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+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76087 ***
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: INTERIOR OF GREAT PUBLIC BATHS IN IMPERIAL
+  ROME.
+
+  _Restoration according to Von Falke._]
+
+
+
+
+                           A DAY IN OLD ROME
+
+                        A PICTURE OF ROMAN LIFE
+
+                                  BY
+
+                         WILLIAM STEARNS DAVIS
+
+                      PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN THE
+                        UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+                            ALLYN AND BACON
+                   BOSTON      NEW YORK      CHICAGO
+                ATLANTA      SAN FRANCISCO      DALLAS
+
+
+
+
+                            COPYRIGHT, 1925
+                          BY ALLYN AND BACON
+
+                                  PAP
+
+                             Norwood Press
+                J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
+                        Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+                                PREFACE
+
+
+This book tries to describe what an intelligent person would have
+witnessed in Ancient Rome if by some legerdemain he had been translated
+to the Second Christian Century, and conducted about the imperial city
+under competent guidance. Rare and untypical happenings have been
+omitted, and sometimes to avoid long explanations _probable_
+matters have been stated as if they were ascertained facts: but these
+instances it is hoped are so few that no reader can be led into serious
+error.
+
+The year 134 after Christ has been chosen as the hypothetical time of
+this visit, not from any special virtue in that date, but because Rome
+was then architecturally nearly completed, the Empire seemed in its
+most prosperous state, although many of the old usages and traditions
+of the Republic still survived, and the evil days of decadence were
+as yet hardly visible in the background. The time of the absence of
+Hadrian from his capital was selected particularly, in order that
+interest could be concentrated upon the life and doings of the great
+city itself, and upon its vast populace of slaves, plebeians, and
+nobles, not upon the splendid despot and his court, matters too often
+the center for attention by students of the Roman past.
+
+To acknowledge all the modern books upon which the writer has drawn
+heavily would be to present a list of almost all the important
+handbooks or discussions of Roman life and antiquities. It is proper
+to say, however, that such secondary sources have been mainly useful
+so far as they reënforced a fairly exhaustive study of the Latin
+writers themselves, especially of Horace, Seneca, Petronius, Juvenal,
+Martial, and, last but nowise least, of Pliny the Younger. Inevitably
+this volume follows the lines of its companion “A Day in Old Athens,”
+published several years ago, a book which has enjoyed such public favor
+as to prove the usefulness of this method of presentation; but life
+in the Roman Imperial Age has seemed so much more complex than that
+in the Athens of Demosthenes, and our fund of information is so much
+greater, that the present volume is perforce considerably longer than
+its companion. The “day” devoted to Rome will probably seem therefore a
+somewhat lengthy one.
+
+To my colleague and friend Dr. Richard C. Cram, Professor of Latin in
+the University of Minnesota, I am deeply grateful for a careful reading
+of the manuscript and for many helpful and incisive suggestions; and
+for a careful checking over of every feature of the work I must once
+again gladly acknowledge the gracious and untiring services of my wife.
+
+The illustrations, which, it is hoped, add considerably to the interest
+of the book, have been collected from many sources. Many of the highly
+informational “restorations” included are from the monumental work of
+Jakob von Falke, _Hellas und Rom_, the English version whereof has
+long ceased to be available to American readers.
+
+                                                               W. S. D.
+
+    THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA
+           MINNEAPOLIS
+
+
+
+
+                               CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                   PAGE
+
+    LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS                                           xxi
+
+
+               Chapter I. The General Aspect of the City
+
+    SECTION
+
+      1. The Prosperity of Rome in the Reign of Hadrian
+           (A.D. 117–138)                                             1
+
+      2. Increasing Glory of the Imperial City                        2
+
+      3. Population and Crowded Condition of Rome                     3
+
+      4. The Country around Rome                                      5
+
+      5. The Tiber and Its Valley                                     6
+
+      6. A View over Rome from the Campus Martius                     7
+
+      7. The Seven Hills of Rome                                      9
+
+      8. Building Materials Used in Rome                             10
+
+      9. The Great Use of Concrete                                   11
+
+     10. Greek Architectural Forms Plus the Arch and Vault           12
+
+
+                  Chapter II. Streets and Street Life
+
+     11. The Regions of Rome: Fashionable and Plebeian Quarters      15
+
+     12. A Typical Short Street, “Mercury Street”                    16
+
+     13. The House and Shop Fronts                                   18
+
+     14. Street Shrines and Fountains                                20
+
+     15. Typical Street Crowds                                       21
+
+     16. Frequent Use of Greek in Rome                               22
+
+     17. Clamor and Thronging in the Streets                         23
+
+     18. The Processions Attending Great Nobles                      24
+
+     19. A Great Lady Traveling                                      25
+
+     20. Public Salutations: the Kissing Habit                       26
+
+     21. The Swarms of Idlers and Parasites                          27
+
+     22. Public Placards and Notices                                 28
+
+     23. Wall Scribblings                                            30
+
+     24. The Streets Dark and Dangerous at Night                     32
+
+     25. Discomforts of Life in Rome                                 33
+
+
+            Chapter III. The Homes of the Lowly and of the
+                                Mighty
+
+     26. The Great _Insulæ_--Tenement Blocks                         34
+
+     27. A Typical Insula                                            35
+
+     28. The Flats in an Insula                                      36
+
+     29. The Cheap Attic Tenements and Their Poor Occupants          37
+
+     30. A Senatorial “Mansion” (_Domus_)                            39
+
+     31. The Plan of a Large Residence                               40
+
+     32. Entrance to the Residence                                   42
+
+     33. The Atrium and the View across It                           42
+
+     34. The Rooms in the Rear and the _Peristylium_                 44
+
+     35. The Dining Room (_Triclinium_) and the Chapel               45
+
+     36. The Garden and the Slaves’ Quarters                         47
+
+     37. The Floors and Windows                                      49
+
+     38. Frescos, Beautiful and Innumerable                          50
+
+     39. The Profusion of Statues and Art Objects                    51
+
+     40. Family Portrait Busts                                       52
+
+     41. Death Masks (_Imagines_)                                    54
+
+     42. Couches, Their General Use                                  54
+
+     43. Elegant Chairs and Costly Tables                            55
+
+     44. Chests, Cabinets, Water Clocks, and Curios                  57
+
+     45. Spurious Antiques                                           58
+
+     46. Pet Animals                                                 58
+
+
+              Chapter IV. Roman Women and Roman Marriages
+
+     47. Honorable Status of Roman Women                             60
+
+     48. Men Reluctant to Marry                                      61
+
+     49. Rights and Privileges of Married Women                      61
+
+     50. Selection of Husbands for Young Girls                       63
+
+     51. A Marriage Treaty among Noble-Folk                          64
+
+     52. A Betrothal in Wealthy Circles                              65
+
+     53. Adjusting the Dowry                                         66
+
+     54. Dressing the Bride                                          66
+
+     55. The Marriage Ceremonies                                     67
+
+     56. The Wedding Procession                                      69
+
+     57. At the Bridegroom’s House                                   70
+
+     58. Honors and Liberties of a Matron                            71
+
+     59. Unhappy Marriages and Frivolous Women                       72
+
+     60. Divorces, Easy and Frequent                                 74
+
+     61. Celibacy Common: Old Families Dying Out                     75
+
+     62. Nobler Types of Women                                       75
+
+     63. Famous and Devoted Wives                                    76
+
+     64. The Story of Turia                                          78
+
+
+               Chapter V. Costume and Personal Adornment
+
+     65. The Type of Roman Garments                                  80
+
+     66. The Toga, the National Latin Garment                        81
+
+     67. Varieties of Togas                                          83
+
+     68. Draping the Toga                                            83
+
+     69. The Tunica                                                  84
+
+     70. Capes, Cloaks, and Gala Garments                            85
+
+     71. Garments of Women: the _Stola_ and the _Palla_              86
+
+     72. Materials for Garments. Wool and Silk                       88
+
+     73. Styles of Arranging Garments. Fullers and Cleaners          89
+
+     74. Barbers’ Shops. The Revived Wearing of Beards               90
+
+     75. Fashions in Women’s Hairdressing. Hair Ornaments            93
+
+     76. Elaborate Toilets                                           94
+
+     77. Sandals and Shoes                                           95
+
+     78. The Mania for Jewels and Rings                              96
+
+     79. Pearls in Enormous Favor                                    97
+
+     80. Perfumes: Their Constant Use                                98
+
+
+              Chapter VI. Food and Drink. How the Day is
+                           Spent. The Dinner
+
+     81. Romans Fond of the Table. Gourmandizing. The Famous
+           Apicius                                                  100
+
+     82. Vitellius, the Imperial Glutton                            102
+
+     83. Simple Diet of the Early Romans                            102
+
+     84. Bread and Vegetables                                       103
+
+     85. Fruits, Olives, Grapes, and Spices                         104
+
+     86. Meat and Poultry                                           105
+
+     87. Fish in Great Demand                                       106
+
+     88. Olive Oil and Wine: Their Universal Use                    107
+
+     89. Vintages and Varieties of Wine                             108
+
+     90. Kitchens and the Niceties of Cookery                       109
+
+     91. A Roman Gentleman’s Morning: Breakfast (_jentaculum_)
+           and the Visit to the Forum                               110
+
+     92. The Afternoon and Dinner-Time. Importance of the
+           Dinner (_cena_)                                          111
+
+     93. Dinner Hunters and Parasites (“Shadows”)                   112
+
+     94. The Standard Dinner Party--Nine Guests                     113
+
+     95. Preparing the Dinner and Mustering the Guests              114
+
+     96. Arrangement of the Couches: Placing the Guests             115
+
+     97. Serving the Dinner                                         116
+
+     98. The Drinking Bout (_Comissatio_) after the Dinner          118
+
+     99. Distribution of Garlands and Perfumes. Social
+           Conversation                                             119
+
+    100. Elaborate and Vulgar Banquets. Simple Home
+    Dinners      120
+
+
+              Chapter VII. The Social Orders: The Slaves
+
+    101. Enormous Alien Population in Rome. The “Græcules”          122
+
+    102. Strict Divisions of Society. The Régime of _Status_        123
+
+    103. Vast Number of Slaves. Universality of Slavery             124
+
+    104. Power of Master over Slaves                                125
+
+    105. The City Slaves and the Country Slaves                     125
+
+    106. Purchasing a Slave Boy                                     126
+
+    107. Traffic in the Slave Pens                                  127
+
+    108. Sale of Slaves                                             128
+
+    109. Size of Slave Households (_Familiæ_). Slave Workmen        129
+
+    110. Division of Duties and Organization of Slave Households    131
+
+    111. Discipline in a Well-Ordered Mansion. Long Hours of
+           Idleness                                                 132
+
+    112. Inevitable Degradation Caused by Slavery. Evil Effect
+           upon Masters                                             133
+
+    113. Punishment of Slaves                                       135
+
+    114. Branding of Slaves. _Ergastula_--Slave Prisons             136
+
+    115. Death Penalties for Slaves. Pursuit of Runaways            136
+
+
+        Chapter VIII. The Social Orders: Freedmen, Provincials,
+                         Plebeians, and Nobles
+
+    116. Manumission of Slaves Very Common                          139
+
+    117. The Ceremony of Manumission                                140
+
+    118. The Status of Freedmen. Their Great Success in Business    140
+
+    119. Humble Types of Freedmen                                   141
+
+    120. Wealth and Power of Successful Freedmen                    142
+
+    121. Importance of Freedmen in a Roman Family                   143
+
+    122. The Status of Provincials. The Case of Jesus               143
+
+    123. Great Alien Colonies in Rome                               145
+
+    124. The Roman Plebeians, the “Mob” (_Vulgus_)                  145
+
+    125. The Desirability of Roman Citizenship. The Case
+           of St. Paul                                              146
+
+    126. Clientage: Its Oldest Form                                 147
+
+    127. The New Parasitical Clientage: the Morning Salutation      148
+
+    128. The Dole to Clients (the _Sportula_)                       150
+
+    129. Attendance by Clients in Public. Insults They Must
+           Undergo                                                  151
+
+    130. The Decurions: the Notables of the Chartered Cities        152
+
+    131. The Equites: the Nobles of the Second Class                153
+
+    132. Qualifications and Honors of the Equites                   154
+
+    133. Review of the Equites. Pretenders to the Rank              156
+
+    134. The Senatorial Order. The First-Class Nobility             156
+
+    135. Social Glories of Senators                                 157
+
+    136. The Senatorial Aristocracy Greater than the Senate         158
+
+    137. Insignia, Qualifications, and Titles of Senators           158
+
+
+                  Chapter IX. Physicians and Funerals
+
+    138. Scanty Qualifications and Training of Doctors              160
+
+    139. Superior Class of Physicians                               161
+
+    140. A Fashionable Doctor                                       161
+
+    141. Medical Books and Famous Remedies                          163
+
+    142. Absurd Medicines. Theriac                                  164
+
+    143. Fear of Poisoning. Popularity of Antidotes                 165
+
+    144. Medical Students, “Disciples,” Beauty Specialists          166
+
+    145. Cheap Doctors: No Hospitals                                167
+
+    146. Suicide as Escape from Hopeless Disease                    168
+
+    147. Execution of Wills. Numerous Legacies Customary            169
+
+    148. Regular Incomes from Legacies. Professional Legacy
+           Hunters                                                  171
+
+    149. Public Bequests                                            172
+
+    150. Great Funerals Very Fashionable. Desire to Be
+           Remembered after Death                                   172
+
+    151. Preliminaries to a Funeral                                 173
+
+    152. The Funeral Procession. The Display of Masked
+           “Ancestors”                                              174
+
+    153. The Exhibits in the Procession. The Retinue around
+           the Bier                                                 175
+
+    154. The Funeral Oration in the Forum                           176
+
+    155. Family Tombs. The _Columbarium_ and the Garden             177
+
+    156. The Funeral Pyre and Its Ceremonies                        180
+
+    157. Funeral Monuments. Memorial Feasts to the Dead             182
+
+    158. Funerals of the Poor. “Funeral Societies”                  182
+
+
+                   Chapter X. Children and Schooling
+
+    159. Theoretical Rights of Father over Children. The _Patria
+           Potestas_                                                184
+
+    160. Ceremonies after Birth of a Child. The _Bulla_             185
+
+    161. The Roman Name: Its Intricacy                              186
+
+    162. Irregular and Lengthy Names under the Empire. Names
+           of Slaves                                                187
+
+    163. Names of Women. Confusion of Roman Names                   188
+
+    164. Care of Parents in Educating Children                      189
+
+    165. Toys and Pets                                              190
+
+    166. The Learning of Greek by Roman Children                    191
+
+    167. Selection of a School                                      192
+
+    168. Extent of Literacy in Rome. Education of Girls             193
+
+    169. Schools for the Lower Classes                              193
+
+    170. Scourging, Clamors, and Other Abuses of Cheap Schools      195
+
+    171. A Superior Type of School                                  196
+
+    172. Methods of Teaching                                        197
+
+    173. Training in Higher Arithmetic                              199
+
+    174. The Grammarians’ High Schools                              199
+
+    175. Oratory Very Fashionable                                   200
+
+    176. Professional Rhetoricians                                  201
+
+    177. Methods in Rhetoric Schools: Mock Trials                   201
+
+    178. Enormous Popularity of Rhetoric Studies                    203
+
+    179. Philosophical Studies: Delight in Moralizing               204
+
+    180. Children’s Games. “Morra” and Dice                         204
+
+    181. Board Games of Skill: “Robbers” (_Latrunculi_)             205
+
+    182. Out-Door Games. Ball Games, Trignon                        206
+
+
+                    Chapter XI. Books and Libraries
+
+    183. Letters and Writing Tablets                                207
+
+    184. Personal Correspondence and Secretaries                    208
+
+    185. Books Very Common: Papyrus and the Papyrus Trade           209
+
+    186. Size and Format of Books                                   210
+
+    187. Mounting and Rolling of Books                              211
+
+    188. Copying Books: the Publishing Business. Horace’s
+           and Martial’s Publishers                                 212
+
+    189. Passion for Literary “Fame”                                214
+
+    190. Zeal for Poetry: Multiplication of Verses                  216
+
+    191. Size of Libraries                                          217
+
+    192. A Private Library                                          218
+
+    193. The Great Public Libraries of Rome                         219
+
+
+            Chapter XII. Economic Life of Rome: I. Banking,
+                            Shops, and Inns
+
+    194. Passion for Gain in Rome                                   220
+
+    195. Life in Rome Expensive. Premiums upon Extravagance
+           and Pretence                                             221
+
+    196. Rome a City of Investors and Buyers of Luxuries            222
+
+    197. Multiplicity of Shops. The Great Shopping Districts        223
+
+    198. Arrangement of Shops. Streets Blocked by Hucksters         224
+
+    199. Barbers’ Shops and Auction Sales                           225
+
+    200. Superior Retail Stores                                     226
+
+    201. Numerous Banks and Bankers                                 227
+
+    202. A Great Banker and His Business                            228
+
+    203. Trust Business: Savings Banks                              229
+
+    204. Places of Safe Deposit: The Temple of Vesta                230
+
+    205. Inns: Usually Mean and Sordid                              231
+
+    206. Reckonings and Guests at a Cheap Inn                       233
+
+    207. Noble Frequenters of Taverns                               234
+
+    208. Respectable Eating-Houses                                  235
+
+    209. _Thermopolia_--“Hot Drink Establishments”                  236
+
+
+             Chapter XIII. Economic Life of Rome: II. The
+             Industrial Quarters. The Grain Trade. Ostia.
+                           The Trade Guilds
+
+    210. Industrial Quarters by the Tiber                           238
+
+    211. Conditions of Industrial Labor                             238
+
+    212. Great Trade through Ostia and the Campanian Ports          239
+
+    213. The Emporium and Its Wharves: The Tiber Barges             240
+
+    214. The Marble and Grain Trades                                241
+
+    215. The Public Grain Doles                                     242
+
+    216. Distribution of Free Bread: Extraordinary Bonuses
+           (_Congiaria_ and _Donativa_)                             244
+
+    217. The Trade in Sculptures and Portrait Statues               246
+
+    218. The Tiber Trip to Ostia: The Merchant Shipping             247
+
+    219. Imperial Naval Vessels                                     248
+
+    220. The Harbor Town of Ostia                                   249
+
+    221. The Roman Guilds (_Collegia_)                              249
+
+    222. Very Ancient Guilds. The Flute-Blowers                     250
+
+    223. Importance of the Guilds                                   251
+
+    224. Multitude of Beggars                                       252
+
+
+           Chapter XIV. The Fora, Their Life and Buildings.
+                           The Daily Journal
+
+    225. The Fora, the Centers of Roman Life                        254
+
+    226. Incessant Crowds at the Forum. The Centers of Gossip       256
+
+    227. Grandiose Architecture: Vast Quantities of Ornaments
+           and Statues                                              258
+
+    228. Use of Color on Sculptures and Architecture                259
+
+    229. Entering the Series of Fora: the Temple of Venus and
+           Rome                                                     260
+
+    230. The Arch of Titus: Continuation of the Sacred Way          262
+
+    231. House and Temple of Vesta: the Regia: the Temple of the
+           Divine Julius                                            265
+
+    232. The Old Forum (_Forum Romanum_)                            265
+
+    233. The Forum Area: the Posting of Public Notices              268
+
+    234. Western End of Forum: Rostra: the Golden Milestone:
+           the Tullianum Prison                                     269
+
+    235. The Basilica Æmilia: the Temple of Janus: the Senate
+           House (_Curia_)                                          271
+
+    236. The Basilica Julia, the Greatest Court House in Rome;
+           the _Lacus Curtius_                                      272
+
+    237. The New Fora of the Emperors: the Temple of Peace          275
+
+    238. The Fora of Julius, Augustus, and Nerva                    276
+
+    239. The Forum, Column, and Libraries of Trajan                 278
+
+    240. The Park System of the Campus Martius: the Pantheon        280
+
+    241. The Daily Gazette (_Acta Diurna_). How Rome Gets Its
+           News                                                     282
+
+    242. Contents of the Acta Diurna                                283
+
+    243. Miscellaneous Entries and Gossip in the “Gazette”          284
+
+
+            Chapter XV. The Palatine and the Palace of the
+            Cæsars. The Government Offices, and the Police
+                      and City Government of Rome
+
+    244. History of the Palatine: Its Purchase by Augustus          286
+
+    245. Extension of the Imperial Buildings: Central Position of
+           the Palatine                                             287
+
+    246. Commanding View from the Palatine Hill                     288
+
+    247. Magnificence of the Palatine Structures                    288
+
+    248. The More Famous Buildings on the Palatine: Enormous
+           Display of Art Objects                                   290
+
+    249. The Triclinium and Throne Room of Domitian                 291
+
+    250. Swarms of Civil Officials Always on the Palatine           293
+
+    251. The Emperor Center of High Social Life                     294
+
+    252. Friends of Cæsar (_Amici Cæsaris_)                         295
+
+    253. The Imperial Audiences                                     296
+
+    254. Social Ruin through Imperial Disfavor                      296
+
+    255. Enormous Value of Imperial Favor                           298
+
+    256. City Government of Rome: the “City Præfect” (_Præfectus
+           Urbi_)                                                   299
+
+    257. The Municipal Superintendents and Commissioners
+           (_Curatores_)                                            301
+
+    258. Excellent Water Supply of Rome                             301
+
+    259. The Great Aqueducts                                        303
+
+    260. The Police System Instituted by Augustus                   304
+
+    261. The Police-Firemen of the Watch (_Vigiles_). The
+           _Præfectus Vigilum_                                      304
+
+
+             Chapter XVI. The Prætorian Camp. The Imperial
+                              War Machine
+
+    262. The Army the Real Master of the Roman Empire               307
+
+    263. Army Held under Stiff Discipline and Concentrated
+           on Frontiers                                             308
+
+    264. The Prætorian Guard of the Emperors                        309
+
+    265. The Prætorian Præfect and the Prætorian Camp               311
+
+    266. Organization and Discipline of the Prætorians              312
+
+    267. The City Cohorts (_Cohortes Urbanæ_)                       313
+
+    268. A Private in the Legions. The Legionary Organization       314
+
+    269. Training of the Legionaries: the _Pilum_ and the
+           _Gladius_                                                316
+
+    270. Defensive Weapons                                          318
+
+    271. Rewards and Punishments for Soldiers                       319
+
+    272. Pay and Rations in the Army: Soldiers’ Saving Banks        320
+
+    273. The Training of Soldiers: Non-Military Labors              321
+
+    274. Petty Officers in the Legions                              322
+
+    275. The Centurions: Their Importance and Order of Promotion    323
+
+    276. The _Primipilus_: the Great Eagle of the Legion            325
+
+    277. Locations and Names of Legions                             326
+
+    278. The Auxiliary Cohorts: the Second Grand Division of the
+           Army                                                     327
+
+    279. The Præfect of the Camps and the Legate of the Legion      328
+
+    280. Care for Veterans: Retiring Bonuses and Land Grants        329
+
+    281. Barrier Fortresses; System of Encampments; Flexible
+           Battle Tactics; Siege Warfare                            330
+
+    282. Limited Size of the Imperial Army: Its Great
+           Efficiency                                               331
+
+
+               Chapter XVII. The Senate: A Session and a
+                                Debate
+
+    283. Apparent Authority and Importance of the Senate            334
+
+    284. Actual Weakness of the Senate                              335
+
+    285. Amount of Power Left to the Senate                         336
+
+    286. Organization and Procedure of the Senate                   337
+
+    287. The _Curia_ (Senate House) and Its Arrangement of
+           Benches                                                  338
+
+    288. The Gathering of the Senators                              339
+
+    289. Opening the Session: Taking the Auspices                   340
+
+    290. Presentation of Routine Business: Taking a Formal Vote     341
+
+    291. Presenting an Impeachment at a Senate Trial                342
+
+    292. The Water Clocks; Method of a Prosecutor; Applause
+           in the Senate                                            344
+
+    293. Speech for the Defendant: Methods of a Professional
+           Advocate                                                 345
+
+    294. Concluding Speeches; Interrupting Shouts; Personal
+           Invectives                                               347
+
+    295. Taking the Opinion of the Senate                           348
+
+    296. An Uproar in the Senate: An “Altercation”                  350
+
+    297. Taking a Vote of the Senate. A Sentence of Banishment      351
+
+
+            Chapter XVIII. The Courts and the Orators. The
+             Great Baths. The Public Parks and Environs of
+                                 Rome
+
+    298. Roman Court Procedure Highly Scientific                    353
+
+    299. The Great Tribunals in the Basilicas                       354
+
+    300. Great Stress on Advocacy                                   355
+
+    301. Cheap Pettifogging Lawyers                                 356
+
+    302. Character Witnesses; Torture of Slave Witnesses            357
+
+    303. Written Evidence; High Development of the Advocate’s
+           Art                                                      357
+
+    304. Popularity and Necessity of the Baths                      358
+
+    305. Luxurious Private Baths                                    359
+
+    306. Government and Privately Owned Public Baths: Both
+           Very Popular                                             360
+
+    307. The Great Baths of Trajan: Baths, Club-House, and Café     361
+
+    308. Heterogeneous Crowds in the Great Baths                    362
+
+    309. Entering the Thermæ                                        363
+
+    310. Interior of the Baths: the Cold Room (_Frigidarium_)       364
+
+    311. The Great Swimming Pool and the _Tepidarium_               365
+
+    312. The Hot Baths (_Caldaria_): Their Sensuous Luxury          366
+
+    313. Restaurants, Small Shops, and Sports in or around the
+           Baths                                                    367
+
+    314. The Great Porticoes along the Campus Martius. The
+           Park System towards the Tiber                            368
+
+    315. Public Buildings upon the Campus Martius                   369
+
+    316. The Tombs of Hadrian and Augustus                          370
+
+
+              Chapter XIX. The Public Games: the Theater,
+                   the Circus, and the Amphitheater
+
+    317. Roman Festivals: Their Great Number                        374
+
+    318. Passion for Public Spectacles: Mania for Gambling          375
+
+    319. Expenses of Public Spectacles to Great Officials           376
+
+    320. Indescribable Popularity of the Games                      377
+
+    321. The Theater Less Popular than the Circus or Amphitheater   378
+
+    322. The Mimes: Character Plays                                 380
+
+    323. The Pantomimes: Their Real Art                             381
+
+    324. Extreme Popularity of the Circus                           382
+
+    325. Popular Charioteers (_Aurigæ_): the Great Racing
+           Factions                                                 383
+
+    326. The Circus Maximus                                         384
+
+    327. The Race-Track: Procession before the Races                384
+
+    328. Beginning a Race in the Circus                             386
+
+    329. Perils of the Races; Proclaiming the Victors               386
+
+    330. Gladiatorial Contests Even More Popular than the
+           Circus                                                   389
+
+    331. Gladiator Fights at Funerals                               390
+
+    332. Gladiator “Schools” (_Ludi_): Inmates Usually Criminals    390
+
+    333. Severe Training of Gladiators; Their Ephemeral Glory       392
+
+    334. Normal Arrangements for an Arena Contest                   393
+
+    335. The Flavian Amphitheater (Later “Colosseum”)               394
+
+    336. Exterior and Ticket Entrances to the Flavian
+           Amphitheater                                             396
+
+    337. Interior Arrangements of the Flavian                       396
+
+    338. Procession of Gladiators                                   397
+
+    339. Throwing a Criminal to the Beasts. The Animal Hunt         398
+
+    340. Interval in the Contests: Scattering of Lottery Tickets    399
+
+    341. Beginning the Regular Gladiatorial Combats                 401
+
+    342. Mounted Combats: the Signals for Ruthlessness and Mercy    403
+
+    343. Combats between Netters (_Retiarii_) and Heavy-Armed
+           Warriors (“Thracians”)                                   404
+
+    344. End of the Combats: Rewarding the Victors                  405
+
+
+           Chapter XX. The Roman Religion: the Priesthoods,
+                          the Vestal Virgins
+
+    345. Religious Symbols Everywhere in Rome                       407
+
+    346. Epicureanism and Agnosticism among the Upper Classes       407
+
+    347. Stoicism: Revival of Religion under the Empire             408
+
+    348. Foreign Cults Intruded upon the “Religion of Numa”         410
+
+    349. Superstitious Piety of the City Plebeians                  411
+
+    350. Roman Religion Originally Developed by Italian Farmers     411
+
+    351. Native Italian Gods: Janus, Saturn, Flora. The Lares
+           and Penates                                              413
+
+    352. Personified Virtues as Gods: Cold and Legalistic Character
+           of the Roman Religion                                    414
+
+    353. Priestly Offices: Little Sacrosanct about Them             416
+
+    354. The Pontifices                                             417
+
+    355. The Augurs                                                 418
+
+    356. The Flamens                                                420
+
+    357. The _Salii_ (“Holy Leapers”)                               421
+
+    358. The _Fetiales_ (“Sacred Heralds”): Ceremony of Declaring
+           War                                                      422
+
+    359. The Arval Brethren (_Fratres Arvales_)                     423
+
+    360. Rustic Ceremonies; Soothsaying, Astrologers, and
+           Witches                                                  424
+
+    361. A Private Sacrifice                                        425
+
+    362. Ceremony at the Temple                                     426
+
+    363. A Formal Prayer: the Actual Sacrifice                      428
+
+    364. The Vestal Virgins: Their Sanctity and Importance          429
+
+    365. The Temple of Vesta and the House of the Vestals           431
+
+    366. Appointment of Vestals                                     432
+
+    367. Duties of the Vestals: the Maxima                          433
+
+    368. Punishments of Erring Vestals                              434
+
+    369. Remarkable Honors Granted the Vestals                      435
+
+
+             Chapter XXI. The Foreign Cults: Cybele, Isis,
+                 Mithras. The Christians in Pagan Eyes
+
+    370. Saturnalia: the Exchange of Presents on New Year’s Day     437
+
+    371. Multiplication of Oriental Cults                           437
+
+    372. The Cult of the Deified Emperors                           439
+
+    373. The “Divine Augustus” and His Successors                   439
+
+    374. The Cult of Cybele, the “Great Mother”                     441
+
+    375. Cult of Isis and Associated Egyptian Gods                  442
+
+    376. Ceremonies at an Isis Temple                               443
+
+    377. Cult of Serapis and of Other Oriental Gods                 445
+
+    378. The Cult of Mithras: Its Relative Nobility                 445
+
+    379. The _Taurobolium_ (“Bath in Bull’s Blood”)                 447
+
+    380. The Christians: Pagan Account of Their Origin              449
+
+    381. The Persecution of Christians: Their “Insane Obstinacy”    450
+
+    382. Current Charges against the Christians                     451
+
+
+             Chapter XXII. A Roman Villa. The Love of the
+                                Country
+
+    383. Appreciation of Country Life by the Romans                 453
+
+    384. Praises of the Country Towns and Villas                    453
+
+    385. Comfortable Modes of Travel: Luxurious Litters
+           and Carriages                                            454
+
+    386. Multiplication of Villas: Seashore Estates at Baiæ, etc.   456
+
+    387. Villas in the Mountains; Small Farms near Rome             457
+
+    388. Great Estates in the Hills: Pliny’s Tuscan Villa           458
+
+    389. Charming Location of Pliny’s Villa                         460
+
+    390. Terraces of the Villa: the Porticoes: Summer-Houses
+           and Bedrooms                                             462
+
+    391. The Baths: the Rear Apartments: the Riding Course          464
+
+    392. The Fountains and Luxurious Pavilions in the Gardens       465
+
+    393. Life of Sensuous Luxury at Such a Villa. Contrast in
+           Human Conditions under the Roman Régime                  466
+
+
+               Chapter XXIII. The Return of the Emperor
+
+    394. Character of Hadrian: Prosperity and Good Government
+           of His Reign                                             468
+
+    395. Return of Hadrian to Italy                                 469
+
+    396. Imperial Procession Entering Rome                          470
+
+    397. Hailing the Emperor                                        472
+
+    398. The Donatives, Fêtes, and Games                            472
+
+    399. A Christian Gathering                                      473
+
+
+    INDEX                                                           475
+
+
+
+
+                             ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                                   PAGE
+
+    Interior of Great Public Baths in Imperial Rome      _Frontispiece_
+
+    Map of Rome in the Days of Hadrian                                6
+
+    Capitoline Hill and Temples as seen from Palatine                 8
+
+    Typical Temple Front                                             12
+
+    Arch of Constantine                                              13
+
+    Street in Pompeii                                                16
+
+    Stepping Stones across a Side Street                             17
+
+    Street Scene before a Cook-Shop                                  19
+
+    Shrine at the Crossways                                          20
+
+    Monument of a Wine Seller                                        28
+
+    Tenants Paying Rent to a Landlord’s Agent                        38
+
+    Atrium of House in Pompeii                                       41
+
+    Plan of a Roman Mansion                                          43
+
+    Interior of a Roman Mansion                                      44
+
+    Scene in a Peristylium                                           45
+
+    Roman Type of House at Pompeii                                   46
+
+    Corner in a Garden in Rear of a Roman House                      48
+
+    Portrait Bust--Pompey the Great                                  52
+
+    Typical Roman Portrait--Marc Antony                              53
+
+    Roman Lamps                                                      55
+
+    Altar with Design of a Curule Chair                              56
+
+    A Roman Matron                                                   62
+
+    Wedded Pair with _Camillus_                                      76
+
+    Seated Noblewoman                                                77
+
+    Romans wearing the Toga                                          81
+
+    A Roman Matron: showing the _stola_ and _palla_                  87
+
+    Scene before a Barber’s Shop                                     91
+
+    Roman Female Heads                                               92
+
+    Sandals                                                          95
+
+    Roman Jewelry and Ornaments                                      96
+
+    Roman Banquet Scene                                             101
+
+    Grist Mill turned by Horse                                      103
+
+    Nine Guests in a Triclinium                                     116
+
+    Roman Serving Forks                                             117
+
+    Drinking Cup                                                    118
+
+    Slaves working in a Bakery                                      131
+
+    Clients gathering in the Rain, before their Patron’s Door       149
+
+    Invalid with Attendants                                         162
+
+    Scene along the Appian Way                                      178
+
+    Pyramid--Tomb of Gaius Cestius                                  179
+
+    View along the Appian Way showing Funeral Monuments             180
+
+    Street of the Tombs at Pompeii                                  181
+
+    Boy Studying                                                    194
+
+    School Discipline                                               196
+
+    Grammarian instructing Two Upper Pupils                         200
+
+    Wax Tablet with Stilus Attached                                 207
+
+    Writing Tablets and Stilus                                      208
+
+    Book Cupboard                                                   209
+
+    Book Container                                                  210
+
+    Double Inkstand                                                 210
+
+    Pen and Scroll                                                  211
+
+    Book Scroll                                                     212
+
+    Old Forum, looking towards Northern Side: restoration           216
+
+    Tradesmen’s Scales and Balances                                 224
+
+    Monument of a Hostler                                           231
+
+    Gateway at Pompeii: present state                               232
+
+    Cheap Grocery and Cook-Shop                                     235
+
+    River Boat Loaded with Hogsheads of Wine                        241
+
+    Distributing Bread                                              243
+
+    Oven and Grist Mill in a Bakery                                 245
+
+    Environs of Rome                                                247
+
+    General View of Old Forum and Capitol                           254
+
+    Old Forum: present state, looking towards the Capitol           255
+
+    The Heart of Rome; the Fora, the Palatine, etc.                 261
+
+    Spoils from Jerusalem: Arch of Titus                            263
+
+    View through the Arch of Titus                                  264
+
+    Old Forum: looking west. Restoration                            266
+
+    Old Forum, looking towards Capitol. Restoration                 267
+
+    Old Forum, present condition, looking east                      270
+
+    Interior of a Basilica: restored                                273
+
+    The Tarpeian Rock                                               275
+
+    Forum of Augustus and Temple of Mars the Avenger: restored      277
+
+    An Imperial Forum, near the Column of Trajan. Restoration       279
+
+    Interior of the Pantheon. Restoration                           281
+
+    Arch of Titus                                                   287
+
+    Palatine and Palace of the Cæsars. Restoration                  289
+
+    Roman Urn                                                       290
+
+    Cæsar Augustus                                                  298
+
+    Ruined Aqueduct in the Roman Campagna                           302
+
+    Prætorian Guardsmen                                             310
+
+    A Slinger                                                       315
+
+    Roman Siege Works. Restoration                                  316
+
+    Storming a City with the _Testudo_                              317
+
+    Catapult                                                        318
+
+    Cuirass                                                         319
+
+    Javelin: _pilum_                                                320
+
+    Sword                                                           320
+
+    Helmet                                                          321
+
+    Shield of the Legionary                                         322
+
+    Military Trumpet                                                323
+
+    Legionaries                                                     324
+
+    Roman Officer                                                   325
+
+    Light-Armed Soldier                                             327
+
+    Storming a Besieged City                                        331
+
+    Coop of Sacred Chickens                                         341
+
+    Cicero denouncing Catiline before the Senate                    346
+
+    Plan of Roman Public Baths                                      363
+
+    Castle of St. Angelo: Tomb of Hadrian in its present state      371
+
+    Tomb of Hadrian. Restored                                       372
+
+    At the Theater Entrance                                         376
+
+    Theater at Pompeii                                              379
+
+    Circus Maximus. Restoration                                     385
+
+    Race in the Circus Maximus                                      388
+
+    Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum): present state                 395
+
+    Boxers                                                          400
+
+    Gladiators saluting the Editor                                  402
+
+    Defeated Gladiator Appealing for Mercy                          403
+
+    Maison Carrée, Nîmes                                            408
+
+    Farmer’s Calendar                                               413
+
+    Circular Temple, probably of Goddess Matuta, Rome               415
+
+    Roman Altar                                                     425
+
+    A Military Sacrifice                                            427
+
+    Roman Altar                                                     428
+
+    Vestal Virgin                                                   430
+
+    Archi-Gallus, Priest of Cybele                                  441
+
+    Shrine of Cybele                                                442
+
+    Mithras the Bull Slayer                                         446
+
+    Mithraic Emblems                                                447
+
+    Traveling Carriage (_Reda_)                                     454
+
+    Roman Bridge                                                    455
+
+    Roman Spades                                                    458
+
+    Ruins of Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli (_Tibur_)                    459
+
+    Ruins of Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli (_Tibur_)                    460
+
+    Villa of Pliny the Younger; restored                            461
+
+    Roman Garden Scene                                              463
+
+    Marble Urn or Garden Ornament                                   464
+
+    Hadrian                                                         469
+
+    View in the Christian Catacombs                                 473
+
+
+
+
+                           A DAY IN OLD ROME
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+                    THE GENERAL ASPECT OF THE CITY
+
+
+=1. The Prosperity of Rome in the Reign of Hadrian= (117–138 A.D.).--In
+the year 134 A.D. the great Emperor Hadrian was turning his steps back
+to Rome after three long journeys of inspection over his enormous
+dominions. Never before had that Empire seemed so prosperous. No
+serious war was upon the horizon. The Parthian king and the Germanic
+chiefs were only too happy to keep beyond the Euphrates or the Rhine
+and the Danube, highly respectful before the disciplined power of the
+guardian legions.
