the
+consequent devastation of the Sudan, a large trading-station originally
+founded by the Nubian, Arab, and Coptic merchants of Khartum. This
+was named Mashra-ar-Rak--transcribed, in the mincing Turkish fashion,
+“Meshra-er-Rek.” Here merchants and travellers generally started on
+their land journeys into the Nyam-nyam countries. Miss Tinne had paused
+a long time at Mashra-ar-Rak, and it was supposed that there her
+expedition had contracted the severe malarial fevers which eventually
+caused the death of five out of its nine Europeans. Mashra-ar-Rak was
+situated on a lake-like swelling of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, which expanse
+is partly covered by four wooded islands. All the surroundings of this
+lake-like estuary are very low and swampy. In all directions the eyes
+rest on jungles of papyrus, with the exception of the few trees on the
+islands aforementioned.
+
+A short time before Schweinfurth reached this place with its dismal
+record of disease amongst Europeans, he heard that a French predecessor
+had died not far from the Bahr-al-Ghazal. This was Le Saint, a French
+naval officer, who had been despatched by the Paris Geographical
+Society to make that extended exploration of the whole of the region
+of the Bahr-al-Ghazal which Fate had destined Schweinfurth himself to
+accomplish.[83]
+
+Schweinfurth’s own expedition had to be conducted in a most economical
+and unobtrusive fashion. He made most of his great journeys between
+the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the Congo watershed on foot. Remembering that
+his expedition was purely scientific, and was financed by a scientific
+society, he very wisely concerned himself with no question of ethics
+or reform such as had hitherto caused all English explorers of these
+regions to be hindered as much as possible by Nubians, Arabs, and
+Turks. He was not there to undertake crusades, but to make collections.
+He thus won and retained the friendship and confidence of men of all
+colours, some of them, no doubt, great ruffians, but all made equally
+to subserve the interests of science by affording sympathetic support
+to one of the greatest and most genial of African explorers, Georg
+Schweinfurth. Schweinfurth was no sympathiser with the slave-trade and
+the barbarities to which it gave rise. “Throughout my wanderings,” he
+writes, “I was for ever puzzling out schemes for setting bounds to this
+inhuman traffic. On one point (i.e. the abolition of the slave-trade)
+all are unanimous,--that from Islam no help can be expected, and that
+with Islamism no pact can be made.” His reports on the behaviour of the
+slave-traders did a great deal to bring about the abolition of this
+devastation by Gordon Pasha and his officers some years later.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+SCHWEINFURTH’S ACHIEVEMENTS AND DESCRIPTIONS
+
+
+Dr. Schweinfurth spent three years exploring the regions of the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal, and returned to Europe in the autumn of 1871. During
+the course of his journeys he took no observation of latitude or
+longitude, but kept a most accurate dead reckoning. He laid down with
+astonishing accuracy much of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, of the courses of the
+Rōl, the Roah and its affluents, the Dogoru and Tondi, the Jur, Nyenam,
+Ji, Biri, Kuru, and Dembo tributaries of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, the upper
+waters of the Sue and Yabongo; lastly, he crossed the Nile watershed
+and entered that of the Congo, thus discovering the upper waters of the
+Welle River and its many affluents. Here he thought that he had entered
+the basin of the Shari River, but, as we know now, he had discovered
+the head streams of that most important affluent of the Congo, the
+Welle-Ubangi.
+
+Dr. Schweinfurth gave the first true and particular account of the
+Congo Pygmies under the name of Akka, whom he found in the thickly
+forested region on the northern limits of the Congo watershed; he drew
+our attention to those remarkable “gallery” forests,[84] and to the
+existence in the Nile basin of the chimpanzee, the gray parrot,[85]
+and other West African types. He discovered a slightly civilised race
+on this Congo-Nile water-parting--the Mangbettu--speaking a language
+which has no known relations, but leading a life singularly similar to
+that of the other semi-civilised Negro states of Unyoro and Uganda.
+The Mangbettu and their chiefs exhibit traces of former intermixture
+with Hamitic people. Dr. Schweinfurth also told us much we did not know
+before as to the Nyam-nyam,[86] the Bongo, and the Dinka tribes.
+
+Schweinfurth possessed many qualifications for writing a book on
+African exploration. He was a scientific botanist, and knew a great
+deal of zoölogy. He had a quick ear for languages, and wrote down
+vocabularies of the important dialects. He collected invaluable
+notes on ethnology and anthropology. Although he was unable to do
+much photography, he was a skilled draughtsman, and his beautiful
+drawings are apt illustrations of his book. As regards the value of the
+information he collected, no such book as Schweinfurth’s had appeared
+before, with the exception of Barth’s classical work on the Western
+Sudan; but Schweinfurth’s book was far ahead of Barth’s in the matter
+of illustrations. These are as accurate as photographs, and yet much
+clearer. More than any previous traveller who had written on Africa,
+Schweinfurth is able to bring to our mental vision the different
+aspects of vegetation. He describes the tree-lilies (_Dracænæ_),
+with their bouquets of leaves like bayonets and their short, woody
+stems, the Candelabra euphorbias, the coral red aloes, the dragon-like
+_Bucerosia_, the leathery _Sanseviera_, and the gigantic clumps of the
+grass-green _Salvadora_, which characterise the northern flanks of
+Abyssinia.
+
+[Illustration: “PAPYRUS, FIFTEEN FEET HIGH.”]
+
+In another place he describes acacia groves on the right bank of the
+White Nile above Khartum, with their enormous white bulbous thorns,[87]
+and their oozy lumps of amber-coloured gum. He notes the remarkable
+fact that little, if any, of the floating vegetation of the Upper
+Nile reaches Egypt. He describes the jungles of papyrus, “fifteen
+feet high,” the floating grass barriers and the sudd (which he calls
+_sett_); the _suf_ reeds, the water-ferns, the floating _Pistia
+stratiotes_ (like a pale-green lettuce), the duck-weeds, the beautiful
+white and blue waterlilies. When he reached the vicinity of the
+water-parting between the Nile and the Congo, he had entered the forest
+region of West-Central Africa. This mighty tropical forest has no great
+reverence for geographical boundaries, but overlaps in several places
+the watershed of the Nile, while of course it exists in patches in
+the basins of the Shari, the Benue, the Niger, and on the coast belt
+of Upper and Lower Guinea. Perhaps the most marked feature of it, the
+clearest indication of its West African nature, is the existence of the
+climbing _Calamus_ palm, which is never found in typical East Africa.
+The wonderful “gallery”[88] forests are described as follows:--
+
+    “Trees with immense stems, and of a height surpassing all that we
+    had elsewhere seen (not even excepting the palms of Egypt), here
+    stood in masses which seemed unbounded, except where at intervals
+    some less towering forms rose gradually higher and higher beneath
+    their shade. In the innermost recesses of these woods one would
+    come upon an avenue like the colonnade of an Egyptian temple,
+    veiled in the leafy shade of a triple roof above. Seen from
+    without, they had all the appearance of impenetrable forests, but,
+    traversed within, they opened into aisles and corridors which
+    were musical with many a murmuring fount. Hardly anywhere was
+    the height of these less than seventy feet, and on an average it
+    was much nearer one hundred; yet, viewed from without, they very
+    often failed to present anything of that imposing sight which was
+    always so captivating when taken from the brinks of the brooks
+    within. In some places the sinking of the ground along which the
+    gallery-tunnels ran would be so great that not half the wood
+    revealed itself at all to the contiguous steppes, while in that
+    wood (out of sight as it was) many a ‘gallery’ might still exist.”
+
+Most of these gigantic trees, the size of whose stems exceeds any
+European forest growth, belong to the order of the _Sterculiæ_,
+_Boswelliæ_, _Papilionaceæ_, _Rosaceæ_, or _Cæsalpiniæ_; to the
+_Ficaceæ_, the _Artocarpeæ_, the _Euphorbiaceæ_, and the varied order
+of the _Rubiaceæ_. Amongst the trees of second and third rank are a
+few _Araliacea_, large-leaved figs, brilliant-flowered Spathodeas,
+Combretums, and Mussændas, as well as innumerable other rubiaceous or
+papilionaceous plants. There is no lack of thorny shrubberies; “and
+the _Oncoba_, the _Phyllanthus_, the _Celastrus_, and the _Acacia
+ataxacantha_, cluster after cluster, are met with in abundance.”
+“Thick creepers climbed from bough to bough, the _Modecca_ being the
+most prominent of all; but the _Cissus_, with its purple leaf, the
+_Coccinea_, the prickly _Smilax_, the _Helmiæ_, and the _Dioscoreæ_,
+had all their part to play. Made up of these, the whole underwood
+spread out its ample ramifications, its great twilight made more
+complete by the thickness of the substance of the leaves themselves.”
+
+[Illustration: A PATH THROUGH THE FOREST.]
+
+Down upon the very ground, again, there were masses, all but
+impenetrable, of plants (mainly _Zingeberaceæ_ or else Arums) growing
+large gorgeously painted leaves which contributed to fill up the gaps
+left in this mazy labyrinth of foliage. First of all there were the
+extensive jungles of the _Amomum_ and the _Costus_, rising full fifteen
+feet high, and of which the rigid stems (like those of stout reeds)
+either bar out the progress of a traveller altogether, or admit
+him, if he venture to force his way among them, only to fall into the
+sloughs of muddy slime from which they grow.
+
+    “And then there was the marvellous world of ferns, destitute
+    indeed of stems, but running in their foliage to some twelve feet
+    high. Boundless in the variety of the feathery articulations of
+    their fronds, some of them seemed to perform the graceful part of
+    throwing a veil over the treasures of the wood; and others lent a
+    charming contrast to the general uniformity of the leafy scene.
+    High above these there rose the large, slim-stemmed _Rubiaceæ_
+    (_Coffeæ_), which by regularity of growth and symmetry of leaf
+    appeared to imitate, and in a measure to supply the absence of, the
+    arboraceous ferns. Of all the other ferns the most singular which
+    I observed was that which I call the elephant’s ear. This I found
+    up in trees at a height of more than fifty feet, in association
+    with the _Angræcum_ orchis and the long gray beard of the hanging
+    _Usnea_.”
+
+Whenever the stems of the trees failed to be thickly overgrown by some
+of these different ferns, they were rarely wanting in garlands of the
+crimson-berried pepper. Far as the eye could reach, it rested solely
+upon green which did not admit a gap. The narrow paths that wound
+themselves partly through and partly around the growing thickets were
+formed by steps consisting of bare and protruding roots which retained
+the light, loose soil together. Mouldering stems, thickly clad with
+moss, obstructed the passage at wellnigh every turn. “The air was no
+longer that of the sunny steppe, nor that of the shady grove; it was
+stifling as the atmosphere of a palm-house. Its temperature might vary
+from 70° to 80° Fahr., but the air was so overloaded with an oppressive
+moisture exhaled by the rank foliage that the traveller could not feel
+otherwise than relieved to escape.”
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In the second volume of his work Schweinfurth adds:--
+
+    “The cumbrous stems are thickly overgrown with wild pepper, and
+    the spreading branches are loaded with bead moss (_Usnea_) and
+    with that remarkable lichen which resembles an elephant’s ear.
+    High among the boughs are the huge dwellings of the tree-termites
+    (white ants). Some stems already decayed serve as supports for
+    immense garlands of _Mucuna_ (a bean), and overhung by impenetrable
+    foliage, form roomy bowers, where dull obscurity reigns supreme.
+    Such is the home of the chimpanzee.”
+
+Schweinfurth might have extended his researches further into the
+unknown but for a disastrous campfire in the Dyur country, which
+destroyed the greater part of his collections, journals, drawings, and
+instruments. Eventually, with such of his collections as he was able to
+save from the conflagration, Schweinfurth turned his steps northward
+again, and reached Europe in 1871. He subsequently did much to increase
+our knowledge of the botany of Abyssinia and Arabia, but never resumed
+the rôle of African explorer.
+
+[Illustration: SCHWEINFURTH’S MAP.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+STANLEY CONFIRMS SPEKE
+
+
+Dr. Schweinfurth evidently shared Burton’s opinions on the subject
+of the Victoria Nyanza. Speke’s great discovery may be said to have
+reached its low-water mark of depreciation in the map issued in 1873 to
+illustrate Schweinfurth’s book, “The Heart of Africa.” On this map a
+fairly correct estimate of the shape and area of the Albert Nyanza is
+given, together with some hint of the abrupt commencement of the Congo
+watershed west of Lake Albert. But the mountainous character of Unyoro
+is greatly exaggerated, and the area of the great Victoria Nyanza is
+taken up by five lakes and lakelets. Speke was dead, and Grant was
+tired of asseverating that the Victoria Nyanza was one huge continuous
+sheet of water.
+
+In 1873, just as Dr. Schweinfurth’s book was being published, Henry
+Moreton Stanley, an Americanised Welshman, had returned to London from
+the discovery and relief of Dr. Livingstone. Soon after his return
+arrived the news of Livingstone’s death. The sorrow over this loss, and
+enthusiasm at the half-finished discoveries on the great mysterious
+river which Livingstone believed to be the Nile and everyone else the
+Congo, caused the “Daily Telegraph” and the “New York Herald” to unite
+in furnishing funds for a great expedition which should attempt to
+clear up many African problems. This expedition Stanley (who therefrom
+rose to be the greatest of African explorers) commanded.
+
+Starting from the coast opposite Zanzibar, whence so many expeditions
+had set forth since Maizen[89] and Burton had made the first attempts,
+Stanley travelled by the Unyamwezi route to the Victoria Nyanza, the
+south shore of which he reached at the end of February, 1875. On
+the 8th of March in that year Stanley (having put together a boat
+which he brought in sections, and which he named the _Lady Alice_)
+started--accompanied by eleven of his men--on a most adventurous voyage
+along the eastern and northern shores of the lake. He coasted and named
+the important southeastern arm of the Victoria Nyanza, which is known
+as Speke Gulf. Passing rather hurriedly along the northeast coast of
+the lake, he made one great blunder, in that he overlooked the very
+narrow entrance to Kavirondo Bay (which is almost a separate lake), and
+created instead a broad northern gulf which he called Ugowe Bay. Ugowe
+Bay actually is the native name of quite a small shallow inlet on the
+Uyoma coast. Stanley skirted at some distance the much indented shores
+of Busoga, passed through what is now known as Rosebery Channel, and
+so on up Murchison Gulf to the native capital of Uganda, then called
+Rubaga (now known as Mengo). Here he had a splendid reception from
+Mutesa, and here he met Édouard Linant de Bellefonds,[90] a Belgian in
+the Egyptian government, who had been sent by Gordon Pasha to report on
+the state of affairs in Uganda.
+
+Mutesa having agreed to send a large fleet of canoes to transport
+all Stanley’s expedition to Uganda, Stanley then resumed his
+circumnavigation of the lake, following the western shore. Passing
+between the mainland of Karagwe and the little island of Bumbiri, he
+was fiercely and unprovokedly attacked by the natives of that island,
+who were a savage people ruled over by light-coloured Bahima chiefs.
+Narrowly escaping disaster, he rushed through the opposing savages, got
+into the _Lady Alice_, and his men paddled off with boards which they
+tore up from the bottom of the boat. Having rejoined his expedition,
+which he had left at a place called Kagehi, near to the modern German
+station of Muanza, Stanley made one more blunder in his configuration
+of the lake (which he was the first to set right years afterwards).
+Deceived by a chain of islands, he curtailed the Victoria Nyanza of its
+southwestern gulf, which extension of the lake Stanley subsequently
+named after Emin Pasha.
+
+Reinforced by Mutesa’s fleet of canoes, Stanley’s entire expedition
+was saved the long march through the Hima kingdoms to the west of the
+Victoria Nyanza. But on his return journey to Uganda he was obliged to
+stop and give a severe lesson to the Bumbiri islanders. These warlike
+people barred the passage with their canoes. Stanley had been warned of
+this opposition by the natives of Iroba on the mainland. Stanley seized
+the king and two chiefs of Iroba as hostages, who should negotiate a
+peace between himself and the king of Bumbiri. These hostages caught
+for him the king’s son. At this moment a large reinforcement of Baganda
+canoes arrived, and volunteered to go to Bumbiri and negotiate. But
+they were attacked, and driven off with some loss. Stanley, therefore,
+was obliged to inflict punishment. On the 4th of August, 1875, he
+attacked Bumbiri, and drove its natives to the interior of the island.
+The expedition then pursued its way along the west and north coasts
+until they entered Napoleon Gulf and arrived at the Ripon Falls, where
+the Nile leaves the lake. Here they found Mutesa encamped with a large
+army, engaged in one of his periodical wars with Unyoro.
+
+Stanley not only ascertained the approximate area and shape of the
+Victoria Nyanza, but he was able to define with some approach to
+accuracy its principal islands and archipelagoes. After his journey
+there was no longer any doubt as to Speke’s great discovery. The
+question was settled once and for ever.
+
+[Illustration: THE VICTORIA NYANZA: UGANDA GOVERNMENT STEAMER IN THE
+OFFING.]
+
+Leaving Uganda in December, 1875, Stanley accompanied an expedition
+sent by Mutesa to the countries then governed by the Banyoro at the
+base of Ruwenzori. Amazing to relate, Stanley was actually encamped
+under the Ruwenzori range (called, by the Baganda, Gambaragara),
+and yet was unaware of the importance of his discovery. He guessed
+that the mountain in front of him might be from fourteen to fifteen
+thousand feet high, and he called it Mount Edwin Arnold. What is
+so extraordinary about the matter is that he relates (as though he
+disbelieved them) the stories of the natives to the effect that white
+stuff and intense cold characterised the upper parts of this mountain
+range, yet he evinced little or no curiosity to ascertain the truth of
+these statements. Of course at the time of his visit all the thirty
+miles of snow and glaciers were concealed under heavy clouds.
+
+From the vicinity of Ruwenzori the party made its way to Lake Dweru,
+which Stanley named Beatrice Gulf. This he learned from the natives
+was (as it is) but a loop of a much larger lake. Years afterwards
+Stanley was to realise that he had discovered a portion of Lake Albert
+Edward. Quitting these regions of mysterious lakes and mountains, he
+journeyed much more prosaically past the volcanoes of Mfumbiro and the
+Hima kingdoms of Karagwe to Lake Tanganyika, which he reached at Ujiji
+on its northeast coast. On this portion of the journey Stanley added
+a good deal to our information regarding the ultimate source of the
+Nile, the Kagera, though he was somewhat misled by native information,
+and perhaps by exaggerated swamps, into the creation of a non-existing
+lake, which he called the Alexandra Nyanza. His subsequent route across
+Africa from Tanganyika to the mouth of the Congo does not concern the
+present narrative.
+
+One interesting result of Stanley’s explorations of the Victoria
+Nyanza, Uganda, and Unyamwezi was that Mr. (now Sir Edwin) Arnold[91]
+was inspired to propose a Cape-to-Cairo overland telegraph wire to pass
+via the Zambezi, Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika, to Uganda and the Egyptian
+Sudan, thereby forestalling both Cecil Rhodes and the author of this
+book in the advocacy of a continuous line of British communications
+between South Africa and Egypt.
+
+[Illustration: STANLEY’S IDEA OF THE VICTORIA NYANZA.. 1880.]
+
+It has been mentioned that Stanley’s letter to the “Daily Telegraph,”
+summoning missionaries to the court of Mutesa, decided the fate of
+Uganda. This letter met with an immediate response, and in 1876 two
+parties of English missionaries were sent out by the Church Missionary
+Society. The Rev. G. Lichfield, Mr. C. W. Pearson, and Dr. R. W. Felkin
+were despatched by the Nile route. They travelled from Suakin to
+Khartum, and thence, by the help of Gordon Pasha, to the Albert Nyanza
+and Uganda. The other half of the missionary party (Lieutenant Shergold
+Smith, R.N., the Rev. C. T. Wilson, and, amongst others, Alexander
+Mackay, a Scottish engineer) made the journey by way of Zanzibar and
+Unyamwezi. Some of these missionaries were detained at the south
+end of the Victoria Nyanza. Lieutenant Shergold Smith--a man of great
+promise--journeyed across the lake in a boat and reached Uganda; but
+soon after his return to the south end of the lake he was killed in an
+attack made by the natives of Ukerewe (Bukerebe) on the Arab traders.
+Leaving Mackay, Lichfield, and O’Neil in Uganda, C. T. Wilson and
+R. W. Felkin decided to return to Europe, taking with them envoys
+whom Mutesa wished to send to England. On their return journey they
+were greatly troubled by the sudd, which then--as frequently before
+and since--practically blocked the navigation of the main Nile. They
+therefore made a very interesting overland journey through Darfur and
+Kordofan, and thence back into Egypt.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+GORDON AND HIS LIEUTENANTS.--JUNKER AND THE NILE-CONGO WATER-PARTING
+
+
+In 1874 Colonel Purdy and Colonel Colston (Englishmen) were despatched
+by the Egyptian government respectively into Darfur and Kordofan
+for surveying purposes. By their expeditions a good deal of the
+country along these half-dry affluents of the Bahr-al-Arab and the
+water-parting between the Shari and the Nile was explored and made
+known. Their work was added to in some respects (1875–1876) by Sidney
+Ensor, a civil engineer, who surveyed the route for a railway from Wadi
+Halfa to Al Fasher, the capital of Darfur.
+
+The energetic work undertaken by Sir Samuel Baker of suppressing the
+slave-trade in the Equatorial Province of the Egyptian Sudan was
+carried much further by the celebrated Charles Gordon, who was destined
+to die at Khartum under circumstances conferring on him lasting fame.
+Gordon Pasha (as he subsequently became) had, as it is hardly necessary
+to state, been an engineer officer. It was thought that his appointment
+to the supreme government of the Egyptian Sudan (an appointment which
+Baker had not held, since he worked with an Egyptian Governor-General
+at Khartum) would--as it did--materially assist the improvement of
+communications. Gordon made an interesting survey of the country
+between Suakin and Berber on the Nile, and together with Lieutenants
+Watson and Chippendall mapped the main Nile from Khartum to Gondokoro
+and Lake Albert. He also caused the circumnavigation of that lake to be
+effected.
+
+Soon after Gordon had taken up the work begun by Sir Samuel Baker, a
+curious theory had been started concerning Lake Albert Nyanza. In those
+days, when so much personal feeling was very naturally imported into
+Nile exploration, and one great explorer vied with another, theories
+were often started by A to minimise the work of B or to exaggerate
+the results of A’s own discoveries. It has been already recounted how
+Burton, piqued by Speke’s great discovery of the Victoria Nyanza, which
+might have fallen to Burton’s own lot had he been less crippled with
+fever, subsequently strove to prove the non-existence of that lake as
+a continuous sheet of water. Speke in the most wonderful manner had
+not only discovered the Victoria Nyanza, but had, by the collection
+of native information and the deductions he drew therefrom, made, on
+the whole, a remarkably accurate forecast of the Nile system in the
+region of the equatorial lakes. He had put Lake Albert on the map,
+merely from report, in a shape and position closely in accordance with
+actuality. Not, however, being able to visit this lake himself, he
+had handed the task over to Sir Samuel Baker, who had discovered the
+Albert Nyanza, but had not been able to ascertain its area and shape.
+Both Speke and Baker, however, assumed that the Victoria Nile entered
+Lake Albert, and quitted that lake as the main stream of the White
+Nile. Neither explorer, however, nor most that came after them, could
+state positively that they had mapped the Victoria Nile along its whole
+course from the Ripon Falls to Lake Albert, nor had they traced the
+course of the Nile from Lake Albert northward to Gondokoro. Therefore
+in the early seventies some theorist had started the ingenious idea
+that Lake Albert belonged either to the system of the Congo or the
+Shari, and that its waters drained away by an unknown river at the
+south end, or else by an outlet to the north, which was not the Nile,
+as generally assumed, but a river which flowed westward to the unknown.
+The discovery about this time of Lake Kioga further confused notions
+about the Nile system, and it was thought that the Victoria Nile
+discovered by Speke did not enter Lake Albert, but in some tortuous way
+joined the Asua, and so flowed on past Gondokoro, leaving Lake Albert
+altogether out of its system.
+
+[Illustration: THE VICTORIA NILE FLOWING TOWARDS LAKE KIOGA.]
+
+To settle these doubts, Gordon resolved to despatch Romolo Gessi,[92]
+who was then little more than a steamer engineer, though, having
+been the mate of a Mediterranean steamer, he was able to take
+astronomical observations. Gessi was therefore instructed to
+circumnavigate Lake Albert. This task he carried out in 1876. He
+ascertained positively that the Victoria Nile entered Lake Albert and
+left it again, and he connected his rough survey of the Albertine Nile
+with the work which was being carried on up stream from Gondokoro
+by two English engineer officers in Gordon’s employ, Lieutenants
+Watson[93] and Chippendall. In 1877 Colonel Mason (an American) took
+advantage of the first steamer being placed on Lake Albert to make a
+survey rather more careful than that of Gessi, but neither of these
+explorers ascertained the existence of the Semliki River or of the
+snow-range of Ruwenzori, though it is said that in some of Gessi’s
+private letters mention was made of a strange apparition “like
+snow-mountains” in the sky, which had appeared to some of his men at
+the south end of Lake Albert,--a remark that attracted no attention at
+the time. Gessi also records having seen the mouth of a large river at
+the south end of Lake Albert, but it never seems to have occurred to
+him that this river was probably of the greatest geographical interest.
+
+Nevertheless, when Gessi returned to Khartum to report the result of
+his Albert Nyanza explorations to Gordon, the latter exclaimed, “What
+a pity you are not an Englishman!” This remark is supposed to have
+been made from pique that the two English officers despatched by Gordon
+(Watson and Chippendall) had not arrived in time to accomplish what
+a Levantine Italian had successfully performed. Gessi was already
+somewhat offended, because he considered that he had done an excellent
+piece of work, and he had only received as a reward a present of a few
+hundred francs and the decoration of the Mejidieh, third class. He
+therefore flung his fez at Gordon’s feet and tendered his resignation.
+He journeyed to Italy, and was received with great distinction by the
+Italian Geographical Society at Rome, who presented him with their Gold
+Medal. He resolved, however, to return to work as an explorer, giving
+particular attention to anthropological and zoölogical researches. He
+engaged two Austrian-Italians--Giacomo Morch and Riccardo Buchta--to
+accompany him. Buchta deserves special notice, as he was the first
+careful photographer to visit the regions of the Upper Nile. His
+photographs of the native types and scenery of these countries taken
+between 1878 and 1882 are remarkably interesting.
+
+Soon after Gessi’s arrival in Egypt with all his stores, he was
+informed that a fire had broken out at Suez railway station, resulting
+in the complete destruction of all his goods, involving a monetary
+loss of something like twelve hundred pounds. He therefore returned to
+Italy, gave up the idea of exploring the Bahr-al-Ghazal, and instead
+resolved to start for the river Sobat, and work his way from the upper
+waters of that stream to the southern regions of Abyssinia, where
+two Italians--Cecchi and Chiarini--were supposed to be wandering. His
+second expedition was financed by generous Italians and by the late
+King of Italy. He was accompanied by Dr. Pellegrino Matteucci, who was
+subsequently to cross Africa from east to west and die at the end of
+his journey.
+
+Ernst Marno, a Viennese, had attempted, in 1870, to ascend the Blue
+Nile and then enter the country of the Galas to the south of it. After
+penetrating, however, as far as Fadasi, he was obliged to turn back,
+owing to the hostility of the people. The same obstacles turned back
+Gessi and his companions, and the expedition to Kaffa was given up.
+Returning to Khartum, Gessi was preparing to attempt the ascent of the
+Sobat when Gordon returned to his post, from which he had been absent,
+and invited Gessi to re-enter the service of the Egyptian government.
+A serious revolt had occurred in the western part of the Egyptian
+Sudan. The great slave-trader, Zubeir, who had conquered Darfur, had
+become a danger to the Egyptian power. By dint of a wily invitation he
+was lured to Cairo, and once in Egypt, was prevented by the Khedive
+from returning to the Sudan. His son Suleiman, however, remained in
+Darfur, and attempted to rise against the Egyptian government. His
+attempt was frustrated by Gordon, who, however, pardoned him, and
+appointed him sub-governor of his country with a handsome salary. But
+in 1878 Suleiman openly espoused the cause of the Nubian and Arab
+slave-traders whose devastations of the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the White
+Nile regions had been sternly suppressed by Baker and Gordon. Putting
+himself at the head of these disaffected people, Suleiman practically
+subjugated all the vast territory of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, and proclaimed
+his independence. Gessi proceeded with a small force on steamers to
+Lado, on the White Nile, where he met Emin Pasha. From this point
+he started for the Nyam-nyam country,[94] picking up on the way all
+the soldiers he could obtain from the various stations of the Sudan
+government. He found that Suleiman had proclaimed himself “Lord of
+Bahr-al-Ghazal, Rōl, and Makarka.” At Dem Idris, in the most western
+part of the Bahr-al-Ghazal province, the great battle took place.[95]
+The people of the country were on the side of Gessi and the Egyptian
+forces, because of the incessant slave-raiding of Suleiman and his
+men. Gessi had entrenched himself and his small force, which at the
+outside amounted to seven thousand men, regulars and irregulars. He had
+several pieces of artillery that fired grape-shot. His entrenchments
+were assaulted by Suleiman’s forces, and as the result of this attack
+Suleiman lost his flags, much of his ammunition, and most of his guns,
+together with several thousand of his men. Nevertheless, in spite of
+the recovery of Egyptian prestige throughout the Sudan, Suleiman’s
+power was not yet at an end. He gathered up more forces, and continued
+to attack Gessi. At last reinforcements arrived from the north which
+enabled Gessi to take the offensive. He captured stronghold after
+stronghold. In the spring of 1879 Suleiman was flying for his life with
+only a thousand men. Gessi destroyed almost all the strongholds of
+the slavers (some of which had existed for twenty-five years, and had
+devastated all the country around) in the province of Bahr-al-Ghazal.
+
+Gordon Pasha had now come to Gessi’s assistance, and established
+himself at Shakka on the Nile. He also invaded Darfur, reconquered
+that country, and prevented reinforcements reaching Suleiman from that
+direction. Eventually, after a hundred fights, Gessi succeeded in
+tracking Suleiman to his last refuge. At the time he had no more than
+two hundred men with him, whilst Suleiman had eight hundred. Taking
+the camp entirely by surprise, he tried a game of bluff, and sent a
+messenger to tell Suleiman that he had surrounded his place with a
+large force, and that resistance was hopeless. Suleiman therefore
+surrendered. Gessi tried him by court-martial, and had him shot in
+November, 1879. This ended the first of the great rebellions which
+menaced Anglo-Egyptian authority in the Sudan. Gessi was made a Pasha
+for his services, and Governor of the Bahr-al-Ghazal province. He
+slowly brought about peace among the distracted Negro tribes.
+
+During all the operations undertaken by Gordon and Gessi a good many
+additions were made to the geography of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, the
+Bahr-al-Arab, and Darfur. After Gordon’s departure from the Sudan Gessi
+found it impossible to work with the Egyptian Governor-General, Raiūf
+Pasha. He was also extremely ill. He therefore decided to return to
+Europe, but got no farther than Suez, where he died in 1881, having
+uttered several premonitions as to the possibility of another revolt.
+As a matter of fact, the Mahdi, who had just begun to make himself
+known as a rebel, did little more than carry on the reaction against
+the anti-slave-trading policy of the Anglo-Egyptian control. All the
+elements of Suleiman’s revolt which had been destroyed by the splendid
+valour of Gessi and Gordon gathered round the new leader, and brought
+about that cataclysm which closed the area of Nile exploration for
+fourteen years.
+
+Édouard Linant de Bellefonds, the Belgian official in Gordon’s
+employment of whom mention was made in the previous chapter, and who
+had met his death at the hands of the Bari, was avenged by the American
+C. Chaillé-Long, who inflicted severe chastisement on the Bari and
+allied tribes at and around Gondokoro. Chaillé-Long was made a colonel
+by the Egyptian government. He was despatched by Gordon on a mission to
+Uganda to spy out the land; but owing to the intervention of Sir John
+Kirk from Zanzibar, the British government stayed the ambitious Khedive
+from attempting to include Uganda in the Egyptian Sudan. Chaillé-Long
+added a little to our knowledge of the Victoria Nile, and gave a more
+detailed report of Lake Kioga than had been previously gleaned from
+the unscientific journey of Piaggia. He named this lake “Ibrahim.”
+Chaillé-Long also travelled to the west of the Mountain Nile in the
+Nyam-nyam countries. His book (“Central Africa: Naked Truths of Naked
+People”) is unfortunately marred by much incorrect information, and by
+the erroneous spelling of native names. Mutesa, the ruler of Uganda, is
+disguised as “M’tse;” Uganda becomes Ugunda, while preposterous plurals
+are invented for the people of Uganda and Unyoro, who are called the
+Ugundi, Unyori, etc. Chaillé-Long’s one practical contribution to Nile
+exploration was the definite discovery of Lake Kioga, which had only
+been hesitatingly reported by the unlearned Piaggia.
+
+Ernst Marno, the Viennese, surveyed a good deal of country west of
+Lado and the Mountain Nile,--the valley of the Yei among other rivers.
+Casati, an Italian officer, journeyed all over the lands of the
+Egyptian Sudan; but as he was an unscientific observer and lost all
+his journals in the troubles that followed on the Mahdi’s revolt, his
+contributions to our knowledge of the Nile regions are practically
+worthless.
+
+Dr. Gustav Nachtigal, one of the great African explorers, was born
+at Eichstadt, near Magdeburg, in Germany. He was despatched on a
+mission to Bornu by the King of Prussia. After years spent with great
+advantage to science in the Sahara, round Lake Chad, and on the Shari
+River, he passed from Wadai into the Nile basin in the country of
+Darfur, and added somewhat to our geographical knowledge of this little
+known part of the Nile basin. Nachtigal reached Khartum at the end of
+1874. Another German was to contribute his share to the opening up of
+the Nile basin. Dr. Wilhelm Junker was born at Moscow in 1840 of German
+parents, and was educated in Germany. He started for Egypt in 1875 with
+the intention of going to Darfur, but he spent some time examining
+the Libyan Desert and the curious blocked outlet of the Nile in the
+Fayūm. After exploring the Atbara as far as Kasala and journeying
+thence across country to the Blue Nile, he travelled up the Sobat River
+to Nasr (a point at which all exploration of the Sobat stopped for
+many years), and then made his way to the White Nile and the Makarka
+(Nyam-nyam) country. His journeys through the Bahr-al-Ghazal province
+took him as far south as the Kibali or Welle River. After a visit to
+Europe with his collections and notes, he returned to the Welle and
+the Mangbettu country. He explored the Welle and its tributaries for
+some distance eastward and westward. Munza, the celebrated king of the
+Mangbettu, about whom Schweinfurth wrote so much, had been murdered by
+the Nubian slave-traders, and the country about the Upper Welle was
+much disordered. Junker reached the Nepoko River, which is an affluent
+of the Aruwimi. His journeys westward to the Welle River near its
+confluence with the Mbomu convinced him that this mysterious stream,
+the existence of which had first been reported by Miani and Potagos (a
+Greek trader), was after all the most northern affluent of the Congo,
+and not the Upper Shari. Junker’s journeys were now interrupted by the
+news of the Mahdi’s revolt.
+
+[Illustration: NUĒR VILLAGE, SOBAT RIVER.]
+
+Frank Lupton (Bey), a native of Essex, and once a mate on a small
+steamer plying between the Red Sea ports, had entered Gordon’s service,
+and had become in time Governor of the Bahr-al-Ghazal province. Lupton
+added a good deal to our knowledge regarding the many affluents of the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal. He unhappily fell into the hands of the Dervishes,
+and eventually lost his life. Lupton managed to warn Junker of the
+outbreak, and the Russo-German traveller then made his way across
+country to Lado. There he stayed until the news arrived of the fall
+of Khartum. He then started for Uganda, crossed the Victoria Nyanza
+by the help of the English missionaries, and travelled to Zanzibar
+by way of Unyamwezi. Junker brought home with him the invaluable
+journals of Emin Pasha. His own two great works on the Nile basin are
+full of interesting information concerning the natives. He added much
+to our knowledge of the southern tributaries of the Bahr-al-Ghazal,
+but the chief value and glory of his work lay in the Congo basin and
+was concerned with the identification of the Welle-Kibali with the
+Ubangi. He also discovered the important northern tributary of the
+Welle, the Mbomu. Junker’s observations regarding natural history
+are not altogether trustworthy or accurate. His work in this respect
+is not to be compared with that of Schweinfurth or Emin. His books
+are badly illustrated, the drawings of beasts and birds being seldom
+recognisable, and the pictures of the people quite without any
+scientific value.
+
+Two Italian officers, Massari and Matteucci, crossed the Nile
+basin just before the uprising of the Dervishes closed the Sudan
+to exploration for sixteen years. They passed through the northern
+frontier lands of Abyssinia, descended the White Nile, and ascended
+the Bahr-al-Ghazal, entered Darfur and quitted the Nile basin on the
+borders of Wadai, which excessively hostile Muhammadan state they
+actually traversed unharmed. From Wadai they reached the West Coast via
+Bornu and the Niger, but only to die respectively in England and Italy
+soon afterwards. For daring and courage the journey was a marvel; for
+geography it was a nullity.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  _Photo by Maull & Fox._]
+
+JOSEPH THOMSON AND WILHELM JUNKER.]
+
+When the intensity of the Dervish rule was slackening, in the early
+nineties of the last century various Belgian officers, such as
+Lieutenant Van Kerckhoven, passed the Congo basin to the Bahr-al-Arab
+and the westernmost tributaries of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, and threw
+a little fresh light on the still mysterious hydrography of the
+Nile-Shari water-parting. They pointed the way, however, to Joseph
+Marchand and his associates. This gallant band of Frenchmen, in
+1897, made their way from the Mbomu River (Congo basin) down
+the Jur (Sue) to the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the White Nile, to face
+England at Fashoda. Marchand was accompanied, amongst other European
+officers and non-commissioned officers, by Lieutenants A. H. Dyé and
+Tanguedec. Tanguedec remained till 1900 on the Mountain Nile near the
+Bahr-az-Ziraf. Dyé gave, in 1902, some account of the explorations of
+the Bahr-al-Ghazal region undertaken by the Marchand expedition. The
+swamps which characterise the northeastern part of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+province render the definite mapping of the lower courses of its great
+rivers extremely difficult. Nevertheless, in the most systematic way,
+Marchand and his companions, in their little steam launch _Faidherbe_,
+surveyed the Sue or Jur (the longest stream flowing into the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal estuary), the Bahr-al-Arab, Bahr-al-Hamr, the Tonj, and
+Rōl.
+
+The Bahr-al-Ghazal itself, from Mashra-ar-Rak downwards, was carefully
+surveyed, and many indications were found of the changes which have
+taken place since the days of its early explorers, though M. Dyé
+considers the sketch given by Lejean in 1862 as wonderfully correct in
+its general outlines.
+
+After describing the ferruginous laterite plateau, which occupies
+the whole southern part of the Bahr-al-Ghazal province, as well as
+adjoining parts on the Congo basin, Lieutenant Dyé sketches the
+transition from this region, in which the streams flow in steep-sided
+valleys to the sea of swamps which lies along the ninth parallel. It is
+in about 7° 20′ north that the first change occurs, the river-banks
+opening out and leaving between them an alluvial-flood plain, grassy
+and intersected by swamps, through which the river winds in a tortuous
+course, much choked by sand-banks. At the height of the rains this
+is entirely flooded. Still lower, the rocky valley sides entirely
+disappear, and the clayey banks sink below the mean water-level, the
+rivers becoming more and more narrow, and diminishing in depth until
+they are finally lost, each in its own belt of swamp, which forms a sea
+of grass, “Um Suf” [fleecy reeds], and papyrus.
+
+Lieutenant Dyé, in his description, divides the estuary or drainage
+channel of the Bahr-al-Ghazal below Mashra-ar-Rak into three sections,
+each with its particular characteristics, the general trend of the
+estuary, however, below Mashra-ar-Rak being north, then northeast, and
+lastly east. The first section near Mashra-ar-Rak is at times of great
+width, as at the expansion known as Lake Ambady or Ambach. There is
+much floating vegetation, and the channels frequently change with the
+winds. The depth is nowhere greater than thirteen feet in this section,
+which is distinguished as the region of lakes, lagoons, and reed-beds.
+In the second section, characterised by the growth of papyrus, the
+channel becomes much narrower, and reaches depths of twenty feet and
+more, though the figures given by former travellers seem somewhat
+exaggerated. The width becomes greater again in the last section,
+the banks of which are, as a rule, marked by ant-hills covered with
+brushwood. Schweinfurth was mistaken in saying that the current
+of the Bahr-al-Ghazal is imperceptible, for, except in expansions
+and side branches, some movement can always be traced, and in the
+narrowest section it reaches a speed of one mile and a quarter an hour.
+A remarkable characteristic of the region is the small variation of
+water-level between the seasons, owing to the impounding of the water
+in the marshes. The maximum flood-level occurs on the Bahr-al-Ghazal in
+November and December, or two months later than that on the Sue, and
+various facts are quoted showing the slight effect which a rise in the
+upper courses of the streams has on the water-level of the swamp region.
+
+[Illustration: A STERNWHEEL STEAMBOAT.
+
+Forcing its way up the Jur (Sue) or main affluent of the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal.]
+
+Given their resources and the distance they had to traverse (from
+Loango on the West Coast to Fashoda on the Nile, and afterwards to
+Abyssinia and Somaliland via the Congo, Ubangi, Mbomu, Sue, and
+Bahr-al-Ghazal), the enemies they had to encounter, the allies they
+had to win, the privations they had to endure: the journey of Marchand
+and his companions is one of the most splendid feats in African
+exploration, and well deserves the admiration accorded to it in France
+and England.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+JOSEPH THOMSON, MT. ELGON, AND KAVIRONDO BAY
+
+
+It will be remembered that a remarkable turn was given to Nile
+exploration when between 1849 and 1855 the German missionaries in the
+employ of the Church Missionary Society at Mombasa reported their
+explorations of inner East Africa,--explorations which revealed the
+existence of snow-mountains, and which gathered reports of great lakes
+in the interior. The outcome of these researches on the part of Krapf
+and Rebman was the despatch of Speke and Burton in search of the Nile
+lakes. We read that only Burton’s excessive prudence prevented this
+first expedition to the lakes from starting inland from Mombasa and
+following the trading route right through the Masai country to the
+Victoria Nyanza. This was the route followed by Arab traders as far
+back as 1850. The terror caused by the Masai led to great exaggerations
+of the dangers of this direct journey. Its chief difficulty lay in the
+fact that owing to the ravages of the Masai and the somewhat waterless
+character of the intervening country, there were no inhabitants for
+a distance of some two hundred miles between the coast regions on
+the east and the fertile lands bordering the Victoria Nyanza on the
+west. The missionaries, German and English, who were settled at or
+near Mombasa, continued to collect information from Arab caravans.
+In this way news arrived of the existence of the Rift valley, with
+its chain of lakes, salt and fresh, and of some greater lake beyond
+called “Samburu,” afterwards known as Lake Rudolf; also of the Nilotic
+Negroes in the country of Kavirondo, on the northeast coast of the
+Victoria Nyanza. Much of this information was industriously gathered up
+by a most excellent missionary, the late Mr. Wakefield,[96] who sent
+his notes and theories to an eminent geographer, E. G. Ravenstein.
+Mr. Ravenstein prepared this information for the use of the Royal
+Geographical Society, and in about 1880 had gathered together all that
+was known from surveys and reports into maps illustrating Eastern
+Equatorial Africa.
+
+[Illustration: N.E. CORNER OF VICTORIA NYANZA (WITH SAMIA HILLS IN
+DISTANCE).
+
+Near where Joseph Thomson struck the lake shore at the end of his long
+march, December, 1883.]
+
+As the result of the interest these maps inspired, the Royal
+Geographical Society resolved, in 1882, to despatch on this search for
+a direct route to the Victoria Nyanza, Joseph Thomson, a very young and
+very brilliant African explorer, who had already performed a remarkable
+journey to lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika. Joseph Thomson left Mombasa
+in the spring of 1883, and after several checks and disappointments,
+finally crossed Masailand (Dr. Fischer, a German, had discovered the
+Rift valley and Lake Naivasha a year previously), settled at last the
+existence of the much exaggerated Lake Baringo, and finally reached
+the northeast coast of the Victoria Nyanza, in Kavirondo Bay, on the
+borders of Busoga. So far as Nile exploration was concerned, the
+chief immediate result of Joseph Thomson’s remarkable journey was
+to draw attention to Stanley’s blunder about Ugowe Bay. But Thomson
+himself only made a step towards the delineation of this gulf; his
+work had subsequently to be finished by Mr. C. W. Hobley and Commander
+Whitehouse. He discovered Mount Elgon, however (previously alluded to
+by Stanley as Mount Masawa), and was, politically, the forefather of
+the Uganda Railway.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  _Photo by Jamieson & Co._]
+
+JOSEPH THOMSON.]
+
+The present writer supplemented Thomson’s work in the neighbourhood of
+the snow-mountain Kilimanjaro, and laid the foundations there of the
+British Protectorate of East Africa. Bishop Hannington followed in an
+attempt to repeat Thomson’s journey to the Victoria Nyanza, and thus
+enter Uganda. The missionary bishop was murdered on the confines of
+Uganda, and his plucky enterprise added nothing to our geographical
+knowledge. Then came Count Samuel Teleki von Szek (a Hungarian) and
+Lieutenant von Höhnel (an Austrian naval officer) in 1887. Although
+the expedition led by these gentlemen never actually entered the Nile
+basin, it achieved the most important results of discovering lakes
+Rudolf and Stephanie, and thereby limiting the Nile basin on the
+southeast. Ernest Gedge and F. J. Jackson crossed what is now British
+East Africa in 1889–1890, and reached Elgon, the Victoria Nyanza,
+and Uganda. Dr. Carl Peters made the same journey in 1890, but did not
+add to our geographical knowledge in the basin of the Nile. All these
+expeditions were the direct result of Joseph Thomson’s work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+EMIN PASHA
+
+
+The remarkable man whose name is given to this chapter was a German
+Jew,--Eduard Schnitzer,--born in Silesia about 1830. Becoming a
+doctor of medicine, he gradually drifted to Austria and thence to
+Turkey, where he engaged in much medical service in the suite of high
+officials. To some extent he adopted the religion of Islam, and changed
+his name to Dr. Emin. Attracted by the mystery of Central Africa, he
+found his way to Khartum, and from being a mere medical practitioner,
+became a Bey in the service of the Egyptian government under General
+Gordon. He did a great deal to add to our knowledge of the eastern
+tributaries of the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the western tributaries of the
+Mountain Nile. He explored the Nile-Congo water-parting, and made very
+interesting notes on Unyoro, Uganda, and the Albert Nyanza. He also
+added considerably to our knowledge of the Latuka, Bari, and Acholi
+countries. Strange to relate, though he lived so much between 1877
+and 1888 on the Albert Nyanza, he never once sighted the remarkable
+snow-range of Ruwenzori. This extraordinary omission may have been
+due to the fact that he was very short-sighted. He would, therefore,
+not himself have noticed any remarkable appearance in the sky, and
+probably the Negroes and Turks around him were too dull-witted to draw
+his attention to the snow-peaks on the rare occasions on which they
+were visible. In travelling along the west coast of Lake Albert Nyanza,
+however, he discovered the Semliki River flowing into that lake, and
+called it the river Dweru.[97] Emin Pasha’s journals and letters, which
+were brought to England by Dr. Junker, were issued as a book in 1888.
+Regarding this compilation, it may be classed as one of the few great
+books that have ever been written about tropical Africa. It is full
+of concise and valuable information on natural history, anthropology,
+languages, and geography.[98] He gives a very interesting description
+of the mountainous country of Lotuka (Latuka), and of the regions
+further east.
+
+He had been received by Latome, “an elderly gentleman of medium height
+and rather pleasing features,” who was the ruler of the nude and
+handsome Lotuka Negroids:--
+
+    “Meantime a motley crowd assembled in the yard,--women and girls,
+    the former with leather aprons, the latter entirely nude; men
+    of different districts, all armed with shields and spears,--the
+    genuine Lotuka people, recognisable by their slight figures and
+    long faces,--all nude, and adorned with iron ornaments, ivory rings
+    on the upper arm, broad copper rings as necklaces, and helmets
+    of shining brass or copper plates, surmounted by waving ostrich
+    plumes. Some of them wore caps made of basket work. After our
+    reception was over, we visited the summit of the hill, whence a
+    splendid view is obtained, extending from Mount Loligono in the
+    Bēr country, northwards over the whole Lokoya range, to the west,
+    and to the high peaks of the Obbo Mountains, in the south and
+    southwest, where the horns of Jebel Asal tower up,--so named on
+    Baker’s map, but called by the Bari “Ekara,” and by the Lotuka
+    “Chufal,”--then away to the long lofty ranges of Molong and Killio,
+    the defile leading to Tarangole, with its hills rising up like
+    sentinels, and finally the long range of Lafit, which closes the
+    scene on the northeast,--a typical Alpine landscape.”
+
+The Lotuka people, it might be mentioned, are very similar in
+appearance and language to the Elgumi tribe, which is much farther
+south, in the vicinity of Mount Elgon. Both these peoples are nearly
+related in origin to the Masai. They should properly be styled
+Lotuka.[99]
+
+[Illustration: EMIN PASHA.]
+
+Of the Lotuka country Dr. Emin writes:--
+
+    “The sky was overclouded when we left Tarangole. Taking a
+    southeasterly course along Khor Kos,[100] through beautiful park
+    land, we reached the ford in about half an hour. The _khor_ was
+    here about twenty-two yards broad, and full of yellowish water,
+    which reached up to our thighs, and flowed over a sandy, rocky
+    bottom. We had a pleasant march over a good firm road, across
+    sandy country covered with open wood, the ground being rather wet
+    in some places; the predominance of acacias (_Acacia albida_, _A.
+    mellifera_, and _A. campylacantha_) and _Balanites_ gave a gray
+    tone to the scenery. Khor Oteng, now very insignificant, is said to
+    pour such large volumes of water into Khor Kos[101] in the rainy
+    season that the passage is often rendered impossible for hours.
+    The ford of Khor Kos is called Chuchur; a splendid forest of doleb
+    palms (_Borassus_) yielding an abundance of odorous fruits, skirts
+    the khor, copses of various other trees intervening. Large flat
+    blocks of friable granite, with white streaks, lie across the
+    road that leads direct to the foot of the hill of Loguren, which
+    is about four hundred feet high. Its summit is crowned with the
+    dome-shaped huts of the village bearing the same name.
+
+    “Dum Palms (_Hyphæne thebaica_) grow here, as they do at the ford
+    of Khor Kos. It appears, therefore, that the southern limit of this
+    tree runs along the Bahr-al-Jabl between Bor and Lado, and then
+    advances farther to the south, no doubt owing to the sandy soil
+    which connects the Lotuka and Somal districts.[102] Picturesque
+    groups of rocks, inhabited by the restless Hyrax, well-tilled
+    fields, and here and there small clumps of doleb palms are seen
+    along the road to Elianga, where, on the edges of the rocks,
+    numerous clay vessels containing human bones seem to say ‘Memento
+    mori,’ a rather unnecessary warning in Central Africa.”
+
+Emin describes the Lotuka villages as being dreadfully dirty, in
+contrast to the Bari settlements, which are always kept scrupulously
+clean within, though their environments are filthy. Hundreds of rats
+and mice infest the Lotuka huts. These latter are built upon round
+substructures about four and one-half feet high, usually caulked
+and overlaid with mud. The huts are surmounted by bell-shaped roofs
+(sometimes peaked), which project considerably over the substructures.
+A small doorway is left open, about two and a half feet high, which
+must, of course, be entered on all fours. The interior is kept fairly
+clean, but is quite dark. The thatch is generally made of grass; many
+huts are covered with split leaves of the _Borassus_ palm, which are
+more durable and compact,--a very desirable quality for withstanding
+tropical rain. Sheep and goats are the only domestic animals kept here;
+the former are long legged and of a superior breed. The Lotuka do not
+seem to keep dogs. Agriculture, as is usual among hunting tribes, is
+rather neglected, although the soil is excellent, and the Sudanese
+soldiers stationed in Lotuka grew without difficulty durrah, maize,
+ground-nuts, and splendid watermelons.
+
+Ostriches are caught when young, and are tamed in the Lotuka
+settlements. Sometimes they are hatched from eggs buried in the sand.
+Snakes of many kinds, especially viperine, frequent the Lotuka villages
+unmolested by the people, and often making their way into the huts
+after the rats. A poisonous species of _Echis_ is, however, much
+dreaded.
+
+Okkela in the Lotuka country was a paradise for a natural history
+collector like Emin. The belt of wood round this settlement was full
+of treasures. There were many Colobus monkeys, whose white dorsal mane
+and tail-tuft gleamed through the dark foliage, small families of them
+being led by white-bearded old males which gazed fearlessly at the
+stranger. Close by a brown baboon mother might be giving her offspring
+rough lectures on good manners, which, to judge from the howling, were
+not much appreciated; “tall, fox-coloured baboons, white on the under
+side,[103] were chasing one another along the tree-tops, and barking
+and yelping like hoarse dogs. A small mouse-coloured monkey with a
+black face, and quite unknown to me, skulked away through the thick
+bush; two varieties of _Funambulus_ squirrels ran up and down the long
+tendrils of the creeping plants, and the graceful _Xerus leucumbrinus_
+squirrel roved about upon the ground. Small cats, ichneumons, rats,
+and mice had also found a comfortable shelter in the woods, and other
+creatures, quite unknown, to judge from the description, are said to
+haunt it, especially at night.”
+
+Birds were even more numerous and striking. “Gorgeous blue kingfishers
+(_Halcyon senegalensis_ and _H. semicærulea_) and beautiful bee-eaters
+(_Merops bullockii_ and _M. albicollis_) were perched on the dry
+boughs waiting for insects; a large gray cuckoo, probably a new
+variety,[104] could be heard in the tree-tops, as also the handsome
+_Cuculus capensis_, whose loud cry the Nile Negroes interpret by the
+word _lashakong_ (my gourd), and a charming little falcon (_Nisus_
+sp.) joined them with a sharp chirp, which the natives call _lefit_,
+a happy imitation of its cry. Snow-white _Terpsiphone_ and brilliant
+golden cuckoos (_Chalcites cupreus_ and _C. clasii_) were swinging in
+the green leafy bowers, and cunning barbets (_Pogonorhynchus rolleti_,
+_P. diadematus_, and _P. abyssinicus_) came into sight for a moment,
+to disappear again directly like woodpeckers. In the thick copsewood
+_Bessornis heuglinii_ flew off at my approach with a sudden cry of
+fear, and _Cichladusa guttata_ sang as loudly, but was not quite so
+shy. An _Aedon_ warbled its beautiful song among the thickest briars,
+and was accompanied by the tapping of numerous woodpeckers. I caught
+_Picus nubicus_, the rarer _P. minutus_, and another kind which I
+think is new; it closely resembles _P. schoensis_, and it is equally
+handsome.”
+
+Animal life abounded also in the open country of Lotuka,--a land
+covered with shrubs, with broad, grassy clearings and sandy flats. The
+ground was strewn with the shells of _Achatina zebra_; small lizards
+and snakes of various kinds--among them the rare _Typhlops_--glided
+over the sand, and larger snakes hissed frightfully and retreated.
+A concert of croaking frogs would arise from the reedy margins of
+the half-dry rivers, and on the sandy islands of the Kos enormous
+crocodiles were watching the children bathing close by. Herds of _Cobus
+leucotis_[105] grazed on the young grass; large wart hogs issued
+from holes in the ground. “They were,” writes Emin, “no despicable
+antagonists, for they can make very good use of their huge tusks. Going
+further into the bush, I saw the elegant form of a wild cat stealing
+off with its tail in the air, and heard a loud growl from a leopard
+which disapproved of my presence. Lions were most plentiful.”
+
+[Illustration: RAPHIA PALMS BY A CENTRAL AFRICAN STREAM.]
+
+A herd of zebras grazing on the fresh green grass is a pleasant
+picture, whether surrounded by their frolicking young or running
+away at a thundering gallop. One does not often meet with the
+scaly ant-eater, _Manis temmincki_, still less with the earth-pig
+(_Orycteropus æthiopicus_), but a fine example of the latter edentate
+having fallen into a pitfall, Emin was able to attest its presence in
+Nile land.
+
+Emin’s journeys in the region of the Bahr-al-Ghazal and along the
+water-parting between the basins of the Nile and the Congo added
+greatly to our knowledge of those countries. The forests in these
+regions he described as magnificent “gallery” woods, in which all the
+marvels of vegetation unfolded themselves before the enchanted gaze of
+the botanist. These forests border the streams, and exist only near to
+running water. The region, however, of immense unbroken forests, in
+which one may wander for hours without seeing a sunbeam, and where one
+hears the rain beating upon the summits of the trees without feeling
+a drop, commences only a little to the west of the Nyam-nyam (Zande)
+country. There is no doubt that much of the Bahr-al-Ghazal region
+was originally quite covered with forests, to judge from the remains
+of virgin woods which still exist. The gradual disappearance of the
+forest is to be attributed to the comparatively thick population, the
+constant removal of villages and fields, and to the inroads of both
+axe and fire. Emin saw the remains of many a gigantic and magnificent
+forest-tree lying rotting on the ground, having been cut down, and
+given to decay because it spread too much shade over the crops. After
+many years of wandering among these regions, he was inclined to think
+that in ancient times the true Central African forest region, that is,
+the permanence of evergreen woods containing westerly species, extended
+much farther to the north than it does to-day. Towards the east of the
+Nyam-nyam country, as far as the district of Janda, he observed such
+West African forms as _Artocarpus_ and _Anthocleista_, but he states
+that the valley of the Mountain Nile throughout its whole length, as
+far south as Lake Albert, is characterised by steppe vegetation, as is
+also the entire eastern region of the Nile basin.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+STANLEY DISCOVERS THE MOUNTAINS OF THE MOON AND LAKE ALBERT
+EDWARD.--THE END OF EMIN
+
+
+Two sets of circumstances now hindered further exploration of the Nile
+basin,--the revolt of the Mahdi, with the disasters that followed at
+Khartum; and the persecution of the Christians followed by civil war
+in Uganda. Emin Pasha was left to govern Equatoria for four years, cut
+off from all communication with Egypt. Dr. Junker, arriving with his
+collections and journals in 1886, aroused a great wave of enthusiasm
+in England and Germany. Stanley at once offered to lead a relief
+expedition to the Equatorial provinces of the Nile. The great prestige
+of this remarkable man made it impossible for any other candidate to
+enter the field in England. Many, however, were in favour of entrusting
+the expedition to Thomson, who believed in the practicability of
+conducting it by a direct route from Mombasa to Mount Elgon, and so
+across to the Nile. Whether he would have succeeded is a moot question,
+owing to the fierceness of the Nile tribes between Elgon and Gondokoro,
+and the jealousy and suspicion of Uganda and Unyoro; for the King
+of Uganda, having had his fears aroused as to European aggression,
+had already caused Bishop Hannington to be murdered for repeating
+Thomson’s journey to Busoga.
+
+Stanley was precluded from following the old Unyamwezi route, owing
+to German jealousy. He decided, therefore, to strike at the Upper
+Nile by way of the Congo, and so found himself struggling through the
+dense forests of the Congo basin between the navigable waters of the
+Aruwimi and the cliffs of Lake Albert. This wonderful journey, which
+he took for the relief of Emin Pasha, resulted in the discovery of
+the real Mountains of the Moon [Ruwenzori], the complete course of
+the Semliki River, Lake Albert Edward, and the southwesternmost gulf
+of the Victoria Nyanza. Stanley added a great deal to our knowledge
+of the Congo Pygmies, who in this direction stray over into the Nile
+watershed; but his grand discovery on this occasion was Ruwenzori. On
+May 24, 1888, about five miles from Nsabe, on the grassy mountains to
+the southwest of Lake Albert Nyanza,
+
+    “while looking to the southeast and meditating upon the events of
+    the last month, my eyes were directed by a boy to a mountain said
+    to be covered with salt, and I saw a peculiar shaped cloud of a
+    most beautiful silver colour, which assumed the proportions and
+    appearance of a vast mountain covered with snow. Following its form
+    downward, I became struck with the deep blue-black colour of its
+    base, and wondered if it portended another tornado; then as the
+    sight descended to the gap between the eastern and western plateaux
+    I became for the first time conscious that what I gazed upon was
+    not the image or semblance of a vast mountain, but the solid
+    substance of a real one, with its summit covered with snow....
+    It now dawned upon me that this must be the Ruwenzori, which was
+    said to be covered with a white metal or substance believed to be a
+    rock, as reported by Kavali’s two slaves.”
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  _Photo by John Fergus._]
+
+SIR HENRY STANLEY, G.C.B.]
+
+This view was obtained from a distance of seventy miles,--about the
+distance of the chief snows of Ruwenzori from the south end of Lake
+Albert Nyanza. The constant haze rising from the Semliki valley no
+doubt keeps this mountain usually invisible from the waters of the
+lake. It is, therefore, not so surprising that it was not hitherto seen
+by the explorers of the Albert Nyanza, as it is that Stanley himself
+should have camped at the very base of this mountain for some days
+in 1875, and have been ignorant of its true character as the highest
+ground and the most completely snow-and-glacier-covered range in the
+whole of Africa. The name that he has given to it unfortunately does
+not completely correspond with the native pronunciation; it should be
+Runsororo.
+
+The discovery of this snowy range was soon followed by the realisation
+of the Semliki River, another geographical name of Stanley’s giving
+which it is most difficult to trace to any native source. (The Semliki,
+in fact, is never called by any native tribe “Semliki.” It is known as
+Dweru, Nyanja, Ituri, Isango, and other Bantu terms indicating _lake_
+or _river_. When first discovered by Emin Pasha, a short time before
+Stanley’s arrival, it was known as the Dweru.) This stream is really
+the Albertine Nile. Its existence had been surmised by Sir Samuel
+Baker without much foundation (then) for his theory. Emin Pasha first
+noted it in 1884 as a feeder of Lake Albert. Stanley, in 1889, traced
+the Semliki up its course to its point of exit from Lake Albert Edward,
+which sheet of water he was the first European to discover. Albert
+Edward is connected by a narrow, winding channel[106] on the northeast
+with a somewhat extensive, shallow lake, usually known as “Dweru.”[107]
+
+Dweru was discovered by Stanley in 1875, and named by him Beatrice
+Gulf. Stanley now ascertained that the two lakes were connected. His
+expedition crossed the Kafuru, as the connecting stream is called,
+and entered the till then unvisited Hima kingdom of Ankole. Stanley’s
+guess at the shape of the Albert Edward was incorrect, and it needed
+subsequent expeditions to give us a truer idea of the form and area
+of this sheet of water, the eastern shore of which still remains
+unsurveyed.
+
+[Illustration: SHORES OF THE VICTORIA NYANZA, NEAR EMIN PASHA GULF.]
+
+Passing through Ankole, Stanley reached the southwestern extremity of
+the Victoria Nyanza, which he named Emin Pasha Gulf. On his journeys of
+circumnavigation in 1875, he had been deceived by a chain of islands
+into an incorrect limitation of the area of the Victoria Nyanza in this
+direction. He now realised that the lake extends much further to
+the southwest than was previously thought by Speke and himself, and is
+therefore not of the heart-shape assigned to it in the earliest maps;
+it is, in fact, much longer from north to south than it is broad from
+east to west.
+
+The rest of Stanley’s great journey took him out of the Nile watershed.
+
+But the discoveries which he made in the Albertine region of the Nile
+basin whetted the curiosity of Emin Pasha, who longed to return to
+these mysterious regions.
+
+He did so in 1890, as a German official. Accompanied by Dr. Franz
+Stuhlmann, a very able explorer, he directed his steps to these regions
+of fascinating interest, the Snow-mountains, and the Great Forest. In
+1891 Dr. Stuhlmann made an ascent of the Ruwenzori range on its western
+aspect nearly to the snow-line. He revealed the existence of its
+remarkable Alpine vegetation of giant groundsels and lobelias. He also
+attempted to discriminate between the many different snow-peaks of this
+lofty range, though with only partial success, his failure in arriving
+at a complete result, like that of subsequent travellers, being due to
+the constant presence of clouds. Emin and Stuhlmann together added a
+good deal to our knowledge of the Semliki, and to the clearing up of
+geographical points connected with the line of watershed between the
+Nile and the Congo systems immediately west of Lake Albert. Emin Pasha
+resolved to return by way of the Congo, and was therefore left to do
+so by Stuhlmann, who returned to his duties in German East Africa.
+Re-entering the great Congo forest, and following a northern affluent
+of the Ituri-Aruwimi, Emin was captured by one of the slave-trading,
+Arabised Manyema who had recently invaded this region to secure ivory
+and slaves. As a German official, Emin (together with other Germans)
+had confiscated property belonging to these Manyema, had released
+slaves, and had severely punished slave-raiders. From motives of
+revenge, therefore, he was sentenced to death by his captor, and his
+throat was cut in his house one day in October, 1892.
+
+[Illustration: DR. FRANZ STUHLMANN.
+
+(Deputy Governor of German East Africa.)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+GERMAN EXPLORERS DETERMINE THE SOUTHERN LIMITS OF THE NILE BASIN
+
+
+The acquisition by Germany of those interior regions of the Zanzibar
+coast-line which now constitute German East Africa led to a
+considerable development of exploration in the southernmost regions
+of the Nile basin. Prior to 1890 there had been much discussion as to
+what was the Nile’s furthest tributary,--what stream, in fact, was the
+ultimate source of the Nile. Stanley’s journeys in search of Emin Pasha
+had revealed the existence of the Semliki and of Lake Albert Edward,
+and had thus extended considerably the length of the Albertine Nile
+system. Later on Count Götzen had shown by his remarkable journeys
+north from Tanganyika that Lake Kivu (the existence of which had been
+already reported by Burton, Speke, and Stanley) was connected with
+Tanganyika, and therefore with the Congo. This put a limit to the Nile
+basin in that direction, and disposed for ever of the last vestige of
+Livingstone’s wild dream, by which the main course of the Nile would
+have risen far south of the equator in what we now know to be the basin
+of the Congo, and have flowed through Lake Albert instead of through
+the Victoria Nyanza. Speke had discovered the important Kagera River
+(which he called the Kitangule), and Stanley had extended our knowledge
+of this, the largest affluent of the Victoria Nyanza. Stanley had,
+in fact, in 1875 christened it the Alexandra Nile, but he was very
+much misled about its origin and course, and he made it issue from a
+hypothetical lake, Akanyaru,[108] which has no existence, but which
+was no doubt in part an exaggeration of swamps along the course of the
+Kagera, and in part a confusion with the rumoured Lake Kivu.
+
+The Kagera is now acknowledged to be the extreme head-waters of the
+Nile. A distinctly observable current passes across the Victoria
+Nyanza from the mouth of the Kagera to the Ripon Falls. In 1891–1893
+Dr. Oscar Baumann, a German official, who had previously done some
+good exploring work in West Africa, made extensive journeys through
+southern Masailand and Unyamwezi to the sources of the Kagera River.
+This stream (especially in its upper waters, where it is known as
+Ruvuvu), was further explored in 1899–1900 by M. Lionel Dècle, a French
+traveller, who had done a great deal to increase our knowledge of
+Central Africa.[109] Dr. Kandt,[110] in 1898, and other Germans, have
+also put on the map portions of the Kagera’s course, and our knowledge
+of this stream has received contributions from Messrs. Racey, Mundy,
+and R. W. Macallister, officials of the Uganda Protectorate. The Kagera
+River has two principal sources, both of them almost within sight of
+the waters of Tanganyika. The stream which is usually taken to be the
+more important source rises in south latitude 3° in the country of
+Ruziga, about fifteen miles due north of the north end of Tanganyika,
+at an altitude of about 6,270 feet above sea-level. Some fifty miles
+south-southeast of this point, however, there is another source, which
+may be taken to be the southernmost extension of the Nile system. This
+fountain, in south latitude 3° 45′, is on the eastern slope of the
+Utembera or Kangozi Mountains, only ten miles east of Tanganyika. The
+altitude is about 6,300 feet. This would seem to be the farthest source
+of the Nile.
+
+[Illustration: A NATIVE OF UNYAMWEZI, FROM NEAR SOUTH SHORES OF
+VICTORIA NYANZA.]
+
+Herr Baumann made another contribution of negative value to Nile
+exploration. Stanley and some other travellers had believed that the
+southernmost source of the Nile lay in the country of Unyamwezi, in
+certain streams which flowed northward into the Victoria Nyanza, which
+they entered under the name of the river Simiyu or Shimeyu. But in
+these deductions they were wrong. Baumann showed that the river Simiyu
+was an inconsiderable stream of short course, and that the waters much
+further to the south which had been identified with this river really
+flowed northeastwards into a largish salt lake, discovered by Baumann
+and called Lake Eyasi. Eyasi has no outlet. It is situated in a rift
+valley which joins the great Rift valley of Masailand. The journeys
+of Baumann and of other Germans considerably curtailed the present
+extent of the Nile basin in Unyamwezi. The waters of this somewhat arid
+tableland, which apparently is almost below the surface of the Victoria
+Nyanza, flow mainly to Tanganyika, to Lake Rukwa, and to Lake Eyasi and
+other isolated pools of the rift valleys.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  _Photo by J. Thomson._]
+
+SIR FREDERIC D. LUGARD.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+GEOGRAPHICAL WORK IN THE UGANDA PROTECTORATE
+
+
+Stanley’s relief of Emin Pasha led to the withdrawal of the latter’s
+government from the equatorial regions, and after a brief interval of
+hesitation, to the foundation of a British Protectorate over Uganda
+and the adjoining territories. Preparations for this Protectorate were
+made by Captain (now General Sir Frederic) Lugard, who, in the course
+of his settlement of the disturbed country of Uganda, journeyed round
+Ruwenzori to Lake Albert Edward.[111] Shortly afterwards (as already
+related) Emin Pasha returned to this part of the world accompanied
+by Dr. Stuhlmann. Mr. Scott-Elliott, a Scottish naturalist, came out
+in 1893–1894 for the purpose of making natural history collections.
+He drew a very neat and truthful little map of the eastern and
+southern flanks of Ruwenzori,--a map which until quite recently has
+been somewhat overlooked by those who have compiled charts of this
+region. Scott-Elliott, Lugard, Stuhlmann, Grogan, J. E. Moore, Malcolm
+Fergusson, and several Belgian officers, such as the late Lieutenant
+Meura, were not slow to point out and correct serious errors on the
+part of Stanley in his rough delimitation of Lake Albert Edward. Lake
+Dweru or Beatrice Gulf was also redrawn with advantage. But curiously
+enough, all these travellers--Stanley included--omitted to point out
+that the connection between Lake Dweru and Lake Albert Edward was not
+a broad channel, but a narrow and winding river between high banks.
+It was left to the present writer to make this correction on the map.
+The author also, together with Lieutenant Meura, redrew with greater
+correctness the upper course of the Semliki River, and in 1900 added
+somewhat to our knowledge of the configuration of the Ruwenzori range.
+
+The expedition of Sir Gerald Portal (especially through the work of his
+brother Raymond, who died after doing excellent service in pacifying
+Toro) added to the map of the countries between Ruwenzori on the west
+and Kavirondo on the east. In 1895 the late Colonel Seymour Vandeleur
+(when only a lieutenant in the army) made an excellent and systematic
+survey of the Kingdom of Uganda and of much of Unyoro. The wars against
+the Sudanese mutineers added to our geographical knowledge of these
+districts. Colonel John Evatt and Captain H. Maddox, amongst others,
+gave us for the first time something like the true shape of the marshy
+lakes of Kioga and Kwania, which, in some respects, are huge backwaters
+of the Victoria Nile. But the great addition to the geography of the
+southern extremities of the Nile basin was made by the expedition
+under Colonel J. R. L. Macdonald. This officer had accurately
+mapped the regions bordering on the northwest coasts of the Victoria
+Nyanza in 1894. About this period also Mr. F. J. Jackson,[112] Mr.
+C. W. Hobley, and Mr. Ernest Gedge were filling up the map as regards
+the configuration of the country along the northeastern watershed of
+Victoria Nyanza and the slopes of Mount Elgon. Mount Elgon was ascended
+to its highest peak (14,080 feet), for the first and only time, by
+Messrs. Jackson and Gedge in 1895.
+
+[Illustration: G. F. SCOTT-ELLIOT.]
+
+Colonel Macdonald was despatched more with a political than with a
+geographical object. He was to journey through the northeastern part
+of the British sphere of interest in East Africa and make for the
+Nile about Gondokoro, and so travel with the idea of forestalling any
+possible French competitors; whilst General (Lord) Kitchener should
+be defeating the Khalifa at Khartum with a view to recovering all
+the provinces of the Egyptian Sudan. But the mutiny of the Sudanese
+soldiers in Uganda and other causes threw great difficulties in the
+way of Colonel Macdonald’s expedition. He succeeded however in mapping
+himself, and with the aid of such officers on his staff as Majors
+Austin, Bright, Hanbury-Tracey, and others, the regions to the north
+of Mount Elgon. He filled up a considerable blank in the map between
+what was known east of the Mountain Nile and the actual coast-line of
+Lake Rudolf. Colonel Macdonald’s expedition first brought clearly to
+our knowledge the remarkable mountain-ranges of Chemorongi, Nakwai,
+Lobor, Lopala, Morongole, Agoro, and Harogo. He put on the map the
+upper waters of the Asua River (an important eastern contributary of
+the Mountain Nile) and its larger affluents. His work and that of the
+late Captain Welby has enabled us to define more clearly the separation
+between the waters of Lake Rudolf on the east and the Mountain Nile on
+the west. Colonel Macdonald discovered Lake Kirkpatrick on the upper
+Asua, and mapped more precisely Lake Salisbury and the northern slopes
+and streams of Mount Elgon.
+
+Captain M. S. Wellby had travelled in 1899 round the east and south
+shores of Lake Rudolf, and thence had penetrated westwards through
+the Turkana and Karamojo countries to the Nile watershed, where he
+discovered two streams flowing north, both of which he named Ruzi.
+These he imagined to be the head-waters of the Sobat. Donaldson Smith
+and H. H. Austin showed his theory to be wrong [?]. The Ruzis probably
+flow into the rivers draining the Lotuka highlands and entering the
+Bahr-az-Ziraf or Giraffe Nile.
+
+[Illustration: DR. DONALDSON-SMITH.]
+
+Colonel J. R. L. Macdonald (assisted by Captain Pringle) had previously
+(1893), when first employed in Uganda, made an admirable survey of the
+British coasts of the Victoria Nyanza, from Port Victoria in northern
+Kavirondo, westwards to the German frontier at the Kagera River, and
+for the first time put on record all or nearly all the islands, bays,
+inlets, peninsulas, and rivers of the north and northwest coasts
+of the Victoria Nyanza. Here and there his work in this direction has
+been added to by Mr. C. W. Fowler and Commander Whitehouse. Whitehouse,
+as already related, was the surveyor who finally amended Stanley’s
+error of “Ugowe Bay,” and gave us for the first time the correct form
+of the great northeastern gulf of the Victoria Nyanza (Kavirondo
+Bay), together with the shape of the two large islands which mask
+its entrance. Commander Whitehouse also surveyed the east coast of
+the Victoria Nyanza down to the German frontier, and added a lot of
+new material to the delineation of this eastern coast-line. In this
+direction an interesting journey was made from Lake Naivasha to the
+coast of Kavirondo Bay by Major E. Gorges in 1900. Mr. C. W. Hobley,
+a Sub-Commissioner in the Uganda Protectorate, contributed a good
+deal of information to fill up the blank places of the map between
+Kavirondo Bay on the south and the northwestern flanks of Mount Elgon
+on the north. Captain Pringle had already mapped these countries on the
+railway survey.
+
+In 1900 Dr. Donaldson-Smith, an American, traversed the countries
+which lie between the north end of Lake Rudolf and the Mountain Nile.
+He crossed several dry river-beds, in a region of appalling drought
+(extinct tributaries of the Sobat), and then reached the rivers
+Oguelokur, Tu, and Kos which flow in a northwesterly direction towards
+the Mountain Nile or its branch, the Giraffe River. The region between
+the Giraffe and the Sobat remains to-day the only unexplored part of
+the Nile Basin.
+
+In 1900 and 1901 Major C. Delmé Radcliffe made the first completely
+accurate survey of the Nile from Lake Albert to Gondokoro, and put on
+the map for the first time many new details concerning the Asua River
+and its affluents, besides streams which rise in the hills of the
+Acholi and Madi countries and enter that portion of the Nile between
+Gondokoro and Lake Albert.
+
+From the Cape to Cairo was a watchword that, as an idea, first emanated
+from the pen of Sir Edwin Arnold in 1876, and as a phrase took shape
+in writings by the author of this book in 1888 and 1890, and as a
+policy was finally adopted by Cecil Rhodes in 1892. The first person
+to carry this idea into practical execution was Mr. Ewart Grogan, who
+(accompanied part of the way by Mr. Sharp) travelled literally from the
+Cape to Cairo via Lake Albert Edward and the Uganda Protectorate. His
+contributions to Nile explorations are referred to in the next chapter.
+He was followed in 1900 by Major A. St. Hill Gibbons and later by M.
+Lionel Dècle. Between 1898 and 1902 Colonel E. A. Stanton surveyed the
+eastern part of the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the intricate channels of the
+lower Mountain Nile.
+
+[Illustration: CUTTING THE SUDD.]
+
+In the year 1900 a very notable achievement took place. The terrible
+obstruction of the sudd which had intermittently blocked the Nile
+navigation from the days of Nero’s two centurions (who could hardly
+force their way through it in the year 66 A.D.) to our own times was
+cut through resolutely by an expedition under Major Malcolm Peake. The
+government of the Egyptian Sudan has for the last two years continued
+to clear away this obstacle, and in all probability it will never be
+allowed to form again. In fact, in this direction man will probably do
+much to modify the subsequent history of the Nile. Sir William Garstin
+has recently explored Lake Tsana and the Blue Nile as well as the White
+Mountain Nile as far as Gondokoro, Lake Albert, and Lake Victoria, with
+a view to ascertaining which of the two rivers contributes the most
+valuable supply of water for the irrigation and fertilisation of Egypt.
+So far, he has decided for the Blue Nile, a fact which lends increased
+importance to the Empire of Abyssinia.[113] It may be, however, that
+with the clearing of the sudd on the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the Mountain
+Nile these branches of the great river may send down increasing
+supplies of water to Egypt. In any case the clearing of the sudd will
+permit of these waterways being used for penetrating in all directions
+into the heart of Equatorial Africa.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+THE EASTERN BASIN OF THE NILE
+
+
+We will now turn to the eastern part of the Nile basin--the first to
+be explored, the last to be finished. It has been already related
+how, alarmed at the rapid successes of the Portuguese in India, the
+Persian Gulf, and East Africa, the Abyssinians resolutely ejected the
+Portuguese missionaries from their country during the seventeenth
+century, and how the attempts of Louis XIV. to supplant the Portuguese
+by French influence resulted disastrously. Bruce had broken the spell
+which rested on this strange country, so fascinating to Europeans,
+because while being absolutely “Africa” it was ruled, and for the most
+part inhabited, by more or less Caucasian races, its rulers having a
+Semitic history which attached them to the fountains of civilisation.
+Our previous review of exploration in Abyssinia ended with Bruce’s
+journey, and with the attempts on the part of French and German
+explorers during the early part of the nineteenth century to enter
+Abyssinia up the course of the Blue Nile. Meantime the overland route
+to the East had been conceived by Lieutenant Waghorn, the British
+government had seized Aden in 1839, and a much greater interest than
+heretofore was taken in the navigation of the Red Sea, which was
+rapidly becoming the main route to India. Although Abyssinia then as
+now had no acknowledged political control over any part of the Red
+Sea littoral, it was early recognised that Abyssinia was an important
+factor in the political problems governing the control of the Red Sea.
+Even before the safety of the British route to India became a matter
+of urgent importance, we had sought to enter into direct relations
+with Abyssinia. In 1805 a British mission under Lord Valentia and
+Consul Henry Salt was sent to conclude an alliance with Abyssinia
+and obtain a port on the Danakil coast by means of which Britain
+could, if necessary, convey troops to Abyssinia, and so take a French
+Egypt in the rear. The writings of Henry Salt added greatly to our
+knowledge of the peoples, languages, and fauna of Abyssinia and of the
+Zanzibar coast, but did not contribute materially to the elucidation
+of Nile problems. During the first part of the nineteenth century
+Abyssinia was in the throes of civil war caused by the struggles
+for supremacy between the ruler of Tigre (the northern province)
+and the Ras or Governor of Amhara (the central province). The Ras
+of Tigre--Sabagadis--threw open northern Abyssinia to the English,
+cordially inviting missionaries, mechanics, and explorers to enter
+his dominions. In this way the Church Missionary Society’s missions
+to eastern Africa started by the despatch of Protestant missionaries
+(mostly Germans in the pay of the Society) to Tigre. On the other
+hand, the war between Tigre and Amhara having resulted in the death
+of both the chiefs, a third potentate, the ruler of the lofty Samien
+Mountains, annexed Tigre, and out of opposition to his predecessor’s
+policy invited Frenchmen to develop the country. Captains Galinier and
+Ferret accepted the commission to survey Tigre and Samien by careful
+triangulation. This task was accomplished in 1842, and resulted in the
+correct mapping of the affluents of the Atbara. Meantime the British
+Protestant missionaries had penetrated into Amhara, while Tigre and
+Samien came under French Roman Catholic influence. In fact, the history
+of Uganda was given here on a larger scale. Simultaneously the southern
+province of Ethiopia, Shoa, under the enlightened ruler Selasié had
+attracted the attention of Europeans. Major (afterwards Sir William)
+Harris was sent by the Indian government in 1841 to conclude a treaty
+with Shoa, as it was thought that this country might eventually extend
+its influence over Somaliland, and so come into direct contact with
+the Indian government at Aden. This British mission was naturally
+followed by a French one, and a French envoy applied to the Pope for
+the starting of a Roman Catholic mission in Shoa.
+
+The work of Monseigneur Massaja, who was despatched by Pope Pius IX.,
+though it throws much interesting light on the structure of the Gala
+language, hardly comes within the sphere of Nile exploration. Meantime
+an adventurer named Kasa had arisen in Amhara, and had gradually made
+himself master of the northern and western provinces of Abyssinia.
+He had himself crowned King of Kings of Ethiopia under the name of
+Theodore, and then proceeded to annex the province of Shoa to his
+dominions.
+
+During the early part of Theodore’s reign the two brothers d’Abbadie
+were at work surveying Abyssinia and collecting invaluable information
+regarding the languages, literature, coins, inscriptions, and religions
+of that assemblage of Semitic, Hamitic, and Negro states. Antoine
+Thomson d’Abbadie and his brother Arnaud Michel were actually born in
+Dublin, their father being French and their mother Irish. They were
+however educated in France. Their bent for scientific exploration
+was early recognised, for the French Academy sent the elder of the
+two on a scientific mission to Brazil at the age of twenty-five. The
+younger d’Abbadie explored Algeria. This leading his thoughts in the
+direction of Abyssinia, he proposed to his brother a joint mission
+of exploration, which commenced in 1838 by their landing at Masawa.
+Besides carefully surveying the northern and central provinces of
+Abyssinia they did work of special novelty and interest in the south.
+Until the journeys of Cecchi and other Italians twenty years ago the
+d’Abbadies’ information concerning the countries lying to the south
+of Abyssinia represented all that we knew of Kaffa and Enarea,--names
+indeed which had been cited by the Portuguese, but names unsupported
+by geographical information. Antoine d’Abbadie penetrated the furthest
+into Kaffa. He collected an immense amount of information regarding
+the languages spoken in the vague south and southwest districts
+inhabited mainly by races of Hamitic origin. The d’Abbadies closed
+their survey of Abyssinia in 1848, though the younger brother paid the
+country another short visit in 1853. They were in no hurry to give the
+results of their explorations to the world; in fact, the “Géographie
+de l’Éthiopie” (of which only one volume was published) did not appear
+till 1890. Their actual surveys of Abyssinia were published between
+the years 1860 and 1873. Their Ethiopian manuscripts came out also
+during that period, but Antoine’s Dictionary of the Amharic tongue
+was published no further back than 1881. Their twelve years’ work
+in Abyssinia was the greatest contribution that has ever been made
+to our knowledge of that country, but most of their labours do not
+lie sufficiently within the field of Nile exploration to admit of an
+adequate description in this book. Antoine d’Abbadie lived to the age
+of eighty-seven (he died in 1897). About 1859 he found himself involved
+in a somewhat acrid conflict of opinion with another Abyssinian
+explorer, Dr. C. T. Beke, who visited Abyssinia in the forties of the
+last century. D’Abbadie was naturally prejudiced in favour of the Blue
+Nile being the main Nile, since that river and its southern affluents
+had been the special object of his researches during twelve years.
+On the other hand, Dr. Beke was hotly in favour of the White Nile,
+especially after Speke’s discovery of the Victoria Nyanza. Dr. Beke was
+right in his main contentions, but seems to have thrown unnecessary
+aspersions on the genuineness of Antoine d’Abbadie’s explorations in
+southern Abyssinia. We now know d’Abbadie’s work to have been perfectly
+accurate.
+
+[Illustration: DR. C. BEKE.]
+
+Mansfield Parkyns, an Englishman, visited Abyssinia from 1843 to 1846,
+wrote interestingly on the country in confirmation or correction of
+Bruce’s statements, but did not add materially to our geographical
+knowledge, though his book is still often quoted in regard to habits
+and customs now dying out.
+
+Amongst the Protestant missionaries first despatched to the country
+by the Church Missionary Society of London was the celebrated Krapf,
+already alluded to in Chapter XI. as the joint discoverer of the East
+African snow-mountains. Krapf penetrated far south into Shoa, and gave
+considerable information, both interesting and true, regarding the
+dwarfish Negro tribes found to the southwest of the Abyssinian Empire.
+
+Lij Kasa, who had become King of Kings of Ethiopia under the name of
+Theodore III., showed himself, when he had consolidated his power,
+very fond of the English, and encouraged English missionaries and
+consuls to go to his court. He seems, however, to have pursued this
+policy more with the idea of strengthening his prestige and improving
+his kingdom by the spread of mechanical appliances and the manufacture
+of superior arms and ammunition, than from any desire to encourage
+missionary work. In the early sixties he became offended at a supposed
+slight on the part of the British government, which left unanswered a
+letter addressed to it by Theodore in 1863. His subsequent proceedings
+in regard to the imprisonment of the consul and missionaries
+eventually brought about the British expedition of 1868. A force of
+sixteen thousand British and Indian soldiers under Sir Charles Napier
+(afterwards Lord Napier of Magdala) marched from Masawa up and along
+the eastern escarpment of the Abyssinian plateau, and captured the
+citadel of Magdala, which is situated within the basin of the Nile,
+close to the northeasternmost tributary of that river. This expedition
+was accompanied by Dr. W. T. Blanford, who compiled a valuable work on
+the geology and zoölogy of Abyssinia, which was published in 1870.
+
+For ten years after the withdrawal of the British expedition,
+in 1869, little advance was made in our knowledge of Abyssinian
+geography. Theodore was succeeded by another adventurer, also called
+Kasa,--a native of Tigre,--who afforded considerable help to the
+British. By means of our indirect support he succeeded in getting
+himself crowned as Yohannes (John), King of Kings of Ethiopia. Shoa
+alone, where Menelik (the present emperor) was slowly recovering the
+power of his father (who had lost the country to Theodore), was not
+actually conquered by the Emperor John; for just as he was starting
+to subdue Menelik, he himself was attacked by the Egyptian army
+under Munzinger, the Swiss Governor of Masawa. Munzinger was urging
+the Khedive’s government to occupy and annex Abyssinia, and Egypt
+had, as a preliminary, seized the Bogos country, the greater part of
+which still remains Egyptian. But in 1875 John inflicted a tremendous
+defeat on the Egyptian army near the river Mareb, and in 1876 a second
+defeat, still more disastrous to the Egyptian power. This brought
+about the intervention of General Gordon, who, in 1876 and 1879, made
+two attempts to come to a friendly understanding with Abyssinia. His
+journeys added a little to our knowledge of the affluents of the Blue
+Nile and the Atbara.
+
+In 1879 the Earl of Mayo (who subsequently travelled with the writer of
+this book in southwest Africa) made an interesting journey along the
+Takaze River, which is the upper waters of the Atbara. His sporting
+expedition was followed by that of the brothers W. and F. L. James
+(who subsequently explored Somaliland). The Italians began to take
+an interest in Abyssinia at the end of the seventies, but the first
+expeditions undertaken by their explorers have no connection with the
+Nile basin.
+
+In 1839 or 1840 one of the most important affluents of the Nile was
+discovered by the expedition of Turks and Europeans despatched by
+Muhammad Ali to explore the White Nile. This was the Sobat (as it was
+named by the Nile Arabs), which enters the White River under the ninth
+degree of latitude. The word Sobat was evidently an ancient Nubian or
+Ethiopian term which was in existence two thousand years ago, when it
+was applied to the White Nile (Asta Sobas), in contradistinction to the
+Blue Nile (Ast’apos). At the present day the Sobat is known by the
+name of Kir[114] on its lower portion, and Baro on its upper course.
+In subsequent years steamers ascended the Sobat from the Nile as far
+as it was navigable, namely, to a point called Nasr. Johann Maria
+Schuver, a Dutch traveller in the seventies of the last century, and
+several Europeans in the service of the Egyptian government, collected
+a little more information about the Sobat and its tributaries above
+Nasr, but this river long remained one of the unsolved problems of
+Nile geography. Schuver did much to explore the western Gala countries
+between the Sobat and the Blue Nile. On some of these journeys he was
+accompanied by the Italian explorer Piaggia[115] (who had discovered
+Lake Kioga on the Victoria Nile). Piaggia, in endeavouring once more to
+force his way towards the Sobat, died at Karkoj, on the Blue Nile, in
+1882.
+
+[Illustration: NATIVES OF THE BARO (UPPER SOBAT) SKINNING HIPPOPOTAMUS.]
+
+The surcease of the Nile exploration which followed on the Mahdi’s
+revolt in 1882, closed for a time the exploration of the Sobat and its
+affluents. But one result of this revolt was to urge European inquirers
+more and more towards Abyssinia, especially the southern provinces
+of that empire. A French explorer, Jules Borelli, made remarkable
+journeys to the south and southwest of Abyssinia at the close of the
+eighties of the last century, and, besides discovering the river Omo,
+which flows into Lake Rudolf, he gave much new information regarding
+the source of the Sobat. The book which he published in 1890--“Ethiopie
+Méridionale”--is one of the best and most beautifully illustrated works
+which have appeared on Africa.
+
+Italy having assumed an unacknowledged protectorate over Abyssinia,
+subsidised expedition after expedition, nominally for scientific
+research. Among the best equipped of these undertakings, and the most
+fruitful in geographical results, was an expedition under Vittorio
+Bottego, L. Vannutelli, and C. Citerni, which explored the head-waters
+of the Sobat (Baro, Akobo, etc.) in the southern Abyssinian highlands,
+and also the waters of the Didessa (Dabessa), which is the southernmost
+tributary of the Blue Nile.
+
+In 1898 the celebrated Captain (now Colonel) J. B. Marchand, who
+had made a most remarkable journey across the Nyam-nyam country in
+the western Nile basin from the Mbomu (a northern affluent of the
+Welle-Ubangi), across the Nile watershed to the Sue River, and down the
+Sue to the Bahr-al-Ghazal and Fashoda, left Fashoda[116] in consequence
+of the agreement between France and Great Britain, and travelled to
+Abyssinia more or less along the course of the Sobat River, thus,
+first of all Europeans, practically connecting the southern provinces
+of Abyssinia with the White Nile by a direct journey up the valley of
+the Sobat or Baro. Marchand’s explorations were supplemented by those
+of MM. de Bonchamps and Michel.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  _Photo by Pierre Petit & Fils._]
+
+COLONEL J. B. MARCHAND.]
+
+These explorers were soon followed in the same direction by the late
+Captain M. S. Wellby. Captain Wellby also made a most interesting
+journey from Abyssinia to Lake Rudolf, down the east coast of Lake
+Rudolf to Lake Baringo and the Uganda Protectorate, and then northwest
+through the Turkana country, which lies to the west of Lake Rudolf.
+Here Captain Wellby found himself on the Nile-Rudolf water-parting.
+To the west of the Turkana, in the Karamojo country, he crossed an
+important stream named the Ruzi,[117] which was flowing in a general
+way northwest. Farther north he encountered another river also named
+Ruzi, which might or might not be the same, but which in doubt he
+called Ruzi II. From the second of these Ruzis he eventually reached
+the main Sobat. Thenceforth he believed that in one or other of the
+Ruzis he had discovered the southernmost affluent, or perhaps the
+headwaters of the Sobat River. His theory, however, was strongly
+contested by Major H. H. Austin, who, in company with Major R. G. T.
+Bright, travelled over the greater part of the Sobat system in
+1900–1901, giving us for the first time a fairly accurate survey of
+that river, and of its southern affluents, especially the Pibor-Akobo,
+which for length of course, though not in volume, might lay claim to
+be the main Sobat River. The Akobo rises in the mountains to the north
+of Lake Rudolf, its source being very close to the stream of the Omo,
+the principal feeder of Lake Rudolf. It does receive an affluent from
+the south, which is named by Major Austin “Neubari,” but this stream
+is at present unexplored in its lower course. It might turn out to be
+one of the rivers named by Captain Wellby “Ruzi.” At the same time Dr.
+Donaldson-Smith, who crossed this region in 1900, does not appear to
+have encountered running water where the junction of the Ruzi and the
+Neubari should have taken place. Probably the two Ruzis discovered
+by Captain Wellby are two different streams, one of which flows
+northwestward into the Nile and the other into the northwest corner of
+Lake Rudolf. The countries to the south of Akobo and northwest of Lake
+Rudolf are described by the few travellers who have visited them as
+being a region of appalling drought.
+
+[Illustration: GORGE OF THE RIVER BARO (UPPER SOBAT).]
+
+Mr. Weld Blundell had succeeded the Bonchamps-Michel expedition
+as an explorer of the Blue Nile, and of its interesting southern
+affluent, the Didessa. Mr. Blundell made several interesting changes
+in the delineation of the course of the Blue Nile westward of Gojam.
+Blundell’s work was succeeded by the remarkable surveys of Major C. W.
+Gwynn and Lieutenant L. C. Jackson, who contributed a map of the Blue
+Nile from Roseires up stream to the Gubba country, on the frontiers of
+Abyssinia. They also threw a little more light on the course of the
+Didessa and Yabus affluents of the Blue Nile, and the upper waters of
+the Rahad, which also flows (somewhat intermittently) into the Blue
+Nile. From the Rahad they crossed the tiny stretch of mountainous
+country (Galabat) to the Atbara. Here they showed that only a distance
+of about five miles of mountains separates the affluents of the Atbara
+from the affluents of the Rahad, which is a tributary of the Blue
+Nile. But for this intervening ridge of five miles in breadth, the
+systems of the Atbara and the Blue Nile would (as the ancients and
+Arabs formerly believed) have turned the whole country of Sennar into a
+huge island, in which form it was represented by most travellers down
+to the beginning of the nineteenth century. Major Gwynn also explored
+the head-waters of the river Garre, which is the northernmost affluent
+of the Baro-Sobat, and also the Pibor. As to the country between the
+Baro or the main upper Sobat and the Pibor, Major Gwynn describes it
+as “a dried-up marsh covered with a thick choking layer of black ash
+resulting from the burning of the grass.” The Nuers, one of the eastern
+tribes of the Nilotic Negroes, he describes as a wonderfully fine
+race physically, averaging nearly six feet in height. Of the work of
+the earliest European pioneer in western Galaland Major Gwynn gives a
+generous estimate:--
+
+    “Up to this point (the Lega-Gala country) we had been traversing
+    a land which had to a certain extent been explored by Schuver,
+    and his work had, on the whole, been found to be very accurate in
+    detail, though in the southern portions of his map a considerable
+    error in latitude had appeared.... Schuver was much liked and
+    respected throughout the country, and a great impression had been
+    produced by his dog, which must have been a big Newfoundland. (He
+    is still always spoken of by the Galas as Abu Sari, ‘the Father of
+    the Dog.’)”
+
+[Illustration: BERTA NEGROES.]
+
+On the middle of the Blue Nile, north of the country of Fazokl, the
+aboriginal inhabitants are purely Negro--Berta and Barun. These Negro
+races were probably first mentioned by Cailliaud, the French explorer,
+and Ferdinand Werne, the German, who travelled on the Blue Nile between
+1829 and 1843. Major Gwynn describes them as “a very black race, large,
+well made, but slothful and stupid to a degree. Going up to their
+villages in the hills, one finds them stretched out, sunning themselves
+on the rocks, looking for all the world like great black snails. Funny
+little black pigs and stringy fowls share the huts on equal terms.”
+
+An interesting journey was made by Mr. Oscar T. Crosby across southern
+Abyssinia and down the Blue Nile in 1900. In an article by Mr. Crosby
+in the “Geographical Journal” of July, 1900, an interesting description
+is given of the deep gorge of the Blue Nile in the Gomar country
+of Gojam. The level of the river at this point is 4,725 feet above
+sea-level. The edge of the plateau above the river is 9,650 feet, and
+this plateau descends nearly five thousand feet in a series of abrupt
+steps or “benches.”
+
+At the beginning of 1900 Mr. Oscar Neumann, a German, already noted
+for his explorations of the eastern part of the Uganda Protectorate,
+reached Abyssinia by the now well-trodden route from Zeila to Harar,
+and after visiting the Blue Nile in Gojam, explored the northern part
+of the Rudolf basin, and then reached the Galo, which is one of the
+rivers that might claim to be the head-waters of the Sobat, a river
+rising in those lofty, snow-patched highlands to the southwest of
+Enarea. From the Galo, Neumann crossed to the Akobo, and followed this
+stream down to its confluence with the Pibor. At this confluence he
+makes the Pibor such an important stream that it may well be Captain
+Wellby’s Ruzi. In the country immediately to the south of Kaffa and
+on the water-parting between the systems of the Nile and Lake Rudolf
+Mr. Neumann claims to have discovered Negro races of the Bantu stock.
+Apparently he means merely in physical type,--in other words, Negroes
+of more or less West African affinities; but if he or any other
+traveller should be able to support this statement by specimens of
+the language of these Sheko and Binesho peoples which actually showed
+affinities with the Bantu family, he would have thrown a remarkable new
+light on the unsolved problem concerning the source of this interesting
+family of African languages. The present writer has been able to show
+that Bantu languages of the most archaic type exist at the present
+day on the northwest slopes of Mount Elgon. This is the furthest
+point to the northeast to which the Bantu family has been traced.
+Thence southwards and westwards it spreads as the dominating family of
+languages as far as Cape Colony and Fernando Po.
+
+[Illustration: A BERTA VILLAGE IN THE MATONGWE MOUNTAINS.]
+
+Almost the only large white spot now remaining unexplored in the
+Nile basin is the district occupied by Nilotic Negroes (Dinka, Nuēr,
+Shiluk), lying between the Sobat River on the northeast and the main
+White Nile on the west and southwest. This region appears to be a flat
+country of alternate marsh and arid steppe, producing few or no great
+rivers of its own. On the west it is watered by the affluents of an
+important river, vaguely known as the Oguelokur, some of which (such as
+the Tu and Kos) rise in those high mountains of the Lotuka country in
+the northernmost parts of the Uganda Protectorate. Mr. Ewart Grogan,
+accompanied part of the way by Mr. Sharp, in 1899 and 1900, made a
+remarkable journey, literally from the Cape to Cairo. He travelled from
+the north end of Lake Tanganyika by way of lakes Kivu and Albert Edward
+to the Albert Nyanza, and thence down the Nile to the sudd barriers
+beyond Bor. After which, taking to the land, he traversed the unknown
+country along that branch of the White Nile called Bahr-az-Ziraf or
+the Giraffe River. He discovered another branch of the Mountain Nile
+which joins the Bahr-az-Ziraf, and at the junction of these rivers he
+notes the entry of a powerful tributary from the southeast, doubtless
+the Oguelokur. It is sometimes supposed that the southernmost of the
+Ruzi rivers discovered by Captain Wellby also joins the Oguelokur, and
+not the Sobat, though the more northern Ruzi may be the head-waters of
+the Pibor. Some distance to the west of the Pibor is a river called in
+Sudanese Arabic “Khor Felus.” This river was practically discovered by
+Captain H. H. Wilson in 1902. Starting southwards from the Sobat, not
+far from its confluence with the main Nile, Captain Wilson followed
+the Khor Felus up stream for a distance of some eighty-five miles in
+a direct line due south. He describes the country traversed by this
+winding river as being flat and uninteresting,--nothing but a vast
+grassy plain, with hardly a tree to be seen. The river or khor was
+not traced to its source, which indeed was said by the natives to be
+the White Nile itself. If this be true, another branch of the White
+Nile would start from near Bor and flow northeastwards into the Sobat;
+further, more natural canals seem to connect the Khor Felus with the
+Pibor or the Upper Sobat. If this is the case, then in that vast plain
+lying between the Sobat and the Nile, which was once a portion of the
+“Lake of Fashoda,” we have still remains of many old channels of the
+Nile which, as the lake drained off to the northwards, meandered over
+its drying bed.
+
+[Illustration: THE NILE IN EGYPT.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+The Nile quest is practically ended. It may be safely said that every
+important branch or affluent or lake-source of this the longest river
+in Africa (very nearly the longest in the world) has been discovered,
+named, and partially or completely mapped. The only portion of the
+Nile basin which presents any noticeable blank on the map is the
+unknown district--some say of swamp alternating with arid steppe--which
+stretches like a tongue of white in our charts between the tributaries
+of the Mountain Nile and the Giraffe on the west, and the affluents
+of the Sobat on the east. In all probability whilst these lines are
+written and printed this blank is being filled up by industrious
+surveyors sent out by the Anglo-Egyptian government of the Sudan.
+
+Fate has ordained that the entire basin of this river and its
+tributaries (with the trifling exceptions of the upper waters of those
+which rise within the political limits of Abyssinia, a portion of the
+extreme source of the Nile (the Kagera), of Lake Albert Edward, and of
+the Semliki) should come under the political control of Great Britain.
+We have, therefore, cast our ægis over one of the most wonderful
+regions, in some respects one of the most productive portions, of
+Africa.
+
+On the north there is the oldest country in the world, so far as
+history goes,--Egypt, with its ten millions of Egyptians, Arabs,
+Europeans, and Nubians; its cotton and wheat, maize, barley, beans,
+sugar-cane, dates, rice, and clover; its petroleum, gold, and emeralds
+in the eastern desert, and its alum and soda in the Libyan wastes;
+Egypt, with its European or Mediterranean fauna and flora.
+
+Then comes Nubia, producing little at present but fierce men of mixed
+Hamitic, Semitic, and Negro blood; then the richer countries of Darfur,
+Kordofan, Sennar, Bogos, Kasalá, and Galabat. Here there is no lack of
+trade goods,--copper, camels, asses, and, above all, acacia gum. The
+vegetation in these lands is no longer that of the Mediterranean. It
+is African. On the hills above three thousand feet, appear dracænas
+and euphorbias. In the lowlands there are baobabs, acacias, giant
+fig-trees, wild-date palms, and the branching hyphæne. Here begins the
+great fauna of Africa,--baboons, elephants, antelopes, lions, zebras,
+cheetahs, leopards, spotted hyænas, wild asses, rhinoceroses, giraffes.
+
+[Illustration: NUBIA: A “WASHOUT” ON THE SUDAN RAILWAY.]
+
+Farther south comes the influence of the regular equatorial rains. The
+steppe gives place to grasslands, and, above all, to marshes,--hopeless
+marshes of papyrus, of Phragmites reeds, of the fleecy _Vossia_ grass,
+of the floating _Pistia stratiotes_, the amaranth, the water-lily,
+and the ambatch (a gouty bean with orange-coloured blossoms). In
+these marshes swarm the hippopotamuses and crocodiles, long banished
+from Egypt proper. Here strides and poses the extraordinary _Balæniceps
+rex_ or Whale-headed stork. Sacred ibises, spoonbills, stilts, herons,
+marabou storks, white storks, black storks, saddle-billed storks,
+tantalus storks, Egyptian geese, spur-winged geese, knobnose geese,
+ducks of many kinds frequent this dreary land, that, save to birds,
+has no horizon; for everywhere the view is shut in with walls of reed
+and rush and amphibious bush. Yet away beyond the marshes--marshes
+which are really hidden lakes and mighty rivers with false banks of
+floating vegetation--is a grassy country dotted with stony hillocks,
+if one travels far enough from the river, and inhabited by naked Nile
+Negroes. These are tall black men with long, thin shanks, and the gait
+and attitudes of wading birds. They are cattle-keepers, above all, and
+their vast unseen herds beyond the marsh lands breed and send forth
+periodically for the devastation of Africa those cattle plagues which
+recur at intervals of a few years.
+
+[Illustration: TROPICAL FOREST AT ENTEBBE, ON THE NORTH-WEST SHORES OF
+VICTORIA NYANZA,
+
+(Now turned into Botanical Gardens.)]
+
+To the southwest of Marshland begins an attractive, even beautiful,
+park-like country of rolling, grassy downs, interspersed with fine
+trees of ample foliage, with belts of forest along the rivers. Beyond
+the parklands rises that tremendous tropical forest which passes thence
+uninterruptedly over the water-parting into the basin of the Congo.
+This tropical forest, only to be rivalled in luxuriance by that of
+the Amazons in South America, stretches in a crescent curve along
+the southwestern edge of the Nile basin to Ruwenzori, and, with a few
+interruptions, into Unyoro, Uganda, and the northern shores of the
+Victoria Nyanza. On the plateaux lying to the northeast of the Victoria
+Nyanza are other areas of dense forest, but not always tropical in
+character,--forests consisting of great conifers and tree-heaths, which
+reappear on the high mountains of Abyssinia.
+
+To the immediate south of the marshy country appears more parkland on
+either side of the Mountain Nile, and in the countries of the Acholi,
+the Lango, and the Lotuka. Beyond this parkland is the great area of
+marshes between the Victoria Nile and Mount Elgon. North of Elgon
+the parkland becomes more arid. East and west of the Victoria Nyanza
+are beautiful and healthy plateaux ranging from six thousand to ten
+thousand feet in altitude, and highly suggestive of Europe and the Cape
+of Good Hope in their vegetation.
+
+Between the watershed of Rudolf and that of the White Nile are many
+mountains, but as one proceeds northward in the direction of the Sobat,
+the country is increasingly parched and sandy where it is not stagnant
+marsh.
+
+Nileland contains within its limits the highest point of the African
+continent,--the culminating peak (whichever it may be) of the Ruwenzori
+range, a ridge which presents some thirty miles of snow and glaciers,
+and perhaps attains twenty thousand feet in supreme altitude. South
+of Ruwenzori, and still partly within the Nile watershed, is the
+Mfumbiro group of volcanoes, two of which possibly exceed an altitude
+of thirteen thousand feet. Away to the northeast of the Victoria
+Nyanza is the great extinct volcano of Elgon, over fourteen thousand
+feet in height, while the mountains of Abyssinia, where the Sobat, the
+Blue Nile and its tributaries, and the Atbara take their rise, reach
+in places to altitudes of sixteen thousand feet, and are capped with
+patches of perpetual snow. Nileland, therefore, offers a wonderful
+range of climate, temperature, and vegetation.
+
+Its fauna comprises the most interesting, the biggest, and the
+handsomest of African beasts. And its human races include nearly every
+type of Negro and Negroid,--Congo Pygmies, Turkana giants, Masai
+like Greek athletes and Balega[118] like apes, long-shanked Dinka
+and Shiluk, short-limbed Lendu, burly Baganda, handsome Bahima, ugly
+Berta and Shangala, bearded Nyam-nyam and womanish Madi; the clothed,
+curly-haired Galas and the absolutely nude Nilotic Negroes. In Egypt
+are pure Caucasians; in Nubia and Abyssinia, in the lands between the
+Nyanzas, are people of this regal stock variously mixed with antecedent
+Negro.
+
+The Nile has been the main route by which in ancient times the
+Caucasian invaded Negro Africa, the once exclusive path by which the
+white man’s cultivated plants and domestic animals reached the torrid
+lands and dense forests where the Negro, before the Caucasian touched
+him, lived in the condition of the semi-beast. No Negro race cared
+whence the Nile came or whither it flowed. Interest in geographical
+problems, as it was remarked in the first chapter of this book, is
+almost the exclusive heritage of the Caucasian. This is the human
+race which for some three thousand years has felt first a flickering
+curiosity, latterly an intense desire, to wrest the secret of the Nile
+sources from the heart of Africa. Its aim is accomplished. The main
+features of the Nile system are placed on the maps of civilised men,
+are known to intelligent Egyptians, Arabs, Indians, and Abyssinians.
+
+The Nile has been the Caucasian’s first and easiest way across the
+desert to Real Africa before the ocean could be navigated. The Nile
+basin, moreover, offered to the more sensitive white man elevated
+areas, oases in a land of malarial fever, wherein he could make
+some home or settlement, south of the Tropic of Capricorn, not too
+dissimilar in climate and temperature to the lands of temperate
+Europe and Asia. From the vantage-ground of Abyssinia, of the Nandi
+and Ankole plateaux, of the Mediterranean Delta of the Nile, the
+Caucasian may still direct the education of the Nile Negroes and
+permeate increasingly these black and bronze-skinned, woolly-haired
+backsliders from human progress with Caucasian blood, energy, and love
+of knowledge, till the Nile Negro himself grows interested in the past
+history of Nile discovery.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE NILE BASIN
+
+
+Early in the geological history of the globe there appear to have been
+rock-foldings, wrinkles in the earth’s surface in the eastern half of
+Africa. Sometimes this puckering of the solid crust manifested itself
+simply in longitudinal strips of raised plateaux of which Abyssinia
+and the highlands east of the Victoria Nyanza, north and west of
+Nyasaland, are remains. A sharper wrinkle than others produced the
+remarkable snowy range of Ruwenzori, perhaps the greatest altitude of
+the African continent. These lofty plateaux and mountain ranges from
+Abyssinia on the north to Nyasaland on the south have no doubt in all
+times attracted an unusually heavy rainfall from the moisture-laden
+clouds which are blown inland off the Indian Ocean. The rainfall on the
+Livingstone Mountains and the Nyasa-Tanganyika Plateau drains south
+and east to the Indian Ocean and west to the basin of the Congo; or
+into Tanganyika, which is likewise connected with the Congo at the
+present day.[119] North of the Tanganyika system, however,--that is to
+say, approximately north of the third degree of south latitude,--the
+rainfall flows either towards the Mediterranean down the valley of
+the Nile, or else in a north-northeasterly direction into a string
+of isolated lakes which apparently at one time communicated with the
+Gulf of Aden at the mouth of the Red Sea. Supervening on the original
+wrinkling of the true backbone of Africa (i.e. the elevated ridge
+which extends from the Nubian Alps to the Cape of Good Hope or at any
+rate to the Zambezi) came a series of profound volcanic disturbances,
+elevating, depressing, cracking, and rending the eastern side of
+this ancient continent. As a rule this volcanic action seems to
+have proceeded along nearly parallel curved lines, running from the
+latitudes of the Zambezi River in a north-northeasterly direction. The
+first and widest of these faults due to volcanic action was seemingly
+the sinking of the ground between Madagascar and East Africa. A nearly
+parallel but much narrower rift valley was also formed up the trough of
+Lake Nyasa, northwards[120] to the celebrated rift valley which lies
+to the east of the Victoria Nyanza, and contains innumerable lakes,
+large and small, salt and fresh. This valley, with some interruptions,
+extends north and northeast till it reaches the shores of the Gulf
+of Aden.[121] Westward again of this East African rift (which some
+geologists believe to have been continued with a northwesterly
+inflection up the Red Sea to the valley of the Jordan) is another less
+clearly-defined fault, which may have produced the valleys of the
+Kafue and of the Luapula, and was then continued northwards through
+Tanganyika to the Albert Nyanza and the valley of the Nile. Various
+upheavals and modifications broke up the continuity of this western
+rift valley. The drainage of the Kafue was deflected to the Indian
+Ocean; that of the Luapula and its lakes and of Tanganyika to the Congo
+basin. North of Lake Kivu,[122] however, the drainage flowed northward
+into a vast fresh-water inland sea, which, for want of a better name,
+we may call the Lake of Fashoda. A parallel to this great circular,
+shallow sheet of water existed not very anciently in the northern
+basin of the Congo, and another is to be seen at the present day in
+the Victoria Nyanza. This last is the largest existing lake in Africa.
+So far as is known it is shallow compared to such deep troughs as
+Tanganyika and Nyasa, and is possibly not a very ancient sheet of water
+as geological age may be reckoned.
+
+[Illustration: NAPOLEON GULF, LOOKING SOUTH, NEAR THE OUTLET OF THE
+RIPON FALLS.
+
+[Note the isolated rocks, the remains of a former barrier and fall.]]
+
+The Victoria Nyanza is in origin little but the widened course of the
+river Kagera, which flowed along a curved depression to the eastward
+of the Ruwenzori, Ankole, Mpororo, and Mfumbiro highlands. The Kagera,
+in fact, at the present day may be regarded as the extreme source of
+the Nile. It rises approximately under the fourth degree of south
+latitude, only a few miles from the mountainous shores of northeast
+Tanganyika. Many streams descending[123] from these Burundi mountains
+unite to form the Kagera, which, after a zigzag northerly course
+studded with not a few small lakes, turns, under the first degree of
+south latitude, abruptly to the east (with one dip to the south) and
+enters the Victoria Nyanza a little to the north of the first degree
+of south latitude. The original course of the stream evidently lay
+between the Sese Islands (the remains of high mountains) and the coasts
+of Buddu and Uganda, and then through the Rosebery Channel into the
+Napoleon Gulf, from which, over the Ripon Falls, it issues as the
+acknowledged Nile. Apart from the Kagera the great Victoria Nyanza
+receives few rivers of size or important volume. The only others worthy
+to be mentioned are the Nzoia on the northeast, the Nyando and its
+affluents, which form Kavirondo Bay, and four largish rivers which
+enter the east coast of the lake. If the bed of the Victoria Nyanza
+could be raised by some earth movement about two hundred and fifty
+feet, it would be traversed by a converging network of river channels
+uniting with the Kagera and the main stream of the Nile in what is at
+present called Napoleon Gulf; and the geographical appearance of this
+dried-up lake would be very similar to the present aspect on the map of
+the many branches and affluents of the Nile and its tributaries which
+converge (south of Fashoda) at the junction of the Sobat. The surface
+area of the Victoria Nyanza may at one time have been considerably
+greater than it is at the present day, and have covered a good deal of
+the country of Unyamwezi. Perhaps at one time it had no outlet. The
+highlands forming the eastern spine of the continent and stretching
+along the eastern cliffs of the rift valley from Abyssinia to North
+Nyasa prevented its overflowing towards the Indian Ocean; while the
+Nyasa-Tanganyika Plateau and the mountains bordering the Tanganyika
+rift valley opposed any western escapement. Therefore the great inland
+sea created by the drainage of Unyamwezi, of the Kagera, and the rivers
+from the Nandi plateau was forced up against the ridge of highish land
+(4,000 feet), forming the existing countries of Uganda, Busoga, and
+Kavirondo. Attacking this ridge at its narrowest diameter, the pent-up
+waters of the Victoria Nyanza slowly carved their way northwards down
+the gorge now occupied by the Nile at the Ripon Falls. Nearly all the
+drainage of the Uganda-Busoga Plateau runs northward, and does not
+fall into the Victoria Nyanza. The tilt of this plateau is highest
+round the northern shores of the Victoria Nyanza (four to five thousand
+feet), and falls gradually till it reaches the somewhat low level (two
+thousand feet) of the Upper Nile valley. The escaping waters of the
+Victoria Nyanza formed another great lake (Kioga-Kwania) immediately
+to the north on the other side of the Uganda ridge. This lake again
+drained off eventually to the original (Albertine) Nile. The site of
+its former bed is covered at the present day with vast marshes and with
+the straggling, many-armed lake of Kioga-Kwania.
+
+[Illustration: THE BIRTH OF THE VICTORIA NILE, AT THE RIPON FALLS.]
+
+The Albertine Nile, which some geographers think was the original main
+stream of the river, rises under the name of Ruchuru on the northern
+slopes of that great volcanic mass called the Mfumbiro mountains. These
+mountains have arisen in recent times in the middle of a rift valley
+which, seemingly, included Lake Kivu. The same fault may also contain
+the basin of Tanganyika, but this lies at a much lower level than Kivu.
+From Kivu (which no doubt once drained towards the Nile before the
+volcanic dam arose on the north) there would have been a gentle slope
+downward and northward (only partially stemmed by the extraordinary
+peninsula of Ruwenzori) to the basin of the Albert Nyanza.
+
+The Ruchuru enters Lake Albert Edward,--creates that lake, in
+fact,--and the Albert Edward Nyanza has a northern gulf or
+tributary lake known as Dweru, which receives much of the drainage
+of Ruwenzori, and transmits the melted snows of this Central African
+Caucasus to the basin of the Albert Edward. From the north end of
+Albert Edward the Albertine Nile issues again under the conventional
+name of the Semliki. The Semliki flows round the abrupt western
+slopes of Ruwenzori into Lake Albert Nyanza, from the northern end of
+which important basin (which lies at an altitude of 2,100 feet above
+the sea), the Mountain Nile, formed by the great twin lakes, whose
+existence was remotely known to the ancients, starts on its career.
+
+[Illustration: ON LAKE ALBERT EDWARD (NORTH-WEST COAST).]
+
+The Victoria Nile enters the north end of Lake Albert, and its waters
+leave that lake almost uninfluenced by their volume; in fact, Lake
+Albert has almost become a river, the Albertine Nile, when the water
+coming from the Victoria Nyanza enters the river-like end of the Albert
+at Magungo and then abruptly turns with full stream to the north. The
+Mountain Nile,[124] after leaving Lake Albert, maintains a broad,
+lake-like character until it enters the narrow rift valley north of
+Nimule in the Madi country. Along this winding gorge, which exhibits
+some of the finest scenery of Africa, the Nile flows over nearly a
+hundred miles of cataracts and descends in all about five hundred feet.
+At Lado (in about 5° north latitude), where it slackens and expands,
+the altitude of the White or Mountain Nile is about fifteen hundred
+feet above sea-level. At the beginning of this cataract region, north
+of Nimule, the Nile receives a lengthy affluent from the southeast.
+This is the river Asua, which drains the very mountainous but slightly
+arid country west of the Rudolf watershed, and north of Mount Elgon.
+The Asua attracted a great deal of attention in the early days of Nile
+exploration, owing to Speke having thought that it was an additional
+outlet of the Victoria Nyanza, flowing from (what is now called)
+Kavirondo Bay.
+
+North of Lado the Nile enters an exceedingly marshy region, which is
+perhaps three hundred miles from north to south and two hundred miles
+from east to west. This area once certainly was the site of a lake at
+one time as large or larger than the Victoria Nyanza. This lake was
+mostly fed from the west by seven or eight important streams, which
+to-day, with their many tributaries, unite to form that broad western
+branch of the Nile known as the Bahr-al-Ghazal.[125]
+
+The Bahr-al-Ghazal is little else than a great estuary which receives
+contributions from many big rivers. If, however, one of these is to
+be selected as the main stream on account of general consistency of
+direction, then the Bahr-al-Arab would be the upper waters of the
+Gazelle. The furthest perennial source of this river is in the country
+of Dar Fertit, on the verge of the northernmost limits of the Congo
+basin, and within a few days’ journey of the Upper Shari. Other very
+doubtful tributaries of the Bahr-al-Arab drain off what little water is
+not evaporated in the somewhat arid country of Darfur. The Bahr-al-Arab
+is fed by at least four important rivers, which flow northward from the
+Congo water-parting in the Nyam-nyam countries.
+
+If volume of water is to be considered, then probably the main stream
+of the Bahr-al-Ghazal is the Jur or Dyur, which, in its upper waters,
+is known as the Sue or Swe. The Sue-Jur rises in about 4° north
+latitude, not many days’ journey to the east of Mbomu. (The Mbomu is
+an important tributary of the Welle-Ubangi, which again is one of the
+principal tributaries of the Congo.) There is nearly continuous steam
+navigation up the Welle-Ubangi and the Mbomu to within a few days’
+journey of the Nile basin. It was up this stream (from the Congo) that
+Marchand and his intrepid companions travelled in 1897. From the waters
+of the Mbomu they carried their little steam-launch overland to the
+Upper Sue. They were then able to descend this river for hundreds of
+miles to the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the main Nile. Near Mashra-ar-Rak, at
+the commencement of what the Sudanese style the Bahr-al-Ghazal, the
+Jur is joined by another important stream called, in its lower course,
+the Tonj, which has many tributaries coming from the vicinity of the
+Welle. Nearly parallel with this river to the east are the Roa and the
+Rōl (or Yalo), both of which enter the Bahr-al-Ghazal not far from its
+confluence with the main Nile. There is also a river Yei or Ayi, the
+direction of which is not fully determined. This river, which flows
+nearly parallel with the main Nile, some sixty miles to the west of
+Lado, either enters the Rōl and thus the Bahr-al-Ghazal, or turns into
+the main Nile not far from the bifurcation of the Bahr-az-Ziraf.
+
+The Bahr-az-Ziraf is an eastern branch of the main Nile, which leaves
+the parental river near Bor (about latitude 6° 40′ north) and flows
+very tortuously northwards, rejoining the White Nile about sixty miles
+east of Lake No (Bahr-al-Ghazal). The Ziraf or Giraffe River has other
+communicating channels with the main Nile, and also throws off sluggish
+contributions to the Khor Felus,--a western tributary of the Lower
+Sobat. The Giraffe River (so named by the Arabs for the many giraffes
+once sighted from its banks) receives from the south an important
+stream known (perhaps incorrectly) as the Oguelokur, which, through
+its component rivers the Tu and Kos, drains the northern slopes of the
+Lotuka Mountains.
+
+The lower part of the Bahr-al-Ghazal is often lost in marshes or is
+widened into lake-like expanses such as Lake No, at the confluence of
+the White Nile. About a hundred miles to the east of this confluence
+with the Kir or main White Nile (also called, south of this point,
+the Bahr-al-Jabl or Mountain Nile), there enters a very important
+affluent from the east, the Sobat (Baro), which is formed by a number
+of streams flowing from the southwestern part of the Abyssinian Empire
+and the vicinity of the Lake Rudolf basin.[126] After its confluence
+with the Sobat the White Nile flows without any important tributary for
+something like three hundred and fifty miles nearly due north through
+a country which passes from a tropical luxuriance of vegetation to
+the acacias and thin grass of the steppe region. The influence of the
+Sahara Desert, in fact, begins to make itself felt,--that desert which
+extends right across from the Atlantic to the Persian Gulf, interrupted
+only by the exceptional mountain regions of Tibesti, Darfur, Abyssinia,
+Yaman, and Jabl Akhdar.
+
+At Khartum, in about 15° 40′ north latitude, the Nile receives its most
+important affluent, the Abai or Blue Nile (Bahr-al-Azrak). This river
+rises on Sagada Mountain in the Abyssinian province of Gojam, passes
+through the south end of Lake Tsana (a piece of water about the area of
+Gloucestershire) in the western part of Central Abyssinia, and, after
+curving to the east and south, turns west and north, and brings to the
+Nile (it is said) that great increase of volume in the summer time
+which causes the annual flooding of Lower Egypt.
+
+Lengthy as is the course of the White Nile from the Victoria and Albert
+Nyanzas to Khartum, and infinitely greater though the mass of its
+waters should be than the volume of the Blue Nile, the stream of the
+White River has nevertheless been much attenuated before it reaches
+Khartum by the waste of its volume in the region of vast swamps lying
+between Fashoda on the north and Lado on the south, to say nothing
+also of a similar waste and evaporation of water from the deflection
+of the Victoria Nile into the backwaters and swamps of Kioga and
+Kwania. Another contribution--though a much feebler one in volume of
+water--comes from Abyssinia in the shape of the Atbara, which, in its
+upper waters, is known as the Takaze.[127] This river, during the
+dry season, almost ceases to flow in its lower portion, though it is
+flooded during the summer months from the melting of the snows and the
+heavy tropical rains on the northern Abyssinian mountains. The Atbara
+is considered by Sir Samuel Baker to contribute the principal share of
+the black mud which fertilises Egypt.
+
+After the confluence of the Atbara the Nile receives no other tributary
+of running water during the whole remainder of its course, though
+in former times of far greater rainfall it was joined by streams of
+considerable volume flowing northeast from Kordofan. The Nile at
+Ambukol seems to fall into another rift valley or series of faults,
+along which, and over deserts of sandstone, granite, and limestone, it
+pursues its way to the southeastern angle of the Mediterranean Sea. The
+great river divides in the extreme lower part of its course into two
+main branches, through which, and a number of other smaller streams and
+artificial canals, it pours into the sea the attenuated volume of water
+derived from the rainfall of Eastern Equatorial Africa, much having
+been already spent in useless swamps, or evaporated as it passed over a
+thousand miles of desert, or diverted by man to fertilise Lower Egypt.
+
+An interesting feature of the Nile basin, and one which was known more
+or less vaguely to the ancient Egyptians and to the Sabæan Arabs of
+two thousand years ago,[128] is the existence of snow-mountains at the
+head-waters of the two principal rivers of the Nile system,--the White
+and the Blue Niles. Ruwenzori[129] was probably known to the ancients
+as the Mountains of the Moon. It is a mass of mainly Archæan rock some
+eighty miles long, which runs from northeast to southwest between Lake
+Albert and Lake Albert Edward. This marvellous range of snow-peaks and
+glaciers--a glittering panorama nearly thirty miles in length--exhibits
+a greater display of snow and ice (and that exactly under the equator)
+than can be seen anywhere else in the African continent, and is of far
+more imposing appearance than the isolated snow-capped summits of
+Kenya and Kilimanjaro (extinct volcanoes). The entire drainage of the
+Ruwenzori snows falls into the Albertine Nile, that is to say, into
+Lake Edward, or the river Semliki, which connects that lake with Albert
+Nyanza. The other heights crowned with perpetual snow in the basin of
+the Nile are the high peaks of the Samien or Simen range in northern
+Abyssinia, and one at least,[130] of the south Ethiopian (Kaffa)
+highlands. Two of the Samien peaks rise to a little over fifteen
+thousand feet in altitude and one (Buahit) to sixteen thousand feet.
+They are part of a nearly circular rim of great heights which surround
+Lake Tsana. To the south of Lake Tsana the mountains rise to heights
+of eleven, twelve, and fourteen thousand feet, but have no permanent
+snow. On the limits of the Nile basin, near the northeast corner of the
+Victoria Nyanza, stands Mount Elgon, a mighty extinct volcano,--perhaps
+the largest extinct volcano in the world. The crater rim of Elgon rises
+in places to over fourteen thousand feet in altitude, but no snow
+remains there permanently. Elsewhere than the Nile basin it is probable
+that permanent snow and ice are only to be found on the adjacent
+extinct volcanoes of Kenya and Kilimanjaro, and on the highest peaks of
+the Atlas range far away in the west of Morocco.[131]
+
+The lower valley of the Nile, the country which we know as Egypt, has
+undergone fluctuations of level since the beginning of the Tertiary
+Epoch. In the secondary ages the last five hundred miles of the Nile
+valley lay for a period of immense duration under the waters of the
+ocean, where the limestone deposits were formed. In Eocene times this
+limestone bed was slowly raised to the altitude of a tableland above
+the Mediterranean, but always cut off from the direction of the Red Sea
+by the continuous range of mountains which we know as the Nubian Alps.
+It is possible that the drainage of the Central African rift valleys
+and lakes and snow-mountains may, by the uprising of this tableland,
+have been severed from its natural escape to the Mediterranean, and
+that the Nile ran to waste in what is now the Libyan Desert. No doubt
+the Nile formed lake after lake, and the overflow from these lakes
+slowly bored a passage through the limestone tableland. Then in Miocene
+times took place a further rise in the range of the Nubian Alps and
+the adjoining land, which caused fractures to occur in the limestone
+formation. Of this the Nile took advantage, though it filled up the
+rifts to some extent with its debris. The Nile cut at one time a very
+deep bed through the limestone; but then occurred fluctuations in
+level, a sinking of the Nile valley which once more brought the waters
+of the Mediterranean far inland, and covered the channel of the Nile
+with rubble washed in by the sea. Previous to this the cracks and
+folds which had occurred through the upheaval of the eastern highlands
+had evidently caused volcanic disturbances by the water of the Nile
+reaching through these cracks the heated strata below. The volcanic
+outbursts left behind beds of basalt through which the persistent Nile
+again cut a channel. In the later Tertiary ages Egypt was a country of
+abundant rainfall, the very reverse of the absolute desert of to-day.
+Heavy rains carved and scarped the surface of the country and nourished
+a luxuriant forest. At this period the lands lying to the west of
+Egypt, in what is now known as the Libyan Desert, were probably a bay
+of the Mediterranean.
+
+After the Pliocene Epoch, when man first began to appear on the scene,
+there was another lowering of the level of the Nile valley in Egypt,
+and the Mediterranean extended its waters perhaps to the vicinity of
+Assiut. At this time the Mediterranean was almost certainly connected
+with the Red Sea across the Isthmus of Suez. The Nile stream was
+probably rapid in its descent towards the extended Mediterranean, and
+cut a deeper and deeper channel. Then another rise of the land took
+place, separating the Mediterranean from the Red Sea, and sending back
+the Mediterranean to something like its present limits; the upheaval
+indeed may have made what is now the Delta of the Nile higher than it
+is at the present day, while the river cut its way through a channel
+many feet deeper than the existing bed. Gradually, however, the Lower
+Nile became more sluggish as the land near the Mediterranean rose, and,
+losing its rapidity, it deposited more and more thickly the detritus
+brought down from Equatorial Africa, Abyssinia, and Nubia, and so
+raised its bed to a higher level. It has also enlarged its delta by the
+deposit of mud, though the fatuity of its work in this direction (in
+the presence of earth waves) is shown by the fluctuations which have
+occurred even within the last three thousand years. Not more than a
+thousand years ago Lake Menzaleh was a fertile and richly cultivated
+district.
+
+[Illustration: IN THE LIBYAN DESERT.]
+
+Some time after man penetrated into Egypt (probably from the east)
+the countries to the west of the Lower Nile began to rise above the
+sea, for much of the Libyan Desert was under the Mediterranean in the
+Tertiary Epoch. This retreat of the sea coupled with other conditions
+not clearly known to us brought about a marked change in the climate of
+Africa north of the fifteenth degree of north latitude. The aridity of
+the Sahara Desert and of Arabia began to exercise a potent influence
+over the fate of northern Africa. Many of the lands, which as late
+as the human period were still covered with plentiful vegetation and
+were traversable by the apes, the elephants, and the antelopes of
+to-day, began to dry up into their present condition, an aridity which,
+from all we know, is increasing and extending. Only Egypt was kept
+alive by the beneficent stream which, so abundantly nurtured by the
+snow-mountains and equatorial rain-belt of eastern Africa, survived
+even its passage of a thousand miles through the blazing desert, and
+covered the narrow ribbon of Upper Egypt and the tassel of the Delta
+with an ever fruitful soil of finely triturated mud.
+
+The Nile has a length of course of some four thousand miles
+measured along the windings of the channel of its main stream,--the
+Kagera-Victoria-Mountain-White Nile. It is still doubtful as to whether
+the Missouri-Mississippi in North America is longer than the Nile,
+and thus the longest river in length of course in the world. In any
+case the Nile has the pre-eminence for actual length of basin, which,
+in a straight line measured from the furthest source of the Kagera to
+Rosetta on the Mediterranean, is about 2,490 miles.
+
+The area of the Nile basin is approximately 1,080,000 square
+miles.[132] This falls short of the area of the Congo basin by some
+400,000 square miles. The volume of water which the Nile pours into
+the Mediterranean is trivial compared with the Congo’s contribution to
+the ocean; but then the waters of the equatorial zone in East Africa
+are evaporated from the surface of lakes, squandered in swamps, sucked
+up by the desert winds, and finally are employed to irrigate Egypt;
+so that no comparison with the output of the Congo would give a fair
+idea of the catchment in the Nile basin. This, perhaps (including the
+annual contribution to the Nile lakes), reaches to two-thirds of the
+volume of water poured into the Atlantic by the Congo’s single mouth.
+
+This geographical sketch is intended to place before the reader the
+main features in the geography of Nileland. It is the summing up of
+the results of exploration during four or five thousand years. The
+preceding chapters deal with the history of the way in which the
+Caucasian has laid bare the secrets of the Nile to the curiosity of
+the civilised. It is only the Caucasian race which has cared for
+geography in the past,--the Caucasian in all his types as Dravidian,
+Hamite, Semite, Iberian, and Aryan. The Mongol of Asia and America, the
+Negro of Papua and Africa has never cared to ascertain whence rivers
+flowed and whither, what lands lay beyond the ocean or the snow-peaks.
+Some early cross with a Caucasian race sent the Polynesian cruising
+about the Pacific and venturing over the Indian Ocean from Java to
+Madagascar; but the more purely Mongoloid brother in China and Japan
+did not care to trace the chain of Aleutian Islands to Alaska and
+America, or if he did so by accident, felt the question of no interest,
+sequence, or importance. Only the Caucasian, and mainly the White
+Caucasian, has worried about the Nile problem. He has attacked it first
+from the north (Hamite, Greek and Roman); then from the northeast and
+east (Hamite and Semite, Greek, Portuguese, and British); once more
+from the north (Arabs, Turks, French, British, Germans, Italians);
+resolutely from the southeast (British and Germans); latterly from the
+southwest (British, Belgians, and French); and, finally and completely,
+from the north and northeast.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX I
+
+THE ROLL OF FAME
+
+OF THOSE WHO STARTED ON THE NILE QUEST IN MODERN DAYS
+
+
+      NAME.                           NATIONALITY.
+  Francisco Alvarez              Portuguese.
+  Pedro Paez                          ”
+  JERONIMO LOBO                       ”
+  Richard Pococke                British (English).
+  JAMES BRUCE                       ”    (Scottish).
+  William Browne                    ”    (English).
+  Johann Ludwig Burckhardt       Swiss.
+  Frederic Cailliaud             French.
+  Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds   Belgian.
+  Prokesch von Osten             German.
+  Eduard Rüppell                 German.
+  Selim Bimbashi                 Turk.
+  Thibaut                        French.
+  D’Arnaud                          ”
+  FERDINAND WERNE                German.
+  Brun-Rollet                    French.
+  Ignatz Knoblecher              Austrian.
+  ANTOINE THOMSON D’ABBADIE      French-Irish.
+  Arnaud d’Abbadie                  ”     ”
+  Mansfield Parkyns              British (English).
+  Charles T. Beke                   ”        ”
+  De Malzac                      French.
+  John Petherick                 British (Welsh).
+  Alfred Peney                   French.
+  Lejean                            ”
+  Werner Munzinger               Swiss.
+  Theodor von Heuglin            German (Würtemberger).
+  Alexandrine Tinne              Dutch.
+  JOHN HANNING SPEKE             British (English).
+  JAMES AUGUSTUS GRANT              ”    (Scottish).
+  SAMUEL WHITE BAKER                ”    (English).
+  Florence Baker                 Hungarian.
+  Giovanni Miani                 Italian (Venetian).
+  GEORG SCHWEINFURTH             Russo-German.
+  Piaggia                        Italian.
+  C. Chaillé-Long                United States.
+  Édouard Linant de Bellefonds   Belgian.
+  CHARLES GEORGE GORDON          British (English).
+  HENRY MORETON STANLEY          British (Welsh).
+  WILHELM JUNKER                 Russo-German.
+  C. T. Wilson                   British (English).
+  R. W. Felkin                      ”    (Scottish).
+  Romolo Gessi                   Italian (Levantine).
+  C. M. WATSON                   British (English).
+  Mason (Bey)                    United States.
+  Johann Maria Schuver           Dutch.
+  Ernest Marno                   Austrian.
+  EMIN (EDUARD SCHNITZER)        German (Silesia).
+  JOSEPH THOMSON                 British (Scottish).
+  Frederick Dealtry Lugard          ”    (English).
+  Seymour Vandeleur                 ”    (Irish).
+  G. F. Scott-Elliot                ”    (Scottish).
+  Franz Stuhlmann                German.
+  Oscar Baumann                     ”
+  Vittorio Bottego               Italian.
+  JAMES R. LENNOX MACDONALD      British (Scottish).
+  A. H. Dyé                      French.
+  J. B. Marchand                    ”
+  De Bonchamps                   French.
+  M. S. Wellby                   British (English).
+  H. H. Austin                      ”        ”
+  R. G. T. Bright                   ”        ”
+  C. W. Hobley                      ”        ”
+  Ewart Grogan                      ”        ”
+  J. E. S. Moore                    ”        ”
+  Malcolm Fergusson                 ”    (Scottish).
+  Lionel Dècle                   French.
+  Donaldson Smith                United States.
+  Malcolm Peake                  British (Scottish).
+  Weld Blundell                     ”    (English).
+  Benjamin Whitehouse               ”        ”
+  G. W. Gwynn                       ”    (Welsh).
+  Charles Delmé Radcliffe           ”    (English).
+  Oscar Neumann                  German.
+  H. H. Wilson                   British (English).
+  E. A. Stanton                  British (English).
+  William Garstin                British (Irish).
+
+This Roll includes those only who added definitely and markedly to the
+map of the Nile basin, not those who travelled through these countries
+for other than geographical purposes. It comprises: 34 British (21
+English, 8 Scots, 3 Welsh, and 2 Irish); 10 Germans, 13 French, 4
+Italians, 3 Portuguese, 2 Dutch, 2 Belgians, 2 Americans, 2 Swiss, 3
+Austro-Hungarians, 1 Turk.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX II
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS REFERRED TO OR CONSULTED IN THE COMPILATION OF
+THIS BOOK
+
+
+                           _Previous to 1840_
+
+  HISTORY OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY, by Sir E. H. Bunbury. London, 1879.
+
+  LE NORD DE L’AFRIQUE DANS L’ANTIQUITÉ, by Vivien de St. Martin (full
+      of valuable and reliable information). Paris, 1863.
+
+  GÉOGRAPHIE DU MOYEN AGE, by J. Lelewel. (Brussels, 1852.)
+
+  DOCUMENTS SUR L’HISTOIRE DE L’AFRIQUE ORIENTALE, by Guillain. (Paris,
+      1850.)
+
+  GÉOGRAPHIE ANCIENNE, by D’Anville (the 1834 edition brought up to
+      date by Manne). Paris.
+
+  DOCTRINA PTOLEMAEI, etc., by Berlioux. (Paris, 1871.)
+
+  PTOLEMY AND THE NILE, by T. Desborough Cooley. (1854.)
+
+  GÉOGRAPHIE DES ANCIENS, by P. F. G. Gosselin. Paris, 1798 to 1813.
+
+  Various papers by Mr. E. G. Ravenstein in the Proceedings of the
+      Royal Geographical Society or in the GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE; also
+      privately written MS.
+
+  HISTORY OF EGYPT FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES, by W. M. Flinders Petrie (4
+      vols.). This and the same author’s article on (ANCIENT) EGYPT in
+      the new edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1902, are very
+      useful for ascertaining what information on the knowledge of the
+      Nile and the Land of Punt was prevalent in Ancient Egypt and at
+      the time of the Muhammadan invasion of the Nile countries.
+
+  HISTORY OF EGYPT, Vol. 1 (1902), by Dr. Wallis Budge.
+
+  PTOLEMY’S TOPOGRAPHY OF EASTERN EQUATORIAL AFRICA, by Dr. Schlichter
+      (Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, September, 1891).
+
+  PARTITION OF AFRICA, by Dr. J. Scott Keltie, Second Edition. 1895.
+
+  A SHORT RELATION OF THE RIVER NILE, etc. Proceedings of the Royal
+      Society, London, Nov. 1, 1668. (Portuguese Jesuits’ travels.)
+
+  TRAVELS OF THE JESUITS IN ETHIOPIA, by Bartholomeo Tellez. 1710.
+
+  HISTORIA DA AFRICA ORIENTAL PORTUGUEZA, por José Joaquim Lopes de
+      Lima. Lisbon, 1862.
+
+  A VOYAGE TO ABYSSINIA, by Father Jerome Lobo, Portuguese Jesuit,
+      from the French of LE GRAND. London, 1735.
+
+  NARRATIVE OF THE PORTUGUESE EMBASSY TO ABYSSINIA, 1520–1527. (Hakluyt
+      Society’s publications, Vol. 44, 1881.)
+
+  L’HYDROGRAPHIE AFRICAINE AU SEIZIÈME SIÈCLE, D’APRÈS LES PREMIÈRES
+      EXPLORATIONS PORTUGUAISES. (Lisbon, 1878.)
+
+  A DESCRIPTION OF THE EAST and some other Countries, Vol. 1 (Egypt),
+      by Richard Pococke, LL.D., F.R.S. London, 1743.
+
+  TRAVELS IN UPPER AND LOWER EGYPT, by C. S. Sonnini de Manoncourt
+      (translated by Henry Hunter). London, 1799.
+
+  TRAVELS TO DISCOVER THE SOURCE OF THE NILE IN 1768, 1773, by James
+      Bruce, in 5 vols. Edinburgh, 1790.
+
+  (Also an excellent abridgment in 1 vol., published in 1798.)
+
+  A Second Edition in 7 vols., 1805, is considered the best and
+      fullest account of Bruce’s travels, with some of the errors
+      corrected.
+
+  TRAVELS IN AFRICA, EGYPT, AND SYRIA, 1792–1798, by William George
+      Browne. London, 1800. (Darfur, Nubia.)
+
+  THE SOURCES OF THE NILE, by Charles T. Beke. London, 1860.
+
+  THE STORY OF AFRICA, by Dr. Robert Brown, Vols. 2 and 3, 1893, 1894.
+      (A most useful and trustworthy compilation.) London, Cassel.
+
+  VOYAGE À MEROE, au Fleuve Blanc, etc., by Frederic Cailliaud. 4 vols.
+      Paris, 1826.
+
+  A VOYAGE TO ABYSSINIA, by Henry Salt, 1814.
+
+  JOURNAL OF NAVIGATION ON THE BAHR-EL-ABIAD OR THE WHITE NILE, by A.
+      Linant de Bellefonds, 1828. African Association, London.
+
+  TRAVELS IN NUBIA, by John Louis Buckhardt. London, 1819.
+
+  REISEN IN NUBIEN, KORDOFAN, etc., by Eduard Rüppell. Frankfurt a. m.,
+      1829.
+
+
+                     _From 1840 to the Present Day_
+
+  PREMIER VOYAGE À LA RECHERCHE DES SOURCES DU BAHR-AL-ABIAD OU NIL
+      BLANC: Journal de Voyage par Selim Bimbashi. _Bulletin_, Société
+      de Géographie. Paris, 1840.
+
+  DOCUMENTS ET OBSERVATIONS SUR LE COURS DU BAHR-AL-ABIAD, by D’Arnaud
+      Binbachi. Paris, 1843.
+
+  KHARTUM AND THE BLUE AND WHITE NILES (Journeys of Andrew Melly), by
+      George Melly. London, 1851. 2 vols.
+
+  EXPEDITION ZUR ENTDECKUNG DER QUELLEN DES WEISZEN NIL (1840, 1841),
+      by Ferdinand Werne. Berlin, 1848. (With admirable map of the
+      White Nile.)
+
+  JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, Vol. 17. (Brun-Rollet on
+      the Sobat River.)
+
+  ANNALES DE VOYAGE(?), by Andrea de Bono. Paris, July, 1862.
+
+  LE FLEUVE BLANC, by Jules Poncet. 1863.
+
+  EGYPT, THE SUDAN, AND CENTRAL AFRICA, etc., by John Petherick. 1861.
+
+  TRAVELS IN CENTRAL AFRICA AND EXPLORATION OF THE WESTERN NILE
+      TRIBUTARIES, 2 vols., by Mr. and Mrs. Petherick. 1869.
+
+  DIE DEUTSCHER EXPEDITION IN OST AFRICA, 1861–1862, by Heuglin and
+      Munzinger, in Petermann’s Geographische Mittheilungen, No. 13.
+
+  Heuglin also writes on Miss Tinne’s expedition in the same
+      periodical, No. 15, 1865, and gives further notes on the White
+      Nile.
+
+  TRAVELS IN THE REGION OF THE WHITE NILE, by Alexandrine Tinne. 1869.
+
+  GÉODÉSIE DE L’ÉTHIOPIE, by Antoine Thomson d’Abbadie. Paris, 1890. 1
+      vol.
+
+  LIFE IN ABYSSINIA, by Mansfield Parkyns. London, 1853. 2 vols.
+
+  GEOLOGY AND ZOÖLOGY OF ABYSSINIA, by W. T. Blanford. 1870.
+
+  THE NILE TRIBUTARIES OF ABYSSINIA, by S. W. Baker. 1867.
+
+  JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, Vol. 36, p. 2, article by
+      S. W. Baker.
+
+  JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, Vol. 36, pp. 1 to 18.
+
+  THE ALBERT NYANZA, etc., by Sir Samuel Baker, M.A. 1866.
+
+  THE ALBERT NYANZA, etc., by Sir Samuel Baker, M.A., New Edition. 1872.
+
+  TRAVELS, RESEARCHES, AND MISSIONARY LABOURS, by Dr. J. L. Krapf. 1860.
+
+  WHAT LED TO THE DISCOVERY OF THE NILE SOURCES, by Captain J. H.
+      Speke. 1864.
+
+  THE LAKE REGIONS OF CENTRAL AFRICA, by R. F. Burton. 1860.
+
+  JOURNAL OF THE DISCOVERY OF THE SOURCE OF THE NILE, by J. H. Speke.
+      1864.
+
+  A WALK ACROSS AFRICA, by J. A. Grant. 1865.
+
+  REISE IN DAS GEBIET DES WEISSEN NIL und seine westlichen Zuflusse,
+      1862–1864, von M. Theodor von Heuglin. Leipzig, 1869.
+
+  THE HEART OF AFRICA, by Georg Schweinfurth. 2 vols. London, 1873.
+
+  REISE IN NORDOST AFRICA, etc., von M. Theodor von Heuglin. Brunswick,
+      1869.
+
+  THROUGH THE DARK CONTINENT, by H. M. Stanley. 2 vols. 1877.
+
+  UGANDA AND THE EGYPTIAN SUDAN, by C. T. Wilson and R. W. Felkin. 1879.
+
+  SIR SAMUEL BAKER: a Memoir by T. Douglas Murray and A. Silva White.
+      London, 1895.
+
+  ISMAILIA, by Sir Samuel W. Baker. London, 1874.
+
+  REMARKS ON A PROPOSED LINE OF TELEGRAPH OVERLAND from Egypt to the
+      Cape of Good Hope, by (Sir) Edwin Arnold, Colonel J. A. Grant,
+      and others. London, 1876.
+
+  COLONEL GORDON IN CENTRAL AFRICA, 1874–1879, by George Birkbeck Hill.
+      London, 1881.
+
+  CENTRAL AFRICA: NAKED TRUTHS OF NAKED PEOPLE, by Colonel C.
+      Chaillé-Long. London, 1876.
+
+  PROCEEDINGS OF THE KHÉDIVIAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF CAIRO,
+      1860–1882. [Schuver, Marno and other travellers.]
+
+  ARTICLES of Mr. E. G. Ravenstein on the researches of the Rev. C.
+      Wakefield in Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 1875,
+      1880.
+
+  THROUGH MASAILAND, by Joseph Thomson. 1885.
+
+  TRAVELS IN AFRICA DURING THE YEARS 1875–1878; 1879–1883; 1882–1886;
+      1890, 1891, 1892. By Dr. Wilhelm Junker.
+
+  SEVEN YEARS IN THE SUDAN, by Romolo Gessi Pasha. London, 1892.
+
+  IN DARKEST AFRICA, by H. M. Stanley. 2 vols. 1890.
+
+  MIT EMIN PASHA INS HERZ VON AFRICA, by Dr. Franz Stuhlmann. Berlin,
+      1894.
+
+  ÉTHIOPIE MÉRIDIONALE, by Jules Borelli. Paris, 1890.
+
+  A NATURALIST’S WANDERINGS IN MID-AFRICA, by C. Scott Elliot. 1894.
+
+  DURCH MASAILAND ZUR NIL QUELLE, by Oscar Baumann. Berlin, 1894.
+
+  JOURNEYS TO THE NORTH OF UGANDA, by Colonel J. R. L. Macdonald and
+      Major H. H. Austin in Geographical Journal of August, 1899.
+
+  (Also Blue Books giving reports of Major Macdonald’s expedition.)
+
+  CAMPAIGNING ON THE UPPER NILE AND NIGER, by Seymour Vandeleur. 1899.
+
+  THE CAPE TO CAIRO, by E. Grogan and A. Sharp. 1900.
+
+  THE MOUNTAINS OF THE MOON, by J. E. Moore. 1902.
+
+  THE TANGANYIKA PROBLEM, by J. E. Moore. 1902.
+
+  AMONG SWAMPS AND GIANTS IN EQUATORIAL AFRICA, by H. H. Austin. 1902.
+
+  KING MENELIK’S DOMINIONS AND THE COUNTRY BETWEEN LAKE GALLOP (RUDOLF)
+      AND THE NILE VALLEY, by Captain M. S. Wellby. Geographical
+      Journal for September, 1900. London.
+
+  THE STORY OF AFRICA, Vols. 2, 3, and 4, by Dr. Robert Brown
+      (1893–1895).
+
+  THE UGANDA PROTECTORATE, by Sir Harry Johnston. 2 vols. 1902.
+
+  THE GEOGRAPHICAL JOURNAL (London) for July and December, 1901; and
+      October, 1902.
+
+  THE JOURNAL OF THE AFRICAN SOCIETY (London) 1902, 1903. [Colonel
+      Stanton’s articles.]
+
+
+[Illustration: OROGRAPHICAL FEATURES of the NILE BASIN]
+
+[Illustration: LAND SURFACE FEATURES of the NILE BASIN]
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+[1] A superior type of dark-haired white man allied with Circassian and
+Persian, and perhaps a direct development from the Dravidian.
+
+[2] The Kudu, which is a tragelaph rather than an antelope, exists at
+the present day in the eastern part of the Egyptian Sudan, between
+Abyssinia and the Nile, and its remains are found fossil in Algeria. It
+may therefore have extended even within the historical period to near
+the shores of the Mediterranean.
+
+[3] This word is the origin of the Arabised _Fayūm_, a name given to
+the remains of a curious Nile reservoir, or backwater-lake, to the west
+of the Nile, in the Libyan Desert.
+
+[4] The Biblical Yeôr. The Hebrews also called the Nile _Shikhor_,
+or the “Black.” The earliest Greek name for the river and country is
+_Aiguptos_ (the origin of “Egypt”). Later the name _Neilos_ (Nile) was
+given to the river. This became the later Arab and European _Nilus_,
+_Nil_, _Nile_, etc. The origin of the Greek names _Aiguptos_ and
+_Neilos_ is unknown, but _Neilos_ may be derived from the Persian word
+_nil_ = blue.
+
+[5] Needless to say, in all cases the iris of these eyes is actually
+gray; but the gray almost verges on blue in some instances, while the
+absence or presence of a dark rim round the eyes gives or withholds the
+violet tinge to the gray.
+
+[6] Ptolemy’s original maps have disappeared, and we only know them
+through the well-nigh innumerable copies that were made by Greek monks
+between 600 and 900 A.D., by Arabs in the Islamic Renaissance, by
+Latin monks and pilgrims, by Venetian and Catalan sailors, and Flemish
+or German geographers. Latterly many of these copyists imported into
+Ptolemy’s maps of the Nile much recent and modern information.
+
+[7] Even to-day the local (unofficial) name of Berber or any of the
+districts round Berber is Ibrim.
+
+[8] This mistake is hardly surprising, seeing that at Matama, in the
+country of Galabat, the most southern affluent of the Atbara approaches
+to within five miles of the most eastern affluent of the Blue Nile. See
+Chapter XXVI.
+
+[9] Ptolemy Philadelphus’ chief inducement to establish stations in
+Abyssinia was to procure war elephants. Thus to these Egyptian Greeks
+and Ethiopians the African elephant did not appear too intractable.
+
+[10] Dongola, the accepted name for the Nubian country north of
+Kordofan, appears at one time to have been inhabited by a race speaking
+a Hamitic rather than a Nubian language. Dongola (originally Dankala),
+or its plural, Danagla, may be etymologically connected with Danākil of
+the north Somali coast.
+
+[11] Gala and Somali are almost convertible terms. But in this book
+Somali is used to indicate that section of the Gala peoples who have
+become Muhammadans, and Gala is reserved as a general term for the
+whole race or for its non-Islamite tribes.
+
+[12] The Arabic and Turkish name for Venice is, or was, Bunduq. This
+was a clumsy rendering of the German Venedig, which again was a
+corruption of the Latin Veneticum. Although the Arab _q_ (a very strong
+_k_) is almost unpronounceable by most Europeans, it is nevertheless
+constantly used by Arabs for translating the _k_-sound in European
+words.
+
+[13] By “Dravidian” I mean that very early and little differentiated,
+dark-coloured Caucasian of India who is only a few degrees, physically,
+above the Australian race.
+
+[14] At the time of these exploits Oporto, now the second town of
+Portugal, was of little account; the great port at the mouth of the
+Douro was called in Latin Portus Calis, or, in the local dialect,
+Portucal. This place, being the most important port in the district
+recovered from the Moors by Count Henry, gave its name to the little
+principality which he founded.
+
+[15] Algarve is simply a Portuguese softening of the Arabic words
+Al Gharb, the Extreme West or place of sun-setting. At that time
+Morocco, across the Straits, was also called Al Gharb for the same
+reason. Therefore, after these conquests, the kings of Portugal styled
+themselves “Kings of the Algarves, on this side and on the other side
+of the sea.” The after-triumphs of the Portuguese in the path of
+exploration, conquest, and colonisation were finally summed up in the
+grandiose titles of their monarchs, which endure to the present day,
+and which may well be allowed to endure with respect, seeing what the
+world’s knowledge owes to the Portuguese navigators and conquistadores.
+The titles run, “Rey de Portugal e dos Algarves, alem e aquem do Mar
+na Africa; Senhor da Guiné e da conquista e da navegaçao d’Ethiopia,
+Arabia, Persia e India” (King of Portugal and of the Algarves, on this
+side and on the other side of the Sea in Africa; Lord of Guinea, and of
+the conquest and navigation of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India).
+
+[16] Prester John.
+
+[17] It may be interesting to some to know that Vasco is a contraction
+of Velasco, meaning “hairy,” and was a nickname often given to
+Portuguese in early days.
+
+[18] In Lobo’s book the date is given as 1613, but Bruce shows with
+some likelihood that, according to the native Abyssinian chronicles,
+the date of Paez’ visit to the sources of the Blue Nile was probably
+1615. In the Latin version of Paez’ account of his travels, published
+at Rome in 1652 by the Jesuit Athanasius Kircher, the date given is the
+21st of April, 1618.
+
+[19] See page 30.
+
+[20] Probably, from the description given, _Equus grevyi_; so that
+this, the largest, rarest, and the latest described of all the zebras,
+was probably the first example of the striped horse to receive that
+name at the hands of the Portuguese, and become known to Europe. The
+name is spelt “zevra” in Father Lobo’s account, in some versions
+“zeura.”
+
+[21] The modern term, Gala or Galla, used to denominate that section of
+the Hamite people closely akin to the Somalis yet heathen and dwelling
+inland, is derived through the Portuguese from an Abyssinian cant term
+meaning “wild,” “savage.” It is unrecognized by the “Gallas” themselves.
+
+[22] Father Lobo gives an excellent description of the coasts of the
+Red Sea as known to the Portuguese at the beginning of the seventeenth
+century. Among other places that are probably mentioned for the first
+time is Suakin, which is written “Suaquem.”
+
+[23] Fremona, the first and principal seat of the Jesuits, was nine
+or ten miles from Axum. It was originally called Maigoga, but the
+name Fremona was given to it by the Portuguese Jesuits as being the
+Abyssinian version of Frumentius, who was the so-called Apostle of
+Abyssinia, and converted the rulers of that country to the Greek Church
+in the fourth century.
+
+[24] Lake Tsana is usually styled by Lobo and the earlier Portuguese
+travellers Dambia (Dembea); but they also give it the name of Sena,
+which is obviously the same as Bruce’s version of Tsana.
+
+[25] Some of the blame undoubtedly must be laid on the shoulders of
+the Dutch and Saxon map-makers, who used and distorted Portuguese
+information.
+
+[26] _Habsh_, _Habshi_ is the name given to Negroes at the present day
+in Hindustani.
+
+[27] A Description of the East and some other countries, Vol. I., by
+Richard Pococke, LL.D., F. R. S. London, 1743.
+
+[28] He filled many posts between 1725 and his death in 1771. He
+desired to be made Secretary of State for the West Indies, but George
+II. refused. His efforts to foster British trade and colonial expansion
+were much appreciated by merchants and colonials, and Halifax, in Nova
+Scotia, is named after him.
+
+[29] Algeria was then practically a dependency of Turkey, governed by
+Turks.
+
+[30] Though it is so stated, the delay was apparently caused by the
+complete breakdown of Bruce’s health, a breakdown which obliged him
+to spend some time at Italian sulphur baths (Poretta). Bruce, before
+leaving Sennar and the regions of the Blue Nile, had received into his
+system the germ of the Guinea worm. This creature developed in the
+usual way. One day when Bruce was reading on a sofa at Cairo he felt
+an itching on his leg, and soon afterwards through the pimple thus
+raised appeared the head of the worm. Three inches of this parasite
+were wound off round a piece of silk, but on the ship which conveyed
+Bruce from Alexandria to Marseilles the surgeon clumsily broke off the
+portion of the worm extruding from the body. The remainder of the worm
+still in the leg caused the most terrible agony for thirty-five days,
+which Bruce had to spend in the lazaretto at Marseilles. Here, however,
+he received better surgical treatment. Nevertheless, for some time
+afterwards his leg gave him considerable trouble, and apparently, in
+1774, he had to visit Italian sulphur baths.
+
+[31] All except, perhaps, some of his stories of Nubia and Sennar.
+
+[32] It is curious to read of his using a “rifle” in Abyssinia and
+thereby astonishing the princes.
+
+[33] The name of this notable African city is said to mean, in the
+local Arabic, “elephant’s trunk,” as the long spit of sand on which it
+was erected was supposed to resemble that feature. Other etymologies
+are quoted. Apparently the name was that of a small fishing village of
+grass huts which was selected by Ibrahim Pasha as a camp commanding
+both the White and Blue Niles and easily defended. Khartum, from its
+situation, rapidly became the metropolis of the Sudan. It was taken
+and destroyed by the Mahdi in 1885. Its site was reoccupied by Lord
+Kitchener’s victorious force in 1898. Khartum has since been rebuilt,
+and will probably become one of the greatest cities of Africa.
+
+[34] The son of a Swiss soldier in the Swiss corps subsidised by
+England in the Napoleonic wars.
+
+[35] Afterwards absorbed by the Royal Geographical Society.
+
+[36] As this journey was financed by the African Association, it may be
+regarded as a British contribution to Nile exploration.
+
+[37] The name Muhammad is affectedly pronounced by the Turks Mehemet,
+but is of course written by them Muhammad.
+
+[38] Afterwards for nearly forty years French consular agent at Khartum.
+
+[39] Mainly supported by the Archduchess Sophia.
+
+[40] The names of the principal members of this Austrian Roman Catholic
+Mission, which finally abandoned its labors about 1862, owing to
+the terribly unhealthy climate of the Upper Nile, were Knoblecher,
+Beltrame, Morlang, Ueberbacher, Ryllo, and Dorvak. Of their numbers
+(seventeen in all) fifteen died of fever or dysentery, and only two
+returned to Europe. Beltrame wrote important works in Italian on
+the Dinka language. Knoblecher, Ueberbacher, and Morlang collected
+materials for the illustration of the Bari language, which were put
+together by Mitterrützner.
+
+[41] Glamorgan.
+
+[42] It may be mentioned here that throughout the Sudan, from the
+Albert Nyanza to Khartum, the Egyptians, as distinct from their
+Sudanese soldiers, are always spoken of as Turki or Turūk. Kordofan,
+once the home of the Nubians and of Negro races, was overrun by Arabs
+for several centuries, and more than a hundred years ago formed part of
+the half-Ethiopian kingdom of Sennar. It was then subdued by the mailed
+horsemen of Darfur, and held by them until conquered by the Egyptian
+army under Ibrahim Pasha in 1820.
+
+[43] Petherick in his last book writes in eulogistic terms of the
+behaviour of this mere boy (so far as age went) throughout all the
+trying experiences that the Pethericks underwent in their journeys up
+and down the White Nile and the rivers of the Bahr-al-Ghazal. It would
+be interesting to know what became of Foxcroft after so promising a
+début in African travel.
+
+[44] Many of these tribes are known to us at the present day by foolish
+nicknames. For instance, the Kamasia people, who dwell in the western
+part of the Baringo district, really call themselves El Tūkan. Turkana
+seems often pronounced Tukana.
+
+[45] Amabile, tried and sentenced to imprisonment by Petherick
+for slave-trading, and Andrea de Bono, who, though ostensibly an
+ivory-trader, was very unscrupulous in his methods. De Bono, however,
+was the first European to explore the countries to the east of the
+Mountain Nile, i.e., between the main Nile and the basin of Lake Rudolf.
+
+[46] Near the confluence of the Asua River.
+
+[47] Down to about 1860 the Arab ruler over East Africa was the Imam of
+Maskat, the sovereign of the principality of Oman on the Persian Gulf.
+For more than a hundred years, however, the Imam of Maskat deputed one
+of his sons or kinsmen to be Sayyid of Zanzibar.
+
+[48] By its own people this country is called _Wu-nya-mwezi_. _Wu-_ is
+a degenerate form of the Bantu _bu-_ prefix, which is often used to
+indicate a country. _Nya_ is a particle, meaning “of,” or “concerning,”
+and _mwezi_ = the moon. Unyamwezi is, however, so far away from
+Ruwenzori on the one hand or Kilimanjaro on the other that it is
+difficult to associate its name (which so far as we know has been in
+existence for about four centuries) with that of the snow-mountains.
+
+[49] Speke and others are of opinion that there was a considerable
+civilisation in Somaliland at one time, which completely disappeared
+after the Muhammadanising of the country. The Somali (except those
+of the far interior) were converted to Islam by Arab immigrants in
+the fifteenth century. Prior to this they had been Christian to
+some extent, a much degraded type of Christianity having penetrated
+southwards from Abyssinia. It is hardly necessary to point out that the
+Somali and Gala are practically one people in race and language. Gala
+is only apparently a cant term originating in Abyssinia and unknown
+to the people whom we call by that name. It is also interesting to
+note that Speke and other explorers heard in Somaliland, in the “early
+fifties,” of the existence of a great lake far in the interior which
+was in all probability the Victoria Nyanza. The present writer has
+endeavoured to show, in his book on the Uganda Protectorate, that in
+ancient times considerable trading intercourse was kept up between
+Somaliland and the northeast shores of the Victoria Nyanza.
+
+[50] Victoria Nyanza. Often so called in earlier days by the Arabs,
+from Bukerebe, a large island near the south shore.
+
+[51] Though Burton subsequently recanted this opinion in order to
+embarrass Speke’s theories, and declared that the Rusizi was the outlet
+of Tanganyika.
+
+[52] After his Somersetshire home, and the Indian word for a
+creek--_ălla_.
+
+[53] Walter L’Espec, in the reign of Henry I., founded three
+abbeys,--Kirkham, Rivaulx, and Warden. In the thirteenth century the
+L’Especs altered the spelling of their name to Speke. One Speke lost
+property by faithfulness to Charles I.; another got into (and out of)
+trouble in the reign of Charles II. by advocating the claims to the
+succession of the Duke of Monmouth.
+
+[54] In one of his books Speke shows us how Burton and himself managed
+to communicate with the natives. Neither of them--not even Burton--had
+a sufficient knowledge of Kiswahili during their journey to Tanganyika
+to talk direct with their porters. They conversed with “Bombay,”
+their Swahili interpreter, in Hindustani. Burton also was able to
+speak Arabic with the Arab traders. Both, perhaps, are a little too
+inclined to overlook this language difficulty in describing their
+conversations with native chiefs. In all cases these must have been
+carried on in the following manner: The chief would probably speak
+in his native language, which would be translated by somebody else
+into Swahili, and this again would be translated by Bombay, or Frij,
+or some other interpreter, into Hindustani or English; or, again,
+Burton’s information might be rendered by some Arab in Arabic. Direct
+communications no doubt were sometimes made by both parties in broken
+Swahili.
+
+[55] Mr. T. Douglas Murray, who afterwards became Baker’s biographer.
+This letter was written near the close of Sir Samuel Baker’s life, on
+the 22d of August, 1893.
+
+[56] See his “Discovery of the Source of the Nile.”
+
+[57] Discovery of the Source of the Nile, p. 31.
+
+[58] Worthy of mention here as being the southernmost extension of
+“Nilotic” influence among the East African races.
+
+[59] _Gazella granti_, the horns of which are far longer than is the
+case with any other gazelle, the animal itself being about the size of
+a fallow deer.
+
+[60] A Hima state, lying to the west of the Victoria Nyanza.
+
+[61] This, of course, was Lake Albert, the waters of which are slightly
+brackish. But it is often called the Salt Lake by the Arabs, from the
+large deposits of salt on its shores.
+
+[62] They meant, of course, the Rukuga, which flows through Marungu.
+
+[63] Hima or Huma is the commonest name applied locally to the Gala
+aristocracy in East Equatorial Africa.
+
+[64] Journal of the Discovery of the Sources of the Nile.
+
+[65] Throughout the writings of Burton, Speke, and Stanley, this race
+is called Wahuma. The most common term, however, by which they are
+known and know themselves is Bahima (_hima_ being the root and _Ba-_
+the plural prefix).
+
+[66] This is the more curious because, on page 276 in the “Discovery of
+the Source of the Nile,” Speke writes of “a long range of view of the
+lake, and of the large island or group of islands called Sese, where
+the king of Uganda keeps one of his fleets.”
+
+[67] According to the traditions of the natives, syphilis and smallpox
+entered Uganda about the same time, and came originally from Unyoro.
+Unyoro received these plagues from the first Nubian slave- and
+ivory-trading caravans, which were the pioneers of Egyptian rule in the
+forties of the last century. Syphilis and smallpox were also brought by
+the Zanzibar trading caravans from Unyamwezi not many years later.
+
+[68] This, indeed, long before the British Protectorate, Gordon Pasha
+meditated, and was only restrained therefrom by the intervention of Sir
+John Kirk.
+
+[69] It is a question whether all these spirits were not in origin
+deified chiefs or medicine-men, who after death were supposed to become
+controllers of the lake, of the rain supply, of certain diseases, or
+of certain functions. Speke considers that a small element of phallic
+worship was mixed up with the old Uganda religion.
+
+[70] Muzungu, i.e., “White-man.”
+
+[71] This word is really a mis-hearing on Speke’s part for Bwana,
+which, again, is a corruption of Abuna, the Arab word for “our father.”
+Bwana is the respectful term, meaning “master,” which is applied in the
+Swahili language to all persons of superior position. It was the name
+by which Speke was known throughout his stay in Uganda, though it has
+long since been discarded for “Sapiki.”
+
+[72] Since, by the unspeakable barbarism of the British Administration,
+_cut down_!
+
+[73] Albert Nyanza.
+
+[74] Speke and Baker had met before in India.
+
+[75] Florence Ninian von Sass. Lady Baker survives her husband.
+
+[76] For something like twelve hundred miles, from the mouth of the
+Atbara to the sea, the Nile receives no further contribution of water.
+
+[77] _Cycloderma_, the Leathery Fresh-water Turtle.
+
+[78] This great lake was in reality nothing but the lake-like course
+of the Upper Congo. The words for river and lake in almost all African
+languages are the same.
+
+[79] She usually signed herself Alexine. Her full name was Alexandrina
+Petronella Francina Tinne. The name is spelt without an accented _e_,
+and is pronounced as it would be in German.
+
+[80] Her nephew, Mr. John Tinne, however, informs the present writer
+that his aunt once wrote to him saying that “ever since she was a
+little girl doing lessons she had longed to see what there was on the
+great blank spot on the map of Africa.”
+
+[81] This account of the death of Miss Tinne is derived from
+information very kindly supplied to the author by her nephew, Theodore
+F. S. Tinne, Esq., of Hawkhurst, Kent.
+
+[82] She was only thirty-three at the time of her death.
+
+[83] France was dogged with continual ill-luck in her attempts to
+open up and explore the Nile basin. Expedition after expedition and
+explorer after explorer, despatched directly or indirectly under French
+auspices, failed (generally by death from fever) in grasping the great
+discoveries which fell to more fortunate Germans and Englishmen.
+
+[84] They were, however, first mentioned by Piaggia.
+
+[85] Heuglin forestalled him, perhaps, as regards the Gray Parrot.
+
+[86] These people do not call themselves by the designation. It is one
+applied to them by the Arabs as a nickname, indicating the gusto with
+which they eat human flesh. They themselves acknowledge several names,
+such as Azande and Makarka.
+
+[87] Pierced by the ants so that they become whistles played on by the
+wind.
+
+[88] First of all revealed to our notice by the Italian explorer,
+Piaggia, who succeeded Miani and preceded Dr. Schweinfurth.
+
+[89] A gifted French explorer who attempted to forestall other
+expeditions in discovering the Central African lakes. He was murdered
+about a hundred miles inland from Zanzibar.
+
+[90] Younger brother of Adolphe Linant, an early Nile explorer of 1827
+and 1828.
+
+[91] In a pamphlet written in conjunction with Mr. Kerry Nichols and
+Colonel J. A. Grant, published in 1876, by William Clowes.
+
+[92] Romolo Gessi was a Levantine Italian, born at Constantinople in
+1831, who had gradually drifted into the employment of the Egyptian
+government. He became a Pasha after Gordon’s departure from the Sudan
+in 1880.
+
+[93] Now Colonel Watson, R.E. In 1874–1875 Lieutenant C. M. Watson,
+accompanied by Lieutenant Chippendall, made an admirable survey of
+the main Nile from Khartum to Gondokoro, and later assisted Gordon in
+completing this survey up to Lake Albert.
+
+[94] A portion of this is often called Makarka.
+
+[95] During this struggle Gessi was hard put to it for food, but he
+quaintly notes that “Of all our troops only the Makarka and Nyam-nyam
+remained healthy, owing to their feeding on human flesh. Directly
+after a battle they cut off the feet of the dead, and consumed these,
+together with their brains.”
+
+[96] Whose encyclopædic work on the Galas will soon be published. Mr.
+Wakefield died in 1902.
+
+[97] Dweru, like Nyanza, is a very common Bantu word which is applied
+equally to lake and river. It simply means “whiteness.” With different
+prefixes it becomes Mweru, Jeru, and so forth.
+
+[98] In giving extracts from this as from other works of Nile explorers
+the present writer often summarises. He also employs sometimes more
+modern spelling in scientific nomenclature to avoid puzzling the reader
+habituated to the most recent descriptions.
+
+[99] Vide chap. ix. p. 107.
+
+[100] This stream, joining others from farther east, enters the
+Mountain Nile near the bifurcation of the Giraffe River.--H. H. J.
+
+[101] Khor Kos flows into the Oguelokur, and thus into the
+Bahr-az-Ziraf. See chap. xxvi.
+
+[102] The distribution of the branching Hyphæne Fan palm is very
+peculiar. It is found right across the Sahara, south of latitude 25°,
+to the vicinity of the Atlantic. It avoids the better watered regions
+of Nigeria and the Bahr-al-Ghazal, but on the east extends across
+Somaliland and down the coast to Mombasa.--H. H. J.
+
+[103] Probably Emin refers to the lanky _Cercopithecus patas_.
+
+[104] Really a plantain-eater--_Schizorhis_ or
+_Gymnoschizorhis_.--H. H. J.
+
+[105] The white-eared Kob antelope.--H. H. J.
+
+[106] The Kafuru. This was re-examined by the author of this book.
+It is a narrow winding channel passing between high banks. In spite
+of the author’s delineation of this feature in his book, “The Uganda
+Protectorate,” map-makers still continue to draw it as a lake-like
+straight arm connecting the Albert Edward with Dweru.
+
+[107] Dweru, as already explained, merely means a white surface or
+sheet of water.
+
+[108] This word is the name of one of the tributaries of the Kagera.
+
+[109] M. Dècle travelled overland from the Cape of Good Hope to the
+Victoria Nile in 1892–1894.
+
+[110] Dr. Kandt (who first correctly mapped Lake Kivu) traced the
+course of the important Nyavarongo and Akanyaru tributaries of the
+Kagera. This learned explorer died in 1901.
+
+[111] Lugard mapped much of the country between Uganda and Ruwenzori
+and discovered Lake Wamala in western Uganda.
+
+[112] Mr Jackson’s magnificent zoölogical collections, especially in
+mammals, birds, and butterflies, have, with those of Mr. Oscar Neumann,
+done much to illustrate the fauna of southern Nileland.
+
+[113] It is said that the contribution to the Nile waters from the
+great Victoria Nyanza is not more considerable than the maximum
+discharge of one of the great canals in Egypt. Much of the volume
+of the Victoria Nile is spread out to waste and evaporate in the
+Kioga-Kwania Lake, which also receives the heavy rainfall of north and
+west Elgon.
+
+[114] I should again like to point out how frequent amongst Nilotic
+Negroes is the word Kir for a big river. This name is frequently
+applied to the main Nile, and appears even to crop up again in the
+Bantu languages of the Victoria Nyanza, for in Luganda the Nile is also
+called Kiira.
+
+[115] Piaggia was originally an Italian mechanic, born at Alexandria.
+He drifted to the Sudan in 1856, and generally attached himself as a
+sort of caravan leader to the traders in the Bahr-al-Ghazal. In this
+capacity he explored (quite unscientifically) the Nyam-nyam country in
+1863–1865, and in 1876 he visited Lake Kioga and the Victoria Nile.
+
+[116] For various reasons not all Captain Marchand’s officers could be
+brought away from the Nile immediately. Lieutenant Tanguedec was left
+for some two years entirely isolated on the White Nile near Bor.
+
+[117] A name very suggestive of the Bantu languages.
+
+[118] Negroes of the Semliki valley and forest.
+
+[119] This lake is at present one of the unsolved African problems
+as regards its history and affinities. Unlike other lakes of Central
+Africa, its fauna has marine affinities, and would seem indeed to be
+actually of marine origin. It is at the present day connected somewhat
+intermittently with the Congo drainage, and therefore with the Atlantic
+Ocean; and one assumption to explain the existence of its sponges,
+shrimps, and jelly-fishes is that in Jurassic times it was connected
+with a vast inlet of the Atlantic Ocean which occupied the northern
+half of the low-lying Congo basin. Yet, when a relief map of Africa is
+looked at, it strikes one at a glance that Tanganyika lies within the
+same rift valley as Lakes Kivu, Albert Edward, Albert Nyanza, and the
+Albertine Nile. Its southern end may also have been connected through
+Lake Rukwa, with the rift valley of Lake Nyasa. It would be easy to
+imagine the occurrence of a recent and slight upheaval which detached
+this lake from the Nile system and sent its overflowing waters in the
+direction of the Congo, but for the aforementioned marine fauna of
+its waters. Its history, therefore, remains at the present moment an
+unsolved problem.
+
+[120] With a bifurcated rift up Tanganyika.
+
+[121] See “L’Omo,” by L. Vannutelli and C. Citerni.
+
+[122] A small and very interesting lake which lies about sixty miles to
+the north of Tanganyika, and communicates with that lake by the river
+Rusizi.
+
+[123] Some rising as far south as Lat. 3° 50′ S. and within ten miles
+of Tanganyika.
+
+[124] Bahr-al-Jabl, so called by the Turks and early French and German
+explorers, because by following it up stream they came at last to
+mountains after the thousand miles of marsh between Khartum and Bor.
+
+[125] “River of gazelles,” i.e., antelopes, the name given to it by the
+Sudanese Arabs from the dense herds of game which were formerly to be
+seen on its marshy shores.
+
+[126] The Ruzi River, which rises to the west of Lake Rudolf, under the
+fourth degree of north latitude, was considered by the late Captain
+Wellby to be the southernmost source of the Sobat, but this supposition
+has not been verified.
+
+The Ruzi or the two Ruzis probably join the three big streams--the
+Oguelokur, Tu, and Kos--which enter the Giraffe River.
+
+[127] This name means “the terrible,” from the violence with which it
+sweeps down a winding chasm from an altitude of 7,000 feet in Abyssinia
+to 2,500 feet in the Nubian plains.
+
+[128] Who transmitted the rumour to Greek travellers and merchants
+visiting the coasts of the Red Sea and East Africa. These again handed
+on the information to Greek and Roman geographers.
+
+[129] A corruption of Runsororo.
+
+[130] Wosho Mountain, approximately sixteen thousand feet.
+
+[131] Snow may perhaps occasionally lie for a few days on the highest
+points of the volcanic Mfumbiro peaks (Sabinzi and Karisimbi), which
+are over thirteen thousand feet and lie almost within the limits of
+the Nile basin, to the south of Lake Albert Edward; and there may be a
+little permanent snow perhaps on the peaks over eleven thousand feet in
+height on the southeast of Basutoland in South Africa.