+
+In the provinces there was generally loyalty and contentment, save
+only in unhappy Judæa where the Roman generals were stamping out
+the last embers of a desperate rebellion, undertaken by those Jews
+allowed to remain in Palestine after Titus’s capture of Jerusalem
+(70 A.D.). The imperial government created by Augustus and
+strengthened by later emperors appeared an unqualified success, while
+the tyrannies of Nero and Domitian were becoming things merely of
+frightened memory.
+
+All over this vast Empire with a population and area nearly equal to
+that of the United States there reigned the blessed _Pax Romana_.
+Robbers had been cleared from the roads and pirates from the seas.
+Commerce went to and fro with surprisingly little interference from
+customs barriers or provincial boundaries. The same coin was current
+from the cataracts of the Nile to the Caledonian Wall across Britain.
+A scientific system of law, on the whole administered with remarkable
+firmness and justice, prevailed between the same wide boundaries.
+
+The central government was, indeed, in essence a despotism, but it was
+a despotism infused with an extreme intelligence, and it left many of
+the forms of liberty, especially of local liberty, in the municipal
+matters which touch men nearest home. The Emperor Hadrian, himself,
+although sometimes guilty of eccentricities and even harshness, was, in
+the main, a ruler singularly intent upon benefiting his subjects. In
+all his constant travels he had showered favors upon the communities
+which he visited. It was as if he (and his great predecessor Trajan)
+had set out to justify monarchy as an ideal government by showing how
+much good monarchs could do to the governed.
+
+
+=2. Increasing Glory of the Imperial City.=--All this prosperity
+had inevitably reacted upon the city of Rome itself. In a most literal
+sense of the word “all roads led to Rome,” not merely the vast network
+of government highways and the paths of maritime commerce, but those of
+intellectual, artistic, and moral influence. Rome was incomparably the
+best market for the merchant, it provided the largest audiences for the
+philosopher or rhetorician, the wealthiest patrons for the sculptor. It
+had, in fact, become the common center and crucible for everything good
+and bad in the huge, teeming Mediterranean World.
+
+Outwardly the city was near the summit of its architectural perfection.
+In Cicero’s day it could not compare in the elegance of its squares
+and avenues, and the magnificence of its buildings with Alexandria,
+Antioch, or several lesser cities which lay at the mercy of the
+legions; but with the coming of the Empire there has been an incessant
+process of demolishing, rebuilding, and extending. “I found Rome
+built of brick; I leave it built of marble,” Augustus had boasted when
+near his end (14 A.D.). However, even after him, there had been only a
+gradual transformation until the great fire of Nero in 64 A.D. Terrible
+as has then been the devastation, the calamity has at least required
+a general rebuilding of almost half of the city usually upon a much
+handsomer and more artistic scale. Since then each succeeding Emperor
+has tried to leave some great architectural memorial behind him.
+Vespasian and Titus have built the Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum),
+Trajan a noble Forum, and Hadrian is now completing a magnificent
+“Temple of Venus and Rome.”
+
+After this time there will perhaps be a few more remarkable structures
+erected, _e.g._ the Baths of Caracalla and of Diocletian and the
+Basilica (Court House) of Constantine, but for practical purposes
+imperial Rome has now been created. In 134 A.D. it is already
+architecturally what it will be in 410 A.D. (except then for a certain
+decadence) when Alaric’s Goths knocked at the gates. There is,
+therefore, hardly a better time than this year, 134 A.D., to visit
+the “Eternal City,” if we would discuss the best and the worst, the
+strength and the weakness of that Roman society which is to hold men
+fascinated across the ages. Let it be assumed, therefore, that on a
+warm spring morning we are being guided about the enormous capital of
+which bronze-skinned Arabs and blond-haired Frisians alike speak in
+awestruck whispers; the city apparently ordained by the gods to be the
+center and ruler of the conquered world.
+
+
+=3. Population and Crowded Condition of Rome.=--Before entering
+such a metropolis it is a fair question to present: “How large is
+Rome, at this time of our supposed visit?” Unfortunately the imperial
+government will fail to transmit to later ages its census statistics,
+and the conjectures of learned men will vary most seriously. By
+taking into account some data as to the number of citizens receiving
+grain doles, by adding to these the known size of the garrison, by
+establishing the extent of a great colony of resident foreigners and
+the still greater hordes of slaves, assertions can be made that the
+population exceeds 2,000,000, and again that it is barely 800,000.
+Both reckonings may be quite wrong. It seems reasonable to suppose
+that in Julius Cæsar’s day the city lacked considerably of 1,000,000
+inhabitants, but these probably increased with the rising prosperity
+of the Empire. Hadrian’s “City Praefect” perhaps has to administer the
+peace for some 1,500,000 people. In later generations, however, the
+population will again slowly dwindle with the wave of the imperial
+system.
+
+However, this million and a half produces a sense of immensity greater
+perhaps than that in a later New York or London. Rome is, roughly
+speaking, some three miles long and nearly the same in breadth, no
+remarkable area as American cities will go;[1] but, as duly explained,
+population within these limits is extraordinarily congested. The
+streets overflow with pedestrians to the exclusion of most wheeled
+traffic. There are no “rapid transit” cars, no taxicabs, no telephones,
+and even no public postal service.
+
+If, therefore, you have the slightest business across the city, you
+must walk the entire distance, or be borne in a litter or send a
+messenger--methods taking about equally long. As will be seen, even
+the use of horses and carriages is largely prohibited. Besides, the
+mild climate and method of building the houses compel people to spend
+a great fraction of their day in the streets, or in the public plazas
+and buildings. Human life teems everywhere. One is overwhelmed by
+the jostling multitudes even in the remoter quarters. Everything
+(including many personal acts which other ages keep in strict privacy)
+seems going on in public. There is, in fact, no city where it is easier
+to be “lost in a crowd” than in Rome; no city where the good and the
+bad, the divine and the bestial in humanity are so incessantly in
+evidence and in such abrupt contact.
+
+
+=4. The Country around Rome.=--Rome is some thirteen miles from the
+nearest seacoast, but the distance down the twisting “yellow” Tiber to
+Ostia (“River Mouth”) is nearly twice as great. The city itself lies
+near the northerly end of that broad plain later called the Campagna
+which stretches southeasterly for nearly seventy miles but whereof the
+width betwixt ocean and Apennines seldom exceeds twenty-five. Looking
+off from any of the heights of Rome towards the east, the whole horizon
+from north to south seems traced by a continuous chain of mountains
+about ten to twenty miles distant. Very beautiful they are when seen
+through a soft blue or golden haze beneath the Italian sky; and by
+facing straight north one can discover the round isolated peak of
+Mount Soracte (2420 feet high), made famous by the poets, near whose
+southeastern base the Tiber winds on its tortuous progress towards the
+sea.
+
+Then following the line of mountains southward one can notice the chain
+of the Sabine hills, some with peaked and lofty summits, and next is
+discovered the spot where the Tiber rests embosomed in its gray olive
+groves. More southward still are the hills on whose slopes rests “Cool
+Præneste,” and then, running over a horizon of four or five miles and
+ending in the plain, is beheld the noble form of Mount Albinus, the
+isolated volcanic peak sacred to the Latin Jupiter and at whose base by
+tradition lay Alba Longa, the parent town of Rome; after that the view
+takes in nothing but the undulating plain, which at length sinks off
+into the sea.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+    Map of ROME
+    in the Days of Hadrian
+    about 135 A.D.]
+
+
+=5. The Tiber and Its Valley.=--Near at hand, of course, is the
+Campagna itself, a series of gentle ridges, covered at this epoch with
+one long series of delightful suburban villas and thrifty produce
+farms, sometimes grouped into rich little villages.[2] In a general
+direction of north to south the Tiber flows along the western skirts of
+Rome, with only a minor settlement on the western banks. If it ran by
+a less famous city, the Tiber would pass for a rather ordinary stream.
+Its yellow, turbid waters come with such force from the Apennines
+that there can be little navigation for part of the year beyond the
+point where the Anio flows into it from the east, about three miles
+above Rome. Grain and timber can, however, be floated down on barges,
+and when the mountain snows are melting the river swells to a truly
+dangerous size, flooding all the lowlands near the city and sometimes,
+despite a careful system of dykes, causing freshets which are simply
+ruinous to large sections of the metropolis inhabited by the very
+poor. The Emperors Augustus and Tiberius set up a regular board of
+“Tiber Commissioners” to keep the rebellious river in bounds, but their
+efforts are still often vain.
+
+Between Rome and Ostia the Tiber is indeed navigable at most seasons
+for the smaller kind of vessels, but, as will be seen, Rome is scarcely
+a first-class seaport; however, special river craft easily bring up
+heavy freight from Ostia--an enormous economic advantage for the great
+city.
+
+
+=6. A View over Rome from the Campus Martius.=--Before descending into
+the city it is well to ascend some height or lofty building well to the
+western verge of the _Campus Martius_ (“Field of Mars”) at the great
+bend of the Tiber as it sweeps by its levees. Before the onlooker there
+spreads what seems at first an indescribable confusion of enormous
+buildings, gilded roofs, stately domes, serried phalanxes of marble
+columns and far-stretching porticoes, some on level ground, others
+upon the summits or clinging to the slopes of several hills. Mixed
+with these are an incalculable number of red-tiled roofs obviously
+covering more humble private structures. Here and there, mostly on
+the outskirts, are also broad patches of greenery, public parks, and
+private gardens.
+
+After more study, however, the first confusion begins to adjust itself
+into a kind of order. It is possible, for example, to recognize
+directly in the foreground a small and comparatively abrupt hill
+crowned at either end by temples of peculiar magnificence. This is
+the _Capitol_, particularly the seat of the fane of _Jupiter Optimus
+Maximus_ (“Jupiter Best and Greatest”), officially the chief temple
+of Rome. Beyond it at a certain distance rises a gray cylinder of
+enormous bulk. That, of course, is the _Flavian Amphitheater_, and
+in the hollow between it and the capitol but nigh concealed by many
+structures stretches the _Old Forum_ of the Republic--the most famous
+spot in Rome. To the south of the Forum, and in no wise concealed,
+lifts another hill covered with a vast complex of buildings, which,
+even when seen in the distance, is of extraordinary splendor. This is
+the _Palatine_, the present residence of the Cæsars and the seat of the
+government.
+
+  [Illustration: CAPITOLINE HILL AND TEMPLES AS SEEN FROM
+  PALATINE: restored according to Von Falke.]
+
+Just to the south and right of the Palatine there runs a long hollow,
+the edges of which flash with settings of marble; it is the _Circus
+Maximus_, the chief race course. These are the structures or
+localities that stand out clearly at first glance. Close at hand,
+in the Campus Martius itself, is a perfect labyrinth of covered
+promenades, dome-capped public baths, theaters, and circuses, as well
+as the remarkable _Pantheon_ and other far-famed structures, the
+details whereof can wait. Behind the onlooker is winding the Tiber,
+spanned by at least eight bridges; and across the river, before the
+view wanders off into the hills of Etruria, are seen numerous suburban
+settlements and heights whereof the most conspicuous is that around
+_Mount Janiculum_ crested with verdant gardens. But our attention
+must be centered upon Rome itself. Before descending from the coign of
+vantage it is needful to distinguish her Seven Hills.
+
+
+=7. The Seven Hills of Rome.=--The two most famous of these hills (the
+_Capitoline_ and the _Palatine_) have been named already, but they
+have five distinguished rivals. Probably in prehistoric days all these
+“mountains” rose like separate islands from a treacherous marsh or
+even from a lake connected with the Tiber; but long since they have
+silted down, and presently man came to add his drains and channels.
+They are now, therefore, connected by valleys which are crammed with
+habitations, although in any case the most desirable residences are
+near the summits of the hills and the humble folk are compelled to live
+in the gulleys. Each of these hills has a history: for example, the
+Aventine is alleged to have remained apart from the others for long
+after the founding of the city, merely as a fortified outpost for the
+protection of shepherds; but we cannot stop to recite pleasant legends.
+
+The “Seven Hills” of Rome have really become eight, as the city has
+extended. Not one of these is lofty, but they give a diversity to the
+city that prevents the great masses of blank walls and of ungainly
+tenement houses lining most of the streets from becoming too ugly,
+and they secure light and air to many quarters that are grievously
+congested.
+
+These hills can be thus catalogued:
+
+   1. _Capitoline_, about 150 feet above sea level.[3]
+
+   2. _Palatine_ (S. E. of Capitoline), about 166 feet high.
+
+   3. _Aventine_ (South of Palatine), about 146 feet high.
+
+   4. _Cœlian_ (East of Palatine), about 158 feet high.
+
+   5. _Esquiline_ (North of Cælian), about 204 feet high.
+
+   6. _Viminal_ (North of Esquiline), about 160 feet high.
+
+   7. _Quirinal_ (N. E. of Capitoline), about 170 feet high.
+
+   To the familiar “seven” ought to be added the hill of the great
+   northern suburb.
+
+
+   8. _Pincian_, or “Hill of the Gardens” (North of Quirinal),
+   about 204 feet high.
+
+Highest of all rises the _Janiculum_ beyond the Tiber, 297 feet
+high; commanding a noble prospect over the city and the whole Campagna
+beyond. It formed, therefore, in the olden days, a very proper place
+for the fort with its watch-tower and its sentinel, when Rome dreaded
+an Etruscan raid from the north, and when the citizens dropped their
+tools to seize their weapons the minute the “flag on Janiculum” was
+struck as signal that the foe was at hand.
+
+
+=8. Building Materials Used in Rome.=--The most cursory view of
+the city gives an overwhelming impression of the _enormous quantities
+of building material_, as well as of the expenditure of human labor
+which has gone into the creation of Rome. Strabo the geographer[4]
+has wisely observed that it is lucky that the city can get a constant
+supply of stone, timber, etc., on account of “the ceaseless building
+which is rendered needful by the pulling down of houses and on account
+of the great fires and constant sales of [house] property,” everybody
+being incessantly scrapping old buildings, erecting new ones, and
+speculating generally in real estate.
+
+Of course, the great public buildings are erected with extremely
+durable materials which will defy the assaults of time, but the
+vast districts of ugly tenement houses are often thrown together
+in as flimsy a manner as those in the least elegant quarters of
+American cities of another age. However, there are almost no wooden
+houses in Rome; and for the better structures there is provided most
+excellent building stone. The standard masonry is of _tufa_,
+a soft red or black stone needing a stucco to protect it from the
+weather; for superior work there is dark brown _peperino_, golden
+_travertine_, and last but not least, for the finest buildings,
+white and many colored _marble_. The marble trade, as will be
+explained, is, in fact, one of the greatest commercial activities of
+the city.
+
+
+=9. The Great Use of Concrete.=--Going about Rome one is led to
+imagine, however, that many very pretentious structures are of solid
+brick. This is seldom the case. Bricks and tiles are often in evidence
+because they can be worked into the face of naturally ugly concrete to
+disguise the nakedness of its surfaces. _Concrete_ has really made
+it comparatively easy to create Rome as an enormous city. If concrete
+has not been invented by the Romans, they are at least the first great
+people to put it to a very general use. In their neighborhood can
+be found huge quantities of _pozzolana_,[5] a volcanic deposit
+which can be readily worked up into admirable cement. It is this very
+practical material which makes the vast domes, cupolas, and other
+architectural triumphs possible. Many a pretentious temple or residence
+flaunts a marble exterior; this, however, is a mere shell and covering;
+strip it away, and within is an enormous mass of concrete.
+
+This material can be handled by comparatively small labor gangs,
+rendering it feasible to erect huge structures without mobilizing such
+wholesale man-power as was needed for the great monuments of Egypt.
+It is very durable, almost nothing can destroy it. Indeed it will be
+written later that “This _pozzolana_ [for concrete] more than any
+other material contributed to make Rome the proverbial ‘Eternal City.’”
+[Middleton.]
+
+
+=10. Greek Architectural Forms Plus the Arch and Vault.=--Every
+building by the Tiber apparently bears the impress of Greece. Greek
+architects are said to have designed many of the finest public
+edifices, while Greek artists have chiseled the statues or painted the
+pictures which all the Roman world admires. The “orders” of the columns
+everywhere in evidence are the Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian that one
+might find at Athens, although it can be complained that the Romans are
+over-fond of the most ornate form--the florid Corinthian.
+
+  [Illustration: TYPICAL TEMPLE FRONT.]
+
+In general, lovers of the purer architectural types of Hellas may
+allege that Roman architecture and ornamentation is too elaborate and
+extravagant. There are too many scrolls and floriated designs. Every
+possible surface is covered with statuary or bas-reliefs, often in
+decidedly inferior taste. There is too garish a display, also, of blue,
+green, white, and orange-colored marble. The whole effect of most Roman
+buildings is, therefore, _grand rather than beautiful_. It is the
+architecture of a civilization apparently growing a little weary and
+striving to startle itself by remarkable effects.
+
+  [Illustration: ARCH OF CONSTANTINE: typical of many
+  triumphal arches: date about 315 A.D.]
+
+Nevertheless, this borrowing from Greece has not been slavish.
+Romans, if not great artists, are master adapters. Perhaps they have
+not invented the _arch_ and the _vault_,[6] but in any case they
+have utilized them in connection with the Greek system of columns to
+produce magnificent effects whereof Argos and Ephesus never dreamed.
+By concrete vaulting can be made those enormous substructures which
+sustain the great palaces, and again, the lofty domes of such splendid
+creations as the Pantheon. By the arches can be upheld the tiers of the
+Flavian Amphitheater, the pretentious company of theaters and circuses,
+and last but not least the long arrays of stately aqueducts which bring
+the great water supply so many miles to Rome. Underground also the
+arch system is upbearing the vast network of sewers which has redeemed
+the city from a quagmire. In the _fora_ and across many avenues are
+thrown in their turn the imposing _triumphal arches_, crowned with
+heroic statues or with prancing chariots which are unmatched by
+anything in Greece.
+
+Having taken in the generalities, it is now proper to go down from our
+viewpoint and plunge boldly into the vast city. The wise man should
+not, however, visit at first the Fora, the Palatine, and the other
+“show places” which officious guides here as everywhere are always glad
+to display to visitors. More helpful it is to examine at the outset
+certain typical streets first in a poor and next in a more aristocratic
+quarter, to enter the houses, and to penetrate the daily lives of the
+masses of the people. Then with better understanding can one approach
+the famous “Heart of Rome.”
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+
+                        STREETS AND STREET LIFE
+
+
+=11. The Regions of Rome: Fashionable and Plebeian Quarters.=--The
+great Augustus divided the capital into 14 _regiones_ or “wards” and
+these in turn into 265 _vici_ or precincts. Obviously some of these
+districts are more select than others. No citizen of decent tastes
+will, unless compelled by dire poverty, live in the network of hovels
+beyond the bridges and under the brow of the Janiculum, where a great
+colony of Jews and other Orientals exist in what is alleged to be
+extreme squalor. If you go south also from the Forum and Palatine, you
+are likely to run into a wide complex of unlovely industrial districts
+and laborers’ quarters, especially along the Tiber, although there are
+still some very good residential streets upon the Aventine.
+
+In general the northern end of the city is the fashionable section,
+although the Subura, the street running out between the Esquiline and
+the Viminal, is notorious for containing some of the vilest tenements
+in all Rome. To live in a “Subura garret” is about the greatest
+possible degradation socially. Right above this ill-favored avenue,
+however, slopes the Esquiline itself, lined with the palaces of many
+of the most exclusive Senators. Pliny the Younger resided there in his
+lifetime,[7] and a rich ex-consul has his house at present. Rome is,
+in fact, decidedly like many later cities; walk only a few blocks,
+and one can pass from the bottom to the top of the social ladder.
+Further north, in the regions of the parks and public gardens, the fine
+residences are probably more continuous, but one can never know Rome
+by merely visiting its ultra-genteel quarters. There is, consequently,
+no better place to begin an investigation than near the Esquiline,
+let us say where the disreputable Subura runs northeast towards the
+somewhat more select “Patrician Street” (_Vicus Patricius_).
+
+  [Illustration: STREET IN POMPEII: present state.
+  Note the pavement, the stepping stones, the wayside fountain,
+  and the numerous subdivisions into small houses or shops.]
+
+
+=12. A Typical Short Street, “Mercury Street.”=--We may wisely take
+our stand facing somewhat southward, with our backs to the Viminal and
+with the domes of the huge Baths of Trajan partially in sight upon the
+heights ahead. It is a little after dawn on a warm spring morning; but
+all Rome, we shall discover, rises very early, and normally goes to
+bed correspondingly early. Even the sedate “Conscript Fathers” of the
+Senate are supposed to convene at _prima luce_,--gray morn. What can be
+seen?
+
+To any later judgment this “Mercury Street” (so named from a local
+temple)[8] is very narrow, not over fifteen feet from housewall
+to housewall. Although the sun has now risen the way is still
+uncomfortably dark, because the houses pressing on either side rise
+to at least thirty or forty feet. The roadway, one discovers, is
+skillfully and durably paved with heavy lava blocks, and since it forms
+a regular thoroughfare it has been swept reasonably clean; although to
+right and left in the semi-darkness can be descried impossible alleys
+barely ten feet wide winding off between the tall buildings, and these
+side passages are more than dirty. This street, like the great majority
+in Rome, is comparatively short. You come to an abrupt turn, or perhaps
+to an ascending flight of stone steps worn slippery by innumerable
+sandals, and immediately enter into a quite different quarter.
+
+  [Illustration: STEPPING STONES ACROSS A SIDE STREET:
+  a gentleman followed by personal slave with umbrella.
+  _After Von Falke._]
+
+There is a very narrow stone sidewalk but it differs slightly before
+each house, every owner being required to make his own repairs. In
+the pavement broad ruts have been worn by the wagons, despite the
+restrictions (presently stated) upon wheeled traffic. Very few streets
+of Rome are wide enough for two carts to pass freely; and every driver
+has to look ahead and frequently to wait at corners to let other teams
+get by. Upon the pavement and especially at intersecting crossways are
+set groups of four or five large oblong stepping stones; these seem
+needless at present but can be a veritable godsend in the rainy season
+when every “Via” and “Vicus” in Rome seems converted into a raging
+torrent.
+
+
+=13. The House and Shop Fronts.=--Looking upward now, one is instantly
+confronted by a long expanse of stuccoed walls--some pink, yellow, or
+bluish, but mostly an ugly brown. The lower story, quite on the street
+level, is broken either by the petty shops which open their shutters
+and thrust their counters clear out upon the pavement, or else it is
+merely a solid blank space with only here and there a doorway, or a
+few small windows, mere peepholes for fear of burglars. The second
+and upper stories, however, are less solid. There are many larger
+windows set with window-boxes displaying bright flowers, or even with
+projecting balconies which reach out so far that neighbors in opposite
+houses can sometimes clasp hands above the hurrying life below.
+
+Shops abound almost everywhere. In the great commercial quarters by
+the fora, the Tiber and the Campus Martius, will be found the splendid
+establishments which cater to wealth, but no quarter of Rome is
+too mean for its bakeries, vegetable stands, wine shops, and cheap
+restaurants. In fact, the absence of a speedy means of interurban
+communication makes a multiplication of small shops absolutely
+necessary. Most of these retailers do business on the pettiest scale,
+and a glance reveals that nearly the whole stock in trade is spread
+on the counter facing the street. As for the shopkeeper, ordinarily
+he lives and sleeps either in a dark cell just in the rear or in an
+equally narrow chamber directly above his business. “Born over a
+shop,” snobbish people say when they wish to brand some person as a
+nobody.
+
+  [Illustration: STREET SCENE BEFORE A COOK-SHOP.
+  _After Von Falke._]
+
+
+=14. Street Shrines and Fountains.=--Nevertheless, commonplace and
+darksome as this street may seem, there are clear tokens both of an
+active religious, also of an artistic life. On the flat wall, beside
+a grocer’s stand, two serpents are crudely painted in yellow--emblems
+of the guardian genii of the place. Opposite, by a money-changer, is
+painted a fairly presentable Mercury, the god of Gain. As one goes
+about the city the painted snakes appear almost everywhere, and also
+pictures of Jupiter, Minerva, and Hercules.
+
+  [Illustration: SHRINE AT THE CROSSWAYS.]
+
+At the nearby crossroads, however, is something more important. Set
+against the side of a building is a little niche let into the wall
+in lieu of an altar. Upon this pious neighbors can deposit small
+articles of food for the “Gods of the Street Crossings” (_Lares
+Compitales_), and above is a low relief of two youthful deities,
+male and female. Early as it now is, an old woman has already stolen up
+to deposit a small crust--for the little neighborhood Lares are good
+and trusty friends; they will never be forgotten.
+
+Opposite this shrine, however, a group of laughing, chattering girls is
+mustering around a gushing fountain. Romans are justly proud of their
+excellent water supply. Every house of any pretentions has its separate
+faucets, perhaps in great number; but the poor tenement dwellers must
+depend upon the street fountains. Pure, clear water is shooting from
+a metal pipe into a broad separate stone basin. The stream is issuing
+from the sculptured head of a Medusa executed with admirable detail and
+vigor, although this is only one of thousands of similar fountains all
+over the city. At the next corner the water is spouting from an eagle’s
+beak; at another from the mouth of a calf, or the head of a Mercury.
+
+The surplus water overflowing the basin trickles away in a streamlet
+down to the middle of the street, and although this adds to the
+inconvenience of pedestrians the pitch of the ground makes the flow
+carry away much of the rubbish (often very filthy) which is thrown
+out recklessly from the shops and even from the upper windows. It is
+thanks partly to this admirable water system that Rome is not even more
+scourged by epidemics, than is unhappily the case.[9]
+
+
+=15. Typical Street Crowds.=--So much for the inanimate objects in
+Mercury Street; what now of its surging humanity? A wise law of Julius
+Cæsar has indeed forbidden the ordinary use of wheeled vehicles in the
+city streets between sunrise and the “tenth hour” (4 P.M.).
+This is a blessed regulation considering the narrow width of even
+the finest avenues, but, nevertheless, the wagons that were allowed
+to enter by night bringing heavy building materials to the Senator
+Rullianus’s new mansion have now to be suffered to depart, and also the
+wain that had rattled up in the darkness with flour for the nearby
+public bakery. Also one may possibly see a Vestal Virgin or one of the
+superior priests exercising their special privileges and driving in a
+chariot.
+
+The street, however, is crowding with life, even if not a horse is in
+sight. The most conspicuous are literally dozens of men, each with
+a heavy toga wrapped carelessly around him, hurrying frantically in
+every direction. In other cities and other ages they might be “making a
+train.” Here they are in fact “clients,” duty bound to be at the doors
+of their patrons early every morning to pay their respects and seek
+their bounty (see p. 149)--but almost every other type of humanity is
+represented. Great numbers of boys and girls are trudging reluctantly
+along to their schools, the poorer bearing their own packages of
+writing tablets, the better dressed each followed by a sedate male
+attendant, a pedagogue, bearing the weapons of learning.
+
+In and out there also go youths in humble attire, often running at
+breakneck speed, thrusting and jostling to make their way; they are
+the slave messengers from the great houses flying on early errands for
+their masters. One of them elbows aside a tall and venerable man with a
+prodigiously long beard and wrapped in a trailing but none too spotless
+mantle--he is a Greek philosopher on his way to some mansion where he
+will perhaps expound the theories of Epicurus to a pleasure-loving
+nobleman. A few steps further and there is seen a fair-haired German
+clad in his outlandish costume of undressed wolf skins; hardly behind
+him is a red-headed Gaul in a short tartan cloak; one can speedily
+recognize also a hawk-eyed, white-robed Arab from the edge of the
+deserts and presently appears a grinning negro, black as ebony and in
+a splendid gilt and scarlet livery--the foot-boy probably of some rich
+lady.
+
+
+=16. Frequent Use of Greek in Rome.=--The bulk of the crowd, to be
+sure, is Italian, with keen, olive faces, dark hair, and rather short
+stature, graceful and incessantly gesturing. But the Latin chattered
+on every hand is full of uncouth idioms, the _sermo plebis_ calculated
+to make Cicero turn in his grave, and there is a great co-mingling of
+foreign words; above all, about one person out of every four seems to
+be _speaking Greek_, now abominably corrupt, now in the purest Attic,
+and upon penetrating the great houses one would discover Greek to be
+even more truly a familiar language.
+
+All educated Romans write and speak Greek as Englishmen and Americans
+will never learn to use French. Learned books are being written by
+the Tiber in the incomparable tongue of Hellas, and only the most
+ignorant Romans fail to understand simple Greek sentences. In short
+Rome seems close to becoming a bi-lingual city. The reigning emperor
+is so enthusiastic for things Hellenic that his foes brand Hadrian as
+“the Graecule.” Athens and Corinth seem almost to have conquered their
+conquerors.
+
+
+=17. Clamor and Thronging in the Streets.=--As the sun rises, every
+instant the street becomes more crowded. A great din is rising from a
+forge just inside an alley; a second noise from a carpenter shop. As
+if determined to be heard above everything else, from a second story
+comes a voice bawling out some kind of a declamation--it is a rhetoric
+school getting into action, and an ambitious youth is denouncing the
+dead tyrant Phalaris at the top of his lungs. By yonder wall, almost
+completely blocking the sidewalk, a nondescript barber has set down a
+stool and is clipping a victim with huge scissors. Close by him stands
+a cook’s boy guarding two braziers, on one of which are boiled peas,
+on the other small sausages that are kept smoking hot. Early as the
+hour may be, workmen and others who have an active day before them are
+standing around and laying in a hearty breakfast. Almost upsetting this
+throng comes a countryman flogging a donkey whose huge paniers laden
+with garden truck project dangerously to either side.
+
+The noise increases continually. From another lane there comes more
+shouting. An auctioneer is knocking down the furniture of a poor
+bankrupt, and the bidding is growing violent. All the shopkeepers are
+bawling their wares to each prospective purchaser. Now there is a clang
+and jangling; pushing the crowd aside march ten soldiers, five abreast,
+with insolent strides, their _optio_ (sub-centurion) stalking
+before them. Their gilded armor and helmets and the scarlet kilts
+peeping under their cuirasses, proclaim them to be “Praetorians,” proud
+members of the imperial guard. Gilded shields clatter on their backs;
+they warn the slaves and hucksters away with their spear butts while
+their officer’s red plume nods arrogantly.
+
+Hardly are they gone before there comes the crash of some barbaric
+music; one hears castanets, trumpets, drums, and sistra (a kind of
+glorified bronze rattle), and unmelodious singing. Tossing their arms,
+waving blunted swords or pounding them on light shields, along comes a
+troupe of the priests and priestesses of Cybele, the uncouth Asiatic
+goddess; the women, dark-skinned Syrians, whirling in wild dances with
+hair aflying, the priests puff-cheeked, smooth-faced creatures, busily
+pounding with their noise-making instruments. They are headed for their
+temple to spend a day of orgy.
+
+
+=18. The Processions Attending Great Nobles.=--Suddenly there is
+a partial silence. Youths in livery are moving down the street
+flourishing white wands: “Way, way for his Excellency,” they are
+shouting. Instantly the word flies around, “The Praetor Fundinus!”
+Hucksters cease shouting. Everybody stands still and all who wear hoods
+or hats hastily bare their heads,[10] for the praetor represents “The
+Majesty of the Roman People.” Behind his _viatores_ (“Way Clearers”)
+a full score of toga-clad clients swing into sight marching ahead of
+the great man. He rides in a blue tasseled litter borne by eight tall
+Cappadocians of equal height and pace. Just in front of them march
+two haughty lictors, attendants of honor, with bundles of rods, the
+official “fasces,” conspicuously resting upon their shoulders.[11]
+Close beside the litter walks a well-groomed man with a marked
+Greek profile--the confidential freedman and man of business of the
+magistrate. Behind trail more clients and a greater retinue of slaves.
+Fundinus himself heeds little the incessant greetings cast at him. He
+can be seen lolling on his cushions, with the little curtains thrown
+back just enough to show the purple embroidery on his official toga.
+A book, half unrolled, is in his hand--for it is the best of form to
+affect a certain bookishness in scenes of great distraction.
+
+As the praetor’s train advances, however, it is met by another headed
+in the opposite direction. A great concourse appears of handsome
+slaves, all wearing brown coats and each bearing a box or package upon
+his shoulder; then follows a group of pretty Levantine slave-girls
+gaudily clad, then a brown Egyptian boy carrying a pet monkey; then a
+simpering Celtic maid with a large basket from which peers a small and
+very uneasy lap-dog; next a perfect hedge of upper slaves and freedmen,
+some carrying musical instruments, some small caskets obviously crammed
+with valuables, and some conveying ostentatiously costly garments, and
+then borne high by her eight slaves in light red livery comes a great
+lady herself--an ex-consul’s wife, the multi-millionaire Faustina.
+
+
+=19. A Great Lady Traveling.=--“Her Magnificence” (_Clarissima_) also
+leans back on her cushions with a studied attitude of indifference
+and boredom, letting the whole street take in the silky sheen of her
+embroidered mantle, the gem-set handle of her ostrich fan, the gold
+dust that her maids have sprinkled on her tall pile of brown hair,
+and the great pearls that shed luster from her ears, neck, and every
+finger. She is merely making one of her incessant pilgrimages between
+her Viminal palace and some one of her ten country villas. She would
+feel disgraced to travel with less than about two hundred slaves and
+freedmen. Very likely her grandfather was a freedman himself; what
+matter?--official rank yields to the conquering flash of gold.