+
+[132] A little less perhaps than Dr. A. Bludan’s estimate.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Aahmes, 11
+
+  Abbadie, Antoine Thomson d’, 111, 279, 280, 281, 319
+
+  Abbadie, Arnaud d’, 279, 319
+
+  Ablaing, Baron d’, 193
+
+  Abyssinia, 3, 298 _et seq._;
+    history of, 30 _et seq._, 46 _et seq._, 61, 112, 277 _et seq._;
+    geography of, 30, 57, 70, 87, 111, 179, 182, 203, 204, 279 _et
+        seq._;
+    people of, 31 _et seq._, 61, 82 _et seq._,
+      (raw-meat eating) 81–85,
+      (feasts) 82–85;
+    Christianity of, 48, 51, 58;
+    Emperor of, 49, 51, 57, 66, 77, 182, 278 _et seq._;
+    name of, 60, 61;
+    missionaries in, 112, 182, 278;
+    likeness to Bahima, 144;
+    Mother of the Nile, 179;
+    mountains, 297, 312
+
+  Acacia (gum) trees, 182, 205, 207, 209, 218, 220, 294
+
+  Acholi (Shuli), people, 165, 184, 253, 274, 296
+
+  Adel (Somaliland), 48
+
+  Aden, 115, 127, 276
+
+  Adua, 33
+
+  Adulis, 27, 33
+
+  Afar, 4, 30
+
+  Africa, East, 22, 44, 48, 133, 246
+
+  Africa, Negro, 21
+
+  Africa, North, 15, 38, 199
+
+  Africa, South, 134, 147
+
+  Africa, West, 148, 217, 219, 242, 245
+
+  African Association, 86, 90
+
+  African wild flowers, flora, 133, 177, 204, 205, 218, 257, 258
+
+  Agoro Mountains, 272
+
+  Ais, Al, 94, 99
+
+  Akka pygmies, 110, 216
+
+  Akobo River, 287, 290
+
+  Albania, Albanians, 94
+
+  Albert Edward, Lake, 171, 227, 260, 262, 269, 270, 304
+
+  Albert Nyanza, 26, 71, 97, 129, 164, 170, 173, 185 _et seq._, 231 _et
+        seq._, 250, 260 _et seq._, 304
+
+  Alexander the Great, 12, 13, 16, 90
+
+  Alexandra Nyanza, 228, 266
+
+  Alexandria, 16, 22, 23, 66, 80, 95
+
+  Algarve (southern province of Portugal), 46
+
+  Algiers, Algeria, 76
+
+  Aloes, 122, 204, 218
+
+  Alvarez, Francisco, 47, 69, 319
+
+  Ambach, or Ambady, 244
+
+  Ambatch (_Herminiera_), 209, 210, 294
+
+  Ambukol, 96, 310
+
+  America, Americans, 8, 233, 273, 317, 321
+
+  Amhara, 277, 278
+
+  Amharic language, 62, 63, 280
+
+  Ankole, 148, 262, 298
+
+  Antelopes, 182, 201, 209, 306
+
+  Anthropology, 200, 211, 212, 217, 251
+
+  Anville, D’, 70 _et seq._, 80, 202
+
+  Apes, anthropoid, 4, 5, 315
+
+  Apuddo (Apuddu), 109
+
+  Arabia, 1, 3, 7, 17, 95
+
+  Arabs, 17 _et seq._, 22, 39, 44, 50, 113, 119, 180, 181, 246, 317
+
+  Arabs of Zanzibar, their early knowledge of African geography, 139,
+        140
+
+  Aragonese, 40
+
+  Aristocracy in Nileland, 156
+
+  Aristocreon, 19
+
+  Aristotle, 16
+
+  Arnaud, D’, 96, 100, 319
+
+  Arnold, Sir Edwin, 228, 274
+
+  Aruwimi River, 240, 260, 264
+
+  Aryan races, languages, 14
+
+  Asia Minor, 19
+
+  Assiut, 88
+
+  Assuan, 19, 39, 77, 87, 95, 96
+
+  Astaboras (Abbara, _see_) 21, 27
+
+  Astapus (Blue Nile), 16, 27
+
+  Astasobas, 27
+
+  Asua River, 109, 134, 166, 167, 232, 272, 306
+
+  Atbara, 20 _et seq._, 25, 48, 92, 176 _et seq._, 203, 240, 278, 288,
+        310
+
+  Atlantic Ocean, 317
+
+  Austin, H. H., 271, 286, 287
+
+  Austria, Austrians, 96, 234, 248, 321
+
+  Austrian Mission on Mountain Nile, 97 _et seq._, 167
+
+  Author’s contributions to Nile geography, 248, 270
+
+  Auxuma, Axum, 27, 33
+
+  Azania, 22
+
+
+  Baggara Arabs, 211
+
+  Bahr-al-Arab, 71, 201, 230, 238, 242, 243, 307
+
+  Bahr-al-Aswad, 180
+
+  Bahr-al-Azrak, _see_ Blue Nile
+
+  Bahr-al-Ghazal River, 5, 6, 21, 43, 71, 72, 98, 100 _et seq._, 106
+        _et seq._, 192 _et seq._, 201 _et seq._, 212 _et seq._, 234,
+        236 _et seq._, 240, 241 _et seq._, 274, 285, 306 _et seq._
+
+  Bahr-al-Hamr, 194, 201, 243
+
+  Bahr-al-Jabl, _see_ White and Mountain Nile
+
+  Bahr-az-Ziraf, _see_ Giraffe Nile
+
+  Bailul, 54
+
+  Baker, Sir Samuel, 103, 129, 131, 167, 168;
+    birth and parentage, 174;
+    marriage and Ceylon, 175;
+    in Turkey, 176;
+    second marriage, 176;
+    commences Nile exploration, 176;
+    on the Atbara, 177 _et seq._;
+    starts for Albert Nyanza, 183 _et seq._;
+    deceived as to extent of this lake, 186;
+    knighted, 188;
+    results of his explorations, 189;
+    returns to Nileland, 190, 191;
+    character, 191, 320
+
+  Baker (Florence), Lady, 167, 176, 182, 320
+
+  _Balæniceps rex_, 101, 102, 295
+
+  Balega Negroes (Lendu), 297
+
+  Baltic provinces, 203
+
+  Baluchistan, Baluchi, 2, 43
+
+  Balugano (Italian draftsman), 77
+
+  Banana, the, 57, 153
+
+  Bantu languages, 114, 137, 138, 261, 284, 290, 291
+
+  Bantu Negro, 29, 38, 137, 290
+
+  Baobab tree, 182, 294
+
+  Bari country, people, 21, 97, 98, 108 _et seq._, 188, 190, 238
+
+  Baringo, Lake, 113, 162, 247
+
+  Baro (_see also_ Sobat), 284, 285, 288
+
+  Barth, Dr., 217
+
+  Basalt, 210, 314
+
+  Basilis (Greek explorer), 19
+
+  Bath, 170
+
+  Baumann, Oscar, 266, 267, 268, 320
+
+  Baumgarten (Swiss engineer), 99
+
+  Beads, Blue Egyptian, 36
+
+  Beatrice Gulf, 227, 262
+
+  Beke, Dr. C. T., 111, 280, 319
+
+  Belgium, Belgians, 225, 238, 242, 269, 318, 321
+
+  Beltrame, Father, 97
+
+  Benue River, 219
+
+  Berber (Primnis, Ibrim), 25, 69, 188, 205
+
+  Berbera, 116
+
+  Berbers, the, 199
+
+  Berkeley, Fort, 106
+
+  Berlin, 203
+
+  Bermudez, 47 _et seq._
+
+  Berta Negroes, 289, 297
+
+  Bilma, 20
+
+  Binesho tribe, 290
+
+  Bion (Greek explorer), 19
+
+  Birds, 208, 255, 295
+
+  Biri River, 216
+
+  Blackwater fever, 107, 195
+
+  Blackwood’s Magazine, 128, 170
+
+  Blandford, Dr. W. T., 282
+
+  Blood-drinking (Abyssinian, East African), 81, 82
+
+  Blundell, Weld, 287, 321
+
+  Bogos country, 283, 294
+
+  “Bombay” (Speke’s faithful), 130, 165, 169
+
+  Bonchamps, De, 286
+
+  Bongo tribe, 217
+
+  Bono, Andrea de, 106 _et seq._, 165, 168, 187
+
+  Bor, 106, 285, 291, 292
+
+  Boran Galas, 72
+
+  _Borassus_, palm (_Doleb_), 253, 254
+
+  Borelli, Jules, 285
+
+  Bornu, 239, 242
+
+  Botany, _see_ Flora
+
+  Bottego, V., 285, 320
+
+  Brahuis (of Beluchistan), 2
+
+  Brèvedent, Father, 67
+
+  Bright, R. G. T., 271, 286, 321
+
+  British, the, 293, 317, 318, 319 _et seq._;
+    in Egypt, 94, 95;
+    in Uganda, 154, 161, 228, 269;
+    in Abyssinia, 282;
+    in Egypt and Sudan, 293
+
+  British Association, 170, 172
+
+  British government, its indifference to African exploration, 169, 188
+
+  Browne, Wm. Geo., 88, 89, 319
+
+  Bruce, James, 71, 75 _et seq._;
+    and the Guinea worm, 81;
+    raw-flesh eating, 81, 82;
+    death, 86;
+    work in Abyssinian history, 276, 319
+
+  Brun-Rollet, 96, 99, 319
+
+  _Bucerosia_, 204, 218
+
+  Buchta, Richard, 234
+
+  Buddu, 150, 151, 156
+
+  Buffon, Comte de (naturalist), 80, 87
+
+  Bumbiri, Island of, 225, 226
+
+  Bunbury, Sir E. H., 25
+
+  Burckhardt, J. L., 92, 93, 319
+
+  Burton, Sir Richard F., 115 _et seq._, 127 _et seq._ (relations with
+        Speke), 128 _et seq._, 170, 171, 172, (character) 131 _et seq._;
+    transference to West Africa, 170;
+    theories of geography, 171, 231;
+    hesitation to take Mombasa route, 246
+
+  Burton, Lady, 172
+
+  Bushmen (pygmies), 1, 31
+
+  Busoga, 35, 152, 162, 224, 260, 303
+
+  Byzantine Empire, 30, 37, 40
+
+
+  Cæsar, Julius, 9
+
+  Cailliaud, Frederic, 91, 92, 289, 319
+
+  Cairo, 67 _et seq._, 75, 93
+
+  Cambridge, 93
+
+  Cambyses, 11, 12, 24
+
+  Camel, the, 21, 294
+
+  Camerons, 148
+
+  Cannibals, Cannibalism, 194, 202, 236
+
+  Cape of Good Hope, 47, 87, 134, 266
+
+  “Cape-to-Cairo,” phrase and telegraph, 228, 274
+
+  Capellen, Baroness Van, 193, 195
+
+  Carthage, 10, 15
+
+  Casabi (Italian explorer), 239
+
+  Cattle, breeds of African, 147;
+    abundant, 208, 295
+
+  Caucasian and Nile discovery, _prefatory note_, 19, 297, 298, 317
+
+  Caucasian, Caucasian race, 2, 14, 31, 42, 146, 148, 297, 317
+
+  Cecchi (Italian explorer), 235, 279
+
+  Centurions, Nero’s two, 20, 21, 26, 274
+
+  Ceylon, 175
+
+  Chad, Lake, 6, 15, 20, 147, 195, 199, 240
+
+  Chaillé-Long, Col., 238, 239, 320
+
+  Charles II., 125
+
+  Chemorongi Mountains, 272
+
+  Chiarini (Italian explorer), 235
+
+  Chimpanzee, the, 5, 217, 222
+
+  Chippendall, Capt., 231, 233, 234
+
+  Christianity, 34, 35,37 _et seq._, 48, 259
+
+  Church Missionary Society, 112, 113, 228, 246, 277, 281
+
+  Circassians, 11, 70, 94, 95
+
+  Citerni, C., 285
+
+  Civilisation, of Egypt, 7;
+    of Mesopotamia, 9;
+    of Greece, 14;
+    Himyaritic, 17
+
+  Coffee, 73
+
+  Colston, Col., 230
+
+  Congo forests, 147, 260
+
+  Congo Free State, 154
+
+  Congo River, 3, 46, 70, 193, 216, 218, 223, 228, 263, 299, 301, 316
+
+  Constantinople, 232
+
+  Consuls, 73, 76, 102, 282
+
+  Cooley, Mr. D., 114
+
+  Copper, 7, 294
+
+  Coptic language, Copts, 7, 61, 62, 70, 74
+
+  Cosmas Indicopleustes, 33
+
+  Covilhaō, Pero de, 47
+
+  Cow-dung, 211
+
+  Crocodiles, 209, 295
+
+  Crosby, Oscar T., 289
+
+  Cross River, 3
+
+  Crusades, 24, 40, 193
+
+  Cruttenden, Lieut., 115
+
+  Cyprus, 2, 9, 77
+
+  Cyrenaica, 14, 15, 16
+
+
+  Dahabiahs on Nile, 168, 194
+
+  “Daily Telegraph,” the, 224, 228
+
+  Dalion (Greek explorer), 19, 20, 94
+
+  Damietta, 88
+
+  Damot, 54, 57
+
+  Danākil (land, people), 3, 30, 34, 48, 52, 54, 277
+
+  Danish explorers, 68, 69
+
+  Darfur, 88, 101, 229, 230, 235 _et seq._, 294, 307
+
+  De Bono, _see_ Bono, De
+
+  Dècle, Lionel, 266, 274, 321
+
+  Defafang, extinct volcano on Nile, 210
+
+  Delmé-Radcliffe, Major C., 274, 321
+
+  Delta of Nile, _see_ Nile, delta;
+    _also_ 314, 315
+
+  Dem Idris, 236
+
+  Dembo River, 216
+
+  Dervishes (Mahdi’s adherents), 242
+
+  Desneval, Count of, 68, 69
+
+  Didessa, or Dabessa River, 285, 288
+
+  Dinder River, 182
+
+  Dinka people, language, country, 97, 110, 217, 297
+
+  Diogenes (Greek explorer), 22, 23, 26
+
+  Dogoru River, 216
+
+  Donaldson-Smith, 272, 273, 321
+
+  Dongola, 25, 34, 52, 71, 95
+
+  Dorvak, Father, 97
+
+  _Dracæna_ (Dragon trees), 203, 204, 218, 294
+
+  Dravidian race, 2, 42, 317
+
+  Dublin, 279
+
+  Dueru, or Dweru, Lake, 227, 251, 261, 262, 305
+
+  Dufton, H., 111
+
+  Dum Palm (_Hyphæne thebaica_), 74, 177, 253, 294
+
+  Dutch, the, 58, 69, 193, 195, 197, 284, 289, 321
+
+  Dyé, Lieut. A. H., 243, 244, 320
+
+  Dyur River, _see_ Jur
+
+
+  East Africa, British protectorate, 248
+
+  Edwin Arnold, Sir (_see_ Arnold)
+
+  Edwin Arnold, Mount (Ruwenzori), 227
+
+  Egypt, 2, 294;
+    Persian conquest of, 11, 12;
+    Greek, 12, 13;
+    Roman, 18, 19;
+    French, 65, 90;
+    once a very rainy country, 314
+
+  Egyptian government, 230
+
+  Egyptian temple, resemblance to an, 219
+
+  Egyptians, ancient, 4 _et seq._, 8;
+    trading relations with Equatorial Africa, 36, 43
+
+  Eichstadt (Germany, Nachtigal’s birthplace), 239
+
+  Elam, 2
+
+  Elephants, 34, 294
+
+  Elgon, Mount, 6, 35, 171, 248, 252, 271, 272, 291, 312
+
+  Elgumi, 107, 252
+
+  Elliott, Scott, Dr. G. F., _see_ Scott-Elliott
+
+  Emin (Pasha), Dr., 107, 190, 225, 236, 242, 320;
+    birth and early life, 250;
+    short-sightedness, 250;
+    journals, 251;
+    in Lotuka, 251 _et seq._;
+    description of birds, 255, 256;
+    beasts, 256;
+    in Bahr-al-Ghazal, 257;
+    the Congo forests, 258;
+    in Equatoria, 259 _et seq._;
+    journey with Stuhlmann, 263;
+    death, 264
+
+  Enarea, 70, 279, 290
+
+  England, English, the, 40, 45, 64, 91, 228, 245, 259, 281, 321
+
+  Ensor, Sidney, 230
+
+  Equatoria (Emin’s province), 259
+
+  Eratosthenes, 16, 23, 27
+
+  Erfurt, 61, 63
+
+  Erhardt (Rev.), 113
+
+  Eritrea, 34
+
+  Escayrac, Comte d’, 105, 106
+
+  Essex, 241
+
+  Ethiopia (_see also_ Abyssinia), 2, 48, 62, 278, 280
+
+  Ethiopians, Ethiopic language, 28, 30, 43, 280
+
+  Euphorbias, 204, 218, 220, 294
+
+  Euphrates, 9
+
+  Evatt, Col. John, 270
+
+  Eyasi, Lake, 267
+
+
+  Fadasi, 235
+
+  “Faidherbe,” steamship, 243
+
+  Faloro, 165, 166
+
+  Fasher, Al, 230
+
+  Fashoda, 21, 43, 243, 245, 285, 292
+
+  Fashoda, Lake of, 301, 306
+
+  Fauna, Tropical African, 5, 87, 104, 177, 209, 253 _et seq._, 294, 297
+
+  Fayūm, 7, 240
+
+  Fazokl, Fazogli, 92, 289
+
+  Febore, Théophile Le, 111
+
+  Felkin, Dr. R. W., 228, 229, 320
+
+  Felus, _see_ Khor Felus
+
+  Fergusson, Malcolm, 269, 321
+
+  Ferret, Capt., 278
+
+  Ferruginous laterite formations (Bahr-al-Ghazal), 243
+
+  Fezzan, 15, 93, 195
+
+  Fischer, Dr., 247
+
+  Flaccus, Septimus, 20
+
+  Flemings, Flemish, 40
+
+  Flora of Africa (Nileland), 133, 177, 204, 218 _et seq._, 220, 221,
+        253, 257, 294
+
+  Foreign Office, 103
+
+  Forests, 204, 218 _et seq._, 220, 257 _et seq._, 295;
+    “gallery,” 217, 219, 257
+
+  Fortnum and Mason, 99
+
+  Fowler, C. W., 273
+
+  Foxcroft, Mount, 102
+
+  France, 65, 214, 245
+
+  Fremona, 54, 57
+
+  French, the, 40, 65, 66, 70 _et seq._, 80, 87, 95, 96, 104, 105, 199,
+        202, 213, 224, 242, 278, 318, 321
+
+
+  Gala people, Galas, 3, 6, 24, 31, 34 _et seq._, 43, 53, 72, 82, 146,
+        148, 247, 297
+
+  Galabat, 25, 182
+
+  Galaland, 3, 147, 235, 284
+
+  Galinier, Capt., 278
+
+  Gallus, Ælius, 19
+
+  Galo River, 290
+
+  Gama, Christoforo da, 49 _et seq._
+
+  Gama, Estevaõ da, 49
+
+  Gamo, Vasco da, 46, 49
+
+  Garama, Garamentes, 20
+
+  Garstin, Sir William, 275, 321
+
+  Gazelle, Grant’s, 137
+
+  Gedge, Mr. Ernest, 248, 271
+
+  Geese, 208
+
+  Ge’ez (Ethiopic language), 62
+
+  Geographical Society, Italian (Rome), 234
+
+  Geographical Society, Khédivial, 326
+
+  Geographical Society, Paris, 114, 214
+
+  Geographical Society, Royal, 92, 103
+
+  Geology of Nile Basin, 135, 152, 243, 299, 304, 310, 311, 313 _et
+        seq._
+
+  George II., 75
+
+  Germany, Germans, 16, 40, 62, 69, 96, 112, 138, 200, 203, 240, 246,
+        247, 250, 259, 260, 263, 264, 265, 268, 277, 318, 321
+
+  Gessi Pasha, 232 _et seq._, 237, 320
+
+  Ghat, 196, 199
+
+  Gibbons, Major A. St. H., 274
+
+  Giraffe River, 111, 243, 253, 273, 291, 308
+
+  Giraffes, 294, 308
+
+  Goa, 52
+
+  Gojam, 52, 59, 70, 77, 287, 289
+
+  Gold, 8, 18
+
+  Gondar, 77
+
+  Gondokoro, 96, 115, 133, 166 _et seq._, 183, 188, 192, 232, 233, 238,
+        274
+
+  Gordon (Pasha), C. G., 190, 215, 225, 228, 230 _et seq._, 238, 250,
+        283, 320
+
+  Gorges, Major, 273
+
+  Grand, Le, 64
+
+  Grant, James Augustus, 103, 127, 131, 132 _et seq._, 142, 151, 158,
+        169, 188, 228, 320
+
+  Gray parrot, 217
+
+  Greece, 14
+
+  Greek Christianity, 48
+
+  Greek dynasties in Egypt, 13, 14
+
+  Greeks in Africa, 14 _et seq._, 16, 18, 43, 241, 311, 317
+
+  Gregory the Abyssinian, 61
+
+  Grogan, Ewart, 269, 274, 321
+
+  Gum (acacia), 101, 218
+
+  Gunpowder, 35
+
+  Guns, 41, (muskets) 50, 51
+
+  Gwynn, Major C. W., 287, 288, 289, 321
+
+
+  Habash, Hawash, Habshi, 60
+
+  Halifax, Lord, 76, 90
+
+  Hamitic languages, 280
+
+  Hamitic race, Hamites, 3, 8, 31, 42, 217, 280, 317
+
+  Hanbury-Tracey, Major, 271
+
+  Hannington, Bishop, 248, 260
+
+  Harrar, 116
+
+  Harris, Sir William C., 111, 278
+
+  Harrow School, 75
+
+  Hebrews, 7, 32
+
+  Herodotus, 15
+
+  Heuglin, Baron von, 192, 199, 200, 217, 320
+
+  Hima, Ba- (Wahuma), 141, 142 _et seq._, 146 _et seq._, 148, 164, 173,
+        225, 262, 297
+
+  Himyarite Arabs, 17, 33
+
+  Hippopotamus, 88, 102, 170, 177, 178, 209, 295
+
+  Hittites, 4
+
+  Hobley, C. W., 136, 162, 248, 271, 273, 321
+
+  Höhnel, Lieut. von, 248
+
+  Holland, 193
+
+  Hottentots, 134
+
+  Hungary, Hungarians, 248, 321
+
+  _Hyphæne_, Branching Palm, 74, 177, 253, 294
+
+
+  Iberian race, 4, 14, 43
+
+  “Ibrahim,” Lake (Kioga), 239
+
+  Ibrahim Pasha, 92, 94
+
+  Ibrahim (slave-trader), 183, 188
+
+  India, 1, 8, 17, 31, 48, 56, 58, 118, (Speke in) 126, 277, 278
+
+  Irby, Hon. Charles Leonard, 91
+
+  Ireland, Irish, 279, 321
+
+  Islam (Muhammadanism), 18, 34 _et seq._, 37 _et seq._, 73, 215
+
+  Italy, Italians, 34, 47, 61, 108, 219, 232, 234, 235, 239, 242, 284,
+        318, 321
+
+  Ivory, 8, 168, 202, 264
+
+
+  Jaba River, 53
+
+  Jackson, F. J., 248, 271
+
+  Jackson, L. C., 287
+
+  Jacobin (map publisher), 91
+
+  James II., 62
+
+  James, W. and F. L. (brothers), 283
+
+  Jemma, or Jimma (Upper Blue Nile), 52, 55, 79
+
+  Jesuit missionaries, 48, 52 _et seq._, 66 _et seq._, 90, 278
+
+  Jews, in Abyssinia, 32, 33
+
+  Ji River, 216
+
+  Jidda, 67, 77
+
+  Jimma, _see_ Jemma
+
+  John (Yohannes), Emperor of Abyssinia, 282, 283
+
+  Jordans Nullah, 120
+
+  “Jordans” (Speke’s home), 120, 172
+
+  Juba River, 53
+
+  Judaism, 38
+
+  Junker, Dr. William, 240, 241, 242, 259, 320
+
+  Jur, or Dyur, or Sue River, 101, 194, 213, 216, 222, 243, 307
+
+
+  Kabarega, 164
+
+  Kabirondo (country), 247, 270, 272, 303;
+    (people) 247;
+    (bay or gulf) 162, 167, 224, 248, 273, 303
+
+  Kaffa, 34, 59, 235, 279, 290, 312
+
+  Kafu River, 164
+
+  Kafuru River, 262
+
+  Kagera River (extreme Upper Victoria Nile), 227, 266, 267, 302, 303,
+        316
+
+  Kaka (on the White Nile), 211
+
+  Kamurasi, 164 _et seq._, 184 _et seq._, 187, 188
+
+  Kandt, Dr., 266
+
+  Karagwe, 139, 143, 147, 227
+
+  Karamojo, 272
+
+  Karuma Falls of Nile, 165, 187
+
+  Kasa, a name of several Abyssinian rulers before crowning, 281, 282
+
+  Kassalá, 179, 240
+
+  Katikiro, the, 155
+
+  Kaze, 123, 142
+
+  Keltie, Dr. J. Scott, _prefatory note_
+
+  Kenya Mountain, 28, 113, 114
+
+  Kerckhoven, Lieut. Van, 242
+
+  Khartum, 6, 16, 26, 34, 92 (founding of), 96, 102, 109, 110, 168,
+        182, 188, 202, 230
+
+  Khedive of Egypt, 235
+
+  Khor Felus River, 292, 308
+
+  Khor Kos River, 252, 253, 273, 291, 308
+
+  Khor Oteng River, 253
+
+  Kibali River, 240
+
+  Kich (Kity), 96, 97
+
+  Kilimanjaro, Mt., 28, 113, 114, 118, 248
+
+  Kioga, Lake, 162, 171, 189, 232, 239, 270, 284, 304
+
+  Kir (name of Nile), 284
+
+  Kircher, Father Athanasius, 51, 64
+
+  Kirk, Sir John, 154, 238
+
+  Kirkpatrick, Lake, 272
+
+  Kitara, Empire of, 147
+
+  Kivu, Lake, 171, 265, 266, 301, 304
+
+  Knoblecher, Dr. Ignatz, 97, 99, 319
+
+  Kordofan, 34, 101, 102, 200, 229, 230, 294, 310
+
+  Korosko, 80, 91, 93
+
+  Kosango River, 194
+
+  Krapf, Dr. Ludwig, 112 _et seq._, 246, 281
+
+  Kudu, the (antelope), 5, 182
+
+  Kuru River, 216
+
+  Kwania, Lake, 171, 189, 270
+
+
+  Lado, 236, 239, 305, 306
+
+  “Lady Alice,” the, 224, 225
+
+  Lafargue, Mons., 205, 206
+
+  Lakes, Nile, 16, 22 _et seq._, 26, 27, 44, 97, 113, 120 _et seq._
+        (_see_ Victoria Nyanza), 164, 170, 189, 224, 301 _et seq._
+
+  Lango country and people (Bakedi), 140 296
+
+  Latin, 63
+
+  Latitudes, Ptolemy’s, 26;
+    Portuguese, 59, 78;
+    Bruce’s, 78
+
+  Latuka (Lotuka) country and people, 107, 183, 184, 251 _et seq._, 296
+
+  Lega, Ba-, _see_ Balega, 297
+
+  Leghorn, 74
+
+  Lejean, 108, 243, 320
+
+  Lendu tribe, 297
+
+  Leon, Pedro, 51
+
+  Letorzec, 92
+
+  Libya, Libyan race, 2, 8, 149
+
+  Libyan desert, 12, 240, 294, 313 _et seq._
+
+  Lichfield, Rev. G., 228, 229
+
+  Limestone formations, 135, 311, 313
+
+  Linant de Bellefonds, Adolphe, 93, 225, 319
+
+  Linant de Bellefonds, Édouard, 225, 238, 320
+
+  Lisbon, 45, 49, 58, 64, 69
+
+  Liturgies, Abyssinian, 63
+
+  Liverpool, 195
+
+  Livingstone, Dr., 265
+
+  Lobo, Father Jeronimo, 51 _et seq._, 58, 63, 64, 69, 78, 319
+
+  Lobor Mountains, 272
+
+  Logwek, Mount, 98
+
+  Long, Chaillé-, _see_ Chaillé-Long
+
+  Lotuka, _see_ Latuka
+
+  Lotuka Mountains, 252, 291
+
+  Luajali River (affluent of Victoria Nile), 163
+
+  Ludolf (Leutholf), Hiob, 61 _et seq._, 66, 69
+
+  Lugard, Sir F. D., 269, 320
+
+  Louis XIV., 65 _et seq._, 67 _et seq._, 90
+
+  Louis XVIII., 92
+
+  Lupton (Bey), Frank, 241
+
+  Lutanzige (Albert Nyanza), 164, 170, 183
+
+
+  Macallister, R. W., 267
+
+  Macdonald, J. R. L., 270, 271, 272, 320
+
+  Mackay, Alexander, 228, 229
+
+  Madagascar, 300, 317
+
+  Maddox, Capt. H., 270
+
+  Madi country, people, 165, 166, 184, 274, 297
+
+  Magdala, 282
+
+  Magungo, 187, 305
+
+  Mahdi, the, 92, 181, 199, 238, 259, 284
+
+  Maizen (French explorer), 224
+
+  Makarka (Nyam-nyam), 236, 240
+
+  Malindi, 52
+
+  Malta, Maltese, 60, 103, 106, 108, 199
+
+  Malzac, De, 100, 101, 319
+
+  Mameluks, the, 88, 94
+
+  Mangbettu tribe, 217, 240
+
+  Mangles, James, 91
+
+  Manwa Sera, 140
+
+  Manyema tribe, 264
+
+  Maps, Ptolemy’s, 23, 25 _et seq._, 58;
+    Sicilian, 44, 72;
+    Vatican, 59;
+    Dutch and German, 59, 69;
+    Portuguese, 59;
+    French, 70 _et seq._, 91, 100;
+    Speke’s, 189
+
+  Marchand, Col. J., 242, 243, 243, 285, 320
+
+  Marco Polo, 24
+
+  Mareb River, 179, 283
+
+  Marinus of Tyre, 23, 24, 44
+
+  Marno, Ernst, 235, 320
+
+  Marseilles, 80, 81
+
+  Marshes, of the Nile, 21, 212, 213, 218, 243, 244, _et seq._, 294
+
+  Masai, 82, 107, 118, 137, 246, 247, 297
+
+  Masawa (Abyssinia), 27, 47, 49, 77, 282
+
+  Masawa, Mount (Elgon), 248
+
+  Mashra-ar-Rak, 192, 213, 243, 307
+
+  Maskat, Maskat Arabs, 112
+
+  Mason (Bey), 233, 320
+
+  Massaja, Monseigneur, 278
+
+  Massari (Italian explorer), 242
+
+  Matammah (on Desert Nile), 206
+
+  Maternus, Julius, 20
+
+  Matteucci, Dr. Pellegrino, 235, 242
+
+  Mauritania (Morocco, Algeria, Tunis), 39
+
+  Mauritius, 169, 174
+
+  Mayo, Earl of, 283
+
+  Mbakovia (on Lake Albert), 185, 186
+
+  Mbomu River, 241, 242, 285, 307
+
+  Mediterranean, 5, 9, 15, 77, 294, 300, 311, 313 _et seq._
+
+  Mehemet, _see_ Muhammad
+
+  Melly, Andrew, 98, 99
+
+  Menelik of Abyssinia, 282
+
+  Mengo, 225
+
+  Menzalet, Lake, 315
+
+  Merāwi (Meroe), 16, 19, 21, 25, 92, 206
+
+  Metals, Metal-working, 8
+
+  Meura, Lieut. (Belgian), 269
+
+  Mfumbiro Mountains, 145, 227, 297, 304, 312
+
+  Miami, Giovanni, 109, 166, 192, 202, 219, 241
+
+  Michel (French traveller), 286
+
+  Missionaries, 52, 54, 65, 66, 97, 228, 277, 278, 281
+
+  Mitterrützner, Herr ----, 97
+
+  Mokha, 50, 54
+
+  Mombasa, 44, 54, 113, 117, 118, 146, 246, 247, 259
+
+  Mongolian races, 317
+
+  Monkeys, 209, 255
+
+  Moon, Land of, _see_ Unyamwezi;
+    Mountains of, _see_ Mountains
+
+  Moore, J. E., 269, 321
+
+  Moors, Morocco, 45, 46, 49
+
+  Morch, Giacomo, 234
+
+  Morlang, Father, 97
+
+  Morongo Mountains, 272
+
+  Moscow, 240
+
+  Mountains, of the Moon, 23, 28, 114, 119, 146, 311;
+    of Lotuka, 252
+
+  Mpororo, 148, 302
+
+  Muhammad, 38
+
+  Muhammad Ali, 91, 94 _et seq._, 202, 283
+
+  Muhammad Granye, 35, 48 _et seq._
+
+  Muhammad Kher, 211
+
+  Muhammad Wad-el-Mek, 165, 183
+
+  Muhammadanism, _see_ Islam
+
+  Muhammadans, 49, 184
+
+  Mundy, Lieut., 267
+
+  Munza, King, 240
+
+  Munzinger (Pasha), Werner, 200, 282, 320
+
+  Murat (Abyssinian), 67
+
+  Murchison Falls, 187
+
+  Murchison Gulf, 225
+
+  Murchison, Sir Roderick, 127
+
+  Murie, Dr., 103
+
+  Murray, Mr. T. Douglas, 131, 174
+
+  Murzuk, 195, 198
+
+  Museum, British, 77, 101, 104
+
+  Mutesa, 153 _et seq._;
+    his cruelties, 158, 225;
+    name, 239
+
+  Mwanza Creek, 120, 225
+
+  Mykenæan civilisation, 14
+
+
+  Nachtigal, Dr., 239
+
+  Naivasha, Lake, 247, 273
+
+  Nakwai Mountains, 272
+
+  Nandi, people, country, 107, 298, 303
+
+  Napata, 20
+
+  Napier, Lord, 282
+
+  Napoleon Bonaparte, 12, 65, 90
+
+  Napoleon Gulf, 162, 302
+
+  Napoleon III., 162
+
+  Nasr (Sobat), 240, 284
+
+  Natal, 58
+
+  Neanderthaloid man, 1
+
+  Negro, the, 8 _et seq._, 31, 42, 210, 297, 317;
+    Nilotic, 9, 137, 211, 212, 247, 288, 291, 295;
+    West African, 290
+
+  Negroid races, 1, 43, 107, 183, 184, 251
+
+  Neil, O’ (Rev.), 229
+
+  Neku (King of Egypt), 10
+
+  Nepoko River, 240
+
+  Nero, 12, 20, 21, 274
+
+  Neumann, Oscar, 271, 290, 321
+
+  “New York Herald,” The, 224
+
+  Niger River, 219, 242
+
+  Nile alluvial mud (from Atbara River), 180, 315
+
+  Nile, Albertine, 233, 261, 274, 304, 305
+
+  Nile, Blue, 6, 16, 27, 33, 43, 51 _et seq._, 77 _et seq._, 92, 111,
+        207, 275, 283, 287, 289, 309
+
+  Nile, Cataracts of, 74, 161, 187, 207, 305
+
+  Nile, Giraffe, 111, 189, 252, 253, 272, 273, 291, 308
+
+  Nile Mountains, 97, 98, 106, 189, 212, 239, 305
+
+  Nile Quest, the, _prefatory note_, 76, 89, 104;
+    stops for a time at Gondokoro, 115;
+    Speke discovers main source of White Nile, 160;
+    Baker’s explorations, 176 _et seq._;
+    Alexandrine Tinne the romantic figure of the, 199;
+    Schweinfurth’s share, 203 _et seq._;
+    close of, 293
+
+  Nile River, 1 _et seq._, 206 _et seq._, 293 _et seq._, 313;
+    names of, 7, 284;
+    delta of, 9, 40, 298, 315;
+    origin of, 15, 160, 267, 298;
+    ultimate sources of, 22, 51 _et seq._, 55, 79, 123, 124, 160,
+        (farthest source of all) 267;
+    floods of, 56, 178, 179, 245, 275;
+    basin of, area, 316;
+    length of, 316
+
+  Nile, Valley of the, 1 _et seq._;
+    like Rhine, 207
+
+  Nile, Victoria, 187, 189, 232
+
+  Nile, White, 6, 20, 22, 26, 43, 95, 207 _et seq._, 275, 292, 308
+
+  Nileland, 42, 177 _et seq._, 206 _et seq._, 293 _et seq._, 296 _et
+        seq._;
+    geography of, 299 _et seq._
+
+  Nilotic Negroes, 9, 21, 137, 209, 247, 288, 291, 295
+
+  Nimule, 97, 305
+
+  No, Lake, 201, 308
+
+  Nubia, Nubians, 11, 34, 43, 69, 98, 202, 235, 236, 295, 297
+
+  Nubian Alps, 203, 313
+
+  Nudity of Negroes, 137, 211, 251, 294, 297
+
+  Nuēr tribe, 288, 291
+
+  Nyam-nyam country and people, 103, 109, 112, 192, 194, 202, 217, 236,
+        257 _et seq._, 297
+
+  Nyando valley, river, 136, 302
+
+  Nyanza, name of, 121, 261
+
+  Nyasa, Lake, 113, 118, 138, 300, 302
+
+  Nyenam River, 216
+
+  Nzoia River, 302
+
+
+  Oguelokur River, 253, 273, 291, 292, 308
+
+  Olive, the wild, 204
+
+  Oman, 112
+
+  Omo River, 285
+
+  Ostriches, 16, 254
+
+  _Otocyon_ (long-eared fox), 137
+
+  Oxen, African, 147, 295
+
+
+  Paez, Father Pedro, 51, 63, 78, 319
+
+  Palms, 219
+
+  Pangani, 22, 28
+
+  Papyrus, 210, 213, 218, 244, 294
+
+  Paris, 62, 71, 91, 114
+
+  Parklands, African, 182, 252, 295
+
+  Parkyns, Mansfield, 111, 319
+
+  Parrot, Gray, 217
+
+  Peake, Malcolm, 275, 321
+
+  Pearson, C. W., 228
+
+  Peney, Alfred, 104, 106 _et seq._, 320
+
+  Periplus of the Red Sea, 22
+
+  Persia, Persians, 12, 31, 67, 89
+
+  Persian Gulf, 2, 9, 48
+
+  Peters, Dr. Carl, 249
+
+  Petherick, John, 100 _et seq._, 104, 133, 163, 168, 170, 182, 192,
+        202, 319
+
+  Petherick, Mrs., 103, 104
+
+  Petrie, Prof. Flinders, 5, 322
+
+  Phallic worship, 155
+
+  Phœnicians, the, 9 _et seq._
+
+  Photography, 106, 135, 234
+
+  Piaggia, 217, 219, 239, 284, 320
+
+  Pibor River, 287, 288, 292
+
+  _Pistia stratiotes_, 294
+
+  Pliny, 19, 23
+
+  Pococke, Richard, 74, 75, 319
+
+  Polynesians, 317
+
+  Poncet brothers, 108
+
+  Poncet (French doctor-explorer), 61, 66, 67
+
+  Pope, Papal Court, 66, 67, 97, 278
+
+  Portal, Capt. Raymond, 270
+
+  Portal, Sir Gerald, 270
+
+  Portugal, 45
+
+  Portuguese, 8, 18, 46 _et seq._, 65 _et seq._, 279, 317, 319, 321
+
+  Potagos (Greek traveller), 241
+
+  “Prester John,” 47
+
+  Primnis (Berber), 25
+
+  Pringle, Capt., 272, 273
+
+  Prokesch von Osten, 96, 319
+
+  _Protopterus_, fish, 182
+
+  Psametik, 10, 12, 15
+
+  Ptolemy (King), 13, 33, 34
+
+  Ptolemy, Ptolemæus, Claudius, 23, 24 _et seq._, 44, 58, 114
+
+  Punt, land of, 5, 6, 10
+
+  Purdy, Col., 230
+
+  Pygmies, Congo, 1, 216, 260, 297
+
+  Pygmy races, 5, 16, 42, 281
+
+
+  Quartz, 152
+
+  Queen Victoria, 121
+
+  Queens, African, 144, 157 _et seq._
+
+
+  Racey River, 267
+
+  Radcliffe, Delmé, Ch. (Major), 274, 321
+
+  Rahad River, 182, 288
+
+  Raiūf Pasha, 238
+
+  Ravenstein, Mr. E. G., 28, 247
+
+  Rebman, John, 112 _et seq._, 246
+
+  Red Sea, 1, 22, 46, 47, 49, 73, 86, 277, 300
+
+  Reeds, 294
+
+  Rejaf, 99
+
+  Religions, Negro, 155
+
+  Rhaptum, or Rhapta, 22, 28
+
+  Rhinoceros, the, 21, 144, 294
+
+  Rhodes, Cecil, 228, 274
+
+  Rhodesia, 44
+
+  Rifles, 86
+
+  Rift Valley (Great), 247, 267, 268, 300, 301
+
+  Rift valleys of Eastern Africa, 300 _et seq._, 310
+
+  Riga, 203
+
+  Ripon Falls of Nile, 160 _et seq._, 189, 266
+
+  Roa River, 216, 308
+
+  Rōl River, 101, 216, 243, 308
+
+  Roman Catholics, 50, 61, 278
+
+  Rome, Romans, 18, 44, 58, 62, 66, 317
+
+  Rosebery Channel, 225, 302
+
+  Roseires, 288
+
+  Rosetta, 74, 87, 316
+
+  Roule, le Sieur du, 68
+
+  Royal Geographical Society, 92, 103, 118, 123, 124, 127, 162, 247
+
+  Royal Society, 63, 64
+
+  Ruanda, 145, 148
+
+  Ruchuru River, 304
+
+  Rudolf, Lake, 6, 34, 37, 148, 247, 248, 271, 272, 286, 287
+
+  Rukwa, Lake, 138, 268, 300
+
+  Rumanika, King, 143 _et seq._, 148
+
+  Rüppell, Dr. (German naturalist), 111, 319
+
+  Rusizi River, 120, 129, 171
+
+  Russegger, J. I., 111
+
+  Ruvuvu River (Kagera), 266
+
+  Ruwenzori Mountains, 23, 28, 139, 171, 186, 227, 233, 250, 260, 261,
+        (Alpine vegetation) 263, 269, 296, 299, 311
+
+  Ruzi River, 272, 286, 287, 292, 308
+
+  Ryllo, Father, 97
+
+
+  Saba (Sheba), Queen of, 32
+
+  Sabæan Arabs, 17, 31, 32
+
+  Sabatier, 96
+
+  Sagada Mountain, 51, 55, 78
+
+  Sahara Desert, 9, 15, 196, 199, 309, 315
+
+  Sailing ships, their effect on African discovery, 9
+
+  Saint, Le (French explorer), 213
+
+  Salisbury, Lake, 272
+
+  Salt, Consul Henry, 277
+
+  Samburu, Lake (_see_ Rudolf), 247
+
+  Samien Mountains, 6, 56, 278, 312
+
+  _Sanseviera_, plant, 204
+
+  Sardinian (i.e. N. Italian) travellers, 108
+
+  Saxony, Saxe Gotha (share in African exploration), 61, 63
+
+  Schuver, J. M., 284, 289
+
+  Schweinfurth, Dr. Georg, 199;
+    birth and nationality, 203;
+    starts for Suakin, 203;
+    describes botany of North Abyssinian terraces, 203, 204;
+    Berber to Khartum, 206 _et seq._;
+    White Nile scenery, 208 _et seq._;
+    Bahr-al-Ghazal, 212 _et seq._;
+    and the slave-trade, 214;
+    his achievements, 216 _et seq._;
+    anthropological discoveries, 217 _et seq._;
+    botany of Nileland, 218;
+    “gallery” forests, 219 _et seq._;
+    shares Burton’s opinions regarding Victoria Nyanza, 223
+
+  Sclater, Dr. P. L., 102
+
+  Scott-Elliott, G. F., 269, 320
+
+  Scottish, Scotland, 75, 132, 269, 321
+
+  Selim Bimbashi, 96, 319
+
+  Semitic influence, languages, 34, 49, 116, 317
+
+  Semliki River, 29, 171, 186, 233, 251, 260, 261, 305
+
+  Sennar, 52, 68, 95, 288
+
+  Sese Islands, 150, 302
+
+  Settit River (Atbara), 181
+
+  Shankala, Shangala, 72, 297
+
+  Shari River, 216, 232, 240, 242
+
+  Sharp, Mr., 274, 291
+
+  Sheko tribe, 290
+
+  Shendi, 72, 93, 99, 206
+
+  Shergold-Smith, R.N. Lieut., 228, 229
+
+  Shiluk people, country, 99, 209, 211, 212, 291, 297
+
+  Shoa, 59, 278, 282
+
+  Sicily, 44, 72, 74
+
+  Silesia, 250
+
+  Simiyu, or Shimeyu River, 267
+
+  Simonides (Greek explorer), 19, 20
+
+  Slaves, Slavery, 5, 8, 110
+
+  Slave-trade, Slave-traders, 103, 184, 190, 202, 214, 230, 235, 264
+
+  Slave-traders’ revolt, 235 _et seq._
+
+  Small-pox, 153
+
+  Snakes, 254, 256
+
+  Snay, Sheikh, 119, 140
+
+  Snow, Snow-mountains, 6, 22, 113, 114, 227, 233, 246, 247, 260, 290,
+        296, 297, 312
+
+  Sobat River, 28, 111, 189, 194, 234, 240, 272, 283, 284, 285, 292,
+        296, 297
+
+  Sofala, 18, 38
+
+  Sokotra, Island of, 16, 18, 54
+
+  Solomon, King, 32
+
+  Somali people, 3, 34, 117; language, 3
+
+  Somaliland, 3, 5 _et seq._, 48, 115 _et seq._
+
+  Somersetshire and Speke, 120, 121, 125
+
+  Sonnini de Manoncourt, 87 _et seq._
+
+  Sophia, Archduchess, 97
+
+  Spain, Spanish, 40, 45, 69, 75
+
+  Speke, John Hanning, 102, 103, 125, 320;
+    in Somaliland, 116 _et seq._;
+    starts for the Central Africa Lakes with Burton, 118 _et seq._;
+    discovers Victoria Nyanza, 120 _et seq._;
+    difference with Burton, 123 _et seq._;
+    returns to England, 124;
+    his birth and parentage, 125;
+    youth, 126;
+    character, 128, 129, 156, 170, 320;
+    second expedition with Grant, 133 _et seq._, 142;
+    in Uganda, 150 _et seq._;
+    returns to England, 158, 170, 171;
+    name in Uganda, 159;
+    discovers outlet of Victoria Nyanza, 160, 172;
+    honours, 169;
+    interview with King Edward, 169;
+    geographical theories, 171, 223;
+    death, 172
+
+  Speke Gulf, 224
+
+  Spekes, history of the, 125;
+    arms of the, 170
+
+  Stanley, Sir Henry, 29, 172, 223 _et seq._;
+    greatest African explorer, 172, 224;
+    confirms Speke, 223 _et seq._;
+    circumnavigates Victoria Nyanza, 225;
+    in Uganda, 226, 227;
+    mistake about Ugowe Bay, 248;
+    relieves Emin, 259 _et seq._;
+    discovers Ruwenzori, 260, 261
+
+  Stanton, E. A., 274, 321
+
+  Steamers on Nile, 96
+
+  Steudner, Dr., 192, 195, 200
+
+  Strabo, 19, 25, 27
+
+  Stroyan, Lieut., 116
+
+  Stuhlman, Dr. Franz, 263, 264, 269
+
+  Suakin, 54, 58, 93, 188, 203
+
+  Sudan, 4, 15, 96, 154, 190, 230, 235, 238, 275
+
+  Sudanese soldiers, 95, 190, 270;
+    races, 217, 297
+
+  Sudd, the, 5, 21, 188, 210, 274, 275, 294
+
+  Sue (Sive) River, 216, 243, 285, 307
+
+  Suez, 73, 234, 238
+
+  Suez Canal, 104, 314
+
+  Suleiman-bin-Zubeir, 235, 236 _et seq._
+
+  Switzerland, Swiss, 92, 99, 282, 321
+
+  Syphilis, 152, 153
+
+  Syria, Syrians, 2, 9, 77
+
+
+  Tajarra Bay, 48, 53, 57, 116
+
+  Takaze River (Upper Atbara), 181, 283, 310
+
+  Tanganyika, Lake, 113, 119, 120, 129, 171, 265, 266, 267, 299, 300
+
+  Tanguedec, Lieut., 243, 285
+
+  Tarangole, 252
+
+  Tawareq (Tonareg), Tamasheq, 20, 149, 196 _et seq._
+
+  Teleki, Count S., 248
+
+  Tellez, F. Balthasar, 64
+
+  Tertiary Epoch, the Nile during the, 313 _et seq._
+
+  Theodore, King, 182, 279, 281, 282
+
+  Thibaud, or Thibaut (French explorer and consular agent), 95, 96, 319
+
+  Thomson, Joseph, 82, 162, 217, 248, 249, 259, 260, 320
+
+  Tibet (Speke in), 126, 127
+
+  Tigre (Abyssinia), 48, 57, 66, 277, 278
+
+  Tigris River, 9
+
+  Tinne, Miss A., 192;
+    names, 193;
+    origin of Tinne family, 193;
+    mother and aunt, 194;
+    first Nile journeys, 194, 195;
+    death of mother and aunt, 195;
+    starts from Tripoli to explore Sahara and reach Bahr-al-Ghazal from
+        N.W., 195;
+    treacherously slain near Murzuk by Tawareqs, 196 _et seq._;
+    character and appearance, 198, 199;
+    on the Roll of Fame, 320
+
+  Tinne, Theodore F. S., 198
+
+  Tondi River, 216
+
+  Tonj River, 243, 307
+
+  Toro, 152, 270
+
+  Trade, Traders, 5, 96, 101, 213, 294
+
+  Tragelaph, Speke’s, 146
+
+  Trees, great forest, 220, 258
+
+  Tripoli, 77, 87, 195 _et seq._
+
+  Tsana, Lake, 6, 26 _et seq._, 33, 52, 55 _et seq._, 77 _et seq._,
+        309, 312
+
+  Tsetse fly, the, 35
+
+  Tu River, 273, 291
+
+  Tübingen, 112
+
+  Tunis, 77
+
+  Turkana, country, people, 6, 107, 272, 297
+
+  Turkey, 65, 73
+
+  Turks, the, 50, 53, 61, 65, 94, 95, 101, 195, 198, 318, 321
+
+
+  Ubangi River, 216, 241, 285
+
+  Ueberbacher, Father, 97
+
+  Uganda, _prefatory note_, 8, 228, 259;
+    protectorate of, 35, 154;
+    aristocracy of, 35, 148, 156;
+    country of, 119, 148, 151 _et seq._;
+    people of, 148, 152 _et seq._, 297;
+    King of, 154 _et seq._, 226;
+    Stanley in, 225–228;
+    missionaries proceed to, 228, 229;
+    Gordon and, 238;
+    route, via Busoga, 248
+
+  Uganda Railway, 248
+
+  Ugogo, 137
+
+  Ugowe Bay, 224, 248, 273
+
+  Ujiji, 119, 120, 227
+
+  Ukerewe (Bukerebe), 118, 121, 229
+
+  “Um Suf” (_Vossia_) (reeds), 244, 294
+
+  Unyamwezi, 29, 72, 114, 120 _et seq._, 138, 224, 228, 260, 267, 303;
+    porters, 139
+
+  Unyanyembe, 123
+
+  Unyoro, 37, 119, 147, 152, 163, 187, 270, 296
+
+  Usagara, 136
+
+  Usambara, 118
+
+  _Usnea_, lichen, 204, 221, 222
+
+  Usui, 142
+
+  Utica, 9
+
+
+  Valentia, Lord, 277
+
+  Vandeleur, Seymour, 270, 320
+
+  Vannutelli, L., 285, 301
+
+  Vaudet, Signor, 108
+
+  Venetians, Venice, 23, 24, 40, 41, 47, 202
+
+  Victoria Nyanza, 6, 23, 26, 35, 113, 117, 118;
+    discovery of, 120 _et seq._;
+    Burton’s depreciation of, 129;
+    Speke’s estimate of, 150 _et seq._, 162, 189;
+    Stanley’s circumnavigation, 224 _et seq._;
+    direct route to, from Mombasa, 246 _et seq._;
+    last discoveries of Stanley’s, 262;
+    surveyed (northern coast) by Col. J. R. L. Macdonald, 272;
+    by Whitehouse, Hobley, etc., 273;
+    general features of, 302 _et seq._
+
+  Vinci, 99
+
+  Volcanoes, 210, 227, 297, 304, 314
+
+
+  Wadai, 201, 240, 242
+
+  Wadi Halfa, 96, 230
+
+  _Wadi_, or river-bed, 205
+
+  Waghorn, Lieut., 276
+
+  Wakefield, Rev. Mr., 247
+
+  Wales, Welsh, 100, 321
+
+  Wansleb, Michael, 63
+
+  Waterfalls, 56, 161, 187
+
+  Watson, Col. C. M., 231, 233 _et seq._, 320
+
+  Wellby, M. S., 272, 286, 287, 321
+
+  Welle River, 109, 202, 216, 240, 241, 307
+
+  Werne, Ferdinand, 96, 210, 289, 319
+
+  Whale-headed storks, _see_ _Balæniceps rex_
+
+  Whitehouse, Commissioner B., 162, 248, 273, 321
+
+  White man, _see_ Caucasian
+
+  White Nile, _see_ Nile, White
+
+  Wilson, Capt. H. H., 292, 321
+
+  Wilson, Rev. C. T., 228, 229, 320
+
+  Wosho Mountain (North Abyssinia), 312
+
+  Würtemberg, 112, 199
+
+  Wyche, Sir Peter, 63
+
+
+  Yabongo River, 216
+
+  Yalo River, 101, 308
+
+  Yaman (Arabia), 17, 31, 309
+
+  Yei River, 106, 239, 308
+
+
+  Zambezi River, 17, 18, 300
+
+  Zanzibar, 17, 58, 112, 118, 123, 133, 134, 146, 265
+
+  Zebra, 53, 257, 294
+
+  Zeila, 52, 54, 290
+
+  Zinza, U-, Bu-, 142, 148
+
+  Zubeir Pasha, 235
+
+  Zululand, Zulus, 3, 29, 140
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Notes
+
+
+Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a
+predominant preference was found in the original book; otherwise they
+were not changed.
+
+Several words appear multiple times with and without accent marks.
+These inconsistencies have not been changed.
+
+Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced quotation
+marks were remedied when the change was obvious, and otherwise left
+unbalanced.
+
+Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs
+and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook that support
+hyperlinks, the page references in the List of Illustrations lead to
+the corresponding illustrations.
+
+Page numbers in the List of Illustrations have been adjusted to match
+the actual pages on which the illustrations appear in this eBook.
+
+Transcriber added references to two maps at the end of the List of
+Illustrations.
+
+Printer’s notes indicating where to insert illustrations have been
+removed from this eBook.
+
+Footnotes, originally at the bottoms of the pages that referenced them,
+have been collected, sequentially renumbered, and placed near the end
+of the book, just before the Index.
+
+The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page
+references.
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75534 ***
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+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75534 ***</div>
+
+<div class="transnote section">
+<p class="center larger">Transcriber’s Note</p>
+
+<p>Larger versions of most illustrations may be seen by right-clicking them
+and selecting an option to view them separately, or by double-tapping and/or
+stretching them. Higher-resolution versions of the maps and some other
+detailed illustrations may be seen by clicking <i>Hi Res</i> below them.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Transcribers_Notes">Additional notes</a> will be found near the end of this ebook.</p>
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="cover-small" title="cover" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img src="images/cover-small.jpg" width="493" height="788" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<div class="center section">
+<p class="p4 large">THE STORY OF EXPLORATION</p>
+
+<p class="p1"><span class="small">EDITED BY</span><br>
+
+<p>J. SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., <span class="smcap">Sec.</span> R.G.S.</p>
+
+<h1>THE NILE QUEST</h1>
+
+<p class="p1 small">BY</p>
+
+<p>SIR HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.</p>
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+<figure id="i_frontis" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0022.jpg" width="1290" height="1609" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<p class="p0 floatr smaller l1">[<i>Frontispiece</i></p>
+
+<p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Speke</span> (from a Drawing by the Author).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter center section wspace p2">
+<p class="vspace">
+<span class="xxlarge">THE NILE QUEST</span><br>
+
+<span class="smaller">A RECORD OF</span><br>
+<span class="large">THE EXPLORATION OF THE<br>
+NILE AND ITS BASIN</span></p>
+
+<p class="p2 vspace"><span class="xsmall">BY</span><br>
+SIR HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.<br>
+<span class="smaller">(<span class="smcap">President of the African Society</span>)</span></p>
+
+<p class="p2"><i>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS FROM DRAWINGS AND<br>
+PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE AUTHOR AND OTHERS</i></p>
+
+<p class="p1">WITH MAPS BY J.&nbsp;G. BARTHOLOMEW</p>
+
+<figure id="i_logo" title="logo" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 7em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0025.jpg" width="390" height="403" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<p class="p2 vspace">LONDON<br>
+<span class="larger gesperrt">ALSTON RIVERS, <span class="smcap">Limited</span></span><br>
+<span class="smcap">Arundel Street, W.C.</span><br>
+1906
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_STORY_OF_EXPLORATION">THE STORY OF EXPLORATION</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Probably</span> few of the stories that tell of the
+achievements due to the curiosity of humanity
+have a wider or more lasting interest than that which
+is concerned with the exploration of the lands and
+seas, which give feature to the face of the earth. It
+is a long story, and would be longer still, if the men
+in the remote past had left any record of their wanderings.
+Even as it is, in the scanty and perplexing
+records left behind them by ancient Egyptians, Phœnicians,
+Carthaginians, Hebrews, and even Chinese, the
+story begins more than three thousand years ago and,
+so far as the pioneer work of exploration is concerned,
+may be taken to have practically concluded with the
+end of the nineteenth century. It seems, therefore,
+an opportune time to recount the leading episodes in
+this long record of incessant human effort, in a manner
+which will appeal to, and interest, all intelligent
+readers.</p>
+
+<p>In the series of volumes, which will be issued under
+the general title “The Story of Exploration,” it will
+be sought to make the narrative circle round the personality
+of the men who had the leading share in
+carrying on the adventurous work.</p>
+
+<p>Beginning with the earliest journeys of which we
+have any record, the story will be carried down stage<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span>
+by stage to the present day, and it is believed that,
+when complete, it will form what may be called a biographical
+history of exploration. While the work of
+geographical research in all parts of the globe will be
+seriously and adequately treated, the adventures incident
+to such research, which add human interest to it,
+will have due prominence given to them. In all cases it
+will be sought to obtain the co-operation of men who
+are recognized as authorities on the particular subjects
+with which they deal. Each volume will be profusely
+illustrated, the illustrations being selected for their
+appropriateness to the text, while every assistance will
+be given to the reader by means of carefully executed
+maps.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+J. SCOTT KELTIE.
+</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFATORY_NOTE">PREFATORY NOTE</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">When</span> the author of this book was composing
+his recent work on the Uganda Protectorate,
+he was led through the history of its discovery into
+the general consideration of Nile exploration, since
+it was in the search for the Nile sources that the territories
+now forming the Uganda Protectorate were
+laid bare to the gaze of the civilised world. But as
+anything like a detailed review of the exploration of
+the Nile basin by the Caucasian race would have unduly
+extended a book dealing more particularly with
+Uganda, he gladly took advantage of the suggestion
+made by Dr. Scott Keltie (Editor of this series) that
+these studies should be applied to the present volume,
+which is one of a series on the history of great geographical
+discoveries.</p>
+
+<p>It is not for the author to say that his book on
+the Nile Quest will prove interesting; but he has
+striven to make it as accurate as possible, and he
+hopes it may be permanently useful as a faithful
+record of the names and achievements of those who
+solved the greatest geographical secret, after the discovery
+of America, which remained for the Caucasian’s
+consideration.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+H.&nbsp;H. JOHNSTON.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">London, 1903.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span></span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter narrow1">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="ACKNOWLEDGMENTS">ACKNOWLEDGMENTS</h2>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Editor and the Author desire to acknowledge,
+with thanks, the loan of photographs, letters, or maps
+for the illustration of this book, from Sir John Kirk,
+G.C.M.G., Mrs. Murdoch (<i lang="fr">née</i> Speke), Mr. J.&nbsp;F. Cunningham,
+Mr. W.&nbsp;G. Doggett, Mr. Theodore Tinne,
+Mr. T. Douglas Murray, Lady Baker, Mr. Oscar Neumann,
+Mr. J.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;S. Moore, Major Gwynn, Major Austin,
+Mr. J. Thomson, The African Society, Mr. S. Crispin,
+and Mr. Warry.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table id="toc">
+<tr class="small">
+  <td class="tdr">Chapter</td>
+  <td class="tdl"></td>
+  <td class="tdr">Page</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">I.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Dawn of Nile Exploration</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">II.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Greeks interest Europe in the Nile Question</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">III.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Abyssinians and Jews</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_30">30</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">IV.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Islamites and Italians</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_37">37</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">V.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Summary of the Ancients’ Knowledge of the Nile</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">VI.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Portugal and Abyssinia</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_45">45</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">VII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French Inquiries and D’Anville’s Maps</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_65">65</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">VIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Bruce and the Nile: Sonnini, Browne, and Bonaparte</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_73">73</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">IX.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Muhammad Ali opens up the White Nile</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_91">91</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">X.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Missionaries and Snow-Mountains</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_111">111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XI.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Burton and Speke</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_115">115</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Speke and the Nile Quest</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_125">125</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Speke in Uganda</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_150">150</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XIV.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">From the Victoria Nyanza to Alexandria</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_160">160</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XV.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Samuel Baker and the Albert Nyanza</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_174">174</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XVI.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Alexandrine Tinne and Theodor von Heuglin</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_192">192</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XVII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Schweinfurth and the Basin of the Bahr-al-Ghazal</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_201">201</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XVIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Schweinfurth’s Achievements and Descriptions</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_216">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XIX.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Stanley confirms Speke</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_223">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XX.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Gordon and his Lieutenants.—Junker and the Nile-Congo Water-parting</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_230">230</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">xii</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XXI.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Joseph Thomson, Mt. Elgon, and Kavirondo Bay</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_246">246</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XXII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Emin Pasha</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_250">250</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XXIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Stanley discovers the Mountains of the Moon and Lake Albert Edward.—The End of Emin</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_259">259</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XXIV.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">German Explorers determine the Southern Limits of the Nile Basin</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_265">265</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XXV.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Geographical Work in the Uganda Protectorate</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_269">269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XXVI.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Eastern Basin of the Nile</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_276">276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XXVII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Conclusion</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_293">293</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XXVIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Geography of the Nile Basin</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_299">299</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="tpad">
+  <td class="tdr top"><span class="smcap">Appendix I.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Roll of Fame of those who started on the Nile Quest</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_319">319</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top"><span class="smcap">Appendix II.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">Bibliography</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_322">322</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl"> </td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_329">329</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">xiii</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table id="loi">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl norpad" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Speke</span> (from a drawing by the author)
+<span class="in4 fright smaller"><a href="#i_frontis"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="small">
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td class="tdr"><i>Page</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">1.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Nile and the Pyramids</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_4">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">2.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Mountains of the Moon</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_23">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">3.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Course of the Nile according to Ptolemy</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_24">24</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">4.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">An Arab Trader (Maskati)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_40">40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">5.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Dapper’s Map (Amsterdam: 1686) giving the falsified results of Portuguese explorations</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_58">58</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">6.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">D’Anville’s Map of the Nile Basin</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_70">70</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">7.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Branching <i class="taxonomy">Hyphæne</i> Palm</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_75">75</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">8.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Bruce’s Map of the Nile Sources</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_80">80</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">9.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Portrait of James Bruce</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_86">86</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">10.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Map of Africa by Williamson, London, 1800</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_90">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">11.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Blue Nile, twenty miles east of Fazokl</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_93">93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">12.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Ferdinand Werne</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_96">96</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">13.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Whale-headed Stork (<i class="taxonomy">Balæniceps rex</i>)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_100">100</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">14.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">John Petherick</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_102">102</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">15.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Map published in Penny Magazine of 1852</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_108">108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">16.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The River Sobat</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_111">111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">17.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Rev. Dr. J. Ludwig Krapf</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_112">112</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">18.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Swahili Arab Trader</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_117">117</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">19.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Sketch Map by Burton and Speke, 1858</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_123">123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">20.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">John Hanning Speke, at the age of 17</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_126">126</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">21.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Burton’s idea of the Nile Sources, December, 1864</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_127">127</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">22.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">James Augustus Grant</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_132">132</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">23.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Mnyamwezi Porter</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_135">135</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">xiv</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">24.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Hima of Mpororo near Karagwe</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_144">144</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">25.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Speke’s Tragelaph</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_146">146</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">26.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Ripon Falls, from the west bank</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_151">151</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">27.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A View in Uganda</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_152">152</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">28.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Nile at the Isamba Rapids, looking North</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_160">160</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">29.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Ripon Falls, from Bugunga</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_162">162</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">30.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">View of Napoleon Gulf, from Jinja</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_163">163</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">31.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The last Map issued to illustrate Speke’s Theories, 1865</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_170">170</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">32.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Speke’s Handwriting</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_172">172</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">33.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Samuel Baker, 1865</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_176">176</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">34.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Native of Unyoro</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_184">184</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">35.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Alexandrine Tinne</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_192">192</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">36.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">On the Jur River: Sudd blocking the Channel</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_195">195</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">37.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Letter of Miss Tinne to her nephew</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_198">198</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">38.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Georg Schweinfurth, 1875</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_203">203</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">39.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Shiluks</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">40.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">“Papyrus, fifteen feet high”</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_218">218</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">41.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Path through the Forest</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_220">220</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">42.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Schweinfurth’s Map</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_223">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">43.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Victoria Nyanza</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_226">226</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">44.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Stanley’s idea of the Victoria Nyanza, 1880</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">45.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Victoria Nile flowing towards Lake Kioga</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_232">232</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">46.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Nuërr Village, Sobat River</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_241">241</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">47.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Joseph Thomson and Wilhelm Junker</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_242">242</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">48.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Stern-wheel Steamboat forcing its way up the Jur (Sue) or main affluent of the Bahr-al-Ghazal</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_245">245</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">49.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">N.E. corner of Victoria Nyanza (with Samia Hills in distance)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_247">247</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">xv</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">50.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Joseph Thomson</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_248">248</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">51.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Emin Pasha</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_252">252</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">52.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Raphia Palms by a Central African stream</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_257">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">53.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Sir Henry Stanley, G.C.B.</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_261">261</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">54.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Shores of the Victoria Nyanza near Emin Pasha Gulf</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_262">262</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">55.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Dr. Franz Stuhlmann</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_264">264</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">56.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Native of Unyamwezi from near south shores of Victoria Nyanza</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_267">267</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">57.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Sir Frederic D. Lugard</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_269">269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">58.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">G.&nbsp;F. Scott-Elliott</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_271">271</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">59.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Dr. Donaldson-Smith</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_272">272</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">60.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Cutting the Sudd</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_274">274</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">61.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Dr. C. Beke</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_281">281</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">62.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Natives of the Baro (Upper Sobat)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_284">284</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">63.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Colonel J.&nbsp;B. Marchand</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_286">286</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">64.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Gorge of the River Baro (Upper Sobat)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_287">287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">65.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Berta Negroes</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_289">289</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">66.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">A Berta Village in the Matongwe Mountains</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_291">291</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">67.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Nile in Egypt</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_293">293</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">68.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Nubia: a “Washout” on the Sudan Railway</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_294">294</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">69.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Tropical Forest at Entebbe, on the northwest shores of the Victoria Nyanza</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_295">295</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">70.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Napoleon Gulf, looking South</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_302">302</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">71.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">The Birth of the Victoria Nile, at the Ripon Falls</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_304">304</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">72.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">On Lake Albert Edward (North-west Coast)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_305">305</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">73.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">In the Libyan Desert</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_315">315</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">74.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Orographical Features of the Nile Basin</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_328">328</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">75.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Land Surface Features of the Nile Basin</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#ip_328b">328</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_NILE_QUEST"><span class="large">THE NILE QUEST</span></h2>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I"><span id="toclink_1"></span>CHAPTER I<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE DAWN OF NILE EXPLORATION</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> first men who entered Egypt and travelled
+up the valley of the Nile came, almost unquestionably,
+from the east, and were part of those radiations
+from the central focus of humanity, India. It
+is possible that the first men who entered the valley
+of the Nile from this direction may have been of
+so primitive, simian, and undetermined a type—so
+“Neanderthaloid”—as not to belong definitely to
+any one of the three main species of humanity. At
+that distant time, however (let us say at the end of
+the Pleistocene period or beginning of the Quaternary
+Epoch), there was undoubtedly a land connection
+over the south as well as over the north end of the
+Red Sea, joining Arabia to Ethiopia as well as to
+Egypt; and across this bridge came many types of
+Asiatic mammals, also man,—possibly in the form
+of a low Negroid, a type represented to-day (much
+changed and modified, of course) by the Congo
+Pygmies and South African Bushmen. As regards
+the history of humanity, however, the valley of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span>
+Nile has been divided into two very distinct parts.
+The southern half of its basin—in common with all
+Africa south of the Sahara and the fifteenth degree of
+north latitude—was peopled from the east, through
+southern Arabia, and by the Negro species in the
+main. Egypt proper and the adjoining regions of
+Arabia once lay within the domain of the Negroid
+Pygmies, but these indigenes were overwhelmed at
+a relatively early period by more or less “negrified”
+branches of the Caucasian stock coming from the
+direction of Syria or from Libya. Before the dawn
+of the historical epoch—say nine thousand years ago—an
+element in the population of Lower Egypt certainly
+showed Bushmen affinities. These steatopygous
+Bushmen were perhaps Proto-negroes, who may
+have branched off from the Nigritic stock when first
+that species reached the Mediterranean regions. This
+Bushman element in Egypt was for some time distinct,
+prior to the historical period, as the characteristic
+type of the servile class. Following on these
+dwarfish people came races bearing some slight resemblance
+to the Dravidians of India or the Brahuis of
+Baluchistan,—a somewhat Australoid stock which
+has left traces in Elam and around the shores of the
+Persian Gulf. Then came an aquiline type of nearly
+pure Caucasian stock, usually known by Egyptologists
+as the “Khafra” race. This probably arrived from
+Syria or Cyprus. But the men of the northern half of
+the Nile basin who fathered the principal, dominating
+type of ancient and modern Egyptian emigrated seemingly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span>
+from the direction of Galaland, Somaliland, or
+Abyssinia. In these countries, or originally perhaps
+in southern Arabia, there was formed a handsome race
+mainly of Caucasian stock, but which had mingled
+somewhat considerably with the Proto-negroes and
+Dravidians in Arabia and in northeast Africa, and
+so had acquired darker skins, and hair with more or
+less tendency to curl. The men of this race, like the
+modern Somali or Gala, and the inhabitants of southern
+Arabia, grew thin and wedge-shaped beards.
+Their lips were full, their noses straight and finely
+shaped. Their degenerate descendants continue to
+exist with but little altered facial type in the Danākil,
+Somali, and Gala of the present day; but in the
+northern half of the Nile valley they became in time
+the main stock of the Egyptian population. They
+also, it would seem, profoundly modified Negro
+Africa; for while on the one hand they started out
+by a series of race movements and conquests from the
+direction of Abyssinia to invade and mould Egypt,
+on the other (though more faint-heartedly) they advanced
+in a southwesterly direction to influence Negro
+Africa. They have formed aristocracies in the countries
+round the head-waters of the White Nile. Their
+influence on the Negro races has been widespread,
+permeating, even though faintly, in a handsome physical
+type and remarkable form of language, to Zululand
+on the south and perhaps westward across the
+continent to the Congo, the Cross River, and the
+Atlantic coast. This Hamitic race (as it is called<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span>
+for want of a better word), which made its first
+home—and retains as its last—the highlands of
+Abyssinia and the plateaux and arid coastlands of
+Afar, Somaliland, and the Gala countries, has been
+the mainstay of Ancient Egypt, and also, together
+with its not distantly related Libyan brethren, the main
+human agent in saving the Negro from slipping back
+into the life of the anthropoid ape.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_4" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 35em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0041.jpg" width="2189" height="1633" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Nile and the Pyramids.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The valley of the Lower Nile, however, attracted
+many invasions from Europe and Asia, and from
+Libya (northwest Africa), where the dominant race
+was mainly of Iberian stock.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> Dynasties rose and
+fell, often coincident with the invasion of Egypt by
+one race of conquerors after another. All these races
+(with the exception perhaps of the Hittites) belonged
+to various types of the Caucasian species. The Hittites
+possibly may have introduced a slight element of
+the Mongolian. In the earliest historical period Egypt
+and the lower valley of the Nile does not seem to have
+been markedly severed in its interracial relations from
+the far greater portion of the Nile basin which lies to
+the south of the fifteenth degree of north latitude.
+Egyptians penetrated no doubt without much difficulty
+up the Nile valley into and among the Negro tribes
+of the Central Sudan and Equatoria. The Ancient
+Egyptians may have had—must have had—a certain
+proportion of Negro or Negroid in their composition;
+beside the drop of Negro blood in their Hamitic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span>
+ancestors, they must have absorbed the earlier Negroid
+population of their country and have imported and
+intermarried with Negro slaves. But they were fully
+Caucasian in the vivid interest they took in nature,
+and in their desire to depict all the striking forms
+of life around them, especially when such forms had
+anything of novelty. Prof. Flinders Petrie has, I
+believe, recently discovered a vase of immeasurable
+antiquity of the “Pre-Dynastic” period in Lower
+Egypt which is incised with a delineation of the
+Kudu antelope.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> Other and later relics would seem
+to show that the Egyptians were acquainted with the
+chimpanzee of the Bahr-al-Ghazal regions, the Pygmies
+who once inhabited the western part of the Upper
+Nile basin, and many forms of the Tropical African
+fauna. But after these early historical times there
+appears to have come about a severance of relations
+between Egypt and the Upper Nile, though an
+overland route to the Land of Punt (Somaliland)
+either through Abyssinia or to the west of that elevated
+region nearly always existed unclosed to traffic.
+It is noteworthy that the Ancient Egyptians themselves
+do not appear ever to have penetrated up the
+main stream of the Nile much above its junction
+with the Bahr-al-Ghazal, no doubt owing to the obstruction
+of the sudd. Their traders may have travelled<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span>
+into many parts of the Bahr-al-Ghazal region,
+and possibly even westward in the direction of Lake
+Chad,—westward, it may be, even across the western
+Sudan to the Niger,—yet there is not the slightest
+indication of their ever having journeyed up the
+main White Nile to the snow-mountains and the equatorial
+lakes. But they traded for thousands of years
+with the men of Punt (Somaliland) by sea and by
+land; and there is evidence to show that the peoples
+of Somaliland and Galaland (who had by repeated
+prehistoric invasions permeated the Upper Nile basin
+and left aristocracies behind them) traded anciently—say,
+in pre-Islamic times—southwestward to Lake
+Rudolf, and round Lake Rudolf to the present Turkana
+country, the neighbourhood of Mount Elgon,
+and even to the northeastern shores of the Victoria
+Nyanza.</p>
+
+<p>The Ancient Egyptians seem to have known the
+main Nile as far as Khartum, and the Blue Nile up
+to its source in Lake Tsana. They exercised intermittently
+some kind of rule over the northern and
+western escarpment of Abyssinia, and are said to have
+sent criminals and political exiles to die of cold on
+the snowy heights of the Samien range. But they
+appear to have displayed little knowledge or curiosity
+concerning the ultimate source of the <em>White</em> Nile.
+No doubt the vast marshes and obstructions of the
+sudd which characterised the course of the Nile above
+its confluence with the Bahr-al-Ghazal, the generally
+hopeless nature of this country with its utter absence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span>
+of anything like high land, of minerals, or of a trading
+population, discouraged the practical-minded Egyptians
+from pursuing their researches in that direction.
+The Nile itself they called <em>Hapi</em>, which was also the
+name of the Nile God. It was sometimes spoken of
+as <em>Pi Yuma</em>, or “the River.”<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> Its valley they called
+Atr, Atur, Aur (Modern Coptic = <i>Eiōr</i>).<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></p>
+
+<p>Several foreign dynasties ruled over Ancient Egypt,—Arabian
+and Libyan,—and for centuries at a
+time the energies of Egypt were mainly concentrated
+on domestic work under these foreign task-masters
+or insurrections to expel the hated rulers.
+The original civilisation of Egypt rose rapidly to a
+great and wonderful height at a period which may
+be as remote, historically, as about seven thousand
+years ago. The main source of their civilisation
+seems to have been the introduction into the country
+of copper implements instead of and in addition to
+those of improved stone and flint manufacture. A
+wonderful development of pictorial art occurred concurrently
+with this brilliant rise in civilisation, and
+this early Egyptian art is of a realistic character from
+which all subsequent Egyptian pictorial or sculptured
+art has been a degeneration. At this time they easily<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span>
+impressed the Negroes of the south and the Libyans
+of the west with their power, and it was no doubt a
+matter of ease for Egyptian expeditions to penetrate
+into the Sudan from the countries of Abyssinia and
+Galaland. Gold and precious or gaudy stones were
+sought for in the east and southeast. Ivory, slaves,
+gums, perfumes, and strange beasts were obtained
+from the south and southwest. But no doubt Ancient
+Egyptians in their extensions of political or commercial
+influence introduced amongst the Negro tribes the
+knowledge of working metals. They also gave to
+them all those domestic animals and cultivated plants
+now existing in Tropical Africa which are not of a far
+later American or Indian origin (that is, introduced
+by the Portuguese and Arabs). By instructing the
+Negroes in this indirect manner in the arts of civilisation,
+and by spreading among them, no doubt, the
+use of metal weapons (which were probably as good
+as those used by the Egyptians themselves), there
+came a time when—to use a term once much employed
+by the European pioneer—the black men
+became “saucy” and objected to be harried, bullied,
+assessed, and exploited by the lordly Egyptian. The
+Negro race at this time, too, was becoming infiltrated
+by the same splendid stock—the Hamites—as had
+so largely composed the ruling population of Egypt.
+Here and there, no doubt, Negro tribes submitted
+willingly to be governed by Hamitic princes (as has
+been the case in Uganda and Unyoro), and, thus
+ruled, offered sharp opposition to Egyptian encroachments.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span>
+Egyptian interest, therefore, in the sources of
+the Nile died away, especially as in the revival of
+native Egyptian power and in the expulsion of foreign
+dynasties the thoughts of Egypt were all bent on the
+conquest and retention of Syria, Asia Minor, and
+Cyprus. These lands were more desirable in their
+eyes than the appalling wastes of the Sahara, the sun-smitten
+Sudan, the cold mountains of Abyssinia, or
+the fetid marshes of the Nile Negroes.</p>
+
+<p>Almost older than the civilisation of Egypt was
+that of Mesopotamia, the reflex action of which on the
+Hamites of western Arabia and Abyssinia and on the
+inhabitants of the Nile Delta may have provoked
+the civilisation of Egypt. Empires rose, declined,
+fell, and were revived in the valleys of the Euphrates
+and the Tigris, and their influence over Arabia and
+Syria produced in those countries a stirring of commerce
+and invention and a desire for distant enterprise.
+The Phœnicians, who were originally an Arab
+people of the Persian Gulf, forced their way across
+the barren wastes of northern Arabia to the coasts
+of Syria, leaving behind, however, colonies of bold
+navigators at the northern end of the Persian Gulf.
+The Phœnicians, by the building of more seaworthy
+boats, and probably by the development of sails, soon
+traversed the Mediterranean in all directions, passed
+out through the Straits of Gibraltar, and even found
+their way to Britain long before Julius Cæsar. Their
+most noteworthy action in connection with Africa
+perhaps was the founding of Utica in 1100 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span>
+Carthage in 820 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, these settlements being made at
+no great distance from each other in that projection
+of North Africa which constitutes the modern state
+of Tunis. The Carthaginian successors of the Phœnicians
+carried on the work of discovery along the
+north and west coasts of Africa until, in the memorable
+voyage of Hanno, they had penetrated as far
+south in that direction as the existing colony of Sierra
+Leone. The Phœnicians as bold navigators were enlisted
+in the service of one of the last Egyptian sovereigns
+of a real Egyptian dynasty,—Neku, son of
+Psametik I., who succeeded to the throne of Egypt in
+611 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Evidently by this time the overland routes
+to the regions of the Upper Nile and even to Somaliland
+had been closed by hostilities with the Ethiopians
+and Negroes. A Phœnician expedition was
+directed to sail down the Red Sea and along the coast
+to the Land of Punt and the unknown territory beyond.
+According to tradition, this expedition sailed
+round the whole continent of Africa and passed
+through the Straits of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean,
+reaching Egypt from that direction.</p>
+
+<p>Egypt, in her several thousand years of history,
+had been many times conquered by foreign races or
+the leaders of foreign armies, and had sometimes endured
+the domination of strangers for five hundred
+years at a time, though Egyptian art, tradition, and
+religion either survived concurrently alongside the
+habits and customs of the less civilised rulers, or
+ended by Egyptianising the stranger. But there was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span>
+to come a time when the independence of Egypt was
+to disappear, when the Egyptian language was to
+cease to be dominant, when, in fact, the Egypt of the
+Pharaohs and the Pyramids, of the Hieroglyph and
+the Mummy, of Ra and Aphis, Osiris, Isis, and Horus
+was to disappear—perhaps for ever; for the potent
+race that had so long held aloft a brightly-lighted
+lamp of civilisation has been so changed and degraded
+by the infusion of Persian, Arab, Greek, Italian,
+Negro, Circassian, Turkish, French, and Maltese
+blood, so often decimated by wars, famines, and diseases,
+and renewed with the tainted blood of mercenary
+armies, that, though the residuum of the
+population may still offer great facial resemblances
+to the vanished Egyptian type, the majesty of demeanour,
+the brilliant mental endowments of the old
+race have gone, and the rulers of Egypt to-day under
+the indifferent English are the descendants of Slavs
+and Turks, Arabs, Armenians, and Circassians.</p>
+
+<p>A ruler of Egypt, a usurper named Aahmes, had
+been raised to the kingship over Egypt by a soldier’s
+mutiny. He had legitimised his position by marrying
+a granddaughter of Psametik I. Carrying out a
+series of successful expeditions, he once more opened a
+way to the commerce of Nubia and the Upper Nile.
+He intervened in the affairs of Asia Minor to support
+a small state there against encroachments by
+the Persian conqueror Cyrus. The son of Cyrus the
+Great, whom we know as Cambyses, but whose real
+name was probably in Persian Kambujiya, resolved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span>
+to punish Egypt for this interference. Aahmes, whom
+the Greeks called Amasis, died before he could resist
+the invasion, and his son, Psametik III., lost his
+throne and the independence of Egypt in the battle
+of Pelusium. Cambyses became the conqueror, and
+was crowned the legitimate King of Egypt. He
+seems to have been an erratic and cruel conqueror,
+but, like Nero, somewhat fantastically interested in
+science and exploration. He sent one great expedition
+into the Libyan Desert which was never heard
+of again, and is supposed to have perished in the
+sand; and he led a great army himself up the Nile
+with some vague intention of conquering the Ethiopians.
+His soldiers, however, had marched only a
+small distance into the desert when their commissariat
+failed, and many perished, while others became
+cannibals in their mad hunger. This disaster put a
+stop to any further efforts on the part of the Persian
+Overlords of Egypt. For nearly two hundred years
+Persia maintained her hold over Egypt, though for
+brief intervals native dynasties arose in this part
+and that part and flickered for a time in a state of
+semi-independence. Then happened one of the great
+events in the history of Egypt and of the development
+of Africa,—an event which may be paralleled by the
+descent on Egypt of Napoleon Bonaparte two thousand
+one hundred and thirty-one years later: Alexander
+the Great, continuing his war against the Persian
+Empire, attacked that power in Egypt and won the
+day. Alexander left in charge in Egypt one of his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span>
+generals (who was perhaps also his illegitimate half-brother),
+Ptolemy. After his death Ptolemy refused
+to acknowledge the claims of Alexander’s posthumous
+son, and made himself King of Egypt. He thus
+founded a Greek dynasty in that country which lasted
+till the advent of the Cæsars and expired in the person
+of the world-famed Cleopatra.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II"><span id="toclink_14"></span>CHAPTER II<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE GREEKS INTEREST EUROPE IN THE NILE QUESTION</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> second division of the Caucasian species
+of man (the Iberian being the first) was the
+Aryan,—a race of golden-haired, pink and white
+complexioned people, with eyes that are blue, gray,
+or violet.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> The Aryans first came into Greece as
+barbarians and destroyers, but were soon conquered
+by the preceding Iberian Mykenæan civilisation, on
+which they built up that Hellenic art and knowledge
+which are the foundations of European civilisation
+at the present day. This Hellenic spirit first made
+itself felt in Africa through the Greek colonies of the
+Cyrenaica. Greece, when it became conscious of a
+world beyond its peninsulas and islands, was strongly
+drawn towards Africa. The power of Egypt long
+withstood attempts at Greek colonisation, though in
+quite early days Hellenic or Hellenised Europeans
+were employed by the rulers of Egypt as mercenary
+soldiers. Therefore, following the line of least resistance,
+Greece planted her first African colonies between
+Egypt on the east and the settlements of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span>
+Phœnicians (Carthage) on the west. Due west of
+the narrow coast belt of Egypt is a remarkable projection
+of North Africa into the Mediterranean,—the
+modern Barka, the ancient Cyrenaica. This projection
+has been, several times in geological history, a
+series of islands in a larger Mediterranean, or it has
+grown into a bridge connecting Greece with Africa.
+The land now rises to heights of three thousand feet,
+and there is a sufficiency of rainfall in ordinary seasons
+to nourish a vegetation not much less rich than that of
+southern Italy. South of the Cyrenaica lies the Sahara
+Desert in its most aggravated form of well-nigh impassable
+sand dunes. No Greek expedition that we
+know of ever succeeded in crossing the Sahara from
+Cyrenaica and reaching the Sudan; but Greek influence
+and inquiries were dimly felt in Phazania (Fezzan) to
+the southwest, and the existence and prosperity of these
+Greek colonies in North Africa aroused the interest
+of the Greeks in matters of African exploration. In
+about 457 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Herodotus (a native of Halicarnassus,
+a Hellenised state in Asia Minor under Persian rule)
+visited Egypt, which from 650 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> onwards had been
+more or less thrown open to Greek enterprise by
+Psametik I. Herodotus himself travelled up the Nile
+as far as the First Cataract, and collected with some
+industry information from Egyptians and travelled
+Greeks as to the regions which lay beyond. From
+these he learned that the origin of the Nile was unknown,
+but that the river might come from the far
+west, from the region where we now know Lake Chad<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span>
+to be; that there was a civilised city of Ethiopians in
+the great bend of the Nile at Meroe (Merāwi of to-day),
+and that beyond this nothing certain was known
+of the Nile course. Aristotle—the great Greek
+philosopher, who was born in northern Greece in
+384 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>—wrote on African discovery and recorded
+the news that to the southwest of the Nile were
+Pygmy races who frequently warred with the “cranes”
+(? ostriches).</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 276 was born at Cyrene, in North Africa,
+Eratosthenes, a Greek geographer, who was made
+Librarian at Alexandria. From the information he
+collected and collated (supplied, no doubt, by Greek
+traders) he, first of all known geographers, sketched
+out with fair accuracy the course of the Nile and its
+two great Abyssinian affluents as far south as the
+modern Khartum. He hinted at the lake sources and
+first mentioned the Nubians.</p>
+
+<p>It was the conquest of Egypt from Persian domination
+by Alexander the Great which really did more to
+extend Greek commerce and civilisation and the use
+of the Greek language over eastern Africa and western
+Asia than has even been done at a far later date
+in other parts of the world for German commerce,
+knowledge, and the German language by the unification
+of Germany under Bismarck, William I., and
+William II. Greek explorers visited the Nile as far
+south as the junction of the Astapus (Blue Nile), and
+Greek settlements were made on the island of Sokotra,
+and possibly at other points near the mouth of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span>
+Red Sea. Greek traders even visited the East African
+coast as far as Pangani, opposite Zanzibar. The
+Greeks revealed India to Europe, and the commerce
+which sprung up there through Greek agencies on the
+Persian Gulf and the Red Sea gave unwilling navigators,
+in those days before steam force, some acquaintance
+with the eastern coast of Africa as far
+south as Zanzibar.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the Greeks in all these regions were (as subsequently
+happened with the Portuguese) but the followers
+of the Arabs and Phœnicians. Some impulse,
+kindred in origin, no doubt, to the evolution of the
+Phœnicians, had created an ancient civilisation in
+southern and western Arabia which perhaps reached
+its climax in the lofty, well-watered, and fertile country
+of Yaman. Much of southern Arabia, however,
+several thousand years ago, was less arid than at the
+present day. The rainfall was greater, and the already
+civilised inhabitants industriously preserved the
+precious water by dams for purposes of irrigation.
+This civilisation may be briefly styled Himyaritic or
+Sabæan,—perhaps the last name is the more comprehensive.
+These Sabæan Arabs of south and southwest
+Arabia, separately or in conjunction with their
+Phœnician cousins, pursued their search for metals
+down the east coast of Africa, along which they made
+settlements which are probably the sites of most of the
+modern emporiums of commerce on the same coast.
+They had reached the mouth of the Zambezi and ascended
+that river, and had penetrated as far south as,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span>
+let us say, Delagoa Bay. It was perhaps their exploration
+of the Zambezi which led them to discover alluvial
+gold in the vicinity of that river, though they afterwards
+found a shorter route to the gold fields by
+way of Sofala. In this way they forestalled by some
+twenty-five hundred years modern Rhodesian enterprise,
+and gold was worked in the regions to the
+south of the Lower Zambezi and a little to the north
+of that river by Arabs or people of allied language
+and race almost continuously from an approximate
+period of three thousand years ago down to the arrival
+of the Portuguese at the beginning of the sixteenth
+century of this era. In the days before the
+appalling religious disunion brought about by the
+conflicts between Christianity and Islam there was
+no bitter feeling against the European on the part
+of the Arab, and Greek adventurers and traders appear
+to have penetrated freely up the Nile, and to
+have worked cordially with the Sabæan Arabs whom
+they found established at various points between India
+on the one hand and Zanzibar and the Red Sea on the
+other. The Greek colony on the island of Sokotra no
+doubt traded industriously with the opposite coast of
+Somaliland.</p>
+
+<p>Rome displaced Greece in Egypt in the same way
+that Greece had displaced Persia, and that Persia had
+closed the five thousand years of fighting between
+Libyan, Gala, Arab, and Nubian. In 168 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Rome
+extended her protection over Egypt. In 30 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Egypt
+became a Roman province. When the Romans really<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span>
+took over the administration of the land, they too, like
+the Galas, Persians, and Greeks before them, and the
+French, Turks, and English after them, began to be
+interested in the quest for the Nile sources. Each
+newly-arrived race of Caucasian conquerors in Egypt
+has felt the same interest. But much of the exploring
+and recording work under Roman rule was done
+by Greeks. Strabo, a native of Amasia in Pontus,
+on the southern shore of the Black Sea, who was
+born somewhere about 50 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, became, when quite
+a young man, a geographer of the Roman world.
+He accompanied in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 24 Ælius Gallus, the Roman
+Governor of Egypt, on a journey up the Nile as far
+as Philæ (beyond Assuan and the First Cataract).
+Pliny the Elder, writing some fifty years after the
+birth of Christ, shows us that just before and just
+after that event Greek explorers (mainly from Asia
+Minor) had been busy on the Nile above the First
+Cataract and perhaps south of Khartum. These were
+Bion, Dalion, and Simonides. Aristocreon and Basilis
+are also mentioned as authorities on Nile exploration,
+but not necessarily explorers themselves. Simonides,
+above mentioned, lived for five years in Meroe. Dalion
+is thought to have penetrated up the river some distance
+beyond Khartum. The “Meroe” which is so
+constantly mentioned by Greek and Roman writers
+from Herodotus to Ptolemy, was a name given
+originally to an important and flourishing city on
+the south or left bank of the Nile in Dongola,—the
+modern Merāwi. This place was also known<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span>
+as Napata (Egyptian, Nepet), and was the residence
+of Ethiopian (Abyssinian, Gala, Nubian)
+kings. Later the name Meroe was also applied to a
+place on the right bank of the Nile about one hundred
+miles south of that river’s confluence with the
+Atbara. This is probably where the Greek Simonides
+stayed and beyond which Dalion travelled. Finally,
+the term Meroe was applied to the “Island” (peninsula)
+formed by the Atbara, the Blue Nile, and the
+White Nile, a region formerly of great fertility.</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor Nero, though the Beast of the Apocalypse,
+had a certain genial interest in geography. He
+despatched—or caused to be despatched—an expedition
+under two centurions in about the year 66 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>,
+to discover, if possible, the source or sources of the
+White Nile. Before dealing with Egypt the Romans
+had taken over control of the old Greek colonies of
+the Cyrenaica and on the coast of Tripoli. This had
+led (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 19) to their having extensive relations with
+the Berber kingdom of Fezzan, with whom and with
+the Tawareq people of Garama to the south they maintained
+friendly relations. Through this friendly co-operation
+a Roman expedition under Septimus Flaccus
+had in the year 50 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> (perhaps) reached to some
+trans-Saharan place like Bilma. Much later, about
+150 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, another expedition under Julius Maternus
+joined forces with the friendly Berber King of Garama,
+and actually travelled to the vicinity of Lake Chad,
+or, as some think, to the oasis of Air or Asben farther
+to the west. It was a country which they called Agisymba,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span>
+and abounded in rhinoceroses. From this expedition
+the Romans derived some inkling of the
+possibilities, beyond the sandy wastes and sun-smitten
+rocks of the Sahara Desert, of a fertile Sudan, populated
+with an excellent material for slaves. But a
+hundred years earlier they had realised the enormous
+difficulties which attended any enterprise (in the days
+before camels were used in Africa) across the Sahara
+Desert, and this gave them an added desire to follow
+up the Nile and ascertain its practicability as a waterway
+into Negro Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Nero’s two centurions were passed on by Roman
+prefects to friendly Nubian chiefs, one of whom ruled
+the principality of Meroe along the main Nile between
+Atbara and the Blue Nile confluence. Furnished with
+boats which they later exchanged for dug-out canoes,
+they appear to have ascended the Nile above Fashoda,
+and possibly above the confluence between the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+and the Kir or White Nile. At any rate they
+got far enough south to come in contact with the Great
+Marsh which extends from the vicinity of Fashoda to
+the frontiers of the Uganda Protectorate. Their passage
+was stopped by the accumulation of water vegetation
+which we now know as the “sudd.” Some writers
+on ancient geography believe that the two centurions
+penetrated as far south as the sixth degree of north
+latitude, or the verge of the Bari country. At any rate
+they got well into the land of the naked Nile Negroes.
+Their discouraging reports seem to have put an end to
+any further Roman enterprise in the matter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span></p>
+
+<p>Greek traders in Egypt prospered greatly under the
+peace imposed by the Roman Empire. Their commerce
+with Arabia, East Africa, and India grew to
+a wonderful development in the first century after
+Christ. About 77 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> was published by a Greek of
+Alexandria the celebrated “Periplus of the Red Sea,”
+a pilot’s manual not unlike the modern Admiralty
+“sailing directions.” This “Periplus” shows us that
+the Greeks by the middle of the first century knew the
+Zanzibar coast very well under the name of Azan or
+Azania.</p>
+
+<p>Among these Greek merchants trading with India
+was one Diogenes, who, on returning from a voyage
+to India in about 50 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, landed on the East African
+coast at Rhaptum (Pangani or the mouth of the river
+Rufu?). Thence, he said, he “travelled inland for a
+twenty-five days’ journey, and arrived in the vicinity
+of the two great lakes and the snowy range of mountains
+whence the Nile draws its twin sources.” As
+nothing is recorded about his return journey, it is more
+probable that he merely conversed on the coast with
+Arab settlers and traders who told him that at a distance
+of twenty-five days’ march in the interior began
+a series of great lakes from two of which were derived
+the twin sources of the White Nile; that farther to
+the south of the most western of these two lakes was
+a range of mountains of great altitude covered with
+snow and ice, and named for their brilliant appearance
+of white the Mountains of the Moon. The Nile, he
+was told, united its twin head-streams at a point to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span>
+the north of these two great lakes, and then flowed
+through marshes until it joined the River of Abyssinia
+(the Blue Nile), and so reached the regions of
+the known.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_23" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0222.jpg" width="1959" height="1256" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Mountains of the Moon: a Glimpse on one of Ruwenzori’s highest Peaks.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This story was told by Diogenes to a Syrian geographer
+called Marinus of Tyre, who published it in
+his geographical works in the first century of the
+Christian era. The writings of Marinus of Tyre disappeared,
+probably with the dispersal of the Alexandrian
+Library, but fortunately for us at the present
+day all that portion of them dealing with the sources
+of the Nile was quoted almost <i lang="la">in extenso</i> by another
+geographer, Claudius Ptolemæus, a Greek-Egyptian,
+born at Ptolemais in the Delta of the Nile, and resident
+at Alexandria (perhaps in connection with the
+celebrated Library). Ptolemy (as he is currently and
+incorrectly called) wrote in about the year 150 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>,
+and therefore to Ptolemy is commonly attributed the
+first clearly expressed theory as to the main origin of
+the White Nile, the twin lakes (Victoria and Albert),
+and the great snowy range called the Mountains of
+the Moon (Ruwenzori).<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> Neither Marinus of Tyre
+nor Claudius Ptolemæus was the first person to hint
+at this origin of the Nile. Besides Eratosthenes and
+Pliny there are indications in various records of the
+two centuries before Christ that the idea of the White<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span>
+Nile issuing from two great lakes and passing through
+a vast marshy region before it reached Ethiopia was
+vaguely known. The idea had perhaps even reached
+the ears of Cambyses and of such of the earlier Ptolemies
+as may have cared for geographical speculations.
+The bearers of the news would undoubtedly have been
+men of the Gala (Abyssinian, Somali, Cushite) race,
+who at that distant period of time seem to have freely
+penetrated through the lands of the brutish and unarmed
+Negroes. No doubt many a Greek adventurer
+in passing along the east coast of Africa brought back
+tidings similar to those of Diogenes, but his grain fell
+among the rocks, and the only definite record of the
+existence of this theory as to the Nile’s origin is
+the story of Diogenes preserved through the industry
+of Marinus of Tyre and Claudius Ptolemæus of
+Alexandria.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_24" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0261.jpg" width="1624" height="2068" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">The Course of the Nile, according to Ptolemy.</span></p>
+
+<p>From the oldest version of Ptolemy’s Map in existence, about 930 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, preserved
+in Mount Athos Monastery.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The recording of travellers’ tales as to the twin
+lake sources of the main Nile stream and the existence
+of a great snowy range called the Mountains of
+the Moon was not the only contribution made by
+Claudius Ptolemæus to Nile geography. The Egyptian
+Greek indeed was a geographical giant compared
+with any of his predecessors, nor was the height of his
+knowledge concerning the geography of Europe, Asia,
+and Africa reached and passed until the fifteenth century
+of the present era, some twelve hundred years
+after his death. The results of the later Crusades, intercourse
+with the Arabs, and the journeys of Marco
+Polo and other enterprising Venetians had brought<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span>
+in some cases confirmation of Ptolemy’s theories, had
+corrected some of his errors, and had filled up gaps
+in his information. But as regards the geography of
+Africa more especially, Ptolemy remained ostensibly
+the great authority until the end of the fifteenth century,
+although, as already mentioned in a footnote,
+the latest editions of Ptolemy’s maps (the latest ascribed
+to Ptolemy was published about 1485) show
+that the geographers at the closing part of the fifteenth
+century, consciously or unconsciously, touched
+up Ptolemy’s work by later information received from
+Arabs, Italians, and Turks. Ptolemy discussed with
+much detail the whole course of the Nile so far as it
+lay to any extent within the regions of the known.
+He described the approximate outline of its course
+about as far as the present site of Berber, which district
+he describes as the Greater Primis, a name
+which Sir E.&nbsp;H. Bunbury takes to be identical with
+the locality of Primnis<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> rumoured by Strabo. Above
+this point Ptolemy applies the name of Meroe (so
+often attributed to settlements or districts in Dongola)
+to that great peninsula which is so nearly enclosed
+between the Atbara, the main and the Blue
+Niles. Ptolemy indeed, and most writers of earlier
+and later days, believed this district to be an actual
+island.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> The junction of the Blue and the White<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span>
+Niles is wrongly placed by Ptolemy in latitude 12°
+north, instead of 15° 40′, and from this point southwards
+Ptolemy’s proposed latitudes of places on the
+White Nile became increasingly incorrect, so that by
+him the Nile system was carried a little too far to the
+south of the equator. South of the site of modern
+Khartum Ptolemy had but little information to go
+upon, other than the account of the Centurions’
+voyage; but from such suggestions as he could obtain,
+together with the story of Diogenes, he guessed that
+the twin sources of the White Nile joined their streams
+into one river at 2° north latitude. This junction described
+with the knowledge of later days would be
+equivalent to the exit of the Nile from Lake Albert, the
+real latitude of this point being 2° 25′—an uncommonly
+good guess on Ptolemy’s part. Ptolemy, however,
+imagined nothing quite like Lake Albert, but
+thought that the waters coming respectively from the
+two great equatorial lakes effected their junction at a
+point some two hundred and fifty miles north of the
+western lake source (Lake Albert); for he surmises
+that this lake lies approximately under the sixth degree
+of south latitude (its southernmost extremity is in
+1° 10′ north of the equator). His hypothetical Lake
+Victoria lies under or extends to the seventh degree
+of south latitude, instead of no farther than about
+3° 30′ south. Ptolemy, however, was careful to discriminate
+between the lake sources of the White
+Nile and the lake (Tsana) from which the Blue
+Nile issues in the highlands of Abyssinia. This<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span>
+sheet of water he calls definitely Coloe, and states
+that it is the source of the river Astapus (or Blue
+Nile). It is thought that Strabo also made allusion
+to Lake Tsana under the name of Psebo. It is probable
+that both Strabo and Ptolemy heard of this
+lake source of the Astapus or Blue Nile from Greek
+traders who had penetrated Abyssinia; for, during
+the first centuries after Christ, Axum (then called
+Auxuma) had become an important trading-centre
+which was reached from Adulis (Adulis being a port
+on the Red Sea not far from the modern Masawa).
+Ptolemy’s location of Lake Tsana, however, like the
+equatorial lakes, is too far to the south. His sketch
+of the main course of the Atbara (Astaboras) on the
+one hand, and of the Blue Nile (Astapus) on the
+other, would not be very incorrect, but for the fact
+that he makes these streams unite somewhere in the
+latitude of Khartum and then separate again, their
+northern separation enclosing the island of Meroe.
+The Græcicised names of Astapos (Blue Nile) and
+Astaboras (Atbara) were recorded before the days
+of Ptolemy by Eratosthenes, but were not applied in
+the same definite way to the Blue Nile and the Atbara.
+Eratosthenes sometimes applies the name of Astapos
+to the main stream of the Nile and not specially to
+the Blue Nile. He also mentions that the main stream
+of the Nile is called Astasobas. It is evident that in
+these words we have corruptions of local names, possibly
+derived from Nubian, or it may be from Hamitic
+languages. Astaboras needs but little identification<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span>
+with the Atbara. Astapus (Greek = Astapos) is not
+clearly recognizable under the modern Abyssinian
+name of the Blue Nile,—Abai. The second part of
+Astasobas certainly recalls the name Sobat, which
+besides being applied by the Sudanese Arabs to the
+Baro or Sobat is also sometimes given by them or by
+the Nile Negroes to the main course of the White
+Nile south of Khartum. Asta may have been some
+Ethiopian term meaning “river.”</p>
+
+<p>The present writer is unable to understand why that
+able geographer, Mr. E.&nbsp;G. Ravenstein, has doubted
+the identification of Ruwenzori with Ptolemy’s Mountains
+of the Moon. It must be obvious, when all facts
+are considered, that Ruwenzori was the principal germ
+of this idea. The Greek traders at Rhapta (Pangani)
+no doubt had some idea of the existence of Kilimanjaro,
+but it is doubtful whether either the single dome
+of Kilimanjaro or the gleaming pinnacle of Kenia
+would impress the imagination so strongly as the whole
+brilliant range of Ruwenzori’s four or five snow-peaks
+and thirty miles of glaciation. On such occasions, as
+when this range is visible from a distance, and broadside
+on, the dark blue forested slopes merge into the
+morning mists of the lowlands, leaving the splendid
+phantasmagoria of cream-coloured snow and gray rock
+floating in the sky like an exaggerated lunar landscape.
+Ptolemy places this range, as he does his lakes, too
+far to the south, and associates it more with the
+modern country of Unyamwezi than with the region
+between the two lakes Albert and Victoria. But<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span>
+no doubt then, as in Speke’s day, Ruwenzori and
+Lake Albert were reached by Greek adventurers, by
+Sabæan Arabs, or by natives who served as intermediaries,
+by way of the established trade route through
+Unyamwezi. This word, which means “the Land of
+the Moon,” appears to be rather old for a Bantu place
+name: Unyamwezi indeed seems in the history of
+Bantu migrations to have played an important part,
+and to have been one of those many sub-centres from
+which great dispersals of the Bantu races took place.
+Indeed the Zulus (who were probably the dreaded
+Mazimba or Bazimba spoken of by the Portuguese)
+seem to have halted in their cannibal days in Unyamwezi
+before they descended on South Africa in the
+sixteenth century. Ruwenzori is not, after all, such
+a very long journey to the northwest of Unyamwezi,
+and it is very possible that the returning travellers,
+having stated that they reached the Nile sources and
+these wonderful snow-mountains through the Land of
+the Moon thus caused this lunar name to be applied
+by Ptolemy to the Ruwenzori range.</p>
+
+<p>Though not an explorer, Ptolemy stands (for his
+age) in the highest rank of Nile geographers; but
+he had to wait something like seventeen hundred and
+forty years before Sir Henry Stanley, by his discovery
+of the Semliki, the Ruwenzori snow-range, and the
+last problems of the Nile sources, did justice to that
+remarkable foreshadowing of the main features of
+the Nile system due to the genius of the Alexandrian
+geographer.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III"><span id="toclink_30"></span>CHAPTER III<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">ABYSSINIANS AND JEWS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> race of the Greek kings who ruled over
+Egypt after the death of Alexander the Great
+and until 30 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and later, again, the Byzantine
+Emperors of Eastern Rome did much to implant Hellenic
+civilisation and the use of the Greek language
+in Egypt, and their influence extended over Abyssinia,
+where the kings of Ethiopian race (Gala dashed with
+Arab and Jew) admired and imitated them in much the
+same manner as the second Emperor of the French
+was admired and imitated by the lesser potentates of
+Germany. The history of Abyssinia—if it is to be
+written with regard to truth—is still obscure. This
+country of lofty mountains and temperate climate is
+bordered on the east by the land of Afar, an inhospitable
+desert inhabited by fierce Hamites (Danākil).
+On the south its mountains are connected by plateaux
+and ridges with the highlands of East Africa, but are
+separated by much arid and parched country from the
+regions of the modern Uganda protectorate. On the
+west the mountains of Abyssinia descend in terraces to
+the plains of the central Nile. Here the torrid climate
+is that of the Sudan, but the country is better watered
+by the rivers which rise in Abyssinia, and by a fairly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span>
+regular rainfall. On the extreme north the Abyssinian
+mountains almost overhang the coast of the Red Sea,
+and are no doubt visible in clear weather from the
+opposite Arabian shore. The mountains of Yaman
+are remarkably similar in many points to those of
+Abyssinia, and the people of Yaman when they were
+seized with a desire to emigrate in search of fresh homes
+were no doubt drawn to this distant land of mountains
+just visible in the west. Originally no doubt Abyssinia
+was peopled by the same dwarf Bushman race as that
+which formed the lowest stratum of all the African
+populations. Then a portion of the country came into
+the possession of the big black Negroes who still
+inhabit its western flanks. These again are superseded
+and partially absorbed by the superior race of
+the Hamites, the ancestors of the Gala, Somali, and
+Ancient Egyptian. This Hamite race of Caucasian
+stock with some Negroid intermixture forms the basis
+of the Abyssinian population at the present day. But
+in the early days of Sabæan enterprise—say four
+thousand to three thousand years ago—Abyssinia was
+conquered by Sabæan Arabs from Yaman. At many
+subsequent periods Abyssinia and Yaman (the Red
+Sea acting as no barrier) were governed by the same
+dynasty, and when Yaman came under Persian influence
+that influence also penetrated Abyssinia. In
+this manner Abyssinia early developed a trade with
+India, and even served as an emporium for the introduction
+of Indian wares into Egypt on the one hand
+and the remote parts of eastern equatorial Africa on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span>
+the other. The Queen of Saba (Sheba) is no doubt
+in many respects a legendary personage, but if she
+had any real historical existence she is another instance
+of an Arab ruler who governed both Abyssinia
+and Yaman. She may or may not have visited Solomon,
+but there is no doubt that in the time of that
+Jewish king some intercourse was kept up between the
+kingdom of Israel in its brief flicker of power and prosperity,
+and the coasts of the Red Sea and southern
+Arabia. After the smashing up of the Hebrew state
+by the Assyrians there are good reasons for assuming
+that a number of the dispersed Israelites migrated
+to Abyssinia, as no doubt they did to other parts
+of the Sabæan Empire. Jewish monotheism always
+had a certain fascination (in the days before Christianity
+and Islam) for the peoples of Arabia and
+of Mauritania. This influence was most felt after
+the final destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans and
+the subsequent dispersal of the Jews in all directions.
+Several princes in southwestern Arabia adopted the
+Jewish faith, more or less, and the Jewish settlers in
+Abyssinia also appear to have acted as missionaries
+in converting the savage, nominally Semitic, partly
+Gala rulers of Abyssinia to the principles of the Jewish
+faith, into which they wove Jewish legends, such as
+the glory and power of Solomon. A similar influence
+impressed on the Arab mind the Solomon of the
+legends. The real son of David was no doubt an
+unimportant Semitic prince who borrowed a little civilisation
+from his Phœnician, Egyptian, and Sabæan<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span>
+neighbours. But the Greek influence emanating from
+Egypt displaced for a time the Persian and Jewish
+culture in Abyssinia. In the northern parts of that
+(then) collection of Arab and Gala kingdoms, Greek
+began to be used as a second language, the speech of
+the Court itself being a foreign tongue (Ge’ez), derived
+from the Himyaritic or some early south Semitic
+language.</p>
+
+<p>Auxuma—the modern Auxum—in the kingdom
+or province of Tigre (northeastern Abyssinia) and
+near the more modern town of Adua, became an
+important trade centre, frequented by many Greek
+merchants, some of whom seem to have occasionally
+returned to their homes in Egypt by way of the
+Atbara and the Nile. Others forestalled the Portuguese
+by entering into trade relations or actually
+undertaking journeys which revealed to them the existence
+of Lake Tsana and the upper waters of the
+Blue Nile.</p>
+
+<p>Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Byzantine Greek, who
+traded with India in the early part of the sixth century
+of our era, called at the port of Adulis (near
+Masawa) in 520 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> He discovered at this place a
+monument which contained two separate inscriptions.
+The monument was apparently one erected at the
+orders of Ptolemy III. (Philadelphus), who reigned
+in Egypt from 285 to 247 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> This Ptolemy led and
+sent expeditions which made a partial conquest of the
+coast regions of northern Abyssinia, and added to
+the Egyptian Empire of that day a good deal of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span>
+what now constitutes the modern Italian colony of
+Eritrea.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a></p>
+
+<p>On the same monument some four hundred and
+seventy years later, in about 127 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, a Semitic
+Abyssinian king (possibly Ela-Auda) recorded in
+turn his own victories and extensions of rule. These
+conquests seem to have done much to carry the Abyssinian
+(Semitic as distinct from Hamitic) arms as
+far south as the ninth degree of north latitude. Other
+indications would show that from this time onwards
+to about the tenth century <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> Abyssinian influence
+and conquests extended southward intermittently to
+the vicinity of Lake Rudolf (the northern end of that
+lake). Owing to these conquests, Christianity was
+carried as far south as the modern province of Kaffa,
+and northwestwards along the course of the Blue Nile
+to the site of the modern Khartum; for at one time
+Abyssinian suzerainty or rule extended almost to the
+verge of Kordofan on the west.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p>
+
+<p>The introduction of Islam among the Somalis,
+among some of the Gala tribes, and all round the north
+and west of Abyssinia in the centuries that followed the
+eleventh, checked any further spread of Christianity,
+and limited—even curtailed—the political aspirations
+of Abyssinia. In the sixteenth century a Muhammadan<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span>
+ruler—Muhammad Granye—arose in the Danākil
+country (Tajurra Bay), and practically smashed the
+Ethiopian Christian power in Abyssinia, which did
+not recover from the ravages of these Muhammadan
+(Arab and Somali) armies for a century or more.
+Soon after the wars of Muhammad Granye the heathen
+Galas<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> from the south and southwest entered Abyssinia
+in force, and it was a long time before the Semitic
+rulers of that country could bring them under control.
+The arrival of the Portuguese (to be described in the
+next chapter) gave a fillip to the power of the Christian
+Semites of Abyssinia, mainly through the introduction
+of guns and gunpowder. It is possible,
+indeed, that at different times after the commencement
+of the Christian era Abyssinian raiders may
+have ridden south on their slave, ivory, and cattle-hunting
+expeditions as far as the vicinity of Mount
+Elgon. At the present day their raiders come almost
+to the frontiers of Busoga, for there is no tsetse fly
+in all the district between Abyssinia and the Victoria
+Nyanza; therefore, as the Abyssinians have possessed
+horses for several thousand years, there has been little
+to stop their making rapid expeditions into the Land of
+the Blacks. In this way they may have raided and
+traded as far south as the Victoria Nyanza and as
+far west as the White Nile, bringing back with them
+for the edification of the Greeks stories of the Great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span>
+Lakes and Snow-mountains, and assisting, perhaps, to
+distribute over the lands now comprised within the
+Uganda Protectorate those remarkable blue Egyptian
+beads of unknown antiquity which have been referred
+to by the present writer in his book, “The Uganda
+Protectorate,” as being some slight indication of
+ancient trading relations between the countries of the
+Great Lakes and those under the dominion of Egypt.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV"><span id="toclink_37"></span>CHAPTER IV<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">ISLAMITES AND ITALIANS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">When</span> Egypt had become part of the Byzantine
+dominions, all interest in the Nile sources
+had died away, and men’s minds were mainly centred
+on religious controversies of greater or less violence.
+Greek Christianity penetrated to Abyssinia
+and south of Abyssinia to countries not far from
+the north end of Lake Rudolf. Most of the Nubian
+kingdoms became nominally Christian, and Christianity
+was the religion of the people on the Nile banks as
+far south as the confluence of the Blue and White
+Niles. It is thought by the missionaries of the White
+Fathers’ Mission to Uganda that the sign of the
+cross and the idea of baptism, with one or two
+other practices found in the old heathen religions of
+Unyoro and Uganda, may have reached those countries
+from Abyssinia. Greek and Arab Christians in
+the first six centuries of the Christian era certainly
+penetrated to the East African coast, but after the
+official adoption of Christianity by the Roman Empire
+all mundane knowledge began to decay. Christianity
+inspired a contempt for science, and the only ideas
+of geography which floated about the world were
+connected with the wanderings of propagandists or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span>
+pilgrimages to the shrines of saints. Arab enterprise,
+moreover, in these sad centuries suffered a curious
+eclipse. Far to the south, in Zambezia, no doubt the
+invasion of the country by the earlier and later sections
+of the Bantu Negroes brought about the destruction
+of Sabæan power; and the somewhat degenerate
+successors of the Sabæans from the south coast of
+Arabia only occupied the coast emporiums dotted
+along the littoral from Somaliland to Sofala.</p>
+
+<p>Then came one of the great landmarks of the
+world’s history, a movement productive of a little
+good and some harm to civilisation. Christianity had
+first been organised as a socialistic religion, grafting
+on to the beautiful and indisputable precepts of its
+Founder the reaction of poor, ignorant, starved, and
+enslaved people against the unmoral philosophy, unequal
+wealth, and excessive materialism of the time.
+It then grew to be a somewhat dismal faith, taking no
+heed of the beauty of this world and of mundane
+opportunities for happiness; and above all it waged
+an active warfare with sexuality, not merely curbing
+immorality, but (wisely or unwisely) opposing polygamy
+and advocating celibacy. The Arab and the
+North African were not ripe for such a faith, and
+Judaism had already biassed them against the polytheistic
+tendencies of Greek Christianity. Muhammad,
+the prophet of western Arabia, founded on a
+basis of phallic worship and animistic belief the
+third great Semitic religion—Islam. His teaching
+was a direct challenge to Christianity, and soon became<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span>
+iconoclastic in every sense of the word. Though the
+Persian, Syrian, and Iberian elements of the Arab
+Empire for a time revived and perpetuated in somewhat
+grotesque aspect the science of Greece, the art
+of Persia, and the lore of India, the Muhammadan
+religion sealed most parts of Africa to European and
+Christian research. It is true, however, that the conquests
+of Islam enabled Arabs to penetrate further
+into the interior of tropical Africa than before,
+though from the dawn of civilisation they had been
+the most constant explorers of the eastern part of
+that continent.</p>
+
+<p>The Arabs began to mention names connected with
+the Niger and the western Sudan to the geographers
+of Italy and Sicily. Under the impulse of Islamic,
+Persian, and Arab colonies the east coast of Africa and
+the north coast of Madagascar came partially under
+Muhammadan rule in the tenth and eleventh centuries,
+the Arabs there carrying on almost continuously the
+commercial enterprise founded by their predecessors
+and brothers, the Phœnicians and Sabæans. Invasion
+after invasion crossed from Arabia, and passed over
+the lowlands surrounding Abyssinia to the central
+Sudan; or higher up, through Egypt, to Mauritania.
+But the Arabs who crossed the Nile in the latitudes of
+Khartum and Assuan made no attempts to follow the
+White Nile, the Blue Nile, or the Bahr-al-Ghazal to
+their sources,—left in fact all the Nile basin above the
+confluence of the Blue and White rivers absolutely
+untouched and unexplored. Egypt itself came under<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span>
+Arab rule in 640 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, and subsequently formed an
+independent principality under the Fatimite Khalifs.</p>
+
+<p>The Crusades brought French, Germans, and English,
+Aragonese and Flemings to the Delta of the
+Nile in more or less disastrous expeditions against
+the Saracen power,—a power which was fast becoming
+that of the Turk. A curious relic of these
+crusading days in the Nile Delta is or was (for
+the present writer is not aware if they still exist)
+several Spanish (originally Aragonese) monasteries,
+which were established with the consent of the Muhammadan
+rulers of Egypt in order to mitigate the
+woes of Christian captives and to arrange terms for
+their release.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_40" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0402.jpg" width="1275" height="1978" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">An Arab Trader (Maskati).</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Venice, however,—which had somewhat held aloof
+from the religious ardour of the Crusades in order
+to build up a great commerce with the Muhammadan
+East,—Venice became during the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries the great neutral go-between for the
+trade of India, Persia, Egypt, Arabia, and Syria with
+the Byzantine Empire and the rest of Europe. Venetians
+(in Arab dress, of course) ran less risk than
+other Europeans when travelling in Egypt in the
+days before the Portuguese discoveries. Through
+the Venetians Europe became acquainted with several
+strange African beasts which were brought from
+the Sudan for public exhibition in Muhammadan
+Egypt, and in this way European interest in the
+sources of the Nile was occasionally revived. It is
+remarkable to reflect that the name of Venice will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span>
+probably never die out (as far as etymology is
+concerned) in the very heart of Africa. In the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and perhaps later,
+Venice manufactured in her arsenals improved types
+of guns. She also acted as an intermediary in exchanging
+muskets (manufactured elsewhere in Europe)
+with the Arabs and Turks, who at that time could not
+construct these firearms for themselves. Thus the
+Turks and Arabs became accustomed to call any improved
+type of musket a “Venetian” (Bunduqi).<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a>
+In this way the name of the most beautiful city in
+the world has penetrated beyond the explorations of
+any European into the very heart of Africa, as it has
+also circulated through all the Muhammadan East.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V"><span id="toclink_42"></span>CHAPTER V<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">A SUMMARY OF THE ANCIENTS’ KNOWLEDGE OF THE NILE</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> next page in the history of the Nile Quest
+is marked by the coming of the Portuguese;
+but before we proceed to consider what effect this
+movement had on the revelation of Africa to the
+knowledge of the Caucasian species, let us sum up
+briefly the purport of the foregoing <span class="locked">chapters:—</span></p>
+
+<p>1. The lands through which the Nile flows were
+inhabited some ten thousand years ago—let us say
+at a guess—by Pygmies in the north, east, and
+southwest, and elsewhere by big black Negroes, these
+types being offshoots from the original Negro Asiatic
+stem.</p>
+
+<p>At some such period as ten thousand years ago
+northeast Africa was repeatedly invaded from Arabia
+by a branch of the Caucasian race—the Hamites—which
+in Arabia had absorbed a certain proportion
+of early Negro and Dravidian<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> blood. About the
+same time in Egypt itself there were invasions of
+other Caucasian immigrants; some perhaps of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span>
+Dravidian stock still met with in Baluchistan and
+India, and others of Libyan (Iberian, Algerian) race.
+There had also been early minglings between the big
+black Negroes on the Central Nile and Hamite invaders
+which had resulted in further hybrids such as
+the Nubians or “Ethiopians.” These Ethiopians constantly
+invaded and raided Egypt, thus mingling with
+the Caucasian Egyptians, but also at other times
+acted as middlemen between civilised Egypt and the
+utterly barbarous countries of the Bahr-al-Ghazal and
+the Sudan; they brought to Egypt knowledge of
+the Pygmies and such of the bigger beasts of Africa
+as had become extinct in Egypt before the arrival of
+intelligent man. Through these Nubians the Egyptians
+occasionally had glimmering ideas as to the
+sources of the White Nile.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Egyptians kept up a fairly constant communication
+with Abyssinia and Somaliland by sea
+and overland. They had a fair knowledge of the
+geographical features of Abyssinia and of the origin
+and source of the Blue Nile. Moreover, through the
+ancestors of the Galas and Somalis they came slightly
+into contact with the peoples of Lake Rudolf and the
+Victoria Nyanza.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Greeks, who began to travel in Egypt five
+hundred years before Christ, expressed some curiosity
+about the origin of the Nile, and communicated
+this inquiring spirit to the Romans. This resulted
+for a time in the knowledge of the White Nile as
+far south as Fashoda.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span></p>
+
+<p>4. The Arabs of western and southern Arabia very
+early in the history of civilisation developed a culture
+scarcely inferior to that of the Egyptians, and entered
+into trading and colonising relations with Abyssinia
+and Somaliland, and with the East African coastlands
+as far south as the modern Rhodesia. From their
+settlements on the Zanzibar coast (such as Mombasa)
+they probably journeyed inland on trading expeditions,
+or else the natives, who came to trade with
+them at the coast, gave them geographical information.
+In one or other way they learnt the existence of great
+lakes and snow-mountains. These stories the Arabs
+passed on to inquiring Greeks as far back as two
+thousand years ago; and an account which was an
+uncommonly near guess at the truth was given to the
+reading world during the first two centuries after the
+birth of Christ by writers on geography like Marinus
+of Tyre and Claudius Ptolemæus of Alexandria.</p>
+
+<p>5. This was the high-water mark of knowledge
+concerning the sources of the White Nile for something
+like eighteen hundred years. Information on
+the subject in the interval began to grow less rather
+than more. The stories of the Nile lakes were,
+however, revived after the Arab invasions of northeast
+Africa in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
+and were communicated to the European world of
+the Renaissance through the intermediary of the Saracen
+writers of Sicily, the theologians of Rome, and
+the merchants of Venice.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI"><span id="toclink_45"></span>CHAPTER VI<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">PORTUGAL AND ABYSSINIA</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Portugal</span> was created by the crusading spirit.
+The King of Castile, who had become the leading
+prince in the northern half of Spain, despatched
+a young Burgundian adventurer, Count Henry, to advance
+on the Douro from Galicia (in the northwest
+corner of the Spanish peninsula) and to drive the
+Moors into the sea,—either the Atlantic Ocean or the
+Straits of Gibraltar. Count Henry drove them at
+any rate half-way down that western coastland of
+the Spanish peninsula which we now call Portugal.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a>
+Lisbon was only eventually conquered from the
+Moors by the help of a large party of English volunteers
+who stopped to aid in this struggle with the
+Moslem while on their way to a Crusade in the Holy
+Land. Steadily, bit by bit, Count Henry and his
+successors, the kings of Portugal, drove the Moors
+southward into and out of the little province of Algarve,
+and then, flushed with continuous success,
+crossed the Straits, attacked them in Morocco, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span>
+added a large part of the present Empire of Morocco
+to the possessions of the Portuguese Crown.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> These
+brilliant successes awoke a great spirit of discovery in
+Portugal,—a spirit fomented and encouraged by that
+noble and far-sighted man, Prince Henry the Navigator,
+who had himself shared in the Morocco wars.
+Rapidly the limits of the Portuguese explorations extended.
+First they rounded Cape Bojador on the
+northwest coast of Africa. Then they reached Sierra
+Leone, the gold coast, Benin (where they powerfully
+affected native art and industry), the Niger Delta, the
+Cameroons, the Congo, Angola, and the Cape of Good
+Hope. Once having passed this promontory, whence
+they had once retired baffled, their great navigator,
+Vasco da Gama, carried on the exploration of the
+coasts of Africa eastward and northward to Mombasa
+and thence to India. Succeeding vessels explored
+the Red Sea, and the expeditions they conveyed attempted
+to get into touch with Abyssinia, where, according
+to the rumours brought home by crusaders<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span>
+and Italian merchants from Egypt, there lay a
+Christian country ruled by a pious monarch, John
+the Priest.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> But before ever Vasco da Gama had
+rounded the Cape of Good Hope, the Portuguese,
+by contact with the Moors, had heard of Arab settlements
+on the East Coast of Africa, and of the insular
+character of the great continent. Their government,
+therefore, in 1486 despatched on a journey to Egypt,
+India, and eastern Africa Pero de Covilhaõ to spy out
+the land.</p>
+
+<p>This was a very risky journey in those days when
+the jealousy of Venice was added to the fanaticism
+of the Moslems. But Pero de Covilhaõ fulfilled his
+mission. He visited Egypt, the Red Sea, and India.
+He then, on his return journey, touched at many of
+the Arab ports on the East African coast. Finally he
+disembarked at Masawa, and travelled to Abyssinia,
+the first intelligent European to enter that country for
+a very long period of time,—the first, in fact, since
+the Greek merchants and missionaries who traded and
+travelled under the Byzantine Empire. The King of
+Abyssinia was so delighted with the advent of this
+white man, yet so suspicious of his country’s motives,
+that he was detained as an unwilling guest in Abyssinia
+for several years, and died when on his way
+home. But the Portuguese fleet came to Masawa in
+1520 with an embassy which remained in the country
+of Abyssinia for six years. In this embassy were
+the priests Bermudez and Francisco Alvarez. Alvarez<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span>
+afterwards (about 1550) wrote an interesting account
+of Abyssinia, describing more especially the province
+of Tigre, and alluding to the Atbara (there known
+as the Takaze) as the main Nile.</p>
+
+<p>Bermudez became for a time the primate or patriarch
+of Abyssinia. The Jesuit missionaries, for the
+most part Portuguese, strove hard to replace the corrupt
+Greek Christianity of the country by the Latin
+rite. This action not unnaturally set up against them
+a strong body of opponents in the native Abyssinian
+priesthood. For a time, however, the civilisation they
+introduced, and their trading connection with India,
+made a great impression on the king and chieftains
+of Ethiopia, until, as will be seen later on, the country
+became suspicious of Portuguese intentions, observing
+the facility with which parts of East Africa, India,
+and the shores of the Persian Gulf had been conquered
+and occupied by the Portuguese. But before
+this jealousy was to culminate in the expulsion of the
+Portuguese from Abyssinia one hundred years later,
+the Christian rulers of that country were forced to
+appeal to Portugal for help and armed intervention.
+As already mentioned in Chapter V., an attack on
+Abyssinia had been made by a Muhammadan chieftain
+of the Danakil country,—Muhammad Granye,
+or Muhammad the Lame. This man was probably
+of Somali race, and ruled the country round about
+Tajurra Bay,—the French Somaliland of to-day. In
+alliance with the Arabs and Turks, he not only created
+the Somali kingdom of Adel, but ravaged the greater<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span>
+part of Abyssinia. His policy was distinctly anti-Christian,
+and it is conceivable that he might have
+extinguished for ever the Christian Semite rule over
+Abyssinia but for the intervention of the Portuguese.
+The Emperor David, about 1530, managed to send
+emissaries (probably Jesuit priests) to Lisbon to implore
+the assistance of the King of Portugal. The
+result was that Dom Estevaõ da Gama (son of the
+celebrated Vasco<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a>) as Portuguese Admiral entered
+the Red Sea with the Portuguese fleet, and landed
+at Masawa four hundred Portuguese under the command
+of his brother Christophoro da Gama. The
+Portuguese brought with them firearms, with which
+apparently the Muhammadan invaders of Abyssinia
+were at first unprovided. They threw into the
+struggle with the Somalis and Arabs all the crusading
+ardour with which their ancestors had driven
+the Moors out of Portugal. Christophoro da Gama
+was a heroic figure, a very paladin. He excited the
+admiration of his Somali opponent, who at one stage
+of the struggle offered him a safe conduct to the coast
+and the means of departing from Abyssinia worth all
+the honours of war. Nevertheless, the four hundred
+Portuguese inflicted reverse after reverse on the thousands
+that followed the banner of Muhammad Granye,
+who at that time was practically master even of the
+mountainous regions of Abyssinia. Some of the
+Portuguese went to the assistance of the fugitive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span>
+Emperor of Abyssinia. Those that remained under
+Christophoro da Gama, despite the constant defeats
+they inflicted on superior numbers, gradually found
+themselves isolated and vastly outnumbered. The
+Turks had taken alarm at Portuguese successes, and
+had sent to Muhammad Granye’s assistance a train
+of artillery, while two thousand Arabs with muskets
+crossed over from Mokha and joined the Somalis.
+Thus reinforced, Muhammad Granye attacked the
+Portuguese entrenched camp, which he ultimately
+carried, when the unfortunate Christophoro da Gama
+had one arm broken and his knee shattered. A few
+of the Portuguese escaped and joined the Abyssinians,
+but most of them were slaughtered by Muhammad
+Granye. Christophoro da Gama, however,
+though wounded, managed with ten of his men to
+escape on horseback to a forest. Here he was captured
+by Muhammad Granye, who, after inflicting
+much torture on him, offered, in admiration of his
+bravery, to set him at liberty and assist him to return
+to India, if only he would abjure Christianity.
+The blazing indignation with which he answered this
+proposal so enraged Muhammad Granye that he struck
+off his head with a sword. The body of Dom Christophoro
+was then cut into quarters and his remains
+buried in separate places. Ultimately, however, the
+bones are supposed to have been gathered together
+by Roman Catholic Abyssinians, and some seventy
+years later the skull of the martyr was thought to
+have been found by Jeronimo Lobo.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span></p>
+
+<p>Amongst the Portuguese who escaped slaughter at
+the hands of Muhammad Granye was Pedro Leon,
+who had been body-servant to Christophoro da Gama.
+Assisted by the advice of this little band of Portuguese
+heroes, the Emperor of Abyssinia at last made
+a successful stand against the Muhammadan invader.
+In the furious battle which ensued, the Portuguese
+directed all their energies against that part of the
+Somali army where Muhammad Granye was commanding.
+Pedro Leon, filled with a holy rage, singled
+out the Somali king from amongst his men, and shot
+him through the head with a musket. Muhammad
+Granye did not die at once, but managed to escape
+for some distance from the battlefield, being always,
+however, resolutely followed on horseback by Pedro
+Leon. At last Muhammad fell down dead, and Leon,
+having satisfied himself of the fact, cut off one of his
+ears to prove to the Emperor of Abyssinia that it was
+he who had avenged Dom Christophoro. After the
+death of their leader the Muhammadan forces melted
+away, and Christian Abyssinia slowly recovered from
+the greatest crisis in its fortunes prior to the Italian
+invasion of 1896.</p>
+
+<p>In 1615<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> a notable advance in Nile exploration was
+made. Father Pedro Paez was shown by the Abyssinians
+the sources of the Blue Nile on the Sagada or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span>
+Sakala Mountain in the western part of the province
+of Gojam. Paez mentions that the river, before it
+enters Lake Tsana, is styled the Jemma, a term which
+scarcely differs from its name at the present day. He
+also alludes to, though he does not describe very carefully,
+Lake Tsana.</p>
+
+<p>In 1622 Father Jeronimo Lobo left Lisbon and proceeded
+to Goa, whence, after staying for more than
+a year, he started for Abyssinia. News had reached
+the Portuguese at Goa, from such of the missionaries
+as remained in Abyssinia, that the Emperor of that
+country had decided to join the Roman Church. A
+pressing demand was made for more Portuguese missionaries
+to strengthen this conversion, and the missionaries
+were advised to enter Ethiopia by way of
+the river Nile, through Dongola and Sennar. Unfortunately
+the secretary to the missionaries in Abyssinia
+mixed up the word Dancala (Dongola) with the
+country of the Danakil (on the Red Sea),<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> and advised
+the Jesuits at Goa to land at Zeila (Somaliland),
+and make their way through the Danakil country to
+Abyssinia. It was attempted to carry out this unfortunate
+advice. The eight missionaries who started
+from Goa were to divide into two companies, one
+to go to Zeila, and the other to land at Melinda
+(Malindi) on the Zanzibar coast, and thence make
+their way overland to Abyssinia,—rather a “large
+order” at that date (to use modern slang). Those
+that went by sea to Zeila were seized by the Turks,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span>
+though finally released at the intercession of the Emperor
+of Abyssinia, who bribed the Turkish Pasha
+with the present of a zebra.<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> The other four missionaries,
+among whom Lobo was one, were again
+divided into two lots. Two of the fathers that were
+to attempt entering southern Abyssinia from Somaliland
+were duly landed at Zeila. A Muhammadan chieftain
+who was styled king of the country (probably in
+the neighbourhood of Tajurra Bay) seized these unfortunate
+missionaries and threw them into prison.
+In spite of the entreaties of the Emperor of Abyssinia,
+this Muhammadan chieftain (some relation of
+the Muhammad Granye who had been killed by the
+Portuguese when he invaded Abyssinia seventy years
+previously) finally had the Jesuits beheaded.</p>
+
+<p>Father Lobo and a companion were conveyed by a
+Portuguese ship to the island of Lamu on the Zanzibar
+coast. Thence with great difficulty they made their
+way in a boat along the coast to the mouth of the
+Juba River, where they came into contact with the
+“Galles,”<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> probably the existing Ogadein Somalis.
+These boisterous people soon made it apparent to the
+missionaries that any journey overland from Kismayu<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span>
+to Zeila and Abyssinia was an impossibility; so, after
+many hardships, they eventually made their way back
+to Mombasa and India.</p>
+
+<p>In 1625<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> Lobo and his companion once more
+started for Abyssinia, and this time sailed past Sokotra
+Island and Cape Guardafui, and finally landed
+at Baylur (Bailul), a port opposite Mokha, on the
+coast of the little known Danakil country. Here they
+received a very friendly reception, owing to the precautions
+taken by the Emperor of Abyssinia; and the
+two Portuguese missionaries actually made their way
+through the country of the fierce Danakil and across
+the salt deserts and blazing steppes of that inhospitable
+region, which along the same route has probably
+never since been traversed by Europeans. “Our
+clothes tattered, and our feet bloody,” they climbed the
+Abyssinian mountains, rejoicing at the cool temperature,
+running water, and singing birds, and at length
+reached the Jesuit settlement of Fremona.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> After undergoing
+many risks and dangers owing to the hostility
+with which the Abyssinians of Tigre regarded
+the Latin Christianity introduced by the Jesuits, Lobo
+started for the kingdom of Damot, which is in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span>
+southern part of Abyssinia proper, between the Blue
+Nile and Lake Tsana. Prior to his crossing the Blue
+Nile, he had paid a ceremonial visit to the Emperor
+of Abyssinia. He mentions that the Blue Nile (which
+he not unnaturally considers to be the main stream)
+is called by the Abyssinians Abavi. This may be an
+older form than Abai, and is perhaps a little nearer to
+the Hellenised Astapus. The Blue Nile, he found, as
+his predecessor Paez had declared, takes its rise on the
+declivity of a mountain called Sakala (Sagada), some
+distance to the south-southwest of Lake Tsana. The
+source of the Blue Nile he describes as follows: “This
+spring, or rather these two springs, are two holes,
+each about two feet in diameter, a short distance from
+each other. One is about five feet and a half in
+depth.... The other, which is somewhat less, has
+no bottom. We were assured by the inhabitants that
+none had ever been found. It is believed here that
+these springs are the vents of a great subterranean
+lake, and they have this circumstance to favour their
+opinion: that the ground is always moist, and so soft
+that the water boils up under foot as one walks upon
+it. This is more remarkable after rain, for then the
+ground yields and sinks so much that I believe it is
+chiefly supported by roots of trees that are interwoven
+one with another.” Father Lobo declares that the infant
+Blue Nile (which bears the name of Jimma) only
+enters Lake Tsana<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> on the southwest to leave that lake<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span>
+not far from its entry, turning abruptly to the east and
+south. It crosses Lake Tsana only at one end, “with
+so violent a rapidity that the waters of the Nile may
+be distinguished through all the passage, which is six
+leagues.” Fifteen miles from the point where the Nile
+leaves Lake Tsana it “forms one of the most beautiful
+waterfalls in the world,” under which Father Lobo
+rested himself “for the sake of the coolness.” He was
+charmed “with the thousand delightful rainbows which
+the sunbeams painted on the water in all their shining
+and lovely colours. The fall of this mighty stream
+from so great a height makes a noise which may be
+heard from a considerable distance, and the mist rising
+from this fall of water may be seen much further than
+the noise can be heard.” Father Lobo notes that at
+the cataracts which succeeded this splendid fall there
+was a bridge of timber (logs) over which the whole
+Abyssinian army had recently passed, but he goes on
+to state that the Emperor had since built a bridge of
+one arch in the same place, for which purpose masons
+were imported from India. This stone bridge was the
+first erected in Abyssinia.</p>
+
+<p>Father Lobo makes a truthful observation regarding
+the source of the Nile floods, believing them to
+arise rather from the excessive rainfall on the high
+mountains of Abyssinia than from the melting of the
+snows in the summer. He declares, in fact, that he
+only saw snow on the Samien and Namera mountains,
+and in small quantity.</p>
+
+<p>As to the country of Damot, to the south of Lake<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span>
+Tsana, in which he was sent to reside for a time, he
+expatiates enthusiastically on its beauty, fertility, and
+perfect climate. He also describes here—first of all
+Europeans—the wild banana, or Ensete, the name of
+which he declares means “the tree for hunger,”
+though it is difficult to understand, from our subsequent
+knowledge of the wild banana and from Father
+Lobo’s description, how it can be used as an article of
+food, as its fruit is almost inedible, while the leaves
+and watery trunk are quite unfit for food.</p>
+
+<p>But Lobo’s residence in Damot was not lengthy, as,
+owing to the jealous suspicions of the Abyssinians, he
+was sent back to reside with the rest of the Jesuits
+in Tigre. Their settlement of Fremona, where some
+hundred Portuguese priests and seminarists were established,
+was attacked by the Abyssinians. The Portuguese
+defended themselves bravely, and for a time
+there was a truce. The friendly Emperor of Abyssinia
+had died, and the subsidiary chiefs all believed
+that Portugal intended to invade and annex Abyssinia.
+The prowess of the four hundred Portuguese who in
+the preceding century had, as the allies of the Abyssinians,
+completely routed the Muhammadan invaders,
+made them feel that a few thousand Portuguese warriors
+would soon add Abyssinia to the Portuguese Empire.
+At this juncture the Portuguese sent a strong
+expedition to chastise the Sultan of Tajurra who had
+killed the missionaries.</p>
+
+<p>After attempting to flee from Abyssinia and make
+their way to the coast of the Red Sea, the whole of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span>
+Portuguese colony of Fremona was handed over to
+the Turks at Masawa, and by them sent to Suakin.
+They underwent cruel sufferings at the hands of the
+Turks, but some of the missionaries, including Father
+Lobo, were allowed to ransom themselves, and return
+in a ship to India. Here Lobo endeavoured to induce
+the Viceroy of Portuguese India to send an expedition
+against the Turks of Suakin in order to release the
+priests that were left in their hands; but the viceroy
+declined to take this step without the consent of the
+Portuguese Government. Accordingly Father Lobo
+started for Lisbon, was shipwrecked on the coast of
+Natal, fell into the hands of the Dutch, but in spite of
+his extraordinary hardships, and difficulties wellnigh
+insurmountable, actually returned to Portugal; whence
+he went to plead at Rome the cause of Latin Christianity
+in Abyssinia. The missionaries left in the
+hands of the Turks at Suakin were eventually ransomed,
+and returned to India. The few Portuguese
+missionaries who for one cause or another were left
+in Abyssinia were all killed by the Abyssinians.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_58" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0582.jpg" width="1600" height="2112" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_0582_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Dapper’s Map (Amsterdam, 1686).</span></p>
+  <p>Giving the falsified results of Portuguese explorations in East Africa.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Portuguese contact with Abyssinia, the Portuguese
+conquest of Zanzibar and long occupation of Mombassa
+very naturally led to this people acquiring in
+their intercourse with Arabs and Abyssinians some
+idea of the geography of inner Africa,—ideas which
+were added to by the information collected on the
+West Coast. Nevertheless, strange to say, they were
+less correct in their surmises than Claudius Ptolemæus.
+The maps of the Nile and the geography of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span>
+inner Africa which they formed on the reports of
+their explorers and missionaries were altogether misleading.
+Their delineation of the whole interior of
+the western half of Africa bears absolutely no correspondence
+to actuality in geographical features; moreover,
+they were so ignorant of the simplest principles
+of hydrography as to make one lake give rise to several
+great rivers.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> The only element of truth in all their
+guesses at the inner waterways of Africa lay in their
+delineation of Abyssinia. They put down with some
+likeness to actuality the Blue Nile, and they named
+correctly the principal countries that lie to the south
+of Abyssinia proper. But this contribution was vitiated
+by the exaggerations regarding distances,—exaggerations
+perpetrated chiefly by map-makers,—so
+that the Blue Nile and its tributaries, and such provinces
+as Gojam, Kaffa, Shoa, etc., instead of lying
+a considerable distance north of the equator, were
+dragged far to the south of the line, and these features
+were even made to encroach on the basin of the
+Congo. A good idea of the extent of Portuguese
+knowledge and fable concerning the geography of
+inner Africa may be obtained from a glance at the
+celebrated Vatican map of Africa which, from information
+derived from the Portuguese and from the
+Abyssinian converts, was painted on one of the
+panels of a gallery at the Vatican in the seventeenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span></p>
+
+<p>Several Portuguese adventurers were despatched in
+the sixteenth century across Africa from west to east
+to strike the Nile, but they were never heard of any
+more. Credit must be given to the Portuguese Jesuits
+for amassing much accurate knowledge regarding the
+scenery, people, and products of Abyssinia. There is
+a wonderfully interesting and very beautiful piece of
+tapestry in the Governor’s Palace at Valletta (Malta),
+which it is supposed was executed early in the eighteenth
+century from the information supplied by the
+Portuguese Jesuits. The characteristic fauna and
+flora, domestic animals, houses, and natives of Abyssinia
+are portrayed in this tapestry with great fidelity
+to nature. Later in the eighteenth century Portugal
+began to take up with some earnestness the scientific
+exploration of such African territories as remained to
+her after the revolt and the attacks of the East Coast
+Arabs, but these journeys and their results do not
+come within the scope of the present volume. Portuguese
+influence over Abyssinia had disappeared by the
+end of the seventeenth century, and almost all that
+remains of it is the name which the civilised world
+applies to this country. In the southeastern part of
+this powerful African state is the river Hawash, or
+Habash, which attempts to reach the Red Sea but
+finally expires in the barren sands of the Danakil
+country. The name of this river had been applied
+by the Arabs to the Semiticised people living north
+and west of its course. “Habash, Habshi”<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span>
+transmuted through the Portuguese speech to Abessi,
+Abessim, Abessinia. This in time was further misspelt
+in French and English as Abyssinie, Abyssinia.</p>
+
+<p>The Turks had always viewed with a great deal of
+jealousy and anger the attempts of Portugal to establish
+herself as mistress of the navigation of the Red
+Sea, Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, and Arabian Sea.
+Consequently the Turks occupied and held Masawa,
+and drove away Europeans in the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries from easy contact with Abyssinia,
+which between 1633 and 1769 was only visited by
+one European, a French doctor named Poncet (1698).</p>
+
+<p>Several Abyssinian converts of the Portuguese missionaries
+who had become devotedly attached to the
+Roman Catholic form of the Christian faith had proceeded
+to Italy for further instructions. Indeed, all
+through the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth
+centuries Abyssinians constantly journeyed to
+Italy. They were able to traverse the Muhammadan
+countries of Nubia and Egypt very easily, either disguised
+as Copts or affecting to be Muhammadans.
+From the ports of Egypt they easily made their way
+to Venice or to Naples as traders. Four of these
+Christian Abyssinians, one of them known as Gregory,
+were established at Rome in the middle of the seventeenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>At Erfurt in Saxony was born, in 1624, the celebrated
+Ludolf, whose real name was Hiob Leutholf.
+Ludolf at an early age exhibited a remarkable talent
+for acquiring languages, and he had a special bent for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span>
+the Semitic tongues. Having been entrusted with a
+secret mission to Rome by the Swedish Ambassador
+at Paris, Leutholf, or Ludolf, encountered in Rome
+these four Abyssinians. He spent three years in enthusiastically
+studying Amharic, and also the older
+liturgical tongue of Ethiopia, the Gez or Ge’ez. By
+the help of these Abyssinians he compiled a grammar
+of the Amharic, and dictionaries of that tongue and
+of the Ge’ez. He also wrote a history of Ethiopia;
+but, above all (as far as this book is concerned), he
+did important work in elucidating the geography of
+the northeastern portion of the Nile basin, and the
+information he received from Gregory and the other
+Abyssinians he carefully collated with the works of
+the Portuguese Jesuits. Although Ludolf never visited
+even Egypt, he did a great deal to assist the
+map-makers of his time to delineate the course of the
+Blue Nile and of the Atbara with its various affluents.
+Ludolf passed a good many years of his life in the
+diplomatic service of the Duke of Saxe-Gotha. Curiously
+enough, he not only visited England repeatedly,
+but became an Anglophil, and desired to establish
+trading connections between England and Abyssinia.
+The troubles consequent on James II.’s reign, and
+the jealous opposition of the Coptic Church in Egypt
+baulked his scheme, which was much taken up in high
+quarters in England, and which might, if it had been
+carried out, have strangely anticipated events in northeast
+Africa by establishing British influence in Egypt
+and Abyssinia at the end of the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span></p>
+
+<p>Attracted towards the mystery of the Nile and of
+the so-called Christian civilisation of Abyssinia, that
+Duke of Saxe-Gotha who had taken Ludolf into
+his diplomatic service caused another Saxon, named
+Michael Wansleb (born at Erfurt), to learn Amharic
+first of all from Ludolf, and then to go to Abyssinia.
+Here he was expected to explore, and also to collect
+liturgies and other books likely to throw light on the
+Abyssinian version of Christianity, which the Duke
+believed would be found to be in harmony with
+Lutheranism. Wansleb never succeeded in getting
+to Abyssinia, but journeyed for some distance up the
+Nile and wrote on the subject of Egypt, publishing
+also in London, between 1661 and 1671, a number
+of Abyssinian liturgies and dissertations on the Amharic
+language.</p>
+
+<p>In 1668 the then recently founded Royal Society in
+England took up the question of the Portuguese explorations
+of the Nile sources, and ordered that the
+translation of a Portuguese manuscript by Sir Peter
+Wyche should be printed and published. This little
+work is described as “A Short Relation of the River
+Nile, etc.: Writings by an Eye-witness who lived
+many years in the Abyssine Empire.” Sir Peter
+Wyche probably did little else than translate and
+collate what seemed to him the most interesting extracts
+from the works of Paez and Lobo. These
+works were seemingly written first of all in Portuguese,
+but were never printed in that language. Paez’
+manuscript was translated into Latin and published<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span>
+at Rome in 1652 by the Jesuit Athanasius Kircher.
+The Portuguese manuscript of Jeronimo Lobo was
+translated at length into English, and published in
+London by the Jesuit father F. Balthazar Tellez.
+Seemingly, however, this book was issued either in
+a Portuguese or a Latin version at Lisbon in 1670.
+It was translated into French from the original Portuguese
+manuscript by M. Le Grand in the early part
+of the eighteenth century, and this translation, with
+some additional matter, was rendered into English
+and published in London in 1735.</p>
+
+<p>The Royal Society’s paraphrase of which Sir Peter
+Wyche was author contains no new matter, but its date
+is worthy of remark,—1668. It would seem as though
+Sir Peter Wyche had had access to Lobo’s manuscript,
+or to the joint works of Lobo and Paez, before
+the actual publication of Lobo’s book in 1670. It is
+further remarkable as showing the intelligent interest
+taken in these geographical questions at that day by
+the cultivated classes in England.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII"><span id="toclink_65"></span>CHAPTER VII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">FRENCH INQUIRIES AND D’ANVILLE’S MAPS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Towards</span> the close of the seventeenth century
+Louis XIV. of France had begun to make the
+influence of his country widely felt in the Mediterranean,
+though before his time Richelieu had cast an
+eye over the Levant with the idea of supporting
+French commerce. Louis XIV. even entered into an
+alliance with Turkey, in which he cut rather a foolish
+figure, but which at any rate enabled him to send
+Frenchmen to report on the trade of Egypt. It is
+stated that the result of these inquiries was a scheme
+for the conquering and colonising of Egypt which
+was laid before that monarch and remained in the
+archives of the French government until it caught
+the attention of Napoleon Bonaparte when he rose
+to power. Louis XIV. either did not notice the project
+or put it aside; but nevertheless, during half of
+the seventeenth and the whole of the eighteenth century
+Frenchmen were beginning to interest themselves
+in the exploration of Egypt, Abyssinia, and the Nile.
+When the Portuguese missionaries were irrevocably
+expelled from Abyssinia, or were slaughtered in that
+country by Abyssinians, or died under the hands of
+the Turks of Masawa or Suakin, it was suggested to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span>
+the Pope that perhaps French missionaries might prove
+more acceptable to Ethiopia. Not a few Roman Catholic
+Abyssinians found their way to Rome during the
+seventeenth century, where, as we know, they imparted
+very valuable information to the learned Saxon philologist
+Ludolf. These Ethiopians seem to have conveyed
+the idea to the Papal Court that it was not so
+much Roman Christianity that was objected to as the
+political ambitions of the Portuguese. But later on
+in the seventeenth century <em>any</em> missionaries teaching
+the Latin rite had become unacceptable to the Abyssinians,
+and the project of sending French Capuchins
+to take the place of the Portuguese Jesuits came to
+nothing. But the Emperor of Abyssinia had one
+reason for regretting the expulsion of the Jesuits,—an
+expulsion to which he personally was less favourable
+than were his powerful vassal chiefs of Tigre and
+Amhara,—he had relied on the Portuguese Jesuits
+for medical treatment.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the seventeenth century an agent of
+the then ruler of Abyssinia was suffering from stone,
+and stood in urgent need of a good surgeon. His
+agent in Egypt (Haji Ali) was instructed to inquire
+for the services of a European who could operate, and
+at first endeavoured to find one amongst the Franciscan
+missionaries, who were Italians. But the Consul
+of France at Alexandria, hearing of this, resolved to
+obtain the post for a French physician, and eventually
+Jacques Charles Poncet, a surgeon from the Franche
+Comté, was engaged, and it was decided that he should<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span>
+journey to Abyssinia accompanied by Father Brèvedent,
+a French Jesuit. They reached the country of
+Sennar in 1699. Soon afterwards Father Brèvedent
+died, but Poncet succeeded in reaching Abyssinia, and
+afforded medical assistance to the Emperor. But his
+arrival in the country, together with the rumour that
+he was being followed by French Jesuit priests (who
+as a matter of fact were massacred in Egypt), so
+aroused the animosities of the Abyssinian clerics that
+he was hurried out of the country, and returned to
+Europe (Rome) in 1700. Notwithstanding his experiences,
+he mixed himself up with the intrigues of an
+Abyssinian agent and a priest at Rome for the despatch
+of French missionaries to Abyssinia. The Pope was
+prudent in the matter, and determined to find out
+the truth by a Maronite priest, Gabriel, whom he
+despatched from Cairo. Poncet, however, returned
+to Egypt in 1703, was joined by a Jesuit, and set
+out for Jidda in Arabia, but the mission came to
+grief. He quarrelled with the Abyssinian envoy,
+Murat, whose pretensions to represent the Abyssinian
+government were probably mythical, but who had
+accompanied Poncet to Italy. Poncet never succeeded
+in returning to Abyssinia, but instead drifted away to
+Persia and died at Ispahan.</p>
+
+<p>Louis XIV. now took the matter up, urged to interference
+in the affairs of Abyssinia by the French
+Consul at Alexandria. He decided to despatch a mission
+to Ethiopia to open up diplomatic relations with
+the Christian Emperor. Janus de Noir, le Sieur du<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span>
+Roule, was appointed envoy and placed at the head
+of this mission. The consent of the Turkish government
+was given to the passage through Egypt. The
+expedition left France at the end of 1703, and after
+a stormy voyage of four months (!) landed at Alexandria.
+Thence it pursued its way to Cairo, and so
+on up the Nile and the Blue Nile to the country of
+Sennar, a region at that time to a great extent under
+Abyssinian political influence. Here the cupidity and
+suspicion of the local chieftain were aroused. The
+mission was attacked, and M. du Roule was massacred.
+The Emperor of Abyssinia expressed perfunctory
+regrets, and then, to use a modern phrase,
+“the incident was closed,” Abyssinia being in such
+an unattackable position as to make any French reprisals
+impossible.</p>
+
+<p>Here perhaps may be mentioned a curious attempt
+at Nile exploration which in an indirect way was
+connected with French enterprise at this period. The
+failure of M. du Roule to reach Abyssinia made a
+great impression on the mind of a Frenchman named
+Joseph le Roux, Count of Desneval. This nobleman
+had been in the Danish navy for many years, leaving
+that service in 1739 with the rank of Rear Admiral.
+All this time he had been giving his attention with
+laborious stupidity to the Nile problem, and was convinced
+that he “had found the proper key to enter
+these regions,” by studying in Denmark the reports
+of unsuccessful travellers. Accordingly, in 1739, he
+started with his wife for Cairo, accompanied by Lieutenant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span>
+Norden, a Dane. None of the party knew a
+word of Arabic. The expedition first got into trouble
+at Cairo through the haughty manners of the Countess,
+who, becoming involved in a street row, slashed
+at the people right and left with a pair of scissors.
+Count Desneval penetrated some distance into Nubia,
+and his lieutenant, Norden, went as far (possibly) as
+Berber, which he mentions under its older name of
+Ibrim. But the Count was obliged to turn back, and
+Norden was imprisoned by the Turkish Governor, and
+barely escaped to Egypt with his life. The Count then
+resolved on an extraordinary expedition. He decided
+to obtain a commission from Spain and start with a
+fleet of ships to circumnavigate Africa, enter the Red
+Sea, and so proceed to Abyssinia. But becoming involved
+in the war which was then raging between
+Spain and England, his ship was captured by the
+British, and he was sent as a prisoner of war to
+Lisbon, where his projects of Nile exploration came
+to an end.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch in the seventeenth century, and some of
+the Rhenish geographers of western Germany, had
+published remarkable maps of Africa, but with the
+exception of the west and south, these maps, in so
+far as the Nile basin was concerned, were based on
+the information presented to the world by the Portuguese
+Jesuits Alvarez, Paez, and Lobo, and on the
+interesting information concerning the geography of
+Abyssinia collected by the Saxon philologist Ludolf
+when communing in Italy with the Abyssinian envoys.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span>
+These maps, as already related, did injustice to the
+Portuguese by enormously exaggerating the area of
+Abyssinia. In fact, Abyssinian geography was extended
+by these Dutch interpreters of Portuguese
+travel notes far into the south and west of Africa,
+so that Abyssinian place names such as Gojam,
+Kaffa, Enarea, and the lakes and rivers of Abyssinia
+were pushed down to the vicinity of the Zambezi, and
+right across the Congo basin. These maps, however,
+continued to maintain European interest in African exploration,
+while the French consuls in Egypt and early
+British travellers in that country began to transmit information
+(derived for the most part from Copts and
+Circassians) regarding the main course of the Nile.</p>
+
+<p>In 1772 a French cartographer of a much higher
+order than had hitherto appeared—D’Anville—published
+a notable map of Africa, in which he cleared
+away much of the fantastic geography which the
+Dutch and Germans had developed from the explorations
+of the Portuguese. D’Anville’s map of Africa
+marks an important stage in the exploration of the
+Nile basin, as it approaches the maps of to-day much
+more than any previous chart. The outline of the
+African coast is given more correctly than heretofore,
+while D’Anville brushes away the exaggerations of
+Dutch and Portuguese cartographers, who had gradually
+extended the geography of Abyssinia till they
+had connected with the Nile all the main rivers of
+Africa in an absurd system of natural canalisation.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_70" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0702.jpg" width="1693" height="2301" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_0702_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">D’Anville’s Map of the Nile Basin.</span></p>
+  <p>(Published 1729; Revised 1772.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d’Anville was born at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span>
+Paris in 1697. From his boyhood he devoted himself
+to the study of geography, and met with considerable
+encouragement from the learned societies of
+Paris and from the Court. D’Anville’s geography of
+Abyssinia was mainly based on the information collected
+by the Portuguese missionaries and by Ludolf.
+The result is so strikingly like the map subsequently
+constructed by Bruce as the result of his explorations,
+that it shows how very much information had already
+been collected by the Portuguese. The last edition of
+this map bears the date 1772, a date which is one
+year before Bruce could make the result of his explorations
+known. Were these dates not certain, it
+would almost have seemed as if D’Anville had obtained
+access to Bruce’s information and used it in
+his geography of Abyssinia. A great mistake in
+D’Anville’s map, however, is made in the delineation
+of the course of the Nile in its great Dongola
+bend. Here the Nile is made to approach the Red
+Sea at least a hundred miles nearer than is the case.
+There is a fairly correct suggestion of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+(which is named) and the Bahr-al-Arab. The
+White Nile above the confluence of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+is indicated more timidly. Its course passes through
+a somewhat vague lake, which may be due to a rumour
+of Lake Albert. Beyond this lake the sources of the
+White Nile are divided, and made to flow from two
+lakelets ten degrees north of the equator. To the
+south of these ultimate sources is the range of the
+Mountains of the Moon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span></p>
+
+<p>On D’Anville’s map may be seen for the first time
+several modern place and river names connected with
+the Nile, such as Shendi (spelled Shanedi) and Bahr-al-Ghazal.
+Such other terms as Sennar, the Boran
+Gala tribe, and the Shankala Negroes are also given;
+but these were first mentioned by the Portuguese and
+by the Abyssinian teachers of Ludolf one hundred
+years earlier. There is also a hint at the Unyamwezi
+country south of the Victoria Nyanza under the name
+of Moenemuji, though this also was first mentioned
+by the Portuguese.</p>
+
+<p>D’Anville, who followed to some extent the Sicilian
+maps of the eleventh century in his delineation of the
+Nile and inner Africa, made the opposite mistake to
+Ptolemy and the Portuguese. They carried the main
+Nile and the geography of Abyssinia many degrees
+too far to the south. D’Anville placed the sources
+of the Nile and the Bahr-al-Ghazal something like
+ten degrees too far to the north. At the same time
+his map marked a considerable advance in the correct
+delineation of Nile geography as well as in that of
+the Niger and the Zambezi.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII"><span id="toclink_73"></span>CHAPTER VIII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">BRUCE AND THE NILE: SONNINI, BROWNE, AND BONAPARTE</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap al"><span class="smcap1">At</span> the beginning of the eighteenth century there
+was a decline in Muhammadan fanaticism which
+in the preceding centuries had so zealously guarded the
+portals of African discovery. This was partly due to
+the increase of friendliness and commercial relations
+between England and France on the one hand and the
+Turkish Empire on the other. Consuls were established
+to safeguard the interests of British merchants
+in the tributary Turkish states of Barbary and in
+Egypt. Another stimulus to friendly relations was
+the coffee trade. Coffee had been introduced from
+Turkey into Europe in the seventeenth century. By
+the beginning of the eighteenth the demand for it in
+the civilised countries of northern and central Europe
+became so great that British and French ships began
+to ply on the Red Sea and in the Levant merely for
+the transport of coffee from the ports of southern
+Arabia to Suez, and thence (<i lang="la">via</i> Alexandria) to
+France and England. It became possible for Frenchmen
+and Englishmen to travel in Turkish Egypt without
+undue risk of maltreatment, especially if they
+obtained permission to do so through their consuls.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span></p>
+
+<p>Almost the first English traveller to start on the
+Nile quest in the eighteenth century was Richard
+Pococke, a learned divine (Doctor of Laws and Fellow
+of the Royal Society), who afterwards became
+Bishop of Meath. Pococke was remarkable for his
+knowledge of Greek. He travelled a great deal in the
+Levant between 1737 and 1740, and made at least two
+journeys to Egypt, during which he followed the Nile
+up to the First Cataract. At that period the description
+of the journey from England to Egypt has a
+rather modern sound. The traveller proceeds without
+much difficulty overland from Calais to Leghorn,
+and from this Tuscan port sails round Sicily to Alexandria,
+sometimes to Rosetta.</p>
+
+<p>The book in which Pococke describes his adventures
+and researches<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> is also in advance of its times,
+and in printing and illustrations might well have been
+credited to the beginning of the nineteenth century.
+Pococke devoted himself mainly to making plans and
+drawings of Egyptian monuments, Coptic churches,
+and Muhammadan mosques. He collected a great
+many Greek inscriptions (amongst others, the interesting
+Greek and Latin sentences scratched on the
+legs of Memnon), and besides many plans and drawings
+of buildings which illustrate his book, are some
+excellent pictures of plants characteristic of Egypt.
+Especially noteworthy are the botanical drawings of
+the branching Hyphæne palm. These etchings would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span>
+not be out of place in the most modern work on
+Africa. Pococke ascended the Nile to the First Cataract,
+then the limit of Turkish rule.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_75" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0741.jpg" width="1681" height="1319" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">The Branching</span> <i class="taxonomy">Hyphæne</i> <span class="smcap">Palm</span> (<i class="taxonomy">Hyphæne thebaica</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Taken from interior of Nasr Fort (R. Sobat).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>One amusing feature in Pococke’s sumptuous volumes
+is the number of dedications to British statesmen
+and notabilities of that date. The book in general is
+dedicated to the Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery,
+“Groom of the Stole to His Majesty George II.” His
+careful map of the Nile from the First Cataract to the
+Mediterranean is dedicated to Lord Carteret, “First
+Secretary to the King.” The map of Cairo and its
+environs (a very interesting one with reference to the
+modern growth of the city) is inscribed to the Earl of
+Stafford. These dedications, however, seem to foreshadow
+a growing interest on the part of English
+noblemen in the problem of the Nile,—an interest
+which, as will now be shown, played such a part in
+the expedition of Bruce.</p>
+
+<p>James Bruce was the first of the great group of
+notable British explorers who between them in a century
+and a half have laid bare to the world nearly
+every notable feature in the geography of the Nile
+basin. This remarkable Scotchman was born at Kinnaird
+House, Stirlingshire, in 1730. He was the son
+of a land-owner, and was educated at Harrow. Soon
+after leaving school he was put (against his will) into
+the wine trade with Spain and northern Portugal. In
+this pursuit he visited Galicia and the northwest coast
+of the Spanish peninsula. His trade, never very successful,
+was interrupted by the war with Spain, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span>
+broke out in 1758. Bruce conceived a plan for landing
+a British force at Ferrol, in Galicia, and to prosecute
+this idea he obtained an introduction to the Earl
+of Halifax, then president of the Board of Trade.
+George Montagu Dunk, second Earl of Halifax, was
+a widely read man,<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> who took an interest in many
+subjects, amongst others the mystery of the Nile. He
+is a curious link in that chain of persons who have
+contributed efforts toward the revelation to the civilised
+world of the whole course of this wonderful river.
+Lord Halifax brushed aside the scheme for landing a
+force at Ferrol as unnecessary and impracticable. But
+he began to consult Bruce about the Nile Quest, as
+a man who had travelled considerably about Europe
+even at that period—his travels having been undertaken
+to assuage the grief caused by the loss of his
+wife. Bruce took up the matter with energy. Lord
+Halifax, therefore, secured for him the appointment of
+consul at Algiers, with the idea that this place and post
+would enable Bruce to prepare for the exploration of the
+Nile by learning Arabic and acquiring information concerning
+the interior of Africa. Apparently the consulate
+at Algiers in those days was not harassed with
+any restrictions regarding residence; indeed, Bruce’s
+consular duties appear to have been merely nominal,
+for he was only a year at Algiers, and spent it in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span>
+study of Arabic and Turkish.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> In 1763 Bruce started
+on a remarkable tour through Tunis and Tripoli, in
+which he drew and measured (with the aid of a professional
+Italian draughtsman) the wonderful Roman
+ruins in those countries. He then extended his journeys
+to the islands of Rhodes and Cyprus, and explored
+Syria and Palestine. The greater part of the
+drawings which he made of buildings in all these
+Mediterranean lands are now stored in the British
+Museum.</p>
+
+<p>At last, in the summer of 1786, Bruce landed at
+Alexandria, accompanied by the Italian artist-assistant,
+Balugano. He ascended the Nile as far as Assuan.
+Then, crossing the desert to the Red Sea coast, he
+took ship and sailed to Jiddah, the port of the Hajaz.
+After four months spent on the coast of Arabia, where
+apparently he met with no fanaticism, he sailed over
+to Masawa, the port of Abyssinia, and from this point
+travelled to the then capital, Gondar in Tigre. The
+Emperor of Abyssinia received him with great favour,
+gave him military rank, and enabled him to reach the
+course of the Blue Nile, which Bruce always held to
+be the main stream. Striking the Blue Nile in the
+country of Gojam near its exit from Lake Tsana, Bruce
+crossed the stream by its masonry bridge and travelled
+due west of the source of the river in the western
+part of Gojam. Bruce fixed with approximate correctness
+the latitude of the source of the Blue Nile on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span>
+Sagada Mountain, and also the longitude, by observation
+of the first satellite of Jupiter. The latitude he
+fixed at 10° 55′ 25″, the longitude at 36° 55′ 30″ east
+of Greenwich. The present writer is not aware that
+any subsequent observations have much upset these
+computations of Bruce’s. The latitude of the Blue
+Nile source is, therefore, approximately 11° north.
+As the Jesuits guessed it at 12°, they were not so
+much out in a surmise which, after all, was based on
+nothing but vague dead reckoning, and one cannot
+sympathise with Bruce when he sneers at them for
+their error. Bruce, in fact, was very bitter against
+the memory of Paez and Lobo when he learned from
+D’Anville that these missionaries had preceded him
+as discoverers of the Blue Nile sources. He admits
+the genuineness of Paez’ reports, but endeavours to
+show that Lobo merely copied Paez’ description, and
+did not himself visit the sources of the Blue Nile. In
+this contention I think he is unjust. There is certainly
+a great deal of correspondence between the accounts
+of Paez and Lobo, but Lobo enters into more detail
+than Paez, and as, after all, he is describing the same
+features, it is hardly surprising that his description
+should so closely parallel that of the man who preceded
+him by some ten years. As there is no doubt
+that Lobo was in the country round about Lake Tsana
+in the year 1625 or 1626, it would be surprising if
+he had not attempted to see the sources of the famous
+river.</p>
+
+<p>Bruce brings out as strongly as the Jesuits the fact<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span>
+that the river Jimma, which rises on Sagada Mountain,
+flows with a strong observable current in a circular
+course through the southern part of Lake Tsana.
+Lake Tsana, indeed, would seem to be nothing but a
+huge volcanic crater which has been filled up by the
+Blue Nile. He calculates the approximate altitude of
+these sources at forty-eight hundred and seventy feet.
+Near the village of Sakala or Sagada is a marsh at
+the bottom of the Mountain of Gish. In this marsh
+there is a hillock of a circular form a few feet above
+the surface of the marsh, a more or less artificial altar
+raised by the people to the sources of their Nile. In
+the middle of this hillock is a hole, artificially made,
+or at least enlarged by the hand of man, and kept clear
+of grass or other aquatic plants. The water in it is
+perfectly pure and limpid, but has no ebullition or
+motion of any kind observable on its surface, though
+it overflows into a shallow trench running round the
+mound and entering the water in an eastward direction.
+The principal fountain of the Blue Nile is only
+about three feet across. Ten feet distant from this
+first source is another, only eleven inches broad. This
+would seem to be the deepest of the three sources, and
+the one which was pronounced unsoundable by Lobo.
+The water from these fountains is good, tasteless, and
+intensely cold.</p>
+
+<p>Following by land the course of the Blue Nile
+down stream till he reached the confluence with the
+White Nile at the site of Khartum, Bruce then turned
+northwards and descended the main Nile to Berber.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span>
+From this point he travelled across the Nubian desert
+to Korosko, which place he reached with the greatest
+difficulty, very many dying from thirst on the way.
+Having been obliged to abandon his caravan in the
+desert, he started back from Korosko with fresh
+camels and guides, and recovered his baggage from
+the desert. Bruce’s journeys in Abyssinia and along
+the course of the Nile had occupied him nearly three
+years, from the middle of 1770 to the beginning of
+1773. From Alexandria he made his way to Marseilles
+during a brief interval of peace between England
+and France. The cultivated Frenchmen of that
+day received him with the greatest kindness and
+<i lang="fr">empressement</i>, and he spent some time in Paris conferring
+with Buffon and other scientific men. But
+in Paris he learned to his great chagrin that he was
+not the original discoverer of the source of the (Blue)
+Nile. D’Anville, the great map-maker, was able to
+prove to him that Lake Tsana and the main course of
+the Bahr-al-Azrak had been made known to Europe
+by the journeys of the Jesuit priests Paez and Lobo.
+Moreover this geographer attempted to convince Bruce
+that the Blue Nile was not the main stream, and that
+the mystery of the Nile sources remained at least two-thirds
+unexplored. It is curious, in fact, to reflect
+that D’Anville, by his industrious gathering up of all
+floating information, especially from French consuls in
+Egypt, was far more correct in his delineation of the
+Nile basin than Bruce himself, though D’Anville had
+published his map a year before Bruce’s arrival in Paris.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_80" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 23em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0801_map.jpg" width="1415" height="1926" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_0801_map_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Bruce’s Map of the Nile Sources.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span></p>
+<p>On account of this chagrin, or for other reasons,
+Bruce delayed<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> the publication of his travels for seventeen
+years after his return to England. They were
+not published (in five volumes) until 1790. Strange
+to say, Bruce’s admirable work, though so truthful<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a>
+and convincing as one reads it now, was received with
+universal incredulity in Great Britain. Among the
+stories selected for special derision was the account
+constantly repeated by Bruce of the Abyssinian custom
+of bleeding cattle and drinking their blood, and,
+still more, of cutting raw flesh off the living animal,
+which is then turned out to graze (or at least that is
+the flippant rendering of the contemporary critic). As
+a matter of fact, these customs had been already reported
+by the Jesuits from one to two hundred years
+previously, nor is there any reason to suppose that
+Bruce departed from the exact truth in describing contemporary
+Abyssinian customs. A hundred years later
+East African travellers like New, Von der Decken,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span>
+Joseph Thomson, and the author of this book, noticed
+similar customs as regards blood-drinking on
+the part of the Masai and the Bantu races of Kilimanjaro
+and Kikuyu. The same writers constantly
+make allusion to the love of raw flesh on the part of
+most of the East African pastoral races, many of
+whom are more or less related to the Galas in blood
+(the foundation of the Abyssinian population is Gala).
+The actual truth about the cutting of steaks from the
+living animal seems to be this. It was sometimes customary
+(even if the custom has wholly died out at the
+present day) to slaughter a beast by degrees. The
+great arteries and the vital parts were avoided, and
+the palpitating, hot flesh was cut off strip by strip and
+devoured. But in all probability the creature was not
+as a general rule expected to live long after part of its
+flesh was removed. It was generally finished within
+two or three hours. Bruce, if I remember rightly,
+only relates one instance where, after two pieces of
+flesh had been removed from the buttocks of a cow,
+the skin was fastened up over the wound and the
+creature was driven on a little further to be finished
+on a later occasion. A summarised extract from
+Bruce’s travels gives a vivid description of the way
+the Abyssinians feasted on raw <span class="locked">meat:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“In the capital, where one is safe from surprise at all
+times, or in the country villages, when the rains have
+become so constant that the valleys will not bear a horse
+to pass them, or that men cannot venture far from home
+through fear of being surrounded by sudden showers in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span>
+the mountains; in a word, when a man can say he is safe
+at home, and the spear and shield are hung up in the hall,
+a number of people of the best fashion in the villages, of
+both sexes, courtiers in the palaces or citizens in the town,
+meet together to dine between twelve and one o’clock.
+A long table is set in the middle of a large room, and
+benches beside it for a number of guests who are invited.
+Tables and benches the Portuguese introduced amongst
+them, but bull hides spread upon the ground served them
+before, as they now do in the camp and country.</p>
+
+<p>“A cow or bull, one or more, as the company is numerous,
+is brought close to the door and its feet strongly
+tied. The skin that hangs down under its chin and throat
+is cut only so deep as to arrive at the fat, of which it
+totally consists, and by the separation of a few small
+blood-vessels six or seven drops of blood only fall upon
+the ground. They have no stone bench or altar upon
+which these cruel assassins lay the animal’s head in this
+operation. The author, indeed, begs their pardon for
+calling them assassins, as they are not so merciful as to
+aim at the life, but, on the contrary, to keep the beast
+alive till he is nearly eaten up. Having satisfied the
+Mosaic law, according to their conception, by pouring
+these six or seven drops upon the ground, two or more
+of them fall to work. On the back of the beast, and on
+each side of the spine they cut skin deep; then, putting
+their fingers between the flesh and the skin, they begin to
+strip the hide of the animal half-way down his ribs, and
+so on to the buttock, cutting the skin wherever it hinders
+them commodiously to strip the poor animal bare. All
+the flesh on the buttocks is then cut off, and in solid,
+square pieces, without bones, or much effusion of blood;
+and the prodigious noise the animal makes is a signal for
+the company to sit down to table.</p>
+
+<p>“There are then laid before every guest, instead of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span>
+plates, round cakes (if they may be so called) about twice
+as big as a pancake, and something thicker and tougher.
+It is unleavened bread of a sourish taste, far from being
+disagreeable, and very easily digested, made of a grain
+called teff. It is of different colours, from black to the
+colour of the whitest wheat bread. Three or four of these
+cakes are generally put uppermost for the food of the
+person opposite to whose feet they are placed. Beneath
+these are four or five of ordinary bread and of a blackish
+kind. These serve the master to wipe his fingers upon,
+and afterwards the servant as bread for his dinner. Two
+or three servants then come, each with a square piece of
+beef in their bare hands, laying it upon the cakes of teff
+placed like dishes down the table, without cloth or anything
+else beneath them. By this time all the guests have
+knives in their hands, and their men have large crooked
+ones, which they put to all sorts of uses during the time
+of war. The women have small clasped knives, such as
+the worst of the kind made at Birmingham, sold at a
+penny each. The company are so ranged that one man
+sits between two women; the man with his long knife
+cuts a thin piece, which would be thought a good beefsteak
+in England, while you see the motion of the fibres
+yet perfectly distinct and alive in the flesh. No man in
+Abyssinia, of any fashion whatever, feeds himself or
+touches his own meat. The women take the steak and
+cut it lengthways about the thickness of a little finger, then
+crossways into square pieces something smaller than dice.
+This they lay upon a piece of the teff bread strongly powdered
+with black pepper, or Cayenne pepper, and mineral
+salt; they then wrap it up in teff bread like a cartridge.</p>
+
+<p>“In the mean time, the man having put up his knife,
+with each hand resting on his neighbour’s knee, his body
+stooping, his head low and forward, and mouth open very
+like an idiot, he turns to the one whose cartridge is first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span>
+ready, who stuffs the whole of it into his mouth, which is
+so full that he is in constant danger of being choked.
+This is a mark of grandeur. The greater the man would
+seem to be the larger piece he takes in his mouth; and the
+more noise he makes in chewing it the more polite he is
+thought to be. They have indeed a proverb that says,
+‘Beggars and thieves only eat small pieces or without
+making a noise.’ Having despatched this morsel, which
+he does very expeditiously, his next female neighbour
+holds another cartridge which goes the same way, and so
+on till he has finished. He never drinks till he has finished
+eating; and, before he begins, in gratitude to the fair
+one that fed him, he makes up two small rolls of the same
+kind and form; each of his neighbours open their mouths
+at the same time, while with each hand he puts their
+portion into their mouths. He then falls to drinking out
+of a large handsome horn; the ladies eat till they are
+satisfied, and then all drink together. A great deal of
+mirth and jokes goes round, very seldom with any mixture
+of acrimony or ill-humour.</p>
+
+<p>“During all this time the unfortunate victim at the
+door is bleeding indeed, but bleeding little. As long as
+they can cut off the flesh from his bones they do not
+meddle with the thighs or the parts where the great
+arteries are. At last they fall upon the thighs likewise,
+and soon afterwards the animal, bleeding to death, becomes
+so tough that the cannibals, who have the rest of it
+to eat, find it very hard work to separate the flesh from
+the bones with their teeth, like dogs.</p>
+
+<p>“In the mean time those within are very much elevated;
+love lights all its fires, and everything is permitted
+with absolute freedom. There is no coyness, no delays,
+no need of appointments or retirement to gratify their
+wishes; there are no rooms but one, in which they sacrifice
+both to Bacchus and to Venus.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span></p>
+
+<p>Bruce’s travels are as well worth reading to-day
+as they were in 1790. A somewhat conveniently
+abridged edition was published in the same year
+(1790) as the five volumes appeared, but all who
+are taking up the subject of Abyssinia seriously are
+advised to work their way through the original five
+volumes. A sumptuously illustrated edition in eight
+volumes appeared after the author’s death, in 1805.
+Bruce was received with some honour at court on
+his return, but was awarded no special distinction.
+Dr. Johnson, amongst others, denounced the brilliant
+young Scotch traveller as an unscrupulous romancer;
+Horace Walpole pronounced his volumes “dull and
+dear.” Just as the African Association sprang into
+being and directed its efforts toward the rehabilitating
+of Bruce’s character as a truthful writer, Bruce
+himself died in the most disappointing manner by
+falling down the stairs at his house and breaking his
+neck. His death was occasioned by over-politeness.
+He was rushing from his study to the hall in order
+to be able to escort a lady to her carriage.</p>
+
+<p>Bruce was really a great traveller, an accurate observer,
+a splendid sportsman,<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> and a far-sighted “Imperialist.”
+In 1775 he conceived the need of the English
+rulers of India controlling the Egyptian route,
+and actually obtained from the Turkish authorities
+in Egypt a concession for the English on the shores
+of the Red Sea.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_86" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0861.jpg" width="1359" height="2045" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Portrait of James Bruce.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span></p>
+<p>As has been already mentioned, Bruce had been
+accorded a magnificent reception by the scientific men
+of France. Buffon especially was incited by Bruce’s
+stories to urge the French government in the direction
+of Nile exploration. Buffon had become interested
+in a young man native to Alsace, Sonnini de
+Manoncourt. Sonnini was born at Lunéville in 1751.
+He was the son of a Roman court official who had
+followed King Stanislas of Poland to his residence in
+Lorraine. Sonnini, the younger, who had travelled in
+French South America, had conceived the idea of a
+journey through Africa from north to south, from the
+Gulf of Sidra in Tripoli to the Cape of Good Hope.
+This scheme, however, when recommended to the
+French Foreign Office official who then had charge of
+the French establishments in the Levant, was deemed
+impracticable, and Sonnini was invited to restrict his
+attempts to a careful exploration of the Nile from
+Rosetta southward to the limits of Egyptian rule.
+His travels did not extend much beyond Assuan, but
+he brought back a great deal of detailed information
+about Upper Egypt, its fauna, flora, and the habits
+and customs of its population along the banks of the
+Nile. Sonnini’s work will always remain a useful
+book of reference. For the period at which he
+wrote he took a great interest in the question of the
+geographical distribution of mammals. He attempted
+to collect information regarding the gradual disappearance
+from civilised Egypt of the great fauna.
+In this he followed the inspiration of Buffon. According<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span>
+to Sonnini and Buffon, hippopotamuses only
+became extinct in the Lower Nile near the Mediterranean
+as late as 1658. Two hippopotamuses were
+killed at Damietta in 1600 by an Italian surgeon
+named Federigo Zeringhi.</p>
+
+<div class="tb">* * * * *</div>
+
+<p>Nearly a hundred years before Cecil John Rhodes
+was brooding in his studies at Oriel College over
+the advance of British South Africa toward the
+equatorial regions, that same college at Oxford was
+nurturing other dreams of African exploration in
+the mind of William George Browne, a Londoner
+by birth (1768), who at seventeen became an undergraduate
+at Oriel. Browne was fired by reading
+Bruce’s “Travels,” and a year after those five volumes
+were published, when he was only twenty-three
+(1791), he started for Alexandria, which he reached
+after a month’s journey from England (not a bad
+record for those days). Egypt proper prior to the
+descent of the French under Napoleon must have
+been fairly free from Muhammadan fanaticism and
+distrust of Europeans in the second half of the eighteenth
+century. Not a few travellers—French,
+Italian, and English—were able to circulate in the
+dominions governed by the Mameluks. Browne first
+of all visited the oasis of Siwah. He spent a year
+and a half on this journey, and examined the whole of
+Egypt proper and the peninsula of Sinai. Being at
+Assiut in March or April, 1793, he heard of the caravan
+which, until quite recently, left that place annually<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span>
+to travel across the desert to Darfur. Following
+the same route, and in a measure attaching himself
+to the caravan, he reached Darfur after a journey
+of considerable difficulty. Here he found himself
+amongst such fanatical Muhammadans that he was
+practically a prisoner, and it was only by invoking
+the aid and sympathy of the Turkish authorities in
+Egypt that he induced the Sultan of Darfur to allow
+him to return. Even then he was not allowed to
+carry out his project of striking the White Nile from
+the direction of Darfur, and thence crossing into
+Abyssinia. He was obliged to return along the caravan
+route to Assiut. He then continued his travels in
+the direction of Syria, and arrived in London in 1798.
+After publishing an account of his travels, he again
+left England for the Levant. In 1812 he started for
+Persia with the intention of exploring Central Asia.
+Between Tabriz and Teheran his caravan was attacked
+by robbers, and he was killed.</p>
+
+<p>The part of his book which deals with Egypt and
+Darfur is excellent, much in advance of his age and
+very “modern” in its accuracy, definiteness, and absence
+of gushing enthusiasm. Equally remarkable for
+the age is the soundness of his orthography in spelling
+local names and in transcribing dialects. Browne’s
+work still remains an authority on Darfur.</p>
+
+<p>The eighteenth century closed with some advance
+in the direction of the Nile Quest. At any rate interest
+in the Nile problem had revived in Europe.
+The publication at the beginning of the century, in an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span>
+English translation from the Portuguese, of the travels
+undertaken by the Jesuit Fathers in Abyssinia,—the
+fact that an English statesman (Lord Halifax) under
+the second George made it possible for Bruce to start
+on his great journeys, and, lastly, the creation of the
+African Association, testified to the commencement of
+this interest in England. In France the question had
+been receiving attention from the end of the seventeenth
+century, but mainly for political reasons. It
+had occurred to Louis XIV. and to the ministers of
+his successor that Egypt, so loosely held by the Turk,
+would be an admirable base from which to effect the
+conquest of India. These ideas were not lost on
+Napoleon Bonaparte, and the eighteenth century closes
+with the invasion of Egypt by the French, an event
+as wonderful to the full and as far-reaching in its results
+as the conquest of the same country by the Greeks
+under Alexander the Great 2131 years previously.
+Alexander’s conquest of Egypt from the Persians, or
+rather from the several native Egyptian dynasties who
+were ruling under Persian suzerainty, put an end to
+the régime of Ancient Egypt and Hellenised the countries
+of the Lower Nile and of Abyssinia. The invasion
+of Napoleon Bonaparte broke the power of the
+Moslem, and prepared the way for the administration
+of Egypt by Europeans and Christians. Rome profited
+by the exploits of the Macedonians; England has succeeded
+to the task which was begun with such amazing
+brilliance by Frenchmen.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_90" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0901_map.jpg" width="1570" height="2299" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_0901_map_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Map of Africa by Williamson, London, 1800.</span></p>
+  <p>Giving results of Browne’s journey to Darfur, French exploration of lower Nile,
+     and much Arab information from Egypt, North Africa, and Senegambia.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX"><span id="toclink_91"></span>CHAPTER IX<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">MUHAMMAD ALI OPENS UP THE WHITE NILE</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">In</span> 1807 Jacotin published at Paris an “Atlas de
+l’Égypte,” which gave a fairly accurate survey
+of the Nile from the Delta to Assuan. This Atlas
+gave the results of the geographical work done by
+the French army of occupation. The splendid volumes
+which illustrated the other scientific results of
+Napoleon’s venture were not published until the Bourbons
+had been restored to the throne of France. They
+aroused, however, great interest in the valley of the
+Nile, especially by the account they gave of its remarkable
+fauna. This interest was felt as much in
+England as in France; one of the first English travellers
+to explore the Nile (as far as Korosko) after
+the close of the Napoleonic war was the Hon. Charles
+Leonard Irby, who, with James Mangles (both of
+them naval commanders), travelled in Egypt in 1817–1818.
+When Egypt had settled down under the iron
+rule of Muhammad Ali Pasha, the French, who had
+begun to conceive the idea of supporting the power
+of that adventurer, and so once more gaining control
+over Egypt, began to resume their interest in Nile
+exploration. In 1819 a Frenchman named Frederic
+Caillaud (of Nantes), who had been in Egypt under<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span>
+the Napoleonic régime, returned under the patronage
+of Louis XVIII. and explored the main Nile as far
+south as the present site of Khartum, and gave the
+first accurate account of one of the several Meroes,
+namely, that ancient Ethiopian capital which is situated
+on the right bank of the Nile about one hundred
+miles south of the confluence of the Atbara. Caillaud
+and his companion Letorzec also accompanied a military
+expedition under Ibrahim Pasha. This expedition
+(which resulted in the founding of Khartum<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a>
+in 1823) explored the Blue Nile for a considerable
+distance,—as far as Fazokl. French interest in Nile
+exploration was to continue later on more merged in
+the service of the Egyptian government. But British
+efforts in this direction had not been lacking in the
+early part of the nineteenth century. A young Swiss,
+John Ludwig Burckhardt, born in French Switzerland
+in 1784,<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> and a student of two German universities,
+came to England in 1806 with a letter of introduction
+to Sir Joseph Banks and the African Association.<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a>
+This Association accepted his proposals for African<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span>
+exploration. Burckhardt then set himself to study
+first in London and then at Cambridge, and during
+his residence in England attempted in the thoroughgoing
+Teutonic manner to inure himself to hardships
+by exposing himself to cold, fatigue, and hunger in
+many fashions. After his three years’ residence in
+England he left for Malta, and reached Aleppo in October,
+1809. Here he thoroughly mastered Arabic, the
+contents of the Koran, and much else that appertained
+to the practice of the Muhammadan religion and the
+administration of its law. In 1812 he started from
+Cairo with the intention of journeying across the
+desert to Fezzan, but, changing his plans, followed
+the Nile to Korosko, and thence travelled across the
+Nubian Desert to Berber and Shendi. From this last
+place he travelled to Suakin and to Jiddah. From
+Jiddah he made (the first of all European Christians)
+the pilgrimage to Mecca. Returning again to Cairo
+and preparing once more to start for Fezzan and the
+Niger, he was seized with an illness of which he died
+at Cairo. His journeys had resulted in the collection
+of eight hundred volumes of Oriental manuscripts, all
+of which he sent to Cambridge University. All the
+works of this brilliant traveller and profound Orientalist
+were published after his death.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_93" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0921.jpg" width="1681" height="1317" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Blue Nile, Twenty Miles east of Fazokl.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In 1827 Adolphe Linant (Bey), a Belgian, who subsequently
+called himself Linant de Bellefonds, took
+service under the British African Association,<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> ascended<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span>
+the White Nile (first of all Europeans, so far
+as we know, since Dalion the Greek), and reached a
+point (Al Ais) nearly one hundred and fifty miles
+south of Khartum.</p>
+
+<p>But the next great blow at the Nile mystery was
+to be struck by the orders of the Pasha of Egypt.
+Muhammad<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> Ali was the native of a little Vlach
+(Wallach) town or settlement in Albania called Cavalla.
+In appearance he might at any time have been
+mistaken for a Frenchman of eastern France, a German,
+or an Englishman. He was born in 1768, and
+was adopted as a son by the Governor of the town,
+who, as a reward for his bravery as a soldier, gave
+him his daughter in marriage. His three eldest sons,
+Ibrahim, Tusun, and Ismail, were born in Albania.
+In 1801 he was sent to Egypt with the rank of a
+major, rising soon to be colonel. When the French
+had evacuated Egypt, the Turks endeavoured to gain
+direct control over the country by attacking the power
+of the Mameluks or Circassian soldiery who had really
+ruled in the name of the Turks. In 1803 the British
+evacuated Egypt, and gradually the situation resolved
+itself into a struggle for power between the Albanian
+soldiery under Muhammad Ali and the Turks. The
+Albanians allied themselves at first with the Mameluk
+or Circassian party, the former rulers. At length,
+after a civil war lasting for two years, the Turkish
+government appointed Muhammad Ali to be Governor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span>
+of Egypt. In 1807 the British attempted to reoccupy
+Egypt, and took possession of Alexandria. This action
+temporarily united Muhammad Ali with his enemies,
+the Circassian Beys. The British expedition
+ended in disaster and withdrawal. At last, by means
+of treachery and an appalling massacre, Muhammad
+Ali got rid of the Circassian party and became the
+undisputed master of Egypt. He then assisted the
+Porte to put down the Wahabi revolt in Arabia.
+These expeditions resulting in many military successes,
+the ambition of Muhammad Ali grew, and
+he desired to create for himself a perfectly disciplined
+army. To this end he decided to employ his disaffected
+troops who were opposed to innovations in discipline
+in conquering the Sudan. He commenced with
+Nubia, Dongola, and Sennar. From the Sudan were
+brought back numbers of the sturdy Negroes, who
+were drilled into some kind of disciplined force by
+French officers at Assuan. Then came the war with
+Turkey, which nearly resulted in Muhammad Ali capturing
+Constantinople. But this led to the intervention
+of Europe, and the ambition of Muhammad Ali
+was confined within the limits of Egypt and the Sudan.</p>
+
+<p>In 1839 the ruler of Egypt despatched the first important
+conquering and exploring expedition up the
+White Nile. It was accompanied by a French officer,
+Thibaut,<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> who had become a Muhammadan. This expedition
+reached as far south as north latitude 6° 30′.
+In 1841 a second expedition, which was accompanied<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span>
+by two Frenchmen (D’Arnaud and Sabatier), and by
+a German, Ferdinand Werne, reached the vicinity of
+Gondokoro in north latitude 4° 42′. Werne wrote an
+interesting and scientific account of this second expedition.
+His map of the White Nile from Khartum to
+Gondokoro is a remarkably good piece of work. A
+third expedition under the same Turkish commander
+(Selim Bimbashi), and accompanied by D’Arnaud,
+Sabatier, and Thibaut also reached Gondokoro. All
+these expeditions were made in sailing boats, and those
+that reached farthest were stopped by the same obstacles,—the
+rapids at Gondokoro.</p>
+
+<p>As far back as 1820 steamers had been introduced
+onto the Nile between the Delta and the First Cataract,
+mainly through French enterprise. Some of
+these steamers even plied between Cairo and Korosko.