+
+Fundinus’s lictors lower their fasces; his litter is set down hastily.
+As the trains meet the great man hastens to the side of the greater
+_matrona_. Faustina is evidently in a gracious mood. She is seen
+to flip the praetor’s face daintily with her fan. The magistrate climbs
+back to his own litter smilingly--perhaps he has been bidden to an
+ultra-select house party at Tusculum. The two trains of attendants
+elbow past each other, and the street resumes its plebeian bustle.
+
+
+=20. Public Salutations: the Kissing Habit.=--As the crowds thin a
+little, so that the types and faces are more easily seen, several
+things become noticeable. First the salutations--there are surely
+advantages in being borne high in a litter. No person in good clothes
+can proceed far without being incessantly beset with greetings.
+Everybody seems to know everybody else. It is polite to cry _Ave!_
+(“Hail”) or _Salve!_ (“I hope you’re well”) to persons of the scantiest
+acquaintance, and then, when they return your salute, if there is
+nothing more to add, _Vale!_ (“Good luck”).
+
+More serious, however, is the incessant kissing. A sedate old gentleman
+with a narrow purple stripe on his tunic (the token of the “equestrian”
+rank) appears followed by two spruce slave boys. A nondescript fellow
+immediately pushes up to him, seizes his hand, then smacks him roundly
+on the cheek. Doubtless the rascal’s lips are foul and his breath
+charged with garlic; it is nevertheless most discourteous for the older
+man to resent it. There is no escaping the incessant attacks, unless
+you can have a litter, and the poet Martial has vainly complained of
+acquaintances who insisted on kissing him in December “when round his
+nose hangs a veritable icicle.” Even the Emperor has to submit to the
+usage, although the privilege is confined to that envied and exalted
+circle known as “Cæsar’s friends.”
+
+
+=21. The Swarms of Idlers and Parasites.=--Another thing becomes
+obvious after a short scrutiny--_the vast number of idlers_. People are
+incessantly lounging up and down the street manifestly with nothing
+important to do. Hard work and common trade are, as later explained
+(see p. 146), by no means genteel; and many a Roman who possesses
+merely a threadbare toga and has his name on the list for corn doles
+prefers living by his wits in busy idleness, fawning on the great, and
+hunting dinner invitations to doing a stroke of honest labor.
+
+Most of the idlers nevertheless are slaves. In the vast _familia_
+of the palaces the tasks are all so subdivided that the average slave
+has far too much time on his hands. He puts in many hours, therefore,
+wandering about the sights of the city, gaming, following coarse love
+affairs, and seeking tips on the circus and amphitheater contests. The
+amount of worthless chatter is infinite. Even at this early hour from
+the tables of a wine-shop comes the rattle of dice boxes. Another dirty
+group is actually throwing dice on the pavement under pedestrian’s
+heels. The law nominally forbids open gaming, but the police are very
+busy men. Rome, one discovers thus promptly, is all too much a city of
+“parasites.” By exploiting the world, she is able to maintain a horde
+of human bipeds, bond or free, who minister nothing to her prosperity.
+
+The gamesters on the pavement halt, however, instantly, when a tumult
+arises from a neighboring vintner’s stall. A Spanish boy has tried to
+steal a jar of fine old Massic, but the vessel has been wisely fastened
+to a pillar with a chain. While he tugs to break this the dealer spots
+him: “Stop thief!” rises the cry. Instantly appear two broad-shouldered
+men, in half armor with small steel caps. They carry stout poles tipped
+with strong hooks useful in fires. These are _vigiles_ (police-firemen)
+of the city watch. The thief is seized and hustled off howling and
+protesting, to tell his troubles at the court of the City Praefect.
+Before the players can resume, they have to stand aside also for a
+funeral procession--flute players, professional mourners screaming and
+gesticulating, manumitted slaves of the deceased wearing liberty caps,
+mourning relatives around the bier; all headed for the cremation-pyre
+outside the gates.
+
+  [Illustration: MONUMENT OF A WINE SELLER.]
+
+
+=22. Public Placards and Notices.=--Just as the dice are about
+to rattle again a shrewd-looking fellow with a piece of red chalk is
+seen stepping up to a space of blank wall. “Celer, the notice writer,”
+whispers everybody. A large crowd elbows and gathers around him,
+as to general delight, with quick strokes he letters the following
+announcement of a gladiator fight:
+
+                     IN THE AMPHITHEATER OF TAURUS
+                    THE GAMES OF THE AEDILE BALBUS
+
+                  _From the 12th to the 15th of May_
+
+                         THE ‘THRACIAN’ PUGNAX
+
+                                OF THE
+
+                     NERONIAN GLADIATORIAL SCHOOL
+
+                 Who Has Fought Three Times Will Meet
+
+                        THE ‘MURMILLO’ MURANUS
+
+                                OF THE
+
+                              SAME SCHOOL
+
+                     And The Same Number of Fights
+
+                   THE ‘HEAVY ARMOUR FIGHTER’ CYCNUS
+
+                               FROM THE
+
+                        SCHOOL OF JULIUS CAESAR
+
+                      Who Has Fought Eight Times
+
+                               WILL MEET
+
+                        THE ‘THRACIAN’ ATTICUS
+
+                                OF THE
+
+                              SAME SCHOOL
+
+                        And of Fourteen Fights
+
+              _Awnings will be provided against the sun_
+
+“_Euge! Euge!_ Bravo, Balbus!” cry the expectant idlers as they go back
+to their game, and Celer hurries off to repeat his notice on some wall
+in the next street.
+
+The dice contest can be omitted. Not so with the wall inscriptions
+which we now discover are scattered over almost every space of
+available stucco along the thoroughfare. Some are formal notices of
+games, articles for sale, auctions, tenements to let, etc., written
+with some skill, although with many puzzling abbreviations, by
+professional sign-writers like Celer. Thus on one building can be read
+in tall red letters: “_To rent, from the first of July, shops with
+the floors above them and a house in the Arrius Pollio block, owned by
+Nigidius Maius. Prospective lessees may apply to Primus his slave_,”
+and another sign advertises the “_Venus baths, fitted up for the best
+people, shops, rooms over shops and second story apartments, in the
+property owned by Julia Felix_.”[12]
+
+
+=23. Wall Scribblings.=--More interesting really are the wall
+scribblings of the humble. “The walls were the writing paper of the
+poor,” will be declared later by students of Rome. All kinds of
+sentiments are scratched upon the stucco; sometimes with considerable
+care with a stylus; sometimes with merely a finger nail; sometimes
+drawn with charcoal or a red crayon. There are indeed so many writings,
+especially in frequented places, that we notice a wag has actually
+added a word of protest:
+
+    I wonder O wall,
+    That your stones do not fall
+    All scribbled thus o’er
+    By the nonsense of all!
+
+Every kind of opinion is to be found along a limited stretch of wall.
+Coarse insults abound where your enemy can promptly see them: “Vile
+wretch,” “Bold rascal,” “Old fool,” “I hope you’ll die!” “May you be
+crucified!”--these are merely the mildest. Then other sentiments are
+more friendly: “Luck to you!” “Good health to you everywhere!” “A Happy
+New Year and a lot of them,” and “What wouldn’t I do for _you_, dear
+eyes of Luscus” (the names of the enemy or friend involved being often
+added).
+
+Lovers also take up their tale. A girl records her frank opinion:
+“Virgula to her dear Tertius--You are mighty mean.” A penitent swain
+spreads forth this “personal” to his mistress: “_Do_ have pity on me
+and let me come back.” A young lady announces tartly: “Where Verus
+is there’s nothing _veracious_” (a pun on words). A gay philanderer
+explains, “A blonde girl taught me to hate brunettes, and I _will_ hate
+them if I can--but loving them would come so much easier!” And another
+youth demands passionately: “My dear Sava, please do love me!” While
+finally a jealous suitor has broken into verse:
+
+    If any man shall seek
+    My girl from me to turn,
+    On far-off mountains bleak,
+    May Love the scoundrel burn!
+
+The prosing moralist must likewise have his say. Somebody has
+sagely scribbled, “A trifling ailment if neglected can grow to be
+very serious.” There are in addition conundrums and children’s
+sketches--pictures of playmates, friends, foes, and especially of
+popular gladiators, marked with red ochre or charcoal, and sometimes
+limned with considerable vigor, but usually in the manner of the
+childish drawings in all ages, with forehead and nose marked by a line
+and with two dots serving for eyes. School boys have scratched down
+some of the verses in Vergil and Ovid that have just been flogged into
+them by their masters.
+
+The only thing we can miss in Rome are the election notices which would
+abound on the walls of all chartered provincial or free Italian cities,
+entreating us to vote for soand-so for _duumvir_ “he’s a good man”; or
+declaring that “all the fullers’ guild are out for ---- as aedile.”[13]
+Rome, alas! has lost her liberty; the city is paternally governed by
+the Emperor aided by the Senate, and popular elections are a thing of
+the past.
+
+
+=24. The Streets Dark and Dangerous at Night.=--One is warned, however,
+not to tax the patience of the adjacent shopkeepers and linger too long
+in this street. Written above a drug seller’s stand appears clearly,
+“_No idlers here! Move on you loungers!_” and a little distance along
+upon a wall, “_Here you! What are you loitering for?_” Indeed the
+passing throngs are becoming somewhat monotonous. The hurly-burly
+abates. About noon almost everybody will take first a fairly hearty
+luncheon, and then a siesta. Nearly every shop will be closed. Then
+the bustle will be resumed while the more genteel element will be seen
+headed in great numbers towards the public baths.
+
+By four o’clock, however, the shops will be closing behind heavy
+shutters, the clamor from the work rooms will cease, and even the
+humble will begin to prepare for the crowning event of a Roman’s
+day--dinner, often begun still earlier. After sundown the silence
+almost of the grave shuts down upon avenues which a few hours earlier
+were simply swarming with life. There are no street lights. Nobody
+stirs outdoors if possible, unless accompanied by friends or slaves
+with lanterns or torches; and it is no harm to carry heavy bludgeons,
+for despite the watch there are all too many sneak thieves, cutpurses,
+and even open bandits, “dagger men” (_siccarii_), with their “your
+money or your life.” Also lawless young nobles sometimes get an evil
+pleasure (as did Nero and his companions) by ranging the streets and
+beating up harmless and poorly guarded citizens.
+
+
+=25. Discomforts of Life in Rome.=--People also tell you that
+at night there is no small peril of being brained by loose tiles
+which rattle down from the lofty house-tops, or less dangerous but
+most disgusting, of being drenched by buckets of filthy slops flung
+recklessly from upper windows into the streets. Then toward dawn your
+sleep is ruined by the incessant rumbling of the wagons with timber,
+brick, building stone, cement, and all kinds of food supplies which
+have to be excluded from the city in the day hours. These are all part
+of the general discomforts of life in Rome, along with the squalid
+flat-buildings, the peril from the collapse of rickety houses, the
+occasional great floods of the Tiber, the fearful conflagrations, the
+ubiquitous throngs of people, and the grievous absence of privacy.
+
+The complaints are incessant. “School masters in the morning; corn
+grinders at night; and braziers’ hammers day and night” are subjects
+for standard diatribes of poets like Martial and Juvenal. And they,
+like everybody, first praise the quiet simple life possible in the
+Italian country towns--and then they remain in Rome. The great city
+with its multitudes, its ceaseless variety of all things good and bad,
+its appeal to every kind of human interest holds them with so many
+other mortals fascinated. They are unhappy while in Rome; but still
+more unhappy until they can return to her.
+
+So much for the merely outward side of a typical street on the slopes
+of the Esquiline. We can now penetrate the homes of the people, first
+visiting an _insula_, a great tenement block of the lowly, and then
+investigating a more elegant _domus_, the residence of a magnate.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+               THE HOMES OF THE LOWLY AND OF THE MIGHTY
+
+
+=26. The Great _Insulæ_--Tenement Blocks.=--Perhaps another age will
+imagine that most Romans have lived in vast marble palaces, moving
+through spacious halls amid stately pillars and spraying fountains.
+Nothing like this is the case for the great majority. A census report
+declares “there are some 44,000 tenement blocks (_insulæ_) in the city
+and only about 1750 separate ‘mansions’ (_domus_).”[14] Such figures
+can merely imply that an overwhelming proportion of “the toga-wearing
+race, the Lords of the world” (to quote Virgil’s threadbare line) are
+flat-dwellers.
+
+Considering the extreme congestion of population, no other solution
+than this is possible if Rome is to remain Rome. There is a great
+profit in building these huge, ungainly “islands,” the tenement blocks.
+Everywhere around the city we meet the gangs of laborers mixing the
+concrete whereof the structures are mostly constructed, or setting the
+wooden molds to shape the material as it solidifies; or else tearing
+down and carting away the wreckage of insulæ that have begun to decay.
+Such property employs a great amount of capital. Nearly every senator
+has his men of business caring for his housing investments and rentals,
+and the “realtor” is a very familiar personage.
+
+Rightly is it complained also that many insulæ are put up in a cheap
+and absolutely dangerous manner, and at best are dark, dirty, and
+unsanitary. The very name implies that they should be built with a free
+space all around them. The old law of Twelve Tables (450 B.C.) required
+a passage way (_ambitus_) of at least two and a half feet on either
+side, but this law was recklessly disregarded until the great fire of
+Nero enabled the government to enforce a fairly scientific building
+code. Even now, however, the tenement houses are often hemmed in on
+all sides by miserable black alleys hardly accessible to the public
+scavengers.
+
+This struggle to use every scrap of ground is completely matched by the
+effort to build as high as possible. “The immense size of Rome,” wrote
+Vitruvius, about 1 A.D., “makes it needful to have a vast number of
+habitations, and as the area is not sufficient to contain them all on
+the ground floor, the nature of the case compels us to raise them in
+the air.”
+
+There are no passenger elevators in Rome; furthermore, the concrete
+construction does not permit the safe erection of extremely high
+buildings without unusual precautions, and with such narrow streets
+tall structures obstruct both light and air; nevertheless, the real
+estate interests grumbled loudly when Augustus limited the height of
+dwellings to seventy feet. Hadrian has just vexed them still more by
+a decree that if an owner allows his insula to fall into dangerous
+repair, he must either sell it, or rebuild it thoroughly. For all that,
+many insulæ seem to be towering rookeries, ready to collapse at any
+flood or earthquake.
+
+
+=27. A Typical Insula.=--Upon Mercury Street, which we have just
+examined, stands a very average insula, built about forty years ago,
+and, therefore, loyally named the _Flavia Victoria_ for the then
+reigning dynasty. It belongs to the widow of the rich eques Gaius
+Macer, and is managed by the lynx-eyed procurator, or bailiff, who
+superintends her estate. Despite the fact that it is safer than some
+of its neighbors, the tenants complain on rent days that the upper
+stories are built so largely of wood as to be in peril of fire, and
+that one of the outer walls is so cracked that it has to be propped up
+with heavy timbers.
+
+The _Flavia Victoria_ is just under the legal building height,
+and contains five stories. On the street there are several shops of
+the usual kind, also several separate entrances whereof the doorways,
+flanked with pillars, give access to certain extra-select flats above;
+but most of the tenants have to go in through the central portal under
+the eyes of a porter.
+
+Upon entering they find themselves in a fairly ample square court, upon
+which open many windows of the tiers of rooms in the upper stories.
+There is a fountain in the court, but the pavement below is decidedly
+slimy and dirty. Quantities of half-naked small children are scampering
+about in noisy play. The windows, however, like those facing upon the
+streets, often have balconies on which simple boxes of flowers are
+blooming. The blue Italian sky above and the bars of intense sunlight
+upon the flag-stones make the filthiness of the court and the dinginess
+of the yellow stuccoed walls less obnoxious. Dirt and even the numerous
+fleas lose part of their terrors amid picturesque surroundings in a
+mild climate.
+
+
+=28. The Flats in an Insula.=--From the courtyard several staircases,
+often dark and dank, rise to the tenements above. The _Flavia Victoria_
+is a fair-sized insula, and just as in European flat buildings later,
+can contain many social strata under one ample roof. In the apartments
+on the first floor, there are really comfortable suites, each with
+a series of rooms--living room (_atrium_), dining room, kitchen,
+bedrooms, and the like, chambers not large indeed, but sufficient for a
+modest household keeping perhaps ten slaves. The walls are covered with
+bright frescoes, and the floors with very fair mosaics. Such a superior
+apartment can bring some 10,000 sesterces ($400) per year, and a good
+many flats rent for even more.[15]
+
+The rentals fall rapidly as the tenants scale higher. In the second
+floor the apartments are much smaller; there is merely a living room
+and a few smaller chambers. The appointments are correspondingly
+mean and dingy, while the annual rent is only 2000 sesterces ($80);
+and between the prosperous grain factor on the third floor and the
+hard-working brickyard superintendent on the fourth there is never the
+least sociability.
+
+
+=29. The Cheap Attic Tenements and Their Poor Occupants.=--Both unite,
+however, in despising the wretched creatures who plod wearily up to the
+dirty, vermin-infested sleeping pockets upon the fifth or sixth stages,
+where, under the roof tiles, the hot sun beats pitilessly. If we care
+to thrust ourselves into the tiny chambers of the unfortunate Codrus,
+the bath attendant, we will find, perhaps “a bed too small for the
+dwarf Procula, a marble slab whereon are set six small food jars and a
+small drinking cup, a statue of Chiron [some decaying heirloom], and an
+old chest of Greek books gnawed by the unlettered mice.”[16]
+
+Vainly do Codrus and his wife complain to the bailiff that the roof is
+collapsing over them. He merely laughs and bids them “sleep at ease,”
+although a deadly crash is threatened any night. They have another
+peril, because fire may at any time break out in Ucalegon’s flat below
+and leave them cut off, possibly while in their beds, and with no
+chance of escape after the alarm spreads.
+
+Such poor tenants never stay in one place long. Rome is a city of
+inveterate flat-hunters. The first of July (the Calends) is the
+regular moving day. Every tenant who cannot or will not pay his rent,
+has to go forth seeking even cheaper and more squalid quarters. There
+are endless family processions bearing off the few poor chattels.
+The satirists make ungenerous fun of their plight, telling how a
+wretched man has to march away followed by “his carroty-headed wife,
+his white-haired mother and his giantess of a sister.” Between them
+they carry off “a three-legged bed, a two-footed table, a lamp, a
+horn-cup, a rusty brazier, some cracked dishes, some jars of very stale
+pickled fish,” also a supply of cheese and onions, and “a pot of resin
+belonging to the poor fellow’s mother and used by the beldame for
+anointing herself.”
+
+  [Illustration: TENANTS PAYING RENT TO A LANDLORD’S
+  AGENT.]
+
+Such luckless plebeians, of course, may delude some house agent in a
+distant part of the city into giving them a dark garret in the vain
+hope that they can pay their rent; “but really,”--says the bailiff with
+a shrug, “they belong at the Aricine bridge--the haunt of the beggars.”
+
+Unfortunately a large fraction of Rome is little better off than this.
+Poverty stalks everywhere. There are plenty of fetid insulæ which do
+not contain a single family that can be sure of next week’s dinners.
+Nevertheless there are mitigations; as will be seen, the government
+takes great pains that in Rome nobody will actually starve; and again,
+there are so many free circuses and gladiatorial shows that a man has
+abundant diversion from his troubles. There is a magnificent water
+supply, and the kind Italian sun prevents heavy fuel bills. Poverty,
+therefore, does not imply the acute misery which it does in the North.
+
+Nevertheless, the most fortunate insula dweller probably dreams of the
+day when he can crown his inevitable ambition. “When can I cease to
+live in a _cenacula_ (flat) and live in a _domus_?”[17]
+
+
+=30. A Senatorial “Mansion” (_Domus_).=--Publius Junius Calvus is a
+senator of ancient lineage, whose domus lifts itself arrogantly near
+the summit of the Esquiline, at the head of Mercury Street, looking
+down upon the tiles of the humble insula _Flavia Victoria_.
+
+Calvus, although a member of the upper aristocracy, is not
+extraordinarily wealthy. He does not, like some of his friends, possess
+simultaneously three large city houses, often moving from one to
+another according to season and mood. He has only four country villas,
+one far in the North by the Italian lakes, one in the Etruscan hills,
+one fairly close to Rome, and a fourth on the delightful Bay of Naples.
+His city residence is inferior in magnificence not merely to those of
+many senators but even of many equites (second-class nobles) and of
+a whole cohort of rich, upstart freedmen. Nevertheless, it is a fine
+mansion, which has been in the Calvian family for many generations, and
+it is crammed with treasured heirlooms. Calvus, unlike certain noble
+colleagues, is happily married and rejoices in two half-grown sons and
+a daughter. For them a _familia_ of only one hundred and fifty slaves
+suffices, although the noble Gratia sometimes complains to her husband:
+“Our staff is disgracefully small.”
+
+The Calvi are really an extremely old family in what is now becoming a
+city of upstarts. Publius’s forebears have lived for centuries on the
+Esquiline and their domus has been rebuilt many times. In Punic War
+days it probably consisted only of a central atrium, with an opening
+in the ceiling to admit light and emit smoke, and a few dark cell-like
+chambers radiating from the great living room. This hall rightly
+received its name of the “black place” (_ater_) from the soot from the
+open hearth which was perpetually caked around the rafters. The walls
+were of rubble, the floor of simple tiles or even merely of pounded
+earth, and the roof was of thatch. Such a house could stow away the
+many children and the relatively few servants of a senator who helped
+to humiliate Carthage.
+
+
+=31. The Plan of a Large Residence.=--Very different is the domus now
+as we approach the lofty Ionic pillars before its portal, nevertheless,
+the plan of the old house has not quite vanished in the stately
+mansion. The Roman house is always (like the Greek) essentially the
+typical _southern_ dwelling built around _courts_, and getting its
+light thence, and with little dependence upon exterior windows. What
+has happened now is that the old living room has expanded into a
+magnificent light-bathed hall, with the sun streaming not through a
+smoke-hole but an ample opening. The rooms leading from this court
+have multiplied in number and vastly increased in size. Then through a
+series of passages one enters a second court even larger and handsomer,
+and with another array of dependent chambers.
+
+In such a house the main apartments are on the first floor, but there
+is a second story for the lodging of the retinues of slaves. In
+the rear of all there is usually a garden. Every domus has its own
+particular plan and pretentions but all conform to the general scheme
+of two main courts, just as almost every house of another civilization
+will demand its parlor and its dining room.
+
+  [Illustration: ATRIUM OF HOUSE IN POMPEII LOOKING TOWARDS
+  THE PERISTYLIUM: present condition.]
+
+Calvus’s mansion is priced by the real estate experts at about
+3,500,000 sesterces (say $140,000);[18] but there are not a few houses
+of richer senators worth four times as much. The structure faces a
+street which is reasonably clear of shops and where all the neighbors
+are at least equites or else very wealthy freedmen. The building does
+not rise as high as an insula; in fact it possesses only two stories:
+the first broken by mere peepholes in the solid stuccoed walls, the
+second by larger windows all heavily grated. One can guess part of the
+reason for these bars from a placard hanging in the entrance:
+
+    NO SLAVE IS TO QUIT THE HOUSE WITHOUT
+    THE MASTER’S ORDERS. PENALTY 100 LASHES
+
+
+=32. Entrance to the Residence.=--The entrance itself, however,
+is handsome. The columns on either side are of fine Luna marble.
+Pass between these, and you enter a vestibule, a considerable outer
+chamber with fine pilasters let into the walls, where at this moment
+a swarm of the Senator’s clients are mustering. Then you approach the
+actual doors of the _ostium_. These stand open but every passer is
+being scrutinized, and if questionable, is stopped by a janitor, a
+highly responsible slave, who has a seat just inside. Many a janitor
+is supported in his duty by a surly dog, but here there is merely a
+life-like mosaic creature, wrought in the tiles of the pavement, with
+CAVE CANEM (“Beware the dog”) written beneath him. Overhead in a gilt
+cage however is swinging a tame magpie, and the creature croaks out his
+“_Salve! Salve!_” as the guests press into the atrium.
+
+
+=33. The Atrium and the View across It.=--The moment we are inside the
+transformation of scene from the dusty, dingy street is startling. If
+other persons do not obstruct the view, you can see clear down the long
+vistas of the house from the entrance to the greenery of the garden.
+Before us is the atrium, a magnificent court, paved with elaborate
+mosaics, and with four elegant Corinthian columns in pink marble
+upholding the roof around a wide light-well. Under this light-well is
+a complicated fountain, where bronze tritons and dancing nymphs are
+shooting great jets into a white marble basin in which grow luxurious
+water plants. On the inner sides of the atrium, and on either of the
+numerous doors opening into the same, stand statues, bronze or marble,
+upon carved stone pedestals.
+
+  [Illustration: PLAN OF A ROMAN MANSION
+  (_Domus_): strictly conventionalized.]
+
+Many of the doorways around this elegant hall are closed by heavy
+curtains, of rich saffron, purple, olivine, or blue, the hues being
+selected to blend marvelously with the tints of the columns. Where the
+walls are not a sheen of marble, they are spread with elaborate and
+wonderfully decorative frescos--of which more hereafter. On special
+pedestals of honor are fine art objects, valuable bric-a-brac, tripods,
+vases, silver cups, war trophies. The mosaics on the floor (could we
+stop to gaze) are more beautiful than any carpet. In brilliant jewel
+work, for it is little else, has been wrought out a series of pictures
+showing the campaigns of Alexander. There is another series giving the
+legend of Perseus. The sunlight, the spray from the fountain, the
+sheen of the marbles, the brilliance of the frescos, all combine in an
+effect that is dazzling.
+
+
+=34. The Rooms in the Rear and the _Peristylium_.=--But this hall is
+merely the beginning, not the end of the domus. In the rear of the
+atrium there is the master’s office, the _tablinum_, a very large
+alcove, a handsome apartment where he will receive those guests who are
+come strictly on business. This and the atrium, however, are merely the
+public rooms of the house; the real living rooms are beyond, although,
+by a survival of old custom, the symbolic marriage couch of the master
+and mistress stands on a back wall by the tablinum. The heavy curtains
+have been swept aside from the broad passageways (_fauces_) which lead
+into the second court--the _peristylium_.
+
+  [Illustration: INTERIOR OF A ROMAN MANSION, LOOKING FROM
+  THE ATRIUM INTO THE PERISTYLIUM: restored.]
+
+Here the atrium is duplicated--but on a much more elaborate scale.
+There is another column-girdled court; but the pillars are taller and
+of an exquisite blue-veined marble. A huge curtain swings on its cords
+ready for expansion as the sun grows hot. Beneath the light-opening,
+there is not merely a second fountain, but a real plat of greensward,
+a _viridarium_, with a bright bed of rare flowers and even a few
+tropical plants. There is another phalanx of statues. Under the
+long quadrangular colonnades around the court are spread out deeply
+upholstered couches, easy chairs, small tables, and other appurtenances
+for luxurious existence. The ceilings of the colonnades and of the
+rooms leading thence are covered with metallic fretwork gilded in a
+soft sheen, while the intense light filters down gratefully between the
+columns, and sinks to a pleasant twilight in the niches and nooks in
+the walls of the peristylium.
+
+  [Illustration: SCENE IN A PERISTYLIUM.]
+
+
+=35. The Dining Room (_Triclinium_) and the Chapel.=--From this second
+court to left and to right open doors which lead to the master’s
+and mistress’s sleeping chambers, and those of their children, their
+guests, and their upper servants. The rooms are small, but are always
+daintily frescoed.
+
+  [Illustration: ROMAN TYPE OF HOUSE AT POMPEII, LOOKING
+  ACROSS THE ATRIUM: present condition.]
+
+Far more important than these chambers is the great dining room
+(_triclinium_). Calvus’s friends tell him he really ought to rebuild
+his residence and provide a special “summer dining room” on the north
+side of the house, and a warmer “winter dining room” on the south
+side as in all the newer mansions.[19] However, his triclinium is
+very handsome; with good pilasters of Hymettus marble, fine statuary,
+sideboards loaded with rare old plate, and a ceiling fretted with ivory
+and arranged so that it can be partly opened at the climax of a feast
+to drop garlands and to spray down unguents upon the guests.
+
+In the rear of the house there are also a smaller breakfast room, and a
+special hall (_oecus_) for the display of even additional art objects,
+likewise a library, and a private bathroom, both to be described later;
+while in the rear of the peristylium is one of the most important rooms
+assuredly in the entire mansion--the kitchen (_culina_), where Gratia’s
+proudest possession, a truly superior cook, prepares dinners that atone
+for the sorrowful fact that “we have only one dining room.”
+
+Off the peristylium, too, one notes what amounts to a miniature chapel.
+Before a temple front composed of short columns mounted on a kind of
+table are set several little images of beautiful fairy-like creatures
+of both sexes. These are the family _lares_, the honored guardians of
+the old house of the Calvi. Once they stood in the atrium, but in later
+days although withdrawn to the more private peristylium, they have not
+ceased to be dear. Calvus discusses with his philosopher friends, “Are
+there really any gods?”; but he never fails to cast his incense night
+and morning upon the small gilt brazier which smokes before his family
+lares. In the kitchen, also, there is a second little niche and still
+other images of the lares, where they receive bits of food and innocent
+prayers from all the servants--even more devotedly than from the lordly
+folk in the peristylium.
+
+
+=36. The Garden and the Slaves’ Quarters.=--Another passage beside
+the kitchen leads us into what can be just glimpsed as one enters the
+atrium--the rear garden set in by high walls. Land is too valuable
+in Rome for Calvus to permit himself much more than a short graveled
+walk under a few fine old box trees, but by an intensive gardening
+that another age might style “Japanese” there is laid out a miniature
+brooklet, a cascade plunging into a little pool containing tame
+lampreys, and some small pines, which have been forced into the
+semblance of a tiny forest. A broad marble seat now strewn with
+cushions, a good statue of a dancing Pan, the rushing music of
+the water, and the breeze rustling the foliage--all these make the
+tumultuous, squalid street and the dirty garrets of the _Flavia
+Victoria_ seem very far away.--In reality they are barely a stone’s
+throw down the hill.
+
+  [Illustration: CORNER IN A GARDEN IN REAR OF A ROMAN
+  HOUSE.]
+
+Where do Calvus’s slaves keep themselves? Undoubtedly in the very
+cramped barracks of the second story, a section of which looks down
+from an upper tier of columns above the court of the peristylium. Even
+lordly Romans spend little time in their chambers and need only small
+bedrooms. For the slaves there is extremely little accommodation; any
+kind of a sleeping pocket, very truly called a “cell” (_cella_) will
+answer, where a stool, a blanket, and a thin mat on the floor suffice
+for all save the upper servants.
+
+Under the house there are ordinary cellars for the storage of
+provisions. Somewhere, too, is a strong room, with barred windows, and
+heavy door, and inside, fastened upon the floor, a set of stocks and
+manacles. Lucky is the day when, in a slave-familia of this size, this
+lock-up has not at least one backsliding occupant.
+
+
+=37. The Floors and Windows.=--Inquiring about certain details of such
+a mansion we discover that like most other Roman houses, it is built of
+concrete, faced with brick or coarse stone and stucco, and then with
+as many interior surfaces as possible, covered with slabs of marble
+or decorative frescos. The roof is of brick tiles; the floors in the
+humbler chambers, where mosaic is unnecessary, are partly of concrete
+and partly of small pieces of stone and tile roughly fitted together
+and then pounded down by a rammer (_pavimentum_). Two or three rooms
+most used in winter have a special and very luxurious device--part of
+their floors are made of hollow tile pipes, and through these hot air
+from a furnace can be forced to warm them precisely as is done at the
+baths.[20]
+
+Little thus far has been said about the windows. These open mainly upon
+the courts, and they are so few that very many rooms, especially those
+used by the slaves, seem disagreeably dark, although in the long, hot
+season this drawback somewhat vanishes. Most of the windows are closed
+merely by board shutters swinging in leaves, and rather handsomely
+paneled; but shutting them results in a state of artificial night.
+
+For certain rooms used by the master and mistress there is a much
+better arrangement. Numbers of small pieces of glass are set in bronze
+lattices and inserted in the windows. Glass cannot be made that is
+strictly transparent, but it is highly translucent. Such rooms are
+delightfully illuminated all day long. Certain other wealthy houses
+use windows set with translucent talc (soft magnesium silicate), but
+these openings are hardly as satisfactory. Glass is slowly coming into
+general use, and the window panes will improve as glass-makers learn
+how to blow larger sheets and to make their product more transparent.
+
+
+=38. Frescos, Beautiful and Innumerable.=--From the house itself
+we can turn to its ornamentation and furniture. The use of marble
+columns and of great slabs of marble veneer has been repeatedly
+mentioned. Africa, Egypt, and Greece as well as Italy have been
+ransacked by Roman contractors for their treasures of stone.[21] Even
+this private mansion of the Calvi boasts its green and black monolithic
+pillars, as well as its ceiling of gilded fretwork.
+
+Where the sheen of polished marble does not meet the eye almost
+invariably there are bright _frescos_. These are the _Roman wall
+paper_. Even in the poorest insulæ we have met them, cheap hackneyed
+things, garish in color, the work not of artists but of common
+craftsmen. Yet most of even these are not without a certain decorative
+beauty and their number is enormous.[22] In the humble tenements the
+pictures often consist of pillars painted upon the walls, with gardens
+and landscapes represented as if seen between the portico, so the
+lodgers may have the pretence of looking upon the greenery reserved for
+the mighty.
+
+In a fine domus, however, the frescos, infinite in number, often
+approximate real works of art. There is no time to discuss their types
+and history; it is sufficient to say the decorative effect is amazingly
+effective. Some rooms have their walls covered with a variety of bright
+conceits and patterns,--balconies, perches, tapestries of fruit and
+flowers, garlanded columns and flying sprites and maidens. Another
+room has pictures of all the possible handicrafts and trades; but with
+cupids working the forges and wine presses, or chaffering as merchants.
+Gratia’s boudoir is full of amorous scenes of brides adorning
+themselves and of lovers’ meetings. In the triclinium there are elegant
+pictures of still life--fishes, fruit, birds; and in the peristylium
+and atrium are elaborate landscapes, scenes from Greek mythology, and a
+series of pictures depicting the voyages and adventures of Æneas.[23]
+There are no picture frames, but a skilful use of colored lines and
+sometimes of a painted setting of columns and architectural pediments
+makes each scene stand out to great advantage.
+
+The colors of all these frescos are very brilliant but they are never
+painfully crude. Where the walls are not covered by painting or marble
+they are tinted a soft brown or gray; and where the columns are not of
+naturally shaded marble they also are gently tinted to a neutral tone,
+although the lower third is usually painted a bright red or yellow.
+
+The numerous statues about the house are all in their turn given a kind
+of flesh color, with some other hue laid upon their drapery. Perhaps
+in the open, under the light of a northern summer these features would
+appear barbaric and offensive; under the gentle radiance diffused from
+the apertures of the atrium and the peristylium they create a scene of
+marvelous beauty, fascinating, and generally restful to the eye.
+
+
+=39. The Profusion of Statues and Art Objects.=--So much for the
+wall decorations, and we must turn to the statues. The mansion seems
+to swarm with slaves, yet they are hardly more numerous than the
+sculptures in bronze and marble. Many of these are good copies of the
+best masterpieces of Greece. The splendid athlete in the atrium is from
+an original by Praxiteles; the Penelope in the peristylium follows
+precisely the noble work of Scopas. Many others are simply graceful and
+ornamental but less pretentious works by lesser geniuses, often adapted
+in detail by the clever copyists.
+
+  [Illustration: PORTRAIT BUST--POMPEY THE GREAT.]