+In 1846 the first steamboat was put together on the
+White Nile above Khartum. In 1845 a Frenchman
+(Brun-Rollet) ascended the White Nile in a sailing
+vessel and founded a trading post in the Kich country.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_96" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 18em;">
+  <img src="images/i_0961.jpg" width="1128" height="1480" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Ferdinand Werne.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Between 1827 and 1830 a German, Prokesch von
+Osten, had made a correct survey of the Nile between
+Assuan and Wadi Halfa, and in the later forties
+this survey was continued under Baron von Müller
+as far south as Ambukol in Dongola. During the
+forties great interest concerning the Egyptian Sudan
+had arisen in Austria. Austria was not suspected of
+political views in the direction of Egypt, and therefore
+no doubt Muhammad Ali and his successors were more
+disposed to encourage Austrian missionaries than those<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span>
+of France or England. The Pope created a Bishop
+of Khartum in 1849, and Austrian missionaries<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> had
+founded stations on the White Nile as far distant
+as Gondokoro by 1850, in which year Dr. Ignatz
+Knoblecher, an Austrian missionary, extended his explorations
+a few miles beyond Gondokoro to Mount
+Logwek. A little, very little, information was collected
+as to the course of the Nile above that seventy miles
+of rapids which cuts off the navigation of the river
+between Nimule on the south and Gondokoro on the
+north. A vague story was collected from the Bari
+to the effect that this great river came from a considerable
+distance southwards and issued from a lake.
+This, no doubt, was a correct hint as to the existence
+of Lake Albert Nyanza. But at this point the information
+stopped.</p>
+
+<p>In other directions progress had been made in Nile
+exploration. Besides the Austrian Roman Catholic
+Mission,<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> which established stations chiefly in the
+Kich and Bari countries on the White or Mountain
+Niles, the rapid opening up of the waterways into the
+heart of Africa soon attracted pioneers of exploration,
+traders, and adventurers of several European<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span>
+nationalities. Far ahead of the European and the
+Turk, however, went the Nubian (the native of
+Dongola) and the Arab of Upper Egypt. These
+men were the real pioneers of European exploration,
+since they served as guides and transport agents to
+the Europeans who followed along the routes they
+opened up. These Nubians started a far-reaching
+trade in slaves, and were guilty of many barbarities.
+They made such a deep impression on the minds of
+the Negroes in the Nile basin from the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+to Uganda that to this day the natives of the Egyptian
+Sudan are called “Nubi” or Nubian, even though
+they be black Negroes from the equatorial regions.
+The Nubian slave-traders laid the foundation of the
+Sudanese regiments which were to serve Egypt and
+England in subduing and controlling Eastern Equatorial
+Africa. As the Mountain Nile (thus the main
+stream is called, south of its junction with the Bahr-al-Ghazal)
+led through excessively swampy, despairing
+countries, and did not reach the habitable land
+until it entered the Bari country near the rapids of
+Gondokoro, most of the exploring enterprise for fifteen
+years, between 1840 and 1860, preferred to follow
+the more easily navigable streams which unite to
+form the Bahr-al-Ghazal, the great western tributaries
+of the Nile.</p>
+
+<p>Among the pioneers in Nile exploration at this stage
+was the forerunner of the intelligent tourist, Mr. Andrew
+Melly, a member of a Liverpool family, though
+born at Geneva. Mr. Melly actually started for Khartum<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span>
+and the White Nile accompanied by his wife, two
+sons, and a daughter. His main object seems to have
+been that of natural history collecting. He took insufficient
+measures for living with health in a tropical
+climate; fever attacked him on his return journey,
+and he died near Shendi on his way back from Khartum.
+His son George wrote a book in two volumes
+describing Khartum and the Nile between that place
+and the First Cataract. This book was mainly based
+on the father’s journal. The expedition seems to have
+been well equipped. The provisions were furnished by
+Fortnum and Mason, who even in that early period
+(1849–1850) supplied tinned salmon.</p>
+
+<p>The first of the long roll of European martyrs to
+African fever in the opening up of the Sudan was
+Herr Baumgarten, a Swiss mining engineer, educated
+in Austria, who died at Khartum in 1839 after returning
+with Muhammad Ali, who at that period had
+penetrated as far south as Al Ais, in the Shiluk country.
+Brun-Rollet, a Frenchman, was perhaps the first
+European trader to establish himself on the White
+Nile. He ceased trading, however, in 1850, after having
+established posts as far south as the Bari country.</p>
+
+<p>In 1851 the mission station of Gondokoro was
+founded by Knoblecher and Vinci of the Austrian
+Mission. A short distance beyond Gondokoro, on the
+west bank of the Nile, near the modern Belgian station
+of Rejaf, is a little stony hill called by the Bari
+Logwek. This hill was the extreme point reached by
+the third expedition despatched from Khartum at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span>
+orders of Muhammad Ali in 1841, and afterwards by
+the Austrian missionary, Knoblecher, in 1848. Here
+the White Nile, approached from the north, became unnavigable
+owing to the rapids which obstruct the course
+of the stream during its thousand-feet fall from Dufile
+to Gondokoro. For a long time Logwek (remarkable
+as being the first high and stony land which is met
+with in ascending the White Nile after the many hundred
+miles’ journey through the marshes) formed the
+limit of European discovery coming from the north.</p>
+
+<p>About 1843 or 1844 D’Arnaud, one of the Frenchmen
+who accompanied the exploring expeditions of
+the Egyptian government, published a map of the
+White Nile which carried the course of the river as
+far south as 4° 42′ north latitude. Towards the end
+of the forties further explorations were made from
+time to time west of the White Nile by a Frenchman,
+De Malzac, who at the time of his death at Khartum,
+in 1859 (?), was compiling a work on the Fauna of
+the White Nile.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_100" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1002.jpg" width="1381" height="1806" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Whale-Headed Stork</span> (<i class="taxonomy">Balæniceps rex</i>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In 1845 a Welsh<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> mining engineer named John
+Petherick entered the service of Muhammad Ali, the
+Pasha of Egypt. He was employed for some years
+in examining the countries of Upper Egypt, the coast
+of the Red Sea, and Kordofan for coal and other
+minerals, apparently with little or no success. In his
+interesting work, “Egypt, the Sudan, and Central
+Africa,” he has left us, amongst other things, a remarkably
+interesting account of Kordofan at the end<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span>
+of the forties of the last century, some twenty-five
+years after its conquest by the Turks from the mild
+rule of Darfur.<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> In 1848 Muhammad Ali died, and
+Petherick quitted the service of the Egyptian government.
+Trade in the Sudan had now ceased to be a
+government monopoly, partly owing to the efforts of
+the English Consul-General at that time. Petherick
+therefore resided at El Obeid in Kordofan for five
+years as a trader in gums and other produce. In
+1853 he resolved to go in for the ivory trade on the
+White Nile and the Bahr-al-Ghazal. This great western
+feeder of the Nile was beginning to be opened up
+by the Nubian traders already referred to. For six
+years Petherick traded for ivory and explored some
+of the great rivers which flowed into the Bahr-al-Ghazal,—chiefly
+the Jur and the Yalo or Rōl. During
+the course of his explorations he was the first
+European (unless De Malzac preceded him) to reach
+the Nyam-nyam country (Mundo). He made some
+remarkable discoveries in natural history,—the splendid
+<i class="taxonomy">Cobus maria</i> or Mrs. Gray’s Waterbuck, and the
+<i class="taxonomy">Balæniceps rex</i> or Whale-headed Stork. Petherick’s
+skins of the <i class="taxonomy">Balæniceps</i> which he gave to the British
+Museum in 1859 were the only specimens in that collection<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span>
+for more than forty years, until they were reinforced
+by the first Whale-headed Storks obtained
+on the Victoria Nyanza, which were sent home by
+the author of this book. Petherick also captured and
+brought to Europe a young hippopotamus. [It is interesting
+to observe in his first book, “Egypt, the
+Sudan,” etc., published in 1859, that the classification
+of his bird collections is made by Dr. P.&nbsp;L.
+Sclater, then and until recently Secretary to the Zoölogical
+Society.] Petherick’s return to Europe with a
+recital of such wonders obtained for him considerable
+attention. He married in the early part of 1861, and
+was invited to take charge of a relief expedition to be
+sent up the Nile to meet Captain Speke and Grant,
+who were to attempt descending the Nile from its supposed
+source at the north end of the Victoria Nyanza.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_102" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 18em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1021.jpg" width="1148" height="1591" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">John Petherick.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>During the latter period of Petherick’s experiences
+on the Nile (in 1858), he had been appointed consular
+agent for the British government at Khartum. In
+1861, before starting to return to the Sudan, he was
+given the rank of consul. He left England in 1861
+with his wife and with an English youth named
+Foxcroft, who accompanied him as bird-stuffer and
+natural history collector.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> In 1861 he despatched to
+Gondokoro, to await the arrival of Speke and Grant,
+an expedition under the Turks and Arabs, with boats<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span>
+full of supplies. Petherick and his wife, accompanied
+by Dr. Murie (who had joined them from England)
+and by Foxcroft, then spent some years exploring the
+western affluents of the Nile which unite in the Bahr-al-Ghazal.
+In this way they revisited the Nyam-nyam
+country. Petherick seems to have been partly trading
+and partly collecting information on the slave-trade
+and prosecuting Maltese slave-traders; and these investigations
+seem to have rather taken his attention
+from one of the objects of his mission, which was to
+insure a proper relief to Speke and Grant. How far
+he was to blame in the matter it is difficult to determine.
+People in England seem to have doubted the
+effectiveness of his methods to insure this relief, and
+amongst others who thought it necessary to forestall
+Petherick was Mr. (afterwards Sir Samuel) Baker,
+who, in 1862–1863, got ahead of the Pethericks (then
+deciding to go in person to the relief of the explorers),
+and actually arrived at Gondokoro in time to afford
+much needed assistance to the exhausted travellers.
+Speke appears to have considered that Petherick had
+not acted up to the assurance he had given to the Royal
+Geographical Society, who intrusted him with the expenditure
+of the relief fund. This criticism, together
+with the bitter animosity aroused by Petherick’s prosecution
+of slave-traders and reports on the misgovernment
+of Egyptian officials, cost him the confidence of
+the Foreign Office, and in 1864 his consulate was abolished.
+It was actually alleged by some of his enemies
+that he himself carried on a trade in slaves,—an allegation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span>
+for which there does not seem to have been the
+slightest foundation. In 1865 the Pethericks returned
+to England. Petherick’s second book (“Travels in
+Central Africa”) was not published until 1869. It
+is impossible, after careful observation and a more
+than thirty years’ interval, to avoid the impression
+that Petherick was treated by his country with some
+ingratitude. He did a great deal to increase our
+knowledge of the Nile basin and its remarkable
+fauna. His collections of beasts, birds, and fishes
+enriched the British Museum. He took a number of
+astronomical observations in order to fix important
+points on the White Nile and in the region of the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal. He died in 1882.</p>
+
+<p>In 1840 a French Egyptian official, Clot Bey, engaged
+as private secretary a young French doctor of
+medicine, Alfred Peney. For something like fifteen
+years Dr. Peney carried on official medical work in
+Egypt. He was gradually led, however, towards Nile
+exploration through his official visits to Khartum, the
+Blue Nile, and Kordofan. He was intensely interested
+in ethnology and in the study of the Nile Negroes.
+French influence in Egypt during the fifties
+was in the ascendency. De Lesseps and the various
+officials who served France as agents and consuls-general
+at Cairo had known how to secure the concession
+for the Suez Canal. They became jealous
+that France should also secure for her citizens the
+glory of having discovered and traced the course and
+the sources of the Upper Nile. This blue ribbon of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span>
+geographical discovery was already being sought for
+by Germans and Englishmen. Dr. Peney especially
+was continually urging his superiors in Cairo to organise,
+or induce the Viceroy Said to organise, a Nile
+research expedition under French auspices. But the
+choice by the French agent of a leader for this enterprise
+fell most unfortunately. Hanging about Cairo
+was a Frenchman of a type not infrequently met with
+at Levantine courts during the first eight decades of
+the nineteenth century. This was the Count d’Escayrac
+de Lauture. Men of this description were either
+Royalist refugees, or the sons of such, or they were
+Napoleonic noblemen who had got into financial or
+social difficulties. D’Escayrac, however, appears to
+have been an amiable dilettante, who had some pretensions
+to be an Egyptologist. But he was utterly
+unsuited to lead an expedition into Central Africa.
+He was elderly, vain, pompous, and extravagant. The
+viceroy, wishing that the expedition should not be too
+exclusively French, ordered d’Escayrac to recruit part
+of his personnel in England, Germany, and Switzerland.
+This was done, but the expedition never left
+Cairo for the Upper Nile. D’Escayrac made himself
+perfectly ridiculous by strutting about in a fantastic
+uniform, trailing a long sabre. His expensive scientific
+instruments were badly packed, and arrived at
+Cairo injured. The whole expedition was dissolved,
+owing to the bitter dislike which d’Escayrac inspired
+among his staff. The only incident in the whole of
+Count d’Escayrac’s preparations which shows him to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span>
+have been in any way enterprising or intelligent, was
+his desire to secure good photographic views of the
+Upper Nile and its natives. He had provided the
+expedition with the best apparatus which could be
+obtained at that period (1856). It is curious to note
+that in the criticisms of his plans published at the
+time, the critics animadvert more bitterly on the
+extravagance of spending one hundred pounds on
+photography than on any other supposed mistake in
+d’Escayrac’s preparations.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Albert Peney was to have been medical officer
+to the expedition. When it was dissolved, he started
+off for the White Nile on his own account, attaching
+himself, whenever opportunity offered, to such caravans
+as those of Andrea de Bono, the Maltese. Peney
+made a remarkably good map (most interesting to
+place on record as showing subsequent changes in the
+course of the Nile) between Bor and a place which he
+calls Nieki, which was situated on the Mountain Nile
+very near to the present site of Fort Berkeley. Peney,
+hearing rumours of great rivers to the west, crossed
+the range of hills which flanks the western bank of the
+Mountain Nile in the Bari country, and thus reached
+the river Yie or Yeï. This river, as we know now,
+flows northwest nearly parallel to the main Mountain
+Nile, and joins that river some distance before its
+junction with the Bahr-al-Ghazal. But Peney exaggerated
+the importance of this stream, and confused
+it with the accounts he heard of the many great
+rivers that united to form the Bahr-al-Ghazal. On<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span>
+his map he actually makes the Yie an effluent of the
+White Nile, issuing from the main stream not far
+from the present post of Nimule, and flowing northwestwards
+until it enters the Bahr-al-Ghazal. He
+thus transformed the whole region of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+into an enormous island encircled by two
+branches of the Nile. Peney further visited the country
+to the east of Gondokoro, and was probably the first
+explorer to mention the name Latuka. This country
+he rightly designates Lotuka. Latuka is the incorrect
+version given to the world by Emin Pasha. The <em>Lo</em>
+in this word is really the masculine article met with
+in so many of the Masai group of languages to which
+the tongue of Latuka belongs. The root <em>tuka</em> (which
+should be properly spelled and pronounced <em>tukă</em>) is
+evidently a racial name widespread among that Negroid
+group resulting from an ancient intermixture
+of the Gala with the Negro, from which groups the
+Latuka, Turkana, Masai, Nandi, and Elgumi descend.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a></p>
+
+<p>Dr. Peney died of blackwater fever in July, 1861,
+at a point on the Nile near Fort Berkeley. Andrea
+de Bono was with him at his death, and records the
+characteristics of the disease from which Dr. Peney
+died. Since the idea has been started that blackwater
+fever is quite a new disease in these regions, it is interesting
+to know that from all accounts several of the
+earliest European pioneers from 1848 to 1861 appear<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span>
+to have died of this malady whilst exploring the Upper
+Nile.</p>
+
+<p>About the time that Peney was exploring the Mountain
+Nile, another Frenchman, Lejean, was surveying
+with some correctness the Bahr-al-Ghazal estuary, of
+which he published a map in 1862.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_108" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1081_map.jpg" width="1758" height="1895" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_1081_map_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Map published in Penny Magazine of 1852.</span></p>
+  <p>Which gives results of Nile exploration up to that date.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Not only Englishmen, Frenchmen, and Germans,
+but Italians and Maltese had by this time appeared
+as explorers, traders, and naturalists on the White
+Nile and its tributaries.<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> Some of these came as members
+of the Austrian Roman Catholic Mission. Perhaps
+out of jealousy of Austria, or with the idea of
+spreading North Italian trade and influence, the then
+Kingdom of Sardinia appointed Signor Vaudet (apparently
+a Piedmontese trader) Sardinian proconsul
+at Khartum. Vaudet invited out his two nephews,
+the brothers Poncet (one of whom published a book
+on the White Nile in 1863). Vaudet was killed by
+the Bari tribe near Gondokoro about 1859. This Bari
+people, now so much diminished by famine and by the
+raids of the Sudanese slave-traders and Dervishes, was
+a far more serious bar to the prosecution of exploration
+up the Mountain Nile in the direction of the great
+lakes than the rapids above Gondokoro. The Bari,
+no doubt, were wronged by the Europeans and Nubians,
+but they were nevertheless responsible for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span>
+death of not a few European explorers. But for
+their determined hostility, there is little doubt that
+the earlier French, Italian, German, and English pioneers
+would have found their way to Lake Albert
+long before its discovery by Baker. Indeed Giovanni
+Miani, a Venetian, got as far south as Apuddo,<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> if
+not farther, in the prosecution of his search for the
+rumoured lake. Miani subsequently explored the regions
+of the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the headwaters of the
+streams rising in the Nyam-nyam country. He it was
+who, first of all explorers, brought back those rumours
+of a watershed beyond the Nile system, with a great
+river (the Welle) flowing to the west.</p>
+
+<p>There seems to have been little, if any, international
+jealousy in this wonderful field of exploration between
+1840 and 1860. Khartum was the rendezvous, the
+principal depot of the Europeans, and throughout all
+these years was under a Turkish governor. Life in
+Khartum between 1850 and 1860 was by no means
+devoid of attractions. Several of the Europeans
+who made it their headquarters brought out their
+wives with them. Others were married to handsome
+Abyssinian women. The houses of Egyptian
+style were comfortable and cool. The place swarmed
+with strange new beasts and birds; indeed, nearly
+every house included a menagerie in one of its
+yards. A great slave-market brought before the
+eyes of astonished and interested Europeans nearly all
+the principal Negro types from as far west as Wadai<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span>
+and Darfur, from the confines of Abyssinia on the east,
+from the lands of the naked Nile Negroes on the south;
+stalwart, lighter-coloured, bearded Nyam-nyam cannibals
+from the southwest, coal-black Madi, here and
+there an Akka Pygmy, thin-shanked Dinka and Shiluk,
+sturdy Bongo, and handsome Gala. “There ain’t no
+Ten Commandments” might with some justice have
+been said of society at Khartum. At any rate it
+was much untrammelled as regards the more wearisome
+conventions of civilised life. Nobody inquired
+if M. Dubois was legally married to Mme. Dubois,
+and perhaps the treatment of the doubtful Mme.
+Dubois as a respectable married woman by blue-eyed
+strait-souled Mrs. Jones ended by Mme. Dubois
+becoming legally united to her spouse later on at
+Cairo, and finishing the rest of her life as a happy
+and perfectly respectable person. The air was full
+of wonderment. Improvements made year by year
+in firearms resulted in marvellous big-game shooting.
+Though there were bad fevers to be got in the Bahr-al-Ghazal,
+the climate of Khartum itself was not necessarily
+unhealthy. The post seems to have arrived
+across the desert on camels at least once a month.
+The tyranny, social and administrative, of the British
+military officer and his dame was not to come for
+many years; the “smart” hotel was absent; provisions
+were good, plentiful, and cheap. Those are times that
+the African explorer of to-day looks back upon with
+something like a sigh.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span></p>
+<figure id="ip_111" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1102.jpg" width="1536" height="1254" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The River Sobat.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X"><span id="toclink_111"></span>CHAPTER X<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">MISSIONARIES AND SNOW-MOUNTAINS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap b"><span class="smcap1">Down</span> to 1858 all that Europe knew of the Nile
+basin was this: The course of the Blue Nile
+had been mapped to some extent from its source in
+Lake Tsana; and the travels of Rüppell (1830–1831)
+(the great German naturalist), of another German,
+Joseph Russegger, of the D’Abbadies (the great
+French surveyors), of Sir William Cornwallis Harris
+(who was sent on a mission to Shoa), Théophile
+Le Febvre, Mansfield Parkyns (1840–1845), H.
+Dufton, and C.&nbsp;T. Beke had cleared up a good
+many blank spaces in the geography of Abyssinia and
+of the various affluents of the Nile flowing from
+the snow-mountains of that African Afghanistan in
+the direction of the Atbara, the Blue Nile, and the
+Sobat. The Sobat had been explored for a hundred
+miles or so, as far as steamers could penetrate.
+The White Nile had been surveyed from Khartum
+to the junction of the Bahr-al-Ghazal. South of
+that point, under the name of Mountain Nile, it
+and some of its branches, such as the Giraffe River,
+had also been explored, and the River of the Mountains,
+as the Upper White Nile is called by the Arabs,
+had been ascended to a little distance south of Gondokoro.
+The Bahr-al-Ghazal, the great western feeder<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span>
+of the Nile, and several of its more important affluents,
+such as the Jur, had been made known, and the
+existence of the Nyam-nyam cannibal country ascertained.
+But the ultimate sources of the Nile stream
+were still undiscovered. This problem was now to be
+attacked from two very different directions.</p>
+
+<p>In 1829 the Church Missionary Society had resolved
+to attempt the evangelisation of Abyssinia,
+and sent missionaries to the northern part of that
+country. Amongst these missionaries, in 1840, was
+a Würtemberg student named Ludwig Krapf, sent
+to prospect in northern Abyssinia. But the Abyssinians
+eventually resented this missionary enterprise,
+and Krapf and some others were expelled from the
+country in 1842.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_112" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 17em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1122.jpg" width="1030" height="1634" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Rev. Dr. L. Ludwig Krapf.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Hearing good accounts of the more genial nature
+of the Zanzibar Arabs and of their Maskat ruler,
+Krapf journeyed down the East Coast of Africa and
+visited the Sayyid of Zanzibar (Majid); he obtained
+permission from this Arab viceroy<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> to settle at Mombasa
+and establish a Christian mission there. Krapf
+was soon joined by John Rebman (another Würtemberger).
+Both were well-educated men, who had been
+trained at Tübingen, at Basle, and in Rebman’s case
+at an English missionary college. They acquired a
+knowledge of Arabic, and soon added to it an intimate
+acquaintance with several African tongues. Their intercourse<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span>
+with the Arabs and the Negroes at Mombasa
+and its vicinity soon opened their ears to remarkable
+stories of the unknown interior. Already the Arabs
+were pushing farther and farther inland from these
+ports on the Zanzibar coast, and some of them had
+reached Lake Tanganyika, while they had also heard
+rumours of the Victoria Nyanza. The natives further
+told the missionaries of the wonderfully high mountains
+distant from ten to thirty days’ march from the
+coast, the tops of which were covered with “white
+stuff.” By 1850, through the agency of the Church
+Missionary Society, Rebman and Krapf were able to
+report from their own observation the existence of
+snow-mountains nearly under the equator, Rebman
+having discovered Kilimanjaro in 1848, while in the
+following year Krapf not only confirmed this discovery,
+but pushed his way far enough inland to catch a
+glimpse of Mount Kenya, the distance of which from
+the coast he underestimated. The missionaries also
+sent to Europe about the same time stories of a great
+inland sea. They had gathered up the reports of Lake
+Nyasa, Tanganyika, and the Victoria Nyanza, and
+had imagined these separate sheets of water to be
+only parts of a huge, slug-shaped lake as big as the
+Caspian Sea. They also reported the separate existence
+of Lake Baringo. These stories they illustrated
+by a map (Erhardt and Rebman) published in 1855.
+Their stories of snow-mountains in equatorial Africa
+only drew down on them for the most part the ridicule
+of English geographers, among whom was a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span>
+wearisome person, Mr. Desborough Cooley, who published
+fine-spun theories based on a fantastic interpretation
+of African etymology; but their stories were
+believed in France, and they were awarded a medal
+by the Paris Geographical Society. They also impressed
+an American poet, Bayard Taylor, who in
+1855 wrote some stirring lines on <span class="locked">Kilimanjaro:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indentq">“Remote, inaccessible, silent, and lone—</div>
+    <div class="verse indent0">Who from the heart of the tropical fervours</div>
+    <div class="verse indent0">Liftest to heaven thine alien snows.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="in0">These stories from the missionaries revived the interest
+in Ptolemy’s Geography. The Nile lakes were
+once more believed in, especially as the discovery of
+Kenya and Kilimanjaro appeared to confirm the stories
+of the Mountains of the Moon. This idea indeed was
+additionally favoured by the fact that the missionaries
+often referred to their hypothetical lake as the Sea
+of Unyamwezi, which name they rightly explained
+as meaning (we know not why) the “Land of the
+Moon.”<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a></p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI"><span id="toclink_115"></span>CHAPTER XI<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">BURTON AND SPEKE</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Nile</span> exploration from the north had stopped in
+1851 at the rapids south of Gondokoro. It
+was now felt that the problem should be attacked from
+other directions. In 1839 the British government had
+formally annexed Aden at the southwestern corner of
+Arabia as a coaling station for ships plying between
+Suez and India. Aden is opposite the Somali coast,
+and has been for many centuries the outpost of civilisation
+with which the Somali have traded. It was
+impossible to possess Aden long without desiring to
+become acquainted with the character of the African
+coast across the gulf, especially as Aden depended so
+much on Somaliland for its supplies of meat, grain,
+and fodder, and the ostrich feathers, ivory, and skins
+sold in the Aden bazaars. Aden was, and is still,
+under the government of India, and officers of the
+Indian army soon found their way across to Somaliland
+on authorised or unauthorised surveys. Among
+these was Lieutenant Cruttenden, who collected some
+new information about the sterile country beyond the
+coast. In 1854 a remarkable man came to Aden as
+an officer in the Indian garrison,—Lieutenant Richard
+Francis Burton, fresh from his wonderful journey as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span>
+a pilgrim to Mecca. Burton induced the authorities
+to support him in a project for entering inner East
+Africa through Somaliland, and thus perhaps striking
+at the sources of the Nile. Another explorer in the
+bud, Lieutenant John Hanning Speke, reached Aden
+soon afterwards, and obtained permission to join Burton’s
+expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Whilst waiting for a time thought to be favourable
+for travelling southwards into the Ogadein country,
+Burton went off alone on a remarkably plucky
+journey to the mysterious city of Harrar, to-day a
+frontier town of Abyssinia. Harrar, lying to the
+south of that Rift valley, which can be traced after
+a few interruptions from the Gulf of Tajurra right
+down into British and German East Africa, was a
+walled city inhabited by a Semitic people, or rather
+a people still retaining the use of a Semitic dialect
+akin to those of Abyssinia and South Arabia.</p>
+
+<p>Speke did a good deal to increase our knowledge
+of the remarkable fauna of Somaliland, but the
+Burton-Speke expedition into that country got no
+great distance inland, and ended in disaster, owing
+to the suspicions of the Somali. The expedition was
+attacked close to the seashore at Berbera. One of
+the party, Lieutenant Stroyan, was killed. Speke was
+severely, and Burton slightly wounded. Speke is of
+opinion that much of this disaster was due to the mismanagement
+of Burton. He considers that if, when
+the expedition was first organised, instead of fussing
+about mysterious visits to Harrar and waiting for this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span>
+thing and that thing, the whole expedition had started
+off boldly for the interior, the Somali would have had
+no time to cultivate suspicion, and would have opposed
+no resistance. It is quite conceivable that Speke
+was right, and that if the expedition had started with
+promptitude it might have reached the confines of Shoa
+or the Gala country in the direction of modern British
+East Africa. As it was, the attack on Burton’s expedition
+closed for some thirty years any attempt at
+penetrating the mysterious country of the Somali,
+with its remarkable mammalian fauna and its as yet
+unexplained ruins.<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a></p>
+
+<figure id="ip_117" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1182.jpg" width="1285" height="1966" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Swahili Arab Trader.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Burton’s attention was now drawn to the stories of
+the Mombasa missionaries. With some difficulty he
+obtained from the Foreign Office, the East India Company,
+and the Royal Geographical Society funds to
+equip an expedition which should start from the Zanzibar
+coast in search of the great lake. As Speke had
+lost over five hundred pounds worth of private property<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span>
+in the disaster which fell on the Somali expedition,
+Burton invited him to join this new expedition as his
+lieutenant. Burton had been distracted for a time
+from this idea by the Crimean War, but when peace
+was declared, he obtained the sanction of the Geographical
+Society to his plans, and started with Speke
+for India to smooth the difficulties placed in his way
+by the Indian government. At the very end of 1856
+the explorers reached Zanzibar. While the expedition
+was being organised at Zanzibar, Burton and
+Speke visited Pemba, Mombasa, and the mission station
+ten miles in the interior. Fired by the stories
+of the snow-mountains and the rumour of the great
+lake of Ukerewe,<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a> Speke proposed that they should
+bring their expedition to Mombasa and start for the
+lake by way of Kilimanjaro. The Masai, however,
+were raiding the country right up to within ten miles
+of Mombasa, and in consequence Burton was afraid
+to take this route. The explorers visited the mountainous
+country of Usambara, which is close to the coast,
+and then returned to Zanzibar. The original instructions,
+however, of the Royal Geographical Society
+(which had found the bulk of the funds) had been:
+“The great object of the expedition is to penetrate
+inland, from Kilwa or some other place on the East
+Coast of Africa, and make the best of its way to
+the reputed Lake of Nyasa.” Burton found, however,
+that the Arabs of Kilwa were strongly opposed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span>
+to white men penetrating the interior in that direction.
+He therefore decided to choose the line of least
+resistance at Bagamoyo, and go along the now beaten
+track of the Arabs to Ujiji. When Burton and Speke
+reached Unyamwezi (Kaze) at the close of 1857, they
+were received with much kindness and courtesy by the
+Zanzibar Arabs established there, especially by Sheikh
+Snay, who had been the first Arab to reach Uganda.
+Snay promptly cleared up the mystery of the missionaries’
+great lake, telling the explorers that it was
+three different lakes (Nyasa, Tanganyika, and Victoria)
+rolled into one. The Arabs had also heard
+through the Banyoro rumours of European vessels
+travelling up the White Nile to the Bari country.
+Burton was continually prostrated with fever during
+this stay in Unyamwezi, so that the command of the
+expedition and the solution of its difficulties temporarily
+devolved on Speke. The main trouble, as on
+all these expeditions, was with the question of transport.
+It was very difficult to obtain porters to proceed
+in any direction north or west of Unyamwezi.
+At last they induced a number of their paid-off men
+who had accompanied them through the coast lands
+to rejoin and convey the loads as far as Ujiji. In
+that way Burton and Speke discovered Lake Tanganyika,
+and Speke thought (wrongly) that in the great
+tilted plateau which they ascended on the east, and
+from which they looked down on the beautiful blue
+waters of the lake, he had discovered the Mountains
+of the Moon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span></p>
+
+<p>After a somewhat half-hearted exploration of the
+northern portion of Tanganyika in an Arab dau,
+during which they heard and partially verified the fact
+that no river flowed out of Tanganyika on the north,
+but that the Rusizi flowed <em>into</em> the lake<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> in that direction,
+they returned to Ujiji, and from this point made
+their way back to Kaze in Unyamwezi. Here Burton
+again became ill. Speke with some difficulty obtained
+from him permission to travel northwards in search
+of the Lake of Bukerebe. Burton yielded his consent
+reluctantly, and appears to have given but grudging
+assistance in the shape of men and guides. Full of
+energy, however, Speke gathered together a caravan,
+which crossed Unyamwezi and Usukuma, and on the
+30th of July, 1858, he saw the Mwanza creek, one
+of the southernmost gulfs of the Victoria Nyanza.
+The extremity of this he named “Jordans
+Nullah.”<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> Travelling northwards along this creek,
+on August 3d (1858), early in the morning, Speke
+saw the open waters of a great lake with a sea horizon
+to the north. Much of the horizon was shut in
+by great and small islands, but Speke detected through
+their interstices the vast extent of open water which
+stretched to the north.</p>
+
+<p>He realised to the full the wonder of his discovery,
+and the obvious probability that this mighty lake would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span>
+prove to be the main headwaters of the White Nile.
+Even Speke, however, failed to appreciate then or subsequently
+the full extent of the Nyanza’s area. He
+only guessed its breadth at over one hundred miles,
+and its length from north to south at under two hundred.
+Speke inquired from the natives the name of
+this freshwater sea, and they replied “Nyanza,” which
+in varying forms such as Nyanja, Nyasa, Mwanza,
+Kianja, Luanza (according to prefix), is a widespread
+Bantu root for a large extent of water,—a river or a
+lake. To this term Speke added the name of Victoria
+after the Queen of England. The following extract
+from his book, “What Led to the Discovery of the
+Source of the Nile,” gives his first impressions of the
+great <span class="locked">lake:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The caravan, after quitting Isamiro, began winding
+up a long but gradually inclined hill [which, as it bears no
+native name, I shall call Somerset] until it reached its
+summit, when the vast expanse of the pale blue waters
+of the Nyanza burst suddenly upon my gaze. It was
+early morning. The distant sea-line of the north horizon
+was defined in the calm atmosphere between the north
+and the west points of the compass; but even this did not
+afford me any idea of the breadth of the lake, as an archipelago
+of islands, each consisting of a single hill, rising
+to a height two hundred or three hundred feet above
+the water, intersected the line of vision to the left; while
+on the right the western horn of the Ukerewe Island cut
+off any further view of its distant waters to the eastward
+of north. A sheet of water—an elbow of the sea, however,
+at the base of the low range on which I stood—extended
+far away to the eastward, to where, in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span>
+dim horizon, a hummock-like elevation of the mainland
+marked what I understood to be the south and east angle
+of the lake. The important islands of Ukerewe and
+Mzita, distant about twenty or thirty miles, formed the
+visible north shore of this firth. The name of the former
+of these islands was familiar to us as that by which this
+long-sought lake was usually known. It is reported by
+the natives to be of no great extent, and though of no
+considerable elevation, I could discover several spurs
+stretching down to the water’s edge from its central ridge
+of hills. The other island, Mzita, is of greater elevation,
+of a hog-backed shape, but being more distant its physical
+features were not so distinctly visible.</p>
+
+<p>“In consequence of the northern islands of the Bengal
+Archipelago before-mentioned obstructing the view, the
+western shore of the lake could not be defined: a series
+of low hill-tops extended in this direction as far as the
+eye could reach; while below me, at no great distance,
+was the <i lang="fr">débouchure</i> of the creek which enters the lake
+from the south, and along the banks of which my last
+three days’ journey had led me. This view was one
+which even in a well-known and explored country would
+have arrested the traveller by its peaceful beauty. The
+islands, each swelling in a gentle slope to a rounded
+summit, clothed with wood between the rugged, angular,
+closely-cropping rocks of granite, seemed mirrored in
+the calm surface of the lake, on which I here and there
+detected a small black speck,—the tiny canoe of some
+Muanza fisherman. On the gently shelving plain below
+me blue smoke curled among the trees, which here and
+there partially concealed villages and hamlets, their brown
+thatched roofs contrasting with the emerald-green of the
+beautiful aloes, the coral flower-branches of which cluster
+in such profusion round the cottages, and form alleys and
+hedgerows about the villages as ornamental as any garden<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span>
+shrub in England. But the pleasure of the mere view
+vanished in the presence of those more intense and exciting
+emotions which are called up by the consideration
+of the commercial and geographical importance of the
+prospect before me.</p>
+
+<p>“I no longer felt any doubt that the lake at my feet
+gave birth to that interesting river, the source of which
+has been the subject of so much speculation, and the
+object of so many explorers. The Arabs’ tale was proved
+to the letter. This is a far more extensive lake than the
+Tanganyika; ‘so broad that you could not see across it,
+and so long that nobody knew its length.’ I had now the
+pleasure of perceiving that a map I had constructed on
+Arab testimony, and sent home to the Royal Geographical
+Society before leaving Unyanyembe, was so substantially
+correct in its general outlines I had nothing whatever to
+alter. Further, as I drew that map after proving their
+first statements about the Tanganyika, which were made
+before my going there, I have every reason to feel confident
+of their veracity relative to their travels north
+through Karagwe, and to Kibuga in Uganda.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="ip_123" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1222_map.jpg" width="1358" height="2321" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_1222_map_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Sketch Map by Burton and Speke, 1858.</span></p>
+  <p>From the Original in the possession of the Royal Geographical Society.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Unable to delay longer in his exploration of the
+southern shores of the Victoria Nyanza, as he had
+promised to rejoin Burton by a certain date, Speke
+returned to Kaze in Unyanyembe, to find his companion
+vexed at the great discovery which he had
+made. Speke did not pursue the argument as to the
+Victoria Nyanza being the main source of the Nile.
+The two men journeyed together on more or less bad
+terms to Zanzibar, where Burton remained to wind up
+the affairs of the expedition, Speke returning direct
+to England. Here the wonderful news he brought<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span>
+prompted the Royal Geographical Society to gather
+together the funds for a fresh expedition, which was
+to enable Speke to make good his discovery of the
+lake, and to prove to the satisfaction of the scientific
+world that this sheet of water was the ultimate source
+of the White Nile.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII"><span id="toclink_125"></span>CHAPTER XII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">SPEKE AND THE NILE QUEST</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">John Hanning Speke</span> was born on May 27,
+1827, at Orleigh Court, Bideford, North Devon.
+His father’s family had its seat in Somersetshire, near
+the pretty old town of Ilminster, and was of ancient
+descent. The name was spelled L’Espec in Norman
+times, and apparently meant a spike or porcupine
+quill (the family crest was a porcupine).<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> Speke’s
+mother was a Miss Hanning of Dillington Park, also
+in Somerset. He was one of four sons, and had several
+sisters. As his father (Mr. William Speke),
+after he came into the family place of Jordans near
+Ilminster, had two church livings to dispose of, he
+was desirous that two at least of his sons might be
+brought up to the Church. John Hanning and Edward
+Speke (who was killed at Delhi) declined such
+a career, however, and wished to go into the army.
+Speke was a restless boy, who detested school, declaring
+that a sedentary life made him ill. Whenever<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span>
+he could escape from his masters, he was always out
+in the woods and on the heaths, displaying a great
+devotion to natural history and sport.</p>
+
+<p>When only seventeen his mother, who was acquainted
+with the Duke of Wellington, obtained for
+her two sons, John and Edward, commissions in the
+Indian army. The Duke asked to see the boys, and
+congratulated their mother on two such fine young
+fellows coming forward for service in India. Edward
+Speke, as already mentioned, was killed during the
+Indian mutiny at the siege of Delhi. John Hanning
+Speke himself, between the ages of seventeen and
+twenty-two, had seen a good deal of military service
+in India, and took part in the last Sikh war,
+having been at the battles of Ramnagar, Sedulapur,
+Chilianwala, and Guzerat.</p>
+
+<p>In 1849 he first entertained the idea of exploring
+equatorial Africa. Prior to this date he had shot a
+great deal in India, and subsequently explored southwestern
+Tibet. His first interest in Africa lay in the
+possibility of amassing magnificent zoölogical collections
+to illustrate the fauna of that wide stretch
+of country which lay between South Africa and Abyssinia.
+He wished to supplement the researches of
+Rüppell on the northeast and of Harris, Gordon Cumming,
+and others in the far south. Even at that date
+Speke desired to land at some point on the East
+African coast, and strike across to the Nile, descending
+the Nile to Egypt with his zoölogical collections.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_126" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 23em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1261.jpg" width="1419" height="2013" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">John Hanning Speke.</span></p>
+
+<p>At the age of 17, on first receiving his commission in the Indian Army.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>He obtained furlough in the autumn of 1854, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span>
+proceeded to Aden with the intention of landing on the
+opposite coast of Somaliland. Arrived at Aden, his
+plans met with stubborn opposition from Colonel Sir
+James Outram, the Resident, who not only opposed
+Speke’s journeys, but even those which were officially
+ordered by the Bombay government to be conducted
+by Richard Burton. But the Bombay government, in
+regard to the latter plan, insisted on Sir James Outram
+withdrawing his opposition. Sir James Outram
+then attached Speke to this expedition, knowing him
+to be a good surveyor. Speke had in fact mapped a
+good deal of southwestern Tibet, and was thoroughly
+at home with the sextant. The results of this venture
+have been described in the preceding chapter. The
+Somali expedition led to Speke’s accompanying Burton
+in 1857.</p>
+
+<p>Speke returned to England alone on the 8th of
+May, 1859. The day after his arrival Sir Roderick
+Murchison, President of the Royal Geographical Society,
+decided that Speke was to be sent back as soon
+as possible to substantiate his discovery of the Victoria
+Nyanza, and to ascertain its connection with the
+Nile system. But although funds were soon secured
+by public subscription, it was deemed advisable by
+Speke that the new expedition should not start for
+nearly a year. Captain James Augustus Grant, who
+had shot with Speke in India, begged leave to accompany
+him as his lieutenant.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_127" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1282_map.jpg" width="1326" height="2062" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_1282_map_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Burton’s Idea of the Nile Sources, Dec. 1864.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Burton returned to England in 1859, somewhat chagrined
+to hear of the enthusiasm with which Speke’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span>
+discovery of the Victoria Nyanza had been received,—an
+enthusiasm which to some extent had put the
+revelation of Lake Tanganyika in the shade. Burton
+nevertheless was awarded, in 1860, the Gold Medal
+of the Royal Geographical Society, and in returning
+thanks for this honour, he uttered a handsome acknowledgment
+of Speke’s services as surveyor on
+this expedition to the great lakes. But the two men
+were evidently on bad terms, and though the fault of
+their disaccord may have lain with Burton’s conduct,
+the world knew of it first through the writings of
+Speke in “Blackwood’s Magazine,” and later (in
+1864) in the republication of these Blackwood articles
+with additions under the title of “What Led to
+the Discovery of the Source of the Nile.” In these
+works Speke makes certain stinging references to
+Burton. So far as an impartial verdict can be arrived
+at, Speke in all probability spoke the truth; but
+he was perhaps unduly hard on his companion, for
+whom he had evidently a great personal dislike and
+some degree of contempt. In some respects Speke’s
+own education had been defective (at least, we are
+told that he was so much of a truant as to receive
+but little schooling before going to India). He may,
+therefore, have been unable to appreciate to the full
+Burton’s undoubted talents. Yet again, in reading
+Speke’s books it would occur to no one to say that
+he was deficient in education. He had become an admirable
+geographer, a keen naturalist; and whether his
+writing was or was not without grace of style, it was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span>
+certainly pithy and to the point. His great book, the
+“Discovery of the Source of the Nile,” is good reading
+all through, and strikes one who, like the present
+writer, has been over much of the same ground, as
+being singularly truthful. It is as good a book as
+any that Burton himself ever wrote on Africa, not
+excepting even the excellent “Lake Regions.” Speke
+was a fine figure of a man,—tall and handsome in
+an English style, with blue eyes and a brown beard.
+There is no doubt that he impressed the natives favourably
+wherever he went as being a man and a
+gentleman. Yet there was a little hardness in his
+disposition, something pitiless in his criticisms of
+Burton. Burton’s own attacks on Speke scarcely appeared
+in a public form until four years after Speke
+had returned to Africa. They were angry, and somewhat
+clumsy, but not so incisive as Speke’s criticisms
+of Burton. Burton’s chief revenge lay in endeavouring
+for many years to prove that Speke had made no
+very great discovery; that his Victoria Nyanza was
+not the greatest lake in Africa and the main source
+of the Nile, but a network of swamps and lakelets.
+Burton hailed with delight Sir Samuel Baker’s description
+of the Albert Nyanza as being the ultimate
+origin of the White Nile. To meet this view he,
+against his own convictions, tried to make the Rusizi
+River flow out of the north end of Tanganyika instead
+of flowing into that lake, in the hope that Tanganyika
+was thus connected with Lake Albert,—a
+fact which, if proved, would dwarf the discovery of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span>
+the Victoria Nyanza into insignificance. To this end
+he published a map, and endeavoured to persuade
+every geographer who would listen to him that the
+Victoria Nyanza was more than half a myth, and
+that its contribution to the Nile waters was insignificant
+compared to the supply received from the western
+chain of lakes.</p>
+
+<p>Speke’s character was that of many an officer in
+the British army. Though his family claimed Norman
+descent, his physique was emphatically Anglo-Saxon.
+Born almost without fear, he had perhaps too ready
+a contempt for others of weaker nerve who could
+better weigh the chances of danger and the counsels
+of prudence. Speke was a splendid shot, and
+accurate in those astronomical observations necessary
+to the determination of geographical positions. He
+had a good knowledge of Hindustani,<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> but not that
+great readiness in picking up languages which was
+Burton’s forte. Yet he was perfectly honest about
+this, as about every talent which he possessed or
+lacked. On the other hand, his great dislike of Burton<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span>
+sometimes made him unjust in denying to his
+companion the qualities of mind he really possessed.
+Burton’s <i lang="fr">résumé</i> of ethnological information concerning
+the East African tribes from the Zanzibar coast
+to Uganda and the shores of Tanganyika is masterly,
+and due to the most careful note-taking. It may
+not, perhaps, be out of place if I quote a few lines
+from a letter written by Sir Samuel Baker to a
+<span class="locked">correspondent:<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a>—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Speke comes first as a geographer and African explorer.
+He was superior to Burton as a painstaking,
+determined traveller, who worked out his object for the
+real love of geographical research, without the slightest
+jealousy of others.... But Burton excelled Speke in
+cleverness and general information, though he was not
+so reliable. Speke was a splendid fellow in every way.... Grant
+(his companion) was one of the most loyal
+and charming creatures in the world. Perfectly unselfish,
+he adored Speke, and throughout his life he maintained
+an attitude of chivalrous defence of Speke’s reputation.... They
+were all friends of mine.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is little doubt that Burton, who had displayed
+such cool courage on his journey to Mecca, had received
+a shock over the Somali attack on his camp in
+1854, from which he never wholly recovered. His
+proceedings in connection with the Tanganyika journey
+were marked by something approaching timidity.
+It is probable that had Speke been in command of this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span>
+expedition much more would have been done than was
+actually accomplished. Feeling this very strongly, and
+realising that he had contributed a good deal of his
+private funds to the resources of this and the preceding
+Somali expedition, Speke considered himself quite
+justified in hurrying home with the news of the expedition’s
+discoveries, the more so because Burton had
+snubbed him for his pains in connection with the Victoria
+Nyanza. I do not think it can be said that he
+ever treated Burton unfairly, but there was perhaps
+in his behaviour a touch of hardness and a lack of
+generosity. He heartily disliked Burton, and that was
+the reason.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_132" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1321.jpg" width="1374" height="1597" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">James Augustus Grant.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In James Augustus Grant (as is indicated by the
+quotation from Sir Samuel Baker’s letter) Speke had
+found a companion after his own heart. Grant was a
+handsome Scotchman of the “Iberian” type,—black
+hair, dark eyes, dark eyebrows, clear complexion. In
+later life the hair and the beard turned white, but
+the face remained singularly youthful. Of Grant Sir
+Samuel Baker writes: “He was the most unselfish
+man I ever met; amiable and gentle to a degree that
+might to a stranger denote weakness, but, on the contrary,
+no man could be more determined in character
+or unrelenting when once he was offended.” Grant,
+like Speke, was a sportsman; he was also—in a somewhat
+uninstructed way—a zoölogist and a botanist.
+The botany of Africa, in fact, was his principal hobby.
+He painted cleverly in water-colours, and did more than
+anybody else, down to a quite recent date, to put before<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span>
+our eyes some idea of the beautiful coloration of
+African wild flowers. He published at his own expense,
+through the Linnæan Society, three volumes
+illustrating the more notable features of his botanical
+collections. Although most of these flowers were
+drawn for him by scientific draughtsmen, his own
+sketches supplied the means for an accurate coloration
+which could no longer be ascertained from the
+dried specimens. In this particular Grant has made
+an important contribution to African research.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving England Speke made arrangements,
+through the British consul at Zanzibar, to send on an
+instalment of porters and property to Unyamwezi, intending
+to follow his old route to the Victoria Nyanza.
+The Indian government, which has often done so much
+to assist the opening up or the settlement of eastern
+Africa, gave to Speke’s expedition fifty carbines and
+twenty thousand rounds of ammunition, and lent him
+as many surveying instruments as were required. The
+government of India also put at his disposal rich presents
+(gold watches) for such Arabs as had assisted
+him on the former expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Petherick, whose explorations have been treated of
+in the previous chapter, had recently arrived in England
+from the Upper Nile, and had been promoted to
+be British Consul. Speke, before he left England,
+made arrangements with Petherick to place boats at
+his disposal at Gondokoro, and to send a party of
+men in the same direction to collect ivory and to wait
+about in the vicinity of Gondokoro in order to assist<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span>
+him when he should reach that part of the Nile.
+Petherick was also invited to ascend the Asua River
+(then thought to be a branch of the Nile instead of
+an affluent) in case it should be another means of
+communication with the Victoria Nyanza. Speke and
+Grant journeyed out by way of the Cape, and at Cape
+Town stayed for a while with the great Sir George
+Grey, who, taking the greatest interest in their undertaking,
+induced the Cape government to grant the
+sum of three hundred pounds to be spent in buying
+baggage mules. With these mules were sent ten Hottentot
+mounted police. From Cape Town the expedition
+was conveyed on a gunboat to Zanzibar. At
+the commencement of October, 1860, Speke’s expedition
+was organised, and he started for the interior.
+His expedition consisted of one corporal and nine
+privates of the Hottentot police; one jemadar and
+twenty-five privates of the Baluch soldiery of the
+Sultan of Zanzibar; one Arab caravan leader and
+seventy-five freed slaves; one kirongozi or guide and
+one hundred negro porters; two black valets, who
+had both been man-of-war’s men and could speak
+Hindustani; Frij, the black cook (also from a man-of-war),
+and the invaluable “Bombay,” who was interpreter
+and factotum. (The expedition took with it
+twelve transport mules and three donkeys, also twenty-two
+goats for milk and meat. The Hottentots soon
+broke down in health, and took to riding the donkeys,
+the mules being loaded with ammunition.) The white
+men, as a rule, had to walk. The Hottentots were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span>
+sometimes useful as camp cooks, but they suffered
+so much from fever as to become a burden to the
+expedition.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_135" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1341.jpg" width="1291" height="1976" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Mnyamwezi Porter.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“My first occupation [writes Speke]<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> was to map the
+country. This is done by timing the rate of march
+with a watch, making compass bearings along the road,
+or any conspicuous marks,—as, for instance, hills off it,—and
+by noting the watershed,—in short, all topographical
+objects. On arrival in camp every day came
+the ascertaining, by boiling-point thermometer, of the altitude
+of the station above the sea-level; of the latitude of
+the station by the meridian altitude of a star taken with
+a sextant; and of the compass variation by azimuth.
+Occasionally there was the fixing of certain crucial stations
+at intervals of sixty miles or so, by lunar observations ... for
+determining the longitude, by which the
+original-timed course can be drawn out with certainty on
+the map by proportion.... The rest of my work, besides
+sketching and keeping a diary, which was the most
+troublesome of all, consisted in making geological and
+zoölogical collections. With Captain Grant rested the
+botanical collections and thermometrical registers. He
+also undertook the photography. The rest of our day
+went in breakfasting after the march was over,—a pipe,
+to prepare us for rummaging the fields and villages to
+discover their contents for scientific purposes,—dinner
+close to sunset, and tea and a pipe before turning in at
+night.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Speke noticed in Uzegura deposits of pisolitic limestone
+in which marine fossils are observable. He
+draws attention to the interesting fact that a limestone
+formation occurs with a few breaks almost<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span>
+continuously from the southwest coast of Portugal,
+through North Africa, Egypt, and part of the Somali
+country, across Arabia to eastern India.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> In connection
+with this it may be mentioned as a point of great
+interest that Mr. C.&nbsp;W. Hobley (Sub-Commissioner
+in the East Africa Protectorate) discovered deposits
+of limestone in the Nyando valley, about forty miles
+from the northeast corner of the Victoria Nyanza.</p>
+
+<p>Speke’s expedition travelled on with little trouble
+as far as Usagara. The complete harmony which
+existed at all times between Speke and Grant contributed
+much to the smoothness of the arrangements.
+At Usagara, however, they had trouble with one of
+their caravan leaders (Baraka). The Hottentots became
+increasingly sick and helpless, and Captain Grant
+was seriously ill with fever. However, they pushed
+on to that East Coast range of terraced mountains
+which is nowadays dotted with not a few mission and
+government stations. There is charming and fantastic
+scenery in these mountains, which rise in parts to
+an altitude of seven thousand feet. From Usagara
+were sent back some of the Hottentots, a collection
+of natural history specimens, and the camera. Speke
+had greatly desired to illustrate the scenery of equatorial
+Africa by means of photography,—a most serious
+undertaking in the sixties. Grant worked the
+apparatus, but was rendered so ill by the heat of the
+dark tent that Speke decided to abandon photography
+and to rely instead on his companion’s drawings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span></p>
+
+<p>Ugogo, which is a rolling plateau to the west of
+the Usagara range, gave the travellers some trouble.
+Here, as elsewhere, there was famine, owing to the
+scarcity of water and the incessant raids on the part
+of the Masai from the north or the Wahehe from
+the south. The Wagogo themselves are a truculent
+people, who have given serious annoyance to caravans
+during the last hundred years. They speak a Bantu
+language, but have very much more the physical
+aspect of the Nilotic tribes to the north, being, like
+them, very much addicted to nudity.<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> On the plains
+of Ugogo Grant killed the largest and handsomest
+of all the gazelles, which had henceforth borne his
+name.<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a></p>
+
+<p>In Ugogo Speke also records the existence of that
+strange archaic type of dog, the <i class="taxonomy">Otocyon</i>, a specimen of
+which he killed. On the western frontier of Ugogo the
+expedition was menaced with serious trouble. The rapacious
+native chief made increasing demands on them
+for taxes. A number of their porters deserted, and
+their Wanyamwezi carriers who had agreed to replace
+the missing men were scared away by the threats of
+the Wagogo. In addition, the rainy season had come
+on, and was unusually heavy, flooding the country in
+all directions. The expedition would have come to
+grief but for the game shot by its leaders, which kept<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span>
+the men from starvation. It was only got out of its
+difficulties at last by the friendly help of the Arabs
+of Unyamwezi, who sent seventy porters to the relief
+of the explorers. When Speke reached the borders of
+Unyamwezi and took stock of his position, he found
+that six of his Hottentots were dead or had been sent
+back to the coast in charge of several free porters,
+that twenty-five of the Sultan of Zanzibar’s slaves and
+ninety-eight of the original Wanyamwezi porters had
+deserted, all the mules and donkeys were dead, and
+half of his property had been stolen.</p>
+
+<p>Unyamwezi, “the Land of the Moon,” is a remarkable
+part of eastern Africa. Practically it consists of
+nearly all the land lying between the Victoria Nyanza
+on the north and the vicinity of Lake Rukwa on the
+south. It is longer (from north to south) than it is
+broad. Prior to the German occupation it had ceased
+to be a single kingdom, and was divided into a number
+of small and mutually hostile states only united
+by the common bond of the Kinyamwezi language.
+This varies a good deal in dialect, though it has distinctive
+features of its own. In Usukuma to the
+north it offers more resemblance to the languages of
+the Uganda Protectorate; on the south it links on in
+some way with the languages of the Nyasa-Tanganyika
+plateau. How the country became associated with the
+moon is not known; for the most part of it is an
+undulating plateau, with occasional rift valleys that
+contain salt or fresh water pools. A great part of its
+drainage goes towards Tanganyika or Lake Rukwa.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span>
+The language of its people is typically Bantu, but they
+would seem to be a very mixed race physically. Some
+of them have the ugly features of the Congo Pygmies;
+others again are strikingly like the Galas and the
+Bahima. The bulk of the nation consists of tall and
+very muscular Negroes, with thoroughly Negro features.
+They are celebrated as porters, being able to
+carry burdens twice as heavy as could be offered to
+any other carriers. They have also a keen instinct
+for trade, and it is supposed that, first of all Bantu
+nations of the East African interior, they opened up
+communications with the coast. There has been trade
+going on between the Zanzibar coast and Unyamwezi
+for at least five centuries,—a trade, however, which
+has been subject to prolonged interruptions. The
+Zanzibar Arabs did not settle in the country until a
+hundred years ago.</p>
+
+<p>Conversing with the Arabs of Unyamwezi, Speke
+again heard from them of “a wonderful mountain
+to the northward of Karagwe<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> so high and steep that
+no one could ascend it. It was seldom visible, being
+up in the clouds, where white matter—snow or hail—fell
+on it.” The Arabs also spoke of the other
+lake, which was salt and also called Nyanza, but
+quite different from the Victoria.<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> From the Arabs
+Speke also heard of the naked Nile Negroes to the
+north and east of Unyoro, and of those of them<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span>
+(the Lango) who, like the Turkana farther east, wear
+their hair in enormous bags down the back. They
+told him that Lake Tanganyika was drained by the
+Marungu River.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> Some of this knowledge Speke
+perverted to fit in with erroneous and preconceived
+notions. At this interval of time, however, one is
+surprised at the correctness of geographical information
+given to Burton, Speke, and Baker by the Arabs.
+One is still more surprised that the constant hints as to
+the great snow-mountain range of Ruwenzori should
+have so often fallen on deaf ears.</p>
+
+<p>In Unyamwezi Speke’s further progress was much
+delayed, owing to the difficulty in getting porters.
+The country to the east from which he had come was
+convulsed with wars between the Arabs and the natives.
+In these wars figured, as a bandit leader of
+handsome appearance and remarkable adventures, the
+celebrated Manwa Sera, a dispossessed Unyamwezi
+chief. In the course of these wars Speke’s principal
+friends amongst the Arabs were killed or disappeared.
+Amongst them was the celebrated Snay, the first Arab
+to enter Uganda, and in fact the first non-Negro to
+convey the news of the existence of Uganda to the civilised
+world. On the northwest trouble was threatened
+by the warlike country of Usui, whose chief, Suwarora,
+blocked the way to Karagwe by his extortions. To
+the west and north also the country was being raided
+by the Watuta, a mysterious race of warlike nomads
+who were said to be of Zulu origin, and were, according<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span>
+to all accounts, the furthest extension of the great
+Zulu invasion of East Africa, which took place in the
+first half of the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Speke attempted to recruit porters in the northern
+parts of Unyamwezi, but without success. He therefore
+returned to the headquarters of the Arabs at
+Kaze, and from this point sent back the last of the
+Hottentots to the coast. Speke, seeing that he could
+get no farther without bringing some order into the
+country, negotiated a peace between Manwa Sera and
+the Arabs. The peace with Manwa Sera broke down.
+Finally Speke decided to leave Bombay and Grant behind
+in northern Unyamwezi with the loads which it
+was impossible to transport. With such porters as he
+had he pushed on to the northwest and entered Buzinza,
+the first country ruled by Bahima chiefs.<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> Speke remarks
+rightly that specimens of this Hamitic (Gala)
+aristocracy extend from the south shores of the Victoria
+Nyanza southwards as far as the Fipa country
+and the edges of the Nyasa-Tanganyika Plateau. On
+pages 128 to 134 of his book<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> Speke gives an excellent
+description of the maddening extortions of a
+petty African chief. This behaviour on the chief’s
+part should be borne in mind when the armchair geographer
+is inclined to lay all the blame on the European
+and Arab for commencing wars with Negro
+tribes.</p>
+
+<p>From February to October Speke had the most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span>
+trying experiences which were to await him on
+this journey. He travelled backwards and forwards
+from Kaze to Uzinza, endeavouring in all possible
+ways to get porters to carry him to Usui. In these
+journeys he caught a severe cold, the effects of which
+lasted for months in a most distressing cough, and
+some disease of the chest which he could not diagnose.
+His caravans were robbed, though the goods
+were sometimes recovered. Several of his Swahili
+headmen turned traitors; Bombay alone was faithful.
+Grant, when he had recovered from fever, marched
+and countermarched. But Speke had fortunately managed
+months before to send on word of his coming to
+Suwarora, Chief of Usui, who himself was a vassal of
+Rumanika, the great Hima ruler of Karagwe. Suwarora
+sent an envoy with his mace to invite Speke to
+proceed at once to his court. This intervention made
+a good impression on the treacherous chief of Buzinza,
+Lumeresi. Much of the stolen property was recovered,
+and the expedition obtaining a few porters started
+for Usui in October, 1861.</p>
+
+<p>Grant was left behind with such of the property as
+could not be removed. Speke, when he left Buzinza,
+“was a most miserable spectre in appearance, puffing
+and blowing at each step he took, with shoulders drooping
+and left arm hanging like a dead log, which he
+was unable to swing.” At last, after incredible worries
+and trouble, occasioned by the demands for “hongo”
+(tribute) on the part of every petty chief whose territories
+they crossed, they reached the large country of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span>
+Usui or Busui at the southwest corner of the Victoria
+Nyanza. Usui is “a most convulsed looking country
+of well-rounded hills composed of sandstone....
+Cattle were numerous, kept by the Wahuma (Bahima),
+who would not sell their milk to us because we ate
+fowls and a bean called <i>maharagwe</i>.” In Usui the
+caravan was incessantly worried at night by the attacks
+of thieves until one of these was killed, whereupon
+the Basui congratulated the expedition, saying
+that the slain man was a wonderful magician. “They
+thought us wonderful men, possessed of supernatural
+powers.” Suwarora and his fellow-chief Vikora were
+most exacting in their demands for hongo. At last,
+after heart-breaking delays, they got away out of Suwarora’s
+country.</p>
+
+<p>Between Usui and Karagwe was one of those no
+man’s lands, which at times are such a relief to the
+harassed traveller,—a land in which he can enjoy
+the beauty of the landscapes, the excitement of
+sport in complete freedom from the harassing attentions
+of Negro tribes. In this lovely wilderness
+they were greeted by officers sent to their assistance
+by Rumanika, who said, “Rumanika has ordered us
+to bring you to his palace at once, and wherever you
+stop a day, the village officers are instructed to supply
+you with food at the King’s expense; for there are
+no taxes gathered from strangers in the Kingdom of
+Karagwe.” Speke noted the little lake of Urigi, and
+learned from the natives that this was the remains of
+a much larger sheet of water. They declared, in fact,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span>
+that this lake had formerly extended far to the southwards
+in the direction of Tanganyika, having been at
+one time a considerable gulf of the Victoria Nyanza.</p>
+
+<p>For the first time since leaving the coast they travelled
+day after day through beautiful and attractive
+scenery, in which rhinoceroses, both “white” and
+black, and herds of hartebeest mingled with the
+splendid long-horned cattle of the natives. Speke
+and Grant shot several square-lipped “white” rhinoceroses.
+(Stanley subsequently did the same in this
+country of Karagwe. Though it has since been shot
+on the Upper Nile, this creature is now becoming
+extinct in East Equatorial Africa.) “Leaving the
+valley of Uthenja, we rose over the spur of Nyamwara,
+and found we had attained the delightful
+altitude of five thousand feet. Oh, how we enjoyed
+it!—every one feeling so happy at the prospect of
+meeting the good king Rumanika. Rumanika the
+king and his brother Nyanaji were both of them men
+of noble appearance and size.... They had fine
+oval faces, large eyes, and high noses, denoting the
+best blood of Abyssinia. Having shaken hands in
+true English style, which is the peculiar custom of
+the men of this country, the ever-smiling Rumanika
+begged us to be seated on the ground opposite to
+him, and at once wished to know what we thought
+of Karagwe, for it had struck him his mountains were
+the finest in the world; and the lake, too, did we
+not admire it?”</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_144" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1441.jpg" width="1298" height="1679" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Hima of Mpororo, near Karagwe.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Speke subsequently went to see the queens and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span>
+princesses of this royal family, who, by means of
+a milk diet, were kept immoderately fat. Of one
+of them he writes: “She could not rise; and so
+large were her arms that between the joints the flesh
+hung down like large, stuffed puddings. Then in came
+their children, all models of the Abyssinian type of
+beauty, and as polite in their manners as thoroughbred
+gentlemen.”</p>
+
+<p>Rumanika and his brothers received their presents
+with a graceful gratitude which was striking after
+the ill manners of the Negro chiefs in Unyamwezi
+and Usui. Rumanika begged Speke to remain a little
+while in his country so that he might send on word
+of his coming to the King of Uganda. Speke consented
+to do so, and when walking about the vicinity
+of the king’s capital, descried the distant cone of
+Mfumbiro. This he at once identified with the Mountains
+of the Moon and with the story of the snow-capped
+peaks. It is curious, seeing how friendly were
+all the Bahima, and what facilities were given to him
+for travelling about the country of Karagwe, that he
+made no attempt to enter Ruanda whilst waiting to go
+on to the north, and thus obtain a nearer acquaintance
+with the Mountains of the Moon. Had he done so, he
+might perchance have caught a glimpse of Ruwenzori.
+Grant’s drawing of Mfumbiro and other volcanoes
+(since explored by many travellers) is a truthful
+one.</p>
+
+<p>In Rumanika’s country Speke discovered the water
+tragelaph which now bears his name (<i class="taxonomy">Limnotragus spekei</i>).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span>
+This creature has the hoofs very much prolonged,
+so as to enable it to walk on floating vegetation
+and marshy ground. Speke at once discerned
+that this creature was closely allied to the water
+tragelaph found by Livingstone on Lake Ngami.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_146" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 23em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1461.jpg" width="1455" height="1106" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Speke’s Tragelaph</span> (<i class="taxonomy">Limnotragus spekei</i>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The existence of this Bahima<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> aristocracy in the
+countries west and south of the Victoria Nyanza was
+not reported for the first time in Speke’s account of
+his second journey to the Victoria Nyanza. First of
+all, in the early fifties, the Zanzibar Arabs brought
+to the coast—either at Mombasa or Zanzibar—accounts
+of a race of “white” men who lived on the
+Mountains of the Moon. Burton, analysing these
+stories at Kaze in Unyamwezi, reduced them to accounts
+of Bahima, who were believed to have the
+features and complexion of Abyssinians. Speke’s arrival
+in Buzinza and Karagwe made us partially acquainted
+with the facts. We now know that at some
+relatively remote period not less than two thousand
+years ago the lands between the Victoria and Albert
+Nyanzas were invaded from the northeast by a Caucasian
+race allied to the Gala and the Egyptian. These
+ancestors of the Bahima mingled to some extent with
+the indigenous Negroes, and so somewhat darkened the
+colour of their skins and acquired hair more like
+the Negro’s wool. This pastoral people brought with
+them herds of cattle from the direction of Abyssinia<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span>
+or Galaland,—cattle with enormous horns, sometimes
+over three feet in length. This breed of cattle
+is found at the present day in southern and western
+Abyssinia. It is also depicted—with other breeds on
+the Egyptian monuments. It is supposed to be
+allied in origin to the stock which gave rise to the
+ordinary humped cattle of India,—the Zebu type.
+These oxen with enormous horns—horns which are
+not only very long but sometimes very large in girth—are
+found westwards as far as the vicinity of Lake
+Chad, and in a more degenerate type farther west still,
+to the sources of the Niger. It might be thought that
+they were also related to the long-horned cattle of
+South Africa, but it is sometimes asserted that the long-horned
+South African cattle owe their main origin to
+the introduction of Spanish breeds by the Portuguese,
+the cattle met with by the first Europeans in South
+Africa having belonged to the humped zebu type.</p>
+
+<p>The Bahima once founded an empire which stretched
+from the northern limits of Unyoro and the Victoria
+Nile westward to the Congo Forest and southward
+to the coast of Tanganyika. This ancient Empire of
+Kitara split up into a number of states governed for
+the most part by Hima dynasties, though in Uganda
+the native kings became more and more Negro in aspect
+through their fathers’ intermarriage with Negro
+women. But for the most part friendly relations subsisted
+between all the states into which the Empire of
+Kitara was subdivided; it was only in more recent
+times that the existing blood feud sprang up between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span>
+Unyoro and Uganda. The Bahima were reverenced
+and admired by the mass of the Negro population as the
+descendants of supernatural beings who had brought to
+these lands what little civilisation they possessed. Intermarriage
+constantly took place between the dynasties
+of Buzinza, Usui, Karagwe, Ruanda, Mpororo,
+Ankole, Unyoro, and Uganda. This and other causes
+for intercommunication gave intelligent chiefs like
+Rumanika a considerable grasp of African geography.
+These chiefs knew that their world was bounded on
+the west by the impenetrable Congo Forest. They
+knew all about Tanganyika, the Victoria Nyanza, the
+Masai countries, the course of the Nile as far north
+as Gondokoro, and even the existence of Lake Rudolf.
+Perhaps also they had a glimmering knowledge not
+only of the “Turks” on the White Nile (which was
+the case), but also of the existence of men like themselves
+in Galaland and Abyssinia. Speke and subsequent
+travellers found these Hima sovereigns and their
+courts very different to the petty Negro states of East
+Africa. Besides the recognised king (a member of a
+long dynasty), there were regularly established Court
+officials and functionaries, and an orderly system of
+government. Travellers like Speke were not slow to
+appreciate the influence which this Gala invasion of
+equatorial Africa had on the Negro types. We now
+begin to feel that this Negrified Caucasian has interpenetrated
+most parts of Negro Africa between the
+Cameroons and Zanzibar, and between the northern
+limits of the Sudan and Natal. In the western prolongation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span>
+of Africa something like the same infiltration
+of a superior race has been brought about by the
+Tawareqs of the Sahara. This Libyan race is also of
+the Caucasian family, more directly so indeed than the
+curly-haired Gala, who, mixing with the Libyan, laid
+the foundation of Ancient Egyptian civilisation.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII"><span id="toclink_150"></span>CHAPTER XIII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">SPEKE IN UGANDA</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Speke</span> and Grant both seem to have taken the
+shape and existence of the Victoria Nyanza for
+granted. No doubt from the highlands of Karagwe
+and Buddu they occasionally caught glimpses of the
+distant Nyanza; besides which the chiefs and the
+Arabs spoke of its existence as a fact which could
+be ascertained by one or two days’ journey to the
+east. Speke was more concerned himself with losing
+no time in getting to the point at which the Nile left
+the Victoria Nyanza. He made little or no attempt
+to delineate the coast line of that lake with any accuracy,
+and as we know, he placed the west coast much
+too far to the east, reducing the lake to almost two-thirds
+of its actual area. Seeing how near he marched
+to the coast in Buddu, it is curious that he got no
+sight of the large archipelago of the Sese Islands,<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a>
+which can be sighted from a distance of many miles.
+There is no indication of these islands on his map.
+Apparently he made no attempts to check his computation
+of the altitude of the Victoria Nyanza, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span>
+in 1858 he computed at 3740 feet (an estimate not
+far off the correct one of 3775 feet). All the other
+altitudes taken by his boiling-point thermometer
+seem to be too low. His surmise that the Ripon Falls
+are only 3308 feet above sea-level is more than four
+hundred feet too low; and if his altitudes in northern
+Unyamwezi are correct (which I doubt), the waters
+of the Victoria Nyanza must be a huge, pent-up
+dam which would flood large tracts of German East
+Africa.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_151" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 34em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1501.jpg" width="2165" height="976" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Ripon Falls from the West Bank.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Grant had to be left behind in Karagwe, owing
+to an ulcerated leg. Speke decided upon going to
+Uganda alone, but despatched the head-man of his
+caravan, Baraka, with a companion to the north of
+Unyoro, providing him with a letter to Petherick.
+He himself entered Uganda (first of all Europeans
+to do so) on the 16th of January, 1862. He travelled
+along the coast country of Buddu, and soon began to
+appreciate the beauty of the land.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“I felt inclined to stop here a month, everything was so
+very pleasant. The temperature was perfect. The roads,
+as indeed they were everywhere, were as broad as our
+coach roads, cut through the long grasses, straight over
+the hills and down through the woods in the dells,—a
+strange contrast to the wretched tracks in all adjacent
+countries. The huts were kept so clean and so neat, not
+a fault could be found with them; the gardens the same.
+Wherever I strolled I saw nothing but richness, and what
+ought to be wealth. The whole land was a picture of
+quiescent beauty, with a boundless sea in the background.
+Looking over the hills, it struck the fancy at once that at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span>
+one period the whole land must have been at a uniform
+level with their present tops, but that, by the constant
+denudation it was subjected to by the frequent rains, it
+had been cut down and sloped into those beautiful hills
+and dales which now so much please the eye; for there
+were none of those quartz dykes I had seen protruding
+through the same kind of aqueous formations in Usui
+and Karagwe, nor were there any other sorts of volcanic
+disturbance to distort the quiet aspect of the scene.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="ip_152" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1522.jpg" width="1600" height="1276" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">A View in Uganda.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Speke found an Uganda not much smaller in area
+than that Negro kingdom is to-day. It lacked the
+large slices of Unyoro which were cut off and added
+to Uganda after the commencement of the British
+Protectorate, but it probably wielded a political influence
+over Busoga on the east and Toro on the
+west, since denied to it. The population of this kingdom
+in those days was computed at not far under
+four millions. Its administrators at the present time
+are doubtful if the same kingdom possesses eight hundred
+thousand inhabitants. The roads then were as
+broad and as well kept as they are now. It is sad to
+think that the people were possibly happier. True,
+their despotic ruler—whom they regarded with almost
+religious veneration—slaughtered and tortured
+those who frequented his Court; but the people at large
+were little affected by these deeds of cruelty, even if
+they did not regard them with that disinterested admiration
+which the Negro always accords to a display
+of force. Syphilis had wrought but slight ravages
+amongst them; indeed, it was a disease of but recent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span>
+introduction (coming from the Nile).<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a> No religious
+feuds had begun. The people believed their monarch
+to be the mightiest on earth, and themselves to
+be the happiest folk, living in a real paradise. For
+beauty the land can hardly be matched elsewhere in
+Africa. The one indisputable flaw in the climate is
+the frequency of dangerous thunderstorms. But for
+these reminders of a harsher law the Baganda might
+well have looked back on their life under Mutesa
+and his predecessors as one of ideal happiness. They
+had plenty to eat. Their banana groves provided the
+staple of their diet unfailingly. In addition, the rich
+soil grew such legumens and cereals as they required.
+The rivers, lakes, and marshes swarmed with fish.
+Cattle throve. Goats, sheep, and fowls were abundant.
+Bark cloth from the fig-trees and carefully
+dressed skins provided the clothing they were so
+scrupulous to wear; for they shuddered at open indecency,
+and yet led the most licentious lives, licentiousness
+then paying no penalty in the spread of
+malignant diseases. This would be the way in which
+the average Muganda might look back on the past.
+Of course there was another side to the picture, no
+doubt. The paradisaical, unmoral lives of easy indulgence
+in their banana groves ill fitted them in the
+long run to cope with the attacks of stronger races.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span>
+Fate led them under the British ægis after the country
+had been brought to something like ruin by ten
+years of civil war, and ten years of wretched misgovernment
+at the hands of a wicked sovereign. Had
+the British Protectorate not been declared, it is futile
+to suppose the country could have retained its independence.
+It would have been annexed by Germany
+or France, have been added to the Congo Free State
+or to the Egyptian Sudan.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> If by some miracle it
+had escaped any one of these masters, it would have
+fallen victim later on to the Abyssinian raiders of
+the present day.</p>
+
+<p>Speke found the country governed by a worshipped
+despot, Mutesa, who had just succeeded to a throne
+which had been in existence for something like four
+hundred and fifty years in an unbroken dynasty
+originally of Hima origin. This despot was a young
+man of agreeable countenance, with somewhat negroid
+features but a yellowish-brown skin. He had
+the large, liquid eyes characteristic of all the princes
+and princesses of this family. He lived in palaces
+which, though built of palm trunks, reeds, and grass
+were often imposing in appearance, with roofs rising
+to fifty feet above the ground. The interior of these
+dwellings had a raised floor of mud, hard as cement,
+and was divided into compartments by reed screens.
+The floor would be strewn with a soft carpet of fine
+fragrant grass, on which leopard skins and beautifully<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span>
+dressed ox-hides were laid down. The towns consisted
+mainly of collections of these straw-thatched dwellings
+surrounded by large gardens and banana groves, and
+fenced off from the outer world by tall reed fences so
+plaited as to produce an agreeably variegated aspect.
+Speke and his companion, and the Swahili porters
+with them, noticed the resemblance offered by this
+beautifully “tidy” country of Uganda to the civilised
+coast belt of Zanzibar. Negro savagery was far
+removed, especially in sanitary matters, where the
+arrangements were quite equal to those in force in
+England one hundred years ago. The religion of the
+country consisted of a worship paid to a large number
+of Ba-lubari or spirits, some of which were obviously
+ancestral, and others the personification of earth,
+air, or water forces.<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a> The ministers of this religion
+were the Ba-mandwa or sorcerer-priests. Originally
+these priests were of the Bahima stock. Indeed,
+this religion which prevails amongst so many tribes
+in western and equatorial Africa seems to have had
+(like the Bahima aristocracy) a Hamitic origin, and
+to have come originally from the regions east of the
+White Nile.</p>
+
+<p>Mutesa’s Court was remarkable for its hierarchy of
+officials. The principal minister is now the Katikiro,
+but was formerly styled Kamuraviona. He was formerly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span>
+the commander-in-chief, though now no longer
+associated with such office. Some functions were hereditary,
+such as the Pokino or Governor of Buddu;
+but these hereditary posts were formerly the recognition
+of the existence of feudatory princes. The Kimbugwe
+was formerly the guardian of the king’s navel
+string and the keeper of his drums. The Mugema was
+the commissioner in charge of the royal tombs; Kasuju
+was the guardian of the king’s sisters; Mukwenda
+was his treasurer; Kauta was the steward of
+his kitchen; Seruti his head brewer; and so forth. In
+course of time many of these functions were purely
+honorary. The system seems to have come, like so
+much else of the civilisation of Uganda, from the
+Hamitic invaders, and it bears a curious resemblance
+to the origin of similar functionaries in the courts of
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Society also was divided much as it is in our own
+world. There were the Royal Family and its collateral
+branches, known as Balángira, or princes. The
+princesses were called Bambeja. The Baronage was
+styled Bakungu. Then there was an upper class of
+functionaries known as Batongoli, while the peasants
+were classed as Bakopi.</p>
+
+<p>Speke—handsome, manly, kindly, and straightforward—became
+an immense favourite with the
+volatile tyrant of Uganda, with the queens (for there
+were several queens—dowagers, mothers, consorts—at
+once in Uganda), with the nobles, and with
+the people. “My beard,” he writes, “engrossed the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span>
+major part of most conversations; all the Baganda
+said they would come out in future with hairy faces.”
+The Royal Family of Uganda, he also remarks, gave
+orders without knowing how they were to be carried
+out, and treated all practical arrangements as trifling
+details not worth their attention; so that Speke and his
+caravan sometimes found themselves not very well off
+for food. The king or the queen-mother had said,
+“Let them be fed,” but ministers were not equally
+eager to see the royal largesse awarded. The handsome
+young king was extremely trying to deal with,
+as he put a great many questions and seldom waited
+for the answers. His slavish courtiers were constantly
+on their bellies, uttering incessant expressions of
+“Thank you very much” (“Niyanzi-ge”) for whatever
+their chief was pleased to do, say, or show to
+them. Not infrequently Speke intervened to save the
+lives of queens or pages who for a nothing were condemned
+to a cruel execution. On one occasion a picnic
+on the shores of the Victoria Nyanza was attended by
+the following incident. One of Mutesa’s <span class="locked">wives,—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="in0">“a most charming creature, and truly one of the best of
+the lot, plucked a fruit and offered it to the king, thinking,
+doubtless, to please him greatly; but he, like a madman,
+flew into a towering passion, said it was the first
+time a woman had ever had the impudence to offer him
+anything, and ordered the pages to seize, bind, and lead
+her off to execution. These words were no sooner uttered
+by the king than the whole bevy of pages slipped their
+cord turbans from their heads, and rushed like a pack
+of cupid beagles upon the fairy queen, who, indignant at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span>
+the little urchins daring to touch her majesty, remonstrated
+with the king, and tried to beat them off like flies,
+but was soon captured, overcome, and dragged away,
+crying on the names of the Kamuraviona and ‘Mzungu’
+(myself) for help and protection; whilst Lubuga, the
+pet sister, and all the other women clasped the king by his
+legs, and kneeling, implored forgiveness for their sister.
+The more they craved for mercy, the more brutal he became,
+till at last he took a heavy stick and began to belabour
+the poor victim on the head. Hitherto I had been
+extremely careful not to interfere with any of the king’s
+acts of arbitrary cruelty, knowing that such interference,
+at an early stage, would produce more harm than good.
+This last act of barbarism, however, was too much for
+my English blood to stand; and as I heard my name,
+‘Mzungu,’<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> imploringly pronounced, I rushed at the
+king, and staying his uplifted arm, demanded from him
+the woman’s life. Of course I ran imminent risk of
+losing my own in thus thwarting the capricious tyrant;
+but his caprice proved the friend of both. The novelty
+of interference even made him smile, and the woman was
+instantly released.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Speke had quitted Grant in January, 1862. The
+two travellers did not meet again till the end of May
+in the same year. Grant had been constantly ill, and
+had been unable to make any survey of the lake shore.
+It was not till the 7th of July that Speke and Grant
+obtained leave to quit the capricious king on their
+journey eastwards to the Nile. The day before they
+started Speke <span class="locked">notes:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“On the way home one of the king’s favourite women
+overtook us, walking, with her hands behind her head, to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span>
+execution, crying ‘Nyawo’ in the most pitiful manner.
+A man was preceding her, but did not touch her; for she
+loved to obey the orders of her king voluntarily, and in
+consequence of previous attachment was permitted as a
+mark of distinction to walk free. Wondrous world! It
+was not ten minutes since we parted from the king,
+yet he had found time to transact this bloody piece of
+business.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the following morning the king replied to
+Speke’s farewell remarks “with great feeling and
+good taste.” The king followed him with his courtiers
+in a procession to his camp, and exhorted the
+porters to follow the travellers through fire and water.
+“Then, exchanging adieus again, he walked ahead in
+gigantic strides up the hill, the pretty favourite of his
+harem, Lubuga, beckoning and waving with her little
+hands, and crying, ‘Bana! Bana!’<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> All showed
+a little feeling at the severance. We saw them no
+more.”</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV"><span id="toclink_160"></span>CHAPTER XIV<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">FROM VICTORIA NYANZA TO ALEXANDRIA</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap b"><span class="smcap1">On</span> the 28th of July, 1862, Speke stood by the
+side of the Ripon Falls, where the Victoria
+Nile leaves the great Nyanza at the head of Napoleon
+Gulf. Grant had gone off with a portion of the expedition
+on the more direct route to Unyoro. Speke
+had reached the Victoria Nile first of all below its exit
+from the lake, and describes the scene as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“It was the very perfection of the effect aimed at in
+a highly kept park, with a magnificent stream of from
+six to seven hundred yards wide, dotted with islets and
+rocks,—the former occupied by fishermen’s huts, the
+latter by birds and crocodiles basking in the sun,—flowing
+between fine, high grassy banks, with rich trees
+and plantains in the background, where herds of topi
+and hartebeest could be seen grazing, while the hippopotami
+were snorting in the water and bustards and
+guineafowl were rising at our feet.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="ip_160" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1601.jpg" width="1696" height="1291" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">The Nile at the Isamba Rapids</span> (looking North).</p>
+
+<p>Where Speke first struck it.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Marching up the left bank of the Nile towards
+the lake, he thus describes that river at the Isamba
+<span class="locked">rapids:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The water ran deep between its banks, which were
+covered with fine grass, soft cloudy acacia, and festoons
+of lilac convolvuli, whilst here and there, where the land<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span>
+had slipped above the rapids, bared spaces of red earth
+could be seen, like that of Devonshire; there, too, the
+waters, impeded by a natural dam, seemed like a huge
+mill pond, sullen and dark, in which two crocodiles, lying
+about, were looking out for prey. From the high banks
+I looked down upon a line of sloping wooded islets
+lying across the stream, which divide its waters, and, by
+interrupting them, cause at once both dam and rapids.
+The whole was more fairy-like, wild, and romantic than—I
+must confess that my thoughts took that shape—anything
+I ever saw outside of a theatre. It was exactly
+the sort of place, in fact, where, bridged across from one
+side-slip to the other, on a moonlight night, brigands
+would assemble to enact some dreadful tragedy. Even
+the Wangwana (Zanzibaris) seemed spellbound at the
+novel beauty of the sight, and no one thought of moving
+till hunger warned us that night was setting in, and we
+had better look out for lodgings.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Speke describes the Ripon Falls, where the Nile
+leaves the lake, as by far the most interesting sight
+he had ever seen in Africa. The falls are stemmed
+by rocky islands and crowned by magnificent trees.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“It was a sight that attracted one to it for hours,—the
+roar of the waters, the thousands of passenger-fish, leaping
+at the falls with all their might, the Basoga and
+Baganda fishermen coming out in boats and taking post
+on all the rocks with rod and hook, hippopotami and crocodiles
+lying sleepily on the water, the ferry at work above
+the falls, and cattle driven down to drink at the margin
+of the lake. The scene made, in all, with the pretty nature
+of the country,—small hills, grassy-topped, with trees<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span>
+in the folds, and gardens on the lower slopes,—as interesting
+a picture as one could wish to see.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This was Speke’s furthest point eastward in connection
+with Nile discovery. He confesses in his
+book that he has missed much by not going through
+Busoga to see the northeast corner of the lake. Had
+he done so, he might have cleared up at the very beginning
+the most disputed portion of that lake’s
+geography. At the northeast corner of the Victoria
+Nyanza is a long and narrow gulf which we now
+term Kavirondo Bay. This gulf figures on Speke’s
+map as a semi-independent Lake Baringo. Stanley,
+in his circumnavigation, wholly overlooked it, as its
+mouth is blocked by islands. Joseph Thompson read
+a quarter of the riddle. One-half was guessed by Mr.
+C.&nbsp;W. Hobley, and the remaining quarter was cleared
+up by an expedition under Commander Whitehouse.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_162" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1621.jpg" width="1207" height="1146" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Ripon Falls, from Bugunga, where Speke first
+saw them.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>These falls of the Nile were named after the Earl
+de Grey and Ripon, then President of the Royal
+Geographical Society; and the gulf of the Victoria
+Nyanza, from which the Nile issued, was called Napoleon
+Channel after the then Emperor of the French.
+Speke and his party, with their Baganda guides, got
+into canoes, and paddled some distance down the Nile
+north of the Isamba rapids. But just as they were
+nearing Lake Kioga (of whose existence Speke was
+ignorant) they passed an important town on the left
+bank of the Nile which was an outpost of Unyoro,
+under a semi-independent chief. Here the party was
+received with the greatest hostility, and obliged to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span>
+give up the river route. Speke struck inland to the
+waters of the Luajali, which he wrongly believed to
+be another outlet of the Victoria Nyanza, and shortly
+afterwards met Grant, who was on his return journey
+from the capital of Unyoro. After some hesitation
+they decided to join forces and march on Unyoro overland.
+By this means they entirely lost count of the
+course of the Victoria Nile for some distance, and of
+the existence of the great lakes Kioga and Kwania.
+As they crossed the boundary line and entered Unyoro,
+Speke <span class="locked">writes:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“This first march was a picture of all the country to
+its capital: an interminable forest of small trees, bush,
+and tall grass, with scanty villages, low huts, and dirty-looking
+people clad in skins; the plantain, sweet potato,
+sesamum, and ulezi (millet) forming the chief edibles,
+besides goats and fowls; whilst the cows, which are
+reported to be numerous, were kept, as everywhere else
+where pasture-lands are good, by the wandering, unsociable
+Wahuma, and were seldom seen. No hills, except
+a few scattered cones, disturb the level surface of the land,
+and no pretty views ever cheer the eye. Uganda is now
+entirely left behind; we shall not see its like again; for the
+further one leaves the equator, and the rain-attracting
+influences of the Mountains of the Moon, vegetation
+decreases proportionately with the distance.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="ip_163" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1624.jpg" width="1178" height="1210" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">View of Napoleon Gulf, from Jinja.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Speke had sent on, many months in advance, his
+head-man, Baraka, to await him in Unyoro, and possibly
+to convey letters to Petherick. But for this action
+in all probability a peaceful entry into Unyoro
+would have been refused, as the Baganda were much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span>
+detested there for their predatory raids. Kamurasi,
+King of Unyoro, was very nearly as big a scoundrel
+and as inhospitable to strangers as his son Kabarega,
+who is now residing in the Seychelles Islands. After
+innumerable difficulties caused by the caprices of Mutesa
+and the jealousies subsisting between the Baganda
+and Banyoro, and the fierce suspicions of Kamurasi,
+they reached the capital of that monarch who considered
+himself to be the legitimate emperor over all
+the lands once ruled by the Bahima race. This capital
+was situated then on a peninsula between the Kafu
+River and the Nile, on what is now the soil of Uganda.
+The Kafu River, which is a broad, marshy stream rising
+not far from the Albert Nyanza, is the present
+boundary between the two kingdoms. Speke wrongly
+believed it to be another outlet of the Nile.</p>
+
+<p>For nine days Speke and his companion were kept
+waiting before the suspicious king could make up his
+mind to see them. From the 9th of September to the
+9th of November the whole expedition was detained
+at the Court of this greedy tyrant. At his Court they
+heard of the existence of a large lake, “Lutanzige,” to
+the west,<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> and asked permission to go and see it. This
+was refused, and thus another opportunity of adding
+an important piece of information to Nile discovery
+was denied to Speke, who could have travelled to and
+from the coast of Lake Albert in three weeks instead
+of wasting two months at Kamurasi’s Court. However,
+during this long stay Speke managed to send<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span>
+Bombay with some of Kamurasi’s men down the
+Nile and through the Lango and Acholi countries to
+Petherick’s outpost. After Bombay’s return with
+this cheering news, Speke was more than ever impatient
+to get away. Kamurasi attempted to delay the
+departure under one pretext or another, no doubt
+with the object of bleeding the expedition of more
+and more gifts. At last, on the 9th of November,
+they descended the Kafu River to its junction with the
+Nile, and found themselves on the broad Nile, still
+lake-like in extent, owing to the vicinity of Lake
+Kioga. In this manner, some travelling by canoe and
+some by land, they reached the Karuma Falls, from
+which point they left the Nile, marching across the
+marshy and then steppe-like countries of the Acholi,
+and came first into touch with the influence of Egypt
+at Faloro, on the borders of the Madi country. Here
+they met a Sudanese named Muhammad Wad-el-Mek,—quite
+black, but dressed like an Egyptian and talking
+Arabic. Muhammad was in command of some
+two hundred Sudanese, who, by their association with
+Egypt, were known as Turks by the natives. Muhammad
+Wad-el-Mek at first professed to be Petherick’s
+employé, and then confessed that he was really
+the head-man of a Maltese trader named De Bono.
+These were the men that Petherick had arranged
+with De Bono were to come into touch with Speke’s
+expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Here, however, they met with some disappointment.
+Instead of being allowed to proceed directly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span>
+to Gondokoro, Muhammad Wad-el-Mek sought to
+detain them by alleging that no boats would be
+waiting for them at Gondokoro at that season (December).
+The usual heart-breaking delays took place.
+Speke decided from this point (Faloro) to send back
+Kijwiga,—a fairly faithful Unyoro guide, who had
+been with him now, one way and the other, about a
+year, having originally been sent to greet him in
+Uganda. Meantime Muhammad, De Bono’s agent,
+went off to the southward with his men to fight one
+African chief on behalf of another so as to secure a
+large quantity of ivory.</p>
+
+<p>Speke was shocked, during his stay in Unyoro, at
+the abominable way in which the “Turks” treated
+the inoffensive Madi natives. At last, on the 12th of
+January, 1863, Speke, disgusted and hopeless at the
+delay, started ahead to a village called Panyoro. He
+was followed up by Muhammad’s men, and they arrived
+at the Nile near the modern station of Afuddu
+(close to the junction of the river Asua and the Nile).
+At this place they found a tree with the letters M.&nbsp;I.
+inscribed on its bark. This was the remains of an
+attempt on the part of the Venetian traveller Miani
+to carve his name on a tree so as to give some information
+to Speke, who had long been expected in this
+direction. At this place there was another halt, which
+Speke and Grant employed in killing game, and giving
+a great deal of the meat thus acquired to the natives.</p>
+
+<p>On the first of February they started again, Muhammad
+having procured porters by the most arbitrary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span>
+methods. They followed the Nile down to the confluence
+of the Asua River. This stream Speke imagined
+to flow out of what we now call Kavirondo Bay. It
+is strange that so great a geographer should have had
+such elementary notions about hydrography. He gives
+the Victoria Nyanza something like four principal outlets,
+much as the Portuguese in earlier days provided
+lakes in the centre of Africa which fed impartially the
+Congo, the Nile, and the Zambezi. Crossing the Asua,
+they emerged along the Nile rapids until they arrived
+at the verge of the Bari country. One serious attack
+was made on them, but was met by the determined
+measures taken by Muhammad.</p>
+
+<p>At last, on the 15th of February, 1863, they walked
+into Gondokoro. Here their first inquiry was for
+Petherick. “A mysterious silence ensued; we were
+informed that Mr. De Bono was the man we had to
+thank for the assistance we had received in coming
+from Madi.” Hurrying down through the ruins of
+the abandoned Austrian Mission to the bank of the
+river, where a line of vessels was moored, the explorers
+suddenly saw Mr. Samuel Baker marching
+towards them. “What joy this was I cannot tell.