+
+The whole quantity of art objects in such a house is enormous. The legs
+and arms of the chairs and every knob and handle upon the furniture
+are chased or carved with an amazing skill. The veriest knick-nacks
+and articles for everyday life have been transformed into things of
+beauty. In the triclinium is a long series of statuettes presenting the
+myths of Bacchus--the god himself, the drunken Silenus, the satyrs,
+bacchants, and all the other revelers. It would be easy, indeed, to
+reconstruct a good part of the standard Græco-Roman mythology from
+the statues, statuettes, and reliefs, no less than from the frescos
+scattered about the mansion and garden.
+
+
+=40. Family Portrait Busts.=--However, there is one lengthy array
+of sculptures in the atrium that does not bear the hand of Greece.
+These are the portrait busts of the Junii Calvi. There they stand, a
+full score of them; all the more distinguished members of the great
+house since sculpture became a facile art in Rome.
+
+  [Illustration: TYPICAL ROMAN PORTRAIT--MARC ANTONY.]
+
+It is an array of cold, hard, yet withal terribly efficient faces.
+Slightly battered is the broad homely countenance of that tough old
+Calvus who was Scipio’s legate at Zama. Here also is the sharp shrewd
+face of his great-grandson who was prætor under Sulla; here the more
+refined and intellectual lines of the grandson of the last named
+worthy who won Octavius’s thanks at Actium for gallantry with his
+bireme, and afterward was a famous governor of Syria; here the high
+forehead of that courageous Stoic, the present master’s grandfather,
+who bade Nero do his worst, and who calmly “opened his veins” when the
+centurion arrived with the tyrant’s order to commit suicide. There are
+also displayed the busts of several distinguished women of the family
+including that Junia who was the bosom friend of the Empress Livia.
+
+In addition to these, there are the portrait busts of the present
+Publius Calvus, of his wife Gratia, and of his three children. They
+are all executed with remarkable verisimilitude and without the least
+flattery. Customs with the hair often change, and the headdress of
+Gratia is made detachable so that if her style of headdress alters, the
+portrait may be promptly brought up to date. Young Sextus the second
+boy had a birthday yesterday; his statue is still hung with wreaths;
+flowers too hang around the likeness of Gnæus Calvus, Publius’s
+brother, who lately died while proprætor of Bætica (South Spain).
+
+
+=41. Death Masks (_Imagines_).=--The sight of these busts is a constant
+incentive to both the young Calvi to remember their lordly lineage;
+but they have a still prouder treasure. The enormously rich freedman
+Vedius just down the street would give twenty million sesterces for
+the social preëminence implied by the possession of the great cupboard
+all bound with gilt and bronze bands which stands in the tablinum.
+Here, carefully labeled, are kept several scores of waxen death
+masks, blackened, marred, and ugly enough now, but all taken when the
+successive heads of the family lay in their last slumber.
+
+Many of these date from before the production in Rome of sculptured
+portrait statues. Here, for example, is the mask of the Calvus who
+helped win the consulship for the plebeians; and here of him who
+seconded Appius Claudius in the Senate when he turned away the glozing
+envoys of Pyrrhus. When alien upstarts complain of “noble pride,”
+it is easy for a Calvus to toss his head: “Have we not something to
+be proud of!”--and later, it will be duly explained how these waxen
+_imagines_ appear very conspicuously at public funerals (p. 175).
+
+
+=42. Couches, Their General Use.=--One cannot, however, sit or lie down
+upon statues or portrait busts, and the domus is well provided with
+conventional furniture. In general the Romans prefer to _recline_ when
+men of a later age may prefer to _sit_. Visitors sprawl down on couches
+for a little conversation, and the regular method of writing is not at
+a desk but lying on a couch with the right leg doubled and the tablet
+held on the knee. Long habit makes this attitude quite comfortable.
+
+There are many special kinds of beds for reading, dining, and for
+sleeping. Of course the latter are the most elaborate, and in Calvus’s
+and Gratia’s chamber the wooden bed is so high that it has to be
+reached by a footstool. The legs are of bronze, elaborately turned and
+carved, the frame is veneered with tortoise shell and the supports at
+the sides of the sloping pillow-rest are set with plates of silver.
+As for the thick mattresses they are of the finest down and the ample
+blankets are dyed purple and embroidered with gold thread. The couches
+in the triclinium are lighter and lower although of very fine cabinet
+work,[24] but they have to be made larger for they must accommodate
+three diners. The reading couches (_lectuli_--“little beds”) are still
+lighter and simpler, although of elegant design, and those scattered
+under the peristylium are overlaid with plates of gold leaf.
+
+  [Illustration: ROMAN LAMPS: collection in Naples
+  Museum.]
+
+
+=43. Elegant Chairs and Costly Tables.=--Excluding the couches the
+furnishings of a Roman domus seem much simpler than those used in
+a later age. There are few carpets, no great loss in view of the
+beautiful mosaic floors, although there are rich, heavy portières
+across many passages. The chairs, frequently of light and elegant
+workmanship, are as a rule simple and often backless. Some, however,
+are splendidly inlaid with silver, and there are a few great
+_cathedræ_, ponderous arm chairs with lofty backs.
+
+  [Illustration: ALTAR WITH DESIGN OF A CURULE CHAIR.]
+
+In the atrium, moreover, there stands an object surveyed with great
+pride by Calvus’s children--their father’s _sella curulis_, the
+folding, backless arm chair with a seat of leather straps which the
+senator had occupied while prætor. Presently (they hope) he will sit
+again thereon before the admiring Senate house, this time presiding as
+the veritable consul. The “curule chair,” despite its gold and ivory
+arms and cushions covered with purple Alexandrian fabrics, is anything
+but a comfortable seat through a tedious official ceremony; but who
+thinks of personal comfort when reckoning the glories of its public
+occupancy!
+
+Besides the chairs there are everywhere the tables. These are numerous
+but low and small. In the dining room they are round and barely two
+feet in diameter; but what a wealth of art and taste has gone into
+their making! All are of extremely fine wood, but the three reserved
+for the regular couches of the dinner guests have their legs overlaid
+with plates of magnificently embossed gold, and the material upon the
+tops is composed of single thin slabs cross-sawn from the trunks of the
+great citrus trees (a form of cypress) on Mount Atlas.
+
+This wood can be finished to show an exquisite wavy pattern or
+curly veins--“tiger citrus,” “panther citrus,” or “peacock-tail
+citrus”--the experts call the varieties. Over really fine specimens
+true connoisseurs go into ecstasies, and fortunes can be wasted. A
+table somewhat larger than Calvus’s has been known to sell for 500,000
+sesterces ($20,000); and there is a record price of twice that figure.
+The tables in the present mansion are nowhere nearly so valuable; yet
+they are among the most precious objects in the house. If there is a
+fire, they will be rescued almost before anything else, always barring
+the waxen _imagines_.
+
+
+=44. Chests, Cabinets, Water Clocks, and Curios.=--Of course there are
+many other articles of furniture like the great _arca_, the master’s
+strong box in the tablinum; heavily locked and riveted down upon the
+stone beneath. There are the elegant tall candelabra, of bronze or
+even of silver, elaborately ornamented and swinging at night with such
+batteries of olive-oil lamps as to make the marbles, frescos, and
+mosaics give back an alluring glitter. There is the water clock in the
+peristylium, a kind of glorified hour-glass, so adjusted as to record
+small fractions of time, and beside which a special slave usually
+stands all day long to call off the passage of each hour to the family.
+There are great cabinets, chests, and cupboards full of plate, fine
+blankets, and extremely elaborate wardrobes.
+
+In addition to all these upon a kind of sideboard there stand forth
+real or alleged objects of value or antiquity, a silver cup taken
+at the capture of Syracuse; a tall black and red vase signed by the
+master potter Callisthenes; and a statuette of a dancing girl which
+is probably a true work of Lysippus. Conspicuous, too, is a silver
+bowl, battered and discolored, and of extreme simplicity. Mock it
+not, however, it is “the ancestral salt cellar” (as remarks Horace),
+the one silver dish possessed by the good old Calvi, when in all the
+Roman Senate there was only a single complete silver dinner service
+to be exchanged from house to house when high officials entertained
+ambassadors.
+
+
+=45. Spurious Antiques.=--Publius Calvus is happy in possessing
+undeniably genuine antiques. He can afford to laugh at the collection
+of the rich freedman across the way. That poor fellow, anxious to
+“keep in style” and to display an art collection, has fallen into the
+clutches of unscrupulous dealers. He has filled his atrium with absurd
+specimens such as “cups from the table of Laomedon, a double vase
+that belonged to Nestor and a tankard used by Achilles.” His citrus
+tables are of very thin veneer, and in his atrium his impossible wife
+has actually on display a ponderous golden box in which her husband’s
+first beard is deposited. It is also gossiped about that this crude
+fellow actually pretended sickness lately, merely that he might receive
+condoling friends in bed and display to them the gold chasings on the
+bedstead, the magnificent scarlet coverlets, and proclaim his riches by
+having the mattress steeped in expensive perfumes.
+
+
+=46. Pet Animals.=--One thing more must be stated about the house
+of the Calvi before passing to its human denizens. There are a great
+many tame animals in evidence. Over the doorway one already notes
+the caged magpie. From a dark corner within a large cage blinks a
+morose-looking owl. The master’s fine greyhound has a litter of puppies
+which are now scrambling around the peristylium with a special slave to
+look after them. Behind a column is seen gliding a slinky civet. The
+children delight in a small monkey tethered now in the garden. Gratia
+especially has her own beloved lap dog and its personal slave-boy
+custodian. She does not, however, imitate a certain female friend who
+dotes upon snakes, and who has a whole cage of the creatures which she
+often twines about her neck to scare her companions.
+
+So much for the material aspects of a Roman insula and a Roman domus.
+It is time to examine their inhabitants.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV
+
+                    ROMAN WOMEN AND ROMAN MARRIAGES
+
+
+=47. Honorable Status of Roman Women.=--Calvus is the lordly senator
+when his litter swings him down to the Curia by the Old Forum to
+participate in what is still the most venerable council in the world,
+but in his own house his authority is divided. He is not even sure that
+one-half the power is really his. In all private matters his sway is
+shared by his spouse Gratia.
+
+Many are the evils inflicting Imperial Rome, but oppression of women is
+not one of them. By the age of Hadrian it has long since come to pass
+what Cato the Elder sadly predicted three centuries earlier, when Roman
+women were learning the way to freedom: “On the day that women are our
+equals, they will be our masters.”
+
+Roman women are, indeed, excluded from seats in the Senate and from
+the long-defunct right to vote in the public assemblies.[25] They
+cannot command armies nor receive governorships, although every now
+and then an angry senator vainly proposes a resolution that governors
+shall not take their wives along with them to their provinces, lest the
+latter constitute themselves the real rulers of the district. Women do
+not act as judges or jurors. Nay more: legally they are under legal
+disabilities calculated to stir the rage of their “equal suffrage”
+sisters of a later day. They have always the status of minors, and are
+subject to the legal control of either father, guardian, or husband to
+their dying hour.
+
+All this is true, yet, what of it? The jurists have long ago devised
+fictions of the law whereby the women have practically as complete
+control of their property as have their brothers; and the government
+of the Empire is peculiarly a government of backstairs intrigues and
+of secret influence. What chance have mere men against women in such
+warfare? Custom also assigns to women an amount of freedom in most
+social matters which makes Imperial Rome a feminine paradise that can
+only be matched by Twentieth Century America.
+
+
+=48. Men Reluctant to Marry.=--Long since leaders of the bolder
+sex have had to reason with their fellow citizens on the necessity
+of marriage as a patriotic duty. The pragmatic old censor Quintus
+Metellus in 102 B.C. delivered a kind of a lay sermon: “If we could
+get along without wives, fellow citizens (_Quirites_) we should all
+spare ourselves the _tedium_ of marriage, but nature has ordained that
+we can neither live pleasantly with wives, nor exist at all without
+them--therefore let us sacrifice our personal interests to those of
+society.” After him Emperor Augustus enacted stiff laws to decrease the
+alarming number of bachelors, and to give special privileges to the
+parents of three children. This does not prevent many prominent Romans
+from looking upon a wife as a kind of expensive bondage often to be
+shunned altogether.
+
+
+=49. Rights and Privileges of Married Women.=--The great majority
+of all Romans are married. Even the slaves are allowed to join in a
+kind of unofficial wedlock known as _contubernium_, which only a
+very harsh master will dissolve. As for the free married women they
+go everywhere and do almost everything. No husband’s permission is
+needed when they visit the Forum or theater. They can sue and be sued
+or give testimony in the courts without his intervention. They manage
+their own property. Gratia, for example, is well off in her own right.
+Her estates are in charge of a dapper young freedman Ephorus, who is
+incessantly visiting her, and who never dreams of taking orders from
+her husband. So long as Gratia is barely faithful to Calvus he has no
+right to complain. He thanks his “Good Genius,” therefore, that things
+are not as in his friend Probus’s house, where the mistress’s factotum
+is suspected of being on altogether too familiar terms with his fair
+employer.
+
+  [Illustration: A ROMAN MATRON.]
+
+Nevertheless, this freedom is supposed to carry with it corresponding
+responsibilities. Every Roman woman theoretically is responsible for
+her husband’s good name and for the wise ordering of his family. No
+right-minded woman dismisses the hope that at the end they will put
+the great words on her tombstone: “_She counselled well. She managed
+well. She spun wool._”
+
+The control of the vast _familia_ of slaves is usually in a matron’s
+hands, a duty calculated to bring out every executive quality within
+her. She largely conducts the education of her sons, no less than
+of her daughters. No Roman is ashamed to admit (as an Athenian in
+Pericles’s day might have been ashamed) that in the great crises
+of life he took the authoritative advice of his mother.[26] Roman
+civilization is, therefore, for better or worse, a civilization to
+which women no less than men have been suffered to apply the full
+powers of their genius. _It is a “hundred per cent civilization”_;
+whereas, that of Athens, considering the manner in which Athenian women
+were confined and ignored, was hardly more than a “fifty per cent
+civilization.”
+
+
+=50. Selection of Husbands for Young Girls.=--It is a fact, however,
+that in one great and vital matter Roman women are not free agents.
+They usually have their husbands, at least their first husbands, chosen
+for them by their parents. This comes to pass largely because usage
+requires that girls should be married so young that no rational romance
+on their part is really possible.
+
+Custom amounting to law requires that a girl shall be at least twelve,
+and a boy fourteen before marriage. In the case of girls this minimum
+is often adhered to pretty closely, but betrothals can be arranged
+still earlier. Cicero’s daughter Tullia was betrothed at ten and
+married at thirteen--a very common arrangement. Nobody imagined she had
+the least right to complain. Marriage involves a great shift in family
+relations, and the control of the family pertains strictly to the
+_pater familias_ and to his _matrona_. They will ordinarily exercise
+loving pains in selecting a suitable spouse for a daughter, but the
+decision must be very largely theirs.
+
+Boys as a rule marry much later, often not until well into manhood.
+They can demand inevitably a certain right of choice, although the
+parents still exercise a marked authority. As for bachelors, if they
+indulge in various coarse “affairs” with dancing girls, only very
+peevish persons are critical. After marriage, however, they must treat
+their wives with reasonable outward respect, if by no means always
+with austere faithfulness. In any case a girl is likely to be married
+off too young either to resist her parents’ choice or to pick out
+intelligently any proper husband for herself.[27]
+
+
+=51. A Marriage Treaty among Noble-Folk.=--When Gratia’s parents
+decided she was old enough to “become settled” they applied to a
+distinguished kinsman, an ex-consul, to help them to find a suitable
+bridegroom. This noble gentleman looked over a list of his younger
+friends, selected Calvus, and wrote a careful letter commending him,
+praising his lineage, and his firm hopes of official distinction,
+and telling how “he had a frank, open countenance, fresh colored and
+blooming and a handsome well-knit figure”; in short “he was quite
+the fellow to deserve so fine a girl.” The great man went on to add
+that the favored candidate had a respectable fortune, for “though I
+dislike to speak of the financial aspects of the matter, still one must
+consider the tendencies of the day.” Not one word was said as to how
+Gratia herself might want to be consulted; her consent was taken for
+granted.[28]
+
+Gratia’s parents, therefore, approached Calvus’s guardian, his uncle.
+He being satisfied as to dowry and social adjustments, both young
+people were informed of what had been determined for them. Gratia
+and Calvus alike had always expected some such arrangement and
+capitulated with reasonable grace. The ensuing marriage, founded not
+on any romance, but on a cold-blooded study of what supposedly made
+for domestic happiness, in this case at least has been fortunate and
+fruitful. The wedded pair have come truly to love one another, and they
+dwell in great harmony. In this general manner marriages are arranged
+every day in Rome.
+
+Of course these are first marriages. Let Gratia become a widow, or let
+her imitate so many of her friends and divorce her husband, and her
+second spouse will ordinarily be of quite her own choosing; and Calvus,
+of course, in selecting again, would be completely his own master.
+
+
+=52. A Betrothal in Wealthy Circles.=--Gratia’s daughter Junia
+is only ten, yet her parents are already beginning to think about
+betrothals; but only a block up the street there has just been the
+excitement of an actual wedding. Aulus Statilius Pomponius is only an
+eques, but the gods have blessed him with a hundred million sesterces
+($4,000,000). He and his wife have a daughter who will inherit vast
+possessions, and wealth is a splendid substitute for lineage. They have
+found a young Gaius Ulpius Pollio, already in the Senate, who claims a
+distant cousinship to the Emperor himself. Pollio is none too wealthy
+and is already a widower, but Statilia and her mother are infinitely
+delighted at an alliance with the edges of an imperial house. Nothing
+has lacked, therefore, for an ultra-fashionable wedding, the talk of
+the entire capital.
+
+First came the betrothal, a great social concourse in Pomponius’s
+atrium, a throng of equites and senators with their wives, jewels
+flashing, countless tongues gossiping, with Statilia led in by her
+father to the center of the circle to meet the bridegroom-to-be.
+Statilia said not a word through the entire proceedings. All Pollio’s
+dealings were with her father, and in clear voice the two men exchanged
+the legal formulas: “Do you promise to give your daughter, Statilia to
+me, to be my wedded wife?” said the younger man.
+
+“The gods bring luck! I betroth her.”
+
+“The gods bring luck!”
+
+After that technically Statilia became a bride-elect; she was a
+_sponsa_. Either side had legally the right still to break the
+agreement, but it was socially ruinous to do so. Pollio presented
+Statilia with various valuable toilet articles, and especially with a
+ring to be worn on the third finger of the left hand, because everybody
+said that “a nerve ran directly from this particular finger to the
+heart.” It was the engagement ring of a later age almost precisely.
+
+
+=53. Adjusting the Dowry.=--Then followed weeks of frantic
+preparation: the women busy with the things which always have
+made women busy over weddings long before the days of Romulus and
+Remus; Pomponius and Pollio with wrestling over the very nice legal
+adjustments of Statilia’s dowry. How much would the old eques give
+in all, in cash, land, and banker’s securities? How much for his
+daughter’s special use? How much as _dos_, the funds which the
+new son-in-law could touch? How could the property be arranged so that
+if the marriage ended presently in a divorce (as spiteful wagers were
+already being laid that it might) the _dos_ could be given back to
+Statilia without grievous loss of principal?
+
+At one time the betrothal almost had to be cancelled, such extreme
+shrewdness was shown on both sides. But finally the matter was
+adjusted. Three noble friends for either side pressed their seal rings
+in witness to the contracts. The day came for the wedding.
+
+
+=64. Dressing the Bride.=--Family exigencies required a springtime
+wedding, when there were a great many unlucky days to be avoided;
+but an expert Etruscan haruspex at length found a day that satisfied
+Statilia and her parents’ scruples. On the night before the great event
+she laid all her playthings, her childish amulet (_bulla_), and her
+childish garments on the altar of the paternal Lares whose protection
+she was quitting forever. Then she went to bed in a _tunica recta_,
+a fine, yellow garment woven in one piece, supposedly an article of
+extremely good omen.
+
+The next day the bride was dressed personally by her mother with
+unusual care. However expensive her ornaments she had to wear this
+same one-piece tunic next to her skin, the gown being held around the
+waist by a band of wool tied with a complicated “knot of Hercules.”
+She wore, of course, all the jewels loaded upon neck, ears, arms, and
+fingers which by the contract she was to bring Pollio in her trousseau.
+Her long hair had been parted according to ancient custom by a spear
+into six locks, braided now with ribbons weighted down with pearls.
+Her shoes were of finest white leather covered with more pearls. Over
+her head streamed a long, gauzy flame-colored veil of silk--worth
+very literally more than its weight in gold.[29] Pressing down this
+bridal veil was a garland of flowers picked, as custom required, by the
+bride’s own hand, and interspersed with sprigs of the sacred “verbena”
+herbs. Pollio, when he presented himself, was in the best gala costume
+of a senator, but there were no special “wedding garments” for the
+bridegroom, corresponding to the bridal veil.
+
+
+=55. The Marriage Ceremonies.=--The afternoon was at hand, and the
+insulæ in neighboring quarters emptied their plebeian throngs to gaze
+at the gilded litters which went swinging up to the house of Pomponius,
+the armies of scarlet-clad running footmen, the pompous freedmen
+marching beside their patron’s sedans, the bravery of purple robes,
+the flash of gold and of jewels. Of course, the atrium had been hung
+with garlands. The air inside was heavy with the perfumes of flowers,
+of costly unguents, and of the finest Arabian incense, while the noble
+guests elbowed and pushed one another to get near the altar near the
+tablinum and win the best sight of the happy pair.
+
+Roman marriages are pretty strictly civil ceremonies. There is no legal
+requirement for any religious rites. Hardly anybody now is married
+according to the stale old formula of the _confarreatio_, when the
+betrothed couple became wedded by eating a cake which had just been
+consecrated by the Pontifex Maximus. A much simpler form is now used,
+but before the ceremony there always has to be the sacrifice.
+
+Amid a decently pious hush a sheep is led to the side of the water tank
+(_impluvium_) in the atrium; the shrewd-eyed old haruspex, trailing his
+long robe and muttering jargon that passes for Etruscan, is aided by
+two skillful assistants in killing the creature promptly and avoiding
+disgusting gore; then in ripping open its belly and examining with
+expert eye the still quivering entrails. (See p. 429.) It is proper now
+for Statilia to turn pale and clutch the arm of her mother. What if the
+signs were unfavorable? “Whoever heard of bad omens being discovered
+at a great wedding?” cynically whispers a senator. “_Bene_--good!”
+announces the haruspex with a leer. “_Bene! Bene!_” echo all the
+guests. The soothsayer retires. The wedding can proceed.
+
+The final ceremony is very simple. First the tablets of the marriage
+contract and the transfer of the dowry are produced, read, and, if not
+already witnessed, are signed by the proper attestors. Then a young
+matron-of-honor, Statilia’s _pronuba_, leads the bride up to Pollio.
+She thrusts out her hand from under her great veil and takes the hand
+of her husband-elect. Everybody listens while he, and not any priest
+or official for him, puts the direct question: “Will you be my _mater
+familias_?” “Yes,” answers Statilia, perhaps a little too readily; and
+then she asks him openly: “And will you be my _pater familias_?” “Yes,”
+and immediately there is a general shout of congratulation.
+
+These decisive words once spoken, Pollio, his bride, and her parents
+unite in placing a cake of coarse bread upon the altar, uttering brief
+dedications of the food to Jupiter and Juno, and also to the quaint
+rural gods Tellus, Picumnus, and Pilumnus who will bless the estates
+of the new couple. The cakes are presented in a basket held by a
+young boy, Statilia’s cousin, her _camillus_, both of whose parents
+are required to be living. The company now redoubles its cry of “Good
+luck! Good luck! _felicitas!_”--and everybody is assuredly in excellent
+appetite for the ensuing wedding feast.
+
+
+=56. The Wedding Procession.=--This is not the place for describing a
+great banquet (see p. 113); it is enough here to state that Pomponius
+is obliged to justify his wealth by a prodigal hospitality. Vain has
+proved Augustus’s law limiting the cost of wedding feasts to one
+thousand sesterces ($40). Such regulations win only laughter!
+
+As the climax after the dainties comes the distribution of pieces of
+the huge wedding-cake (_mustaceum_), made of fine meal steeped in
+new wine and served upon bay leaves. By this time everybody has drunk
+enough good Massic and Falernian to be excited and talkative, it has
+become twilight in the street, and Pomponius’s chief freedman (the
+master of ceremonies) gives the signal: “The procession!”
+
+In the vestibule musters a squad of flute players and torch bearers.
+As the music strikes up, good form requires Statilia to cast herself
+into her mother’s arms and weep and scream violently. Good form
+equally requires Pollio to tear her thence with playful violence--“a
+remembrance,” people say, “of the Romans’ rape of the Sabines.”
+Statilia promptly ceases struggling and submits cheerfully to being led
+through the door.
+
+The wedding procession is an indispensable part of the ceremony.
+Probably if Pollio lives in another city, some family friend will
+now loan his residence for “leading home the bride.” As it is, the
+bridegroom fortunately possesses a handsome house about a mile distant
+on the Quirinal. For all her wealth Statilia has to walk the entire
+way.
+
+First go the flute players bringing the crowds out of all the insulæ
+when they cross the Subura; then long files of the younger guests of
+both sexes, talking vivaciously, and flourishing white-thorn torches;
+then the camillus and a youthful assistant bearing ostentatiously the
+bride’s spindle and distaff, token of the household labors presumably
+ahead of her; then the bride herself, led on either hand by a boy both
+of whose parents are living, while a third of like good fortune carries
+a special torch of honor. Pollio himself walks just behind the bride,
+and is kept busy tossing walnuts to all the children in the crowd
+in token of the fact that he has now (for the second time) put away
+childish things. After them, with more flambeaux and in merry disorder,
+taking pains to exhibit their fine robes and jewels, follow all the
+older relatives and friends of both parties. The torchlight, the music,
+the brave colors, and gems gleaming out of the darkness make the scene
+bewitching. No wonder all the gaping crowds join in the marriage shouts
+“Io Talasse!”[30] or in the oft-repeated “Felicitas!”
+
+
+=57. At the Bridegroom’s House.=--The guests and many of the spectators
+fail not also to raise the “Fescinne songs” proper for marriage
+processions; old folk songs very coarse, and interspersed with
+extremely broad quips and personalities. At last the house of Pollio is
+reached. It is a blaze of light from vestibule to garden, and all the
+_decuriæ_ (squads of ten) of slaves are mustered to greet their new
+_domina_.
+
+At the entrance Statilia stops to wind the door pillars with bits of
+wool, and to touch the door itself with oil and fat, the emblems of
+plenty. She is then promptly _lifted_ over the threshold to avoid
+an ill-omened stumble, and is immediately confronted by her husband who
+has slipped in before her and who now presents her with a cup of water
+and a glowing fire brand, token that she is entitled to the protection
+of his family Lares. Statilia accepts these and in clear voice repeats
+the very ancient and famous marriage formula, “Where thou art Gaius, I
+am Gaia” (_Ubi tu Gaius, ego Gaia_).
+
+The invited guests now sweep inside and there is more elbowing while
+Statilia produces three silver coins; one of these she gives to her
+husband as emblem of her dowry; one she lays on the altar for the
+Lares of her new home; one she casts back into the street, a gift to
+the “Lares of the Highway” who guarded the door. Then her marriage
+torch is blown out, and tossed away to be scrambled for as emblem of
+supreme good luck by all the younger guests. The matron of honor has
+already arranged the luxurious marriage chamber, and the happy pair
+are led inside and the door shut upon them, while all their friends
+join in the rollicking “nuptial song” just outside the portal. There
+is nothing left now for the guests to do but to go home; all being
+invited, however, to return to Pollio’s house the next day to join in
+a second great feast, with Statilia this time presiding as mistress of
+the establishment.
+
+
+=58. Honors and Liberties of a Matron.=--Before her marriage Statilia
+had been a mere girl, completely controlled by her parents, unable to
+appear in public save under severe restrictions, and apparently with
+hardly a will of her own. The day after entering Pollio’s house she
+finds herself become by one act a noble _matrona_, with the destinies
+of a huge retinue of slaves and freedmen at her disposal, enjoying a
+great property, meeting her husband’s friends as their equal, going
+where she pleases, saying what she pleases, almost (within wide limits)
+doing what she pleases.
+
+Abroad in crowds, her dress, the _stola matronalis_, secures
+the young married woman extreme respect. Every March, she, with
+all the other honorable wives in Rome, enjoys the honors of the
+_matronalia_, an official festival, kind of “Mother’s day” devoted
+to celebrating the virtues of the gracious heads of each household.
+On this day no less than on her birthday, she receives presents from
+her husband, her family, and all her dependents. Finally, being a
+Senator’s wife, when she comes to die, she probably will be entitled
+to a great state funeral, with a formal eulogy in the Forum as if she
+were a public personage. No wonder that Roman girls yearn eagerly for
+marriage! It is their astonishing emancipation.
+
+
+=59. Unhappy Marriages and Frivolous Women.=--Will a fashionable
+alliance like that of Statilia and Pollio turn out happily? There
+are scoffers even among the friends who bore the torches. Nobody
+expects Pollio (a gay young aristocrat) to prove an example of austere
+faithfulness, although he must never do anything to insult his wife
+publicly. As for Statilia the cynics about the fair sex are very many.
+Long ago Ovid has written, “Every woman may be won if only she’s
+rightly tempted.” If a young wife is light-minded, she has plenty
+of opportunities to acquire lovers, and at the great festivals and
+banquets, at the theaters, gladiator fights, and circuses women have
+every chance to meet intriguing men without interference by their
+husbands.
+
+The very fact that as unmarried girls Roman matrons were denied
+all chance for lawful romances, now makes devious love affairs
+seem all the more racy. Any number of fine ladies have indulged in
+unwise “friendships” with dissolute actors, public dancers, or even
+gladiators. In many a mansion there is a handsome freedman or even a
+slave who can become extraordinarily familiar with his mistress. There
+are said to be coarse-grained mothers who actually teach their married
+daughters how to push intrigues and to smuggle in or out love-letters
+under the very noses of their husbands; and there are plenty of young
+men, rich, “noble,” and very idle, who spend their time philandering
+with married ladies.
+
+With every deduction and allowance for scandal the number of such
+unsteady women is very great. “What snakes are driving you mad,” cried
+Juvenal, “that you think of taking a wife? Why not leap from a high
+window or from the Æmilian bridge rather than submit to a she-tyrant?”
+
+However, even if women lead lives that are outwardly respectable, there
+are plenty of minor charges against Roman ladies. Some are utterly
+extravagant; haunting the fine shops along the Via Lata and running
+up ruinous bills. Some are laughed at for taking up music, poetry, or
+Greek antiquities as shallow fads and “chattering in a mixture of Latin
+and Greek, and making their tongues go incessantly like a gong.” Some
+are said to take fencing lessons and to waste their days practicing
+on a dummy antagonist with a foil, and learning to handle a shield
+as if intending to join the army. Others are never happy unless they
+know all the latest news: “What the Thracians and the Seres (Chinese)
+are doing”; “Who has just married a notorious widow”; “Whether a
+comet threatens the King of Parthia.” Others are utterly selfish and
+heartless; they will weep at the loss of a pet sparrow, but treat their
+slave girls with hideous brutality, and “let a husband die to save a
+lap-dog’s life.” Worst of all are certain women actually suspected of
+giving their unloved husbands a dose of poison when various reasons
+make a divorce inconvenient.
+
+
+=60. Divorces, Easy and Frequent.=--However, divorce is the regular
+outcome of very many unlucky marriages. Every Roman girl, when her
+parents tell her “We have chosen for you--”; knows in the back of her
+mind: “Marriage will give me freedom. If this wedlock isn’t a success,
+my next husband will probably be my own choosing.”
+
+The first divorce mentioned in Roman history was in 231 B.C. when a
+certain Ruga put away a truly beloved wife, out of a high sense of
+public duty--because she bore him no children. The public was shocked
+at such action then, but soon it was shocked no longer. Under the later
+Republic lucky was the nobleman or noblewoman who was not divorced at
+least once. Cicero divorced Terentia after a long wedded life seemingly
+because he wanted a new marriage portion; Cato the Younger (immaculate
+Stoic) repudiated his wife to please a friend, then calmly took her
+back again at the friend’s death.
+
+Under the Empire things hardly seem to have become any better. “Trial
+marriages” are not a recognized institution; but surely they exist. It
+is direfully easy for either a man or woman to take the initiative.
+No court proceedings are necessary. “Take away your property!” spoken
+formally and before witnesses is sufficient to break up the household,
+although the more usual method is to “_send a messenger_”; _i.e._
+dispatch a delegation of friends to the other party to break the news.
+Vainly did Augustus try by legislation to make divorces less prompt and
+convenient. The whole proceeding is still grievously popular and simple.
+
+Of course, divorced persons are under no stigma in the fashionable set.
+Many a time a couple has separated, married elsewhere, separated again,
+and then resumed the old wedlock. Women are charged with “flitting
+from one home to another, wearing out the bridal veil”; and indeed,
+spicy instances are cited of ladies who boasted “eight husbands in
+five autumns, a fact worthy of commemoration on their tombs”; or of
+reckoning the years not by the annual consuls but by their annual
+husbands.
+
+
+=61. Celibacy Common: Old Families Dying Out.=--Under such conditions
+what wonder many a rich Roman prefers celibacy! They often proclaim the
+“advantages of childlessness.” Old men of property without children
+are fawned upon with offers of every kind of service. Social and even
+public honors are thrust upon them. Their atria are crowded every
+morning with genteel visitors; their least wishes anticipated--all in
+the desperate hopes that “when their tablets are opened” they will have
+remembered the swarm of lackeys in their wills. Indeed, adventurers
+have been known to go far in Rome by making a false show of wealth,
+concealing the fact they actually have children, and “seeming bilious
+and complaining of indigestion.” Everybody apparently will give them
+favor or credit. It is a familiar scandal.
+
+Under such circumstances what wonder most of the old Republican
+families have died out by the age of Hadrian, that the Calvi feel very
+isolated; and that of the strictly patrician families only the famous
+Cornelii appear now to survive.
+
+
+=62. Nobler Types of Women.=--But do the above stories represent
+the true moral condition of most women in Rome? Certainly not, or
+society could not exist. In the first place such women represent the
+rotten crust of the nobility; the ordinary equestrian and middle-class
+women are still relatively modest and moral, efficient managers, good
+mothers, and, if they are poor, hard workers. In the second place, even
+among the upper Senatorial nobility, there are plenty of matronæ of the
+very best type; true props to their husbands, wise mothers to their
+children, kindly mistresses to their slaves. Gratia has many friends
+whose households are schools of virtue, and many a Roman, from the
+Imperial Augustus down, has confessed that his wife has been his tower
+of strength.
+
+
+=63. Famous and Devoted Wives.=--People still talk of the famous Arria,
+wife of Cæcina Pætus, who, when the Emperor Claudius ordered him to
+commit suicide, and he could hardly pluck up courage for a manly exit
+from life, as an example plunged the dagger in her own breast, then
+held it out to her husband, saying, “Pætus, it doesn’t hurt me.”
+Her own daughter, the younger Arria, and Fannia, the wife of the
+philosopher Helvidius Priscus, grossly murdered by Nero, won hardly
+less reputations for fortitude. Pliny the Younger has recorded a more
+humbly born Italian dame, who, when her husband was suffering from
+incurable ulcers, but lacking the hardihood to kill himself alone, tied
+herself to him and with him jumped into the lake at Larium so that both
+were drowned.
+
+  [Illustration: WEDDED PAIR WITH CAMILLUS (Boy
+  Attendant).]
+
+Fortunately the days of tyrannous emperors seem long since over. Wives
+usually can show their virtue by living for their husbands and not by
+dying with them. Rather lately there passed away an old man, Domitius
+Tullus. Vast was his wealth but it brought him no pleasure; he was so
+crippled and racked in every limb “that he could only enjoy his great
+riches by looking at them. He was so helpless that he had to get others
+to clean and wash his teeth.” He had a young and a very pretty wife;
+but so far from neglecting him or trying to hasten his end, she kept
+him alive for years by extraordinarily faithful personal care. Lately,
+too, the venerable Senator Macrinus has lost his wife, “who if she had
+lived in the good old days would have been counted an exemplary woman.
+They lived together for thirty-nine years, with never a single quarrel
+or disagreement.”[31]
+
+  [Illustration: SEATED NOBLEWOMAN.]
+
+These are simply random cases. Of course, many people know the tribute
+Pliny the Younger paid to his own wife Calpurnia, much younger than
+himself but absolutely devoted to her husband: “She has a keen
+intelligence, she is wonderfully economical, and she loves me.” He went
+on to add that she read all his literary effusions most carefully,
+sat behind a curtain to listen when he gave public recitations before
+a male audience, and that when he had to argue in court had relays
+of runners to keep her informed as to how well he was impressing the
+judges. When the twain were separated she “would embrace his letters as
+though they were himself,” while he (if he got no new letters from her)
+“would read over her old letters and take them up again and again as
+though they were new ones.”
+
+
+=64. The Story of Turia.=--One day when Gratia had caught young
+Junia overhearing a very uncanny story of a rich old lady who kept a
+whole troupe of profligate actors for her own private amusement, she
+took her out upon the magnificent avenue of stately tombs along the
+Appian Way to visit the memorial to a venerated ancestress,--a certain
+Turia who had lived in the troubled days of the Second Triumvirate,
+and who by her rare courage, fortitude, and intelligence had saved her
+husband the noble Vespillo from disgrace and death.
+
+Turia’s husband in a long inscription recited how she had saved his
+life in the Civil Wars at sore peril to her own, and how she had lived
+with him afterward in perfect affection and harmony, although, being
+childless, such was her devotion to him that she actually offered
+to let Vespillo divorce her that he might have children by a second
+marriage, promising very literally “to be a sister” to his new wife.
+But her husband repudiated the strange idea with anger: “That you
+should have ever thought it possible we could be separated save by
+death was most horrible to me. The one sorrow that was in store for me
+was that I was destined to survive you.”
+
+And thus the tablet concluded: “You were a faithful and obedient wife;
+you were kind and gracious, sociable and friendly; you were assiduous
+in your spinning; you followed our family and national religious rites
+and admitted no foreign superstitions; you did not dress conspicuously,
+nor make any kind of household display. Your management of our house
+was exemplary; you tended my mother as carefully as if she had been
+your own. You had innumerable other excellencies, common to the best
+type of matrons, but these I mention are peculiarly your own.”[32]
+
+Turia has been dead over a hundred years, but there are still high-born
+women in Rome who are her equals. One of them, Calvilla, has a fine
+young son now about thirteen, who owes an infinite debt to his mother,
+and whom the Emperor will presently select as the heir presumptive to
+the throne. History will call him Marcus Aurelius.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+                    COSTUME AND PERSONAL ADORNMENT
+
+
+=65. The Type of Roman Garments.=--How is it possible to mention Roman
+women and Roman weddings without thoughts also of Roman costume and
+personal adornment? Seldom, indeed, has there been or will there be
+an age in which fine wearing apparel, and jewelry, and elaborate hair
+dressing can occupy so great a place in the thoughts of both sexes as
+it does in this era of the Roman Empire.
+
+Good clothes and fine rings are in fact so important that if you do
+not possess them, on many social occasions you must hire them. There
+were several guests at Statilia’s wedding who appeared in gala robes
+with handsome jewels to match. With them went attendants who passed
+for confidential freedmen; yet it was whispered they were actually the
+agents of costume purveyors charged to see that every hired banqueting
+gown and topaz-set ring was promptly returned.
+
+Roman garments are like the Greek: they are usually _wrapped on_,
+they are not like those of a later age which must be _put on_. Pins,
+buckles, and brooches usually take the place of buttons. Sometimes,
+however, costumes of a different type can be met with in the
+cosmopolitan crowds in the fora. Occasionally are seen Persians and
+Parthians wearing tight-fitting leathern casings around their lower
+limbs, like the articles that another day will style “trousers”; and
+more frequently are met blond or red-headed Gauls wearing _caracallæ_,
+close-fitting garments with long sleeves, slit down in front and
+reaching to the knee.[33] Such dresses are, however, exceptional.
+Loose shawl-like apparel prevails in Rome just as with nearly all the
+classical Mediterranean peoples.
+
+  [Illustration: ROMANS WEARING THE TOGA.]
+
+
+=66. The Toga, the National Latin Garment.=--But Roman tailors have
+never been servile imitators of Sparta or Athens. Long before Greek
+costumers became familiar visitors by the Tiber, the Latin folk had
+found their own national garment--the _toga_. Every true Roman is
+proud of the right to wear this distinctive garment, and its use
+is prohibited to non-Romans, however princely or wealthy. A group
+of ex-slaves has just come from the prætor, where their master has
+emancipated them--thereby making them Roman citizens. In a body they
+are flocking to the clothiers’ stalls whence they can emerge as
+arrogant _togati_--lawful members of the imperial race. An unfortunate
+senator has lately been condemned for malfeasance in office and
+sentenced to banishment. It is not the least of his penalty that
+he must also divest himself of his toga: it can never be worn by a
+degraded exile. Clients have to wear this gown _de rigueur_ when they
+visit their patrons in the morning--he would feel insulted if they
+omitted it.
+
+Anybody also having the least official business at the palace must
+wear the toga; and the reigning Hadrian has just issued an edict
+commanding all senators and equites to wear the garment on the city
+streets at all times except when returning from dinner parties; while
+the distinguished rhetorician Titus Castricius has lately delivered a
+public lecture,--probably by imperial request, on “the proper costume
+for senators walking about Rome,” urging obedience to the law. The toga
+in short occupies a place in Roman manners hardly equaled by any other
+garment in any other nation.
+
+Nevertheless, many a client or nobleman, as he dons this mantle,
+inwardly curses the folly of the men of “the good old times” in
+selecting the toga as the national garment. It is very hot, very
+clumsy, very hard to drape around one’s self without expert assistance.
+
+Everybody knows the story of old Cincinnatus, how when he was out
+plowing and the committee of Senators suddenly appeared to say, “You
+are named dictator; make haste to save the imperilled army”, would
+not receive them until his wife had run and fetched his toga and he
+was suitably clad. In his day, however, the toga was almost the only
+garment worn and was hardly more than a small-sized woolen shawl. Now
+one always wears a _tunica_ as a house and undergarment, and the
+toga has been growing ever larger and more elaborate. Dandies still
+wear togas so huge as to justify Cicero’s sneer: “They wrap themselves
+in _sails_ not in togas.” But even for decent citizens the
+garment is disagreeably complicated. The use thereof is one of the
+penalties for the splendid right to boast, “Civis Romanus sum!”
+
+
+=67. Varieties of Togas.=--The normal toga is always of wool and is
+usually of a dull white, the natural color of the wool; but in the
+Republican days seekers for election to public office would have their
+togas bleached to a conspicuous snowy whiteness, and hence their name,
+_Candidati_--“extra-white” men. Boys wear the _toga prætexta_, a toga
+with an elaborately embroidered purple hem. When they put this off on
+reaching manhood (fourteen to sixteen) they proudly assume the pure
+white toga, inwardly hoping, however, that they can some day reappear
+in the _prætexta_--for it is also the official robe of the high
+“curule” magistrates.
+
+More glorious still is the _toga picta_ entirely of purple and with
+gold embroidery, which can be worn by great officials while they are
+presiding over public games, and which is used by the Emperors on
+all state occasions. Quite different, of course, is the gloomy _toga
+pulla_, dyed to some dark color, and worn as mourning or to excite
+sympathy in some threatened calamity; _e.g._ if one is the defendant in
+a dangerous lawsuit.
+
+
+=68. Draping the Toga.=--The plain white toga, however, suffices
+in most cases for most Romans. Of course, there is a vast difference
+between the dirty shawls not without moth holes, which some of Calvus’s
+clients have thrown around them the morning we visit his mansion, and
+the garment which his special valet, Parmenio, drapes about him when
+presently the Senator announces, “I must visit the Forum.”
+
+Parmenio has to be assisted by no less than three other slaves while
+he literally winds the soft white mass of fine Milesian wool around
+his master. When skillfully draped, the toga appears to be an easy and
+elegant garment, leaving the right arm at liberty, and flowing around
+the person in noble lines implying dignity and deliberation. Well can
+it be called “one of the handsomest dresses ever worn by man”; but who
+can tell the pains required to get the huge semi-circular fabric into
+shape.[34]
+
+Every fold has to settle with precision; every corner has to trail to
+exactly the right length; and the whole has to be so adjusted that
+Calvus can walk easily without fear of dislocating his toga, although
+it is without brooches or other fastenings. When at last, however, all
+is ready, the results justify the effort. Its wearer appears every inch
+a Senator: one of the leaders of the arrogant imperial race.
+
+
+=69. The Tunica.=--The toga has to be worn everywhere in public,
+but the instant he is back from the hot Forum, Calvus is more than
+glad to fling it off. Indoors he, with all other Romans, wears the
+_tunica_. The tunic is a comparatively new garment in Italy. In
+early Rome probably the toga was the only clothing worn at all except
+a simple undershirt or loin cloth. The tunic in fact resembles closely
+the Greek _chiton_,[35] and is made much the same for men and
+for women. It is a kind of long shirt fashioned by sewing two pieces
+of cloth together, with holes for the arms or with short sleeves, and
+secured around the waist by a girdle. Long sleeves (Gallic style) are
+not unknown but they are accounted very effeminate. Without the belt
+the tunic falls well down to the ankles, but it is easily shortened by
+drawing the cloth up through the girdle and letting it tumble around
+the waist in a loose fold.
+
+In warm weather the tunic is often the only garment that a Roman wears
+indoors. In cold weather he will put a second tunic (or two or three
+extra, as did Augustus) under his outer one. Like the toga the tunic is
+ordinarily made of white wool, the finer the better, but, unlike the
+toga, if the wearer is of the nobility, the tunic is never plain. When
+the owner is an eques a narrow strip of purple (_angusticlavia_),
+if a senator a broad strip (_laticlavia_), runs down the entire
+length of the garment both behind and in front. This is the official
+token of his rank, that all men may reverence his nobility, and one of
+the chief tasks of a great man’s valets is to hang the toga so that the
+purple strips on the tunic will always peep out conspicuously from the
+undergarment.
+
+
+=70. Capes, Cloaks, and Gala Garments.=--The toga and the tunic are
+the two standard male garments in peace times, but they do not meet
+every requirement. On festival days, unless the imperial edict is very
+strictly enforced, most of the younger citizens will be seen streaming
+to the theater or circus in the _lacerna_. This, at first, was merely
+a short sleeveless mantle of light stuff thrown over the toga to
+protect against dust or rain. Presently it was made into a more festive
+garment, usually of brilliantly dyed wool, and was substituted for the
+toga outright. There is a hood usually attached and it is convenient,
+therefore, to wear the lacerna if one is not anxious to be recognized
+on the streets; it is so very easy to conceal one’s face.
+
+In bad weather, and with poor country people in general, however, the
+_pænula_ is more useful. This is much like the lacerna, a sleeveless
+(“Shaker”) cloak or cape, also provided with a hood, but always made
+of coarse heavy material. Most travelers wear the pænula, and it is a
+common garment for the slaves.
+
+Like the pænula in turn is a third type of swinging cloak, but usually
+cut shorter,--the _sagum_, issued to soldiers. Sometimes it is of
+rough material for the severest purposes, sometimes it is a truly
+elegant garment for officers, floating in bright colors over flashing
+armor. The generals wear a special sagum of conspicuous red, the
+_paludamentum_. The sagum is, in fact, so decidedly the military cloak
+that the phrase “changing the toga for the sagum” has become a regular
+way of saying “being suddenly called to arms.”
+
+One can see many Oriental and Greek-style garments in Rome, but
+native gentlemen have only one other article of apparel that must
+be mentioned. Everybody ought to keep a gauzy and brilliantly dyed
+_synthesis_ for indoor wear at formal dinner parties, to wear over
+the tunic. It can never be worn outdoors except during the jolly riot
+of the Saturnalia, but indoors it is light, comfortable, and a fine
+contrast to the heavy togas. Saffron, amethystine, and azure are the
+favorite colors, and at ultra-fashionable parties it is good form for
+a male guest to rise between courses and put on a new synthesis of a
+different hue, held ready by his slaves.
+
+
+=71. Garments of Women: the _Stola_ and the _Palla_.=--Calvus, of
+course, keeps many specimens of all these garments in his wardrobe.
+The average poor citizen gets along with a toga, a tunic or two, and
+probably a pænula. Gratia’s clothes chests and presses are inevitably
+more ample than her husband’s, but the garments of a Roman lady
+resemble those of a Greek--they are far more like the masculine
+garments than are those of women of a later age. Gratia really seldom
+wears any save three kinds of garments: her tunics, her stolæ, and her
+pallæ.
+
+Roman ladies anxious about their figures cannot squeeze themselves
+with corsets, but sometimes they do wear bands of soft leather pressed
+tightly around their bodies. Then comes the tunic, extremely like the
+inner tunic worn by the men, but it fits the body rather more closely;
+sometimes it has no sleeves, and it falls only to the knee and it needs
+no belt. Over this single garment is the essential dress of the Roman
+matrona, her _stola_. It is decidedly more elaborate than the outer
+tunic of the men. In the main it is not sewn, but is held together by
+a whole series of clasps and pins--giving an admirable opportunity for
+the display of gem-set buckles. There is a girdle, passing high, above
+the waist; the many folds tumble to the feet, but at the very bottom
+there is an embroidered flounce or hem, and with noble women at least
+this flounce is always of purple as is the border around the neck.
+
+  [Illustration: A ROMAN MATRON: showing the
+  _stola_ and _palla_.]
+
+Like the toga, the stola is an extremely ample garment, giving its
+owner a chance to display innumerable graceful folds; and like the
+toga, good taste requires that it should usually be of clear white. To
+wear the stola is the proud privilege of Roman matrons, and in it no
+woman of light character is permitted to flaunt herself.[36] Girls put
+on the stola immediately after their marriage, and even more than the
+toga it is a garment of grace, permitting beautiful poses of statuesque
+dignity.
+
+Outdoors a Roman lady will wrap herself in her _palla_. This is merely
+a large shawl, although often with elaborate arrangement. Gratia’s
+maids usually throw one third of its length over her left shoulder,
+letting the end trail almost to her feet, while the remainder is
+carried behind the back and wound skilfully around the wearer, although
+if a head covering is needed, one can draw up some of the cloth and
+form a loose and convenient hood.
+
+Every woman in Rome possesses a palla; and the wealthy, of course, own
+whole arsenals of them in every possible size, weight, material, color,
+and embroidery, suitable for all purposes from winter travel to snaring
+susceptible youths beside one in the theater.
+
+
+=72. Materials for Garments. Wool and Silk.=--So much for the types of
+garments. Needless to say that their fabrics and details are infinite.
+_Wool_ is still the standard material. Even now “in these degenerate
+days” the best Roman matrons keep the spindles and distaffs working
+with their maids in the peristylia, and make up a large part of all the
+coarser garments needed by the household. Calvus takes pride in wearing
+and exhibiting a really handsome toga and in telling his friends “my
+Gratia made that”; but various other senators can utter like boasts,
+their wives merely imitating such empresses as Livia, who wove all
+Augustus’s everyday garments.
+
+On the great villa estates the slaves are kept from busy idleness in
+winter by weaving cloth, not merely for themselves, but for their
+masters’ families in the city. But such fabrics, ordinarily, are
+decidedly coarse. There are really fine woolens made in southern Italy,
+but the very best comes from the East. “Milesian wool” is a trade name
+in every market, though very likely much of it actually is from Tyre,
+Sidon, or Alexandria. A good deal of linen is woven up into comfortable
+house dresses. Enough cotton comes in from the Orient to make it no
+rarity for superior garments, but it is too scarce for any common use.
+What every Roman of fashion dotes upon, however, is _silk_.
+
+Far away in the East is a half-mythical land, _Serica_ or _Seres_.
+Hardly any European has ever penetrated there,[37] but caravan traders
+pass along small parcels of a wonderful material alleged to grow on
+trees. Garments made thereof are incomparably lovely; but the material
+is worth its full weight in gold or even more. As a result the stuff is
+spun up into the flimsiest and gauziest gala dresses imaginable, and
+these are often partly made of cotton. Seneca has written in disgust
+“We see silken garments, if indeed, they can be called ‘garments’ which
+neither afford protection to the body, nor concealment to modesty.”
+For all that women like Statilia and her mother will be miserable if
+they have not plenty of “Serician tissues” wherewith to float into the
+Amphitheater or Circus and dazzle their rivals in a city where, as
+complains Juvenal: “Everybody always dresses above his means.”
+
+
+=73. Styles of Arranging Garments. Fullers and Cleaners.=--With
+garments so simple in their sewing as togas and stolas there is little
+call in Rome for exclusive tailoring establishments or for fashionable
+makers of “gowns.” Practically all purchased clothing, however costly,
+is “ready-made,” although the shifting styles in girding, arranging the
+folds, buckles, etc., are infinite. For example, there is a special
+arrangement of the toga in peculiarly ample folds known as the
+“Gabinian cincture,” and this form is practically required every time a
+man joins in an important sacrifice.
+
+If, nevertheless, the dressmaker’s skill is simple, there is constant
+demand for that of the _cleaner’s_, whose art is brought to great
+perfection. The huge squares of fine woolen seem continually going
+to or coming from the fullers’ establishments. The fullers pass for
+peculiarly jovial, friendly people, and the “jolly fuller” is a stock
+character in comedy.
+
+Soap is a Gallic invention and it is just coming into fairly common
+use. Garments are still cleansed, however, with “fuller’s meal,” a
+kind of alkaline earth. Wherever you go around the humbler parts of
+Rome you hear a monotonous song being trolled over and over, and
+coming usually from a pungently smelling establishment. It is the
+fullers’ _tripudium_ (“three step”), sung as they tread out the
+clothes in the great vats all day long. After the direct cleaning, a
+fine garment has to be recarded to bring up the soft nap, then it is
+carefully smoothed in a large wooden press with powerful screws.[38]
+Every household can do its own laundry work, but in no later age will
+the “cleaner” reign with the supremacy which he enjoys in Rome. His
+justification comes when, at great public assemblies, thousands of
+togas and stolas veritably shine under the Italian sun like newly
+fallen snow.
+
+
+=74. Barber Shops. The Revived Wearing of Beards.=--Rome, too, is
+a city of barbers. Their shops abound everywhere and are great places
+for lounging and gossip. Most men have their hair clipped quite short,
+although a good many dandies delight in wearing fringes or rows of
+short crisped curls (as did Nero) often reeking with pomatum. People
+who dislike appearing old sometimes use black hair dye; and not a few
+elderly senators are said to wear wigs.
+
+  [Illustration: SCENE BEFORE A BARBER SHOP.]
+
+The barber shops, however, have recently received a terrific blow;
+and loud is the lament of the entire profession shared in by all
+those private “house barbers” who care for the wealthy. Since not
+long after 300 B.C. Romans have been smooth shaven, beards ordinarily
+being counted the sign of rusticity or of poverty; although teachers
+of philosophy wore long whiskers as a kind of professional badge. The
+day when a youth shaved off his first beard was celebrated almost as
+elaborately as the day he assumed the pure white “manly” toga. But to
+general consternation the reigning Emperor Hadrian, in his passionate
+admiration for Periclean Athens, has astonished all Rome by appearing
+with a full beard. Of course, every courtier and government official
+has loyally imitated him. Of course, every senator and eques has with
+equal loyalty done likewise. Feminine protests have been utterly
+vain. Beards, sometimes closely trimmed, sometimes long and venerable,
+have blossomed on almost every manly chin across the entire Empire.
+Imperial Rome will henceforth continue bearded until the era of
+Constantine, nearly two hundred years, when the razor will suddenly
+resume its sway. Such is the power of Cæsarian example!
+
+  [Illustration: ROMAN FEMALE HEADS: showing elaborate
+  arrangement of the hair.]
+
+
+=75. FASHIONS IN WOMEN’S HAIRDRESSING. HAIR ORNAMENTS.=--If the
+barbers are unhappy, their gentler rivals, the _ornatrices_, who
+dress the hair of ladies, still reign in full glory. No Roman girl
+dreams of cutting off her hair, but the modes of arranging it are, as
+says Ovid, “More numerous than the leaves on the oak or the bees on
+Mount Hybla.” Fashions come and go with astonishing rapidity, and we
+have seen how Gratia’s statue was devised so that a new coiffure could
+be substituted for the old (see p. 53).
+
+As a rule young girls bind back their hair in simple coils or clusters
+of curls, but some of the styles permitted to them from the moment
+they become matrons defy easy description. The prevailing mode rather
+favors building up the hair in an elaborate semi-circular mound in
+front with ringlets and plaits behind; but many a lady appears with
+a perfect tower-like structure that would collapse instantly were it
+not an affair compacted with extreme art. Of course, such edifices put
+a premium on false hair, preferably blonde from Germany, or even on
+wigs. Auburn hair, however, is extremely fashionable, and many a lady
+buys the expensive “Batavian caustic” supposed to bleach to the proper
+shade. Even very modest women can rejoice in great treasure chests of
+hair ornaments, elaborate hair pins, and combs made of precious metal
+or fine boxwood, ivory, and tortoise shell; besides all kinds of snoods
+and wimples usually of scarlet, amethystine, or ivory. Noble dames
+will keep at least one _diadem_, a long band of golden chains set
+with as many pearls and jewels as possible. On simple social occasions
+they will wear their hair in a net of gold thread. As for the very
+wealthy, they have one simple and favorite method of displaying their
+riches--that of bidding their maids, almost every day, to sprinkle the
+whole coiffure liberally with pure gold dust.
+
+
+=76. Elaborate Toilets.=--Needless to say, the toilet is, to ladies
+of fashion, a slow and serious business, consuming most of the
+morning.[39] Statilia’s mother, for example, who is now old enough to
+have to guard her complexion, has as her first duty that of suffering
+her maidens to peel off the thick layer of cosmetic paste smeared upon
+her face ere retiring. She complains that her husband is stingy because
+he will not let her imitate Poppæa (Nero’s Empress), who took a bath in
+asses’ milk every morning to improve her looks.
+
+Such a lady, of course, requires two maids to dress her and to pile the
+masses of hair upon her head; the pair being supported and directed by
+an old freedwoman who “assists at the council,” skilfully improves and
+flatters, and who perhaps can do something to assuage the domina’s fury
+if the latter’s silver mirror reveals a misplaced curl, and she stabs
+the clumsy maid’s arm with a sharp hairpin, or even shrieks out in
+wrath “Bring in the whipper!”
+
+Blessed with such “tiers and storys” upon their heads, Roman women
+seldom need anything else out-of-doors except a veil or hood in extreme
+heat or bad weather. There are no milliners’ shops along the Via
+Lata or Vicus Tuscus. The men likewise seldom bother about hats, and
+everybody on normal days goes about town bareheaded, although travelers
+have the hoods upon their pænulas. Workingmen, however, who are
+continually exposed to the weather, wear small conical felt hats--the
+pilei; and travelers who find hoods irksome can keep off the sun by a
+comfortable broad-brimmed hat, the _petasus_.
+
+
+=77. Sandals and Shoes.=--Shoes, however, are more necessary and
+nobody but a slave goes barefooted around the streets. In the house
+nevertheless it is sufficient to wear very light and simple sandals,
+mere leather soles fastened to the foot with thongs; and even these are
+laid aside when you stretch out on the couch for meals. To “call for
+your sandals” is the same thing as “leaving the table.”
+
+  [Illustration: SANDALS.]
+
+Outdoors one often puts on the _calceus_, which is practically
+like the shoe of other ages, although fastened not so much by lacings
+as by a complicated system of straps. Women’s shoes are much like
+men’s, although inevitably lighter and more often made of brightly
+colored leathers. High magistrates are proud to wear red “Patrician
+shoes” with an extra elaborate scheme of bands and an ivory ornament
+“C” conspicuous upon the outside of the ankle.[40] Ordinary senators
+wear red shoes without the “C”; and equites a kind of tall boot
+recalling the days when to be an eques really implied being a horseman.
+Soldiers naturally clatter about in hob-nailed _caligæ_, ponderous
+sandals with such heavy straps and thongs that they become practically
+marching boots. As for stockings, they are all but unknown in Rome.
+
+
+=78. The Mania for Jewels and Rings.=--But what dandy and what
+fashionable woman is content to appear merely with the standard
+quantity of clothing? The mania for jewelry is inordinate. Teachers of
+oratory have to warn their pupils as did the great Quintilian that “the
+hand [of a good public speaker] should not be covered with rings, and
+especially these should not be set below the middle joint.” Exquisites
+of both sexes, in fact, often wear half a dozen rings at once; all with
+as fine jewels as possible, and with a separate “light” set of rings
+for summer, and a “heavy” set for winter.
+
+  [Illustration: ROMAN JEWELRY AND ORNAMENTS.]
+
+The jewelry work is, of course, exquisite. In the best shops by
+the Campus Martius can be seen rings of magnificent chasing and
+carving, set with onyx, sard, banded agate, amethyst, ruby, and
+sapphire,[41]--some plain, some engraved, and all of a beauty which
+any later age can envy. Inevitably there are pendants, coronets, and
+innumerable brooches, and buckles every whit as fine.
+
+In addition, every Roman of equestrian or senatorial rank will wear
+with pride one perfectly _plain_ gold ring (like a later wedding
+ring) as the token of his own nobility, and as the memorial of a time
+when a simple gold ring was the sign of real wealth. Every person of
+consequence also will wear a special signet ring, often an intaglio cut
+with some mythological character. The impression of this frequently
+takes the place of a personal signature, and the illicit use of such a
+ring constitutes the gravest kind of forgery.
+
+
+=79. Pearls in Enormous Favor.=--Time fails to speak of the beautiful
+cameos, intaglios, engraved medals, and huge engraved gems which are
+the triumphs of the lapidaries, and which many rich connoisseurs put
+in their collections; but one must not omit certain precious objects
+which Romans seem to prize above all others: _pearls_. The more pearls
+apparently that the fashionable can spangle upon shoes, dress, fingers,
+and (for women) upon the hair, the better. The great jewelers will say
+that they sell more pearls than all the ordinary gems put together.
+
+The imperial councilors protest in vain at the ceaseless export of gold
+to India to pay for the unprofitable imports of pearls from Taprobane
+(Ceylon), but the mania for such gems continues. People still tell
+how Julius Cæsar gave to Servilia, the mother of Marcus Brutus, a
+single weight pearl worth six million sesterces ($240,000); or how
+the inordinately rich Lollia Paulina, one of Caligula’s overnumerous
+wives, appeared at a dinner party, with great pearls spangled over
+her unlovely person worth all together every whit of forty million
+sesterces ($1,600,000).[42] There are no such tantalizing collections
+as hers now in Rome, but many a lady of modest means has in her coffers
+a few pearls large and beautiful; and the cynics declare that in a
+crowd “the sight of a big pearl in a woman’s ear is better than a
+lictor to clear the way for her.”
+
+
+=80. Perfumes: Their Constant Use.=--Nevertheless, something else is
+needful for a fine toilet beyond clothes, rings, and pearls, namely,
+perfumes. The old-line Italians were a coarse and hardy folk; and
+later the Orientals, whom slavery or self-interest has brought into
+Italy, have a truly barbaric love for powerful odors. Even modest
+women, therefore, of reputed good taste like Gratia, will appear in
+public charged with scents which another generation would find highly
+unwelcome.
+
+There is no alcohol in which to carry perfumery. The odorous substances
+have to be dissolved in olive oil, making them at best greasy and
+liable to grow flat and obnoxious after a little exposure. But
+perfumery is practically indispensable. Men use it hardly less than do
+women. At fine banquets vials of perfumery are passed among the guests
+to pour over their heads and hands. The foppish youths who wave the
+hair on their heads, and render the rest of their bodies sleek and
+shiny with depilatories, simply reek with strong perfumery.
+
+On almost every important street you can find the little shops, usually
+kept by women, where are sold scented powders, fragrant oils for
+bathers, and the precious bottles of gold, silver, glass, and alabaster
+for the unguents, as well as the standard perfumes themselves.
+Profitless it is to catalogue these last; Pliny the Elder has listed
+twenty-one standard varieties mostly named after favorite flowers
+(_e.g._ narcissus) or Oriental spices (cinnamon, etc.).[43] Every
+funeral demands its supply of myrrh; every sacrifice a quantity of
+Arabian frankincense. The perfume trade with the East is an important
+factor in Roman commerce, but very many of the popular unguents are
+compounded in Italy. The great city of Capua in Campania grows rich
+by the industry;[44] and the “perfumery interest” is one of the prime
+business elements in the economic life of the Empire. So much for the
+garments and ornaments which typical Romans put upon their persons. It
+is now right to ask concerning a more important matter still--what do
+they have for dinner?
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI
+
+           FOOD AND DRINK. HOW THE DAY IS SPENT. THE DINNER
+
+
+=81. Romans Fond of the Table. Gourmandizing. The Famous
+Apicius.=--Seldom can there be another age when the importance of
+good eating and drinking occupies the place that it does in Rome.
+Vast numbers of coarse-grained people devoid of the least ability to
+criticize fine bronzes or to comprehend Homer or Virgil can go into
+ecstasies over superior oysters. Epicurean philosophers can argue
+that “the true, the beautiful and the good” are to be as genuinely
+apprehended by the enjoyment of ravishing tastes as by ravishing music.
+Gastronomy has become a kind of supreme science and art, and no slaves
+sell for better prices than truly expert cooks.
+
+Repeatedly huge fortunes have been ruined merely because their
+possessors wished to surpass all rivals with the extravagant
+refinements of gluttony. Since 69 A.D. and the coming to power
+of the simpler Flavian Cæsars there has been a fortunate decline in
+many absurdities, but there are still plenty of people who admire and
+envy the fame of Apicius, the true example for the gourmand.
+
+  [Illustration: ROMAN BANQUET SCENE. _After Von
+  Falke._]
+
+Marcus Apicius flourished in Tiberius’s age; and he developed a
+positive genius for inventing new sources of culinary delight. Every
+quarter of the Roman world was ransacked to find strange objects
+whereon to whet his appetite. In Hadrian’s day people continue to
+eat Apician cakes and Apician sauces, such as are described in his
+encyclopædic cook books. But although he inherited a hundred million
+sesterces ($4,000,000), at last his steward reported glumly, “You
+have only ten million ($400,000) left.” How was it possible for a true
+gourmand to exist in such poverty?--Apicius, therefore, committed
+suicide rather than live on commonplace fare! Many will tell you that
+he showed the right spirit and that his busts stand as a kind of
+inspiration for dozens of rich epicures in their marble triclinia.
+
+
+=82. Vitellius, the Imperial Glutton.=--One of Apicius’s disciples,
+Vitellius, rose to Empire. In his brief reign (April-December 69 A.D.)
+before Vespasian’s troops killed him, he taught his subjects how truly
+a man can live to eat. He had trained himself by the constant use of
+emetics to devour four heavy meals per day.[45] His senatorial friends,
+obliged to invite him to their houses, never dared to offer him a
+dinner costing less than 400,000 sesterces ($16,000). His brother gave
+him a banquet at which were served “2000 choice fishes and 7000 birds”;
+but he returned the favor by giving a feast at the imperial palace in
+which he served his favorites with “The Shield of Minerva”--a kind of
+salad-supreme made of “the livers of charfish, the brains of pheasants
+and peacocks, the tongues of flamingoes, and the entrails of lampreys.”
+Warships had been sent as far as the Ægean or Spain to round up some of
+these viands. It was lucky for the treasury that his reign was a very
+short one.
+
+
+=83. Simple Diet of the Early Romans.=--And yet these worthies
+gorged and guzzled in a city whose founders had been famous for their
+abstemiousness. For many a generation even prosperous Romans had lived
+very largely on coarse bread or even on a coarser wheat porridge
+(_puls_). Wheat porridge was what supplied the brawn and courage
+to the legionaries who brought to ruin Pyrrhus, Hannibal, Philip of
+Macedon, and Antiochus. They were fortunate if their meal was not made
+of barley, later counted as being barely fit for inferior slaves.
+
+Even senators, we are told, were glad to pick a few green vegetables in
+their gardens to help out the porridge. On feast days there would be a
+little pork or bacon from the hanging rack, and if there was a public
+sacrifice the worshipers might each take home a lump of beef. Such was
+the dietary of the men who originally made possible the fortunes of an
+Apicius, and as late as 174 B.C. there were no professional cooks in
+Rome. Now, however, there are plenty of purple-fringed exquisites who
+“can tell at first bite whether an oyster comes from Circeii, or the
+Lucerine rocks or clear from Britain; or at one glance discover the
+native shore of a sea-urchin.”
+
+  [Illustration: GRIST MILL TURNED BY HORSE AND FILLED AND
+  EMPTIED BY A SLAVE.]
+
+
+=84. Bread and Vegetables.=--However, there are still multitudes
+who have to be content with very simple fare, and for them bread in
+some form is (as with all the Mediterranean peoples) very literally
+“the staff of life.” In the great mansions there is, of course, a
+bakehouse for the huge familia, but the bulk of people frequent the
+numerous public bakeries, near which the mills driven by patient
+donkeys or by less patient slaves are incessantly grinding flour.
+
+The standard loaves are made very flat, of moderate size, and about
+two inches thick, their backs often marked with six or eight notches.
+There is a cheap bread of coarse grain (_panis sordidus_) for the
+humblest; a second quality (_panis secundus_) for better class
+purchasers, and also the very white and sweet _siligineus_. You ask for
+“Picenian bread” if you want fine biscuit, and for _libæ_ if you desire
+smaller rolls. At feasts there will be wonderful structures of pastry,
+and by use of honey and chopped fruits sweet “cake” truly delectable
+comes out of many ovens.
+
+Vegetables and fruits can hardly play the part that they will in
+later gastronomy: potatoes, tomatoes, oranges, lemons--all these are
+grievously wanting. But there are admirable cabbages, “the finest
+vegetable in the world,” declared Cato the Elder, and turnips, the
+favorite dish of tough old Manius Curius, conqueror of the Samnites.
+Around Rome, for many miles, are long stretches of profitable truck
+gardens, which send an incessant supply of artichokes, asparagus,
+beans, beets, cucumbers, lentils, melons, onions, peas, and pumpkins
+into the city. A visitor to Rome should promptly accustom himself to
+garlic; and there is a certain fashionable rusticity about garlic
+eaters, as if they were trying to bring back the flavor and odor of
+“the good old times.”
+
+
+=85. Fruits, Olives, Grapes, and Spices.=--Italy, of course, is
+an excellent fruit country. In the markets are apples, pears, plums,
+and quinces, besides an abundance of very fine nuts, such as walnuts,
+filberts, and almonds. Peaches, apricots, cherries, and pomegranates
+are familiar, although some of these are rather late introductions to
+the peninsula from the East. Of course, in season there never fail
+magnificent olives and grapes which have abounded in Italy since time
+immemorial.
+
+A great demand exists, too, for all kinds of salad greens; cresses
+and fine lettuce, also edible mallows. Poppy-seed mixed with honey is
+a standard dish for desserts, and such seasonings as anise, fennel,
+mint, and mustard can be bought in all the innumerable little grocery
+shops scattered over Rome. In the larger foodshops can be had likewise
+those Oriental spices in heavy demand by the epicures; and also very
+costly imported fruits, often preserved with great ingenuity in an age
+that knows not the use of canning processes, refrigerating plants, or
+sugar.
+
+
+=86. Meat and Poultry.=--The demand for meat has been steadily
+increasing with the growth of luxury and economic prosperity. Butchers’
+shops abound. Poor people buy goats’ flesh, which, however, is
+completely disdained by the finical. Many citizens nevertheless never
+taste beef or mutton except when it is distributed in the form of a
+sacrifice at some of the great public festivals; and even for the rich
+beef is not in extraordinary favor.