+We could not talk fast enough, so overwhelmed were
+we both to meet again.”<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Samuel Baker had conceived the idea of going
+to meet Speke at the head waters of the Nile. He and
+his wife (the present Lady Baker) arrived at Khartum,
+and there received much information and assistance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span>
+from Petherick in the furtherance of their work.
+As to Petherick himself, he arrived with his wife also
+a few days after Speke reached Gondokoro. Speke
+seems to have been rather hard on this man. We
+know that Petherick went up the river to Gondokoro
+in 1862, expecting to get news of Speke, and not imagining
+that he could have lost something like a year
+of travel by his delays in Unyamwezi, Uganda, and
+Unyoro. Being unable to remain indefinitely at Gondokoro
+without news of the travellers, he arranged
+with De Bono to send Muhammad and his men in
+the direction of Unyoro to found a post where Speke
+might be awaited. As we know, these orders were
+carried out. Petherick was naturally obliged to think
+of his own means of livelihood, for he was an unpaid
+consul. He therefore went on an ivory-trading expedition
+west of the Mountain Nile, knowing, of
+course, that Baker would be awaiting the travellers,
+and that runners from the direction of Gondokoro
+would keep him advised as to their approach. He
+and his wife reached Gondokoro only a few days after
+Speke had arrived there. Speke, however, refused
+all assistance at their hands, and decided to return to
+Khartum on Baker’s dahabiah. Speke’s adverse report
+on Petherick, combined with the intrigues of the
+Turks, who disliked his opposition to the slave-trade,
+practically ruined Petherick, as we have seen in a
+previous chapter.</p>
+
+<p>The journey of this wonderful expedition from Gondokoro
+down the Nile (Speke mistaking the origin and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span>
+course of its affluents as he went along, so that his
+map in this respect is very incorrect) was broken at
+Khartum, whence the Europeans and Negroes travelled
+across the desert to Egypt. Of the hundred-odd
+porters who left Zanzibar with this expedition
+in 1860, nineteen (including Bombay) reached Cairo
+with Speke and Grant, the remainder having deserted,
+died, or been sent back from various points. These
+survivors were generously treated by Speke, who gave
+them an extra year’s pay as a gratuity, and orders for
+land and marriage portions on their reaching Zanzibar.
+He also provided for their free passage from Suez
+to Zanzibar via the Seychelles Islands. Somehow or
+other they went on by mistake to Mauritius, where
+they were treated most generously by the little colony.
+Thence they were sent in safety to Zanzibar. From
+this point several of these men subsequently journeyed
+with Stanley and other African explorers. Bombay,
+“Captain of the Faithful,” died in 1886 (?), having
+been in receipt during the last years of his life of a
+regular pension from the Royal Geographical Society.</p>
+
+<p>Speke and Grant returned to England in the spring
+of 1863. By December in that year Speke had finished
+his great book, the “Discovery of the Source of the
+Nile.” Speke, soon after his return, was received by
+the present king. In the autumn of 1863 he was
+given an ovation in the county of Somerset worthy of
+his achievements. “Punch” accorded him a cartoon
+drawn by Tenniel, but the British government
+did <em>nothing</em> for him, unless there can be attributed to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span>
+its influence the paltry satisfaction of granting to him
+through the Heralds College supporters and an additional
+motto to his coat of arms. By this grant his
+family is now entitled to add a hippopotamus and a
+crocodile as supporters to their shield, a crocodile to
+their crest, the flowing Nile to their coat of arms, and
+the additional motto, “Honor est a Nilo.”</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_170" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1702_map.jpg" width="1617" height="2314" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_1702_map_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">The last Map issued to Illustrate Speke’s Theories, 1865.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Meantime Burton had become a British consul on
+the West Coast of Africa, and was returning to
+England in 1864. Speke had published articles in
+“Blackwood” and a book which, as already related,
+made uncomplimentary references to his former companion.
+The two great travellers were invited to meet
+at the British Association at Bath in 1864 and discuss
+their different views as to the Nile sources; for
+Burton, as a tit-for-tat, had published a work in collaboration
+with Petherick, in which he sought to
+prove that Speke’s discovery of the Victoria Nyanza
+was unimportant. Taking advantage of the traveller’s
+admission that he had touched but seldom the
+shores of this great lake, he denied its existence, and
+reduced it to a mere assemblage of pools and swamps.
+Speke, before quitting Baker at Gondokoro, had told
+him much of the Luta Nzige or Western Lake which
+had some connection with the Nile, and Baker (as will
+be subsequently set forth) had followed Speke’s indications
+with success, and discovered and named the
+Albert Nyanza. His exaggeration of the length of
+this sheet of water had convinced Burton that Speke
+was altogether mistaken, and that he himself was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span>
+wrong in having earlier stated that the Rusizi River
+flowed into and not out of the north end of Tanganyika.
+(Neither Speke nor Burton actually saw the
+Rusizi.) Burton therefore turned the Rusizi into an
+effluent of Tanganyika, and made it a connection between
+that lake and the Albert Nyanza. Had he had
+any glimmerings of lakes Kivu, Albert Edward, and
+the Semliki, he would no doubt have been still more
+certain of his hypothesis. As it was, Speke’s theories
+have been shown subsequently to have been very near
+the whole truth. The Victoria Nyanza is the main
+source of the Nile, though that river finds another
+reservoir in the great swampy lakes of Kioga and
+Kwania (which again receive much of the drainage
+of Mount Elgon), and a most important contribution
+from the Albert Nyanza; for this last lake is the receptacle
+of all the drainage of the Ruwenzori snow
+range. At the time, however, Speke’s theory was not
+sufficiently supported by evidence, and was certainly
+open to attack, the more so because he had blundered
+by giving the Victoria Nyanza so many outlets. The
+two great men were to meet and discuss their differences,
+and every one knew that underneath a mere
+dispute on geographical theories lay deep-seated bitterness
+of feeling. It was said that Speke, who hated
+quarrelling, and perhaps felt some compunction as to
+the frankness of his remarks concerning Burton,
+looked forward to this public meeting with great dislike,
+the more so as he was a poor and unready public
+speaker. But the intended conference was never to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span>
+come off; on the 21st of September, 1864, Speke,
+whilst out partridge-shooting on his father’s land at
+Jordans, near Ilminster, was scrambling over a stile
+with his gun at full-cock. It was just one of those
+little imprudences that even the wariest of African
+travellers commits when he returns to civilisation.
+Both barrels of the gun were discharged into his
+body, and he died within a few hours. The news
+was received by the British Association at Bath just
+as the meeting was about to commence, and as Burton
+was seated awaiting the arrival of his old comrade.
+This terrible event hushed the difference between them.
+Burton’s wife, a gifted woman, who sometimes wrote
+very good poetry, inscribed some very beautiful lines
+to the memory of Speke.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_172" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1722.jpg" width="1602" height="2287" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Speke’s Handwriting.</span></p>
+
+<p>(Letter to Laurence Oliphant.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>We take leave here of one of the greatest of African
+explorers, the second greatest only, if Stanley is to
+be accounted the first. Only a man of extraordinary
+energy, determination, bravery, tact, and of iron constitution
+could have struggled through the difficulties
+which beset Speke on his route from Zanzibar to the
+Victoria Nyanza, and from the Victoria Nyanza to
+the navigable Nile. The purport of the expedition
+was wellnigh wrecked between Unyamwezi and the
+Victoria Nyanza; it ran many risks from the caprices
+of Mutesa; several times Kamurasi threatened it with
+failure in Unyoro; other dangers awaited it in the
+Madi and Bari countries, but it finally resulted in
+affording us the main solution of the Nile Quest. As
+the outcome of Speke’s journey, the Victoria Nyanza<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span>
+was placed on the map with some approximate correctness
+as to shape and area; the shape and size of
+Lake Albert Nyanza were guessed at with extraordinary
+accuracy, and the course of the White and Mountain
+Nile was foreshadowed with the same amount of
+truth as in the case of the Albert Nyanza. The remarkable
+Hima aristocracy of equatorial Africa and
+the barbaric court of Uganda were revealed to the
+world. Speke broke the back of the Nile mystery,
+just as Stanley did that of the Congo. It only remained
+henceforth to fill up the minor details of the
+map.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV"><span id="toclink_174"></span>CHAPTER XV<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">SAMUEL BAKER AND THE ALBERT NYANZA</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap b"><span class="smcap1">Samuel White Baker</span> was born in London
+on the 8th June, 1821, and was the second
+and eventually eldest son of Mr. Samuel Baker,
+a city merchant, who possessed large properties
+and sugar plantations in Jamaica and Mauritius.
+Samuel Baker, the elder, at one time maintained a
+small fleet of sailing vessels. He also became one
+of the first Directors of the Great Western Railway.
+His family and grandfather were mainly settled at
+Bristol, and were much connected with the navy in
+the eighteenth century. Further back still the Bakers
+were members of Parliament and Court officials. They
+came originally from London, then became a Kentish
+family, then moved to Dorsetshire, then to Bristol,
+and finally back again to London. Samuel Baker, the
+younger, was a typical English boy. His biographer,
+Mr. Douglas Murray, describes him as having been
+“of the Saxon type; a noble-looking boy, of very fair
+complexion, light hair, and fearless blue eyes.” He
+was “enterprising, mischievous, for ever getting into
+scrapes, and leading others into them; but he was
+never known to tell a lie or do a mean thing.” His<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span>
+career was very nearly brought to a premature close
+when he was twelve years old by an attempt to make
+fireworks. He ignited a small heap of gunpowder on
+the kitchen table, and caused a terrible explosion, which
+blew him to the far end of the room and burnt his
+arm severely.</p>
+
+<p>He hated school, and received most of his education
+from a private tutor and by a residence at
+Frankfurt in Germany. His father attempted to put
+him in his London office; and this work, though
+excessively irksome, was endured for a time, as he
+had early fallen in love with the daughter of a
+Gloucestershire rector, whom he married when he
+was only twenty-two. Soon after his marriage he
+went out to Mauritius with his wife, to attempt the
+management of his father’s estates in that island.
+But he was restless and dissatisfied with this career;
+moreover, his three children, born in three years, all
+died. He therefore started for Ceylon, to which island
+he was attracted by the stories of big-game shooting.
+His interest was excited in the splendid mountain region
+of the interior of Ceylon, which presents considerable
+areas for European occupations between six
+thousand and eight thousand feet in altitude. Here
+for nine years he worked at founding an English settlement
+of planters, which exists to this day in a
+flourishing condition, some of the land-owners being
+members of the Baker family. But his wife, who
+bore him many children, suffered greatly in health.
+In 1855 he returned to England, and wrote a book<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span>
+on Ceylon. At the end of that year his wife died,
+and Baker, after leaving his young children to be
+brought up in England, started for Constantinople,
+which he reached at the close of the Crimean War.
+His idea was to travel in Circassia, and see what advance
+in that direction Russia was making towards
+India; but he spent several years in a rather objectless
+fashion, shooting, fishing, and exploring in Asia
+Minor and Turkey in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In 1859 he settled down as Manager-General of
+a British-made railway from the Danube to the
+Black Sea. Whilst this railway was being made
+he met in Hungary the lady who became his second
+wife.<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> The railway was completed in 1860, and
+Baker once more became restless. Big-game shooting
+in Asia Minor—splendid as it seems to have
+been at that period, when he could shoot as many
+bears, boars, wolves, red deer, and roe deer as he
+wished—did not content him; his thoughts turned
+towards Africa and the Nile. He arrived at Cairo with
+Mrs. Baker in 1861, with the idea of travelling up the
+Nile to meet Speke and Grant coming from Zanzibar
+via the Victoria Nyanza.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_176" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1762.jpg" width="1406" height="1973" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<p class="floatl"><cite>Photo by Maull &amp; Fox.</cite>]</p>
+
+<p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Samuel Baker, 1865.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>But Baker resolved, before attempting anything so
+difficult as the exploration of the White Nile above
+Gondokoro, to learn something of African travel and
+Sudanese Arabic. He therefore left the main Nile at
+Berber and ascended the Atbara River, the last affluent
+which the Nile receives on its way to the Mediterranean;<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span>
+the first running river encountered by the
+traveller ascending the Nile that can be said to flow
+through tropical Africa,—the Africa with the typical
+Ethiopian fauna and flora.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“After a scorching march of about twenty miles we
+arrived at the junction of the Atbara River with the Nile
+[writes Baker]; throughout the route the barren sand
+stretched to the horizon on the left, while on the right,
+within a mile of the Nile, the soil was sufficiently rich to
+support a certain amount of vegetation, chiefly dwarf
+mimosas and the <i class="taxonomy">Asclepia gigantea</i>.... The Atbara
+has a curious appearance; in no part was it less than four
+hundred yards in width, while in many places this breadth
+was much exceeded. The banks were from twenty-five
+to thirty feet deep: these had evidently been overflowed
+during floods, but at the present time the river was dead,
+not only partially dry, but so glaring was the sandy bed
+that the reflection of the sun was almost unbearable.
+Great numbers of the <i class="taxonomy">Dum</i> palm (<i class="taxonomy">Hyphæne thebaica</i>)
+grew upon the banks.... The only shade there is afforded
+by the evergreen Dum palms.... Many pools
+were of considerable size and great depth. In flood time
+a tremendous torrent sweeps down the course of the
+Atbara, and the sudden bends of the river are hollowed
+out by the force of the stream to a depth of twenty or
+thirty feet below the level of the bed. Accordingly, these
+hollows become reservoirs of water when the river is
+otherwise exhausted.... These pools are full of life, huge
+fish, crocodiles of immense size, turtles, and occasionally
+hippopotami.... The animals of the desert gazelles,
+hyaenas, and wild asses—are compelled to resort
+to these crowded drinking places.... Innumerable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span>
+doves, varying in species, throng the trees and seek the
+shelter of the Dum palms; thousands of sand grouse
+arrive morning and evening to drink and to depart.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the pools of the Atbara Baker for the first time
+shot hippopotamuses. He also started fishing with a
+rod and line, and on one occasion caught an enormous
+“turtle.”<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a></p>
+
+<p>At the end of June they were nearly suffocated with
+the heat and dust of the Sudan summer, but they were
+to experience the effects of the melting of Abyssinian
+snows and of the descent of the tropical rains on that
+African Switzerland. On the 24th of June Baker was
+lying half asleep on his bed by the margin of the river
+when he fancied he heard a rumbling sound like distant
+thunder. This roar increased in volume till it
+awoke his Arabs, who rushed into the camp shouting,
+“The river! The river!”</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“We were up in an instant, and my interpreter in a
+state of intense confusion exclaimed that the river was
+coming down, and that the supposed distant thunder
+was the roar of approaching water.... Many of the
+people were sleeping on the clean sand of the river’s bed,
+and were only just in time to reach the top of the steep
+bank before the water was on them in the darkness....
+The river had arrived ‘like a thief in the night.’ When
+morning broke I stood upon the banks of a noble river,
+the wonder of the desert! Yesterday there was a barren
+sheet of glaring sand with a fringe of withered bush and
+trees upon its borders.... No bush could boast of a
+leaf, no tree could throw a shade: crisp gum crackled<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span>
+upon the stems of the mimosas.... In one night there
+was a mysterious change.... An army of water was
+hastening to the wasted river, which had become a magnificent
+stream some five hundred yards in width and
+fifteen to twenty feet in depth. Bamboos and reeds with
+trash of all kinds were hurried along the muddy waters....
+I realised what had occurred: the rains were falling
+and the snows were melting in Abyssinia. These were
+the main source of the Nile floods.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Baker left the Atbara in a land of wild asses and
+gazelles, and travelled to Kassala,—a fortress of the
+eastern Sudan since rendered famous by the struggle
+for its possession between Dervishes and Italians.
+Kassala is situated on the right bank of the river
+Mareb, which rises close to the Red Sea on the northern
+slopes of the Abyssinian plateau. The Mareb
+has every intention of reaching the Nile, or rather
+the Atbara, and no doubt did so in past epochs; but
+at the present time northwards of Kassala it loses
+itself in the desert.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“There was an extraordinary change [writes Baker]
+in the appearance of the river between Gozerajup and this
+spot. There was no longer the vast sandy desert with the
+river flowing through its sterile course on a level with the
+surface of the country, but after traversing an apparently
+perfect flat of forty-five miles of rich alluvial soil, we
+suddenly arrived upon the edge of a deep valley, between
+five and six miles wide, at the bottom of which, about two
+hundred feet below the general level of the country,
+flowed the river Atbara. On the opposite side of the
+valley, the same vast table-lands continued to the western
+horizon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span></p>
+
+<p>“We commenced the descent towards the river; the
+valley was a succession of gullies and ravines, of landslips
+and watercourses; the entire hollow of miles in
+width had evidently been the work of the river. How
+many ages had the rains and the stream been at work to
+scoop out from the flat tableland this deep and broad
+valley? Here was the giant labourer that had shovelled
+the rich loam upon the delta of lower Egypt! Upon these
+vast flats of fertile soil there can be no drainage except
+through soakage. The deep valley is therefore the receptacle
+not only for the water that oozes from its sides,
+but subterranean channels bursting as land-springs from
+all parts of the walls of the valley, wash down the more
+soluble portions of the earth, and continually waste away
+the soil. Landslips occur during the rainy season;
+streams of rich mud pour down the valley’s slopes, and
+as the river flows beneath in a swollen torrent, the friable
+banks topple down into the stream and dissolve. The
+Atbara becomes the thickness of pea-soup, as its muddy
+waters steadily perform the duty they have fulfilled from
+age to age. Thus was the great river at work upon our
+arrival on its banks at the bottom of the valley. The Arab
+name, ‘Bahr-al-Aswad’ (black river), was well bestowed.
+It was the black mother of Egypt, still carrying to her
+offspring the nourishment that had formed the Delta.</p>
+
+<p>“At this point of interest the journey had commenced;
+the deserts were passed, all was fertility and life; wherever
+the sources of the Nile might be, the Atbara was the
+parent of Egypt! This was my first impression, to be
+proved hereafter.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Baker gives a fine description of the splendid type
+of Arab who is still found in the regions of the
+<span class="locked">Atbara:—</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“He was the most magnificent specimen of an Arab
+that I have ever seen. Although upwards of eighty years
+of age, he was as erect as a lance, and did not appear more
+than between fifty and sixty; he was of Herculean stature,
+about six feet three inches high, with immensely
+broad shoulders and chest, a remarkably arched nose;
+eyes like an eagle, beneath large, shaggy, but perfectly
+white eyebrows; a snow-white beard of great thickness
+descended below the middle of his breast. He wore a
+white turban, and a white cashmere abbai or long robe,
+from the throat to the ankles. As a desert patriarch he
+was superb, the very perfection of all that the imagination
+could paint, if we would personify Abraham at the head
+of his people.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This fine old Sheikh brought ten of his sons, most
+of them as tall as himself. He seems to have been
+the father of many children,—a fortunate circumstance
+for the country, though no doubt nearly all
+of his stalwart descendants were extirpated in the
+miserable wars following on the Mahdi’s revolt.</p>
+
+<p>Baker ascended the Atbara to its upper waters,
+where it is known as the Settit (higher up still as
+the Takaze). Here he had magnificent hunting of
+big game amongst the Hamran Arabs, whose extraordinary
+prowess with the sword he describes most
+vividly. They would follow up elephants and hamstring
+them with a single blow of their long weapons,
+which were like those of the Crusaders. (As a matter
+of fact, the generality of the Hamran swords were
+manufactured at Sollingen in Germany.) In this land
+Baker saw innumerable giraffes, and most of the big<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span>
+antelopes of Central Africa, including Kudu and Oryx.
+The country about the Upper Atbara below the Abyssinian
+highlands was exactly like an English park,
+though the trees were mainly acacias. Here and there
+was a gigantic baobab. In the waters of the river was
+found the now well-known Lung-fish, the <i class="taxonomy">Protopterus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>From the upper waters of the Atbara and its many
+tributaries Baker, skirting the western terraces of
+Abyssinia, reached the river Rahad,—an Egyptian
+affluent of the Blue Nile which flows nearly parallel
+to the river Dinder. These two streams rise
+on the western flanks of the Abyssinian tableland, and
+enter the Blue Nile about one hundred miles southeast
+of Khartum. On his way down this river Baker,
+in the country of Galabat, met two German lay missionaries
+proceeding to Abyssinia in spite of the objection
+expressed to their presence by King Theodore.
+“One of these preachers was a blacksmith, whose iron
+constitution had entirely given way, and the little
+strength that remained he exhausted in endless quotations
+of texts from the Bible, which he considered
+applicable to every trifling event or expression.”</p>
+
+<p>In June, 1862, the Bakers reached Khartum. After
+a long stay at the Pethericks’ house, Baker decided,
+as already related, to go in search of Speke. His
+wife, the present Lady Baker, accompanied him. As
+already related, she was a Hungarian lady of great
+beauty, and possessed of extraordinary courage. Her
+fame as “<em>the</em> Lady” (Es-sitt) still lingers among the
+Nile Negroes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span></p>
+
+<p>It has already been shown that Baker succeeded in
+being the first European to greet Speke and Grant.
+He received from these travellers the legacy to complete
+their task of ascertaining definitely the existence
+of the western Nile lake (Albert), of which Speke had
+heard under the name of Luta Nzige. On the 26th
+of March, 1863, the Bakers left Gondokoro on this
+errand.</p>
+
+<p>Muhammad Wad-al-Mek, De Bono’s agent, and all
+the other Nubian Nile traders, did their very utmost to
+prevent Baker returning along Speke’s route through
+the Bari country. They incited his Khartum men to
+mutiny. Baker, being unable to obtain porters, owing
+to the excessive hostility of the slave-traders, employed
+the camels he had brought with him from Khartum for
+his transport. As the slave-traders had threatened, if
+he followed in their footsteps, to raise the natives
+about him, he determined to reach the back country of
+Lotuka first, and therefore deliberately strewed some
+of his goods in the way so as to delay the slave-traders,
+who stopped to pick them up. He was outdone
+at his own game, for a large caravan of “Turks”
+reached the Elliria country nearly as soon as he did.
+The leader of this expedition was one Ibrahim. Mrs.
+Baker resolved to see what could be done by a direct
+appeal to whatever the man might possess of generosity.
+The Bakers threatened that if he did them
+harm he would probably be hung at Khartum, while
+if he assisted them to see this lake, they would see
+he was well rewarded. The result was that a truce<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span>
+was patched up between the slave-traders and Baker’s
+small expedition. Nevertheless, a mutiny happened
+among Baker’s camel-men in the vicinity of Lotuka.
+Some of these men ran away and joined a slave-trading
+party, which, however, was massacred by the
+Lotuka. Henceforth Baker’s few men stuck to him
+faithfully, in terror of what might happen to them
+from his evil eye.</p>
+
+<p>Baker journeyed southward through the splendid
+Lotuka country,—a land of which we know even
+now scarcely more than he told us forty years ago.
+The Lotuka people are a splendid race of Negroids,
+with a good deal more Gala blood in their veins than
+is the case with the Masai, to whom they are closely
+allied in language, but who dwell very much farther
+to the east and south. Since the days of Baker’s
+adventure some of the Lotuka have become Muhammadans,
+and they are no longer completely nude in
+consequence. Their country is a very mountainous
+one, and on the whole well watered. It will probably
+play a considerable part in the future of the Uganda
+Protectorate. Working steadily south through the
+Madi and Acholi countries, the Bakers forded the
+Asua, the great southeastern tributary of the Mountain
+Nile. Here nearly all their porters deserted,
+and as their camels had died in the Madi country,
+they were obliged to abandon all loads which were
+not absolutely necessary,—such as ammunition, and
+presents for Kamurasi.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_184" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1842.jpg" width="1267" height="1982" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Native of Unyoro.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>At length they arrived at the Karuma Falls on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span>
+Victoria Nile, and entered Unyoro. Their first reception
+in Unyoro was hostile, because Muhammad
+Wad-al-Mek had preceded them, and had made the
+worst impression by his treatment of the Banyoro.
+At first Baker desired to follow the Nile down stream
+till it entered the Albert Nyanza, but the Banyoro
+would not allow him to do anything of the kind, or
+to make any journey off the main road along the
+Victoria Nile to Kamurasi’s capital. Contrary to their
+anticipations, Kamurasi received the Bakers well; and
+this was the more fortunate, as Mr. Baker was very
+nearly dead with fever. But Kamurasi soon showed
+his evil nature. He refused to allow Baker to proceed
+due west to the Albert Nyanza, declaring that
+lake was distant a six months’ journey. Ibrahim, the
+slave and ivory trader, had purchased all the goods
+he required, and had left Unyoro. All Baker’s porters,
+except thirteen, had deserted. Finding, however,
+there was nothing more to be got out of Baker, Kamurasi
+relented, accepted a double-barrelled gun, and sent
+off the explorer and his wife with two guides and an
+escort of three hundred men. This escort, however,
+was soon sent back, owing to their unruly behaviour.
+Somehow or other, with such porters as could be
+procured from village to village, they managed, in
+the teeth of fearful misfortunes, to reach the Albert
+Nyanza at a place called Mbakovia, on the southeast
+coast. On this journey Mrs. Baker nearly died from
+sunstroke, and Baker himself was frightfully ill. But
+on the 16th of March, 1864, they had discovered a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span>
+great lake “with a boundless sea-horizon to the southwards,”
+which they named the Albert Nyanza.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of Baker’s visit no doubt (though he
+does not say so) there was a good deal of mist about
+this lake,—a common feature. The mist and the
+clouds seem to have prevented the travellers from
+getting any glimpse of the mass of the Ruwenzori
+snow-range which lay not many miles distant from
+them to the south. They also believed (though they
+were then a day’s journey from the end of the lake)
+that there was a boundless sea-horizon to the south.
+Their misapprehension of the geography of this lake
+has often caused surprise; but apart from a natural
+tendency to exaggerate the importance of their
+own particular lake, in looking to the southward they
+were looking up the broad valley of the Semliki, which
+was undoubtedly at one time—at any rate for a distance
+of some fifty miles—a southern extension
+of the Albert Nyanza. This valley was bordered on
+either side by cliff-like mountains—plateau edges—continued
+northwards along the coasts of the Albert
+Lake. To the west of Lake Albert the plateau tilts
+westwards towards the Congo basin. Baker called the
+western cliffs and the foothills of Ruwenzori the Blue
+Mountains,—a name they might very well continue to
+bear, as there is no native designation for these heights,
+which separate so abruptly and by only a few miles
+the basin of the Congo from the basin of the Nile.</p>
+
+<p>After a short stay at Mbakovia, the Bakers got
+into canoes and coasted along the Albert Nyanza to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span>
+Magungo, where the lake is entered by the Victoria
+Nile. They ascended the Victoria Nile and discovered
+the Murchison Falls, “where the river drops in
+one leap one hundred and twenty feet into a deep
+basin, the edge of which literally swarms with crocodiles.”
+On their overland journey in the direction of
+the Karuma Falls, their porters again deserted, and
+for two months they were stranded, almost at death’s
+door, living with difficulty on wild herbs and mouldy
+flour; occasionally, but rarely, obtaining fowls from
+the natives. Once more they came within the persecution
+of Kamurasi, who pestered Baker for his
+assistance in a war he was carrying on against his relation,
+Fowuka. Whilst Baker was hesitating, the Nile
+was crossed by one of De Bono’s caravans of ivory-traders,
+who had entered into an alliance with Fowuka.
+They were just about to attack Kamurasi’s army (and
+with their one hundred and fifty guns would have
+easily defeated it) when Baker planted the British
+flag in Kamurasi’s camp, and warned De Bono’s soldiers
+that the Unyoro king was now under British
+protection. Overawed by Baker’s threats, the ivory-traders
+withdrew to the north side of the Nile. The
+only return that he received from Kamurasi for this
+service was that the latter placed every obstacle in
+his way to prevent his leaving Unyoro. At the same
+time Mutesa of Uganda, having heard of a white
+man’s arrival in Unyoro, and imagining that Kamurasi
+was stopping his further journey to Uganda,
+sent a large army to ravage Unyoro. Kamurasi fled<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span>
+to some islands in the Nile, and left Baker to shift
+for himself, without provisions or beasts of burden,
+at the Karuma Falls. From this point he managed
+to send messages to Ibrahim, the slave and ivory
+trader, and the latter came to his assistance. With
+the aid of Ibrahim, the Bakers, who had lost everything
+except guns and ammunition, eventually managed
+to return to Gondokoro, though they were nearly
+killed on the way by the Bari tribe, which had risen
+against the slave-raiders. At Gondokoro their troubles
+were not ended, for the sudd had begun to form, and
+obstructed the passage of the White Nile. Plague
+also had broken out in Khartum. But the travellers
+fought through all obstacles, any one of which might
+have wrecked an expedition conducted by less intrepid
+people, and reached Khartum in May, 1865. Here
+they remained two months to recuperate, and during
+this time they managed to secure the banishment of
+one of the slave-traders who had incited the mutiny
+of their men at Gondokoro in 1863.</p>
+
+<p>From Khartum they travelled to Berber down the
+Nile, and then started on camels to cross the desert
+to Suakin. They reached England in the autumn of
+1865. By this time perhaps African exploration had
+become more interesting to the British government,
+for Baker received for his discoveries a well-earned
+knighthood,—a distinction which might very well
+have been accorded to Speke or to Grant. As a matter
+of fact, the only reward given to the last-named
+traveller was a C.B., which was awarded, not for his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span>
+marvellous “Walk across Africa,” but for the inconspicuous
+services which he rendered some years later
+in connection with the Abyssinian War.</p>
+
+<p>As the result of the Speke and Baker explorations,
+so far as published maps were concerned, our knowledge
+of the Nile basin in 1865 was as follows: The
+shape and area of the Victoria Nyanza were roughly
+indicated, together with the outlet of the Victoria Nile
+at the Ripon Falls. The course of the Victoria Nile was
+mapped (with a good many blanks) from the Ripon
+Falls to the north end of Lake Albert Nyanza. Baker
+was able to show that there was a widening of the
+Victoria Nile opposite the eastern frontier of Unyoro,
+but it was some years later before this widening was
+discovered to consist of two large lakes (Kioga and
+Kwania). Baker had given an extremely exaggerated
+size to the Albert Nyanza. Speke, on the other
+hand, had sketched this lake with remarkable accuracy
+merely from hearsay. The course of the Nile from
+the north end of Lake Albert to its junction with the
+Asua River was quite unexplored. The rest of the
+course of the Mountain Nile was mapped as far as
+its junction with the Bahr-al-Ghazal, but very little
+was known about one of its branches, the Giraffe
+River. No further researches beyond those made by
+the Turks had taken place on the Sobat River.</p>
+
+<p>As for Sir Samuel Baker, we take leave of him
+here as one of the great explorers of the Nile. He
+returned to the regions of the great lakes in 1869,
+having been appointed for four years in charge of an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span>
+expedition to subdue and annex to the Egyptian Empire
+the equatorial regions of the Nile basin. This
+object involved him in incessant fighting in Unyoro,
+with the slave-traders between Unyoro and Gondokoro,
+and with the Bari. Some of these conflicts
+were forced on him; others, it is to be feared, he
+precipitated by his determination to enlarge the territories
+of the Egyptian Sudan. His time would
+seem to have been passed mainly in warfare with one
+enemy or another, or in laying very solidly the
+foundations of a civilised administration. His stay
+in Equatoria resulted in but little addition to our
+knowledge of the Nile and its affluents. A good
+many of his efforts for the welfare of the country
+were thwarted by the Egyptian Governor-General
+at Khartum, and after his departure, in 1873, some
+of his worst enemies among the slave-traders were
+reinstated. This much must always be recorded to
+the credit of Sir Samuel Baker’s work on the Upper
+Nile: he inspired universal respect among the fair-dealing
+natives; he, first of all, broke the back of the
+immense slave-trading industry which had sprung up
+on the Mountain Nile, in Unyoro, and in the Acholi
+countries; throughout these regions the natives can
+remember but one great and good administrator before
+the present régime, and that is Sir Samuel Baker.
+“Gordoom” Pasha is but a name, and represents little
+to their minds; Emin they only remembered as an
+enthusiastic naturalist, who did but little to check the
+rapine and wrong-doing of his Sudanese soldiers; but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span>
+“Baker Basha” is, in the remembrance of the old
+people, the one heroic White man they have known:
+terrible in battle, scrupulously just, at all times kind
+and jovial in demeanour amongst friends; a born
+ruler over a savage people.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI"><span id="toclink_192"></span>CHAPTER XVI<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">ALEXANDRINE TINNE AND THEODOR VON HEUGLIN</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> journeys of Petherick and Miani in the
+western Nile basin have already been described.
+The very interesting region of the Bahr-al-Ghazal,
+however, had been relatively neglected by scientific
+explorers down to the beginning of the sixties of
+the last century. Petherick’s own map of these regions
+was not published till 1869. There were two
+obstacles to water travel in this direction: the sudd,
+and the terrible fevers which attacked Europeans.
+The introduction of steamers on the Upper Nile to
+some extent enabled Europeans to force their way
+up streams which were not to be penetrated by sailing-vessels.
+Quite a rendezvous had been created at
+a place called Mashra-ar-Rak, where many great
+streams coming from the Nyam-nyam country enter
+the Bahr-al-Ghazal, which, as a geographical term,
+applied to the western lake-like affluent of the Nile,
+may be said to begin its course here.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_192" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 19em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1922.jpg" width="1203" height="2028" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Alexandrine Tinne.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Miss Tinne, who with her German companions Von
+Heuglin and Steudner was to considerably increase
+our knowledge of these regions, had already, in 1859
+and 1860, ascended the White Nile in sailing-vessels
+to near Gondokoro. In 1861 she organised a great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span>
+expedition in steamers and boats, which was accompanied
+by her mother, her aunt, and, later on, by several
+scientific explorers,—such as Baron d’Ablaing,
+Theodor von Heuglin, and Dr. Steudner. This expedition
+was intended to explore the region of the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal, to see how far the Nile basin extended
+westward in the direction of Lake Chad, and
+also, if possible, to discover a great lake in the very
+heart of Africa, of which rumours had been brought
+back by Miani and others.<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a></p>
+
+<p>Alexandrine<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> Tinne was the daughter of Philip
+Frederic Tinne and Henrietta, Baroness van Steengracht
+Capellen. Her father, Philip Tinne, was a
+Dutchman, who settled in England during the wars
+of the French Revolution, the French invasion of
+Holland having brought his family into trouble. The
+Tinnes were of remote French Huguenot origin, having
+emigrated to Holland from Calais. But further
+back still they came from Saxony. A very far back
+ancestor went to the Crusades, and distinguished
+himself at Rosetta (Egypt) by clambering onto the
+Saracen battlements. He received therefrom the
+soubriquet of “Tinne” (in Low Dutch, a battlement)
+and a coat of arms, still used by the family,
+embodying battlements. It is remarkable that Miss
+Tinne’s remote ancestor should have sprung into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span>
+fame in the thirteenth century at the <em>mouth</em> of the
+Nile. Philip Tinne, who emigrated to England at
+the end of the eighteenth century, returned to Holland
+after Napoleon’s downfall, and married a Dutch
+heiress, the daughter of Admiral van Capellen. He
+died when his daughter Alexandrine was only five
+years old, leaving her the richest heiress in the
+Netherlands. It is said that when a young girl she
+had a serious love disappointment, and dismissed or
+lost her fiancé. To stifle her mental anguish, she undertook
+a course of travel;<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a> and after staying for
+some time in the Levant and Egypt, ascended the
+Nile in dahabiahs to near Gondokoro. This journey
+was followed by the great expedition to the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+in 1861. It is said that this expedition was
+even provided with European lady’s-maids. Probably
+no equally luxurious and well-equipped undertaking
+ever started for equatorial Africa. Miss Tinne commenced
+her second Nile journey by ascending the main
+stream as far as Gondokoro, and then, returning, she
+explored a portion of the Sobat River. She set out
+once more with the whole party from Khartum in
+February, 1863, and entered the Bahr-al-Ghazal. This
+was ascended as far as the mouth of the Bahr-al-Hamr.
+From this point a journey was then made
+overland to the Jur and Kosango rivers, and to the
+mountains on the borders of the Nyam-nyam country.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span>
+On this exploration the travellers suffered most
+severely from fever. Dr. Steudner and the Baroness
+van Capellen eventually died of blackwater fever, and
+the remainder of the party only managed with the
+greatest difficulty to reach Khartum in July, 1864,
+where further deaths occurred. The geographical results
+of this expedition were not published in full till
+1869, though Miss Tinne’s cousin printed some notes
+on their expedition at Liverpool in 1864.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_195" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1942.jpg" width="1684" height="1338" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">On the Jur River: Sudd Blocking the Channel.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>After four years spent in various places in Egypt,
+Algeria, and Tunis, Miss Tinne started from Tripoli
+with a very large caravan to proceed to Lake Chad,
+intending afterwards to journey from Lake Chad to
+the Upper Nile.</p>
+
+<p>Miss Tinne took with her two Dutch sailors to
+assist in the organisation of her caravan, several Algerian
+women-servants, and her confidential old Negress,
+Saadah, who was originally a slave freed by
+Miss Tinne in the Sudan. The Turkish authorities
+made no opposition to her journeys, nor do they seem
+to have been in any way to blame for the catastrophe
+that occurred. Unfortunately, Miss Tinne, in order
+to provide for the comfort of her followers as well
+as for herself, decided to take with her one or more
+iron tanks filled with water, which were carried by
+the camels. These tanks attracted much attention
+when the expedition halted for a time at Murzuk,
+the capital of Fezzan, where Turkish authority was
+still maintained. The rumour that they contained
+treasure in coin which was to accompany this wonderful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span>
+princess into the heart of Africa spread from
+the bazaars of Murzuk to the Tawareq of the desert,
+ever on the lookout to plunder caravans crossing the
+Sahara.</p>
+
+<p>Miss Tinne had taken all reasonable precautions
+to secure the friendship of the Tawareq on this
+journey. She had sent messages to Ghat, an important
+Saharan town, to the chief Ikenukhen, with
+presents, and requests for guides. The chief replied
+that he would meet her himself at a water place on
+the way to Ghat, and send her the guides. These
+guides apparently concerted measures with the Arab
+and Tawareq camel-drivers of her expedition, and
+plans were evidently laid for her murder and the
+plunder of her goods.</p>
+
+<p>The expedition had halted at Wadi Aberjong to
+await the Tawareq chief Ikenukhen. On the early
+morning of the 1st of August Miss Tinne, in
+her tent, heard the Arab and Tawareq camel-drivers
+disputing about arranging the saddles of the Algerian
+women-servants. She called to the Dutch
+sailors to stop the noise, which had developed into
+a sham fight. The Dutch sailors went amongst the
+men to get at their own luggage and take their
+rifles. The camel-drivers stopped their sham fight
+and endeavoured to prevent the Dutch sailors obtaining
+their arms. Miss Tinne, hearing the continued
+clamour, came out of her tent to inquire its
+meaning. She held up her right hand to command
+attention. Suddenly there was a cry of “Strike,” and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span>
+a Tawareq made a cut at her with a sabre, which severed
+her right hand almost entirely through the wrist,
+so that it hung only by tendons of skin. The poor
+girl endeavoured to replace it in position, and staggered
+back to her tent, where she sat on a box. At
+the same moment that the blow was aimed at her one
+of the Dutch sailors, Cornelius, was pierced through
+the body by a spear. The other, Jacobse, was killed
+by a sabre cut cleaving his head. Cornelius, with the
+spear passing right through him, ran into the tent and
+fell at Miss Tinne’s feet. A man followed him, pinned
+him to the ground with another spear, and fired two
+pistol shots into his head. Another Tawareq struck
+Miss Tinne with a sabre on the nape of the neck,
+which cut through the foulard enveloping her head,
+and severed the long plait of her hair, but did not cut
+through the spine. She fell forward to the ground,
+stunned. Two men then tore off most of her clothing,
+and, seizing her by the heels, dragged her out of
+the tent to a spot a few yards away, where they left
+her lying on the sand in the blazing sunshine. Her
+poor old Negress, Saadah, followed, and raising her
+head, gently rested it on her knee; but the Tawareq
+tore her away, and drove her back into the camp.
+The unfortunate Alexandrine Tinne lay where she
+was left from eight o’clock in the morning to three
+o’clock in the afternoon, when death at last ended
+her sufferings. At intervals she called piteously
+on her people, one by one, to bring her water, but
+none were allowed to approach her. One of her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span>
+Arab servants was asked afterwards why they behaved
+so callously. He replied, “We had no arms,
+we were like women: they kept us in the tent, and
+threatened to kill us if we came out.”</p>
+
+<p>Her baggage was ransacked by the Arabs and
+Tawareq, among whom disputes then arose as to the
+allotment of the Algerian waiting-maids and men-servants.
+Strange to say, this dispute ended by both
+parties agreeing to make no slaves. The servants
+were each given a camel and a dollar, and allowed
+to return to Murzuk.</p>
+
+<p>The Pasha of Murzuk sent soldiers out to bury the
+bodies. They laid a strip of calico about thirty yards
+long on the sand, and wound it round Miss Tinne’s
+body by rolling it over with sticks, to avoid touching
+her. Then they put boards on each side loaded with
+stones, and piled sand over all. The two bodies of
+the faithful sailors were laid on each side of her.
+Men were afterwards sent out to mark the spot, but
+the sand of the desert had in the interval been blown
+over the place, thus hiding the grave of this beautiful
+and talented woman.<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a></p>
+
+<figure id="ip_198" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 36em;">
+  <img src="images/i_1982.jpg" width="2302" height="1460" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Letter of Miss Tinne to her Nephew John.</span></p>
+
+<p>Written from Tripoli, 1869.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The leader of not a few exploring parties in Africa
+has been alone to blame for disasters to his expedition,
+by committing himself or allowing his followers to
+commit misdeeds sufficient to justify native hostility.
+But wherever Miss Tinne and her expeditions went
+in Africa, they left behind them nothing but the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span>
+memory of considerate treatment, kindness, and acts
+of sumptuous generosity. In all the preparations
+which Miss Tinne made for crossing the Sahara, and
+so reaching the western limits of the Nile basin, she
+showed a desire to conciliate the suspicions of the
+people, and paid generously for assistance afforded.
+The fierce Berber tribes which range over the Sahara
+Desert from North Africa to the neighbourhood of
+Lake Chad, almost alone of all African races, have
+earned sharp reprisals from Europeans for their innumerable
+acts of causeless treachery to explorers. If
+ever the French occupy the district of Ghat, as they
+will eventually some day, it is to be hoped that they
+will bear in mind the massacre of Alexandrine Tinne
+and avenge it.</p>
+
+<p>This woman was the romantic figure in Nile exploration.
+Young and beautiful,<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> remarkably accomplished,
+a daring horsewoman, a charming Diana;
+mistress of many tongues, including Arabic, and generous
+to a fault, it is little wonder that the “Signorina”
+(as she was called in the days when most dragomen
+were Italian or Maltese) has lingered as a beautiful
+and gracious demi-goddess in the remembrance of
+such Arabs and Nile Negroes of the Egyptian Sudan
+as were not exterminated by the Mahdi’s revolt.</p>
+
+<div class="tb">* * * * *</div>
+
+<p>Theodor von Heuglin was a native of Würtemberg.
+He was a scientific observer and a naturalist much in
+the style of Schweinfurth. His interest in the exploration<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span>
+of the Nile basin was rather in the direction of
+zoölogy and anthropology. He began to travel in
+these regions in the fifties of the last century. With
+Munzinger, a Swiss (afterwards Munzinger Pasha),
+and Dr. Steudner, a German, he explored Kordofan,
+and the regions round Khartum. In 1862 Von Heuglin
+and Steudner joined Miss Tinne’s Nile expedition,
+and as her guest or alone on their own account,
+explored the affluents of the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the
+main White Nile. After the death of Steudner and
+of Miss Tinne’s aunt and mother from blackwater
+fever, Heuglin turned away from these regions with
+some disgust, and devoted himself henceforth to the
+exploration of the healthier regions along the upper
+waters of the Blue Nile and of the Atbara. In all
+this part of western and northern Abyssinia he made
+valuable collections of natural history. Von Heuglin’s
+books are of very great interest, and are full of valuable
+natural history notes. His writings were published
+between 1860 and 1875, generally in Germany.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII"><span id="toclink_201"></span>CHAPTER XVII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">SCHWEINFURTH AND THE BASIN OF THE BAHR-AL-GHAZAL</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap al"><span class="smcap1">As</span> already related down to 1869, but little had
+been placed on the map concerning the western
+tributaries of the Nile in the region now styled generally
+the Bahr-al-Ghazal Province. The Bahr-al-Ghazal
+itself is the gathering up of some nine great
+rivers. These unite to form a marshy, lake-like
+stream, which indeed widens out into a lake of variable
+size (Lake No) at its junction with the main
+or Mountain Nile. The great breadth of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+is often disguised, and the open water reduced
+to a mere thread by an immense floating
+vegetable growth which we now know by the name
+of <i>sudd</i>. The name “Bahr-al-Ghazal” simply means
+a “River of Antelopes,” and is a designation given to
+the great western affluent of the Nile by the Sudanese
+Arabs. Rumours of this important contribution coming
+to the Nile from the west (and the tributary
+periodical streams known as the Bahr-al-Arab or
+Bahr-al-Hamr extend the Nile basin as far west as
+the frontiers of Wadai) reached even the Greek geographers
+two thousand years ago, and induced some
+of them to believe that the main sources of the Nile
+lay far to the west, near where Lake Chad is situated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span>
+on the map. Then this was forgotten, and it was not
+until Arabs and Nubians had begun to extend their
+commerce into the Sudan, when Egypt was under
+Turkish rule, that the existence of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+was again mooted. This affluent of the Nile was first
+sketched on the map with an approach to definiteness
+in 1771, when D’Anville plainly indicates its existence.
+In a very truncated form it appears on the maps of
+the Nile drawn from the surveys of the Frenchmen
+who accompanied the three expeditions sent by Muhammad
+Ali to conquer the Sudan between 1839 and
+1841. In the forties of the last century Nubian slave-traders
+started in numbers to explore these regions,
+firstly to purchase ivory, and secondly to acquire slaves.
+The strange Nyam-nyam cannibals began to be heard
+of at Khartum about 1845. Petherick himself went
+in these directions in 1848. He was followed, as has
+been related, by Miani the Venetian, and by Miss
+Tinne and Von Heuglin. First of all Europeans,
+Miani had penetrated so far south up these affluents
+of the Bahr-al-Ghazal as to have heard from the
+Nyam-nyam people of the existence of the Welle
+River, which he reported to Petherick, and through
+Petherick to Speke, as a great river flowing steadily
+to the west. This was the first hint received of the
+southwestern limits of the Nile basin.</p>
+
+<p>But little precise information about the southern
+portions of this wonderful region had reached Europe
+until the work of Schweinfurth was completed in
+1871.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span></p>
+<figure id="ip_203" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2022.jpg" width="1275" height="1950" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Georg Schweinfurth</span> (1875).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Georg Schweinfurth is a native of Riga in the
+Baltic Provinces of Russia. He is consequently of
+German extraction. He was born in 1837, and in
+the early sixties spent much time in exploring for
+botanical purposes Nubia, Upper Egypt, southwestern
+Abyssinia, and the regions between these countries
+and the Red Sea coast. The tropical luxuriance of
+the vegetation in the outlying districts of Abyssinia
+attracted him to further journeys towards the equator.
+He conceived the idea of visiting the then least known
+part of the Nile basin, the Bahr-al-Ghazal province.
+For this purpose he obtained ample funds from the
+Royal Academy of Science at Berlin. Apart from
+the fact that he was a German by descent and speech,
+his great explorations of the Nile were due entirely
+to German support, and must be considered one of
+Germany’s many contributions towards the Nile Quest.</p>
+
+<p>Schweinfurth landed at Suakin in September, 1867.
+Before proceeding on his voyage up the White Nile,
+he resolved to commence with a preliminary exploration
+of the mountains to the south and west of
+Suakin between the end of the Nubian Alps and the
+beginning of the Abyssinian highlands. This elevated
+district lies for the most part within the watershed of
+the Atbara’s tributaries, though it also sends down
+intermittent torrents to the Red Sea. In the mountains
+to the south of Suakin first appears to any
+traveller coming from Egypt and the north the characteristic
+vegetation of tropical Africa, especially such
+types as the dragon trees (<i class="taxonomy">Dracænæ</i>) and arborescent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span>
+euphorbias. These types begin at an altitude of
+about two thousand feet, as at that height they obtain
+some moisture, whereas lower down the country is
+mostly an arid desert. The Nubian <i class="taxonomy">Dracænæ</i> and those
+of the slopes of the Abyssinian tableland are relatively
+dwarfish (at most some twenty feet high) compared to
+the giant forms of these tree-lilies which are met with
+in equatorial Africa. Aloes, of course, grow in the
+same districts as the euphorbia and the dracæna.
+“Found in company with them is a wild, unearthly-looking
+plant called the ‘Karaib’ (<i class="taxonomy">Bucerosia</i>), of
+which the branches are like wings, prickly and jagged
+round the edges like a dragon’s back. They produce
+clusters of brown flowers as large as one’s fist, which
+exhale a noxious and revolting smell, the plants themselves
+being swollen with a white and slimy poisonous
+juice.” Another item in this harsh vegetation is
+the <i class="taxonomy">Sanseviera</i>, a plant belonging to the same group
+as the aloes, lilies, and dracænas, with isolated,
+leathery leaves like sword blades, though sometimes
+with rolled edges like a thick, leathery whip. Higher
+up, at altitudes of from four thousand to six thousand
+feet, the trees are covered with clusters of
+<i class="taxonomy">Usnea</i> lichen. On the northern spurs of the Abyssinian
+highlands is found the wild olive tree, “of low
+bushy shape, with box-like foliage.” The wild olive
+is found nowhere else in tropical Africa beyond the
+Abyssinian region.</p>
+
+<p>All watercourses with a supply of moist soil under
+ground just sufficient for a few months’ vegetation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span>
+are comprehended within the Arab designation <em>Wadi</em>.
+Cheerless through the dry season, after the first rain
+their level sand flats are clothed with the most luxuriant
+flora; fresh-springing grasses put forth their
+pointed leaves and give the sward the appearance of
+being dotted with a myriad spikes; then quickly come
+the sprouting blades, and the river bed is like a waving
+field of corn. Half-way between Singat and Erkowit
+Schweinfurth halted at a wady of this character, which
+bore the name of Sarrowi. He <span class="locked">writes:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“What a prospect! How gay with its variety of hue,—green,
+red and yellow! Nothing could be more pleasant
+than the shade of the acacia, nothing more striking
+than the abundance of bloom of the Abyssinian aloe,
+transforming the dreary sand beds into smiling gardens.
+Green were the tabbes-grass and the acacias, yellow and
+red were the aloes, and in such crowded masses, that I
+was involuntarily reminded of the splendour of the tulip
+beds of the Netherlands: but here the garden lay in a
+waste of gloomy black stone. One special charm of a
+desert journey is that it is full of contrasts, that it brings
+close together dearth and plenty, death and life; it opens
+the eyes of the traveller to the minutest benefits of nature,
+and demonstrates how every enjoyment is allied to a
+corresponding deprivation.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When he reached the Nile, coming from Suakin,
+he was received at Berber by an old acquaintance,
+M. Lafargue, who was settled in that starting-point
+for Suakin as a merchant and French vice-consul.
+Lafargue, himself an experienced traveller on the
+Upper Nile, received the German explorers with that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span>
+hearty hospitality “which many other desert wanderers
+have proved besides myself.”</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Sir Samuel Baker [writes Schweinfurth] aptly compares
+such receptions to the oasis in the desert. No
+necessity for letters of introduction here as with us in
+Europe, no hollow forms of speech, exchanging courtesies
+which perchance mean the very reverse; no empty
+compliment of at best a tedious dinner; but here in the
+Egyptian Sudan we are received with free and genial
+amiability; all Europeans are fellow-citizens, and everything
+is true and hearty. ‘What pleases me the most is
+the ease with which you travel in this country; you come,
+you go, you return again as though it were a walk.’ Such
+were M. Lafargue’s cordial words to me. We parted
+well pleased with one another; I shall not see him again.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>About that part of the journey from Berber to
+Khartum by way of the Nile Schweinfurth gives a
+vivid description. For the first part of the voyage,
+as far as Shendi and Matammah, the only considerable
+towns in this district, the shore offered nothing
+attractive. It reminded him of the Egyptian valley
+of the Nile only in two places,—the mouth of the
+Atbara, and one spot where the renowned pyramids
+of Meroe formed a noble background.</p>
+
+<p>Matammah was then a populous town, but dull and
+unenterprising. The buildings, constructed of Nile
+earth, were insignificant in themselves, and irregularly
+crowded together in a mass like huge ant-hills;
+not a single tree afforded shade in the dreary streets,
+which were filthy with dirt.</p>
+
+<p>The Nile voyage below Shendi was, however, rich<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span>
+in the charms of scenery. This was especially applicable
+to the views afforded by the river islands. These
+islands were so many throughout the whole extent of
+the sixth cataract between the island of Marnad and
+the lofty mountain-island of Royān, “that no one pretends
+to know their precise number, and the sailors
+call them in consequence the ninety-nine islands.”
+The landscapes on shore afforded the traveller a treat
+“which no other river voyage could surpass.” Splendid
+groups of acacias, in three varieties, with groves
+of ‘holy-thorn,’ overgrown by the hanging foliage of
+graceful climbers, made the profusion of islands set
+in the surface of the water appear like bright green,
+luxuriant, and gay tangles.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Wildly romantic on the contrary, reminding one of
+the Bingerloch on the Rhine, are the narrow straits of
+Sablu where the Nile, reduced to a deep mountain stream,
+flows between high, bare granite walls that rise to several
+hundred feet.</p>
+
+<p>“So much the more surprising appeared the breadth
+which the Nile exhibited above this cataract, where it
+displays itself in a majesty which it has long lost in
+Egypt. Below their confluence, the waters of the Blue
+and the White Nile are distinctly visible many miles
+apart. It is highly probable that at certain times the level
+of the streams might show a difference of several feet;
+the proposed establishment of a Nilometer should therefore
+take place below the confluence, in order that with
+the help of the telegraph accurate intelligence of its
+condition might be remitted to Cairo.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Schweinfurth reached Khartum on the 1st of November,
+1868. He left that place in January, 1869,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span>
+for the Bahr-al-Ghazal. Of his voyage up the White
+Nile he <span class="locked">writes:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“As the morning sun fell upon the low, monotonous
+shores of the flowing river, it seemed at times almost as
+though it were illuminating the ocean, so vast was the
+extent of water where the current ran for any distance
+in a straight and unwinding course.... The districts
+along the shore mostly retained an unchanging aspect
+for miles together. Rarely does some distant mountain
+or isolated hill relieve the eye from the wide monotony....
+The attention is soon attracted by the astonishing
+number of geese and ducks which are seen day after day.
+The traveller in these parts is so satiated with them,
+fattened and roasted, that the sight creates something
+akin to disgust. The number of cattle is prodigious:
+far as the eye can reach they are scattered alike on either
+shore, whilst, close at hand, they come down to the river-marshes
+to get their drink.</p>
+
+<p>“The stream, as wide again as the Nile of Egypt, is
+enlivened by the boats belonging to the shepherds, who
+row hither and thither to conduct their cattle, their dogs
+in the water swimming patiently behind.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Early on the third day he reached Getina, a considerable
+village inhabited by Hassaniah Arabs (long since
+wiped out by the Dervishes). Getina was then a favourite
+rendezvous of the Nile boats. The flats here
+were bright with the luxuriant green of sedges which
+in their abundant growth imparted to the banks the
+meadow-like character of European river-sides. Thousands
+of geese (<i class="taxonomy">Chenalopex ægyptiacus</i>), in no degree
+disconcerted by the arrival of humans, paced the greensward.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span>
+Although in places the right bank was bounded
+by sand-banks thirty feet high, the left appeared completely
+and interminably flat, and occasionally admitted
+the culture of sorghum. “This remarkable difference
+which exists between the aspect of the two banks, and
+which may be observed for several degrees, is to be
+explained by a hydrographical law, which is illustrated
+not only here, but likewise in the district of
+the Lower Nile. As rivers flow from southerly into
+more northern latitudes, their fluid particles are set in
+motion with increased velocity, the result of which is
+to drive them onwards so as to wash away the eastern
+bank, leaving a continual deposit on the west.”</p>
+
+<p>About two hundred miles to the south of Khartum
+more signs of Tropical Africa begin to appear. Graceful,
+shade-giving acacias (<i class="taxonomy">A. spirocarpa</i>) grew on the
+river banks, where also were seen great masses of
+large-leaved shrubs, many of them covered with the
+beautiful blossoms of the <i class="taxonomy">Ipomœa</i> convolvulus. Hippopotamuses
+were abundant, lions were heard roaring
+at night, and the semi-Arab, somewhat Nubian population
+was gradually replaced by the naked, black, and
+lanky Shiluk Negroes. Great monitor lizards (<i class="taxonomy">Varanus</i>)
+and snakes rustled in the dry grass, while <i class="taxonomy">Cercopithecus</i>
+monkeys, crowned cranes, and handsome
+red and white waterbuck diversified the aspect of the
+river-banks; huge crocodiles lay on the foreshore. In
+Negro Nileland Schweinfurth first noticed the ambatch.
+This is really a member of the bean tribe (<i class="taxonomy">Herminiera
+elaphroxylon</i>), which grows in shallow water. Its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span>
+leaves resemble those of the acacia, and its blossoms
+are bold, pea-like flowers of bright orange.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The ambatch is distinguished for the unexampled
+lightness of its wood, if the fungus-like substance of the
+stem deserves such a name at all. It shoots up to fifteen
+or twenty feet in height, and at its base generally attains
+a thickness of about six inches. The weight of this
+fungus-wood is so insignificant that it really suggests
+comparison to a feather. Only by taking it into his hands
+could anyone believe that it were possible for one man
+to lift on his shoulders a raft made large enough to carry
+eight people on the water. The plant shoots up with
+great rapidity by the quiet places on the shore, and since
+it roots merely in the water, whole bushes are easily
+broken off by the force of the wind or stream, and settle
+themselves afresh in other places. This is the true origin
+of the grass-barriers so frequently mentioned as blocking
+up the waters of the Upper Nile, and in many places
+making navigation utterly impracticable. Other plants
+have a share in the formation of these floating islands,
+which daily emerge like the Delos of tradition; among
+them, in particular, the <i class="taxonomy">Vossia</i> grass and the famous
+papyrus of antiquity, which at present is nowhere to be
+found on the Nile either in Egypt or in Nubia.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Schweinfurth notices a remarkable extinct volcano
+called Defafang, one thousand feet high, which is situated
+some five miles from the east bank of the Nile,
+in about latitude 10° 50′ north. This extinct volcano
+was first discovered by Ferdinand Werne, who collected
+specimens of the rocks,—chiefly basaltic lava.
+Defafang for a long time was the boundary on that
+side of the Nile between the territory of the Negroes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span>
+on the south and that of the more or less Arab shepherds
+on the north.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_211" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2102.jpg" width="1531" height="1228" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Shiluks.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>At the village of Kaka, on the east bank of the
+White Nile, Schweinfurth observed ruins of a fort
+which had once been the headquarters of a renowned
+robber chief, Muhammad Kher. This man,
+who flourished between 1840 and 1855, was a Nubian,
+who gathered round him a number of well-armed
+Baggara Arab horsemen. He was one of the first of
+the slave-traders to show how, by means of fortified
+stations, it was possible to intimidate the Negroes of
+the Sudan and bring them into subjection. Muhammed
+Kher and his Arabs devastated the country for
+hundreds of miles along the banks of the Nile, exterminating
+the population in many places. At Kaka
+Schweinfurth found himself greeted by a great crowd
+of naked Shiluks, who, prompted by curiosity, assembled
+on the shore.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The first sight of a throng of savages suddenly presenting
+themselves in their native nudity is one from
+which no amount of familiarity can remove the strange
+impression; it takes abiding hold upon the memory, and
+makes the traveller recall anew the civilisation he has left
+behind.... Although these savages are altogether unacquainted
+with the refined cosmetics of Europe, they
+make use of cosmetics of their own; viz., a coating of
+ashes for protection against insects. When the ashes are
+prepared from wood they render the body perfectly gray;
+when obtained from cow-dung they give a rusty red tint,
+the hue of red devils. This colour is only donned by land-owners.
+Ashes, dung, and the urine of cows are the indispensable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span>
+requisites of the toilet. The item last named
+affects the nose of the stranger rather unpleasantly when
+he makes use of any of their milk vessels, as, according
+to a regular African habit, they are washed with it, probably
+to compensate for a lack of salt.... Entirely bare
+of clothing, the bodies of the men would not of themselves
+be ungraceful, but through the perpetual plastering
+over with ashes they assume a thoroughly diabolical
+aspect. The movements of their lean bony limbs are so
+languid, and their repose so perfect, as not rarely to give
+the Shiluks the resemblance of mummies; and whoever
+comes as a novice amongst them can hardly resist the
+impression that in gazing at these ash-gray forms he is
+looking upon mouldering corpses rather than upon living
+beings.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As to the Bahr-al-Ghazal, Schweinfurth opines that
+the volume of water brought down by the Gazelle
+River to swell the Nile is still an unsolved problem.
+“In the contention as to which stream is entitled to
+rank as first born among the children of the great
+river god, the Bahr-al-Ghazal has apparently a claim
+in every way as valid as the Bahr-al-Jabl (Mountain
+Nile). In truth, it would seem to stand in the same
+relation to the Bahr-al-Jabl as the White Nile does to
+the Blue. At the season when the waters are highest
+the inundations of the Ghazal spread over a wide territory;
+about March, the time of year when they are
+lowest, the river settles down in its upper section into a
+number of vast pools of nearly stagnant water, whilst
+its lower portion runs off into divers narrow and sluggish
+channels. These channels, overgrown as they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span>
+look with massy vegetation, conceal beneath (either
+in their open depths or mingled with the unfathomable
+abyss of mud) such volumes of water as to be in
+some places nearly unsoundable by moderate lengths
+of pole or cord.”</p>
+
+<p>At the commencement of the real Bahr-al-Ghazal,
+where that broad lake-like stream is formed by the confluence
+of the Dyur (Jur) and other rivers, there was,
+before the uprising of the Mahdi and the consequent
+devastation of the Sudan, a large trading-station
+originally founded by the Nubian, Arab, and Coptic
+merchants of Khartum. This was named Mashra-ar-Rak—transcribed,
+in the mincing Turkish fashion,
+“Meshra-er-Rek.” Here merchants and travellers
+generally started on their land journeys into the Nyam-nyam
+countries. Miss Tinne had paused a long time
+at Mashra-ar-Rak, and it was supposed that there her
+expedition had contracted the severe malarial fevers
+which eventually caused the death of five out of its
+nine Europeans. Mashra-ar-Rak was situated on a
+lake-like swelling of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, which expanse
+is partly covered by four wooded islands. All the surroundings
+of this lake-like estuary are very low and
+swampy. In all directions the eyes rest on jungles
+of papyrus, with the exception of the few trees on the
+islands aforementioned.</p>
+
+<p>A short time before Schweinfurth reached this place
+with its dismal record of disease amongst Europeans,
+he heard that a French predecessor had died not far
+from the Bahr-al-Ghazal. This was Le Saint, a French<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span>
+naval officer, who had been despatched by the Paris
+Geographical Society to make that extended exploration
+of the whole of the region of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+which Fate had destined Schweinfurth himself to
+accomplish.<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a></p>
+
+<p>Schweinfurth’s own expedition had to be conducted
+in a most economical and unobtrusive fashion. He
+made most of his great journeys between the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+and the Congo watershed on foot. Remembering
+that his expedition was purely scientific, and
+was financed by a scientific society, he very wisely
+concerned himself with no question of ethics or reform
+such as had hitherto caused all English explorers
+of these regions to be hindered as much as possible
+by Nubians, Arabs, and Turks. He was not there to
+undertake crusades, but to make collections. He thus
+won and retained the friendship and confidence of men
+of all colours, some of them, no doubt, great ruffians,
+but all made equally to subserve the interests of science
+by affording sympathetic support to one of the greatest
+and most genial of African explorers, Georg Schweinfurth.
+Schweinfurth was no sympathiser with the
+slave-trade and the barbarities to which it gave rise.
+“Throughout my wanderings,” he writes, “I was for
+ever puzzling out schemes for setting bounds to this
+inhuman traffic. On one point (i.e. the abolition of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span>
+the slave-trade) all are unanimous,—that from Islam
+no help can be expected, and that with Islamism
+no pact can be made.” His reports on the behaviour
+of the slave-traders did a great deal to bring about the
+abolition of this devastation by Gordon Pasha and his
+officers some years later.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"><span id="toclink_216"></span>CHAPTER XVIII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">SCHWEINFURTH’S ACHIEVEMENTS AND DESCRIPTIONS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap b"><span class="smcap1">Dr. Schweinfurth</span> spent three years exploring
+the regions of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, and
+returned to Europe in the autumn of 1871. During
+the course of his journeys he took no observation of
+latitude or longitude, but kept a most accurate dead
+reckoning. He laid down with astonishing accuracy
+much of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, of the courses of the Rōl,
+the Roah and its affluents, the Dogoru and Tondi, the
+Jur, Nyenam, Ji, Biri, Kuru, and Dembo tributaries
+of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, the upper waters of the Sue and
+Yabongo; lastly, he crossed the Nile watershed and
+entered that of the Congo, thus discovering the upper
+waters of the Welle River and its many affluents.
+Here he thought that he had entered the basin of the
+Shari River, but, as we know now, he had discovered
+the head streams of that most important affluent of the
+Congo, the Welle-Ubangi.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Schweinfurth gave the first true and particular
+account of the Congo Pygmies under the name of
+Akka, whom he found in the thickly forested region
+on the northern limits of the Congo watershed; he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span>
+drew our attention to those remarkable “gallery”
+forests,<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> and to the existence in the Nile basin of
+the chimpanzee, the gray parrot,<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a> and other West
+African types. He discovered a slightly civilised
+race on this Congo-Nile water-parting—the Mangbettu—speaking
+a language which has no known
+relations, but leading a life singularly similar to that
+of the other semi-civilised Negro states of Unyoro
+and Uganda. The Mangbettu and their chiefs exhibit
+traces of former intermixture with Hamitic people.
+Dr. Schweinfurth also told us much we did not know
+before as to the Nyam-nyam,<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> the Bongo, and the
+Dinka tribes.</p>
+
+<p>Schweinfurth possessed many qualifications for
+writing a book on African exploration. He was
+a scientific botanist, and knew a great deal of zoölogy.
+He had a quick ear for languages, and wrote
+down vocabularies of the important dialects. He
+collected invaluable notes on ethnology and anthropology.
+Although he was unable to do much
+photography, he was a skilled draughtsman, and his
+beautiful drawings are apt illustrations of his book.
+As regards the value of the information he collected,
+no such book as Schweinfurth’s had appeared before,
+with the exception of Barth’s classical work on the
+Western Sudan; but Schweinfurth’s book was far<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span>
+ahead of Barth’s in the matter of illustrations. These
+are as accurate as photographs, and yet much clearer.
+More than any previous traveller who had written on
+Africa, Schweinfurth is able to bring to our mental
+vision the different aspects of vegetation. He describes
+the tree-lilies (<i class="taxonomy">Dracænæ</i>), with their bouquets
+of leaves like bayonets and their short, woody
+stems, the Candelabra euphorbias, the coral red aloes,
+the dragon-like <i class="taxonomy">Bucerosia</i>, the leathery <i class="taxonomy">Sanseviera</i>,
+and the gigantic clumps of the grass-green <i class="taxonomy">Salvadora</i>,
+which characterise the northern flanks of
+Abyssinia.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_218" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 19em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2181.jpg" width="1181" height="1178" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">“<span class="smcap">Papyrus, Fifteen Feet High.</span>”
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In another place he describes acacia groves on the
+right bank of the White Nile above Khartum, with
+their enormous white bulbous thorns,<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> and their oozy
+lumps of amber-coloured gum. He notes the remarkable
+fact that little, if any, of the floating vegetation
+of the Upper Nile reaches Egypt. He describes the
+jungles of papyrus, “fifteen feet high,” the floating
+grass barriers and the sudd (which he calls <em>sett</em>); the
+<i class="taxonomy">suf</i> reeds, the water-ferns, the floating <i class="taxonomy">Pistia stratiotes</i>
+(like a pale-green lettuce), the duck-weeds, the
+beautiful white and blue waterlilies. When he reached
+the vicinity of the water-parting between the Nile and
+the Congo, he had entered the forest region of West-Central
+Africa. This mighty tropical forest has no
+great reverence for geographical boundaries, but overlaps
+in several places the watershed of the Nile, while<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span>
+of course it exists in patches in the basins of the Shari,
+the Benue, the Niger, and on the coast belt of Upper
+and Lower Guinea. Perhaps the most marked feature
+of it, the clearest indication of its West African nature,
+is the existence of the climbing <i class="taxonomy">Calamus</i>
+palm, which is never found in typical East Africa.
+The wonderful “gallery”<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> forests are described as
+<span class="locked">follows:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Trees with immense stems, and of a height surpassing
+all that we had elsewhere seen (not even excepting
+the palms of Egypt), here stood in masses which seemed
+unbounded, except where at intervals some less towering
+forms rose gradually higher and higher beneath their
+shade. In the innermost recesses of these woods one
+would come upon an avenue like the colonnade of an
+Egyptian temple, veiled in the leafy shade of a triple
+roof above. Seen from without, they had all the appearance
+of impenetrable forests, but, traversed within, they
+opened into aisles and corridors which were musical with
+many a murmuring fount. Hardly anywhere was the
+height of these less than seventy feet, and on an average
+it was much nearer one hundred; yet, viewed from without,
+they very often failed to present anything of that
+imposing sight which was always so captivating when
+taken from the brinks of the brooks within. In some
+places the sinking of the ground along which the gallery-tunnels
+ran would be so great that not half the wood
+revealed itself at all to the contiguous steppes, while in
+that wood (out of sight as it was) many a ‘gallery’ might
+still exist.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span></p>
+
+<p>Most of these gigantic trees, the size of whose
+stems exceeds any European forest growth, belong
+to the order of the <i class="taxonomy">Sterculiæ</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Boswelliæ</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Papilionaceæ</i>,
+<i class="taxonomy">Rosaceæ</i>, or <i class="taxonomy">Cæsalpiniæ</i>; to the <i class="taxonomy">Ficaceæ</i>, the <i class="taxonomy">Artocarpeæ</i>,
+the <i class="taxonomy">Euphorbiaceæ</i>, and the varied order of
+the <i class="taxonomy">Rubiaceæ</i>. Amongst the trees of second and
+third rank are a few <i class="taxonomy">Araliacea</i>, large-leaved figs,
+brilliant-flowered Spathodeas, Combretums, and Mussændas,
+as well as innumerable other rubiaceous or
+papilionaceous plants. There is no lack of thorny
+shrubberies; “and the <i class="taxonomy">Oncoba</i>, the <i class="taxonomy">Phyllanthus</i>, the
+<i class="taxonomy">Celastrus</i>, and the <i class="taxonomy">Acacia ataxacantha</i>, cluster after
+cluster, are met with in abundance.” “Thick creepers
+climbed from bough to bough, the <i class="taxonomy">Modecca</i> being the
+most prominent of all; but the <i class="taxonomy">Cissus</i>, with its purple
+leaf, the <i class="taxonomy">Coccinea</i>, the prickly <i class="taxonomy">Smilax</i>, the <i class="taxonomy">Helmiæ</i>,
+and the <i class="taxonomy">Dioscoreæ</i>, had all their part to play. Made
+up of these, the whole underwood spread out its
+ample ramifications, its great twilight made more
+complete by the thickness of the substance of the
+leaves themselves.”</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_220" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2202.jpg" width="1648" height="1338" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Path through the Forest.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Down upon the very ground, again, there were
+masses, all but impenetrable, of plants (mainly <i class="taxonomy">Zingeberaceæ</i>
+or else Arums) growing large gorgeously
+painted leaves which contributed to fill up the gaps
+left in this mazy labyrinth of foliage. First of all there
+were the extensive jungles of the <i class="taxonomy">Amomum</i> and the
+<i class="taxonomy">Costus</i>, rising full fifteen feet high, and of which
+the rigid stems (like those of stout reeds) either bar
+out the progress of a traveller altogether, or admit<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span>
+him, if he venture to force his way among them, only
+to fall into the sloughs of muddy slime from which
+they grow.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“And then there was the marvellous world of ferns,
+destitute indeed of stems, but running in their foliage
+to some twelve feet high. Boundless in the variety of
+the feathery articulations of their fronds, some of them
+seemed to perform the graceful part of throwing a veil
+over the treasures of the wood; and others lent a charming
+contrast to the general uniformity of the leafy scene.
+High above these there rose the large, slim-stemmed
+<i class="taxonomy">Rubiaceæ</i> (<i class="taxonomy">Coffeæ</i>), which by regularity of growth and
+symmetry of leaf appeared to imitate, and in a measure
+to supply the absence of, the arboraceous ferns. Of all
+the other ferns the most singular which I observed was
+that which I call the elephant’s ear. This I found up in
+trees at a height of more than fifty feet, in association
+with the <i class="taxonomy">Angræcum</i> orchis and the long gray beard of the
+hanging <i class="taxonomy">Usnea</i>.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Whenever the stems of the trees failed to be thickly
+overgrown by some of these different ferns, they were
+rarely wanting in garlands of the crimson-berried
+pepper. Far as the eye could reach, it rested solely
+upon green which did not admit a gap. The narrow
+paths that wound themselves partly through and
+partly around the growing thickets were formed by
+steps consisting of bare and protruding roots which
+retained the light, loose soil together. Mouldering
+stems, thickly clad with moss, obstructed the passage
+at wellnigh every turn. “The air was no longer that
+of the sunny steppe, nor that of the shady grove; it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span>
+was stifling as the atmosphere of a palm-house. Its
+temperature might vary from 70° to 80° Fahr., but the
+air was so overloaded with an oppressive moisture
+exhaled by the rank foliage that the traveller could not
+feel otherwise than relieved to escape.”</p>
+
+<div class="tb">* * * * *</div>
+
+<p>In the second volume of his work Schweinfurth
+<span class="locked">adds:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The cumbrous stems are thickly overgrown with wild
+pepper, and the spreading branches are loaded with bead
+moss (<i class="taxonomy">Usnea</i>) and with that remarkable lichen which resembles
+an elephant’s ear. High among the boughs are
+the huge dwellings of the tree-termites (white ants).
+Some stems already decayed serve as supports for immense
+garlands of <i class="taxonomy">Mucuna</i> (a bean), and overhung
+by impenetrable foliage, form roomy bowers, where
+dull obscurity reigns supreme. Such is the home of the
+chimpanzee.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Schweinfurth might have extended his researches
+further into the unknown but for a disastrous campfire
+in the Dyur country, which destroyed the greater
+part of his collections, journals, drawings, and instruments.
+Eventually, with such of his collections as
+he was able to save from the conflagration, Schweinfurth
+turned his steps northward again, and reached
+Europe in 1871. He subsequently did much to increase
+our knowledge of the botany of Abyssinia
+and Arabia, but never resumed the rôle of African
+explorer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span></p>
+
+<figure id="ip_223" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2222_map.jpg" width="1523" height="2320" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_2222_map_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Schweinfurth’s Map.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIX"><span id="toclink_223"></span>CHAPTER XIX<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">STANLEY CONFIRMS SPEKE</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap b"><span class="smcap1">Dr. Schweinfurth</span> evidently shared Burton’s
+opinions on the subject of the Victoria
+Nyanza. Speke’s great discovery may be said to
+have reached its low-water mark of depreciation in
+the map issued in 1873 to illustrate Schweinfurth’s
+book, “The Heart of Africa.” On this map a fairly
+correct estimate of the shape and area of the Albert
+Nyanza is given, together with some hint of the abrupt
+commencement of the Congo watershed west of
+Lake Albert. But the mountainous character of Unyoro
+is greatly exaggerated, and the area of the great
+Victoria Nyanza is taken up by five lakes and lakelets.
+Speke was dead, and Grant was tired of asseverating
+that the Victoria Nyanza was one huge continuous
+sheet of water.</p>
+
+<p>In 1873, just as Dr. Schweinfurth’s book was being
+published, Henry Moreton Stanley, an Americanised
+Welshman, had returned to London from the discovery
+and relief of Dr. Livingstone. Soon after his
+return arrived the news of Livingstone’s death. The
+sorrow over this loss, and enthusiasm at the half-finished
+discoveries on the great mysterious river<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span>
+which Livingstone believed to be the Nile and everyone
+else the Congo, caused the “Daily Telegraph”
+and the “New York Herald” to unite in furnishing
+funds for a great expedition which should attempt
+to clear up many African problems. This expedition
+Stanley (who therefrom rose to be the greatest of
+African explorers) commanded.</p>
+
+<p>Starting from the coast opposite Zanzibar, whence
+so many expeditions had set forth since Maizen<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> and
+Burton had made the first attempts, Stanley travelled
+by the Unyamwezi route to the Victoria Nyanza, the
+south shore of which he reached at the end of February,
+1875. On the 8th of March in that year Stanley (having
+put together a boat which he brought in sections,
+and which he named the <i>Lady Alice</i>) started—accompanied
+by eleven of his men—on a most adventurous
+voyage along the eastern and northern shores of
+the lake. He coasted and named the important southeastern
+arm of the Victoria Nyanza, which is known
+as Speke Gulf. Passing rather hurriedly along the
+northeast coast of the lake, he made one great blunder,
+in that he overlooked the very narrow entrance to
+Kavirondo Bay (which is almost a separate lake),
+and created instead a broad northern gulf which he
+called Ugowe Bay. Ugowe Bay actually is the native
+name of quite a small shallow inlet on the Uyoma
+coast. Stanley skirted at some distance the much indented
+shores of Busoga, passed through what is now<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span>
+known as Rosebery Channel, and so on up Murchison
+Gulf to the native capital of Uganda, then called Rubaga
+(now known as Mengo). Here he had a splendid
+reception from Mutesa, and here he met Édouard
+Linant de Bellefonds,<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> a Belgian in the Egyptian government,
+who had been sent by Gordon Pasha to report
+on the state of affairs in Uganda.</p>
+
+<p>Mutesa having agreed to send a large fleet of
+canoes to transport all Stanley’s expedition to Uganda,
+Stanley then resumed his circumnavigation of the
+lake, following the western shore. Passing between
+the mainland of Karagwe and the little island of
+Bumbiri, he was fiercely and unprovokedly attacked
+by the natives of that island, who were a savage
+people ruled over by light-coloured Bahima chiefs.
+Narrowly escaping disaster, he rushed through the
+opposing savages, got into the <i>Lady Alice</i>, and
+his men paddled off with boards which they tore
+up from the bottom of the boat. Having rejoined
+his expedition, which he had left at a place called
+Kagehi, near to the modern German station of
+Muanza, Stanley made one more blunder in his
+configuration of the lake (which he was the first to
+set right years afterwards). Deceived by a chain
+of islands, he curtailed the Victoria Nyanza of its
+southwestern gulf, which extension of the lake Stanley
+subsequently named after Emin Pasha.</p>
+
+<p>Reinforced by Mutesa’s fleet of canoes, Stanley’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span>
+entire expedition was saved the long march through
+the Hima kingdoms to the west of the Victoria Nyanza.
+But on his return journey to Uganda he was obliged
+to stop and give a severe lesson to the Bumbiri
+islanders. These warlike people barred the passage
+with their canoes. Stanley had been warned of this
+opposition by the natives of Iroba on the mainland.
+Stanley seized the king and two chiefs of Iroba as
+hostages, who should negotiate a peace between himself
+and the king of Bumbiri. These hostages caught
+for him the king’s son. At this moment a large reinforcement
+of Baganda canoes arrived, and volunteered
+to go to Bumbiri and negotiate. But they were attacked,
+and driven off with some loss. Stanley, therefore,
+was obliged to inflict punishment. On the 4th
+of August, 1875, he attacked Bumbiri, and drove its
+natives to the interior of the island. The expedition
+then pursued its way along the west and north coasts
+until they entered Napoleon Gulf and arrived at the
+Ripon Falls, where the Nile leaves the lake. Here
+they found Mutesa encamped with a large army, engaged
+in one of his periodical wars with Unyoro.</p>
+
+<p>Stanley not only ascertained the approximate area
+and shape of the Victoria Nyanza, but he was able
+to define with some approach to accuracy its principal
+islands and archipelagoes. After his journey there
+was no longer any doubt as to Speke’s great discovery.
+The question was settled once and for ever.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_226" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 33em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2261.jpg" width="2102" height="1267" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Victoria Nyanza: Uganda Government Steamer in the Offing.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Leaving Uganda in December, 1875, Stanley accompanied
+an expedition sent by Mutesa to the countries<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span>
+then governed by the Banyoro at the base of
+Ruwenzori. Amazing to relate, Stanley was actually
+encamped under the Ruwenzori range (called, by the
+Baganda, Gambaragara), and yet was unaware of
+the importance of his discovery. He guessed that the
+mountain in front of him might be from fourteen to
+fifteen thousand feet high, and he called it Mount
+Edwin Arnold. What is so extraordinary about the
+matter is that he relates (as though he disbelieved
+them) the stories of the natives to the effect that
+white stuff and intense cold characterised the upper
+parts of this mountain range, yet he evinced little or
+no curiosity to ascertain the truth of these statements.
+Of course at the time of his visit all the
+thirty miles of snow and glaciers were concealed
+under heavy clouds.</p>
+
+<p>From the vicinity of Ruwenzori the party made its
+way to Lake Dweru, which Stanley named Beatrice
+Gulf. This he learned from the natives was (as it
+is) but a loop of a much larger lake. Years afterwards
+Stanley was to realise that he had discovered
+a portion of Lake Albert Edward. Quitting these
+regions of mysterious lakes and mountains, he journeyed
+much more prosaically past the volcanoes of
+Mfumbiro and the Hima kingdoms of Karagwe to
+Lake Tanganyika, which he reached at Ujiji on its
+northeast coast. On this portion of the journey Stanley
+added a good deal to our information regarding
+the ultimate source of the Nile, the Kagera, though
+he was somewhat misled by native information, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span>
+perhaps by exaggerated swamps, into the creation of
+a non-existing lake, which he called the Alexandra
+Nyanza. His subsequent route across Africa from
+Tanganyika to the mouth of the Congo does not concern
+the present narrative.</p>
+
+<p>One interesting result of Stanley’s explorations of
+the Victoria Nyanza, Uganda, and Unyamwezi was
+that Mr. (now Sir Edwin) Arnold<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> was inspired to
+propose a Cape-to-Cairo overland telegraph wire to
+pass via the Zambezi, Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika,
+to Uganda and the Egyptian Sudan, thereby forestalling
+both Cecil Rhodes and the author of this
+book in the advocacy of a continuous line of British
+communications between South Africa and Egypt.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_228" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 18em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2282_map.jpg" width="1139" height="2030" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_2282_map_large.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Stanley’s Idea of the Victoria Nyanza.</span>. 1880.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It has been mentioned that Stanley’s letter to the
+“Daily Telegraph,” summoning missionaries to the
+court of Mutesa, decided the fate of Uganda. This
+letter met with an immediate response, and in 1876
+two parties of English missionaries were sent out by
+the Church Missionary Society. The Rev. G. Lichfield,
+Mr. C.&nbsp;W. Pearson, and Dr. R.&nbsp;W. Felkin were
+despatched by the Nile route. They travelled from
+Suakin to Khartum, and thence, by the help of Gordon
+Pasha, to the Albert Nyanza and Uganda. The
+other half of the missionary party (Lieutenant Shergold
+Smith, R.N., the Rev. C.&nbsp;T. Wilson, and, amongst
+others, Alexander Mackay, a Scottish engineer) made
+the journey by way of Zanzibar and Unyamwezi.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span>
+Some of these missionaries were detained at the south
+end of the Victoria Nyanza. Lieutenant Shergold
+Smith—a man of great promise—journeyed across
+the lake in a boat and reached Uganda; but soon after
+his return to the south end of the lake he was killed
+in an attack made by the natives of Ukerewe (Bukerebe)
+on the Arab traders. Leaving Mackay, Lichfield,
+and O’Neil in Uganda, C.&nbsp;T. Wilson and R.&nbsp;W.
+Felkin decided to return to Europe, taking with them
+envoys whom Mutesa wished to send to England. On
+their return journey they were greatly troubled by the
+sudd, which then—as frequently before and since—practically
+blocked the navigation of the main Nile.
+They therefore made a very interesting overland journey
+through Darfur and Kordofan, and thence back
+into Egypt.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XX"><span id="toclink_230"></span>CHAPTER XX<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">GORDON AND HIS LIEUTENANTS.—JUNKER AND THE NILE-CONGO WATER-PARTING</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">In</span> 1874 Colonel Purdy and Colonel Colston (Englishmen)
+were despatched by the Egyptian government
+respectively into Darfur and Kordofan for
+surveying purposes. By their expeditions a good deal
+of the country along these half-dry affluents of the
+Bahr-al-Arab and the water-parting between the
+Shari and the Nile was explored and made known.
+Their work was added to in some respects (1875–1876)
+by Sidney Ensor, a civil engineer, who surveyed
+the route for a railway from Wadi Halfa to
+Al Fasher, the capital of Darfur.</p>
+
+<p>The energetic work undertaken by Sir Samuel Baker
+of suppressing the slave-trade in the Equatorial Province
+of the Egyptian Sudan was carried much further
+by the celebrated Charles Gordon, who was destined
+to die at Khartum under circumstances conferring
+on him lasting fame. Gordon Pasha (as he subsequently
+became) had, as it is hardly necessary to state,
+been an engineer officer. It was thought that his appointment
+to the supreme government of the Egyptian
+Sudan (an appointment which Baker had not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span>
+held, since he worked with an Egyptian Governor-General
+at Khartum) would—as it did—materially
+assist the improvement of communications. Gordon
+made an interesting survey of the country between
+Suakin and Berber on the Nile, and together with
+Lieutenants Watson and Chippendall mapped the
+main Nile from Khartum to Gondokoro and Lake
+Albert. He also caused the circumnavigation of
+that lake to be effected.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after Gordon had taken up the work begun by
+Sir Samuel Baker, a curious theory had been started
+concerning Lake Albert Nyanza. In those days, when
+so much personal feeling was very naturally imported
+into Nile exploration, and one great explorer vied with
+another, theories were often started by A to minimise
+the work of B or to exaggerate the results of A’s own
+discoveries. It has been already recounted how Burton,
+piqued by Speke’s great discovery of the Victoria
+Nyanza, which might have fallen to Burton’s own
+lot had he been less crippled with fever, subsequently
+strove to prove the non-existence of that lake as a
+continuous sheet of water. Speke in the most wonderful
+manner had not only discovered the Victoria
+Nyanza, but had, by the collection of native information
+and the deductions he drew therefrom, made, on
+the whole, a remarkably accurate forecast of the Nile
+system in the region of the equatorial lakes. He had
+put Lake Albert on the map, merely from report, in
+a shape and position closely in accordance with actuality.
+Not, however, being able to visit this lake himself,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span>
+he had handed the task over to Sir Samuel Baker,
+who had discovered the Albert Nyanza, but had not
+been able to ascertain its area and shape. Both Speke
+and Baker, however, assumed that the Victoria Nile
+entered Lake Albert, and quitted that lake as the main
+stream of the White Nile. Neither explorer, however,
+nor most that came after them, could state positively
+that they had mapped the Victoria Nile along its whole
+course from the Ripon Falls to Lake Albert, nor had
+they traced the course of the Nile from Lake Albert
+northward to Gondokoro. Therefore in the early
+seventies some theorist had started the ingenious
+idea that Lake Albert belonged either to the system
+of the Congo or the Shari, and that its waters drained
+away by an unknown river at the south end, or else
+by an outlet to the north, which was not the Nile, as
+generally assumed, but a river which flowed westward
+to the unknown. The discovery about this
+time of Lake Kioga further confused notions about
+the Nile system, and it was thought that the Victoria
+Nile discovered by Speke did not enter Lake Albert,
+but in some tortuous way joined the Asua, and so
+flowed on past Gondokoro, leaving Lake Albert altogether
+out of its system.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_232" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2321.jpg" width="1240" height="1191" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Victoria Nile flowing towards Lake Kioga.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>To settle these doubts, Gordon resolved to despatch
+Romolo Gessi,<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> who was then little more than
+a steamer engineer, though, having been the mate of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span>
+Mediterranean steamer, he was able to take astronomical
+observations. Gessi was therefore instructed to
+circumnavigate Lake Albert. This task he carried out
+in 1876. He ascertained positively that the Victoria
+Nile entered Lake Albert and left it again, and he
+connected his rough survey of the Albertine Nile with
+the work which was being carried on up stream from
+Gondokoro by two English engineer officers in Gordon’s
+employ, Lieutenants Watson<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a> and Chippendall.
+In 1877 Colonel Mason (an American) took advantage
+of the first steamer being placed on Lake Albert to
+make a survey rather more careful than that of Gessi,
+but neither of these explorers ascertained the existence
+of the Semliki River or of the snow-range of Ruwenzori,
+though it is said that in some of Gessi’s private
+letters mention was made of a strange apparition
+“like snow-mountains” in the sky, which had appeared
+to some of his men at the south end of Lake
+Albert,—a remark that attracted no attention at the
+time. Gessi also records having seen the mouth of
+a large river at the south end of Lake Albert, but it
+never seems to have occurred to him that this river
+was probably of the greatest geographical interest.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, when Gessi returned to Khartum to
+report the result of his Albert Nyanza explorations to
+Gordon, the latter exclaimed, “What a pity you are not
+an Englishman!” This remark is supposed to have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span>
+been made from pique that the two English officers despatched
+by Gordon (Watson and Chippendall) had
+not arrived in time to accomplish what a Levantine
+Italian had successfully performed. Gessi was already
+somewhat offended, because he considered that he had
+done an excellent piece of work, and he had only
+received as a reward a present of a few hundred francs
+and the decoration of the Mejidieh, third class. He
+therefore flung his fez at Gordon’s feet and tendered
+his resignation. He journeyed to Italy, and was received
+with great distinction by the Italian Geographical
+Society at Rome, who presented him with their
+Gold Medal. He resolved, however, to return to work
+as an explorer, giving particular attention to anthropological
+and zoölogical researches. He engaged two
+Austrian-Italians—Giacomo Morch and Riccardo
+Buchta—to accompany him. Buchta deserves special
+notice, as he was the first careful photographer to visit
+the regions of the Upper Nile. His photographs of
+the native types and scenery of these countries taken
+between 1878 and 1882 are remarkably interesting.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after Gessi’s arrival in Egypt with all his
+stores, he was informed that a fire had broken out
+at Suez railway station, resulting in the complete
+destruction of all his goods, involving a monetary
+loss of something like twelve hundred pounds. He
+therefore returned to Italy, gave up the idea of
+exploring the Bahr-al-Ghazal, and instead resolved
+to start for the river Sobat, and work his way from
+the upper waters of that stream to the southern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span>
+regions of Abyssinia, where two Italians—Cecchi
+and Chiarini—were supposed to be wandering.
+His second expedition was financed by generous
+Italians and by the late King of Italy. He was accompanied
+by Dr. Pellegrino Matteucci, who was
+subsequently to cross Africa from east to west and
+die at the end of his journey.</p>
+
+<p>Ernst Marno, a Viennese, had attempted, in 1870,
+to ascend the Blue Nile and then enter the country of
+the Galas to the south of it. After penetrating, however,
+as far as Fadasi, he was obliged to turn back,
+owing to the hostility of the people. The same obstacles
+turned back Gessi and his companions, and
+the expedition to Kaffa was given up. Returning to
+Khartum, Gessi was preparing to attempt the ascent
+of the Sobat when Gordon returned to his post, from
+which he had been absent, and invited Gessi to re-enter
+the service of the Egyptian government. A
+serious revolt had occurred in the western part of the
+Egyptian Sudan. The great slave-trader, Zubeir, who
+had conquered Darfur, had become a danger to the
+Egyptian power. By dint of a wily invitation he was
+lured to Cairo, and once in Egypt, was prevented by
+the Khedive from returning to the Sudan. His son
+Suleiman, however, remained in Darfur, and attempted
+to rise against the Egyptian government.