+
+Pork, however, is always popular. The despised Jews never seem to the
+Romans to show their national folly more clearly than in refusing to
+eat thereof. Pork in all forms, especially bacon and pork sausages
+figure in every important banquet; and up in the Apennines in the vast
+acorn forests, uncounted herds of swine are always fattening to satisfy
+the incessant demands of the great capital. Poultry is on the whole in
+greater demand than meat.[46] Squawking coops of common fowl, ducks,
+and geese are on sale at almost every street corner. There is also
+good money in raising upon country preserves quantities of partridges,
+thrushes, and grouse, and even of cranes. In Cicero’s day peacocks made
+a very fashionable dish, and they are still in request, although losing
+their old popularity. Hares, rabbits, venison are comparatively cheap,
+and everybody with a price can buy wild boar at the better purveyors’
+shops.
+
+
+=87. Fish in Great Demand.=--Rome, however, somewhat resembles Athens
+in one particular; the butcher shops are less important than the fish
+dealers’ stalls.[47] Poor people eat salt fish or pickled fish, from
+little sardines to slices of the big _cybium_, as forming frequently
+the only break in an otherwise vegetarian diet. They also make up salt
+fish with various vegetables and cheese into a kind of fishballs. A
+man of income, however, is unhappy without his fresh fish daily. This
+creates a serious and expensive problem for Rome. There are a few eels
+and pike of good flavor caught right in the Tiber between the bridges,
+but the great fish supply must be brought from a distance--often in
+warm weather without aid of refrigerating plants. Frequently along
+the road from Ostia, and very often down the Via Appia clear from
+Puteoli can be seen large wagons tearing in hot haste. They bring not
+government dispatches but fresh fish that will frequently command
+absurd prices in the city.
+
+Often all kinds of sea-food are transported still alive in small tanks;
+and sometimes the distance whence they can be imported is astonishing.
+The best turbots (large flat fish) come from Ravenna on the Adriatic.
+Eels can be brought in good flavor from Sicily and even from Spain.
+Gourmands go into ecstasies over oysters from Circeii or Baiæ, but of
+late people wishing to astonish their fashionable friends have actually
+claimed to import such shellfish from Britain. The real fish for the
+epicure, notwithstanding, is by common confession the noble mullet. The
+flavor of the best specimens is ravishing, and, for a truly large and
+perfect mullet, the prices paid are astonishing. It is a common story
+that a certain Crispinus, a satellite of Domitian’s, once gave 6000
+sesterces ($240) for a single six-pound mullet; “More than the cost of
+the slave-fisherman!” indignantly exclaimed the outraged Juvenal.
+
+Many great nobles, however, disdain having to depend on the public
+markets. At their seaside villas they have huge salt-water tanks and
+artificial fishponds; therein mullet, turbot, carp, and eels can be
+bred, fattened, and brought to perfection, and on the day of a feast a
+slave will hurry them up to Rome still gasping.
+
+
+=88. Olive Oil and Wine: Their Universal Use.=--Supplementing
+the salt fish and bread, the poor of the capital, like all genuine
+Mediterranean folk, seldom fail to get their oil and wine. Olives are
+gladly eaten green, ripened, or preserved in great quantities with salt
+or pickle, but their greatest value comes from their oil. To Rome as
+to Athens olive oil is not merely food; it largely takes the place of
+toilet soap, and it supplies also the most common illuminant (see “A
+Day in Old Athens,” p. 177). It is a complete substitute for butter in
+the average dietary, often making dry or moldy bread palatable, and as
+earlier stated (p. 98), it is the basis for most of the ointments and
+perfumery wherein the average citizen delights.
+
+As for drink, practically every Roman has his wine. There are, indeed,
+beverages made from wheat and barley, and also from fermented quince
+juice, but for daily purposes beer and distilled liquors never appear
+at Italian banquets. Cider is sometimes drunk, and a little so-called
+“wine” made from mulberries; but the enormous vineyards existing in
+every part of the country testify to the importance of ordinary grape
+wine.
+
+Vintners’ stalls are almost as common along the streets as bakeries.
+The drink they sell in jars, skins, or small flagons is sometimes
+decidedly resinous after the Greek fashion, and in any case is
+extremely sour, so that a large admixture of honey is often required
+to make the favorite sweet _mulsum_. In any case only sheer
+barbarians will drink their wine undiluted, and really good wine can
+stand as much as eight parts of water to one of itself without losing
+too much flavor.
+
+
+=89. Vintages and Varieties of Wine.=--There are as many varieties
+of wine as there are regions around the Mediterranean. Each produces
+a vintage that is tolerable, and some are highly select. Your average
+poor plebeian can get a large jug of palatable stuff for a sesterce
+(4 cents). The wealthy will think nothing of paying heavily for
+_amphoræ_ (tall jars) of choice old Setinian (the best wine in
+Italy), or for Falernian, Albanian, or Massic which count next among
+the native vintages. If, however, you are giving a formal dinner
+party, etiquette dictates that at least one imported drink should be
+served. It makes an excellent impression to bring in Chian, Thasian, or
+Lesbian from the Ægean, or even Mareotian from Egypt and the splendid
+Chalybonium from Damascus, the delight of Oriental kings.
+
+In summer time wines, of course, are drunk cold, and at luxurious
+banquets they are even chilled with snow water. In winter, however,
+you will often see a kind of bronze samovar, heated by charcoal, used
+for preparing _calda_, warm water and wine, heavily charged with
+spices; and at the cheap eating houses the calda counter is often
+thronged, especially on chilly afternoons. Common soldiers, slaves, and
+plebeians of the lowest class have a special beverage all their own,
+namely _posca_, which is simply vinegar mixed with enough water to
+make it palatable. It probably forms a really refreshing drink, if one
+can acquire the taste for it.[48]
+
+Time fails to tell of various rare vintages which are treasured by the
+epicures as if worth their weight in gold. In 121 B.C. there
+was a wonderful yield of wine called Vina Opimia from the then Consul
+Opimius. By Hadrian’s day the last drops of this precious liquor have
+long since disappeared, but men still discuss the traditions of its
+nectarous flavor. In every great house the wine cellar retains a number
+of web-covered and dirty glass jars carefully sealed with gypsum, and
+with labels showing that they were laid away perhaps a hundred years
+ago. As for the undesirability of wine-drinking, that idea has hardly
+crossed any man’s head; and Horace in Augustus’s day voiced a universal
+thought when he sang that good wine, “Made the wise confess their
+secret lore; brought hope to anxious souls, and gave the poor strength
+to lift up his horn.”
+
+
+=90. Kitchens and the Niceties of Cookery.=--With such attention
+to good eating and drinking a Roman kitchen necessarily requires
+an elaborate equipment. Cook stoves there are none; but there are
+extensive masonry or brick hearths. The charcoal fire heats the stones
+until a broad surface is glowing and ready for remarkable culinary
+achievements. The head cook in Calvus’s house rejoices in a great
+battery of copper utensils often of truly elegant shape; and copper
+ware (more expensive than tin, but far more durable) appears in every
+Roman kitchen. There are pastry molds, dippers, ladles, great spoons,
+little spoons, baking pans for small cakes, in short, everything to
+delight the heart of the housewife of another age.
+
+Nobody expects us to investigate rudely the peculiar dishes evolved in
+the kitchen of a genuine gourmand. Cookery, the disciples of Apicius
+aver, is not a common handicraft, but the noblest of sciences. Only a
+thrice-initiated epicure, a man who has carefully trained his tongue
+to discriminate the least shades of taste, and his fingers to endure
+hot viands so that he may pluck out the morsels at precisely the proper
+temperature, can appreciate many of the refinements.
+
+Calvus laughs, indeed, at a friend of his who lately insisted on
+serving “a wild boar from Lucania caught when the South wind was
+blowing,” with “honey apples picked under a waning moon,” and
+“lampreys caught just before spawning.” Such people will also explain
+dogmatically that “eggs of oblong shape have better flavor than round
+ones;” and that “after drinking wine the appetite is better stimulated
+by dried ham than by boiled sausage,” or that “it spoils the flavor of
+Massic wine to strain it through linen; but you can clear it by mixing
+with the lees of Falernian and then adding the yolk of a pigeon’s
+egg.”[49] A new dish coming loyally into favor is that to which Hadrian
+is personally so partial--a huge meat pie wherein pheasant, peacock,
+sow’s udder, and wild-boar flesh are all baked up together.
+
+Needless to say many coarse fellows who boast themselves “epicures”
+really are merely gluttons. Their appetites have become simply animal.
+Rome has plenty of twin-brothers to that Santra derided by Martial, who
+at a banquet “asked three times for boar’s neck, four times for the
+loin, then for hare, thrushes, and oysters.” After that he bolted sweet
+cakes, and finally devoid of all decency hid some fruit and a cooked
+dove in the folds of his gown and sneaked home with a small jar of wine!
+
+
+=91. A Roman Gentleman’s Morning: Breakfast (_jentaculum_) and the
+Visit to the Forum.=--However, even gluttons like Santra spend all the
+earlier part of the day under conditions of relative abstemiousness.
+Romans never eat three hearty meals a day; they merely stay their
+stomachs until dinner, the event they ordinarily look forward to from
+early morning. In Calvus’s house everybody is supposed to rise at gray
+dawn. Just as the first bars of light are making darkness visible a
+_decuria_ (squad of ten) of slaves under a chamberlain (_atriensis_)
+brushes down the atrium and peristylium before the master and mistress
+rise and are dressed by their body servants. As promptly as possible
+these noble folk are served, often in their chambers, with their
+breakfast, the _jentaculum_--merely a few pieces of fine bread,
+sprinkled with salt or dipped in wine, and with a few raisins and
+olives, and a little cheese added. If Calvus is now expecting to go
+on a journey or to put in a hard day debating in the Senate, he may
+however call for some eggs and a cup of heartening mulsum.
+
+After that, the clients are let into the atrium, greet their patron
+with their _aves_, receive his counter greetings, and get their
+money doles for service (see p. 150). Next, upon an ordinary day,
+Calvus calls for one of his second-best togas, and issues forth. If the
+Senate is convening, he, of course, seeks the Curia. If not, he will
+often visit his banker upon the Via Sacra to talk over investments,
+will call at the mansion of a sick friend, will go to witness a will
+for another friend (a very familiar ceremony), or will go to one of the
+Basilicas, where still another friend is arguing a case, and expects
+all his best acquaintance--the more distinguished the better--to sit
+near him and applaud as he makes his points. During all these rounds
+Calvus is, of course, followed by some two dozen clients and freedmen
+as well as by at least as many slaves.
+
+
+=92. The Afternoon and Dinner-Time. Importance of the Dinner
+(_cena_).=--After that it is near the sixth hour (12 M.). All over
+Rome work ceases almost automatically; the poorer classes make for
+the cook shops or itinerant food venders; while people of rank either
+go home or accept the hospitality of friends for the mid-day lunch,
+the _prandium_. This is a real meal, although taken as informally as
+possible. The food is mostly cold,--bread, salads, olives, cheeses, and
+meats remaining from last night’s dinner; although sometimes there are
+hot dishes, such as hams and pigs’ heads, and a good deal of common
+wine is drunk.
+
+During the next hour everybody who can possibly spare the time takes
+a short siesta. Rome, in fact, in summer seems to have gone to sleep
+under the glaring sun. Then for the humbler folk toil resumes;
+while the fortunate classes make for the great baths where, indeed,
+under the guise of sociability a great deal of real business can be
+transacted. By the ninth hour (3. P.M.) Calvus and Gratia
+alike have usually finished all the formal duties for the day and are
+being escorted homeward preparatory to the standard climax of every
+four-and-twenty hours--the dinner.
+
+The dinner (_cena_) is always eaten at home or at the house of
+some friend. It is so strictly personal an affair that there are
+almost no first-class, handsomely appointed, public restaurants in
+Rome, although there is a superabundance of cheaper eating houses,
+yet many of these close up during the afternoon. There are almost no
+other evening entertainments--no receptions, no balls, no theaters,
+no concerts.[50] But Italians in every age have been a sociable,
+talk-loving, gregarious people, and the dinner seems to many of them
+apparently the “be all and end all” of existence.
+
+
+=93. Dinner Hunters and Parasites (“Shadows”).=--Wealthy and popular
+personages never have to bother about the dinner problem; every
+night they can invite whom they desire, or be sure of a summons to a
+congenial board. Plenty of substantial citizens are willing and happy
+to join in a simple family meal in the good old style, the master
+reclining on a couch, with his wife in a somewhat more conventional
+attitude beside him, the younger children sitting on a lower couch, the
+freedmen and more important slaves arranged on benches at a respectful
+distance.
+
+The city nevertheless abounds in shabby-genteel individuals or social
+climbers who are miserable every afternoon because some senator or an
+eques does not tell them, “Come home to dinner!” For example, there
+is a certain ubiquitous Selius. He hangs about the law courts, and
+if a pleader is rich and noble, is always interrupting with a loud
+“Excellent!” or “How clever!” Some afternoons, however, he is seen
+dragging about, “the picture of misery.” Has his wife just died or his
+steward embezzled? Not so. He “must dine alone at home.” Thus there
+develops a type of high-class parasites, “_shadows_,” men of thick
+hide and nimble wit who snap at every possible excuse for thrusting
+into a dinner party, and who are willing to pay for the least honored
+place on the couches by becoming the butts of the jests, or by bringing
+laughter on themselves by such feats as swallowing whole cheese cakes
+at a mouthful.
+
+
+=94. The Standard Dinner Party--Nine Guests.=--In Athens in other
+days a delightful informality prevailed at banquets. The number of
+guests was seldom fixed, and it was quite proper to intrude two or
+three more at the last minute. Romans are more grave, methodical, and,
+be it said, more commonplace. The standard size for a dinner party is
+determined by an almost inflexible custom--nine. Three couches, three
+guests to a couch;--that number can concentrate around a single set of
+serving tables, and let everybody mingle easily in the conversation.
+
+Of course, you can get along with fewer guests, but it is the height
+of meanness to have more than three to a couch. For a larger affair
+one must therefore have two or three or more triclinia,--eighteen or
+twenty-seven guests, etc. Unlike Athens, however, it is perfectly
+proper to invite high-born ladies to mixed dinner parties, although
+not to the free and easy drinking bouts that sometimes follow; and
+the women apparently recline on the couches with perfect decorum and
+modesty. Nevertheless, “stag” parties are extremely common, and one
+such, of a very conventional nature, Calvus gave recently in honor of a
+friend, Manlius, who was just departing as _proquæstor_ (assistant
+governor) of Africa.
+
+
+=95. Preparing the Dinner and Mustering the Guests.=--The guests
+were invited by personal greetings at the Forum or Baths of Trajan
+except one who had to be summoned by slave messenger at his home.
+However two places on the couches have been left vacant deliberately
+to let Manlius invite any two acquaintances he desired--a frequent
+prerogative of the guest of honor. The dinner was to be a strictly
+decorous affair, and, therefore, it did not begin before the tenth hour
+(4 P.M.). If Calvus had desired a carouse, he might have begun
+at 3 P.M. in order to get plenty of leeway for a long riotous
+evening; but “early dinners” are ordinarily as great a reproach in Rome
+as “late dinners” will be later.
+
+During the morning while the master-cook was tyrannizing over his
+scullions in the kitchen, and evolving various triumphs in pastry, the
+chamberlain, an upper-slave, was standing whip in hand over a whole
+platoon of lower slaves, giving orders like a centurion: “Sweep and
+scrub the pavement!” “Polish up those pillars!” “Down with all those
+spider webs!” “One of you clean the plain silver ware, and another
+the embossed dishes!” The whole mansion, therefore, was furbished up
+thoroughly, for a few signs of dirt before dinner guests is the most
+disgraceful of shortcomings.
+
+By the tenth hour the triclinium was in perfect order. The three
+elegant sofas with purple cushions embroidered with gold thread were
+arranged around the finest citrus-wood table. Small pillows were
+laid upon the cushions to mark the positions of the feasters and for
+them to thrust under their elbows as they lay and ate. Presently the
+street before the vestibule became jammed with the retinues of the
+eight guests as each swung up in his litter. Calvus greeted each of
+the invited friends in the atrium, while the bulk of their escorts
+turned back home to return again with torches when the party should be
+over; but each guest was followed into the house by his own special
+valet, who took off his shoes as soon as he stretched himself out upon
+the couch, and then stood by to help Calvus’s servants serve his own
+master. The triclinium was thus a decidedly crowded place, with eight
+strange slaves present, besides a mobilization of all the handsomest
+and most efficient of the house servants.
+
+
+=96. Arrangement of the Couches: Placing the Guests.=--The guests were
+each in the gay _synthesis_ or other gala costume, and quite in the
+mood to obey the grave _nomenclater_, a handsome and experienced slave
+of the host who pointed out to each his place on the couches. This
+location of feasters, however, was an extremely solemn business. How
+many social feuds have been created by blunders concerning it! Nay,
+if the guest chances to be a public character, a certain position is
+really a matter of legal right to many dignitaries and its refusal
+possibly can give matter for a lawsuit.[51] The three couches were set
+around three sides of the table, the fourth being left open for the
+service. Approaching from the open side that couch to the right was
+reckoned the first (_summus_), then the middle one opposite (_medius_),
+then the one on the left (_imus_).
+
+The best place of all was reckoned to be the third position on the
+middle couch “The Consul’s Post,”[52] and here, of course, Manlius
+was consigned. Calvus by custom took the host’s place, on the third
+couch, but nearest the guest of honor. The distribution of the other
+places was a matter for great discrimination, but peace was kept by
+placing the two African gentlemen whom Manlius brought, upon the middle
+couch beside him, and setting the young eques Nepos (the junior of the
+company) at the outer end of the third couch. All nine, therefore,
+spread themselves out unconventionally and chattered about the newest
+jockeys in the circus, while a troupe of slave-boys, half-stripped
+but pomaded and curled, passed around silver bowls of water and fine
+towels for washing and wiping the hands.[53] This ceremony happily
+accomplished, a tall upper slave magnificently arrayed nodded from the
+doorway to Calvus that the cook had declared himself ready, and Calvus
+nodded back his approval. The dinner could begin.
+
+  [Illustration: NINE GUESTS IN A TRICLINIUM.]
+
+
+=97. Serving the Dinner.=--The giver of this feast only desired
+a grave and conventional dinner for sedate people, and a strictly
+normal order was followed without epicurean niceties or a low revel
+as a climax. No tablecloths; the serving boys running to and from
+the kitchen set on the beautiful polished surface of the table before
+the guests first a preliminary course, the _gustatio_, supposed
+to stimulate the appetite. On silver dishes were served some choice
+crabs, salads, mushrooms, and also eggs. The guests ate these without
+forks, dexterously picking up the food in their fingers. The handsomely
+embossed silver cups were handed about filled with sweet mulsum
+properly diluted in order not to befuddle the intellect; after that
+followed the formal dinner itself.
+
+  [Illustration: ROMAN SERVING FORKS.]
+
+At really elaborate feasts there would be six or even seven courses,
+but Calvus had merely ordered the orthodox number of three--a
+succession of daintily cooked meats and fish tastily garnished with
+vegetables, but with no rarities such as heathcock from Phrygia or
+sturgeon from Rhodes. The honor of the house, however, required that
+every viand should be arranged carefully on its dish, and every dish
+upon its tray by a special slave, the _structor_, a true artist, who
+also acted as master carver, cutting up a roast of boar with his knife
+keeping time to a flute-player. The mere fact, however, that one man
+was allowed both to arrange the dishes and then to do the carving was a
+sign that Calvus was among the less ostentatious senators.
+
+Between each course water and towels were again passed about, and the
+guests washed their hands. Finally for dessert there was brought on
+a great quantity of curious pastry--artificial oysters and thrushes
+filled with dried grapes and almonds; and a great dish whereon stood
+an image, made of baked dough, of the orchard god Vertumnus, holding a
+pastry apron full of fruits, while heaped around his feet were sweet
+quinces stuck full of almonds, and melons cut into fantastic shapes.[54]
+
+  [Illustration: DRINKING CUP.]
+
+
+=98. The Drinking Bout (_Comissatio_) after the Dinner.=--This
+concluded the regular dinner, but Calvus had invited his friends (since
+Manlius had much to talk about) to stay to a _comissatio_, a social
+drinking spell afterwards. The nine guests rose and adjourned to the
+host’s private baths, whence, after they had refreshed themselves and
+taken a turn around the colonnades in the peristylium, they returned to
+the triclinium to find that the slaves had changed all the couch covers
+and pillows, had swept the floor, and had actually brought in new
+tables. It was now quite dark, beautiful silver lamps gleamed on high
+against the fretwork of the ceiling and on the tall inlaid sideboard
+stood two great silver tankards; one was filled with snow;[55] the
+other had a charcoal brazier beneath it and steamed with hot water.
+
+If Calvus’s party had now been composed of younger merrymakers, some
+one would have called out, “Let’s drink in the ‘Greek style’ and elect
+a king”; and everybody would have joined in throwing dice to select
+the _rex_, or lord of the revels. That potentate would have been
+obligated to decide how much water was to be mixed with the wine, and
+how many cups must be drunk to the health of each feaster’s lady love,
+and to arrange the forfeits, riddles, and practical jokes inseparable
+from a jolly evening. If the party had been still more uproarious,
+Spanish dancing girls might have been provided by the host, or a corps
+of pantomimes, acrobats, or farce players, and the whole scene could
+have ended in a very coarse orgy.
+
+In the present case Calvus had decided to let his friends merely drink
+enough to loosen their tongues and to exchange their best wit and
+wisdom. The slaves, therefore, brought in with decent solemnity the
+little images of the family lares, and a small smoking brazier, and
+Calvus cast a trifle of meal and salt and a few drops of wine upon
+the fire. “The gods are propitious!” announced a slave in loud voice,
+after which the guests preserved a reverent silence for an instant, to
+be followed by vigorous conversation the moment the divine images were
+carried out.
+
+
+=99. Distribution of Garlands and Perfumes. Social
+Conversation.=--While one corps of slaves was passing about the wine,
+asking each guest whether “Hot?” or “Cold?” others were distributing
+wreaths of fragrant flowers, to put on the forehead and even around
+the neck (by their odor supposedly preventing drunkenness) and also
+little alabaster vials of choice perfumes which the guests immediately
+broke and poured upon their hands and hair. Then followed long
+conversations, grave or gay according to the mood. Calvus had not
+provided any professional entertainers, but all through the drinking
+a good flute-player and a good harpist hid behind a curtain kept up a
+soft pleasing melody.
+
+While Manlius and the older guests discussed the control of the Moorish
+tribes of Numidia, young Nepos and one or two others found much to say
+about a new “Thracian” who had just fought at the Flavian Amphitheater,
+and presently all the others pressed the host (knowing him to be a
+little vain on the subject) to show some new moves in “robbers”
+(_latrunculi_, a board game with men extremely like checkers) which he
+had evolved with peculiar pride. It would have been good form also to
+have played at making impromptu verses, or at matching riddles, but
+for a Roman gentleman to indulge in anything like singing a song, even
+before a group of friends, would have been undignified; Nero possibly
+shocked public opinion even more by appearing openly as a common
+theater performer than he did by killing his mother!
+
+At last the evening ended. It was only 8 o’clock by later reckoning;
+but everybody had to be up again by gray dawn. The streets were already
+dark and deserted save by prowlers and the police-watch. “My shoes,
+boy,” called Manlius to his valet. All the other guests imitated him,
+and already their retinues with slaves and torches were crowding in the
+vestibule. The eight diners departed after thanking Calvus. The slaves
+cleared out the triclinium, and quenched the lights. Soon the whole
+domus was asleep.
+
+
+=100. Elaborate and Vulgar Banquets. Simple Home Dinners.=--Such
+was a very decorous and ordinary dinner. It could easily have run
+off to greater follies and vastly greater magnificence, useless to
+describe. Space lacks, also, to describe the magnificent imperial
+banquets at the palace when all the gold, glitter, and luxury of the
+capital is on display. Calvus is no great philosopher, or he might have
+followed the mode and insisted upon his guests conversing solely about
+the “Stoic Conception of Duty”; or the “Immortality of the Soul.”
+
+A host of another type might have imitated certain very mean patrons
+who would invite poor clients to fill up the triclinium and then
+deliberately serve them with cheap wine and coarse scrappy food,
+while the best was being set before himself and the guests of honor.
+Such great men were also equal to pettiness of stationing special
+slaves behind each less-favored guest to watch lest the latter
+should with his finger nails pick out the gems set in the drinking
+cups. Pliny the Younger has already recorded his emphatic opinion of
+noblemen who will not serve dependents with as good fare as they get
+themselves,--declaring that if the host _must_ economize, he should eat
+and drink nothing better that night than what he gives his clients and
+freedmen.
+
+Of course, many an evening meal is far simpler than the one just
+described. If the triclinium is not full, Calvus and Gratia may
+sometimes offer their near acquaintances merely “some lettuce, three
+snails, two eggs, spelt mixed with honey and snow, olives from Spain,
+cucumbers, onions, and a few like delicacies.” Old Roman simplicity
+still--but every dish will be perfect of its kind, and the cookery
+excellent; and even the modest Calvi are none too fond of this diet
+praised by the philosophers. Rome is not merely the mistress of the
+world, she is the citadel of the gourmands.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+
+                     THE SOCIAL ORDERS: THE SLAVES
+
+
+=101. Enormous Alien Population in Rome. The “Græcules.”=--Rome,
+as already discovered, is a city with an enormous cosmopolitan
+population, and in that population is a sadly large proportion of
+drones, parasites, and selfish purveyors to the vices or luxuries of
+the rich. The influx of aliens, of course, impresses one at every turn,
+be the visit to obscure Mercury Street or to the famous Old Forum.
+“The Syrian Orontes (quoting lines of Juvenal hackneyed already) has
+long since poured into the Tiber, bringing its lingo and its manners,
+its flutes and its timbals, and its coarse girls who hang around the
+Circus.”
+
+A large fraction of these invaders, however, are not confessed
+Orientals, but olivine-featured, nimble creatures of very Levantine
+morality who like to be called “Greeks.” The poet, just cited, has
+other familiar lines deriding their suppleness, servility, and
+willingness for any shift promising favor or reward. The self-same
+adventurer is ready to be “grammarian, orator, geometrician, painter,
+trainer, rope-dancer, augur, doctor, or astrologer,” or if you bid
+“‘Græculus’ to mount to heaven--why, to heaven he’ll go!’” They squeeze
+out tears or split with laughter at a sign, and, of course, they
+readily sell themselves for any well-paid villainy.
+
+Do these creatures prosper? If so, Roman citizenship comes next. They
+change their names, assume the toga, and their sons or at least their
+grandsons will be borne along in their high litters toward the Senate
+House. There is another large group of “Conscript Fathers” who,
+Calvus angrily tells Gratia, are only crude Celts from Spain, Gaul,
+or even distant Britain. Another group can only speak Latin with a
+pronounced North African accent. There is even a certain dark-skinned
+“Julius” (a good Roman name surely), who wears his broad purple stripe
+proudly enough, but who,--every one swears,--was born far up the Nile
+in Egypt--“How did he get the Emperor’s favor!” At first thought,
+therefore, Rome seems one of the most democratic cities socially in the
+world.
+
+
+=102. Strict Divisions of Society. The Régime of _Status_.=--But
+closer acquaintance discloses the fact that Roman society is utterly
+undemocratic. Wealth to be sure can surmount many barriers, but even
+a hundred-million sesterces plus imperial patronage cannot _quite_ do
+everything. The whole Roman Empire is founded not on the basis of human
+brotherhood and equality, but on “_piety_.” “Pious Æneas” is the hero
+of the national epic poem. But what in fact is this piety? Not the
+rendering of due homage to the gods merely, but the bestowing of exact
+justice upon every man according to his _status_--the great stratum
+in society in which the law has placed him, and whence he can neither
+rise nor fall without important formalities. Are you brought into
+court? Instantly the question is, “What are you?” And on that answer,
+regardless of guilt or innocence, your fate will largely depend.
+
+The Roman Empire in reality is essentially _a régime of status_--giving
+to every man a certain social and legal due. This accent on _status_
+has been increasing ever since Augustus founded his dominion; and it
+will intensify even more rapidly down to the very end of the Empire.
+
+In the 1,500,000 odd people in Rome, there are these six well-defined
+social classes, each with a distinct legal condition: I. _Slaves_; II.
+_Freedmen_; III. _Free Provincials_; IV. _Ordinary Roman Citizens, or
+“Plebeians”_; V. _Equites_; VI. _Senators_. In Rome the third class,
+of course, is necessarily small, being made up solely of visitors and
+resident aliens, some of whom, if notables from such free allied towns
+as Athens, enjoy excellent protection and privileges. Nearly all the
+freedmen are technically Roman citizens but are still under certain
+civil and social disabilities. The Plebeians, Equites, and Senators
+are all reckoned officially as “majores,” persons with superior legal
+rights, however much the two upper orders may scorn the one inferior.
+Socially, however, there are many cross sections, with the upper slaves
+of rich noblemen despising the petty tradesmen, who wear moth-eaten
+togas, and the higher “Cæsarians” (slaves at the imperial palace) have
+been known to patronize equites and even senators.
+
+
+=103. Vast Number of Slaves. Universality of Slavery.=--The slaves,
+however, are always officially at the bottom of the human ladder. Their
+number is great, making up close to half, if not quite half, of the
+population of Rome. They are not required to wear a special dress.[56]
+Some years ago it was proposed to order this in the Senate, but the
+motion was voted down: “It would be dangerous to show the wretches how
+numerous they really were.” Ordinarily they go about in sad-colored
+tunics and long cloaks like most of the common citizens, or else they
+wear some bright livery devised by their masters.
+
+Only a few of these unfortunates have Italian countenances and can
+speak Latin without some foreign accent. Plenty of alien adventurers,
+it is true, drift to Rome as willingly, but probably the great bulk
+of the cosmopolitan multitudes everywhere observable, even if free at
+present, come to Latium involuntarily--as slaves imported to wait on
+the masters of the world.
+
+Almost no one has questioned the rightfulness and necessity of slavery.
+Seneca, indeed, has written that no man can be enslaved beyond a
+certain point--his body is his master’s, but his mind is his own.
+Horace has written grandiloquently “Who is truly free? The wise man
+alone; who is stern master of himself.” This sounds well but does not
+alter the practical results of a situation wherein, for example, all
+farm implements are solemnly classified in the handbooks under three
+heads: I. _Dumb tools_--plows, mattocks, shovels, etc.; II.
+_Semi-speaking tools_--oxen, asses, etc., that can bellow or bray;
+III. _Speaking tools_--slaves useful as farm hands.
+
+
+=104. Power of Master over Slaves.=--Until very lately, before
+Hadrian’s time, these “Speaking Tools” have had rather less legal
+protection than may be granted to horses by the “humane” legislation
+of later civilization. The reigning Emperor, however, a remarkable
+innovator, and tinctured with the Stoic philosophy, has lately issued
+an edict that a slave cannot be killed outright by his master without
+some kind of consent by a magistrate.
+
+Every owner of human bipeds has probably grumbled that “discipline is
+now made impossible,” but the new law is of little practical help to
+the slave. His master can still order a punishment so brutal that death
+is certain, and if he should murder a servant, slave witnesses can give
+no valid testimony, and almost no citizen will turn traitor to his
+class and prosecute. Half of Rome, therefore, continues in the absolute
+power and possession of the other half.
+
+
+=105. The City Slaves and the Country Slaves.=--Calvus and Gratia have
+a familia of about one hundred and fifty slaves in their city house.
+Scattered upon their villas there are always at least as many more,
+but between the _city slaves_ and the _rustic slaves_ there is a great
+gulf fixed. The first class utterly despises the latter. The city
+slaves are mostly soft-handed ministers to their owners’ luxuries. The
+country slaves are toiling farm hands often under extremely severe
+discipline. When the master, attended by a great retinue from his town
+house, sojourns at a villa, squabbling and even fights between the
+two contingents are extremely probable. Let a serving boy become too
+insolent, or a tiring maid fail in her duty--the master or mistress can
+simply order, “Send him or her to the villa!” The wretch will then beg
+instead to be flogged in sheer mercy. Banishment to the rustic slave
+colony seems a mere death in life.
+
+
+=106. Purchasing a Slave Boy.=--In any large city familia, the purchase
+of new slaves to replace vacancies caused by death or otherwise is
+an everyday occurrence. Very lately a new errand boy was wanted by
+Calvus, who could not condescend to purchase such a menial in person;
+and he left the task to a competent freedman, Cleander. The latter
+conscientiously went through the great slave bazaars near the fora and
+especially along the Sæpta Julia, the great porticoes lining the Via
+Lata.
+
+Here any quantity of human bipeds were on sale as in a regular cattle
+market. There were numbers of little stalls or pens with crowds of
+buyers or mere spectators constantly elbowing in and out, and from many
+of them rose a gross fleshly odor as from closely confined animals. At
+the entrance to these pens notices, written on white boards with red
+chalk, recited the nature of the slaves inside, and sometimes the hour
+when they would be sold at auction. Every nationality was represented
+among these vendable commodities--Egyptians, Moors, Arabs, Cilicians,
+Cappadocians, Thracians, Greeks and alleged Greeks, Celts from Gaul,
+Spain, and Britain, and a good many Teutons, fair-haired creatures
+from beyond the Rhine. They were of both sexes and of all ages, but
+with youths and grown-up girls predominating. As Cleander went about he
+heard a crier announcing that a new coffle of Jews was just being put
+on sale, the results of the latest success of the Emperor’s generals in
+capturing one of the last rebellious strongholds in Palestine.
+
+
+=107. Traffic in the Slave Pens.=--It avails not to dwell on the
+hideous brutality and degrading character of many of the scenes. The
+slave-dealers were men counted the scum of the earth socially, but the
+vast gains from lucky speculation in human flesh drove many shrewd
+scoundrels into the trade. At last Cleander found the stall he desired.
+Several boys from the Black Sea region were about to be knocked down.
+They did not seem so very miserable. Truth to tell their barbarous
+parents had probably sold them in way of regular trade, and the boys
+looked forward to entering a fine Roman familia as a great adventure.
+
+The lads stood in line on raised stones, stripped almost naked and with
+white chalk on their feet as a token that they were for immediate sale.
+Cleander and other would-be purchasers examined them as they might so
+many cattle; felt of their muscles, examined their teeth, and made them
+converse enough to be sure they could speak fair Greek and a little
+Latin. Another buying agent was accompanied by a physician to give the
+proffered merchandise a regular physical examination, and Cleander in
+his turn interrogated the selling clerks very specifically: “Did they
+warrant the health of a certain boy, especially his freedom from fits?
+Was he thievish? Was he prone to run away? Did he get despondent and
+attempt suicide?”[57]
+
+One ill-favored youth was standing with a tall felt hat on his head.
+That implied he was being sold “as is,” without the least warranty; “An
+incorrigible thief” went the whisper, and the great welts on his back
+betrayed repeated whippings. If the sellers failed, however, to “cap”
+their chattels, they had to answer all queries truthfully, and take
+back the slave if he developed various defects within six months. Such
+a liability, however, was hard to enforce. A slave trade involved all
+the points of shrewdness, hard bargaining, and smooth prevarication of
+the proverbial horse trade.
+
+
+=108. Sale of Slaves.=--At last a bell rang. A boy whom Cleander
+had inspected approvingly was stood on a higher block. The glib
+auctioneer began his patter to the little group before him: “The
+lad’s clear-skinned and well-favored from head to foot, a well-bred
+fellow carefully trained for good service. Has a smattering of Greek
+learning--you can educate him for a secretary if you want to. He can
+also sing a bit at dinners--not professionally, but enough to make
+you jolly over your wine.--All this is sheer and simple truth. You’ll
+wait long for another such bargain. Just one point (with a deprecatory
+smirk) I am obliged to warn about--once he _did_ have a lazy fit,
+and hid himself for fear of a lashing,--Well, he’s yours for a mere
+8000 sesterces.” [$320.][58]
+
+“Take 2000,” stolidly retorted Cleander, naming the standard price
+for male slaves of no extra qualities. Counter bidding and much
+chaffering followed. All ended when “Crœsus” (slaves were often given
+fancy oriental names) was knocked down to Cleander for 4000 sesterces
+($160), a very fair bargain if the youth had not been praised too
+extravagantly. On the same errand the freedman also purchased for
+his master a stout Gaul, needed as an expert muleteer on one of the
+farm villas,--such a fellow if at all capable was well worth the 6000
+sesterces asked for him.
+
+The next day, however, it was announced by Gratia that she required
+a first-class lady’s maid, a girl not merely versed in all toilet
+mysteries, but comely to look upon should she have to appear with her
+mistress in public. Such damsels commanded a high price, and Gratia and
+Calvus together condescended to do the shopping. Along the Sæpta Julia
+they visited special booths, from which vulgar idlers were carefully
+excluded, and where human chattels of the superior grades were shown to
+bona fide purchasers.
+
+The dealer whom they visited had handsome slave boys to act as
+statuesque cup bearers and worth up to 100,000 sesterces ($4000)
+apiece; he also had a truly competent physician at the same price; a
+good private schoolmaster; two very expert dancers, and a remarkably
+fine cook just thrown on the market by a bankrupt ex-consul. Girls
+fit for kitchen service could be had in the common stalls as cheap as
+1000 sesterces ($40); but Gratia and her husband had to pay a round
+25,000 ($1000) for a truly pretty little Greek, who was a dexterous
+hair-dresser and who could read aloud to her mistress with a good Attic
+accent.
+
+
+=109. Size of Slave Households (_Familiæ_). Slave Workmen.=--Thus the
+_familia_ of the Calvi has been made up. People complain that owing
+to the surcease of great wars the supply of cheap slaves fit for farm
+service is running down. Great landowners are actually being driven to
+fall back on free hired labor or a system of tenantry; but kidnapping,
+the sale of children by their barbarian parents, the ceaseless petty
+wars in Africa, Asia, and along the Rhine, as well as the sale of
+slaves born and bred on the Roman farms or mansions themselves[59]
+keep up a sufficient supply for domestic service.
+
+The very poor plebeians are, of course, slaveless and servantless, and
+plenty of small tradesmen or minor officials get along with only two or
+three slaves-of-all-work; but it is impossible to be a “somebody” and
+to exist in Rome without _at least ten slaves_. The social ladder
+and the size of the familiæ ascend together until we find senators and
+very rich equites who boast many more than two hundred in their city
+houses alone. “How many slaves has he got?” is the regular formula
+for asking “What’s his fortune?” In Augustus’s day there was a very
+wealthy freedman who owned 4116 slaves, although the majority of these
+were scattered on his numerous farms; but well known is the story of
+Pedanius Secundus, City Præfect under Nero: One of his slaves murdered
+him, and by the harsh old law making the entire familia liable for the
+killing of its master by one member, all of the slaves in his Roman
+mansion, almost 400 in number, were actually put to death, although his
+farm slaves were spared.
+
+There are many slaves, however, in Rome that are not strictly servants.
+They act as craftsmen and tradesmen of every kind, sometimes hired
+out by their masters to contractors, sometimes working on their
+own account. Custom, though not law, entitles them to a part of
+their earnings; this is their _peculium_ (“special property”)
+and only a very harsh owner will deprive them of it. Indeed it is
+clearly understood that an intelligent slave cannot be expected to
+do his best without a personal incentive. You can even find savings
+banks and really large commercial enterprises run by slaves, often
+put in positions of great trust, but such persons undoubtedly have
+an understanding about being manumitted if they are faithful and
+successful.
+
+  [Illustration: SLAVES WORKING IN A BAKERY.]
+
+
+=110. Division of Duties and Organization of Slave Households.=--In
+Calvus’ house as in every other great mansion one is impressed with
+the multitude of attendants. The master, mistress, and their friends
+are dependent on every kind of menial service. Before Calvus rises
+from bed, he is massaged every morning by an expert masseur, and some
+of his more effeminate friends insist on having not walking sticks but
+handsome slave boys of convenient height always at hand, on which to
+lean as they move about. In a well-ordered mansion, indeed, it seems
+needless really for the master to do much more than feed himself and
+draw his own breath--the servants can do all the rest for him!
+
+A familia of one hundred and fifty slaves, such as Calvus’s, requires
+a semi-military organization. Everything should run smoothly. At
+the head of all are the upper slaves, proud, arrogant beings with
+their own body servants, the commissioned officers of the army. The
+_procurator_ (sometimes a freedman), who does the purchasing and
+outside business; the _dispensator_, who manages the storerooms;
+the _atriensis_, who acts as general chamberlain, and especially
+the _silentarius_, who enforces “silence” and general discipline
+form the heads of this category. They are often petty tyrants, and the
+newcomer Crœsus will have far more to fear from their harshness than
+from Calvus, who will hardly know him by sight.
+
+The staff at large is carefully split up into _decuriæ_ (squads of ten)
+each under its special chief. There are the house cleaners, the table
+retinue, the kitchen force, the chamber boys and maids, the keepers of
+the wardrobes, the master’s valets, the mistress’s maids, the special
+attendants of Calvus’s children, the litter bearers, the corps of
+messengers--each forming a separate contingent. The master, too, has
+several secretaries, expert copyists and readers, and a librarian.
+There are several slave physicians although their duties are largely
+confined to the familia; the masters will call in fashionable free
+professionals for their own serious ills. The two sexes are about
+equally divided, and a great many slaves are respectably if informally
+married,[60] although a familia is anything but a school of social
+virtue.
+
+
+=111. Discipline in a Well-Ordered Mansion. Long Hours of
+Idleness.=--In such a mansion the master and mistress have little
+acquaintance with the lower run of the human beings over whom they
+possess absolute power. Calvus, however, knows his upper servants, his
+favorite valets, and his first secretary, and being a genuinely kindly
+man has come to esteem them and trust them familiarly; and it is the
+same between Gratia and her confidential maids.
+
+The other slaves they treat fairly humanely, all things considered,
+but absolutely impersonally--their presence is to be taken for granted
+like articles of furniture, and their personal problems are ignored.
+In the peristylium there is always posted a bulletin board informing
+the slaves of the nights when their master is going out to dinner,
+and although Calvus does not imitate certain very haughty individuals
+by trying to give all his orders through signs and never addressing
+a menial, it is good breeding to speak to ordinary slaves as seldom
+and then as curtly as possible, just as one should not waste words
+addressing a yoke of oxen.
+
+Roman house-slaves have their sorrows but they need not ordinarily fear
+two mortal evils--hunger, or overwork. They have, of course, their own
+dining quarters and are kept on sufficient, if simple rations of meal
+cakes, salt, oil, common wine, and a little fruit. Butcher’s meat they
+seldom touch, except as the kitchen staff get the leavings from the
+banquets, although the upper servants naturally fare more sumptuously.
+
+As for slaves’ working hours, they are absurdly short. Every servant
+has some limited appointed task. When that is finished nothing else
+is expected of him, and to require other duties would not merely make
+the master unpopular with his servants, it would stamp him before his
+equals as an extremely mean and sordid man. Thus, on very many days,
+Calvus’s six litter bearers have absolutely nothing to do. On the many
+nights that he and Gratia dine out the great kitchen staff is concerned
+mainly with the dice-box. The boudoir maids are usually idle from the
+time their mistress is dressed until she must dress again for dinner.
+All this makes for gossiping, gaming, and for the worst kinds of busy
+idleness.
+
+
+=112. Inevitable Degradation Caused by Slavery. Evil Effect upon
+Masters.=--Are these “speaking tools” very miserable? Calvus’s
+familia is not exceptional in that a tolerably kindly relation often
+exists between owner and owned. The Stoic philosophy is making its
+impression, and there are plenty of theoretical arguments that “a slave
+is also a man” and entitled to humane treatment. A master or mistress
+who is habitually cruel is frowned on socially as might be a man
+accustomed to abuse his horses.
+
+Nevertheless, the status of a slave is always morally degrading. He
+feels himself a mere chattel. Whatever he enjoys, he enjoys merely on
+suffrance. Any sort of iniquity is condoned in his mind “if the master
+orders it,” and he is likely to be honest and faithful more through the
+fear of harsh punishment than because of any high ethical motives.
+
+On the other hand just because slavery has perforce its brutal,
+soul-destroying elements, it is almost equally evil for the master.
+It is seldom good for a man to have the lives often of hundreds of
+fellow beings in his power; or to be relieved of every possible kind of
+honest exertion by a swarm of officious menials. Furthermore, slavery
+being inevitably so brutal, masters often live in terror of a mutiny by
+the brutes themselves. “_So many slaves, so many enemies_,” is a
+standard maxim; not always true, but true enough to excuse many horrid
+practices.
+
+The slave revolt led by Spartacus in 73 B.C. is now half forgotten
+in history, but that rebel gladiator had later several almost as
+successful imitators. Every now and then something happens which makes
+senatorial blood run cold. Only in Trajan’s day there was one Lagius
+Macedo, an ex-prætor, a cruel and overbearing master, indeed, who was
+beaten to death by his slaves while he was bathing at his Formiæ villa.
+The wretches were all crucified, of course, but (as wrote Pliny the
+Younger just after it happened): “You see what we masters are exposed
+to; and nobody can feel safe because he’s an easy and mild master; for
+it’s sheer villainy, not premeditation, that prompts our murder.”
+
+Another danger, especially under evil emperors, comes from the
+incessant presence of slaves at the most private affairs of their
+lords, their willingness to tattle, to assist informers, and often to
+help ruin their masters outright in return for freedom and reward.
+“The tongue is the worst part of a bad slave,” runs a familiar saying,
+and even an honest and high-minded man must shudder at the idea of
+having all his intimate doings passed on to delight his enemies.
+
+
+=113. Punishment of Slaves.=--Under these circumstances, and with
+so many slaves who are undoubtedly by origin and nature unreliable if
+not incorrigible, every large house has its small private dungeon, and
+also a low-browed wolfish creature who serves as jailer and official
+“whipper.” Even in Calvus’s house he finds occupation, for in so large
+a familia some luckless boy or maid is often caught loitering or
+pilfering, and gets a dose of the many-lashed scourge--at the orders of
+the upper-slave managers.[61] Under-slaves, indeed, think nothing of a
+lashing beyond its mere pain; there is no disgrace, it is all part of
+one’s lot in life.
+
+There can be much worse things than this in many houses. Servilia, one
+of Gratia’s acquaintances, often beats her tire-women cruelly with the
+flat of her bronze mirror for the most trivial offenses. Ambustus, the
+new ædile, lately ordered a boy to get one hundred stripes merely for
+being slow in bringing hot water. The rich widow Lepidia so enjoys
+having her slaves flogged, that she makes the whipper actually do his
+pitiless work in her dressing room, while she is reading the “Daily
+Journal” (_Acta Diurna_, see p. 282) and having her face rouged.
+Many a slave has been whipped to death because of some small folly
+which sent his master or mistress into a rage, and noblemen have been
+known to keep huge flesh-eating carp in their fish ponds, and to toss
+in a recalcitrant slave occasionally to improve the flavor of the fish,
+although such actions disgust all decent people.
+
+
+=114. Branding of Slaves. _Ergastula_--Slave Prisons.=--If a slave’s
+offense is too great to be rewarded by a mere whipping, and yet does
+not provoke the death penalty, there are plenty of intermediate
+punishments. Toiling around Calvus’s atrium is an ill-favored lad with
+the scars of branding barely healed on his forehead: “FVR” he is marked
+(“Thief”)[62]. He is taking the place of another youth who, to cure
+extreme laziness, has been sent for a month to the “mill gang”--chained
+to the great lever which turns the grist mill and forced to toil all
+day like a hard-driven ass--an excellent cure for idleness.
+
+This fate is not so bad, however, as what befell one of the eques
+Pollio’s valets, a bright clever lad, who foolishly became too pert
+to his master. In a fit of anger Pollio ordered, “Give him six months
+in the _ergastulum_.” The soft-handed boy was, therefore, not merely
+shipped off to severe farm labor, itself utterly repulsive, but was
+obliged to work in the fields in a chain-gang along with the very
+scum of slave-criminals; always in fetters, lashed by brutish keepers
+themselves slaves, and confined at night in underground prisons
+(_ergastula_) that were mere kennels.
+
+
+=115. Death Penalties for Slaves. Pursuit of Runaways.=--If
+a slave really deserves death, there are, of course, two standard
+methods of capital punishment, both very degrading as well as fearful.
+Everybody knows about crucifixion with its hours and perhaps days
+of hideous agony; but more common and nearly as painful is death on
+the _furca_.[63] The victim’s head is placed at the opening of
+two “V”-shaped beams and his arms tightly lashed upon them; then the
+professional floggers strike the wretch with their loaded whips, the
+leaden balls worked into the thongs making them a terrific weapon,
+until death comes as blessed relief. It has been a long day since there
+has been an execution at Calvus’s house, but some years ago a Spanish
+boy who murdered an upper-servant perished thus under the lash. There
+is, however, a much simpler way of disposing of criminal slaves, one
+bringing a certain return to their masters,--namely, to sell them to
+the givers of public shows to train as gladiators or merely to set in
+the arena to give sport to the bears or lions.
+
+Of course, under such conditions slaves will often try to run away.
+They seldom really succeed, however, unless they are persons of marked
+intelligence and can make off with considerable money. The Roman
+Empire is one vast police unit, unattached strangers are everywhere
+scrutinized carefully and when a slave disappears a reward is promptly
+offered. Only now a crier has gone down Mercury Street, with a crowd
+after him, as he proclaims: “_Disappeared from the public baths, a
+boy aged about sixteen. Free and easy habits. Curly hair. Good-looking.
+Answers to name of Giton. A thousand sesterces to anybody haling him
+back to Aulus Sulpicius near the Temple of Ops, or to anyone who will
+betray his whereabouts!_”[64]
+
+If Giton is retaken, he can thank the gods if he is merely flogged
+almost to death, and is not also given a year in the ergastulum.
+
+Naturally slaves can only testify in court by their master’s consent
+and under torture, although the reigning humane Emperor has just issued
+a decree limiting its use to the last resort. Hadrian, also, contrary
+to the usage in Nero’s day, has ordained that if a man is murdered by
+his slaves, only the slaves near the actual scene of crime are to be
+tormented, and he has actually banished a certain matron, Umbricia, for
+“abusing her slave girls most atrociously for trivial reasons.” All
+this perhaps dimly foreshadows a new day; but what human chattel can
+wait to see the abuses of slavery whittled down by the law across the
+centuries?
+
+Have the slaves along Mercury Street any nearer hope? Possibly. The
+other day many of them saw in the front benches of honor at the
+Circus a man of dignity. His hands glittered with sardonyx rings; his
+lacerna was of Tyrian purple; his shoes were scarlet, his hair reeking
+with costly essences; a great train bowed and cringed to him. But
+his forehead was covered with “numerous white patches like stars”;
+“sticking plaster,” everybody whispered, to cover up the FVR once
+branded on his countenance. He was an ex-slave, an exalted freedman,
+who, a couple of decades before, had stood on the auction block, but
+now was a mighty power in Roman high finance.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VIII
+
+    THE SOCIAL ORDERS: FREEDMEN, PROVINCIALS, PLEBEIANS, AND NOBLES
+
+
+=116. Manumission of Slaves Very Common.=--A Roman slave’s legal
+position may be miserable, but usually he is not under that fearful
+stigma of race and color weighing upon the slaves of another era. His
+complexion and his brain power do not differ essentially from his
+master’s.[65] If he is a Greek or Levantine, often his mental acuteness
+may be greater than that of his lord. An intelligent slave under not
+too harsh a master will devote himself to the latter in every possible
+way, expecting pretty certainly the great reward for faithfulness and
+zealous service--freedom. Of course, many dull hardened wretches,
+especially upon the farms, will die as the toiling chattels they have
+lived; but freedom comes often enough to make manumission something for
+which to hope eagerly.
+
+Often the death of a master is the signal for a grand enfranchisement
+of all the older members of his familia. It costs nothing thus to
+reward faithful service at the expense of your heirs; and it is a fine
+thing to have a long file of newly created freedmen, all wearing the
+tall red caps of “liberty,” march in your funeral procession. Everybody
+will praise your “generosity,” and the freedmen can be expected to
+cherish their lord’s memory. Incidentally, also, there are few better
+ways of punishing a generally incompetent slave than having him
+ostentatiously _refused_ freedom when all his comrades go about
+rejoicing.
+
+
+=117. The Ceremony of Manumission.=--Nevertheless, many slaves need
+not wait for their masters to die. They are perhaps suffered to work
+at a trade, and accumulate their “peculium,” and then very likely
+to purchase their own and their wives’ and children’s liberty. With
+rich masters of the better sort, it is also a gracious act at certain
+intervals to select a few extra-deserving slaves and say to them the
+blessed words, “Come with me to the prætor!”
+
+When they are all before the magistrate a solemn legal formality
+is gone through. One of the official lictors steps forward, gives
+a light tap with his rod upon the head of each slave and says
+loudly, “I declare this man is free!” The master laying hold of the
+slave and turning him around, replies, “And I desire that this man
+should be free!” adding a slight blow on the cheek; whereat the
+magistrate declares officially, “And I adjudge that this man is free.”
+This completes the “manumission”; then home the happy “freedman”
+(_libertinus_) goes to be greeted with the congratulations of his
+former fellow-slaves, showers of sweet cakes, dates, and figs and all
+kinds of humble rejoicings.
+
+
+=118. The Status of Freedmen. Their Great Success in
+Business.=--Henceforth, the ex-slave is the freedman of his former
+master. He takes the first part of his master’s name; thus that
+Cleander, manumitted a few years ago by Publius Junius Calvus, now
+swells about proudly as Publius Junius Cleander. His children will
+henceforth be Junii, no less lawfully than Calvus’s children; with a
+result that the gentile names of some of the proudest houses in Rome
+are now also borne by families perforce acknowledging swart Africans or
+tow-headed Batavians as very near ancestors.
+
+Once escaped from actual slavery a great career in life can open before
+an energetic freedman. If his ex-master is a Roman citizen, he also
+is now a Roman citizen without any naturalization process. True he
+is under a social stigma. Not merely he, but his children also, are
+excluded from the Senate and all the higher offices of the state; but
+an ex-slave is not likely to suffer from thinness of skin. Compelled in
+his youth to use his wits and put forth all his energies, he now often
+possesses abilities, often not very refined or delicate, which carry
+him far in trade, general business, and finance.
+
+Usually before a master manumits a slave it is arranged that he shall
+remain in the mansion as some kind of an invaluable “man of business”
+for handling a large estate. Many a senator is like Cicero, in all
+private affairs completely at the mercy of a confidential _alter
+ego_, a freedman like Cicero’s able and beloved Tiro. Practically
+every dignitary in Rome will refer his business matters to “my
+freedman,” a shrewd consequential fellow, probably of Græco-Levantine
+origin, who has the right to use his patron’s seal ring, and who knows
+all the family secrets. Supple, obsequious, and indispensable, he is
+certain of a great legacy when his patron dies; and if the patron is
+childless, he often becomes his heir. There are, indeed, plenty of
+cases where a slave-boy who entered a house as a valet, first earned
+freedom, then became a general confidant, and ended not merely with
+inheriting the house itself but with marrying the late owner’s widow.
+
+
+=119. Humble Types of Freedmen.=--Of course, the bulk of freedmen
+have no claim to such expectations. They are petty shop keepers or
+skilled craftsmen. They make up the great bureaus of upper clerks in
+the huge government offices on the Palatine. Everywhere they compete,
+as a rule very successfully, with the free born, and, of course, they
+add to the cosmopolitan multitudes in Rome.
+
+An ex-slave cannot avoid becoming substantially the client of his
+former master. He is supposed to show his patron and his patron’s
+family constant respect and usually a certain amount of service
+without compensation. Thus a while ago Calvus manumitted a very
+faithful slave-physician. It was stipulated that he should continue
+to physic the familia without charge. For a freedman to show himself
+neglectful of these obligations, above all to do anything to injure
+his ex-master, is the depth of depravity. The legal penalties for such
+“ingratitude” are very severe, and in extreme cases the actual act of
+manumission itself can be cancelled.
+
+
+=120. Wealth and Power of Successful Freedmen.=--Nevertheless,
+top-lofty freedmen abound. Their ready wits bring them riches--the
+power before which all the Empire bends. Once more Juvenal describes
+an obnoxious type: “Though I’m born on the Euphrates, a fact which
+the little windows [holes for earrings] in my ears would prove if I
+denied it--yet am I the owner of five shops which bring me in 400,000
+sesterces [$16,000] per year. What better thing does a senator’s robe
+bestow? Therefore, let everybody give way to one who but yesterday
+with the chalked feet of a slave entered our city.” Freedmen, of
+course, get ahead marvellously because nothing is too sordid if only
+it promises gain. “He [a certain freedman],” says Petronius, “started
+with an _as_ [large copper coin], and was always ready to pick a
+_quadrans_ [farthing] out of the filthy mire with his teeth. So
+his wealth grew and grew like a honey comb!”
+
+Very probably, the ideal set before this species of persons is that of
+becoming all-powerful imperial freedmen, such as that pair, Pallas and
+Narcissus, who literally ruled the Roman Empire through their patron,
+Claudius. Trajan and Hadrian have, indeed, greatly reduced the power of
+freedmen around the Palace, turning the great secretarial offices over
+to equites, but there are still ex-slaves in the service of “Cæsar,”
+who have only a little less influence than that mighty Claudius
+Etruscus who died of old age under Domitian after having served six
+Emperors. He began life in Rome as a slave boy from Smyrna. Tiberius
+manumitted him. He rose to become practically the head of the Treasury.
+His wealth was great, but his integrity matched his vast power, and
+few senators had such commanding influence in the government as he
+possessed.
+
+
+=121. Importance of Freedmen in a Roman Family.=--In such a house
+as that of Calvus there are neither imperial ministers nor miserly
+speculators. The freedmen are honored and trusted members not of the
+slave familia but of the actual “family.” When they are sick Calvus and
+Gratia are greatly concerned, as was Pliny the Younger over the illness
+of his beloved reader, Zosimus. If there is any domestic crisis, their
+counsel is sought and they take a zealous interest in the education of
+their lord’s children.
+
+On the other hand, on the nearby Flora Street spreads the huge garish
+palace of the ex-slave Athenonius, who won his freedom by catering to a
+foolish master’s worst passions, and then gathered enormous wealth by
+speculating in Egyptian corn. “_Freedmen’s riches_” have become a
+proverb. Not all freedmen are by any means wealthy, but enough of them
+have risen to the seats of the mighty to make every toiling slave dream
+dreams and see visions of something better than a dishonored, servile
+grave.
+
+
+=122. The Status of Provincials. The Case of Jesus.=--All freedmen
+are Roman citizens, albeit citizens under a formal handicap, but in a
+city like Rome there are always many free persons who are not citizens
+at all--visiting provincials. Every year the Emperors issue some edict
+granting the franchise to a new group of non-citizens, but the numbers
+of the latter in all the provinces of the Empire is still great.[66]
+At Rome their position is ordinarily comfortable enough, although if
+arrested, they are liable to a more summary trial than Roman citizens
+and in case of famine or public disturbance they are liable to sudden
+expulsion from the city (as Claudius expelled the Jews) without any
+redress. The real disadvantage which they endure is that they cannot
+be appointed to any kind of public office under the Roman government.
+They are also sometimes under a legal handicap in making and enforcing
+commercial contracts; and last but not least in their own provinces
+they cannot “appeal to Cæsar” (if in an “Imperial” province) or to the
+Senate (if in a “Senatorial” province) against the decision, however
+arbitrary, of the Roman governor.
+
+If you search the public records at the great _Tabularium_ (Public
+Record Office) by the Forum, you can find for example the report of the
+trial of a certain Jew, one Christus, who was accused of sedition in
+Judæa, about a hundred years before our visit to Rome. The procurator
+Pilatus yielding to popular clamor had him executed ignominiously by
+crucifixion. This was, of course, within Pilatus’s legal authority.
+Christus was only a provincial and he could take no appeal.
+
+The status of the provincials depends much on whether their communities
+enjoy any treaty with or charter from Rome. Athens and a few other
+favored places are nominally “equal allies” with full rights of
+self-government, and their citizens can claim a favored position among
+the mass of provincials. Other places possess charters giving great
+privileges but revocable in case of gross abuse.
+
+The bulk of the provincials are mere “stipendiaries,” often permitted
+local self-government, but subject to Roman taxation, and to the
+complete jurisdiction of the Roman governor. Under the Empire these
+governors are only by exception corrupt and arbitrary, but their
+decisions must usually be final.
+
+
+=123. Great Alien Colonies in Rome.=--Apart from the great alien
+slave population there are inevitably large groups of resident aliens
+in various parts of the capital. There is a Little Syria, Little Egypt,
+Little Spain, and a Little Greece as surely as in certain great cities
+of a later civilization, but the most famous and conspicuous is the
+great Jewish colony.
+
+This exists mainly in the Trans-Tiber district under the shadow of the
+Janiculum, although Jews are allowed to settle and to do business in
+any section of the city. The total number of free Jews in Rome has been
+set at 35,000 in Augustus’s day, and it received a great reinforcement
+through the captives of Titus, many of whom regained their liberty. The
+Jews are obliged to pay to the Capitoline Jupiter that tribute which
+they formerly paid to their Temple in Jerusalem, but otherwise they
+are not harassed by the government. For the most part, however, they
+are very poor; few of them are great bankers or merchants, but nearly
+all the rest are petty shopkeepers and peddlers--also a great many are
+alleged to increase their living by fortune-telling and by like dubious
+arts.
+
+
+=124. The Roman Plebeians, the “Mob” (_Vulgus_).=--Greatly surpassing
+the resident aliens in number are inevitably the ordinary Roman
+plebeians. It is a fine thing in the provinces to boast, “_Civis
+Romanus sum_,” but in the capital many a freedman, many an upper-slave
+of a magnate even, looks down with scorn on a large fraction of this
+“common herd” (_grex_) that still claims to form “the Roman People.”
+However, if you are really a Roman citizen entitled to wear a toga,
+and to share in the grain doles and other public distributions, you
+can really live on very little. Somehow you must find means for the
+rental of a sleeping garret in an insula, but the daytime you can spend
+hanging around the fora, porticoes, or the entrances to the circuses
+and gladiator schools, playing _morra_ and checkergames (see p. 205);
+idling in the great public baths; frequenting every possible public
+exhibition in the theater or amphitheater and often getting a bare
+income by toadying most abjectly to the rich.
+
+Everybody despises this Roman “mob,” and yet cringes to it. Its yells
+across the circus send the blood from the cheeks of very tyrannous
+emperors. The mild Italian climate renders an existence amid dirt and
+sunshine, eked out by very little labor, decidedly tolerable.[67]
+Assuredly very many of these “citizens” are simply honest thrifty
+industrialists, trades people, or professional men, holding their
+own stubbornly against the competing slaves, freedmen, and aliens.
+Nevertheless, the proportion of undesirables is dangerously great. Many
+of the idle plebeians are the sons of freedmen, who have inherited
+their parents’ non-Italian vices but who have not been under their
+necessity of hard work and faithfulness; and when one examines the
+moral and social qualities of the alleged heirs of the virtuous
+old-time plebeians the idea of “restoring the Republic,” still
+sighed after by a few aristocratic philosophers, appears absolutely
+laughable.[68]
+
+
+=125. The Desirability of Roman Citizenship. The Case of St. Paul.=--It
+is as contrasted with the status of provincials that Roman citizenship
+still preserves its remarkable value. A citizen can, indeed, no
+longer go to the Republican assemblies to elect magistrates and vote
+on proposed statutes, but he has his personal and property rights
+protected by the best kind of “Quiritian” law. The government is
+never, indeed, iniquitous enough to enact that, as between Roman and
+provincial, the judge must always decide for the former, nevertheless
+the advantages of the citizen are great.
+
+A Roman can command all sorts of protection not open to provincials.
+The judge will almost inevitably be a little prejudiced in his favor.
+If arrested, a citizen can ordinarily demand the right to give bail. It
+is a gross outrage to “examine him by scourging.” He cannot be put to
+torture. If he is finally sentenced to die, he cannot be crucified, but
+ordinarily must be beheaded--a very merciful end. Particularly, unless
+the case is extremely clear, in matters touching his life and status as
+a citizen he can appeal from the decision of a provincial governor to
+“Cæsar” or to the Senate (if in a province governed by that body).
+
+If we visit the Record Office again, this matter is clearly
+illustrated. About twenty-five years after the crucifixion of
+Christus, one of his followers, a certain Paulus, was also arrested
+in Jerusalem on much the same charges of attempted sedition and
+inciting disturbance. But Paulus, when arrested, promptly pleaded his
+Roman citizenship. Vainly the local mob clamored for his life even as
+they had demanded that of Christus. When the local procurator Festus
+hesitated to set him at liberty, the prisoner demanded to be sent to
+Rome--and thither at great trouble and expense he had to be shipped;
+to be tried ultimately before the Prætorian Præfect sitting as Nero’s
+deputy; and the charges were dismissed and he was set at liberty.[69]
+If he had not been a Roman, assuredly the weak-kneed governor of
+Palestine would have sacrificed him “to please the Jews” just as
+Pilatus sacrificed Christus.
+
+
+=126. Clientage: Its Oldest Form.=--Between the poorest classes
+of plebeians, sleeping within porticoes and despised by the superior
+slaves, and those dignified well-to-do gentlemen who have almost the
+means to pass as equites, there are, of course, an infinite number of
+social strata. The most important section of the better plebeians is
+undoubtedly to be numbered among the _clients_.
+
+Clientage is a very old Roman institution. The kings and nobles of
+Rome in the very twilight of history had their clients. Those were
+the days when poor plebeians had little or no legal protection unless
+they enlisted the patronage of a magnate. They entered his _gens_
+(inner-clan), followed him in war, voted (when they obtained the vote)
+in his interest, assisted him in certain money matters, in short,
+became members of his household although very much better off than the
+slaves. In return the patron was bound to defend their legal rights
+in the courts and to protect them from all forms of outrage. Men were
+proud to confess themselves as clients of a Fabius or an Æmilius. But
+by the end of the Republic the institution had practically disappeared
+in its original form. There was little legal discrimination then
+against poor citizens, and about all the real clients who now remained
+were freedmen, who, as just seen, were bound to be loyal and helpful to
+their _patroni_.
+
+
+=127. The New Parasitical Clientage: the Morning Salutation.=--Now,
+however, a new and wholly parasitical clientage has come into being.
+Early every morning the clients can be seen hurrying down Mercury
+Street in their hastily donned togas. Sometimes a patron lives a great
+distance across the city; sometimes a fawning myrmidon hopes to visit
+_two_ patrons in the same morning and get a double reward. Calvus
+does not rejoice in a great horde of clients, but being a senator his
+dignity requires that he should maintain perhaps a score of them.
+
+These clients are an assorted lot. Some are merely cheap hangers-on,
+some are adventurers visiting Rome and expecting to prosper by earning
+the favor of the great, there is also a mediocre poet who hopes for a
+tidy gift some day because of laudatory verses about his “Rex” and the
+latter’s family, there are several distant relatives of the Calvi, poor
+relations to whom the doles are a form of pension; and finally there
+are two or three men of good family and tolerable incomes who actually
+dance attendance on Calvus just to get a little extra pocket money.
+
+  [Illustration: CLIENTS GATHERING IN THE RAIN, BEFORE
+  THEIR PATRON’S DOOR.
+
+  _After Von Falke._]
+
+The clients gather in the vestibule at dawn, rubbing their eyes,
+rearranging their hastily donned togas, and each trying to induce the
+not very civil porter to permit him to enter first. At last the word
+is passed to the door that, “The patron is ready.” The valves open;
+the clients swarm inside together. Publius Calvus dressed for the
+morning is standing in the rear of his atrium, just behind the pool of
+the impluvium. At his elbow is his nomenclator, the slave who “knows
+everybody,” to whisper a name in case he should not connect it promptly
+with a face.
+
+“_Ave, patrone, ave!_” cries each client coming up in turn. “_Ave,
+Marce!_” or “_Sexte!_” or “_Lucie!_” answers Calvus with a more or less
+formal smile.
+
+If his mood is very gracious, each client is allowed to seize his hand,
+and two or three in extra favor are suffered to kiss his cheek. The
+nomenclator meantime prompts him in undertone, “Ask about his wife,”
+“Congratulate him on his niece’s marriage,” etc. And if that evening
+there are not more important guests in view, the senator will delight
+the souls of several by saying affably, “Come to-night to dinner.” The
+clients in any case congratulate themselves that their patron is not
+like some of those very haughty parvenus, who simply hold out their
+hands to be kissed and never speak a word, and who like to be called
+“dominus,” as if their clients were merely slaves.
+
+
+=128. The Dole to Clients (the _Sportula_).=--After the clients will
+appear more pretentious visitors--equites and fellow senators--who
+call to see Calvus on business. Their own clients are probably waiting
+listlessly in the street, while Calvus’s dependents have to stand
+respectfully near their lord until an upper slave beckons them toward
+the office--the tablinum. He has a list in his hand and checks off all
+present as might a master the pupils in his school, and then comes
+the reward which brought all these toga-wearing gentry thither, a
+distribution of money.
+
+In former years every client had received an actual portion of
+victuals, known as _sportula_ from the “little basket” which everybody
+brought to bear the viands hence. But this custom of distributing
+actual food was inconvenient, and far more pleasing is an actual
+gift of money. Only regularly listed clients can receive this; and
+no client, sick or lazy, can send a deputy.[70] He must appear in
+person or stand his loss. At length, to every lawful retainer present
+is carefully counted out a hundred _quadrantes_, small coppers (rather
+under 25 cents), and besides the clients entertain a few hopes of a
+fairly liberal present at New Year’s Day, and at some other festivals,
+and as seen, in a kind of rotation they are invited at broad intervals
+to dinner.
+
+
+=129. Attendance by Clients in Public. Insults They Must
+Undergo.=--After the sportula has been paid, the clients look anxiously
+toward Calvus. Will he tell them, as he does about half of the time,
+“Nothing more to-day,” and let them scatter down the streets? Not so;
+“My litter” he orders. The clients are obliged to march before and
+behind, along with the slaves, helping to elbow aside the crowd, while
+the senator visits other senatorial houses, next his banker at the
+Forum, and then the law courts for a consultation, and so goes his
+round. If he detains the clients through the noon hour, he is obligated
+to give them some kind of luncheon; but he can command the attendance
+of them all even up to the tenth hour, when he may turn them loose to
+refresh themselves in the public Baths of Titus, after they have left
+him perhaps at the more select Baths of Agrippa.
+
+As for the clients invited to Calvus’s dinner, if the fare is plainer
+than on the night of a high banquet, there is at least no insulting
+discrimination. A decent patron and patrona are bound to show
+themselves “friends” of their clients and to keep up a pretence of
+democratic manners. But as stated earlier (see p. 120), many a vulgar
+plutocrat, feeling that he has paid good money to get a proper retinue
+to follow him to the Forum, delights to insult his clients’ feelings
+when he invites them. The host enjoys his fine white loaf, while the
+client’s is almost too hard to break; the host a splendid lobster
+garnished with asparagus, the client “a crab on a tiny plate hemmed in
+by half an egg”; the lord “noble mushrooms,” the client “toadstools of
+doubtful quality,”--and all other treatment is to match. Yet such is
+the servility and pettiness of many that they will endure all this and
+worse merely in order to boast the next day of “last night when I dined
+with my friend the senator----!” “You think yourself a citizen and the
+guest of a grandee,” cries the indignant poet. “_He_ thinks, and
+he’s nearly right, that you’ve been captured by the fine smell from his
+kitchen.”
+
+Clientage then is a typical institution of imperial Rome--a means for
+letting rich men flatter their desire for a huge company of obsequious
+attendants by trading on the wretched ambition of so many to appear
+to be on familiar terms with the great. It multiplies the horde of
+shabby-genteel persons around the city, and the vast number of those
+who flee from their greatest aversion--honest work.
+
+
+=130. The Decurions: the Notables of the Chartered Cities.=--Above
+the run of clients or even of the better plebeians is the actual
+nobility. Strictly speaking only the senators and equites are reckoned
+in this group, but always in Rome are sojourning a certain number of
+other men who hold themselves decidedly better than any plebeians--the
+_decurions_ from the enfranchised towns covering all Italy and
+dotted over the entire Empire.[71]
+
+The decurions are the notables of the smaller chartered cities. In
+their own communities they are local senators and enjoy in a small way
+the position of an actual Senator in Rome.[72] Nobody can be elected
+decurion without a reasonable property qualification, in many cities
+100,000 sesterces ($4000), and from their body of wealthy dignitaries
+the local public assemblies still elect (even under the Empire) city
+magistrates, duumvirs, ædiles, etc., who take the place in each
+community of the old consuls and censors of Republican Rome.