+His attempt was frustrated by Gordon, who, however,
+pardoned him, and appointed him sub-governor
+of his country with a handsome salary. But in 1878
+Suleiman openly espoused the cause of the Nubian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span>
+and Arab slave-traders whose devastations of the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal and the White Nile regions had been
+sternly suppressed by Baker and Gordon. Putting
+himself at the head of these disaffected people, Suleiman
+practically subjugated all the vast territory of
+the Bahr-al-Ghazal, and proclaimed his independence.
+Gessi proceeded with a small force on steamers to
+Lado, on the White Nile, where he met Emin Pasha.
+From this point he started for the Nyam-nyam country,<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a>
+picking up on the way all the soldiers he could
+obtain from the various stations of the Sudan government.
+He found that Suleiman had proclaimed
+himself “Lord of Bahr-al-Ghazal, Rōl, and Makarka.”
+At Dem Idris, in the most western part of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+province, the great battle took place.<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> The
+people of the country were on the side of Gessi and
+the Egyptian forces, because of the incessant slave-raiding
+of Suleiman and his men. Gessi had entrenched
+himself and his small force, which at the
+outside amounted to seven thousand men, regulars
+and irregulars. He had several pieces of artillery
+that fired grape-shot. His entrenchments were assaulted
+by Suleiman’s forces, and as the result of this
+attack Suleiman lost his flags, much of his ammunition,
+and most of his guns, together with several
+thousand of his men. Nevertheless, in spite of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span>
+recovery of Egyptian prestige throughout the Sudan,
+Suleiman’s power was not yet at an end. He gathered
+up more forces, and continued to attack Gessi.
+At last reinforcements arrived from the north which
+enabled Gessi to take the offensive. He captured
+stronghold after stronghold. In the spring of 1879
+Suleiman was flying for his life with only a thousand
+men. Gessi destroyed almost all the strongholds of the
+slavers (some of which had existed for twenty-five
+years, and had devastated all the country around) in
+the province of Bahr-al-Ghazal.</p>
+
+<p>Gordon Pasha had now come to Gessi’s assistance,
+and established himself at Shakka on the Nile. He
+also invaded Darfur, reconquered that country, and
+prevented reinforcements reaching Suleiman from that
+direction. Eventually, after a hundred fights, Gessi
+succeeded in tracking Suleiman to his last refuge. At
+the time he had no more than two hundred men with
+him, whilst Suleiman had eight hundred. Taking the
+camp entirely by surprise, he tried a game of bluff,
+and sent a messenger to tell Suleiman that he had
+surrounded his place with a large force, and that
+resistance was hopeless. Suleiman therefore surrendered.
+Gessi tried him by court-martial, and had him
+shot in November, 1879. This ended the first of the
+great rebellions which menaced Anglo-Egyptian authority
+in the Sudan. Gessi was made a Pasha for
+his services, and Governor of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+province. He slowly brought about peace among the
+distracted Negro tribes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span></p>
+
+<p>During all the operations undertaken by Gordon
+and Gessi a good many additions were made to the
+geography of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, the Bahr-al-Arab,
+and Darfur. After Gordon’s departure from the
+Sudan Gessi found it impossible to work with the
+Egyptian Governor-General, Raiūf Pasha. He was
+also extremely ill. He therefore decided to return to
+Europe, but got no farther than Suez, where he died
+in 1881, having uttered several premonitions as to the
+possibility of another revolt. As a matter of fact, the
+Mahdi, who had just begun to make himself known
+as a rebel, did little more than carry on the reaction
+against the anti-slave-trading policy of the Anglo-Egyptian
+control. All the elements of Suleiman’s
+revolt which had been destroyed by the splendid
+valour of Gessi and Gordon gathered round the new
+leader, and brought about that cataclysm which closed
+the area of Nile exploration for fourteen years.</p>
+
+<p>Édouard Linant de Bellefonds, the Belgian official
+in Gordon’s employment of whom mention was made
+in the previous chapter, and who had met his death
+at the hands of the Bari, was avenged by the American
+C. Chaillé-Long, who inflicted severe chastisement
+on the Bari and allied tribes at and around Gondokoro.
+Chaillé-Long was made a colonel by the Egyptian government.
+He was despatched by Gordon on a mission
+to Uganda to spy out the land; but owing to the intervention
+of Sir John Kirk from Zanzibar, the British
+government stayed the ambitious Khedive from attempting
+to include Uganda in the Egyptian Sudan.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span>
+Chaillé-Long added a little to our knowledge of the
+Victoria Nile, and gave a more detailed report of Lake
+Kioga than had been previously gleaned from the unscientific
+journey of Piaggia. He named this lake
+“Ibrahim.” Chaillé-Long also travelled to the west
+of the Mountain Nile in the Nyam-nyam countries.
+His book (“Central Africa: Naked Truths of Naked
+People”) is unfortunately marred by much incorrect
+information, and by the erroneous spelling of native
+names. Mutesa, the ruler of Uganda, is disguised
+as “M’tse;” Uganda becomes Ugunda, while preposterous
+plurals are invented for the people of Uganda
+and Unyoro, who are called the Ugundi, Unyori, etc.
+Chaillé-Long’s one practical contribution to Nile exploration
+was the definite discovery of Lake Kioga,
+which had only been hesitatingly reported by the unlearned
+Piaggia.</p>
+
+<p>Ernst Marno, the Viennese, surveyed a good deal of
+country west of Lado and the Mountain Nile,—the
+valley of the Yei among other rivers. Casati, an
+Italian officer, journeyed all over the lands of the
+Egyptian Sudan; but as he was an unscientific observer
+and lost all his journals in the troubles that
+followed on the Mahdi’s revolt, his contributions to
+our knowledge of the Nile regions are practically
+worthless.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Gustav Nachtigal, one of the great African
+explorers, was born at Eichstadt, near Magdeburg,
+in Germany. He was despatched on a mission to
+Bornu by the King of Prussia. After years spent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span>
+with great advantage to science in the Sahara, round
+Lake Chad, and on the Shari River, he passed from
+Wadai into the Nile basin in the country of Darfur,
+and added somewhat to our geographical knowledge
+of this little known part of the Nile basin. Nachtigal
+reached Khartum at the end of 1874. Another
+German was to contribute his share to the opening
+up of the Nile basin. Dr. Wilhelm Junker was
+born at Moscow in 1840 of German parents, and
+was educated in Germany. He started for Egypt in
+1875 with the intention of going to Darfur, but he
+spent some time examining the Libyan Desert and the
+curious blocked outlet of the Nile in the Fayūm. After
+exploring the Atbara as far as Kasala and journeying
+thence across country to the Blue Nile, he travelled up
+the Sobat River to Nasr (a point at which all exploration
+of the Sobat stopped for many years), and then
+made his way to the White Nile and the Makarka
+(Nyam-nyam) country. His journeys through the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal province took him as far south as the
+Kibali or Welle River. After a visit to Europe with
+his collections and notes, he returned to the Welle and
+the Mangbettu country. He explored the Welle and
+its tributaries for some distance eastward and westward.
+Munza, the celebrated king of the Mangbettu,
+about whom Schweinfurth wrote so much, had been
+murdered by the Nubian slave-traders, and the country
+about the Upper Welle was much disordered.
+Junker reached the Nepoko River, which is an affluent
+of the Aruwimi. His journeys westward to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span>
+Welle River near its confluence with the Mbomu convinced
+him that this mysterious stream, the existence
+of which had first been reported by Miani and Potagos
+(a Greek trader), was after all the most northern affluent
+of the Congo, and not the Upper Shari. Junker’s
+journeys were now interrupted by the news of the
+Mahdi’s revolt.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_241" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2401.jpg" width="1654" height="1302" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Nuēr Village, Sobat River.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Frank Lupton (Bey), a native of Essex, and once
+a mate on a small steamer plying between the Red Sea
+ports, had entered Gordon’s service, and had become
+in time Governor of the Bahr-al-Ghazal province.
+Lupton added a good deal to our knowledge regarding
+the many affluents of the Bahr-al-Ghazal. He
+unhappily fell into the hands of the Dervishes, and
+eventually lost his life. Lupton managed to warn
+Junker of the outbreak, and the Russo-German
+traveller then made his way across country to Lado.
+There he stayed until the news arrived of the fall of
+Khartum. He then started for Uganda, crossed the
+Victoria Nyanza by the help of the English missionaries,
+and travelled to Zanzibar by way of Unyamwezi.
+Junker brought home with him the invaluable journals
+of Emin Pasha. His own two great works on
+the Nile basin are full of interesting information concerning
+the natives. He added much to our knowledge
+of the southern tributaries of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, but
+the chief value and glory of his work lay in the Congo
+basin and was concerned with the identification of the
+Welle-Kibali with the Ubangi. He also discovered the
+important northern tributary of the Welle, the Mbomu.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span>
+Junker’s observations regarding natural history are not
+altogether trustworthy or accurate. His work in this
+respect is not to be compared with that of Schweinfurth
+or Emin. His books are badly illustrated, the
+drawings of beasts and birds being seldom recognisable,
+and the pictures of the people quite without any
+scientific value.</p>
+
+<p>Two Italian officers, Massari and Matteucci, crossed
+the Nile basin just before the uprising of the Dervishes
+closed the Sudan to exploration for sixteen
+years. They passed through the northern frontier
+lands of Abyssinia, descended the White Nile, and
+ascended the Bahr-al-Ghazal, entered Darfur and
+quitted the Nile basin on the borders of Wadai, which
+excessively hostile Muhammadan state they actually
+traversed unharmed. From Wadai they reached the
+West Coast via Bornu and the Niger, but only to die
+respectively in England and Italy soon afterwards.
+For daring and courage the journey was a marvel;
+for geography it was a nullity.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_242" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 23em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2421.jpg" width="1415" height="2032" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<p class="floatl"><cite>Photo by Maull &amp; Fox.</cite>]</p>
+
+<p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Joseph Thomson and Wilhelm Junker.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>When the intensity of the Dervish rule was slackening,
+in the early nineties of the last century various
+Belgian officers, such as Lieutenant Van Kerckhoven,
+passed the Congo basin to the Bahr-al-Arab and the
+westernmost tributaries of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, and
+threw a little fresh light on the still mysterious hydrography
+of the Nile-Shari water-parting. They
+pointed the way, however, to Joseph Marchand and
+his associates. This gallant band of Frenchmen, in
+1897, made their way from the Mbomu River (Congo<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span>
+basin) down the Jur (Sue) to the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+and the White Nile, to face England at Fashoda.
+Marchand was accompanied, amongst other European
+officers and non-commissioned officers, by Lieutenants
+A.&nbsp;H. Dyé and Tanguedec. Tanguedec remained till
+1900 on the Mountain Nile near the Bahr-az-Ziraf.
+Dyé gave, in 1902, some account of the explorations of
+the Bahr-al-Ghazal region undertaken by the Marchand
+expedition. The swamps which characterise the northeastern
+part of the Bahr-al-Ghazal province render
+the definite mapping of the lower courses of its great
+rivers extremely difficult. Nevertheless, in the most
+systematic way, Marchand and his companions, in
+their little steam launch <i>Faidherbe</i>, surveyed the
+Sue or Jur (the longest stream flowing into the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal estuary), the Bahr-al-Arab, Bahr-al-Hamr,
+the Tonj, and Rōl.</p>
+
+<p>The Bahr-al-Ghazal itself, from Mashra-ar-Rak
+downwards, was carefully surveyed, and many indications
+were found of the changes which have taken
+place since the days of its early explorers, though
+M. Dyé considers the sketch given by Lejean in 1862
+as wonderfully correct in its general outlines.</p>
+
+<p>After describing the ferruginous laterite plateau,
+which occupies the whole southern part of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+province, as well as adjoining parts on the
+Congo basin, Lieutenant Dyé sketches the transition
+from this region, in which the streams flow in steep-sided
+valleys to the sea of swamps which lies along
+the ninth parallel. It is in about 7° 20′ north that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span>
+the first change occurs, the river-banks opening out
+and leaving between them an alluvial-flood plain,
+grassy and intersected by swamps, through which
+the river winds in a tortuous course, much choked
+by sand-banks. At the height of the rains this is entirely
+flooded. Still lower, the rocky valley sides entirely
+disappear, and the clayey banks sink below the
+mean water-level, the rivers becoming more and more
+narrow, and diminishing in depth until they are finally
+lost, each in its own belt of swamp, which forms a sea
+of grass, “Um Suf” [fleecy reeds], and papyrus.</p>
+
+<p>Lieutenant Dyé, in his description, divides the estuary
+or drainage channel of the Bahr-al-Ghazal below
+Mashra-ar-Rak into three sections, each with its particular
+characteristics, the general trend of the estuary,
+however, below Mashra-ar-Rak being north, then
+northeast, and lastly east. The first section near
+Mashra-ar-Rak is at times of great width, as at the
+expansion known as Lake Ambady or Ambach.
+There is much floating vegetation, and the channels
+frequently change with the winds. The depth is
+nowhere greater than thirteen feet in this section,
+which is distinguished as the region of lakes, lagoons,
+and reed-beds. In the second section, characterised
+by the growth of papyrus, the channel becomes much
+narrower, and reaches depths of twenty feet and more,
+though the figures given by former travellers seem
+somewhat exaggerated. The width becomes greater
+again in the last section, the banks of which are, as a
+rule, marked by ant-hills covered with brushwood.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span>
+Schweinfurth was mistaken in saying that the current
+of the Bahr-al-Ghazal is imperceptible, for, except in
+expansions and side branches, some movement can
+always be traced, and in the narrowest section it
+reaches a speed of one mile and a quarter an hour. A
+remarkable characteristic of the region is the small
+variation of water-level between the seasons, owing
+to the impounding of the water in the marshes. The
+maximum flood-level occurs on the Bahr-al-Ghazal in
+November and December, or two months later than
+that on the Sue, and various facts are quoted showing
+the slight effect which a rise in the upper courses
+of the streams has on the water-level of the swamp
+region.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_245" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2442.jpg" width="1314" height="1655" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">A Sternwheel Steamboat.</span></p>
+
+<p>Forcing its way up the Jur (Sue) or main affluent of the Bahr-al-Ghazal.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Given their resources and the distance they had to
+traverse (from Loango on the West Coast to Fashoda
+on the Nile, and afterwards to Abyssinia and Somaliland
+via the Congo, Ubangi, Mbomu, Sue, and Bahr-al-Ghazal),
+the enemies they had to encounter, the allies
+they had to win, the privations they had to endure: the
+journey of Marchand and his companions is one of the
+most splendid feats in African exploration, and well
+deserves the admiration accorded to it in France and
+England.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXI"><span id="toclink_246"></span>CHAPTER XXI<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">JOSEPH THOMSON, MT. ELGON, AND KAVIRONDO BAY</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">It</span> will be remembered that a remarkable turn was
+given to Nile exploration when between 1849 and
+1855 the German missionaries in the employ of the
+Church Missionary Society at Mombasa reported their
+explorations of inner East Africa,—explorations which
+revealed the existence of snow-mountains, and which
+gathered reports of great lakes in the interior. The
+outcome of these researches on the part of Krapf
+and Rebman was the despatch of Speke and Burton in
+search of the Nile lakes. We read that only Burton’s
+excessive prudence prevented this first expedition to the
+lakes from starting inland from Mombasa and following
+the trading route right through the Masai country
+to the Victoria Nyanza. This was the route followed
+by Arab traders as far back as 1850. The terror
+caused by the Masai led to great exaggerations of the
+dangers of this direct journey. Its chief difficulty lay
+in the fact that owing to the ravages of the Masai and
+the somewhat waterless character of the intervening
+country, there were no inhabitants for a distance of
+some two hundred miles between the coast regions on
+the east and the fertile lands bordering the Victoria
+Nyanza on the west. The missionaries, German and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span>
+English, who were settled at or near Mombasa, continued
+to collect information from Arab caravans. In
+this way news arrived of the existence of the Rift
+valley, with its chain of lakes, salt and fresh, and of
+some greater lake beyond called “Samburu,” afterwards
+known as Lake Rudolf; also of the Nilotic
+Negroes in the country of Kavirondo, on the northeast
+coast of the Victoria Nyanza. Much of this information
+was industriously gathered up by a most
+excellent missionary, the late Mr. Wakefield,<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> who
+sent his notes and theories to an eminent geographer,
+E.&nbsp;G. Ravenstein. Mr. Ravenstein prepared this information
+for the use of the Royal Geographical
+Society, and in about 1880 had gathered together all
+that was known from surveys and reports into maps
+illustrating Eastern Equatorial Africa.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_247" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 36em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2462.jpg" width="2304" height="1461" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">N.E. Corner of Victoria Nyanza (with Samia Hills in Distance).</span></p>
+
+<p>Near where Joseph Thomson struck the lake shore at the end of his long march, December, 1883.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>As the result of the interest these maps inspired,
+the Royal Geographical Society resolved, in 1882, to
+despatch on this search for a direct route to the Victoria
+Nyanza, Joseph Thomson, a very young and
+very brilliant African explorer, who had already performed
+a remarkable journey to lakes Nyasa and
+Tanganyika. Joseph Thomson left Mombasa in the
+spring of 1883, and after several checks and disappointments,
+finally crossed Masailand (Dr. Fischer,
+a German, had discovered the Rift valley and Lake
+Naivasha a year previously), settled at last the existence
+of the much exaggerated Lake Baringo, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span>
+finally reached the northeast coast of the Victoria
+Nyanza, in Kavirondo Bay, on the borders of Busoga.
+So far as Nile exploration was concerned, the chief
+immediate result of Joseph Thomson’s remarkable
+journey was to draw attention to Stanley’s blunder
+about Ugowe Bay. But Thomson himself only made
+a step towards the delineation of this gulf; his work
+had subsequently to be finished by Mr. C.&nbsp;W. Hobley
+and Commander Whitehouse. He discovered Mount
+Elgon, however (previously alluded to by Stanley as
+Mount Masawa), and was, politically, the forefather
+of the Uganda Railway.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_248" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2482.jpg" width="1400" height="2055" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<p class="floatl"><cite>Photo by Jamieson &amp; Co.</cite>]</p>
+
+<p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Joseph Thomson.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The present writer supplemented Thomson’s work
+in the neighbourhood of the snow-mountain Kilimanjaro,
+and laid the foundations there of the British
+Protectorate of East Africa. Bishop Hannington followed
+in an attempt to repeat Thomson’s journey to
+the Victoria Nyanza, and thus enter Uganda. The
+missionary bishop was murdered on the confines of
+Uganda, and his plucky enterprise added nothing to
+our geographical knowledge. Then came Count
+Samuel Teleki von Szek (a Hungarian) and Lieutenant
+von Höhnel (an Austrian naval officer) in
+1887. Although the expedition led by these gentlemen
+never actually entered the Nile basin, it achieved
+the most important results of discovering lakes Rudolf
+and Stephanie, and thereby limiting the Nile
+basin on the southeast. Ernest Gedge and F.&nbsp;J.
+Jackson crossed what is now British East Africa in
+1889–1890, and reached Elgon, the Victoria Nyanza,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span>
+and Uganda. Dr. Carl Peters made the same
+journey in 1890, but did not add to our geographical
+knowledge in the basin of the Nile. All these expeditions
+were the direct result of Joseph Thomson’s
+work.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXII"><span id="toclink_250"></span>CHAPTER XXII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">EMIN PASHA</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> remarkable man whose name is given to this
+chapter was a German Jew,—Eduard Schnitzer,—born
+in Silesia about 1830. Becoming a doctor
+of medicine, he gradually drifted to Austria and thence
+to Turkey, where he engaged in much medical service
+in the suite of high officials. To some extent he
+adopted the religion of Islam, and changed his name
+to Dr. Emin. Attracted by the mystery of Central
+Africa, he found his way to Khartum, and from being
+a mere medical practitioner, became a Bey in the service
+of the Egyptian government under General Gordon.
+He did a great deal to add to our knowledge
+of the eastern tributaries of the Bahr-al-Ghazal and
+the western tributaries of the Mountain Nile. He
+explored the Nile-Congo water-parting, and made
+very interesting notes on Unyoro, Uganda, and the
+Albert Nyanza. He also added considerably to our
+knowledge of the Latuka, Bari, and Acholi countries.
+Strange to relate, though he lived so much between
+1877 and 1888 on the Albert Nyanza, he never once
+sighted the remarkable snow-range of Ruwenzori.
+This extraordinary omission may have been due to
+the fact that he was very short-sighted. He would,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span>
+therefore, not himself have noticed any remarkable
+appearance in the sky, and probably the Negroes and
+Turks around him were too dull-witted to draw his
+attention to the snow-peaks on the rare occasions on
+which they were visible. In travelling along the west
+coast of Lake Albert Nyanza, however, he discovered
+the Semliki River flowing into that lake, and called
+it the river Dweru.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> Emin Pasha’s journals and letters,
+which were brought to England by Dr. Junker,
+were issued as a book in 1888. Regarding this compilation,
+it may be classed as one of the few great books
+that have ever been written about tropical Africa. It
+is full of concise and valuable information on natural
+history, anthropology, languages, and geography.<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a>
+He gives a very interesting description of the mountainous
+country of Lotuka (Latuka), and of the regions
+further east.</p>
+
+<p>He had been received by Latome, “an elderly gentleman
+of medium height and rather pleasing features,”
+who was the ruler of the nude and handsome
+Lotuka <span class="locked">Negroids:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Meantime a motley crowd assembled in the yard,—women
+and girls, the former with leather aprons, the
+latter entirely nude; men of different districts, all armed
+with shields and spears,—the genuine Lotuka people,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span>
+recognisable by their slight figures and long faces,—all
+nude, and adorned with iron ornaments, ivory rings on
+the upper arm, broad copper rings as necklaces, and helmets
+of shining brass or copper plates, surmounted by
+waving ostrich plumes. Some of them wore caps made
+of basket work. After our reception was over, we visited
+the summit of the hill, whence a splendid view is obtained,
+extending from Mount Loligono in the Bēr country,
+northwards over the whole Lokoya range, to the west,
+and to the high peaks of the Obbo Mountains, in the
+south and southwest, where the horns of Jebel Asal tower
+up,—so named on Baker’s map, but called by the Bari
+“Ekara,” and by the Lotuka “Chufal,”—then away to
+the long lofty ranges of Molong and Killio, the defile
+leading to Tarangole, with its hills rising up like sentinels,
+and finally the long range of Lafit, which closes the scene
+on the northeast,—a typical Alpine landscape.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Lotuka people, it might be mentioned, are very
+similar in appearance and language to the Elgumi
+tribe, which is much farther south, in the vicinity of
+Mount Elgon. Both these peoples are nearly related
+in origin to the Masai. They should properly be
+styled Lotuka.<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a></p>
+
+<figure id="ip_252" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2521.jpg" width="1269" height="1936" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Emin Pasha.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Of the Lotuka country Dr. Emin <span class="locked">writes:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The sky was overclouded when we left Tarangole.
+Taking a southeasterly course along Khor Kos,<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> through
+beautiful park land, we reached the ford in about half an
+hour. The <i>khor</i> was here about twenty-two yards broad,
+and full of yellowish water, which reached up to our<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span>
+thighs, and flowed over a sandy, rocky bottom. We had
+a pleasant march over a good firm road, across sandy
+country covered with open wood, the ground being rather
+wet in some places; the predominance of acacias (<i class="taxonomy">Acacia
+albida</i>, <i class="taxonomy">A. mellifera</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">A. campylacantha</i>) and <i class="taxonomy">Balanites</i>
+gave a gray tone to the scenery. Khor Oteng, now
+very insignificant, is said to pour such large volumes of
+water into Khor Kos<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> in the rainy season that the passage
+is often rendered impossible for hours. The ford of Khor
+Kos is called Chuchur; a splendid forest of doleb palms
+(<i class="taxonomy">Borassus</i>) yielding an abundance of odorous fruits,
+skirts the khor, copses of various other trees intervening.
+Large flat blocks of friable granite, with white streaks,
+lie across the road that leads direct to the foot of the hill
+of Loguren, which is about four hundred feet high. Its
+summit is crowned with the dome-shaped huts of the
+village bearing the same name.</p>
+
+<p>“Dum Palms (<i class="taxonomy">Hyphæne thebaica</i>) grow here, as they
+do at the ford of Khor Kos. It appears, therefore, that
+the southern limit of this tree runs along the Bahr-al-Jabl
+between Bor and Lado, and then advances farther to the
+south, no doubt owing to the sandy soil which connects
+the Lotuka and Somal districts.<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a> Picturesque groups of
+rocks, inhabited by the restless Hyrax, well-tilled fields,
+and here and there small clumps of doleb palms are seen
+along the road to Elianga, where, on the edges of the
+rocks, numerous clay vessels containing human bones
+seem to say ‘Memento mori,’ a rather unnecessary warning
+in Central Africa.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span></p>
+
+<p>Emin describes the Lotuka villages as being dreadfully
+dirty, in contrast to the Bari settlements, which
+are always kept scrupulously clean within, though
+their environments are filthy. Hundreds of rats and
+mice infest the Lotuka huts. These latter are built
+upon round substructures about four and one-half
+feet high, usually caulked and overlaid with mud. The
+huts are surmounted by bell-shaped roofs (sometimes
+peaked), which project considerably over the substructures.
+A small doorway is left open, about two
+and a half feet high, which must, of course, be entered
+on all fours. The interior is kept fairly clean,
+but is quite dark. The thatch is generally made of
+grass; many huts are covered with split leaves of the
+<i class="taxonomy">Borassus</i> palm, which are more durable and compact,—a
+very desirable quality for withstanding tropical
+rain. Sheep and goats are the only domestic animals
+kept here; the former are long legged and of a superior
+breed. The Lotuka do not seem to keep dogs. Agriculture,
+as is usual among hunting tribes, is rather neglected,
+although the soil is excellent, and the Sudanese
+soldiers stationed in Lotuka grew without difficulty
+durrah, maize, ground-nuts, and splendid watermelons.</p>
+
+<p>Ostriches are caught when young, and are tamed
+in the Lotuka settlements. Sometimes they are
+hatched from eggs buried in the sand. Snakes of
+many kinds, especially viperine, frequent the Lotuka
+villages unmolested by the people, and often making
+their way into the huts after the rats. A poisonous
+species of <i class="taxonomy">Echis</i> is, however, much dreaded.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span></p>
+
+<p>Okkela in the Lotuka country was a paradise for
+a natural history collector like Emin. The belt of
+wood round this settlement was full of treasures.
+There were many Colobus monkeys, whose white
+dorsal mane and tail-tuft gleamed through the dark
+foliage, small families of them being led by white-bearded
+old males which gazed fearlessly at the
+stranger. Close by a brown baboon mother might
+be giving her offspring rough lectures on good manners,
+which, to judge from the howling, were not
+much appreciated; “tall, fox-coloured baboons, white
+on the under side,<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a> were chasing one another along
+the tree-tops, and barking and yelping like hoarse
+dogs. A small mouse-coloured monkey with a black
+face, and quite unknown to me, skulked away through
+the thick bush; two varieties of <i class="taxonomy">Funambulus</i> squirrels
+ran up and down the long tendrils of the creeping
+plants, and the graceful <i class="taxonomy">Xerus leucumbrinus</i> squirrel
+roved about upon the ground. Small cats, ichneumons,
+rats, and mice had also found a comfortable
+shelter in the woods, and other creatures, quite unknown,
+to judge from the description, are said to
+haunt it, especially at night.”</p>
+
+<p>Birds were even more numerous and striking.
+“Gorgeous blue kingfishers (<i class="taxonomy">Halcyon senegalensis</i> and
+<i class="taxonomy">H. semicærulea</i>) and beautiful bee-eaters (<i class="taxonomy">Merops
+bullockii</i> and <i class="taxonomy">M. albicollis</i>) were perched on the dry
+boughs waiting for insects; a large gray cuckoo,
+probably a new variety,<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a> could be heard in the tree-tops,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span>
+as also the handsome <i class="taxonomy">Cuculus capensis</i>, whose
+loud cry the Nile Negroes interpret by the word
+<i>lashakong</i> (my gourd), and a charming little falcon
+(<i class="taxonomy">Nisus</i> sp.) joined them with a sharp chirp, which
+the natives call <i>lefit</i>, a happy imitation of its cry.
+Snow-white <i class="taxonomy">Terpsiphone</i> and brilliant golden cuckoos
+(<i class="taxonomy">Chalcites cupreus</i> and <i class="taxonomy">C. clasii</i>) were swinging in the
+green leafy bowers, and cunning barbets (<i class="taxonomy">Pogonorhynchus
+rolleti</i>, <i class="taxonomy">P. diadematus</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">P. abyssinicus</i>)
+came into sight for a moment, to disappear again
+directly like woodpeckers. In the thick copsewood
+<i class="taxonomy">Bessornis heuglinii</i> flew off at my approach with a
+sudden cry of fear, and <i class="taxonomy">Cichladusa guttata</i> sang as
+loudly, but was not quite so shy. An <i class="taxonomy">Aedon</i> warbled
+its beautiful song among the thickest briars, and was
+accompanied by the tapping of numerous woodpeckers.
+I caught <i class="taxonomy">Picus nubicus</i>, the rarer <i class="taxonomy">P. minutus</i>, and another
+kind which I think is new; it closely resembles
+<i class="taxonomy">P. schoensis</i>, and it is equally handsome.”</p>
+
+<p>Animal life abounded also in the open country of
+Lotuka,—a land covered with shrubs, with broad,
+grassy clearings and sandy flats. The ground was
+strewn with the shells of <i class="taxonomy">Achatina zebra</i>; small lizards
+and snakes of various kinds—among them the rare
+<i class="taxonomy">Typhlops</i>—glided over the sand, and larger snakes
+hissed frightfully and retreated. A concert of croaking
+frogs would arise from the reedy margins of the
+half-dry rivers, and on the sandy islands of the Kos
+enormous crocodiles were watching the children bathing
+close by. Herds of <i class="taxonomy">Cobus leucotis</i><a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> grazed on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span>
+young grass; large wart hogs issued from holes in the
+ground. “They were,” writes Emin, “no despicable
+antagonists, for they can make very good use of their
+huge tusks. Going further into the bush, I saw the
+elegant form of a wild cat stealing off with its tail
+in the air, and heard a loud growl from a leopard
+which disapproved of my presence. Lions were most
+plentiful.”</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_257" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2562.jpg" width="1247" height="1532" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Raphia Palms by a Central African Stream.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A herd of zebras grazing on the fresh green grass
+is a pleasant picture, whether surrounded by their
+frolicking young or running away at a thundering
+gallop. One does not often meet with the scaly
+ant-eater, <i class="taxonomy">Manis temmincki</i>, still less with the earth-pig
+(<i class="taxonomy">Orycteropus æthiopicus</i>), but a fine example of
+the latter edentate having fallen into a pitfall, Emin
+was able to attest its presence in Nile land.</p>
+
+<p>Emin’s journeys in the region of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+and along the water-parting between the basins of the
+Nile and the Congo added greatly to our knowledge
+of those countries. The forests in these regions he
+described as magnificent “gallery” woods, in which
+all the marvels of vegetation unfolded themselves before
+the enchanted gaze of the botanist. These forests
+border the streams, and exist only near to running
+water. The region, however, of immense unbroken
+forests, in which one may wander for hours without
+seeing a sunbeam, and where one hears the rain beating
+upon the summits of the trees without feeling a
+drop, commences only a little to the west of the Nyam-nyam
+(Zande) country. There is no doubt that much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span>
+of the Bahr-al-Ghazal region was originally quite covered
+with forests, to judge from the remains of virgin
+woods which still exist. The gradual disappearance
+of the forest is to be attributed to the comparatively
+thick population, the constant removal of villages and
+fields, and to the inroads of both axe and fire. Emin
+saw the remains of many a gigantic and magnificent
+forest-tree lying rotting on the ground, having been
+cut down, and given to decay because it spread too
+much shade over the crops. After many years of wandering
+among these regions, he was inclined to think
+that in ancient times the true Central African forest
+region, that is, the permanence of evergreen woods
+containing westerly species, extended much farther to
+the north than it does to-day. Towards the east of the
+Nyam-nyam country, as far as the district of Janda,
+he observed such West African forms as <i class="taxonomy">Artocarpus</i>
+and <i class="taxonomy">Anthocleista</i>, but he states that the valley of the
+Mountain Nile throughout its whole length, as far
+south as Lake Albert, is characterised by steppe vegetation,
+as is also the entire eastern region of the Nile
+basin.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIII"><span id="toclink_259"></span>CHAPTER XXIII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">STANLEY DISCOVERS THE MOUNTAINS OF THE MOON
+AND LAKE ALBERT EDWARD.—THE END OF EMIN</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Two</span> sets of circumstances now hindered further
+exploration of the Nile basin,—the revolt of
+the Mahdi, with the disasters that followed at Khartum;
+and the persecution of the Christians followed by
+civil war in Uganda. Emin Pasha was left to govern
+Equatoria for four years, cut off from all communication
+with Egypt. Dr. Junker, arriving with his collections
+and journals in 1886, aroused a great wave
+of enthusiasm in England and Germany. Stanley at
+once offered to lead a relief expedition to the Equatorial
+provinces of the Nile. The great prestige of
+this remarkable man made it impossible for any other
+candidate to enter the field in England. Many, however,
+were in favour of entrusting the expedition to
+Thomson, who believed in the practicability of conducting
+it by a direct route from Mombasa to Mount
+Elgon, and so across to the Nile. Whether he would
+have succeeded is a moot question, owing to the fierceness
+of the Nile tribes between Elgon and Gondokoro,
+and the jealousy and suspicion of Uganda and
+Unyoro; for the King of Uganda, having had his
+fears aroused as to European aggression, had already<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span>
+caused Bishop Hannington to be murdered for repeating
+Thomson’s journey to Busoga.</p>
+
+<p>Stanley was precluded from following the old
+Unyamwezi route, owing to German jealousy. He
+decided, therefore, to strike at the Upper Nile by way
+of the Congo, and so found himself struggling through
+the dense forests of the Congo basin between the navigable
+waters of the Aruwimi and the cliffs of Lake
+Albert. This wonderful journey, which he took for
+the relief of Emin Pasha, resulted in the discovery of
+the real Mountains of the Moon [Ruwenzori], the
+complete course of the Semliki River, Lake Albert
+Edward, and the southwesternmost gulf of the Victoria
+Nyanza. Stanley added a great deal to our knowledge
+of the Congo Pygmies, who in this direction stray
+over into the Nile watershed; but his grand discovery
+on this occasion was Ruwenzori. On May 24, 1888,
+about five miles from Nsabe, on the grassy mountains
+to the southwest of Lake Albert Nyanza,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="in0">“while looking to the southeast and meditating upon the
+events of the last month, my eyes were directed by a boy
+to a mountain said to be covered with salt, and I saw a
+peculiar shaped cloud of a most beautiful silver colour,
+which assumed the proportions and appearance of a vast
+mountain covered with snow. Following its form downward,
+I became struck with the deep blue-black colour
+of its base, and wondered if it portended another tornado;
+then as the sight descended to the gap between the eastern
+and western plateaux I became for the first time conscious
+that what I gazed upon was not the image or semblance
+of a vast mountain, but the solid substance of a real one,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span>
+with its summit covered with snow.... It now dawned
+upon me that this must be the Ruwenzori, which was said
+to be covered with a white metal or substance believed to
+be a rock, as reported by Kavali’s two slaves.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="ip_261" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2601.jpg" width="1397" height="2278" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<p class="floatl"><cite>Photo by John Fergus.</cite>]</p>
+
+<p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Sir Henry Stanley, G.C.B.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This view was obtained from a distance of seventy
+miles,—about the distance of the chief snows of Ruwenzori
+from the south end of Lake Albert Nyanza.
+The constant haze rising from the Semliki valley no
+doubt keeps this mountain usually invisible from the
+waters of the lake. It is, therefore, not so surprising
+that it was not hitherto seen by the explorers of the
+Albert Nyanza, as it is that Stanley himself should
+have camped at the very base of this mountain for
+some days in 1875, and have been ignorant of its
+true character as the highest ground and the most completely
+snow-and-glacier-covered range in the whole of
+Africa. The name that he has given to it unfortunately
+does not completely correspond with the native
+pronunciation; it should be Runsororo.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery of this snowy range was soon followed
+by the realisation of the Semliki River, another
+geographical name of Stanley’s giving which it
+is most difficult to trace to any native source. (The
+Semliki, in fact, is never called by any native tribe
+“Semliki.” It is known as Dweru, Nyanja, Ituri,
+Isango, and other Bantu terms indicating <em>lake</em> or
+<em>river</em>. When first discovered by Emin Pasha, a short
+time before Stanley’s arrival, it was known as the
+Dweru.) This stream is really the Albertine Nile.
+Its existence had been surmised by Sir Samuel Baker<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span>
+without much foundation (then) for his theory. Emin
+Pasha first noted it in 1884 as a feeder of Lake
+Albert. Stanley, in 1889, traced the Semliki up its
+course to its point of exit from Lake Albert Edward,
+which sheet of water he was the first European to
+discover. Albert Edward is connected by a narrow,
+winding channel<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> on the northeast with a somewhat
+extensive, shallow lake, usually known as “Dweru.”<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a></p>
+
+<p>Dweru was discovered by Stanley in 1875, and
+named by him Beatrice Gulf. Stanley now ascertained
+that the two lakes were connected. His expedition
+crossed the Kafuru, as the connecting stream
+is called, and entered the till then unvisited Hima
+kingdom of Ankole. Stanley’s guess at the shape of
+the Albert Edward was incorrect, and it needed subsequent
+expeditions to give us a truer idea of the
+form and area of this sheet of water, the eastern
+shore of which still remains unsurveyed.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_262" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 34em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2621.jpg" width="2168" height="1288" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Shores of the Victoria Nyanza, near Emin Pasha Gulf.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Passing through Ankole, Stanley reached the southwestern
+extremity of the Victoria Nyanza, which he
+named Emin Pasha Gulf. On his journeys of circumnavigation
+in 1875, he had been deceived by a
+chain of islands into an incorrect limitation of the
+area of the Victoria Nyanza in this direction. He
+now realised that the lake extends much further to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span>
+the southwest than was previously thought by Speke
+and himself, and is therefore not of the heart-shape
+assigned to it in the earliest maps; it is, in fact,
+much longer from north to south than it is broad
+from east to west.</p>
+
+<p>The rest of Stanley’s great journey took him out of
+the Nile watershed.</p>
+
+<p>But the discoveries which he made in the Albertine
+region of the Nile basin whetted the curiosity of
+Emin Pasha, who longed to return to these mysterious
+regions.</p>
+
+<p>He did so in 1890, as a German official. Accompanied
+by Dr. Franz Stuhlmann, a very able explorer,
+he directed his steps to these regions of fascinating
+interest, the Snow-mountains, and the Great Forest.
+In 1891 Dr. Stuhlmann made an ascent of the Ruwenzori
+range on its western aspect nearly to the
+snow-line. He revealed the existence of its remarkable
+Alpine vegetation of giant groundsels and lobelias.
+He also attempted to discriminate between the
+many different snow-peaks of this lofty range, though
+with only partial success, his failure in arriving at
+a complete result, like that of subsequent travellers,
+being due to the constant presence of clouds. Emin
+and Stuhlmann together added a good deal to our
+knowledge of the Semliki, and to the clearing up of
+geographical points connected with the line of watershed
+between the Nile and the Congo systems immediately
+west of Lake Albert. Emin Pasha resolved
+to return by way of the Congo, and was therefore left<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span>
+to do so by Stuhlmann, who returned to his duties in
+German East Africa. Re-entering the great Congo
+forest, and following a northern affluent of the
+Ituri-Aruwimi, Emin was captured by one of the
+slave-trading, Arabised Manyema who had recently
+invaded this region to secure ivory and slaves. As
+a German official, Emin (together with other Germans)
+had confiscated property belonging to these
+Manyema, had released slaves, and had severely punished
+slave-raiders. From motives of revenge, therefore,
+he was sentenced to death by his captor, and his
+throat was cut in his house one day in October, 1892.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_264" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2641.jpg" width="1342" height="1982" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Dr. Franz Stuhlmann.</span></p>
+
+<p>(Deputy Governor of German East Africa.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"><span id="toclink_265"></span>CHAPTER XXIV<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">GERMAN EXPLORERS DETERMINE THE SOUTHERN
+LIMITS OF THE NILE BASIN</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> acquisition by Germany of those interior
+regions of the Zanzibar coast-line which now
+constitute German East Africa led to a considerable
+development of exploration in the southernmost regions
+of the Nile basin. Prior to 1890 there had
+been much discussion as to what was the Nile’s furthest
+tributary,—what stream, in fact, was the ultimate
+source of the Nile. Stanley’s journeys in search
+of Emin Pasha had revealed the existence of the Semliki
+and of Lake Albert Edward, and had thus extended
+considerably the length of the Albertine Nile
+system. Later on Count Götzen had shown by his remarkable
+journeys north from Tanganyika that Lake
+Kivu (the existence of which had been already reported
+by Burton, Speke, and Stanley) was connected
+with Tanganyika, and therefore with the Congo. This
+put a limit to the Nile basin in that direction, and disposed
+for ever of the last vestige of Livingstone’s wild
+dream, by which the main course of the Nile would
+have risen far south of the equator in what we now
+know to be the basin of the Congo, and have flowed
+through Lake Albert instead of through the Victoria<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span>
+Nyanza. Speke had discovered the important Kagera
+River (which he called the Kitangule), and Stanley
+had extended our knowledge of this, the largest affluent
+of the Victoria Nyanza. Stanley had, in fact, in
+1875 christened it the Alexandra Nile, but he was
+very much misled about its origin and course, and he
+made it issue from a hypothetical lake, Akanyaru,<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a>
+which has no existence, but which was no doubt in
+part an exaggeration of swamps along the course of
+the Kagera, and in part a confusion with the rumoured
+Lake Kivu.</p>
+
+<p>The Kagera is now acknowledged to be the extreme
+head-waters of the Nile. A distinctly observable current
+passes across the Victoria Nyanza from the mouth
+of the Kagera to the Ripon Falls. In 1891–1893 Dr.
+Oscar Baumann, a German official, who had previously
+done some good exploring work in West Africa,
+made extensive journeys through southern Masailand
+and Unyamwezi to the sources of the Kagera River.
+This stream (especially in its upper waters, where it
+is known as Ruvuvu), was further explored in 1899–1900
+by M. Lionel Dècle, a French traveller, who had
+done a great deal to increase our knowledge of Central
+Africa.<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> Dr. Kandt,<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a> in 1898, and other Germans,
+have also put on the map portions of the
+Kagera’s course, and our knowledge of this stream has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span>
+received contributions from Messrs. Racey, Mundy,
+and R.&nbsp;W. Macallister, officials of the Uganda Protectorate.
+The Kagera River has two principal sources,
+both of them almost within sight of the waters of
+Tanganyika. The stream which is usually taken to
+be the more important source rises in south latitude
+3° in the country of Ruziga, about fifteen miles due
+north of the north end of Tanganyika, at an altitude
+of about 6,270 feet above sea-level. Some fifty miles
+south-southeast of this point, however, there is another
+source, which may be taken to be the southernmost
+extension of the Nile system. This fountain, in south
+latitude 3° 45′, is on the eastern slope of the Utembera
+or Kangozi Mountains, only ten miles east of Tanganyika.
+The altitude is about 6,300 feet. This would
+seem to be the farthest source of the Nile.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_267" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2662.jpg" width="1395" height="1951" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Native of Unyamwezi, from near South Shores of Victoria
+Nyanza.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Herr Baumann made another contribution of negative
+value to Nile exploration. Stanley and some
+other travellers had believed that the southernmost
+source of the Nile lay in the country of Unyamwezi,
+in certain streams which flowed northward into the
+Victoria Nyanza, which they entered under the name
+of the river Simiyu or Shimeyu. But in these deductions
+they were wrong. Baumann showed that
+the river Simiyu was an inconsiderable stream of
+short course, and that the waters much further to the
+south which had been identified with this river really
+flowed northeastwards into a largish salt lake, discovered
+by Baumann and called Lake Eyasi. Eyasi
+has no outlet. It is situated in a rift valley which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span>
+joins the great Rift valley of Masailand. The journeys
+of Baumann and of other Germans considerably
+curtailed the present extent of the Nile basin in
+Unyamwezi. The waters of this somewhat arid tableland,
+which apparently is almost below the surface of
+the Victoria Nyanza, flow mainly to Tanganyika, to
+Lake Rukwa, and to Lake Eyasi and other isolated
+pools of the rift valleys.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span></p>
+
+<figure id="ip_269" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2682.jpg" width="1363" height="1953" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<p class="floatl"><cite>Photo by J. Thomson.</cite>]</p>
+
+<p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Sir Frederic D. Lugard.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXV"><span id="toclink_269"></span>CHAPTER XXV<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">GEOGRAPHICAL WORK IN THE UGANDA PROTECTORATE</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap b"><span class="smcap1">Stanley’s</span> relief of Emin Pasha led to the
+withdrawal of the latter’s government from the
+equatorial regions, and after a brief interval of hesitation,
+to the foundation of a British Protectorate
+over Uganda and the adjoining territories. Preparations
+for this Protectorate were made by Captain
+(now General Sir Frederic) Lugard, who, in the
+course of his settlement of the disturbed country of
+Uganda, journeyed round Ruwenzori to Lake Albert
+Edward.<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">111</a> Shortly afterwards (as already related)
+Emin Pasha returned to this part of the world accompanied
+by Dr. Stuhlmann. Mr. Scott-Elliott, a
+Scottish naturalist, came out in 1893–1894 for the purpose
+of making natural history collections. He drew
+a very neat and truthful little map of the eastern and
+southern flanks of Ruwenzori,—a map which until
+quite recently has been somewhat overlooked by those
+who have compiled charts of this region. Scott-Elliott,
+Lugard, Stuhlmann, Grogan, J.&nbsp;E. Moore, Malcolm
+Fergusson, and several Belgian officers, such as
+the late Lieutenant Meura, were not slow to point out<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span>
+and correct serious errors on the part of Stanley in
+his rough delimitation of Lake Albert Edward. Lake
+Dweru or Beatrice Gulf was also redrawn with advantage.
+But curiously enough, all these travellers—Stanley
+included—omitted to point out that the connection
+between Lake Dweru and Lake Albert Edward
+was not a broad channel, but a narrow and winding
+river between high banks. It was left to the present
+writer to make this correction on the map. The
+author also, together with Lieutenant Meura, redrew
+with greater correctness the upper course of the Semliki
+River, and in 1900 added somewhat to our knowledge
+of the configuration of the Ruwenzori range.</p>
+
+<p>The expedition of Sir Gerald Portal (especially
+through the work of his brother Raymond, who died
+after doing excellent service in pacifying Toro) added
+to the map of the countries between Ruwenzori on the
+west and Kavirondo on the east. In 1895 the late
+Colonel Seymour Vandeleur (when only a lieutenant
+in the army) made an excellent and systematic survey
+of the Kingdom of Uganda and of much of Unyoro.
+The wars against the Sudanese mutineers added to our
+geographical knowledge of these districts. Colonel
+John Evatt and Captain H. Maddox, amongst others,
+gave us for the first time something like the true
+shape of the marshy lakes of Kioga and Kwania,
+which, in some respects, are huge backwaters of the
+Victoria Nile. But the great addition to the geography
+of the southern extremities of the Nile basin was made
+by the expedition under Colonel J.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;L. Macdonald.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span>
+This officer had accurately mapped the regions bordering
+on the northwest coasts of the Victoria Nyanza
+in 1894. About this period also Mr. F.&nbsp;J. Jackson,<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">112</a>
+Mr. C.&nbsp;W. Hobley, and Mr. Ernest Gedge were filling
+up the map as regards the configuration of the country
+along the northeastern watershed of Victoria Nyanza
+and the slopes of Mount Elgon. Mount Elgon was
+ascended to its highest peak (14,080 feet), for the first
+and only time, by Messrs. Jackson and Gedge in 1895.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_271" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2702.jpg" width="1364" height="2055" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">G.&nbsp;F. Scott-Elliot.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Colonel Macdonald was despatched more with a
+political than with a geographical object. He was
+to journey through the northeastern part of the British
+sphere of interest in East Africa and make for the Nile
+about Gondokoro, and so travel with the idea of forestalling
+any possible French competitors; whilst General
+(Lord) Kitchener should be defeating the Khalifa
+at Khartum with a view to recovering all the provinces
+of the Egyptian Sudan. But the mutiny of the
+Sudanese soldiers in Uganda and other causes threw
+great difficulties in the way of Colonel Macdonald’s
+expedition. He succeeded however in mapping himself,
+and with the aid of such officers on his staff
+as Majors Austin, Bright, Hanbury-Tracey, and
+others, the regions to the north of Mount Elgon.
+He filled up a considerable blank in the map between
+what was known east of the Mountain Nile and the
+actual coast-line of Lake Rudolf. Colonel Macdonald’s
+expedition first brought clearly to our knowledge<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span>
+the remarkable mountain-ranges of Chemorongi,
+Nakwai, Lobor, Lopala, Morongole, Agoro, and
+Harogo. He put on the map the upper waters of
+the Asua River (an important eastern contributary
+of the Mountain Nile) and its larger affluents. His
+work and that of the late Captain Welby has enabled
+us to define more clearly the separation between the
+waters of Lake Rudolf on the east and the Mountain
+Nile on the west. Colonel Macdonald discovered
+Lake Kirkpatrick on the upper Asua, and mapped
+more precisely Lake Salisbury and the northern slopes
+and streams of Mount Elgon.</p>
+
+<p>Captain M.&nbsp;S. Wellby had travelled in 1899 round
+the east and south shores of Lake Rudolf, and thence
+had penetrated westwards through the Turkana and
+Karamojo countries to the Nile watershed, where he
+discovered two streams flowing north, both of which
+he named Ruzi. These he imagined to be the head-waters
+of the Sobat. Donaldson Smith and H.&nbsp;H.
+Austin showed his theory to be wrong [?]. The Ruzis
+probably flow into the rivers draining the Lotuka
+highlands and entering the Bahr-az-Ziraf or Giraffe
+Nile.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_272" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2722.jpg" width="1480" height="2078" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Dr. Donaldson-Smith.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Colonel J.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;L. Macdonald (assisted by Captain
+Pringle) had previously (1893), when first employed
+in Uganda, made an admirable survey of the British
+coasts of the Victoria Nyanza, from Port Victoria
+in northern Kavirondo, westwards to the German
+frontier at the Kagera River, and for the first time
+put on record all or nearly all the islands, bays, inlets,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span>
+peninsulas, and rivers of the north and northwest
+coasts of the Victoria Nyanza. Here and there his
+work in this direction has been added to by Mr.
+C.&nbsp;W. Fowler and Commander Whitehouse. Whitehouse,
+as already related, was the surveyor who
+finally amended Stanley’s error of “Ugowe Bay,” and
+gave us for the first time the correct form of the great
+northeastern gulf of the Victoria Nyanza (Kavirondo
+Bay), together with the shape of the two large islands
+which mask its entrance. Commander Whitehouse
+also surveyed the east coast of the Victoria Nyanza
+down to the German frontier, and added a lot of new
+material to the delineation of this eastern coast-line.
+In this direction an interesting journey was made from
+Lake Naivasha to the coast of Kavirondo Bay by
+Major E. Gorges in 1900. Mr. C.&nbsp;W. Hobley, a
+Sub-Commissioner in the Uganda Protectorate, contributed
+a good deal of information to fill up the blank
+places of the map between Kavirondo Bay on the
+south and the northwestern flanks of Mount Elgon
+on the north. Captain Pringle had already mapped
+these countries on the railway survey.</p>
+
+<p>In 1900 Dr. Donaldson-Smith, an American, traversed
+the countries which lie between the north end
+of Lake Rudolf and the Mountain Nile. He crossed
+several dry river-beds, in a region of appalling drought
+(extinct tributaries of the Sobat), and then reached the
+rivers Oguelokur, Tu, and Kos which flow in a northwesterly
+direction towards the Mountain Nile or its
+branch, the Giraffe River. The region between the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span>
+Giraffe and the Sobat remains to-day the only unexplored
+part of the Nile Basin.</p>
+
+<p>In 1900 and 1901 Major C. Delmé Radcliffe made
+the first completely accurate survey of the Nile from
+Lake Albert to Gondokoro, and put on the map for
+the first time many new details concerning the Asua
+River and its affluents, besides streams which rise
+in the hills of the Acholi and Madi countries and
+enter that portion of the Nile between Gondokoro
+and Lake Albert.</p>
+
+<p>From the Cape to Cairo was a watchword that, as an
+idea, first emanated from the pen of Sir Edwin Arnold
+in 1876, and as a phrase took shape in writings by the
+author of this book in 1888 and 1890, and as a policy
+was finally adopted by Cecil Rhodes in 1892. The first
+person to carry this idea into practical execution was
+Mr. Ewart Grogan, who (accompanied part of the
+way by Mr. Sharp) travelled literally from the Cape
+to Cairo via Lake Albert Edward and the Uganda
+Protectorate. His contributions to Nile explorations
+are referred to in the next chapter. He was followed
+in 1900 by Major A. St. Hill Gibbons and later by
+M. Lionel Dècle. Between 1898 and 1902 Colonel
+E.&nbsp;A. Stanton surveyed the eastern part of the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+and the intricate channels of the lower
+Mountain Nile.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_274" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 19em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2741.jpg" width="1195" height="1173" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cutting the Sudd.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the year 1900 a very notable achievement took
+place. The terrible obstruction of the sudd which
+had intermittently blocked the Nile navigation from the
+days of Nero’s two centurions (who could hardly force<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span>
+their way through it in the year 66 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) to our
+own times was cut through resolutely by an expedition
+under Major Malcolm Peake. The government
+of the Egyptian Sudan has for the last two
+years continued to clear away this obstacle, and in all
+probability it will never be allowed to form again.
+In fact, in this direction man will probably do much
+to modify the subsequent history of the Nile. Sir
+William Garstin has recently explored Lake Tsana and
+the Blue Nile as well as the White Mountain Nile as
+far as Gondokoro, Lake Albert, and Lake Victoria,
+with a view to ascertaining which of the two rivers
+contributes the most valuable supply of water for
+the irrigation and fertilisation of Egypt. So far,
+he has decided for the Blue Nile, a fact which lends
+increased importance to the Empire of Abyssinia.<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">113</a>
+It may be, however, that with the clearing of the sudd
+on the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the Mountain Nile these
+branches of the great river may send down increasing
+supplies of water to Egypt. In any case the clearing
+of the sudd will permit of these waterways being used
+for penetrating in all directions into the heart of
+Equatorial Africa.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVI"><span id="toclink_276"></span>CHAPTER XXVI<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE EASTERN BASIN OF THE NILE</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">We</span> will now turn to the eastern part of the Nile
+basin—the first to be explored, the last to be
+finished. It has been already related how, alarmed at
+the rapid successes of the Portuguese in India, the
+Persian Gulf, and East Africa, the Abyssinians resolutely
+ejected the Portuguese missionaries from their
+country during the seventeenth century, and how the
+attempts of Louis XIV. to supplant the Portuguese
+by French influence resulted disastrously. Bruce had
+broken the spell which rested on this strange country,
+so fascinating to Europeans, because while being absolutely
+“Africa” it was ruled, and for the most part
+inhabited, by more or less Caucasian races, its rulers
+having a Semitic history which attached them to the
+fountains of civilisation. Our previous review of exploration
+in Abyssinia ended with Bruce’s journey, and
+with the attempts on the part of French and German
+explorers during the early part of the nineteenth century
+to enter Abyssinia up the course of the Blue Nile.
+Meantime the overland route to the East had been conceived
+by Lieutenant Waghorn, the British government
+had seized Aden in 1839, and a much greater interest
+than heretofore was taken in the navigation of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span>
+Red Sea, which was rapidly becoming the main route
+to India. Although Abyssinia then as now had no
+acknowledged political control over any part of the
+Red Sea littoral, it was early recognised that Abyssinia
+was an important factor in the political problems governing
+the control of the Red Sea. Even before the
+safety of the British route to India became a matter
+of urgent importance, we had sought to enter into
+direct relations with Abyssinia. In 1805 a British
+mission under Lord Valentia and Consul Henry Salt
+was sent to conclude an alliance with Abyssinia
+and obtain a port on the Danakil coast by means of
+which Britain could, if necessary, convey troops to
+Abyssinia, and so take a French Egypt in the rear.
+The writings of Henry Salt added greatly to our
+knowledge of the peoples, languages, and fauna of
+Abyssinia and of the Zanzibar coast, but did not
+contribute materially to the elucidation of Nile problems.
+During the first part of the nineteenth century
+Abyssinia was in the throes of civil war caused by
+the struggles for supremacy between the ruler of Tigre
+(the northern province) and the Ras or Governor of
+Amhara (the central province). The Ras of Tigre—Sabagadis—threw
+open northern Abyssinia to the
+English, cordially inviting missionaries, mechanics, and
+explorers to enter his dominions. In this way the
+Church Missionary Society’s missions to eastern Africa
+started by the despatch of Protestant missionaries
+(mostly Germans in the pay of the Society) to Tigre.
+On the other hand, the war between Tigre and Amhara<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span>
+having resulted in the death of both the chiefs, a third
+potentate, the ruler of the lofty Samien Mountains,
+annexed Tigre, and out of opposition to his predecessor’s
+policy invited Frenchmen to develop the
+country. Captains Galinier and Ferret accepted the
+commission to survey Tigre and Samien by careful
+triangulation. This task was accomplished in 1842,
+and resulted in the correct mapping of the affluents of
+the Atbara. Meantime the British Protestant missionaries
+had penetrated into Amhara, while Tigre and
+Samien came under French Roman Catholic influence.
+In fact, the history of Uganda was given here on a
+larger scale. Simultaneously the southern province
+of Ethiopia, Shoa, under the enlightened ruler Selasié
+had attracted the attention of Europeans. Major
+(afterwards Sir William) Harris was sent by the
+Indian government in 1841 to conclude a treaty with
+Shoa, as it was thought that this country might eventually
+extend its influence over Somaliland, and so
+come into direct contact with the Indian government
+at Aden. This British mission was naturally followed
+by a French one, and a French envoy applied to the
+Pope for the starting of a Roman Catholic mission
+in Shoa.</p>
+
+<p>The work of Monseigneur Massaja, who was despatched
+by Pope Pius IX., though it throws much
+interesting light on the structure of the Gala language,
+hardly comes within the sphere of Nile exploration.
+Meantime an adventurer named Kasa had arisen in
+Amhara, and had gradually made himself master of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span>
+the northern and western provinces of Abyssinia.
+He had himself crowned King of Kings of Ethiopia
+under the name of Theodore, and then proceeded to
+annex the province of Shoa to his dominions.</p>
+
+<p>During the early part of Theodore’s reign the two
+brothers d’Abbadie were at work surveying Abyssinia
+and collecting invaluable information regarding the
+languages, literature, coins, inscriptions, and religions
+of that assemblage of Semitic, Hamitic, and Negro
+states. Antoine Thomson d’Abbadie and his brother
+Arnaud Michel were actually born in Dublin, their
+father being French and their mother Irish. They
+were however educated in France. Their bent for scientific
+exploration was early recognised, for the French
+Academy sent the elder of the two on a scientific
+mission to Brazil at the age of twenty-five. The
+younger d’Abbadie explored Algeria. This leading
+his thoughts in the direction of Abyssinia, he proposed
+to his brother a joint mission of exploration,
+which commenced in 1838 by their landing at Masawa.
+Besides carefully surveying the northern and
+central provinces of Abyssinia they did work of
+special novelty and interest in the south. Until the
+journeys of Cecchi and other Italians twenty years ago
+the d’Abbadies’ information concerning the countries
+lying to the south of Abyssinia represented all that
+we knew of Kaffa and Enarea,—names indeed which
+had been cited by the Portuguese, but names unsupported
+by geographical information. Antoine
+d’Abbadie penetrated the furthest into Kaffa. He<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span>
+collected an immense amount of information regarding
+the languages spoken in the vague south and
+southwest districts inhabited mainly by races of
+Hamitic origin. The d’Abbadies closed their survey
+of Abyssinia in 1848, though the younger brother
+paid the country another short visit in 1853. They
+were in no hurry to give the results of their explorations
+to the world; in fact, the “Géographie de
+l’Éthiopie” (of which only one volume was published)
+did not appear till 1890. Their actual surveys of Abyssinia
+were published between the years 1860 and 1873.
+Their Ethiopian manuscripts came out also during that
+period, but Antoine’s Dictionary of the Amharic tongue
+was published no further back than 1881. Their twelve
+years’ work in Abyssinia was the greatest contribution
+that has ever been made to our knowledge of that
+country, but most of their labours do not lie sufficiently
+within the field of Nile exploration to admit of an
+adequate description in this book. Antoine d’Abbadie
+lived to the age of eighty-seven (he died in 1897).
+About 1859 he found himself involved in a somewhat
+acrid conflict of opinion with another Abyssinian explorer,
+Dr. C.&nbsp;T. Beke, who visited Abyssinia in the
+forties of the last century. D’Abbadie was naturally
+prejudiced in favour of the Blue Nile being the main
+Nile, since that river and its southern affluents had been
+the special object of his researches during twelve years.
+On the other hand, Dr. Beke was hotly in favour of
+the White Nile, especially after Speke’s discovery of
+the Victoria Nyanza. Dr. Beke was right in his main<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span>
+contentions, but seems to have thrown unnecessary
+aspersions on the genuineness of Antoine d’Abbadie’s
+explorations in southern Abyssinia. We now know
+d’Abbadie’s work to have been perfectly accurate.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_281" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2801.jpg" width="1628" height="2336" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Dr. C. Beke.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Mansfield Parkyns, an Englishman, visited Abyssinia
+from 1843 to 1846, wrote interestingly on the country
+in confirmation or correction of Bruce’s statements, but
+did not add materially to our geographical knowledge,
+though his book is still often quoted in regard to habits
+and customs now dying out.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the Protestant missionaries first despatched
+to the country by the Church Missionary Society of
+London was the celebrated Krapf, already alluded to
+in Chapter XI. as the joint discoverer of the East
+African snow-mountains. Krapf penetrated far south
+into Shoa, and gave considerable information, both
+interesting and true, regarding the dwarfish Negro
+tribes found to the southwest of the Abyssinian
+Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Lij Kasa, who had become King of Kings of
+Ethiopia under the name of Theodore III., showed
+himself, when he had consolidated his power, very fond
+of the English, and encouraged English missionaries
+and consuls to go to his court. He seems, however, to
+have pursued this policy more with the idea of strengthening
+his prestige and improving his kingdom by the
+spread of mechanical appliances and the manufacture
+of superior arms and ammunition, than from any desire
+to encourage missionary work. In the early sixties
+he became offended at a supposed slight on the part<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span>
+of the British government, which left unanswered a
+letter addressed to it by Theodore in 1863. His subsequent
+proceedings in regard to the imprisonment of
+the consul and missionaries eventually brought about
+the British expedition of 1868. A force of sixteen
+thousand British and Indian soldiers under Sir Charles
+Napier (afterwards Lord Napier of Magdala) marched
+from Masawa up and along the eastern escarpment of
+the Abyssinian plateau, and captured the citadel of
+Magdala, which is situated within the basin of the Nile,
+close to the northeasternmost tributary of that river.
+This expedition was accompanied by Dr. W.&nbsp;T. Blanford,
+who compiled a valuable work on the geology and
+zoölogy of Abyssinia, which was published in 1870.</p>
+
+<p>For ten years after the withdrawal of the British
+expedition, in 1869, little advance was made in our
+knowledge of Abyssinian geography. Theodore was
+succeeded by another adventurer, also called Kasa,—a
+native of Tigre,—who afforded considerable help
+to the British. By means of our indirect support he
+succeeded in getting himself crowned as Yohannes
+(John), King of Kings of Ethiopia. Shoa alone,
+where Menelik (the present emperor) was slowly recovering
+the power of his father (who had lost the
+country to Theodore), was not actually conquered by
+the Emperor John; for just as he was starting to
+subdue Menelik, he himself was attacked by the Egyptian
+army under Munzinger, the Swiss Governor of
+Masawa. Munzinger was urging the Khedive’s government
+to occupy and annex Abyssinia, and Egypt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span>
+had, as a preliminary, seized the Bogos country, the
+greater part of which still remains Egyptian. But
+in 1875 John inflicted a tremendous defeat on the
+Egyptian army near the river Mareb, and in 1876 a
+second defeat, still more disastrous to the Egyptian
+power. This brought about the intervention of General
+Gordon, who, in 1876 and 1879, made two attempts
+to come to a friendly understanding with
+Abyssinia. His journeys added a little to our knowledge
+of the affluents of the Blue Nile and the Atbara.</p>
+
+<p>In 1879 the Earl of Mayo (who subsequently travelled
+with the writer of this book in southwest Africa)
+made an interesting journey along the Takaze River,
+which is the upper waters of the Atbara. His sporting
+expedition was followed by that of the brothers
+W. and F.&nbsp;L. James (who subsequently explored
+Somaliland). The Italians began to take an interest
+in Abyssinia at the end of the seventies, but the
+first expeditions undertaken by their explorers have
+no connection with the Nile basin.</p>
+
+<p>In 1839 or 1840 one of the most important affluents
+of the Nile was discovered by the expedition of Turks
+and Europeans despatched by Muhammad Ali to
+explore the White Nile. This was the Sobat (as it
+was named by the Nile Arabs), which enters the White
+River under the ninth degree of latitude. The word
+Sobat was evidently an ancient Nubian or Ethiopian
+term which was in existence two thousand years ago,
+when it was applied to the White Nile (Asta Sobas),
+in contradistinction to the Blue Nile (Ast’apos). At<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span>
+the present day the Sobat is known by the name of
+Kir<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">114</a> on its lower portion, and Baro on its upper
+course. In subsequent years steamers ascended the
+Sobat from the Nile as far as it was navigable,
+namely, to a point called Nasr. Johann Maria Schuver,
+a Dutch traveller in the seventies of the last
+century, and several Europeans in the service of the
+Egyptian government, collected a little more information
+about the Sobat and its tributaries above Nasr,
+but this river long remained one of the unsolved problems
+of Nile geography. Schuver did much to explore
+the western Gala countries between the Sobat and the
+Blue Nile. On some of these journeys he was accompanied
+by the Italian explorer Piaggia<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">115</a> (who had discovered
+Lake Kioga on the Victoria Nile). Piaggia,
+in endeavouring once more to force his way towards
+the Sobat, died at Karkoj, on the Blue Nile, in 1882.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_284" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2841.jpg" width="1550" height="1230" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Natives of the Baro (Upper Sobat) skinning Hippopotamus.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The surcease of the Nile exploration which followed
+on the Mahdi’s revolt in 1882, closed for a
+time the exploration of the Sobat and its affluents.
+But one result of this revolt was to urge European
+inquirers more and more towards Abyssinia, especially
+the southern provinces of that empire. A<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span>
+French explorer, Jules Borelli, made remarkable journeys
+to the south and southwest of Abyssinia at the
+close of the eighties of the last century, and, besides
+discovering the river Omo, which flows into Lake
+Rudolf, he gave much new information regarding
+the source of the Sobat. The book which he published
+in 1890—“Ethiopie Méridionale”—is one of
+the best and most beautifully illustrated works which
+have appeared on Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Italy having assumed an unacknowledged protectorate
+over Abyssinia, subsidised expedition after expedition,
+nominally for scientific research. Among
+the best equipped of these undertakings, and the most
+fruitful in geographical results, was an expedition
+under Vittorio Bottego, L. Vannutelli, and C. Citerni,
+which explored the head-waters of the Sobat (Baro,
+Akobo, etc.) in the southern Abyssinian highlands,
+and also the waters of the Didessa (Dabessa), which
+is the southernmost tributary of the Blue Nile.</p>
+
+<p>In 1898 the celebrated Captain (now Colonel) J.&nbsp;B.
+Marchand, who had made a most remarkable journey
+across the Nyam-nyam country in the western Nile
+basin from the Mbomu (a northern affluent of the
+Welle-Ubangi), across the Nile watershed to the Sue
+River, and down the Sue to the Bahr-al-Ghazal and
+Fashoda, left Fashoda<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">116</a> in consequence of the agreement
+between France and Great Britain, and travelled
+to Abyssinia more or less along the course of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span>
+Sobat River, thus, first of all Europeans, practically
+connecting the southern provinces of Abyssinia with
+the White Nile by a direct journey up the valley of
+the Sobat or Baro. Marchand’s explorations were
+supplemented by those of MM. de Bonchamps and
+Michel.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_286" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2861.jpg" width="1382" height="1971" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<p class="floatl"><cite>Photo by Pierre Petit &amp; Fils.</cite>]</p>
+
+<p class="clear"><span class="smcap">Colonel J.&nbsp;B. Marchand.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>These explorers were soon followed in the same
+direction by the late Captain M.&nbsp;S. Wellby. Captain
+Wellby also made a most interesting journey from
+Abyssinia to Lake Rudolf, down the east coast of
+Lake Rudolf to Lake Baringo and the Uganda Protectorate,
+and then northwest through the Turkana
+country, which lies to the west of Lake Rudolf.
+Here Captain Wellby found himself on the Nile-Rudolf
+water-parting. To the west of the Turkana,
+in the Karamojo country, he crossed an important
+stream named the Ruzi,<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">117</a> which was flowing in a general
+way northwest. Farther north he encountered
+another river also named Ruzi, which might or
+might not be the same, but which in doubt he called
+Ruzi II. From the second of these Ruzis he eventually
+reached the main Sobat. Thenceforth he believed
+that in one or other of the Ruzis he had discovered
+the southernmost affluent, or perhaps the headwaters
+of the Sobat River. His theory, however, was
+strongly contested by Major H.&nbsp;H. Austin, who, in
+company with Major R.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;T. Bright, travelled over
+the greater part of the Sobat system in 1900–1901,
+giving us for the first time a fairly accurate survey<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span>
+of that river, and of its southern affluents, especially
+the Pibor-Akobo, which for length of course, though
+not in volume, might lay claim to be the main Sobat
+River. The Akobo rises in the mountains to the
+north of Lake Rudolf, its source being very close to
+the stream of the Omo, the principal feeder of Lake
+Rudolf. It does receive an affluent from the south,
+which is named by Major Austin “Neubari,” but
+this stream is at present unexplored in its lower
+course. It might turn out to be one of the rivers
+named by Captain Wellby “Ruzi.” At the same
+time Dr. Donaldson-Smith, who crossed this region
+in 1900, does not appear to have encountered running
+water where the junction of the Ruzi and the
+Neubari should have taken place. Probably the two
+Ruzis discovered by Captain Wellby are two different
+streams, one of which flows northwestward into
+the Nile and the other into the northwest corner of
+Lake Rudolf. The countries to the south of Akobo
+and northwest of Lake Rudolf are described by the
+few travellers who have visited them as being a region
+of appalling drought.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_287" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2881.jpg" width="1539" height="1218" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Gorge of the River Baro (Upper Sobat).</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Mr. Weld Blundell had succeeded the Bonchamps-Michel
+expedition as an explorer of the Blue Nile,
+and of its interesting southern affluent, the Didessa.
+Mr. Blundell made several interesting changes in the
+delineation of the course of the Blue Nile westward
+of Gojam. Blundell’s work was succeeded by the remarkable
+surveys of Major C.&nbsp;W. Gwynn and Lieutenant
+L.&nbsp;C. Jackson, who contributed a map of the Blue<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span>
+Nile from Roseires up stream to the Gubba country,
+on the frontiers of Abyssinia. They also threw
+a little more light on the course of the Didessa and
+Yabus affluents of the Blue Nile, and the upper waters
+of the Rahad, which also flows (somewhat intermittently)
+into the Blue Nile. From the Rahad they
+crossed the tiny stretch of mountainous country (Galabat)
+to the Atbara. Here they showed that only a
+distance of about five miles of mountains separates
+the affluents of the Atbara from the affluents of the
+Rahad, which is a tributary of the Blue Nile. But
+for this intervening ridge of five miles in breadth,
+the systems of the Atbara and the Blue Nile would
+(as the ancients and Arabs formerly believed) have
+turned the whole country of Sennar into a huge
+island, in which form it was represented by most
+travellers down to the beginning of the nineteenth
+century. Major Gwynn also explored the head-waters
+of the river Garre, which is the northernmost
+affluent of the Baro-Sobat, and also the Pibor. As
+to the country between the Baro or the main upper
+Sobat and the Pibor, Major Gwynn describes it as
+“a dried-up marsh covered with a thick choking layer
+of black ash resulting from the burning of the
+grass.” The Nuers, one of the eastern tribes of the
+Nilotic Negroes, he describes as a wonderfully fine
+race physically, averaging nearly six feet in height.
+Of the work of the earliest European pioneer in
+western Galaland Major Gwynn gives a generous
+<span class="locked">estimate:—</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Up to this point (the Lega-Gala country) we had
+been traversing a land which had to a certain extent
+been explored by Schuver, and his work had, on the
+whole, been found to be very accurate in detail, though
+in the southern portions of his map a considerable error
+in latitude had appeared.... Schuver was much liked
+and respected throughout the country, and a great impression
+had been produced by his dog, which must have
+been a big Newfoundland. (He is still always spoken
+of by the Galas as Abu Sari, ‘the Father of the Dog.’)”</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="ip_289" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2884.jpg" width="1646" height="1269" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Berta Negroes.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>On the middle of the Blue Nile, north of the country
+of Fazokl, the aboriginal inhabitants are purely
+Negro—Berta and Barun. These Negro races were
+probably first mentioned by Cailliaud, the French explorer,
+and Ferdinand Werne, the German, who travelled
+on the Blue Nile between 1829 and 1843.
+Major Gwynn describes them as “a very black race,
+large, well made, but slothful and stupid to a degree.
+Going up to their villages in the hills, one finds them
+stretched out, sunning themselves on the rocks, looking
+for all the world like great black snails. Funny
+little black pigs and stringy fowls share the huts on
+equal terms.”</p>
+
+<p>An interesting journey was made by Mr. Oscar T.
+Crosby across southern Abyssinia and down the Blue
+Nile in 1900. In an article by Mr. Crosby in the
+“Geographical Journal” of July, 1900, an interesting
+description is given of the deep gorge of the Blue
+Nile in the Gomar country of Gojam. The level of
+the river at this point is 4,725 feet above sea-level.
+The edge of the plateau above the river is 9,650 feet,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span>
+and this plateau descends nearly five thousand feet in
+a series of abrupt steps or “benches.”</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of 1900 Mr. Oscar Neumann, a
+German, already noted for his explorations of the
+eastern part of the Uganda Protectorate, reached
+Abyssinia by the now well-trodden route from Zeila
+to Harar, and after visiting the Blue Nile in Gojam,
+explored the northern part of the Rudolf basin,
+and then reached the Galo, which is one of the rivers
+that might claim to be the head-waters of the Sobat,
+a river rising in those lofty, snow-patched highlands
+to the southwest of Enarea. From the Galo, Neumann
+crossed to the Akobo, and followed this stream
+down to its confluence with the Pibor. At this confluence
+he makes the Pibor such an important stream
+that it may well be Captain Wellby’s Ruzi. In the
+country immediately to the south of Kaffa and on the
+water-parting between the systems of the Nile and
+Lake Rudolf Mr. Neumann claims to have discovered
+Negro races of the Bantu stock. Apparently
+he means merely in physical type,—in other words,
+Negroes of more or less West African affinities; but
+if he or any other traveller should be able to support
+this statement by specimens of the language of these
+Sheko and Binesho peoples which actually showed
+affinities with the Bantu family, he would have
+thrown a remarkable new light on the unsolved problem
+concerning the source of this interesting family of
+African languages. The present writer has been able
+to show that Bantu languages of the most archaic type<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span>
+exist at the present day on the northwest slopes of
+Mount Elgon. This is the furthest point to the northeast
+to which the Bantu family has been traced.
+Thence southwards and westwards it spreads as the
+dominating family of languages as far as Cape Colony
+and Fernando Po.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_291" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2902.jpg" width="1683" height="1268" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Berta Village in the Matongwe Mountains.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Almost the only large white spot now remaining
+unexplored in the Nile basin is the district occupied
+by Nilotic Negroes (Dinka, Nuēr, Shiluk), lying between
+the Sobat River on the northeast and the main
+White Nile on the west and southwest. This region
+appears to be a flat country of alternate marsh and
+arid steppe, producing few or no great rivers of its
+own. On the west it is watered by the affluents of
+an important river, vaguely known as the Oguelokur,
+some of which (such as the Tu and Kos) rise in those
+high mountains of the Lotuka country in the northernmost
+parts of the Uganda Protectorate. Mr.
+Ewart Grogan, accompanied part of the way by Mr.
+Sharp, in 1899 and 1900, made a remarkable journey,
+literally from the Cape to Cairo. He travelled from
+the north end of Lake Tanganyika by way of lakes
+Kivu and Albert Edward to the Albert Nyanza, and
+thence down the Nile to the sudd barriers beyond
+Bor. After which, taking to the land, he traversed
+the unknown country along that branch of the White
+Nile called Bahr-az-Ziraf or the Giraffe River. He
+discovered another branch of the Mountain Nile
+which joins the Bahr-az-Ziraf, and at the junction
+of these rivers he notes the entry of a powerful tributary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span>
+from the southeast, doubtless the Oguelokur. It
+is sometimes supposed that the southernmost of the
+Ruzi rivers discovered by Captain Wellby also joins
+the Oguelokur, and not the Sobat, though the more
+northern Ruzi may be the head-waters of the Pibor.
+Some distance to the west of the Pibor is a river
+called in Sudanese Arabic “Khor Felus.” This river
+was practically discovered by Captain H.&nbsp;H. Wilson
+in 1902. Starting southwards from the Sobat, not
+far from its confluence with the main Nile, Captain
+Wilson followed the Khor Felus up stream for a distance
+of some eighty-five miles in a direct line due
+south. He describes the country traversed by this
+winding river as being flat and uninteresting,—nothing
+but a vast grassy plain, with hardly a tree to be
+seen. The river or khor was not traced to its source,
+which indeed was said by the natives to be the White
+Nile itself. If this be true, another branch of the
+White Nile would start from near Bor and flow
+northeastwards into the Sobat; further, more natural
+canals seem to connect the Khor Felus with the Pibor
+or the Upper Sobat. If this is the case, then in that
+vast plain lying between the Sobat and the Nile, which
+was once a portion of the “Lake of Fashoda,” we
+have still remains of many old channels of the Nile
+which, as the lake drained off to the northwards,
+meandered over its drying bed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span></p>
+<figure id="ip_293" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 37em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2922.jpg" width="2318" height="1621" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Nile in Egypt.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVII"><span id="toclink_293"></span>CHAPTER XXVII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">CONCLUSION</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> Nile quest is practically ended. It may be
+safely said that every important branch or affluent
+or lake-source of this the longest river in Africa
+(very nearly the longest in the world) has been discovered,
+named, and partially or completely mapped.
+The only portion of the Nile basin which presents any
+noticeable blank on the map is the unknown district—some
+say of swamp alternating with arid steppe—which
+stretches like a tongue of white in our charts
+between the tributaries of the Mountain Nile and the
+Giraffe on the west, and the affluents of the Sobat on
+the east. In all probability whilst these lines are written
+and printed this blank is being filled up by industrious
+surveyors sent out by the Anglo-Egyptian government
+of the Sudan.</p>
+
+<p>Fate has ordained that the entire basin of this river
+and its tributaries (with the trifling exceptions of the
+upper waters of those which rise within the political
+limits of Abyssinia, a portion of the extreme source
+of the Nile (the Kagera), of Lake Albert Edward,
+and of the Semliki) should come under the political
+control of Great Britain. We have, therefore, cast
+our ægis over one of the most wonderful regions, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span>
+some respects one of the most productive portions,
+of Africa.</p>
+
+<p>On the north there is the oldest country in the
+world, so far as history goes,—Egypt, with its ten
+millions of Egyptians, Arabs, Europeans, and Nubians;
+its cotton and wheat, maize, barley, beans, sugar-cane,
+dates, rice, and clover; its petroleum, gold, and
+emeralds in the eastern desert, and its alum and soda
+in the Libyan wastes; Egypt, with its European or
+Mediterranean fauna and flora.</p>
+
+<p>Then comes Nubia, producing little at present but
+fierce men of mixed Hamitic, Semitic, and Negro
+blood; then the richer countries of Darfur, Kordofan,
+Sennar, Bogos, Kasalá, and Galabat. Here there is no
+lack of trade goods,—copper, camels, asses, and,
+above all, acacia gum. The vegetation in these lands is
+no longer that of the Mediterranean. It is African.
+On the hills above three thousand feet, appear dracænas
+and euphorbias. In the lowlands there are baobabs,
+acacias, giant fig-trees, wild-date palms, and the
+branching hyphæne. Here begins the great fauna of
+Africa,—baboons, elephants, antelopes, lions, zebras,
+cheetahs, leopards, spotted hyænas, wild asses, rhinoceroses,
+giraffes.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_294" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2941.jpg" width="1527" height="1216" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">Nubia: a “Washout” on the Sudan Railway.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Farther south comes the influence of the regular
+equatorial rains. The steppe gives place to grasslands,
+and, above all, to marshes,—hopeless marshes
+of papyrus, of Phragmites reeds, of the fleecy
+<i class="taxonomy">Vossia</i> grass, of the floating <i class="taxonomy">Pistia stratiotes</i>, the
+amaranth, the water-lily, and the ambatch (a gouty<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span>
+bean with orange-coloured blossoms). In these
+marshes swarm the hippopotamuses and crocodiles,
+long banished from Egypt proper. Here strides and
+poses the extraordinary <i class="taxonomy">Balæniceps rex</i> or Whale-headed
+stork. Sacred ibises, spoonbills, stilts, herons,
+marabou storks, white storks, black storks, saddle-billed
+storks, tantalus storks, Egyptian geese, spur-winged
+geese, knobnose geese, ducks of many kinds
+frequent this dreary land, that, save to birds, has no
+horizon; for everywhere the view is shut in with
+walls of reed and rush and amphibious bush. Yet
+away beyond the marshes—marshes which are really
+hidden lakes and mighty rivers with false banks of
+floating vegetation—is a grassy country dotted with
+stony hillocks, if one travels far enough from the
+river, and inhabited by naked Nile Negroes. These
+are tall black men with long, thin shanks, and the
+gait and attitudes of wading birds. They are cattle-keepers,
+above all, and their vast unseen herds beyond
+the marsh lands breed and send forth periodically for
+the devastation of Africa those cattle plagues which
+recur at intervals of a few years.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_295" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 33em;">
+  <img src="images/i_2944.jpg" width="2108" height="1244" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Tropical Forest at Entebbe, on the North-west Shores of Victoria Nyanza</span>,</p>
+
+<p>(Now turned into Botanical Gardens.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>To the southwest of Marshland begins an attractive,
+even beautiful, park-like country of rolling, grassy
+downs, interspersed with fine trees of ample foliage,
+with belts of forest along the rivers. Beyond the parklands
+rises that tremendous tropical forest which
+passes thence uninterruptedly over the water-parting
+into the basin of the Congo. This tropical forest, only
+to be rivalled in luxuriance by that of the Amazons<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span>
+in South America, stretches in a crescent curve along
+the southwestern edge of the Nile basin to Ruwenzori,
+and, with a few interruptions, into Unyoro,
+Uganda, and the northern shores of the Victoria Nyanza.
+On the plateaux lying to the northeast of the
+Victoria Nyanza are other areas of dense forest, but
+not always tropical in character,—forests consisting
+of great conifers and tree-heaths, which reappear on
+the high mountains of Abyssinia.</p>
+
+<p>To the immediate south of the marshy country
+appears more parkland on either side of the Mountain
+Nile, and in the countries of the Acholi, the Lango,
+and the Lotuka. Beyond this parkland is the great
+area of marshes between the Victoria Nile and Mount
+Elgon. North of Elgon the parkland becomes more
+arid. East and west of the Victoria Nyanza are
+beautiful and healthy plateaux ranging from six
+thousand to ten thousand feet in altitude, and highly
+suggestive of Europe and the Cape of Good Hope in
+their vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>Between the watershed of Rudolf and that of the
+White Nile are many mountains, but as one proceeds
+northward in the direction of the Sobat, the country
+is increasingly parched and sandy where it is not
+stagnant marsh.</p>
+
+<p>Nileland contains within its limits the highest
+point of the African continent,—the culminating
+peak (whichever it may be) of the Ruwenzori range,
+a ridge which presents some thirty miles of snow and
+glaciers, and perhaps attains twenty thousand feet in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span>
+supreme altitude. South of Ruwenzori, and still
+partly within the Nile watershed, is the Mfumbiro
+group of volcanoes, two of which possibly exceed
+an altitude of thirteen thousand feet. Away to the
+northeast of the Victoria Nyanza is the great extinct
+volcano of Elgon, over fourteen thousand feet in
+height, while the mountains of Abyssinia, where the
+Sobat, the Blue Nile and its tributaries, and the Atbara
+take their rise, reach in places to altitudes of
+sixteen thousand feet, and are capped with patches
+of perpetual snow. Nileland, therefore, offers a wonderful
+range of climate, temperature, and vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>Its fauna comprises the most interesting, the biggest,
+and the handsomest of African beasts. And
+its human races include nearly every type of Negro
+and Negroid,—Congo Pygmies, Turkana giants,
+Masai like Greek athletes and Balega<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">118</a> like apes,
+long-shanked Dinka and Shiluk, short-limbed Lendu,
+burly Baganda, handsome Bahima, ugly Berta and
+Shangala, bearded Nyam-nyam and womanish Madi;
+the clothed, curly-haired Galas and the absolutely
+nude Nilotic Negroes. In Egypt are pure Caucasians;
+in Nubia and Abyssinia, in the lands between
+the Nyanzas, are people of this regal stock variously
+mixed with antecedent Negro.</p>
+
+<p>The Nile has been the main route by which in
+ancient times the Caucasian invaded Negro Africa,
+the once exclusive path by which the white man’s cultivated
+plants and domestic animals reached the torrid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span>
+lands and dense forests where the Negro, before the
+Caucasian touched him, lived in the condition of the
+semi-beast. No Negro race cared whence the Nile
+came or whither it flowed. Interest in geographical
+problems, as it was remarked in the first chapter of this
+book, is almost the exclusive heritage of the Caucasian.
+This is the human race which for some three thousand
+years has felt first a flickering curiosity, latterly
+an intense desire, to wrest the secret of the Nile
+sources from the heart of Africa. Its aim is accomplished.
+The main features of the Nile system are
+placed on the maps of civilised men, are known to intelligent
+Egyptians, Arabs, Indians, and Abyssinians.</p>
+
+<p>The Nile has been the Caucasian’s first and easiest
+way across the desert to Real Africa before the
+ocean could be navigated. The Nile basin, moreover,
+offered to the more sensitive white man elevated
+areas, oases in a land of malarial fever, wherein
+he could make some home or settlement, south of the
+Tropic of Capricorn, not too dissimilar in climate and
+temperature to the lands of temperate Europe and
+Asia. From the vantage-ground of Abyssinia, of the
+Nandi and Ankole plateaux, of the Mediterranean
+Delta of the Nile, the Caucasian may still direct the
+education of the Nile Negroes and permeate increasingly
+these black and bronze-skinned, woolly-haired
+backsliders from human progress with Caucasian
+blood, energy, and love of knowledge, till the Nile
+Negro himself grows interested in the past history
+of Nile discovery.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII"><span id="toclink_299"></span>CHAPTER XXVIII<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE NILE BASIN</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Early</span> in the geological history of the globe there
+appear to have been rock-foldings, wrinkles in
+the earth’s surface in the eastern half of Africa.
+Sometimes this puckering of the solid crust manifested
+itself simply in longitudinal strips of raised
+plateaux of which Abyssinia and the highlands east
+of the Victoria Nyanza, north and west of Nyasaland,
+are remains. A sharper wrinkle than others
+produced the remarkable snowy range of Ruwenzori,
+perhaps the greatest altitude of the African continent.
+These lofty plateaux and mountain ranges
+from Abyssinia on the north to Nyasaland on the
+south have no doubt in all times attracted an unusually
+heavy rainfall from the moisture-laden clouds
+which are blown inland off the Indian Ocean. The
+rainfall on the Livingstone Mountains and the Nyasa-Tanganyika
+Plateau drains south and east to the Indian
+Ocean and west to the basin of the Congo; or
+into Tanganyika, which is likewise connected with
+the Congo at the present day.<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">119</a> North of the Tanganyika<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span>
+system, however,—that is to say, approximately
+north of the third degree of south latitude,—the
+rainfall flows either towards the Mediterranean
+down the valley of the Nile, or else in a north-northeasterly
+direction into a string of isolated lakes which
+apparently at one time communicated with the Gulf
+of Aden at the mouth of the Red Sea. Supervening
+on the original wrinkling of the true backbone of
+Africa (i.e. the elevated ridge which extends from
+the Nubian Alps to the Cape of Good Hope or at any
+rate to the Zambezi) came a series of profound volcanic
+disturbances, elevating, depressing, cracking,
+and rending the eastern side of this ancient continent.
+As a rule this volcanic action seems to have
+proceeded along nearly parallel curved lines, running
+from the latitudes of the Zambezi River in a north-northeasterly
+direction. The first and widest of these
+faults due to volcanic action was seemingly the sinking
+of the ground between Madagascar and East
+Africa. A nearly parallel but much narrower rift
+valley was also formed up the trough of Lake Nyasa,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span>
+northwards<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">120</a> to the celebrated rift valley which lies
+to the east of the Victoria Nyanza, and contains innumerable
+lakes, large and small, salt and fresh.
+This valley, with some interruptions, extends north
+and northeast till it reaches the shores of the Gulf of
+Aden.<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">121</a> Westward again of this East African rift
+(which some geologists believe to have been continued
+with a northwesterly inflection up the Red Sea
+to the valley of the Jordan) is another less clearly-defined
+fault, which may have produced the valleys
+of the Kafue and of the Luapula, and was then continued
+northwards through Tanganyika to the Albert
+Nyanza and the valley of the Nile. Various upheavals
+and modifications broke up the continuity of
+this western rift valley. The drainage of the Kafue
+was deflected to the Indian Ocean; that of the Luapula
+and its lakes and of Tanganyika to the Congo
+basin. North of Lake Kivu,<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">122</a> however, the drainage
+flowed northward into a vast fresh-water inland sea,
+which, for want of a better name, we may call the
+Lake of Fashoda. A parallel to this great circular,
+shallow sheet of water existed not very anciently in
+the northern basin of the Congo, and another is to
+be seen at the present day in the Victoria Nyanza.
+This last is the largest existing lake in Africa. So
+far as is known it is shallow compared to such deep<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span>
+troughs as Tanganyika and Nyasa, and is possibly not
+a very ancient sheet of water as geological age may
+be reckoned.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_302" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;">
+  <img src="images/i_3021.jpg" width="1683" height="1368" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Napoleon Gulf, looking South, near the Outlet of the Ripon Falls.</span></p>
+
+<p>[Note the isolated rocks, the remains of a former barrier and fall.]</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Victoria Nyanza is in origin little but the
+widened course of the river Kagera, which flowed
+along a curved depression to the eastward of the
+Ruwenzori, Ankole, Mpororo, and Mfumbiro highlands.
+The Kagera, in fact, at the present day may
+be regarded as the extreme source of the Nile. It
+rises approximately under the fourth degree of south
+latitude, only a few miles from the mountainous
+shores of northeast Tanganyika. Many streams descending<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">123</a>
+from these Burundi mountains unite to
+form the Kagera, which, after a zigzag northerly
+course studded with not a few small lakes, turns,
+under the first degree of south latitude, abruptly to
+the east (with one dip to the south) and enters the
+Victoria Nyanza a little to the north of the first degree
+of south latitude. The original course of the
+stream evidently lay between the Sese Islands (the
+remains of high mountains) and the coasts of Buddu
+and Uganda, and then through the Rosebery Channel
+into the Napoleon Gulf, from which, over the Ripon
+Falls, it issues as the acknowledged Nile. Apart
+from the Kagera the great Victoria Nyanza receives
+few rivers of size or important volume. The only
+others worthy to be mentioned are the Nzoia on the
+northeast, the Nyando and its affluents, which form<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span>
+Kavirondo Bay, and four largish rivers which enter
+the east coast of the lake. If the bed of the Victoria
+Nyanza could be raised by some earth movement
+about two hundred and fifty feet, it would be traversed
+by a converging network of river channels
+uniting with the Kagera and the main stream of the
+Nile in what is at present called Napoleon Gulf; and
+the geographical appearance of this dried-up lake
+would be very similar to the present aspect on the
+map of the many branches and affluents of the Nile
+and its tributaries which converge (south of Fashoda)
+at the junction of the Sobat. The surface area of the
+Victoria Nyanza may at one time have been considerably
+greater than it is at the present day, and have
+covered a good deal of the country of Unyamwezi.
+Perhaps at one time it had no outlet. The highlands
+forming the eastern spine of the continent and
+stretching along the eastern cliffs of the rift valley
+from Abyssinia to North Nyasa prevented its overflowing
+towards the Indian Ocean; while the Nyasa-Tanganyika
+Plateau and the mountains bordering the
+Tanganyika rift valley opposed any western escapement.
+Therefore the great inland sea created by the
+drainage of Unyamwezi, of the Kagera, and the rivers
+from the Nandi plateau was forced up against the
+ridge of highish land (4,000 feet), forming the existing
+countries of Uganda, Busoga, and Kavirondo.
+Attacking this ridge at its narrowest diameter, the
+pent-up waters of the Victoria Nyanza slowly carved
+their way northwards down the gorge now occupied<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span>
+by the Nile at the Ripon Falls. Nearly all the drainage
+of the Uganda-Busoga Plateau runs northward,
+and does not fall into the Victoria Nyanza. The tilt
+of this plateau is highest round the northern shores
+of the Victoria Nyanza (four to five thousand feet),
+and falls gradually till it reaches the somewhat low
+level (two thousand feet) of the Upper Nile valley.
+The escaping waters of the Victoria Nyanza formed
+another great lake (Kioga-Kwania) immediately to
+the north on the other side of the Uganda ridge. This
+lake again drained off eventually to the original (Albertine)
+Nile. The site of its former bed is covered
+at the present day with vast marshes and with the
+straggling, many-armed lake of Kioga-Kwania.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_304" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_3041.jpg" width="1181" height="1142" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Birth of the Victoria Nile, at the Ripon Falls.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Albertine Nile, which some geographers think
+was the original main stream of the river, rises under
+the name of Ruchuru on the northern slopes of that
+great volcanic mass called the Mfumbiro mountains.
+These mountains have arisen in recent times in the
+middle of a rift valley which, seemingly, included
+Lake Kivu. The same fault may also contain the
+basin of Tanganyika, but this lies at a much lower
+level than Kivu. From Kivu (which no doubt once
+drained towards the Nile before the volcanic dam
+arose on the north) there would have been a gentle
+slope downward and northward (only partially
+stemmed by the extraordinary peninsula of Ruwenzori)
+to the basin of the Albert Nyanza.</p>
+
+<p>The Ruchuru enters Lake Albert Edward,—creates
+that lake, in fact,—and the Albert Edward Nyanza<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span>
+has a northern gulf or tributary lake known as Dweru,
+which receives much of the drainage of Ruwenzori,
+and transmits the melted snows of this Central African
+Caucasus to the basin of the Albert Edward.
+From the north end of Albert Edward the Albertine
+Nile issues again under the conventional name of the
+Semliki. The Semliki flows round the abrupt western
+slopes of Ruwenzori into Lake Albert Nyanza,
+from the northern end of which important basin
+(which lies at an altitude of 2,100 feet above the sea),
+the Mountain Nile, formed by the great twin lakes,
+whose existence was remotely known to the ancients,
+starts on its career.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_305" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;">
+  <img src="images/i_3044.jpg" width="1714" height="1182" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">On Lake Albert Edward (North-West Coast)</span>.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Victoria Nile enters the north end of Lake
+Albert, and its waters leave that lake almost uninfluenced
+by their volume; in fact, Lake Albert has
+almost become a river, the Albertine Nile, when the
+water coming from the Victoria Nyanza enters the
+river-like end of the Albert at Magungo and then
+abruptly turns with full stream to the north. The
+Mountain Nile,<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">124</a> after leaving Lake Albert, maintains
+a broad, lake-like character until it enters the narrow
+rift valley north of Nimule in the Madi country.
+Along this winding gorge, which exhibits some of
+the finest scenery of Africa, the Nile flows over
+nearly a hundred miles of cataracts and descends in
+all about five hundred feet. At Lado (in about 5°<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span>
+north latitude), where it slackens and expands, the
+altitude of the White or Mountain Nile is about fifteen
+hundred feet above sea-level. At the beginning
+of this cataract region, north of Nimule, the Nile receives
+a lengthy affluent from the southeast. This is
+the river Asua, which drains the very mountainous
+but slightly arid country west of the Rudolf watershed,
+and north of Mount Elgon. The Asua attracted
+a great deal of attention in the early days of Nile exploration,
+owing to Speke having thought that it was
+an additional outlet of the Victoria Nyanza, flowing
+from (what is now called) Kavirondo Bay.</p>
+
+<p>North of Lado the Nile enters an exceedingly
+marshy region, which is perhaps three hundred miles
+from north to south and two hundred miles from
+east to west. This area once certainly was the site
+of a lake at one time as large or larger than the
+Victoria Nyanza. This lake was mostly fed from
+the west by seven or eight important streams, which
+to-day, with their many tributaries, unite to form
+that broad western branch of the Nile known as the
+Bahr-al-Ghazal.<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">125</a></p>
+
+<p>The Bahr-al-Ghazal is little else than a great estuary
+which receives contributions from many big rivers.
+If, however, one of these is to be selected as the main
+stream on account of general consistency of direction,
+then the Bahr-al-Arab would be the upper waters of
+the Gazelle. The furthest perennial source of this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span>
+river is in the country of Dar Fertit, on the verge of
+the northernmost limits of the Congo basin, and within
+a few days’ journey of the Upper Shari. Other very
+doubtful tributaries of the Bahr-al-Arab drain off what
+little water is not evaporated in the somewhat arid
+country of Darfur. The Bahr-al-Arab is fed by at
+least four important rivers, which flow northward
+from the Congo water-parting in the Nyam-nyam
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>If volume of water is to be considered, then probably
+the main stream of the Bahr-al-Ghazal is the Jur
+or Dyur, which, in its upper waters, is known as the
+Sue or Swe. The Sue-Jur rises in about 4° north
+latitude, not many days’ journey to the east of
+Mbomu. (The Mbomu is an important tributary of
+the Welle-Ubangi, which again is one of the principal
+tributaries of the Congo.) There is nearly continuous
+steam navigation up the Welle-Ubangi and
+the Mbomu to within a few days’ journey of the Nile
+basin. It was up this stream (from the Congo) that
+Marchand and his intrepid companions travelled in
+1897. From the waters of the Mbomu they carried
+their little steam-launch overland to the Upper Sue.
+They were then able to descend this river for hundreds
+of miles to the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the main
+Nile. Near Mashra-ar-Rak, at the commencement of
+what the Sudanese style the Bahr-al-Ghazal, the Jur
+is joined by another important stream called, in its
+lower course, the Tonj, which has many tributaries
+coming from the vicinity of the Welle. Nearly parallel<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span>
+with this river to the east are the Roa and the
+Rōl (or Yalo), both of which enter the Bahr-al-Ghazal
+not far from its confluence with the main
+Nile. There is also a river Yei or Ayi, the direction
+of which is not fully determined. This river, which
+flows nearly parallel with the main Nile, some sixty
+miles to the west of Lado, either enters the Rōl and
+thus the Bahr-al-Ghazal, or turns into the main Nile
+not far from the bifurcation of the Bahr-az-Ziraf.</p>
+
+<p>The Bahr-az-Ziraf is an eastern branch of the
+main Nile, which leaves the parental river near Bor
+(about latitude 6° 40′ north) and flows very tortuously
+northwards, rejoining the White Nile about sixty
+miles east of Lake No (Bahr-al-Ghazal). The Ziraf
+or Giraffe River has other communicating channels
+with the main Nile, and also throws off sluggish
+contributions to the Khor Felus,—a western tributary
+of the Lower Sobat. The Giraffe River (so named
+by the Arabs for the many giraffes once sighted
+from its banks) receives from the south an important
+stream known (perhaps incorrectly) as the Oguelokur,
+which, through its component rivers the Tu
+and Kos, drains the northern slopes of the Lotuka
+Mountains.</p>
+
+<p>The lower part of the Bahr-al-Ghazal is often lost
+in marshes or is widened into lake-like expanses such
+as Lake No, at the confluence of the White Nile.
+About a hundred miles to the east of this confluence
+with the Kir or main White Nile (also called, south
+of this point, the Bahr-al-Jabl or Mountain Nile),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span>
+there enters a very important affluent from the east,
+the Sobat (Baro), which is formed by a number of
+streams flowing from the southwestern part of the
+Abyssinian Empire and the vicinity of the Lake
+Rudolf basin.<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">126</a> After its confluence with the Sobat
+the White Nile flows without any important tributary
+for something like three hundred and fifty miles
+nearly due north through a country which passes
+from a tropical luxuriance of vegetation to the acacias
+and thin grass of the steppe region. The influence
+of the Sahara Desert, in fact, begins to make
+itself felt,—that desert which extends right across
+from the Atlantic to the Persian Gulf, interrupted
+only by the exceptional mountain regions of Tibesti,
+Darfur, Abyssinia, Yaman, and Jabl Akhdar.</p>
+
+<p>At Khartum, in about 15° 40′ north latitude, the
+Nile receives its most important affluent, the Abai or
+Blue Nile (Bahr-al-Azrak). This river rises on Sagada
+Mountain in the Abyssinian province of Gojam,
+passes through the south end of Lake Tsana (a piece
+of water about the area of Gloucestershire) in the
+western part of Central Abyssinia, and, after curving
+to the east and south, turns west and north, and
+brings to the Nile (it is said) that great increase of
+volume in the summer time which causes the annual
+flooding of Lower Egypt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span></p>
+
+<p>Lengthy as is the course of the White Nile from the
+Victoria and Albert Nyanzas to Khartum, and infinitely
+greater though the mass of its waters should
+be than the volume of the Blue Nile, the stream
+of the White River has nevertheless been much attenuated
+before it reaches Khartum by the waste of
+its volume in the region of vast swamps lying between
+Fashoda on the north and Lado on the south, to say
+nothing also of a similar waste and evaporation of
+water from the deflection of the Victoria Nile into
+the backwaters and swamps of Kioga and Kwania.
+Another contribution—though a much feebler one in
+volume of water—comes from Abyssinia in the shape
+of the Atbara, which, in its upper waters, is known
+as the Takaze.<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">127</a> This river, during the dry season,
+almost ceases to flow in its lower portion, though it is
+flooded during the summer months from the melting
+of the snows and the heavy tropical rains on the
+northern Abyssinian mountains. The Atbara is considered
+by Sir Samuel Baker to contribute the principal
+share of the black mud which fertilises Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>After the confluence of the Atbara the Nile receives
+no other tributary of running water during the whole
+remainder of its course, though in former times of far
+greater rainfall it was joined by streams of considerable
+volume flowing northeast from Kordofan. The
+Nile at Ambukol seems to fall into another rift valley
+or series of faults, along which, and over deserts of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span>
+sandstone, granite, and limestone, it pursues its way
+to the southeastern angle of the Mediterranean Sea.
+The great river divides in the extreme lower part of
+its course into two main branches, through which,
+and a number of other smaller streams and artificial
+canals, it pours into the sea the attenuated volume
+of water derived from the rainfall of Eastern Equatorial
+Africa, much having been already spent in useless
+swamps, or evaporated as it passed over a thousand
+miles of desert, or diverted by man to fertilise
+Lower Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting feature of the Nile basin, and one
+which was known more or less vaguely to the ancient
+Egyptians and to the Sabæan Arabs of two thousand
+years ago,<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">128</a> is the existence of snow-mountains
+at the head-waters of the two principal rivers of the
+Nile system,—the White and the Blue Niles. Ruwenzori<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">129</a>
+was probably known to the ancients as the
+Mountains of the Moon. It is a mass of mainly
+Archæan rock some eighty miles long, which runs
+from northeast to southwest between Lake Albert
+and Lake Albert Edward. This marvellous range
+of snow-peaks and glaciers—a glittering panorama
+nearly thirty miles in length—exhibits a greater display
+of snow and ice (and that exactly under the
+equator) than can be seen anywhere else in the African
+continent, and is of far more imposing appearance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span>
+than the isolated snow-capped summits of Kenya and
+Kilimanjaro (extinct volcanoes). The entire drainage
+of the Ruwenzori snows falls into the Albertine
+Nile, that is to say, into Lake Edward, or the river
+Semliki, which connects that lake with Albert Nyanza.
+The other heights crowned with perpetual
+snow in the basin of the Nile are the high peaks of
+the Samien or Simen range in northern Abyssinia,
+and one at least,<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">130</a> of the south Ethiopian (Kaffa)
+highlands. Two of the Samien peaks rise to a little
+over fifteen thousand feet in altitude and one (Buahit)
+to sixteen thousand feet. They are part of a nearly
+circular rim of great heights which surround Lake
+Tsana. To the south of Lake Tsana the mountains
+rise to heights of eleven, twelve, and fourteen thousand
+feet, but have no permanent snow. On the limits
+of the Nile basin, near the northeast corner of the
+Victoria Nyanza, stands Mount Elgon, a mighty extinct
+volcano,—perhaps the largest extinct volcano
+in the world. The crater rim of Elgon rises in places
+to over fourteen thousand feet in altitude, but no
+snow remains there permanently. Elsewhere than
+the Nile basin it is probable that permanent snow and
+ice are only to be found on the adjacent extinct volcanoes
+of Kenya and Kilimanjaro, and on the highest
+peaks of the Atlas range far away in the west of
+Morocco.<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">131</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span></p>
+
+<p>The lower valley of the Nile, the country which we
+know as Egypt, has undergone fluctuations of level
+since the beginning of the Tertiary Epoch. In the
+secondary ages the last five hundred miles of the
+Nile valley lay for a period of immense duration
+under the waters of the ocean, where the limestone
+deposits were formed. In Eocene times this limestone
+bed was slowly raised to the altitude of a tableland
+above the Mediterranean, but always cut off
+from the direction of the Red Sea by the continuous
+range of mountains which we know as the Nubian
+Alps. It is possible that the drainage of the Central
+African rift valleys and lakes and snow-mountains
+may, by the uprising of this tableland, have been severed
+from its natural escape to the Mediterranean,
+and that the Nile ran to waste in what is now the
+Libyan Desert. No doubt the Nile formed lake after
+lake, and the overflow from these lakes slowly bored
+a passage through the limestone tableland. Then in
+Miocene times took place a further rise in the range
+of the Nubian Alps and the adjoining land, which
+caused fractures to occur in the limestone formation.
+Of this the Nile took advantage, though it filled up
+the rifts to some extent with its debris. The Nile
+cut at one time a very deep bed through the limestone;
+but then occurred fluctuations in level, a sinking
+of the Nile valley which once more brought the
+waters of the Mediterranean far inland, and covered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span>
+the channel of the Nile with rubble washed in by the
+sea. Previous to this the cracks and folds which had
+occurred through the upheaval of the eastern highlands
+had evidently caused volcanic disturbances by
+the water of the Nile reaching through these cracks
+the heated strata below. The volcanic outbursts left
+behind beds of basalt through which the persistent
+Nile again cut a channel. In the later Tertiary ages
+Egypt was a country of abundant rainfall, the very
+reverse of the absolute desert of to-day. Heavy rains
+carved and scarped the surface of the country and
+nourished a luxuriant forest. At this period the
+lands lying to the west of Egypt, in what is now
+known as the Libyan Desert, were probably a bay of
+the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>After the Pliocene Epoch, when man first began
+to appear on the scene, there was another lowering
+of the level of the Nile valley in Egypt, and the
+Mediterranean extended its waters perhaps to the
+vicinity of Assiut. At this time the Mediterranean
+was almost certainly connected with the Red Sea
+across the Isthmus of Suez. The Nile stream was
+probably rapid in its descent towards the extended
+Mediterranean, and cut a deeper and deeper channel.
+Then another rise of the land took place, separating
+the Mediterranean from the Red Sea, and
+sending back the Mediterranean to something like its
+present limits; the upheaval indeed may have made
+what is now the Delta of the Nile higher than it is
+at the present day, while the river cut its way through<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span>
+a channel many feet deeper than the existing bed.
+Gradually, however, the Lower Nile became more
+sluggish as the land near the Mediterranean rose,
+and, losing its rapidity, it deposited more and more
+thickly the detritus brought down from Equatorial
+Africa, Abyssinia, and Nubia, and so raised its bed
+to a higher level. It has also enlarged its delta by
+the deposit of mud, though the fatuity of its work
+in this direction (in the presence of earth waves) is
+shown by the fluctuations which have occurred even
+within the last three thousand years. Not more than
+a thousand years ago Lake Menzaleh was a fertile
+and richly cultivated district.</p>
+
+<figure id="ip_315" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 34em;">
+  <img src="images/i_3142.jpg" width="2158" height="1628" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><span class="smcap">In the Libyan Desert.</span>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Some time after man penetrated into Egypt (probably
+from the east) the countries to the west of the
+Lower Nile began to rise above the sea, for much of
+the Libyan Desert was under the Mediterranean in
+the Tertiary Epoch. This retreat of the sea coupled
+with other conditions not clearly known to us brought
+about a marked change in the climate of Africa north
+of the fifteenth degree of north latitude. The aridity
+of the Sahara Desert and of Arabia began to exercise
+a potent influence over the fate of northern Africa.
+Many of the lands, which as late as the human period
+were still covered with plentiful vegetation and were
+traversable by the apes, the elephants, and the antelopes
+of to-day, began to dry up into their present
+condition, an aridity which, from all we know, is increasing
+and extending. Only Egypt was kept alive
+by the beneficent stream which, so abundantly nurtured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span>
+by the snow-mountains and equatorial rain-belt
+of eastern Africa, survived even its passage of a thousand
+miles through the blazing desert, and covered
+the narrow ribbon of Upper Egypt and the tassel of
+the Delta with an ever fruitful soil of finely triturated
+mud.</p>
+
+<p>The Nile has a length of course of some four
+thousand miles measured along the windings of the
+channel of its main stream,—the Kagera-Victoria-Mountain-White
+Nile. It is still doubtful as to
+whether the Missouri-Mississippi in North America
+is longer than the Nile, and thus the longest river
+in length of course in the world. In any case the Nile
+has the pre-eminence for actual length of basin,
+which, in a straight line measured from the furthest
+source of the Kagera to Rosetta on the Mediterranean,
+is about 2,490 miles.</p>
+
+<p>The area of the Nile basin is approximately
+1,080,000 square miles.<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">132</a> This falls short of the area
+of the Congo basin by some 400,000 square miles.
+The volume of water which the Nile pours into the
+Mediterranean is trivial compared with the Congo’s
+contribution to the ocean; but then the waters of
+the equatorial zone in East Africa are evaporated
+from the surface of lakes, squandered in swamps,
+sucked up by the desert winds, and finally are employed
+to irrigate Egypt; so that no comparison
+with the output of the Congo would give a fair
+idea of the catchment in the Nile basin. This, perhaps<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span>
+(including the annual contribution to the Nile
+lakes), reaches to two-thirds of the volume of water
+poured into the Atlantic by the Congo’s single
+mouth.</p>
+
+<p>This geographical sketch is intended to place before
+the reader the main features in the geography of Nileland.
+It is the summing up of the results of exploration
+during four or five thousand years. The preceding
+chapters deal with the history of the way
+in which the Caucasian has laid bare the secrets of
+the Nile to the curiosity of the civilised. It is only the
+Caucasian race which has cared for geography in the
+past,—the Caucasian in all his types as Dravidian,
+Hamite, Semite, Iberian, and Aryan. The Mongol
+of Asia and America, the Negro of Papua and
+Africa has never cared to ascertain whence rivers
+flowed and whither, what lands lay beyond the ocean
+or the snow-peaks. Some early cross with a Caucasian
+race sent the Polynesian cruising about the Pacific
+and venturing over the Indian Ocean from Java to
+Madagascar; but the more purely Mongoloid brother
+in China and Japan did not care to trace the chain of
+Aleutian Islands to Alaska and America, or if he did
+so by accident, felt the question of no interest, sequence,
+or importance. Only the Caucasian, and mainly the
+White Caucasian, has worried about the Nile problem.
+He has attacked it first from the north (Hamite,
+Greek and Roman); then from the northeast
+and east (Hamite and Semite, Greek, Portuguese,
+and British); once more from the north (Arabs,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span>
+Turks, French, British, Germans, Italians); resolutely
+from the southeast (British and Germans);
+latterly from the southwest (British, Belgians, and
+French); and, finally and completely, from the north
+and northeast.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="APPENDIX_I"><span id="toclink_319"></span>APPENDIX I<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE ROLL OF FAME<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">OF THOSE WHO STARTED ON THE NILE QUEST IN MODERN DAYS</span></span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<table id="appx1">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap in2">Name.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap in2">Nationality.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Francisco Alvarez</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Portuguese.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Pedro Paez</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in2">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Jeronimo Lobo</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in2">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Richard Pococke</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">James Bruce</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(Scottish).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">William Browne</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(English).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Johann Ludwig Burckhardt</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Swiss.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Frederic Cailliaud</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Belgian.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Prokesch von Osten</td>
+  <td class="tdl">German.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Eduard Rüppell</td>
+  <td class="tdl">German.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Selim Bimbashi</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Turk.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Thibaut</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">D’Arnaud</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Ferdinand Werne</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">German.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Brun-Rollet</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Ignatz Knoblecher</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Austrian.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Antoine Thomson d’Abbadie</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">French-Irish.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Arnaud d’Abbadie</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span><span class="in2">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Mansfield Parkyns</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Charles T. Beke</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in3">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">De Malzac</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">John Petherick</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (Welsh).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Alfred Peney</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Lejean</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Werner Munzinger</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Swiss.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Theodor von Heuglin</td>
+  <td class="tdl">German (Würtemberger).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Alexandrine Tinne</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Dutch.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">JOHN HANNING SPEKE</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">James Augustus Grant</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(Scottish).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Samuel White Baker</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(English).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Florence Baker</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Hungarian.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Giovanni Miani</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Italian (Venetian).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">GEORG SCHWEINFURTH</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Russo-German.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Piaggia</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Italian.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">C. Chaillé-Long</td>
+  <td class="tdl">United States.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Édouard Linant de Bellefonds</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Belgian.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Charles George Gordon</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">HENRY MORETON STANLEY</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (Welsh).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Wilhelm Junker</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">Russo-German.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">C.&nbsp;T. Wilson</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">R.&nbsp;W. Felkin</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(Scottish).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Romolo Gessi</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Italian (Levantine).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C.&nbsp;M. Watson</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Mason (Bey)</td>
+  <td class="tdl">United States.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Johann Maria Schuver</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Dutch.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Ernest Marno</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Austrian.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Emin</span> (<span class="smcap">Eduard Schnitzer</span>)</td>
+  <td class="tdl">German (Silesia).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Joseph Thomson</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (Scottish).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Frederick Dealtry Lugard</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(English).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Seymour Vandeleur</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(Irish).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">G.&nbsp;F. Scott-Elliot</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(Scottish).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Franz Stuhlmann</td>
+  <td class="tdl">German.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Oscar Baumann</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Vittorio Bottego</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Italian.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">James R. Lennox Macdonald</span></td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (Scottish).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">A.&nbsp;H. Dyé</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">J.&nbsp;B. Marchand</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span><span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">De Bonchamps</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">M.&nbsp;S. Wellby</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">H.&nbsp;H. Austin</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span><span class="in3">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">R.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;T. Bright</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span><span class="in3">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">C.&nbsp;W. Hobley</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span><span class="in3">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Ewart Grogan</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span><span class="in3">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">J.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;S. Moore</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span><span class="in3">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Malcolm Fergusson</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(Scottish).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Lionel Dècle</td>
+  <td class="tdl">French.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Donaldson Smith</td>
+  <td class="tdl">United States.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Malcolm Peake</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (Scottish).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Weld Blundell</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(English).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Benjamin Whitehouse</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span><span class="in3">”</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">G.&nbsp;W. Gwynn</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(Welsh).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Charles Delmé Radcliffe</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="in1">”</span> <span class="in1">(English).</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Oscar Neumann</td>
+  <td class="tdl">German.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">H.&nbsp;H. Wilson</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">E.&nbsp;A. Stanton</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (English).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">William Garstin</td>
+  <td class="tdl">British (Irish).</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>This Roll includes those only who added definitely and
+markedly to the map of the Nile basin, not those who travelled
+through these countries for other than geographical purposes.
+It comprises: 34 British (21 English, 8 Scots, 3 Welsh, and
+2 Irish); 10 Germans, 13 French, 4 Italians, 3 Portuguese, 2
+Dutch, 2 Belgians, 2 Americans, 2 Swiss, 3 Austro-Hungarians,
+1 Turk.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="APPENDIX_II"><span id="toclink_322"></span>APPENDIX II<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS REFERRED TO OR CONSULTED IN THE COMPILATION
+OF THIS BOOK</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<h3><i>Previous to 1840</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot hang">
+
+<p><span class="smcap">History of Ancient Geography</span>, by Sir E.&nbsp;H. Bunbury. London,
+1879.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Le Nord de l’Afrique dans L’Antiquité</span>, by Vivien de St.
+Martin (full of valuable and reliable information). Paris,
+1863.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Géographie du Moyen Age</span>, by J. Lelewel. (Brussels, 1852.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Documents sur L’Histoire de l’Afrique Orientale</span>, by
+Guillain. (Paris, 1850.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Géographie Ancienne</span>, by D’Anville (the 1834 edition brought
+up to date by Manne). Paris.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Doctrina Ptolemaei</span>, etc., by Berlioux. (Paris, 1871.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ptolemy and the Nile</span>, by T. Desborough Cooley. (1854.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Géographie des Anciens</span>, by P.&nbsp;F.&nbsp;G. Gosselin. Paris, 1798
+to 1813.</p>
+
+<p>Various papers by Mr. E.&nbsp;G. Ravenstein in the Proceedings
+of the Royal Geographical Society or in the <span class="smcap">Geographical
+Magazine</span>; also privately written MS.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">History of Egypt from the Earliest Times</span>, by W.&nbsp;M.
+Flinders Petrie (4 vols.). This and the same author’s
+article on <span class="smcap">(Ancient) Egypt</span> in the new edition of the Encyclopædia
+Britannica, 1902, are very useful for ascertaining
+what information on the knowledge of the Nile and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span>
+the Land of Punt was prevalent in Ancient Egypt and at
+the time of the Muhammadan invasion of the Nile countries.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">History of Egypt</span>, Vol. 1 (1902), by Dr. Wallis Budge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ptolemy’s Topography of Eastern Equatorial Africa</span>, by
+Dr. Schlichter (Proceedings of the Royal Geographical
+Society, September, 1891).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Partition of Africa</span>, by Dr. J. Scott Keltie, Second Edition.
+1895.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Short Relation of the River Nile</span>, etc. Proceedings of
+the Royal Society, London, Nov. 1, 1668. (Portuguese
+Jesuits’ travels.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels of the Jesuits in Ethiopia</span>, by Bartholomeo Tellez.
+1710.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Historia da Africa Oriental Portugueza</span>, por José Joaquim
+Lopes de Lima. Lisbon, 1862.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Voyage to Abyssinia</span>, by Father Jerome Lobo, Portuguese
+Jesuit, from the French of <span class="smcap">Le Grand</span>. London, 1735.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Narrative of the Portuguese Embassy to Abyssinia</span>, 1520–1527.
+(Hakluyt Society’s publications, Vol. 44, 1881.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">L’Hydrographie Africaine au Seizième Siècle, d’après les
+Premières Explorations portuguaises.</span> (Lisbon, 1878.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Description of the East</span> and some other Countries,
+Vol. 1 (Egypt), by Richard Pococke, LL.D., F.R.S.
+London, 1743.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt</span>, by C.&nbsp;S. Sonnini
+de Manoncourt (translated by Henry Hunter). London,
+1799.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile in 1768,
+1773</span>, by James Bruce, in 5 vols. Edinburgh, 1790.</p>
+
+<p>(Also an excellent abridgment in 1 vol., published in 1798.)</p>
+
+<p>A Second Edition in 7 vols., 1805, is considered the best
+and fullest account of Bruce’s travels, with some of the
+errors corrected.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria, 1792–1798</span>, by William
+George Browne. London, 1800. (Darfur, Nubia.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Sources of the Nile</span>, by Charles T. Beke. London,
+1860.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Story of Africa</span>, by Dr. Robert Brown, Vols. 2 and 3,
+1893, 1894. (A most useful and trustworthy compilation.)
+London, Cassel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Voyage à Meroe</span>, au Fleuve Blanc, etc., by Frederic Cailliaud.
+4 vols. Paris, 1826.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Voyage to Abyssinia</span>, by Henry Salt, 1814.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Journal of Navigation on the Bahr-el-Abiad or the
+White Nile</span>, by A. Linant de Bellefonds, 1828. African
+Association, London.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels in Nubia</span>, by John Louis Buckhardt. London,
+1819.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Reisen in Nubien, Kordofan</span>, etc., by Eduard Rüppell. Frankfurt
+a. m., 1829.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h3><i>From 1840 to the Present Day</i></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot hang">
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Premier Voyage à la Recherche des Sources du Bahr-al-Abiad
+ou Nil Blanc</span>: Journal de Voyage par Selim Bimbashi.
+<cite>Bulletin</cite>, Société de Géographie. Paris, 1840.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Documents et Observations sur le Cours du Bahr-al-Abiad</span>,
+by D’Arnaud Binbachi. Paris, 1843.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Khartum and the Blue and White Niles</span> (Journeys of Andrew
+Melly), by George Melly. London, 1851. 2 vols.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Expedition zur Entdeckung der Quellen des Weiszen Nil</span>
+(1840, 1841), by Ferdinand Werne. Berlin, 1848.
+(With admirable map of the White Nile.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Journal of the Royal Geographical Society</span>, Vol. 17.
+(Brun-Rollet on the Sobat River.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Annales de Voyage</span>(?), by Andrea de Bono. Paris, July,
+1862.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Le Fleuve Blanc</span>, by Jules Poncet. 1863.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Egypt, the Sudan, and Central Africa</span>, etc., by John
+Petherick. 1861.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels in Central Africa and Exploration of the Western
+Nile Tributaries</span>, 2 vols., by Mr. and Mrs. Petherick.
+1869.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Die Deutscher Expedition in Ost Africa</span>, 1861–1862, by
+Heuglin and Munzinger, in Petermann’s Geographische
+Mittheilungen, No. 13.</p>
+
+<p>Heuglin also writes on Miss Tinne’s expedition in the same
+periodical, No. 15, 1865, and gives further notes on the
+White Nile.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels in the Region of the White Nile</span>, by Alexandrine
+Tinne. 1869.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Géodésie de l’Éthiopie</span>, by Antoine Thomson d’Abbadie.
+Paris, 1890. 1 vol.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Life in Abyssinia</span>, by Mansfield Parkyns. London, 1853.
+2 vols.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Geology and Zoölogy of Abyssinia</span>, by W.&nbsp;T. Blanford.
+1870.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia</span>, by S.&nbsp;W. Baker. 1867.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Journal of the Royal Geographical Society</span>, Vol. 36, p. 2,
+article by S.&nbsp;W. Baker.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Journal of the Royal Geographical Society</span>, Vol. 36, pp.
+1 to 18.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Albert Nyanza</span>, etc., by Sir Samuel Baker, M.A.
+1866.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Albert Nyanza</span>, etc., by Sir Samuel Baker, M.A., New
+Edition. 1872.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labours</span>, by Dr. J.&nbsp;L.
+Krapf. 1860.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">What Led to the Discovery of the Nile Sources</span>, by
+Captain J.&nbsp;H. Speke. 1864.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Lake Regions of Central Africa</span>, by R.&nbsp;F. Burton.
+1860.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile</span>, by
+J.&nbsp;H. Speke. 1864.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Walk across Africa</span>, by J.&nbsp;A. Grant. 1865.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Reise in das Gebiet des Weissen Nil</span> und seine westlichen
+Zuflusse, 1862–1864, von M. Theodor von Heuglin.
+Leipzig, 1869.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Heart of Africa</span>, by Georg Schweinfurth. 2 vols. London,
+1873.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Reise in Nordost Africa</span>, etc., von M. Theodor von Heuglin.
+Brunswick, 1869.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Through the Dark Continent</span>, by H.&nbsp;M. Stanley. 2 vols.
+1877.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Uganda and the Egyptian Sudan</span>, by C.&nbsp;T. Wilson and
+R.&nbsp;W. Felkin. 1879.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sir Samuel Baker</span>: a Memoir by T. Douglas Murray and
+A. Silva White. London, 1895.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ismailia</span>, by Sir Samuel W. Baker. London, 1874.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Remarks on a Proposed Line of Telegraph Overland</span> from
+Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope, by (Sir) Edwin Arnold,
+Colonel J.&nbsp;A. Grant, and others. London, 1876.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Colonel Gordon in Central Africa</span>, 1874–1879, by George
+Birkbeck Hill. London, 1881.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Central Africa: Naked Truths of Naked People</span>, by
+Colonel C. Chaillé-Long. London, 1876.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Proceedings of the Khédivial Geographical Society of
+Cairo</span>, 1860–1882. [Schuver, Marno and other travellers.]</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Articles</span> of Mr. E.&nbsp;G. Ravenstein on the researches of the
+Rev. C. Wakefield in Proceedings of the Royal Geographical
+Society, 1875, 1880.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Through Masailand</span>, by Joseph Thomson. 1885.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Travels in Africa during the Years 1875–1878; 1879–1883;
+1882–1886; 1890, 1891, 1892.</span> By Dr. Wilhelm
+Junker.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Seven Years in the Sudan</span>, by Romolo Gessi Pasha. London,
+1892.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In Darkest Africa</span>, by H.&nbsp;M. Stanley. 2 vols. 1890.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mit Emin Pasha ins Herz von Africa</span>, by Dr. Franz Stuhlmann.
+Berlin, 1894.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Éthiopie Méridionale</span>, by Jules Borelli. Paris, 1890.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Naturalist’s Wanderings in Mid-Africa</span>, by C. Scott
+Elliot. 1894.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Durch Masailand zur Nil Quelle</span>, by Oscar Baumann.
+Berlin, 1894.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Journeys to the North of Uganda</span>, by Colonel J.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;L.
+Macdonald and Major H.&nbsp;H. Austin in Geographical
+Journal of August, 1899.</p>
+
+<p>(Also Blue Books giving reports of Major Macdonald’s
+expedition.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Campaigning on the Upper Nile and Niger</span>, by Seymour
+Vandeleur. 1899.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Cape to Cairo</span>, by E. Grogan and A. Sharp. 1900.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Mountains of the Moon</span>, by J.&nbsp;E. Moore. 1902.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Tanganyika Problem</span>, by J.&nbsp;E. Moore. 1902.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Among Swamps and Giants in Equatorial Africa</span>, by H.&nbsp;H.
+Austin. 1902.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">King Menelik’s Dominions and the Country between Lake
+Gallop (Rudolf) and the Nile Valley</span>, by Captain
+M.&nbsp;S. Wellby. Geographical Journal for September,
+1900. London.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Story of Africa</span>, Vols. 2, 3, and 4, by Dr. Robert Brown
+(1893–1895).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Uganda Protectorate</span>, by Sir Harry Johnston. 2 vols.
+1902.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Geographical Journal</span> (London) for July and December,
+1901; and October, 1902.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Journal of the African Society</span> (London) 1902,
+1903. [Colonel Stanton’s articles.]</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span></p>
+
+<figure id="ip_328" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_3281_map_left.jpg" width="920" height="1171" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_3281_map_large_left.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear">OROGRAPHICAL FEATURES<br>
+     <span class="small">of the</span><br>
+     NILE BASIN</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+<figure id="ip_328b" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_3281_map_right.jpg" width="918" height="1171" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p class="floatr"><a href="images/i_3281_map_large_right.jpg"><i>(Hi Res)</i></a></p>
+  <p class="clear">LAND SURFACE FEATURES<br>
+     <span class="small">of the</span><br>
+     NILE BASIN</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter footnotes">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">1</a> A superior type of dark-haired white man allied with Circassian and
+Persian, and perhaps a direct development from the Dravidian.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">2</a> The Kudu, which is a tragelaph rather than an antelope, exists at
+the present day in the eastern part of the Egyptian Sudan, between
+Abyssinia and the Nile, and its remains are found fossil in Algeria. It
+may therefore have extended even within the historical period to near
+the shores of the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">3</a> This word is the origin of the Arabised <i>Fayūm</i>, a name given to
+the remains of a curious Nile reservoir, or backwater-lake, to the west of
+the Nile, in the Libyan Desert.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">4</a> The Biblical Yeôr. The Hebrews also called the Nile <i>Shikhor</i>, or
+the “Black.” The earliest Greek name for the river and country is
+<i>Aiguptos</i> (the origin of “Egypt”). Later the name <i>Neilos</i> (Nile) was
+given to the river. This became the later Arab and European <i>Nilus</i>,
+<i>Nil</i>, <i>Nile</i>, etc. The origin of the Greek names <i>Aiguptos</i> and <i>Neilos</i> is
+unknown, but <i>Neilos</i> may be derived from the Persian word <i>nil</i> = blue.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">5</a> Needless to say, in all cases the iris of these eyes is actually gray;
+but the gray almost verges on blue in some instances, while the absence
+or presence of a dark rim round the eyes gives or withholds the violet
+tinge to the gray.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">6</a> Ptolemy’s original maps have disappeared, and we only know them
+through the well-nigh innumerable copies that were made by Greek
+monks between 600 and 900 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, by Arabs in the Islamic Renaissance,
+by Latin monks and pilgrims, by Venetian and Catalan
+sailors, and Flemish or German geographers. Latterly many of these
+copyists imported into Ptolemy’s maps of the Nile much recent and
+modern information.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">7</a> Even to-day the local (unofficial) name of Berber or any of the
+districts round Berber is Ibrim.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">8</a> This mistake is hardly surprising, seeing that at Matama, in the
+country of Galabat, the most southern affluent of the Atbara approaches
+to within five miles of the most eastern affluent of the Blue Nile. See
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI">Chapter XXVI</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">9</a> Ptolemy Philadelphus’ chief inducement to establish stations in
+Abyssinia was to procure war elephants. Thus to these Egyptian Greeks
+and Ethiopians the African elephant did not appear too intractable.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">10</a> Dongola, the accepted name for the Nubian country north of Kordofan,
+appears at one time to have been inhabited by a race speaking a
+Hamitic rather than a Nubian language. Dongola (originally Dankala),
+or its plural, Danagla, may be etymologically connected with Danākil of
+the north Somali coast.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">11</a> Gala and Somali are almost convertible terms. But in this book
+Somali is used to indicate that section of the Gala peoples who have
+become Muhammadans, and Gala is reserved as a general term for the
+whole race or for its non-Islamite tribes.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">12</a> The Arabic and Turkish name for Venice is, or was, Bunduq. This
+was a clumsy rendering of the German Venedig, which again was a
+corruption of the Latin Veneticum. Although the Arab <em>q</em> (a very
+strong <em>k</em>) is almost unpronounceable by most Europeans, it is nevertheless
+constantly used by Arabs for translating the <em>k</em>-sound in European
+words.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">13</a> By “Dravidian” I mean that very early and little differentiated,
+dark-coloured Caucasian of India who is only a few degrees, physically,
+above the Australian race.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">14</a> At the time of these exploits Oporto, now the second town of Portugal,
+was of little account; the great port at the mouth of the Douro
+was called in Latin Portus Calis, or, in the local dialect, Portucal. This
+place, being the most important port in the district recovered from the
+Moors by Count Henry, gave its name to the little principality which
+he founded.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">15</a> Algarve is simply a Portuguese softening of the Arabic words Al
+Gharb, the Extreme West or place of sun-setting. At that time Morocco,
+across the Straits, was also called Al Gharb for the same reason.
+Therefore, after these conquests, the kings of Portugal styled themselves
+“Kings of the Algarves, on this side and on the other side of the sea.”
+The after-triumphs of the Portuguese in the path of exploration, conquest,
+and colonisation were finally summed up in the grandiose titles of
+their monarchs, which endure to the present day, and which may well be
+allowed to endure with respect, seeing what the world’s knowledge owes
+to the Portuguese navigators and conquistadores. The titles run, “Rey
+de Portugal e dos Algarves, alem e aquem do Mar na Africa; Senhor da
+Guiné e da conquista e da navegaçao d’Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia e India”
+(King of Portugal and of the Algarves, on this side and on the other side
+of the Sea in Africa; Lord of Guinea, and of the conquest and navigation
+of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">16</a> Prester John.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">17</a> It may be interesting to some to know that Vasco is a contraction of
+Velasco, meaning “hairy,” and was a nickname often given to Portuguese
+in early days.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">18</a> In Lobo’s book the date is given as 1613, but Bruce shows with
+some likelihood that, according to the native Abyssinian chronicles, the
+date of Paez’ visit to the sources of the Blue Nile was probably 1615.
+In the Latin version of Paez’ account of his travels, published at Rome
+in 1652 by the Jesuit Athanasius Kircher, the date given is the 21st of
+April, 1618.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">19</a> See <a href="#Page_30">page 30</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">20</a> Probably, from the description given, <i class="taxonomy">Equus grevyi</i>; so that this,
+the largest, rarest, and the latest described of all the zebras, was probably
+the first example of the striped horse to receive that name at the
+hands of the Portuguese, and become known to Europe. The name is
+spelt “zevra” in Father Lobo’s account, in some versions “zeura.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">21</a> The modern term, Gala or Galla, used to denominate that section
+of the Hamite people closely akin to the Somalis yet heathen and dwelling
+inland, is derived through the Portuguese from an Abyssinian cant
+term meaning “wild,” “savage.” It is unrecognized by the “Gallas”
+themselves.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">22</a> Father Lobo gives an excellent description of the coasts of the Red
+Sea as known to the Portuguese at the beginning of the seventeenth century.
+Among other places that are probably mentioned for the first time
+is Suakin, which is written “Suaquem.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">23</a> Fremona, the first and principal seat of the Jesuits, was nine or ten
+miles from Axum. It was originally called Maigoga, but the name Fremona
+was given to it by the Portuguese Jesuits as being the Abyssinian
+version of Frumentius, who was the so-called Apostle of Abyssinia, and
+converted the rulers of that country to the Greek Church in the fourth
+century.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">24</a> Lake Tsana is usually styled by Lobo and the earlier Portuguese
+travellers Dambia (Dembea); but they also give it the name of Sena,
+which is obviously the same as Bruce’s version of Tsana.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">25</a> Some of the blame undoubtedly must be laid on the shoulders of
+the Dutch and Saxon map-makers, who used and distorted Portuguese
+information.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">26</a> <i>Habsh</i>, <i>Habshi</i> is the name given to Negroes at the present day in
+Hindustani.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">27</a> A Description of the East and some other countries, Vol. I., by
+Richard Pococke, LL.D., F.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;S. London, 1743.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">28</a> He filled many posts between 1725 and his death in 1771. He desired
+to be made Secretary of State for the West Indies, but George II.
+refused. His efforts to foster British trade and colonial expansion
+were much appreciated by merchants and colonials, and Halifax, in Nova
+Scotia, is named after him.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">29</a> Algeria was then practically a dependency of Turkey, governed by
+Turks.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">30</a> Though it is so stated, the delay was apparently caused
+by the complete breakdown of Bruce’s health, a breakdown which
+obliged him to spend some time at Italian sulphur baths (Poretta).
+Bruce, before leaving Sennar and the regions of the Blue Nile, had received
+into his system the germ of the Guinea worm. This creature
+developed in the usual way. One day when Bruce was reading on a
+sofa at Cairo he felt an itching on his leg, and soon afterwards through
+the pimple thus raised appeared the head of the worm. Three inches
+of this parasite were wound off round a piece of silk, but on the ship
+which conveyed Bruce from Alexandria to Marseilles the surgeon
+clumsily broke off the portion of the worm extruding from the body.
+The remainder of the worm still in the leg caused the most terrible
+agony for thirty-five days, which Bruce had to spend in the lazaretto
+at Marseilles. Here, however, he received better surgical treatment.
+Nevertheless, for some time afterwards his leg gave him considerable
+trouble, and apparently, in 1774, he had to visit Italian sulphur baths.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">31</a> All except, perhaps, some of his stories of Nubia and Sennar.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">32</a> It is curious to read of his using a “rifle” in Abyssinia and thereby
+astonishing the princes.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">33</a> The name of this notable African city is said to mean, in the local
+Arabic, “elephant’s trunk,” as the long spit of sand on which it was
+erected was supposed to resemble that feature. Other etymologies are
+quoted. Apparently the name was that of a small fishing village of
+grass huts which was selected by Ibrahim Pasha as a camp commanding
+both the White and Blue Niles and easily defended. Khartum, from
+its situation, rapidly became the metropolis of the Sudan. It was taken
+and destroyed by the Mahdi in 1885. Its site was reoccupied by Lord
+Kitchener’s victorious force in 1898. Khartum has since been rebuilt,
+and will probably become one of the greatest cities of Africa.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">34</a> The son of a Swiss soldier in the Swiss corps subsidised by England
+in the Napoleonic wars.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">35</a> Afterwards absorbed by the Royal Geographical Society.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">36</a> As this journey was financed by the African Association, it may be
+regarded as a British contribution to Nile exploration.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">37</a> The name Muhammad is affectedly pronounced by the Turks Mehemet,
+but is of course written by them Muhammad.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">38</a> Afterwards for nearly forty years French consular agent at Khartum.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">39</a> Mainly supported by the Archduchess Sophia.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">40</a> The names of the principal members of this Austrian Roman Catholic
+Mission, which finally abandoned its labors about 1862, owing to the
+terribly unhealthy climate of the Upper Nile, were Knoblecher, Beltrame,
+Morlang, Ueberbacher, Ryllo, and Dorvak. Of their numbers (seventeen
+in all) fifteen died of fever or dysentery, and only two returned to Europe.
+Beltrame wrote important works in Italian on the Dinka language.
+Knoblecher, Ueberbacher, and Morlang collected materials for
+the illustration of the Bari language, which were put together by
+Mitterrützner.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">41</a> Glamorgan.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">42</a> It may be mentioned here that throughout the Sudan, from the
+Albert Nyanza to Khartum, the Egyptians, as distinct from their Sudanese
+soldiers, are always spoken of as Turki or Turūk. Kordofan, once
+the home of the Nubians and of Negro races, was overrun by Arabs for
+several centuries, and more than a hundred years ago formed part of the
+half-Ethiopian kingdom of Sennar. It was then subdued by the mailed
+horsemen of Darfur, and held by them until conquered by the Egyptian
+army under Ibrahim Pasha in 1820.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">43</a> Petherick in his last book writes in eulogistic terms of the behaviour
+of this mere boy (so far as age went) throughout all the trying experiences
+that the Pethericks underwent in their journeys up and down the
+White Nile and the rivers of the Bahr-al-Ghazal. It would be interesting
+to know what became of Foxcroft after so promising a début in
+African travel.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">44</a> Many of these tribes are known to us at the present day by foolish
+nicknames. For instance, the Kamasia people, who dwell in the western
+part of the Baringo district, really call themselves El Tūkan. Turkana
+seems often pronounced Tukana.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">45</a> Amabile, tried and sentenced to imprisonment by Petherick for
+slave-trading, and Andrea de Bono, who, though ostensibly an ivory-trader,
+was very unscrupulous in his methods. De Bono, however, was
+the first European to explore the countries to the east of the Mountain
+Nile, i.e., between the main Nile and the basin of Lake Rudolf.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">46</a> Near the confluence of the Asua River.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">47</a> Down to about 1860 the Arab ruler over East Africa was the Imam
+of Maskat, the sovereign of the principality of Oman on the Persian Gulf.
+For more than a hundred years, however, the Imam of Maskat deputed
+one of his sons or kinsmen to be Sayyid of Zanzibar.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">48</a> By its own people this country is called <i>Wu-nya-mwezi</i>. <i>Wu-</i> is a
+degenerate form of the Bantu <i>bu-</i> prefix, which is often used to indicate a
+country. <i>Nya</i> is a particle, meaning “of,” or “concerning,” and <i>mwezi</i> =
+the moon. Unyamwezi is, however, so far away from Ruwenzori on the
+one hand or Kilimanjaro on the other that it is difficult to associate its
+name (which so far as we know has been in existence for about four centuries)
+with that of the snow-mountains.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">49</a> Speke and others are of opinion that there was a considerable civilisation
+in Somaliland at one time, which completely disappeared after the
+Muhammadanising of the country. The Somali (except those of the far
+interior) were converted to Islam by Arab immigrants in the fifteenth
+century. Prior to this they had been Christian to some extent, a much
+degraded type of Christianity having penetrated southwards from Abyssinia.
+It is hardly necessary to point out that the Somali and Gala are
+practically one people in race and language. Gala is only apparently
+a cant term originating in Abyssinia and unknown to the people whom
+we call by that name. It is also interesting to note that Speke and other
+explorers heard in Somaliland, in the “early fifties,” of the existence of
+a great lake far in the interior which was in all probability the Victoria
+Nyanza. The present writer has endeavoured to show, in his book on
+the Uganda Protectorate, that in ancient times considerable trading intercourse
+was kept up between Somaliland and the northeast shores of the
+Victoria Nyanza.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">50</a> Victoria Nyanza. Often so called in earlier days by the Arabs,
+from Bukerebe, a large island near the south shore.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">51</a> Though Burton subsequently recanted this opinion in order to embarrass
+Speke’s theories, and declared that the Rusizi was the outlet of
+Tanganyika.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">52</a> After his Somersetshire home, and the Indian word for a creek—<i>ălla</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">53</a> Walter L’Espec, in the reign of Henry I., founded three abbeys,—Kirkham,
+Rivaulx, and Warden. In the thirteenth century the L’Especs
+altered the spelling of their name to Speke. One Speke lost property
+by faithfulness to Charles I.; another got into (and out of) trouble in
+the reign of Charles II. by advocating the claims to the succession of the
+Duke of Monmouth.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">54</a> In one of his books Speke shows us how Burton and himself managed
+to communicate with the natives. Neither of them—not even
+Burton—had a sufficient knowledge of Kiswahili during their journey to
+Tanganyika to talk direct with their porters. They conversed with
+“Bombay,” their Swahili interpreter, in Hindustani. Burton also was
+able to speak Arabic with the Arab traders. Both, perhaps, are a little
+too inclined to overlook this language difficulty in describing their conversations
+with native chiefs. In all cases these must have been carried
+on in the following manner: The chief would probably speak in his
+native language, which would be translated by somebody else into Swahili,
+and this again would be translated by Bombay, or Frij, or some other
+interpreter, into Hindustani or English; or, again, Burton’s information
+might be rendered by some Arab in Arabic. Direct communications no
+doubt were sometimes made by both parties in broken Swahili.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">55</a> Mr. T. Douglas Murray, who afterwards became Baker’s biographer.
+This letter was written near the close of Sir Samuel Baker’s
+life, on the 22d of August, 1893.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">56</a> See his “Discovery of the Source of the Nile.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">57</a> Discovery of the Source of the Nile, p. 31.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">58</a> Worthy of mention here as being the southernmost extension of
+“Nilotic” influence among the East African races.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">59</a> <i class="taxonomy">Gazella granti</i>, the horns of which are far longer than is the case
+with any other gazelle, the animal itself being about the size of a fallow
+deer.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">60</a> A Hima state, lying to the west of the Victoria Nyanza.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">61</a> This, of course, was Lake Albert, the waters of which are slightly
+brackish. But it is often called the Salt Lake by the Arabs, from the
+large deposits of salt on its shores.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">62</a> They meant, of course, the Rukuga, which flows through Marungu.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">63</a> Hima or Huma is the commonest name applied locally to the Gala
+aristocracy in East Equatorial Africa.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">64</a> Journal of the Discovery of the Sources of the Nile.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">65</a> Throughout the writings of Burton, Speke, and Stanley, this race is
+called Wahuma. The most common term, however, by which they are
+known and know themselves is Bahima (<i>hima</i> being the root and <i>Ba-</i>
+the plural prefix).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">66</a> This is the more curious because, on page 276 in the “Discovery
+of the Source of the Nile,” Speke writes of “a long range of view of the
+lake, and of the large island or group of islands called Sese, where the
+king of Uganda keeps one of his fleets.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">67</a> According to the traditions of the natives, syphilis and smallpox
+entered Uganda about the same time, and came originally from Unyoro.
+Unyoro received these plagues from the first Nubian slave- and ivory-trading
+caravans, which were the pioneers of Egyptian rule in the
+forties of the last century. Syphilis and smallpox were also brought
+by the Zanzibar trading caravans from Unyamwezi not many years later.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">68</a> This, indeed, long before the British Protectorate, Gordon Pasha
+meditated, and was only restrained therefrom by the intervention of Sir
+John Kirk.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">69</a> It is a question whether all these spirits were not in origin deified
+chiefs or medicine-men, who after death were supposed to become controllers
+of the lake, of the rain supply, of certain diseases, or of certain
+functions. Speke considers that a small element of phallic worship was
+mixed up with the old Uganda religion.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">70</a> Muzungu, i.e., “White-man.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">71</a> This word is really a mis-hearing on Speke’s part for Bwana, which,
+again, is a corruption of Abuna, the Arab word for “our father.” Bwana
+is the respectful term, meaning “master,” which is applied in the Swahili
+language to all persons of superior position. It was the name by
+which Speke was known throughout his stay in Uganda, though it has
+long since been discarded for “Sapiki.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">72</a> Since, by the unspeakable barbarism of the British Administration,
+<em>cut down</em>!</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">73</a> Albert Nyanza.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">74</a> Speke and Baker had met before in India.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">75</a> Florence Ninian von Sass. Lady Baker survives her husband.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">76</a> For something like twelve hundred miles, from the mouth of the
+Atbara to the sea, the Nile receives no further contribution of water.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">77</a> <i class="taxonomy">Cycloderma</i>, the Leathery Fresh-water Turtle.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">78</a> This great lake was in reality nothing but the lake-like course of
+the Upper Congo. The words for river and lake in almost all African
+languages are the same.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">79</a> She usually signed herself Alexine. Her full name was Alexandrina
+Petronella Francina Tinne. The name is spelt without an accented <em>e</em>,
+and is pronounced as it would be in German.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">80</a> Her nephew, Mr. John Tinne, however, informs the present writer
+that his aunt once wrote to him saying that “ever since she was a little
+girl doing lessons she had longed to see what there was on the great
+blank spot on the map of Africa.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">81</a> This account of the death of Miss Tinne is derived from information
+very kindly supplied to the author by her nephew, Theodore F.&nbsp;S.
+Tinne, Esq., of Hawkhurst, Kent.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">82</a> She was only thirty-three at the time of her death.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">83</a> France was dogged with continual ill-luck in her attempts to open
+up and explore the Nile basin. Expedition after expedition and explorer
+after explorer, despatched directly or indirectly under French auspices,
+failed (generally by death from fever) in grasping the great discoveries
+which fell to more fortunate Germans and Englishmen.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">84</a> They were, however, first mentioned by Piaggia.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">85</a> Heuglin forestalled him, perhaps, as regards the Gray Parrot.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">86</a> These people do not call themselves by the designation. It is one
+applied to them by the Arabs as a nickname, indicating the gusto with
+which they eat human flesh. They themselves acknowledge several
+names, such as Azande and Makarka.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">87</a> Pierced by the ants so that they become whistles played on by the
+wind.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">88</a> First of all revealed to our notice by the Italian explorer, Piaggia,
+who succeeded Miani and preceded Dr. Schweinfurth.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">89</a> A gifted French explorer who attempted to forestall other expeditions
+in discovering the Central African lakes. He was murdered about
+a hundred miles inland from Zanzibar.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">90</a> Younger brother of Adolphe Linant, an early Nile explorer of 1827
+and 1828.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">91</a> In a pamphlet written in conjunction with Mr. Kerry Nichols and
+Colonel J.&nbsp;A. Grant, published in 1876, by William Clowes.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">92</a> Romolo Gessi was a Levantine Italian, born at Constantinople in
+1831, who had gradually drifted into the employment of the Egyptian
+government. He became a Pasha after Gordon’s departure from the
+Sudan in 1880.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">93</a> Now Colonel Watson, R.E. In 1874–1875 Lieutenant C.&nbsp;M. Watson,
+accompanied by Lieutenant Chippendall, made an admirable survey
+of the main Nile from Khartum to Gondokoro, and later assisted
+Gordon in completing this survey up to Lake Albert.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">94</a> A portion of this is often called Makarka.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">95</a> During this struggle Gessi was hard put to it for food, but he
+quaintly notes that “Of all our troops only the Makarka and Nyam-nyam
+remained healthy, owing to their feeding on human flesh. Directly
+after a battle they cut off the feet of the dead, and consumed these, together
+with their brains.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">96</a> Whose encyclopædic work on the Galas will soon be published.
+Mr. Wakefield died in 1902.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">97</a> Dweru, like Nyanza, is a very common Bantu word which is applied
+equally to lake and river. It simply means “whiteness.” With
+different prefixes it becomes Mweru, Jeru, and so forth.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">98</a> In giving extracts from this as from other works of Nile explorers the
+present writer often summarises. He also employs sometimes more
+modern spelling in scientific nomenclature to avoid puzzling the reader
+habituated to the most recent descriptions.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">99</a> Vide chap. ix. p. 107.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">100</a> This stream, joining others from farther east, enters the Mountain
+Nile near the bifurcation of the Giraffe River.—H.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;J.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">101</a> Khor Kos flows into the Oguelokur, and thus into the Bahr-az-Ziraf.
+See <a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI">chap. xxvi</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">102</a> The distribution of the branching Hyphæne Fan palm is very peculiar.
+It is found right across the Sahara, south of latitude 25°, to the
+vicinity of the Atlantic. It avoids the better watered regions of Nigeria
+and the Bahr-al-Ghazal, but on the east extends across Somaliland and
+down the coast to Mombasa.—H.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;J.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">103</a> Probably Emin refers to the lanky <i class="taxonomy">Cercopithecus patas</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">104</a> Really a plantain-eater—<i>Schizorhis</i> or <i>Gymnoschizorhis</i>.—H.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;J.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">105</a> The white-eared Kob antelope.—H.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;J.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">106</a> The Kafuru. This was re-examined by the author of this book.
+It is a narrow winding channel passing between high banks. In spite of
+the author’s delineation of this feature in his book, “The Uganda Protectorate,”
+map-makers still continue to draw it as a lake-like straight arm
+connecting the Albert Edward with Dweru.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">107</a> Dweru, as already explained, merely means a white surface or sheet
+of water.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">108</a> This word is the name of one of the tributaries of the Kagera.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">109</a> M. Dècle travelled overland from the Cape of Good Hope to the
+Victoria Nile in 1892–1894.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">110</a> Dr. Kandt (who first correctly mapped Lake Kivu) traced the
+course of the important Nyavarongo and Akanyaru tributaries of the
+Kagera. This learned explorer died in 1901.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">111</a> Lugard mapped much of the country between Uganda and Ruwenzori
+and discovered Lake Wamala in western Uganda.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">112</a> Mr Jackson’s magnificent zoölogical collections, especially in mammals,
+birds, and butterflies, have, with those of Mr. Oscar Neumann,
+done much to illustrate the fauna of southern Nileland.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">113</a> It is said that the contribution to the Nile waters from the great
+Victoria Nyanza is not more considerable than the maximum discharge
+of one of the great canals in Egypt. Much of the volume of the Victoria
+Nile is spread out to waste and evaporate in the Kioga-Kwania Lake,
+which also receives the heavy rainfall of north and west Elgon.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">114</a> I should again like to point out how frequent amongst Nilotic Negroes
+is the word Kir for a big river. This name is frequently applied
+to the main Nile, and appears even to crop up again in the Bantu languages
+of the Victoria Nyanza, for in Luganda the Nile is also called
+Kiira.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">115</a> Piaggia was originally an Italian mechanic, born at Alexandria. He
+drifted to the Sudan in 1856, and generally attached himself as a sort of
+caravan leader to the traders in the Bahr-al-Ghazal. In this capacity he
+explored (quite unscientifically) the Nyam-nyam country in 1863–1865,
+and in 1876 he visited Lake Kioga and the Victoria Nile.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">116</a> For various reasons not all Captain Marchand’s officers could be
+brought away from the Nile immediately. Lieutenant Tanguedec was
+left for some two years entirely isolated on the White Nile near Bor.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">117</a> A name very suggestive of the Bantu languages.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">118</a> Negroes of the Semliki valley and forest.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">119</a> This lake is at present one of the unsolved African problems as
+regards its history and affinities. Unlike other lakes of Central Africa,
+its fauna has marine affinities, and would seem indeed to be actually of
+marine origin. It is at the present day connected somewhat intermittently
+with the Congo drainage, and therefore with the Atlantic Ocean;
+and one assumption to explain the existence of its sponges, shrimps, and
+jelly-fishes is that in Jurassic times it was connected with a vast inlet of
+the Atlantic Ocean which occupied the northern half of the low-lying
+Congo basin. Yet, when a relief map of Africa is looked at, it strikes
+one at a glance that Tanganyika lies within the same rift valley as Lakes
+Kivu, Albert Edward, Albert Nyanza, and the Albertine Nile. Its southern
+end may also have been connected through Lake Rukwa, with the rift
+valley of Lake Nyasa. It would be easy to imagine the occurrence of a
+recent and slight upheaval which detached this lake from the Nile system
+and sent its overflowing waters in the direction of the Congo, but
+for the aforementioned marine fauna of its waters. Its history, therefore,
+remains at the present moment an unsolved problem.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">120</a> With a bifurcated rift up Tanganyika.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">121</a> See “L’Omo,” by L. Vannutelli and C. Citerni.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">122</a> A small and very interesting lake which lies about sixty miles to the
+north of Tanganyika, and communicates with that lake by the river
+Rusizi.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">123</a> Some rising as far south as Lat. 3° 50′ S. and within ten miles of
+Tanganyika.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">124</a> Bahr-al-Jabl, so called by the Turks and early French and German
+explorers, because by following it up stream they came at last to mountains
+after the thousand miles of marsh between Khartum and Bor.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">125</a> “River of gazelles,” i.e., antelopes, the name given to it by the
+Sudanese Arabs from the dense herds of game which were formerly to
+be seen on its marshy shores.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">126</a> The Ruzi River, which rises to the west of Lake Rudolf, under the
+fourth degree of north latitude, was considered by the late Captain
+Wellby to be the southernmost source of the Sobat, but this supposition
+has not been verified.</p>
+
+<p>The Ruzi or the two Ruzis probably join the three big streams—the
+Oguelokur, Tu, and Kos—which enter the Giraffe River.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">127</a> This name means “the terrible,” from the violence with which it
+sweeps down a winding chasm from an altitude of 7,000 feet in Abyssinia
+to 2,500 feet in the Nubian plains.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">128</a> Who transmitted the rumour to Greek travellers and merchants
+visiting the coasts of the Red Sea and East Africa. These again handed
+on the information to Greek and Roman geographers.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">129</a> A corruption of Runsororo.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">130</a> Wosho Mountain, approximately sixteen thousand feet.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">131</a> Snow may perhaps occasionally lie for a few days on the highest
+points of the volcanic Mfumbiro peaks (Sabinzi and Karisimbi), which
+are over thirteen thousand feet and lie almost within the limits of the
+Nile basin, to the south of Lake Albert Edward; and there may be a
+little permanent snow perhaps on the peaks over eleven thousand
+feet in height on the southeast of Basutoland in South Africa.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">132</a> A little less perhaps than Dr. A. Bludan’s estimate.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX"><span id="toclink_329"></span>INDEX</h2>
+
+<div class="index">
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="ifrst">Aahmes, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Abbadie, Antoine Thomson d’, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Abbadie, Arnaud d’, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ablaing, Baron d’, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Abyssinia"></a>Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">history of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>
+    <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">geography of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">people of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>et seq.</i>,</li>
+<li class="isub2">(raw-meat eating) <a href="#Page_81">81–85</a>,</li>
+<li class="isub2">(feasts) <a href="#Page_82">82–85</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Christianity of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Emperor of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_278">278</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">name of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">missionaries in, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">likeness to Bahima, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Mother of the Nile, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">mountains, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Acacia (gum) trees, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Acholi (Shuli), people, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adel (Somaliland), <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aden, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adua, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adulis, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Afar, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Africa, East, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Africa, Negro, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Africa, North, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Africa, South, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Africa, West, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">African Association, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">African wild flowers, flora, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agoro Mountains, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ais, Al, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Akka pygmies, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Akobo River, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Albania, Albanians, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Albert Edward, Lake, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Albert Nyanza, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexander the Great, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexandra Nyanza, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexandria, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Algarve (southern province of Portugal), <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Algiers, Algeria, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aloes, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alvarez, Francisco, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ambach, or Ambady, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ambatch (<i class="taxonomy">Herminiera</i>), <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ambukol, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">America, Americans, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amhara, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amharic language, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ankole, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antelopes, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anthropology, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anville, D’, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apes, anthropoid, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apuddo (Apuddu), <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arabia, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arabs, <a href="#Page_17">17</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arabs of Zanzibar, their early knowledge of African geography, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aragonese, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristocracy in Nileland, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristocreon, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristotle, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arnaud, D’, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Arnold"></a>Arnold, Sir Edwin, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aruwimi River, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aryan races, languages, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Asia Minor, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Assiut, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Assuan, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span>Astaboras (Abbara, <i>see</i>) <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Astapus (Blue Nile), <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Astasobas, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Asua River, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Atbara, <a href="#Page_20">20</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Atlantic Ocean, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Austin, H.&nbsp;H., <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Austria, Austrians, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Austrian Mission on Mountain Nile, <a href="#Page_97">97</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Author’s contributions to Nile geography, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Auxuma, Axum, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Azania, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Baggara Arabs, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bahr-al-Arab, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bahr-al-Aswad, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bahr-al-Azrak, <i>see</i> <a href="#Nile_Blue">Blue Nile</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bahr-al-Ghazal River, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>
+    <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>
+    <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bahr-al-Hamr, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bahr-al-Jabl, <i>see</i> <a href="#Nile_White">White</a> and <a href="#Nile_Mountains">Mountain Nile</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bahr-az-Ziraf, <i>see</i> <a href="#Giraffe">Giraffe Nile</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bailul, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baker, Sir Samuel, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">birth and parentage, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">marriage and Ceylon, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Turkey, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">second marriage, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">commences Nile exploration, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">on the Atbara, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">starts for Albert Nyanza, <a href="#Page_183">183</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">deceived as to extent of this lake, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">knighted, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">results of his explorations, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">returns to Nileland, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">character, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baker (Florence), Lady, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Bal_niceps_rex"></a><i class="taxonomy">Balæniceps rex</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Balega"></a>Balega Negroes (Lendu), <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baltic provinces, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baluchistan, Baluchi, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Balugano (Italian draftsman), <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Banana, the, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bantu languages, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bantu Negro, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baobab tree, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bari country, people, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baringo, Lake, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baro (<i>see also</i> <a href="#Nasr_Sobat">Sobat</a>), <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Barth, Dr., <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Basalt, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Basilis (Greek explorer), <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bath, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baumann, Oscar, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baumgarten (Swiss engineer), <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beads, Blue Egyptian, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beatrice Gulf, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beke, Dr. C.&nbsp;T., <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Belgium, Belgians, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beltrame, Father, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Benue River, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berber (Primnis, Ibrim), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berbera, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berbers, the, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berkeley, Fort, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berlin, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bermudez, <a href="#Page_47">47</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berta Negroes, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bilma, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Binesho tribe, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bion (Greek explorer), <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Birds, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Biri River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blackwater fever, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blackwood’s Magazine, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blandford, Dr. W.&nbsp;T., <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blood-drinking (Abyssinian, East African), <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blundell, Weld, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bogos country, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Bombay” (Speke’s faithful), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bonchamps, De, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bongo tribe, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Bono_Andrea_de"></a>Bono, Andrea de, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bor, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boran Galas, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Borassus</i>, palm (<i class="taxonomy">Doleb</i>), <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Borelli, Jules, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span>Bornu, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Botany, <i>see</i> <a href="#Flora">Flora</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bottego, V., <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brahuis (of Beluchistan), <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brèvedent, Father, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bright, R.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;T., <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">British, the, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Egypt, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Uganda, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Egypt and Sudan, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">British Association, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">British government, its indifference to African exploration, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Browne, Wm. Geo., <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bruce, James, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and the Guinea worm, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">raw-flesh eating, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">death, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">work in Abyssinian history, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brun-Rollet, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Bucerosia</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buchta, Richard, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buddu, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buffon, Comte de (naturalist), <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bumbiri, Island of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bunbury, Sir E.&nbsp;H., <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burckhardt, J.&nbsp;L., <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burton, Sir Richard F., <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> <i>et seq.</i> (relations with Speke), <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, (character) <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">transference to West Africa, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">theories of geography, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">hesitation to take Mombasa route, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burton, Lady, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bushmen (pygmies), <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Busoga, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Byzantine Empire, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Cæsar, Julius, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cailliaud, Frederic, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cairo, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cambridge, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cambyses, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Camel, the, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Camerons, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cannibals, Cannibalism, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cape of Good Hope, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Cape-to-Cairo,” phrase and telegraph, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Capellen, Baroness Van, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carthage, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Casabi (Italian explorer), <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cattle, breeds of African, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">abundant, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caucasian and Nile discovery, <i>prefatory note</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Caucasian"></a>Caucasian, Caucasian race, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cecchi (Italian explorer), <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Centurions, Nero’s two, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ceylon, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chad, Lake, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Chaille-Long"></a>Chaillé-Long, Col., <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles II., <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chemorongi Mountains, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chiarini (Italian explorer), <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chimpanzee, the, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chippendall, Capt., <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christianity, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,37 <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Church Missionary Society, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Circassians, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Citerni, C., <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Civilisation, of Egypt, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Mesopotamia, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Greece, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Himyaritic, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coffee, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colston, Col., <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congo forests, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congo Free State, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congo River, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Constantinople, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Consuls, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cooley, Mr. D., <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Copper, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coptic language, Copts, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cosmas Indicopleustes, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Covilhaō, Pero de, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cow-dung, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crocodiles, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crosby, Oscar T., <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cross River, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crusades, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cruttenden, Lieut., <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cyprus, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cyrenaica, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Dahabiahs on Nile, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Daily Telegraph,” the, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dalion (Greek explorer), <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Damietta, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span>Damot, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Danākil (land, people), <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Danish explorers, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Darfur, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">De Bono, <i>see</i> <a href="#Bono_Andrea_de">Bono, De</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dècle, Lionel, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Defafang, extinct volcano on Nile, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Delmé-Radcliffe, Major C., <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Delta of Nile, <i>see</i> <a href="#delta_of">Nile, delta</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><i>also</i> <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dem Idris, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dembo River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dervishes (Mahdi’s adherents), <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Desneval, Count of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Didessa, or Dabessa River, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dinder River, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dinka people, language, country, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diogenes (Greek explorer), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dogoru River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Donaldson-Smith, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dongola, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dorvak, Father, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Dracæna</i> (Dragon trees), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dravidian race, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dublin, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dueru, or Dweru, Lake, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dufton, H., <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dum Palm (<i class="taxonomy">Hyphæne thebaica</i>), <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dutch, the, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dyé, Lieut. A.&nbsp;H., <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dyur River, <i>see</i> <a href="#Jur">Jur</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">East Africa, British protectorate, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edwin Arnold, Sir (<i>see</i> <a href="#Arnold">Arnold</a>)</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edwin Arnold, Mount (Ruwenzori), <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egypt, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Persian conquest of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Greek, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Roman, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">French, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">once a very rainy country, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egyptian government, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egyptian temple, resemblance to an, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egyptians, ancient, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">trading relations with Equatorial Africa, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eichstadt (Germany, Nachtigal’s birthplace), <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elam, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elephants, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elgon, Mount, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elgumi, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elliott, Scott, Dr. G.&nbsp;F., <i>see</i> <a href="#Scott-Elliott">Scott-Elliott</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Emin (Pasha), Dr., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">birth and early life, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">short-sightedness, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">journals, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Lotuka, <a href="#Page_251">251</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">description of birds, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">beasts, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Bahr-al-Ghazal, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Congo forests, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Equatoria, <a href="#Page_259">259</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">journey with Stuhlmann, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">death, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Enarea, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">England, English, the, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ensor, Sidney, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Equatoria (Emin’s province), <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eratosthenes, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Erfurt, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Erhardt (Rev.), <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eritrea, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Escayrac, Comte d’, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Essex, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ethiopia (<i>see also</i> <a href="#Abyssinia">Abyssinia</a>), <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ethiopians, Ethiopic language, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euphorbias, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euphrates, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Evatt, Col. John, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eyasi, Lake, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Fadasi, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Faidherbe,” steamship, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Faloro, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fasher, Al, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fashoda, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fashoda, Lake of, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fauna, Tropical African, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_253">253</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fayūm, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fazokl, Fazogli, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Febore, Théophile Le, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Felkin, Dr. R.&nbsp;W., <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span>Felus, <i>see</i> <a href="#Khor_Felus">Khor Felus</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fergusson, Malcolm, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ferret, Capt., <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ferruginous laterite formations (Bahr-al-Ghazal), <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fezzan, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fischer, Dr., <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flaccus, Septimus, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flemings, Flemish, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Flora"></a>Flora of Africa (Nileland), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Foreign Office, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Forests, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">“gallery,” <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fortnum and Mason, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fowler, C.&nbsp;W., <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Foxcroft, Mount, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">France, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fremona, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">French, the, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Gala people, Galas, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Galabat, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Galaland, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Galinier, Capt., <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gallus, Ælius, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Galo River, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gama, Christoforo da, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gama, Estevaõ da, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gamo, Vasco da, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Garama, Garamentes, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Garstin, Sir William, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gazelle, Grant’s, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gedge, Mr. Ernest, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geese, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ge’ez (Ethiopic language), <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geographical Society, Italian (Rome), <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geographical Society, Khédivial, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geographical Society, Paris, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geographical Society, Royal, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geology of Nile Basin, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">George II., <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Germany, Germans, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gessi Pasha, <a href="#Page_232">232</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ghat, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gibbons, Major A. St. H., <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Giraffe"></a>Giraffe River, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Giraffes, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Goa, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gojam, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gold, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gondar, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gondokoro, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gordon (Pasha), C.&nbsp;G., <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gorges, Major, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grand, Le, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grant, James Augustus, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gray parrot, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greece, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greek Christianity, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greek dynasties in Egypt, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greeks in Africa, <a href="#Page_14">14</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gregory the Abyssinian, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grogan, Ewart, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gum (acacia), <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gunpowder, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guns, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, (muskets) <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gwynn, Major C.&nbsp;W., <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Habash, Hawash, Habshi, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Halifax, Lord, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hamitic languages, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hamitic race, Hamites, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hanbury-Tracey, Major, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hannington, Bishop, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harrar, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harris, Sir William C., <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harrow School, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hebrews, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Herodotus, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heuglin, Baron von, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hima, Ba- (Wahuma), <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span>Himyarite Arabs, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hippopotamus, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hittites, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hobley, C.&nbsp;W., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Höhnel, Lieut. von, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holland, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hottentots, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hungary, Hungarians, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Hyphæne</i>, Branching Palm, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Iberian race, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Ibrahim,” Lake (Kioga), <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ibrahim Pasha, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ibrahim (slave-trader), <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">India, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, (Speke in) <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Irby, Hon. Charles Leonard, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ireland, Irish, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Islam"></a>Islam (Muhammadanism), <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Italy, Italians, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ivory, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Jaba River, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jackson, F.&nbsp;J., <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jackson, L.&nbsp;C., <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jacobin (map publisher), <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">James II., <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">James, W. and F.&nbsp;L. (brothers), <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Jemma"></a>Jemma, or Jimma (Upper Blue Nile), <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jesuit missionaries, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jews, in Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ji River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jidda, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jimma, <i>see</i> <a href="#Jemma">Jemma</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">John (Yohannes), Emperor of Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jordans Nullah, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Jordans” (Speke’s home), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Juba River, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Judaism, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Junker, Dr. William, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Jur"></a>Jur, or Dyur, or Sue River, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Kabarega, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kabirondo (country), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">(people) <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">(bay or gulf) <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kaffa, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kafu River, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kafuru River, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kagera River (extreme Upper Victoria Nile), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kaka (on the White Nile), <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kamurasi, <a href="#Page_164">164</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kandt, Dr., <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Karagwe, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Karamojo, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Karuma Falls of Nile, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kasa, a name of several Abyssinian rulers before crowning, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kassalá, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Katikiro, the, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kaze, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Keltie, Dr. J. Scott, <i>prefatory note</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kenya Mountain, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kerckhoven, Lieut. Van, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Khartum, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> (founding of), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Khedive of Egypt, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Khor_Felus"></a>Khor Felus River, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Khor Kos River, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Khor Oteng River, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kibali River, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kich (Kity), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kilimanjaro, Mt., <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kioga, Lake, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kir (name of Nile), <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kircher, Father Athanasius, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kirk, Sir John, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kirkpatrick, Lake, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kitara, Empire of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kivu, Lake, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knoblecher, Dr. Ignatz, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kordofan, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Korosko, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kosango River, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Krapf, Dr. Ludwig, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kudu, the (antelope), <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kuru River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span>Kwania, Lake, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Lado, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Lady Alice,” the, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lafargue, Mons., <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lakes, Nile, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>et seq.</i> (<i>see</i> <a href="#Victoria_Nyanza">Victoria Nyanza</a>), <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lango country and people (Bakedi), <a href="#Page_140">140</a> <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Latin, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Latitudes, Ptolemy’s, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Portuguese, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bruce’s, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Latuka"></a>Latuka (Lotuka) country and people, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lega, Ba-, <i>see</i> <a href="#Balega">Balega</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leghorn, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lejean, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lendu tribe, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leon, Pedro, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Letorzec, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Libya, Libyan race, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Libyan desert, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lichfield, Rev. G., <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Limestone formations, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Linant de Bellefonds, Adolphe, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Linant de Bellefonds, Édouard, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lisbon, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Liturgies, Abyssinian, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Liverpool, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Livingstone, Dr., <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lobo, Father Jeronimo, <a href="#Page_51">51</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lobor Mountains, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Logwek, Mount, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Long, Chaillé-, <i>see</i> <a href="#Chaille-Long">Chaillé-Long</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lotuka, <i>see</i> <a href="#Latuka">Latuka</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lotuka Mountains, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Luajali River (affluent of Victoria Nile), <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ludolf (Leutholf), Hiob, <a href="#Page_61">61</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lugard, Sir F.&nbsp;D., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Louis XIV., <a href="#Page_65">65</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Louis XVIII., <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lupton (Bey), Frank, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lutanzige (Albert Nyanza), <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Macallister, R.&nbsp;W., <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Macdonald, J.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;L., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mackay, Alexander, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Madagascar, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maddox, Capt. H., <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Madi country, people, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Magdala, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Magungo, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mahdi, the, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maizen (French explorer), <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Makarka (Nyam-nyam), <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malindi, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malta, Maltese, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malzac, De, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mameluks, the, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mangbettu tribe, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mangles, James, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manwa Sera, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manyema tribe, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maps, Ptolemy’s, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sicilian, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Vatican, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dutch and German, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Portuguese, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">French, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Speke’s, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marchand, Col. J., <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marco Polo, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mareb River, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marinus of Tyre, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marno, Ernst, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marseilles, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marshes, of the Nile, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Masai, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Masawa (Abyssinia), <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Masawa, Mount (Elgon), <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mashra-ar-Rak, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maskat, Maskat Arabs, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mason (Bey), <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Massaja, Monseigneur, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Massari (Italian explorer), <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Matammah (on Desert Nile), <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maternus, Julius, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Matteucci, Dr. Pellegrino, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mauritania (Morocco, Algeria, Tunis), <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mauritius, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mayo, Earl of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mbakovia (on Lake Albert), <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span>Mbomu River, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mediterranean, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mehemet, <i>see</i> <a href="#Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Melly, Andrew, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Menelik of Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mengo, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Menzalet, Lake, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Merāwi (Meroe), <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Metals, Metal-working, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Meura, Lieut. (Belgian), <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mfumbiro Mountains, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Miami, Giovanni, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Michel (French traveller), <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Missionaries, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mitterrützner, Herr ——, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mokha, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mombasa, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mongolian races, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Monkeys, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moon, Land of, <i>see</i> <a href="#Unyamwezi">Unyamwezi</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Mountains of, <i>see</i> <a href="#Mountains">Mountains</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moore, J.&nbsp;E., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moors, Morocco, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morch, Giacomo, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morlang, Father, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morongo Mountains, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moscow, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Mountains"></a>Mountains, of the Moon, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of Lotuka, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mpororo, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Muhammad"></a>Muhammad, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muhammad Ali, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muhammad Granye, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muhammad Kher, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muhammad Wad-el-Mek, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muhammadanism, <i>see</i> <a href="#Islam">Islam</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muhammadans, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mundy, Lieut., <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Munza, King, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Munzinger (Pasha), Werner, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Murat (Abyssinian), <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Murchison Falls, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Murchison Gulf, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Murchison, Sir Roderick, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Murie, Dr., <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Murray, Mr. T. Douglas, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Murzuk, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Museum, British, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mutesa, <a href="#Page_153">153</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his cruelties, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">name, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mwanza Creek, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mykenæan civilisation, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Nachtigal, Dr., <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Naivasha, Lake, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nakwai Mountains, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nandi, people, country, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napata, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napier, Lord, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napoleon Bonaparte, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napoleon Gulf, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napoleon III., <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Nasr_Sobat"></a>Nasr (Sobat), <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Natal, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Neanderthaloid man, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Negro, the, <a href="#Page_8">8</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nilotic, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">West African, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Negroid races, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Neil, O’ (Rev.), <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Neku (King of Egypt), <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nepoko River, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nero, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Neumann, Oscar, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“New York Herald,” The, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Niger River, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile alluvial mud (from Atbara River), <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile, Albertine, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Nile_Blue"></a>Nile, Blue, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile, Cataracts of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile, Giraffe, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Nile_Mountains"></a>Nile Mountains, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile Quest, the, <i>prefatory note</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">stops for a time at Gondokoro, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Speke discovers main source of White Nile, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Baker’s explorations, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Alexandrine Tinne the romantic figure of the, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Schweinfurth’s share, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span>close of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile River, <a href="#Page_1">1</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">names of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a id="delta_of"></a>delta of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">origin of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">ultimate sources of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, (farthest source of all) <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">floods of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">basin of, area, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">length of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile, Valley of the, <a href="#Page_1">1</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">like Rhine, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile, Victoria, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Nile_White"></a>Nile, White, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_207">207</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nileland, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_296">296</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">geography of, <a href="#Page_299">299</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nilotic Negroes, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nimule, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">No, Lake, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nubia, Nubians, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nubian Alps, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nudity of Negroes, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nuēr tribe, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nyam-nyam country and people, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nyando valley, river, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nyanza, name of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nyasa, Lake, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nyenam River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nzoia River, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Oguelokur River, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Olive, the wild, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oman, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Omo River, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ostriches, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Otocyon</i> (long-eared fox), <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oxen, African, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Paez, Father Pedro, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Palms, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pangani, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Papyrus, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paris, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Parklands, African, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Parkyns, Mansfield, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Parrot, Gray, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peake, Malcolm, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pearson, C.&nbsp;W., <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peney, Alfred, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Periplus of the Red Sea, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Persia, Persians, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Persian Gulf, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peters, Dr. Carl, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Petherick, John, <a href="#Page_100">100</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Petherick, Mrs., <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Petrie, Prof. Flinders, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phallic worship, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phœnicians, the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Photography, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Piaggia, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pibor River, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Pistia stratiotes</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pliny, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pococke, Richard, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polynesians, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Poncet brothers, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Poncet (French doctor-explorer), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pope, Papal Court, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Portal, Capt. Raymond, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Portal, Sir Gerald, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Portugal, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Portuguese, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Potagos (Greek traveller), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Prester John,” <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Primnis (Berber), <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pringle, Capt., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prokesch von Osten, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Protopterus</i>, fish, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Psametik, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ptolemy (King), <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ptolemy, Ptolemæus, Claudius, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Punt, land of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Purdy, Col., <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pygmies, Congo, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pygmy races, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Quartz, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Queen Victoria, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Queens, African, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Racey River, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span>Radcliffe, Delmé, Ch. (Major), <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rahad River, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Raiūf Pasha, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ravenstein, Mr. E.&nbsp;G., <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rebman, John, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Red Sea, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reeds, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rejaf, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Religions, Negro, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rhaptum, or Rhapta, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rhinoceros, the, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rhodes, Cecil, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rhodesia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rifles, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rift Valley (Great), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rift valleys of Eastern Africa, <a href="#Page_300">300</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Riga, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ripon Falls of Nile, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roa River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rōl River, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roman Catholics, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rome, Romans, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rosebery Channel, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roseires, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rosetta, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roule, le Sieur du, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Royal Geographical Society, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Royal Society, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ruanda, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ruchuru River, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Rudolf"></a>Rudolf, Lake, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rukwa, Lake, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rumanika, King, <a href="#Page_143">143</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rüppell, Dr. (German naturalist), <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rusizi River, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Russegger, J.&nbsp;I., <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ruvuvu River (Kagera), <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ruwenzori Mountains, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, (Alpine vegetation) <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ruzi River, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ryllo, Father, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Saba (Sheba), Queen of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sabæan Arabs, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sabatier, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sagada Mountain, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sahara Desert, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sailing ships, their effect on African discovery, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saint, Le (French explorer), <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Salisbury, Lake, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Salt, Consul Henry, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Samburu, Lake (<i>see</i> <a href="#Rudolf">Rudolf</a>), <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Samien Mountains, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Sanseviera</i>, plant, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sardinian (i.e. N. Italian) travellers, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saxony, Saxe Gotha (share in African exploration), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schuver, J.&nbsp;M., <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schweinfurth, Dr. Georg, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">birth and nationality, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">starts for Suakin, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">describes botany of North Abyssinian terraces, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Berber to Khartum, <a href="#Page_206">206</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">White Nile scenery, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bahr-al-Ghazal, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and the slave-trade, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his achievements, <a href="#Page_216">216</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anthropological discoveries, <a href="#Page_217">217</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">botany of Nileland, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">“gallery” forests, <a href="#Page_219">219</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">shares Burton’s opinions regarding Victoria Nyanza, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sclater, Dr. P.&nbsp;L., <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Scott-Elliott"></a>Scott-Elliott, G.&nbsp;F., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scottish, Scotland, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Selim Bimbashi, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Semitic influence, languages, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Semliki River, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sennar, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sese Islands, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Settit River (Atbara), <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shankala, Shangala, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shari River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sharp, Mr., <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sheko tribe, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shendi, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shergold-Smith, R.N. Lieut., <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shiluk people, country, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shoa, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span>Sicily, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Silesia, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Simiyu, or Shimeyu River, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Simonides (Greek explorer), <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Slaves, Slavery, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Slave-trade, Slave-traders, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Slave-traders’ revolt, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Small-pox, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Snakes, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Snay, Sheikh, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Snow, Snow-mountains, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sobat River, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sofala, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sokotra, Island of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Solomon, King, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Somali people, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>; language, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Somaliland, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Somersetshire and Speke, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sonnini de Manoncourt, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sophia, Archduchess, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spain, Spanish, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Speke, John Hanning, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Somaliland, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">starts for the Central Africa Lakes with Burton, <a href="#Page_118">118</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">discovers Victoria Nyanza, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">difference with Burton, <a href="#Page_123">123</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">returns to England, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his birth and parentage, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">youth, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">character, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">second expedition with Grant, <a href="#Page_133">133</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Uganda, <a href="#Page_150">150</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">returns to England, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">name in Uganda, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">discovers outlet of Victoria Nyanza, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">honours, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">interview with King Edward, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">geographical theories, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">death, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Speke Gulf, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spekes, history of the, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">arms of the, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stanley, Sir Henry, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">greatest African explorer, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">confirms Speke, <a href="#Page_223">223</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">circumnavigates Victoria Nyanza, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in Uganda, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">mistake about Ugowe Bay, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">relieves Emin, <a href="#Page_259">259</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">discovers Ruwenzori, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stanton, E.&nbsp;A., <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Steamers on Nile, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Steudner, Dr., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Strabo, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stroyan, Lieut., <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stuhlman, Dr. Franz, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suakin, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sudan, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sudanese soldiers, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">races, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sudd, the, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sue (Sive) River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suez, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suez Canal, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suleiman-bin-Zubeir, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Switzerland, Swiss, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Syphilis, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Syria, Syrians, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Tajarra Bay, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Takaze River (Upper Atbara), <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tanganyika, Lake, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tanguedec, Lieut., <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tarangole, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tawareq (Tonareg), Tamasheq, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Teleki, Count S., <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tellez, F. Balthasar, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tertiary Epoch, the Nile during the, <a href="#Page_313">313</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theodore, King, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thibaud, or Thibaut (French explorer and consular agent), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thomson, Joseph, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tibet (Speke in), <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tigre (Abyssinia), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tigris River, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tinne, Miss A., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">names, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">origin of Tinne family, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">mother and aunt, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">first Nile journeys, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span>death of mother and aunt, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">starts from Tripoli to explore Sahara and reach Bahr-al-Ghazal from N.W., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">treacherously slain near Murzuk by Tawareqs, <a href="#Page_196">196</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">character and appearance, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">on the Roll of Fame, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tinne, Theodore F.&nbsp;S., <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tondi River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tonj River, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Toro, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trade, Traders, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tragelaph, Speke’s, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trees, great forest, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tripoli, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tsana, Lake, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> <i>et seq.</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tsetse fly, the, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tu River, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tübingen, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tunis, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turkana, country, people, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turkey, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turks, the, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Ubangi River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ueberbacher, Father, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Uganda, <i>prefatory note</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">protectorate of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">aristocracy of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">country of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">people of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">King of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stanley in, <a href="#Page_225">225–228</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">missionaries proceed to, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gordon and, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">route, via Busoga, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Uganda Railway, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ugogo, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ugowe Bay, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ujiji, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ukerewe (Bukerebe), <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Um Suf” (<i>Vossia</i>) (reeds), <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Unyamwezi"></a>Unyamwezi, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">porters, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Unyanyembe, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Unyoro, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Usagara, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Usambara, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Usnea</i>, lichen, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Usui, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Utica, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Valentia, Lord, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vandeleur, Seymour, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vannutelli, L., <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vaudet, Signor, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Venetians, Venice, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Victoria_Nyanza"></a>Victoria Nyanza, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">discovery of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Burton’s depreciation of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Speke’s estimate of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stanley’s circumnavigation, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">direct route to, from Mombasa, <a href="#Page_246">246</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">last discoveries of Stanley’s, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">surveyed (northern coast) by Col. J.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;L. Macdonald, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">by Whitehouse, Hobley, etc., <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">general features of, <a href="#Page_302">302</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vinci, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Volcanoes, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Wadai, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wadi Halfa, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><em>Wadi</em>, or river-bed, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Waghorn, Lieut., <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wakefield, Rev. Mr., <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wales, Welsh, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wansleb, Michael, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Waterfalls, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Watson, Col. C.&nbsp;M., <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wellby, M.&nbsp;S., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Welle River, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Werne, Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Whale-headed storks, <i>see</i> <i class="taxonomy"><a href="#Bal_niceps_rex">Balæniceps rex</a></i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Whitehouse, Commissioner B., <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">White man, <i>see</i> <a href="#Caucasian">Caucasian</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">White Nile, <i>see</i> <a href="#Nile_White">Nile, White</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wilson, Capt. H.&nbsp;H., <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wilson, Rev. C.&nbsp;T., <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span>Wosho Mountain (North Abyssinia), <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Würtemberg, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wyche, Sir Peter, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Yabongo River, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yalo River, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yaman (Arabia), <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yei River, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Zambezi River, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zanzibar, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zebra, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zeila, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zinza, U-, Bu-, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zubeir Pasha, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zululand, Zulus, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="chapter transnote section">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2>
+
+<p>Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made
+consistent when a predominant preference was found
+in the original book; otherwise they were not changed.</p>
+
+<p>Several words appear multiple times with and without
+accent marks. These inconsistencies have not been changed.</p>
+
+<p>Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced
+quotation marks were remedied when the change was
+obvious, and otherwise left unbalanced.</p>
+
+<p>Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned
+between paragraphs and outside quotations. In versions
+of this eBook that support hyperlinks, the page
+references in the List of Illustrations lead to the
+corresponding illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>Page numbers in the List of Illustrations have been adjusted to match
+the actual pages on which the illustrations appear in this eBook.</p>
+
+<p>Transcriber added references to two maps at the
+end of the List of Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>Printer’s notes indicating where to insert illustrations
+have been removed from this eBook.</p>
+
+<p>Footnotes, originally at the bottoms of the pages that referenced them,
+have been collected, sequentially renumbered, and placed near the end of
+the book, just before the Index.</p>
+
+<p>The index was not checked for proper alphabetization
+or correct page references.
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75534 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
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diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #75534 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/75534)