+
+Since the loyalty of the population and the popularity of the imperial
+régime often depends on this very influential class of decurions, the
+government makes much of them; allows them high-sounding titles and
+tinsel honors, and any who visit Rome are given social precedence
+directly behind the actual equites. Furthermore, many high Roman nobles
+themselves are proud to be enrolled as patrons and _honorary_
+decurions of the Italian towns, looking after the interest of their
+client communities in the capital, and, if they visit the smaller
+cities, being received as particular guests of honor. The number of
+decurions, however, in Rome itself is always small, although their
+importance everywhere else in the Empire is vast, and they virtually
+form a third order of nobility.
+
+
+=131. The Equites: the Nobles of the Second Class.=--Everywhere
+around the metropolis you meet the second-class nobles--the
+Equites.[73] This “Splendid Order” dates, of course, from the oldest
+days when to keep a cavalry horse implied having considerable property.
+The equites sank to unimportance in the prosperous era of the Republic,
+but were revived to great power by Gaius Gracchus; they were later
+reorganized and made an effective part of the new imperial régime by
+Augustus.
+
+The dividing line between Senators and Equites is not always sharp.
+Young men of senatorial family who renounce a political career have to
+“make narrow their purple stripe,” as did Ovid, and without disgrace
+appear henceforth as second-class nobles. Supposedly no persons but the
+sons of free-born men are eligible for enrollment as equites, but the
+members of the old-line families fume vainly at the way the Emperors
+(who have complete dispensing power) will grant “the right of the
+gold ring,” not merely to the sons of freedmen, but sometimes even to
+downright ex-slaves. There are in truth very few equites in Rome who do
+not reckon a slave among their not remote grandparents.
+
+The equites are all carefully enrolled in a public bureau under
+imperial control, and one of the surest holds which the Emperor
+possesses upon the government lies in the fact that he can refuse
+enrollment arbitrarily to any young man and thereby practically exclude
+him from any kind of high public office except in the municipal towns,
+or from any military rank above that of centurion. The senators, all
+the more important officials, and all the commissioned officers of the
+army are equites, although their greater honors cause them to ignore
+the lesser, while if the Emperor has an eligible son or heir, he is
+often proclaimed the _princeps juventutis_ (“Chief of the Roman
+Youth”) and is nominally the first member of the Equestrian Order.
+
+
+=132. Qualifications and Honors of the Equites.=--To be enrolled
+as an eques one must possess besides unstained birth (with exceptions
+above noted), a good public reputation, and taxable property worth at
+least 400,000 sesterces ($16,000); sufficient therefore to pass for
+a tolerably rich man. The honor comes for life, subject to demotion,
+however, for disgraceful conduct, or lapse into poverty. A son normally
+inherits his father’s status, if his own share of the patrimony comes
+to over 400,000 sesterces; and of course, to make up that magic figure
+many plebeians pinch and slave.
+
+The honors of an eques are great in any age laying such stress on
+outward praise and glory. Besides the right to the plain gold ring,
+the narrow purple stripe running down the front of the tunic proudly
+proclaims the fact, “I am of the nobility.” The equites also enjoy
+fourteen rows of seats in the public games and theater directly behind
+the four front ones reserved for the senators. They provide a large
+fraction of all the jurors in the great civil tribunals which handle
+most of the litigation.[74] Very many of the great imperial ministries
+and superintendencies are reserved for them, for the Emperor does not
+like to trust the senators too implicitly, and some of the smaller
+provinces have equestrian “Procurators” as their governors, as also
+does the enormously wealthy province of Egypt.
+
+The majority of the equites, however, are in private life. Senators
+ought not (except through convenient middlemen) to engage in
+commerce and trade. Not so the equites--the powerful bankers with
+whom the imperial treasurer may confer; the owners of the peaceful
+armadas that enter Puteoli or Ostia; the proprietors of the finer
+retail establishments along the Sæpta Julia as well as of the huge
+wholesale houses; the directors of the vast brickyards, and other
+highly developed industries; the owners of so many of the squalid but
+profitable insulæ--nearly all will show their “Angusticlave”--their
+narrow purple stripe. Equites appear at banquets with senators
+without the least awkwardness; and they like to be addressed by fine
+booming titles: _insignes_, _primores_, _illustres_, or, if holding
+high office, _eminentissimi_, but in most cases as _splendidi_; and
+“splendid” they appear to the envious slaves and plebeians.
+
+
+=133. Review of the Equites. Pretenders to the Rank.=--The equites
+are still in theory a military body. Every 15th of July, unless the
+review is deliberately omitted, all members who are physically able are
+supposed to procure horses and take part in a grand parade before the
+Emperor. Sometimes there are at least 5000 equites in the procession.
+The Emperor still has the right of the ancient censors to brand a man
+as a bad citizen by the public command, “Sell your horse!” as he rides
+by the reviewing stand;[75] but the parade has now become merely an
+unpleasant formality for portly men unaccustomed to horseback, and old
+gentlemen are usually excused.
+
+In so large a body of “gentry,” however, imposture becomes fairly
+common. Nearly every Emperor issues an edict for the purging of the
+order, and every now and then some adventurous nobody is divested of
+his “narrow stripe.” Calvus came home lately from the Flaminian Circus
+laughing heartily. Just behind his senatorial tier a perfumed and
+beringed fellow set off with a splendid lacerna sat down saying loudly,
+“Now at last, thanks to our Cæsar, due honors have come to the Roman
+equites, and the vulgar are kept away”; but hardly had he spoken ere a
+lynx-eyed usher identified him and amid the jeering of hundreds “forced
+that very fine lacerna to get up!”
+
+
+=134. The Senatorial Order. The First-Class Nobility.=--The first
+class in the nobility is the Senatorial. The actual functioning of
+the Senate which is still a most venerable and powerful council will
+be told later (see p. 334); here we have to see its members merely
+in social and unofficial life. They number six hundred and entrance
+into their gilded circle comes usually by a kind of hereditary right.
+The sons of a senator can almost always count on becoming senators
+themselves if the family fortune is not too impaired and they have
+not fallen under imperial disfavor. To win the honor you must either
+be elected (by the Senate itself) to some one of the old Republican
+offices--quæstors, ædiles, prætors, consuls, etc.,--which carried a
+life seat in the Senate with them, or be appointed outright by fiat of
+the Emperor. The latter, furthermore, is always pushing forward his
+favorites by “inviting” the senators to elect them to office, and the
+“Conscript Fathers” never disregarded such a broad hint from “Cæsar.”
+
+
+=135. Social Glories of Senators.=--Senators alone are eligible
+for the highest commands in the army, for the governorships for the
+more important provinces, except Egypt, and for most of the other
+exalted offices which do not involve a vulgar handling of money. The
+Emperor himself ranks as the head of their noble body. Even when he
+is at bitter odds with them, he must not forget that they share part
+of his glory. Still is told the story of how one of Nero’s parasites
+raised a laugh from the tyrant one day. “I hate you, Cæsar!” he
+announced. “And why is that?” “Oh, just because you are a senator.”
+
+All the senators are officially the “friends,” _amici_, of the
+monarch.
+
+These great nobles are entitled to visit the Emperor in the palace
+somewhat as clients visit their patron. He is expected to extend his
+hand to them; to treat them as a kind of social equals; and to allow
+the more important of them to kiss him. They and their wives must be
+invited to all the greater palace banquets. Finally all the better
+monarchs are expected to take oath at the beginning of their reigns
+that they “will never put any senator to death”--that is, that the
+Senate shall be the supreme judge over its own members.
+
+Although parvenus are promoted by even the best of emperors, the
+senatorial families average much older than do the equestrian; and it
+is still a very desirable thing to boast of “ancient blood and the
+painted visages of one’s forebears.”
+
+
+=136. The Senatorial Aristocracy Greater than the Senate.=--The
+“Senatorial Aristocracy,” nevertheless, is something greater than the
+actual membership of the great council itself. Not merely the sons
+but all the male descendants of a senator to the third degree are
+reckoned as equal socially to the actual “Conscript Fathers,” though
+many such connections dress merely as equites with the narrow stripe.
+This may be from “lack of ambition” or it may be from desire to engage
+in trade. Gratia has two brothers. One is a senator, his wealth
+invested in lands, and at present he is imperial legate over part of
+Britain. The second is technically only an eques, busy with enormous
+financial transactions with Alexandria; but the second is the richer
+and probably the more influential man of the two. Of course, all the
+wives of senators rank with their husbands, and every cousin, niece, or
+nephew of the latter feels a reflected luster. The six hundred senators
+are, therefore, the center of an upper aristocracy with at least six
+thousand actual members.
+
+
+=137. Insignia, Qualifications, and Titles of Senators.=--The actual
+senators make no concealment of their honors. They have their special
+shoes (see p. 95), and most important of all they have the broad
+purple stripe running down the front of their tunics, the precious
+_laticlave_, distinguishing them instantly from the equites. Nobody,
+furthermore, can be enrolled as senator unless he possesses the taxable
+fortune of at least 1,000,000 sesterces ($40,000); and this insures
+that he is a passing rich man, above petty bribes and able to live with
+the dignity becoming a Lord of the Empire.
+
+The public glories of these dignitaries match their fortunes. At all
+the public games and spectacles the senatorial tiers are directly
+behind the Emperor’s loge. In the public feasts the senators are not
+merely entitled to the seats of honor, but frequently to extra-generous
+portions of the food. If a senator tours the provinces, he can command
+every kind of servile attention, even if the Emperor refuses him
+the “right of free legation”--the privileges of traveling with the
+honors of an ambassador. Finally if he is arrested, not merely is he
+ordinarily tried before his peers--in the Senate; he is subject to much
+lighter penalties than the run of citizens in case of conviction.[76]
+
+Finally the senators have a title of nobility which they are able to
+command practically as a formal right[77]--_vir clarissimus_--“Very
+distinguished Lord” or “Your Magnificence.” Gratia, like every
+senator’s wife, is a _femina clarissima_; even her small sons can be
+addressed pompously as _pueri clarissimi_. To the multitude who make
+way for their litters, the rank of _clarissimus_ appears the acme of
+attainable happiness.
+
+The political power of the Senate has waned, but emperors are only
+mortal individuals. They come and go; the existence of the great,
+proud, wealthy, landed aristocracy seems to go on forever. Emperors
+usually succeed so far as they win its loyalty and favor; they somehow
+fail, and are branded across history as tyrants (often cut short by
+dagger thrusts) when they earn its hate. In an Empire of nigh one
+hundred millions the six thousand of the Senatorial Order form the
+normal apex of the human pyramid. It is a fine thing to be a senator.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IX
+
+                        PHYSICIANS AND FUNERALS
+
+
+=138. Scanty Qualifications and Training of Doctors.=--People fall
+sick in Rome quite as much as in every other great center of humanity,
+but the healing art has not really progressed a great deal beyond
+that in Athens in the days of Hippocrates nearly five hundred years
+earlier.[78] A great proportion of even the most fashionable doctors
+are freedmen, and nearly all of these have Greek (or sometimes
+Egyptian) names. There is no medical examination. Anybody who has made
+a failure in other callings is welcome to pose as a physician and try
+to extract money from the unfortunate. There are many “surgeons” and
+“therapists” around the city who, a little while ago, were shoemakers,
+carpenters, or smiths, and who, perhaps, keep up their old handicraft
+on the side. Six months is time enough to learn a little medical jargon
+while serving as “disciple” to some experienced doctor; after that, let
+the invalids beware.
+
+Under such circumstances the glory of the medical profession suffers.
+Rightly did Pliny the Elder complain of doctors: “Any voluble person
+has powers of life and death over us, just as though thousands of
+persons did not live on without doctoring, as Rome existed for six
+hundred years [before the first physicians came].” Such gentry
+inevitably, if they fail at quackery, can then drift off to something
+else, and very familiar is Martial’s epigram: “Diaulus has been a
+surgeon and is now an undertaker. At last he’s begun to be useful to
+the sick in the only way that he’s able.”
+
+
+=139. Superior Class of Physicians.=--Nevertheless, the physicians
+of Rome are by no means all of them charlatans. If their theories are
+grossly imperfect, many of them are men of wide experience and keen
+insight. A sick man able to command the best, need not give up in
+despair unless his case is really complicated and difficult. Great
+cures are recorded, as that of Augustus, whose life was saved in a
+most critical illness by the “cold-water treatment” ordered by his
+doctor, the wise freedman Antonius Musa--a cure which by saving an
+all-important life affected the world’s history.
+
+Whatever their qualifications, physicians, if not highly educated,
+assuredly abound in large numbers. Every chartered city maintains
+a corps of them for the free treatment of the citizens, and keeps
+up public _hiatreia_--well-lighted, spacious halls for offices
+and dispensaries.[79] Every cohort of the army has four physicians
+attached, with superior medical officers over the larger divisions, and
+camp sanitation has been worked out excellently by the Roman military
+experts.
+
+In the Imperial Court, the _archiater_ (“head physician”) is a
+well-paid and very important dignitary. Between him and the miserable
+slave doctors who bleed and physic their fellows in the private familia
+there are any number of gradations. Most of the doctors, of course,
+practice for fees, although in Rome, too, a system of free clinics and
+dispensaries is coming in, with a special public physician for each of
+the fourteen regions of the city.
+
+
+=140. A Fashionable Doctor.=--A doctor of the superior kind is
+Symmachus whom Calvus summons whenever any of his own family are
+seriously ill. He has one of the most fashionable practices in Rome,
+and his annual income is not much under that of Quintus Stertinus
+whose fees in Claudius’s day brought him 600,000 sesterces ($24,000)
+per year. A high-grade physician does not render a monthly bill. He
+expects to be paid once annually--on the first of January. Besides he
+counts on receiving a substantial legacy whenever a regular patient at
+length escapes him and dies. Lower grade doctors, however, are less
+delicate. They are charged with being greedy for unreasonable fees and
+with prolonging illnesses easily curable, demanding outrageous sums for
+common medicines, and taking every sordid advantage of the needs of the
+sick.
+
+  [Illustration: INVALID WITH ATTENDANTS.]
+
+Symmachus is apparently above all such _gaucheries_. He has been
+trained to bear himself as a polished gentleman. His visits are long
+or short according to the desires of his patients. He never blurts
+out unpleasant truths and he always repeats the Hippocratic maxim,
+“A cure depends on three things, the sick man, his sickness, and the
+physician”; and that the physician’s business is to help the sick man
+to cure himself. The result is that while his anatomical theories would
+distress a later age, and some of his medicines are very crude, he
+often effects excellent results especially in those cases where mental
+therapeutics can avail a little.
+
+Such a doctor possesses a set of surgical instruments quite as good
+as any available in a later age until at least the time of the French
+Revolution, and assuredly he knows how to use them very skillfully. He
+can dull pain for operations or induce sleep by juice of mandragora or
+atropin, and he can operate for cataract by distending the eye-pupil
+by anagallis. Delicate surgical operations, however, he will probably
+turn over to specialists. There are such surgeons who operate, no
+doubt with reasonable success, for hernia and fistula, who take out
+gall-stones, and deal with very dangerous fractures. There are also
+lesser specialists who can remove or fill aching teeth and can banish
+superfluous hair, and there is one shrewd old fellow who commands a
+princely income--he can really erase the degrading marks of branding
+upon slaves, after they become lordly freedmen.
+
+
+=141. Medical Books and Famous Remedies.=--Symmachus affects to
+be a man of professional learning. He possesses and claims to have
+studied carefully the great medical treatises of Hermogenes of Smyrna
+in 72 books, and that of Tiberius Claudius Menecrates in 156 books. To
+impress his patients he will talk learnedly of the jangling theories
+of the “Dogmatics,” and “Methodics,” “Pneumaticists,” etc., although
+professing himself to be an “Eclectic.” However, his own shrewd common
+sense is usually of greater avail than all his books.
+
+A large part of a popular physician’s gains come not from regular
+fees, but from supplying his patients with medicine. There are
+many shops selling crude drugs in Rome but no regular prescription
+pharmacists.[80] Public opinion avers that the more costly remedies are
+always the best, and Symmachus does not discourage that idea too much,
+although telling his select patients that cheap medicaments often are
+as effective. It is often hard, however, to get pure drugs, and genuine
+ingredients.[81] Even the best doctors will be deceived by oriental
+drug dealers palming off false balsams, and similar commodities.
+
+Many physicians consider it professional to keep their remedies secret,
+and boast of private formulas, which they will not share with their
+rivals. In Tiberius’s day there was a Paccius Antiochus who prepared
+a marvellous powder, a kind of panacea for many ills. He compounded
+it behind locked doors and mystified even his assistants as to its
+nature; but on his death he had the decency to bequeath his formula
+to the Emperor who had it deposited for inspection in all the public
+libraries; and Hadrian has just done the same with some formulas left
+by the great Marcellus of Side.
+
+
+=142. Absurd Medicines. Theriac.=--Some of these remedies are of an
+extraordinary nature and so intelligent a man as Symmachus can have no
+confidence in them. Still plenty of good doctors will tell you that a
+piece of hyena-skin is an excellent remedy for mad-dog bites, and that
+certain very filthy substances make good poultices for swellings. The
+imperial government actually employs several slaves to catch adders,
+whence are derived several important medicaments; and it is claimed
+that medicines to cure gall-stones must be pounded with a pestle that
+contains no iron. There is no need to dwell on the absurd articles
+foisted on the gullible by the quacks; pills made from dried bugs and
+centipedes are among the very least obnoxious.
+
+There is supposed to be a specific medicine for every disease, and
+Symmachus’s office is crammed with little chests bearing such labels
+as “_Drug from Berytus for watery eyes. Instantaneous_”; “_Ointment
+for gout. Made for Proculus, imperial freedman. Safe Cure_”; “_Remedy
+for scab. Tested successfully by Pamphilius during the great scab
+epidemic_,” or “_Eye-salve tried by Florus on Antonia, wife of Prince
+Drusus, after other doctors had nearly blinded her_.”[82] There is
+also a large box of a famous compound to be used whenever diagnosis
+is uncertain. _Theriac_ is a mixture of sixty-one different elements
+including dried adders. Whoever takes it is sure to find at least
+_one_ substance that will assist his disease; and it is prescribed by
+almost every physician at the opening stages of a malady, before he can
+attempt diagnosis.
+
+
+=143. Fear of Poisoning. Popularity of Antidotes.=--A large part of
+the doctor’s drug collection is, however, made up of _antidotes_ for
+poisons. Everybody dreads being poisoned. Many peculiar deaths which
+ought to be diagnosed as caused by natural illness are charged up to
+venomous drugs[83] and indeed a deadly dose rather than a deadly dagger
+seems a favorite means for murder. People still whisper stories of that
+awful poison-vender, the woman Locusta, who probably supplied Nero’s
+mother Agrippina with the fatal powder she sprinkled on her husband
+Claudius’s dish of mushrooms, and then another dose to Nero himself to
+kill his stepbrother, Britannicus, with a highly spiced goblet.
+
+If a man has many deadly foes, he is likely to take a potion of the
+precious theriac daily--because antidotes for so many poisons are
+carried in the compound; and all histories tell how Mithridates of
+Pontus, that famous adversary of Sulla and Pompeius, used to take
+antidotes so constantly that he became entirely immune to the venoms
+prepared by all his enemies. Symmachus, as part of his stock in trade,
+therefore, keeps the proper antidotes for all such familiar poisons as
+hemlock, opium, henbane, gypsum, white lead, etc., as well as for many
+obscurer foods of evil. Rumor says that not long since he had to use
+several of them on the old ex-consul, Annæus, whose spendthrift sons
+seemed very anxious to get their inheritance.
+
+
+=144. Medical Students, “Disciples,” Beauty Specialists.=--Symmachus
+like all responsible physicians keeps an office on a good street,
+but although patients can visit him there, the place is mainly for
+the compounding of medicines by various slaves under the direction
+of several “disciples.” There are no medical schools in Rome,[84]
+and these young disciples follow their master about, study a little,
+and learn by watching him. They are kept away from his most select
+patients; but are allowed to troop into the sick room of the poorer,
+feel of the pulse, examine the wounds, etc., in a manner most
+distressing. People, in fact, dread to call in a doctor--it often means
+being felt over not by one but by a half dozen clammy hands, usually
+when one is very ill.[85]
+
+In addition to the men of medicine are the “beauty
+specialists”--persons who claim to have reduced the supplementing of
+nature to a science. A court physician Crito once wrote four books of
+standard authority on the compounding of cosmetics. Every physician is
+called upon to prescribe skin washes, depilatories for rendering the
+bodies of young dandies perfectly hairless, and formulæ for fragrances
+for clothes or chambers; but it takes a specialist to know the
+intricacies of rouge and enamel, and otherwise to assist the ladies.
+The dividing line also between the physician and the hair-dresser is
+not always easy to mark. Petronius tells about the dames who not merely
+have abundant false hair, but “take their eyebrows out of a little box”
+and “put their teeth away at night just as they do their silks.”
+
+
+=145. Cheap Doctors: No Hospitals.=--The inferior grades of doctors do
+a great deal of office work. In mere booths or small shops opening upon
+the street they receive patients, sometimes even standing by the door
+and bidding the hesitant “Step in!” Their surgeries are decked out with
+a display of ivory boxes, silver cupping glasses, and golden-handled
+lancets,--the more incompetent the leech the greater often being the
+display.
+
+To advertise their skill practitioners of this class will often set
+bones and perform minor operations before a gaping crowd just outside
+in the streets--actions denounced by men of Symmachus’s caliber; and
+all their patients are examined with great publicity. Lower still are
+the itinerant quacks who will diagnose diseases on a street corner
+and vend alleged theriac and other “medicines” from a pedlar’s pack.
+There are other unlovely members of the profession who grow rich
+by performing criminal operations, and to whom unfaithful wives or
+legacy-seekers can appeal, begging them to “put the patient out of
+his misery!”--with results deliberately murderous. More legitimate of
+course are the numerous women who attend to the maladies of their own
+sex. Some of these women are said to be physicians of high capacity and
+able to command generous compensation.
+
+A serious handicap to medicine exists because there are no public
+hospitals in Rome, although sick strangers are probably allowed to lie
+around the Temples of Asculapius or of other healing deities.[86] The
+control of epidemics is very imperfect. Rome has been visited severely
+by the plague, and in the reign of Marcus Aurelius it will be ravaged
+yet again. The age is a brutal one. Much is done to keep the populace
+amused and to delight the eye; relatively little to preserve precious
+human lives. In the great slave familia, however, self-interest if no
+better motive impels the owners to try to keep their chattels healthy.
+As already explained nearly every slave household has its special
+slave physicians, men of tolerable competence; and there is also the
+_valetudinarium_, the infirmary--a detached building or a large
+room in which sick slaves can be properly tended, and also isolated to
+prevent infection.
+
+
+=146. Suicide as Escape from Hopeless Disease.=--Symmachus,
+despite his reputation for “wonderful cures,” has just lost a wealthy
+patient. The circumstances were somewhat unusual but by no means
+unprecedented. Quintus Gordianus, an elderly senator, had been
+suffering from a very painful internal disease. Symmachus assured him
+the case was incurable, but that he might, nevertheless, live for
+years. Thereupon Gordianus announced that he would commit suicide.
+
+The right of a sane man voluntarily to surrender his life is undoubted.
+Philosophers have written fine essays on the desirability of suicide;
+only it must be entered upon discreetly and not as a cowardly means
+of escaping the duties of life. Many of Nero’s and Domitian’s noble
+victims obviously obeyed the mandate “Open your veins” more because
+they were tired of existence than because a desperate attempt to
+overthrow the tyrant would have been hopeless. Many a Roman aristocrat
+has sucked all the sensual pleasure so completely out of life that the
+latter has become one great boredom, and no religion commands “Live
+on!” when it is evident that the remainder of existence must merely be
+months or years of helplessness and pain.
+
+As soon, therefore, as Gordianus was satisfied that his case was
+hopeless he declared to his relatives that, “He would starve himself to
+death.” They pleaded with him faithfully and caused most tempting food
+to be always within his reach, but later they took pride in telling of
+his iron will which rejected all their efforts. At last the end came,
+and all his circle remarked that Gordianus died as became a Roman
+senator and a true philosopher. Suicides for more trivial reasons than
+the above are, of course, reported every day.[87]
+
+
+=147. Execution of Wills. Numerous Legacies Customary.=--Before
+Gordianus became too weak, he called in a group of friends to witness
+the revision of his will. The right to execute a will is a precious
+privilege for Roman citizens,[88] and the law allows wide options in
+disposing of one’s property. A Roman gentleman makes his will many
+times and is constantly revising or adding codicils to the same. Slaves
+are not supposed to make testaments--their small _peculia_ must
+legally revert to their masters; but the more decent owners allow even
+slaves to bequeath their belongings to fellow-slaves.
+
+A will implies much more than merely distributing one’s property among
+near kin. Gordianus’s widow and son were in fact well content when
+they found not more than two-fifths of the large estate was to pass
+outside the family. It is a deadly insult--all the more deadly because
+the departed are beyond retaliation--to fail to remember a familiar
+acquaintance with a sizable legacy.[89]
+
+“When the tablets are opened” all Rome knows how a man has paid his
+social debts, usually to people who have no blood connection.
+
+Was the ex-ædile Numerius angry because he only received 10,000
+sesterces ($400)? And why was that ill-mannered old eques Albinus
+left 20,000? And why was the banker Velocius, once such a confidant,
+left nothing at all? Did Gordianus wish to brand the last-named as
+a scoundrel? The list of slaves enfranchised, and also of those
+specifically refused enfranchisement is carefully scanned; as well as
+various legacies to certain great advocates who have evidently rendered
+Gordianus service in tight lawsuits, and above all a sum of 100,000
+sesterces ($4000) to “Our Lord Hadrianus Augustus Cæsar.” Gordianus
+had been by no means a great intimate at the palace, but it would
+have been most untactful to fail to remember the Emperor. Under bad
+rulers such a slight would probably involve the actual setting aside
+of the will, posthumous charges of treason, and the ruin of the heirs
+by the confiscation of the entire property. Under a good Emperor such
+an insertion puts the donor’s son in good odor with the government,
+and insures that the imperial procurators (who guard their master’s
+property) will assist in defending the will if disgruntled kinsmen
+should try to break it.
+
+
+=148. Regular Incomes from Legacies. Professional Legacy
+Hunters.=--The granting of legacies is in fact so ordinary a part
+of Roman life that distinguished men like Cicero and Pliny the Younger
+can almost count on a steady flow of bequests (often from people whom
+they know but slightly) as part of their income. Gordianus is leaving
+a mature and proper son to take over his great name, clients, and a
+good share of his property. His bequests therefore are relatively
+small, and that fact robs his will of most of its interest. If,
+however, he had been childless, all Rome would have been agog as soon
+as people knew that he was dying. Great, if evil, are “the advantages
+of childlessness.” The rich bachelor is sure of obsequious service from
+innumerable quarters. The more he coughs and the paler he grows, the
+more the presents he receives and the more do loudly condoling friends
+press to his bedside. They reach the very depth of servility, and
+sometimes they are rewarded.
+
+Years ago Horace gave directions to the successful legacy hunter. “If
+a man hands you his will to read, be sure to refuse and push the wax
+tablets from you---yet take a side-glance to catch the second line of
+the first table [below the preamble]. Run your eye quickly along to see
+whether you are the _sole_ heir or one of many.” If the prospective
+victim has a “crafty woman, or a freedman looking after the dotard,
+strike a partnership with them and praise them to him, that they may
+praise _you_ behind your back.” Then when the testator at last dies
+lament him loudly, as a “worthy and true friend,” shed as many tears as
+you can, and don’t grudge a splendid funeral.
+
+Thus fortunes can be and often are won, but not invariably. In Trajan’s
+reign there died a rich Domitius Tullus. He allowed the legacy hunters
+to fasten upon him; to shower him with all kinds of favors--then he
+actually left everything to a niece and to grandchildren. All Rome
+was divided: “Perfidious hypocrite!” some gossips buzzed in the great
+baths; but others praised him for “cheating the hopes of the rascals.”
+
+
+=149. Public Bequests.=--Gordianus, besides these legacies to friends,
+also makes some public bequests. This is an age when the rich are
+expected to justify their good fortune by showering favors upon the
+community. If the rich testator had lived in a municipal town, he would
+have been expected in his life time to have provided feasts, public
+games, new civic buildings, and probably to have repaired the city
+walls. As it is, he leaves the cost of a good gladiator fight to an
+Italian town that once elected him patron; increases the endowment for
+a public library which he had earlier founded at another such town near
+one of his villas; and institutes a trust fund to provide an annual
+feast in honor of his “Manes” to be shared in by all the freedmen of
+his family and by their own descendants.
+
+
+=150. Great Funerals Very Fashionable. Desire to Be Remembered after
+Death.=--Before he died, Gordianus also gave particular orders about
+his funeral. Every Roman seems to look forward to his obsequies with
+a melancholy, but an enormous interest. If he is poor, he hoards his
+money and joins a coöperative burial society to provide for final rites
+that will be long remembered. If he is rich, he will leave nothing
+undone to succeed in impressing the entire city that it has lost an
+important citizen. Under the Republic the funerals of great personages
+were really public pageants, deliberately calculated to teach young
+nobles the glory of a long career spent in the service of the state.
+Under the Empire these customs are still maintained, although often
+they are nothing more than vulgar displays showing forth the wealth of
+the deceased.
+
+The age does not believe earnestly in immortality. Epicureans deny
+it outright, and Stoics more than doubt. Sometimes a very gross view
+of death is taken, that it is merely the careless end of a round of
+sensual pleasures. You can occasionally read on tombstones inscriptions
+like this: “_Bathing, wine, and love-affairs--these hurt our bodies,
+but they make life worth living. I’ve lived my days. I revelled, and
+I drank all that I desired. Once I was not; then I was; now I am not
+again--but I don’t care!_”[90] But most persons, especially grave
+Stoics like Gordianus, view death otherwise. Death means a going out
+into the dark; a process of being forgotten by those who once loved or
+admired you. If, by a splendid funeral, you can make your memory last
+a little longer, who would fail having one? Hence the excuse for very
+costly obsequies, often for unimportant individuals.
+
+
+=151. Preliminaries to a Funeral.=--The moment Gordianus seemed
+to be breathing his last his son bent over his face as if to catch
+his final sigh. Then immediately the young man called his father
+three times “Quintus! Quintus! Quintus!” partly to make sure he was
+dead; partly as a signal to start off all the expectant slaves and
+freedmen in loud and frenzied lamentation through all the wide domus. A
+messenger promptly summoned a fashionable _libitinarius_ (funeral
+director) who undertook to conduct everything in the best possible
+style. While the house rang with outcries, professional experts washed
+the body in warm water and took immediately a waxen impression of the
+features.
+
+The dead was thereupon dressed in an embroidered toga, such as he might
+have worn when a magistrate, and was placed on a gilded couch in the
+atrium with the feet towards the door, beside which was set a bunch
+of cypress or pine, in token of the sorrow in the house. Skillful
+embalmers were available and the actual funeral could have been
+delayed as much as a week. This was not necessary, however, and the
+ceremony took place in two days--time enough to arrange the great pyre
+and other necessary matters.
+
+The old practice was for every funeral to be held at night, and
+“funeral torches” were once about as common along the streets as the
+more festive marriage torches. But under the Empire the greater display
+can, of course, be made by daytime, although by a peculiar survival a
+few torch bearers will solemnly march along in the procession as if to
+outvie the sunlight.
+
+The mustering of a large funeral procession calls for no mean executive
+skill. If the deceased is from an old family, persons must be hired to
+wear all the death masks found in his atrium, and costumes improvised
+or rented so that the wearers can appear as consuls, prætors, etc.,
+and all the various articles and exhibits needful for the procession
+must be assembled. Above all there must appear at the house of mourning
+a clever Greek actor, selected partly because of some physical
+resemblance to the dead. This is the _archimimus_, who carefully
+confers with Gordianus’s freedmen and even with his son to learn the
+speech, mannerisms, and the personal foibles of the departed.
+
+
+=152. The Funeral Procession. The Display of Masked “Ancestors.”=--At
+last at a time sure to command the best attention, the criers begin
+going about all the streets where Gordianus is likely to have had
+friends. They shout a formula in quaint, archaic Latin. “This citizen,
+Quintus Gordianus, is being surrendered to death. For those who
+find it convenient, now is the time for his funeral. He is being
+borne from his house!” and the procession sets forth commanded by a
+master-undertaker--the pompous _designator_.
+
+At the head marches a band of players, their flutes, lyres, and
+dulcimers keeping up a most melancholy music. Then unavoidably follows
+a whole platoon of professional clowns and buffoons singing ribald
+songs and shouting very coarse jokes to the thronging spectators.
+Next, apparently, there walks Gordianus himself--it is the archimimus
+dressed like the ex-consul, imitating his gait, gestures, and voice,
+and even making broad personal jests at the expense of the deceased.
+Then follows the really imposing part of the display, and the bereaved
+widow and her son thrill with aristocratic pride at the thought of
+it. Theirs is a very old house, and a hundred actors are needed to
+wear all the wax _imagines_ (often battered and blackened) from
+the great cupboards in the atrium. All his “curule ancestors” going
+back to the Gallic invasion seem to be accompanying Gordianus to the
+grave. The spectators are checking off the “consuls” and “ædiles” on
+their fingers, and at last some cry “a censor,” and presently even
+more admiringly a “dictator.”[91] One can almost feel that it is no
+misfortune to die, if only one can look forward properly to this moment
+of posthumous glory.
+
+
+=153. The Exhibits in the Procession. The Retinue around the
+Bier.=--Behind the procession of death-masks come slaves bearing on
+poles large crudely sketched pictures upon boards, showing incidents
+in the Dacian wars where their master commanded as one of Trajan’s
+legates. Gordianus also had dabbled in literature, and copies of
+his essays and poems are now tied on tall rods and carried along
+conspicuously by the marchers. Next comes the corpse itself--exposed to
+view, upon a couch decked with purple, fretted with gold, and carried
+aloft upon the shoulders of eight picked bearers. All can see that
+Gordianus wears the “triumphal ornaments,” the laurel wreath as well
+as the toga prætexta awarded the favorite generals in the army.[92]
+
+After that follows the family procession. Young Gordianus is robed
+in black, and leads by the hand his mother, a venerable matron, who
+wears the mourning color for women, white, and who lets her gray locks
+stream in disorder over her shoulders. If he had possessed sisters,
+they would now tear their hair, dig their nails in their cheeks, and
+utter piercing cries of grief. This clamor is produced sufficiently by
+a group of slave women led by two or three professional female wailers
+who, at intervals, set up a shrill chant of lamentation for the dead.
+Next follow a great company of Gordianus’s more distinguished friends,
+all walking with down-cast looks and clad in black or sad-colored
+togas. After them is the large retinue from the familia, first the
+older freedmen, then groups of ex-slaves wearing tall caps--token of
+manumission by will, and trying not to appear _too_ exultant in their
+new freedom, then bringing up the rear the whole group of actual
+slaves, supposed to be torn with grief at the loss of “so good a
+master.”
+
+
+=154. The Funeral Oration in the Forum.=--The procession heads at
+first not toward the place of the final pyre but toward the Old Forum.
+The honor of a public funeral oration is granted to practically every
+distinguished citizen, including many noblewomen. Indeed, this use
+of the Forum is an extremely common occurrence. The space around the
+orator’s stand (the _rostra_) has been cleared of idlers, and an array
+of suitable “curule chairs” has been set out for all the wearers of the
+death masks, as if they were again sitting like the magistrates of old.
+
+After a suitable delay a kinsman of the deceased, a senator somewhat
+vain of his reputation as an orator, mounts the rostra and delivers
+a fulsome eulogy. It is notorious that such “laudations” never stick
+closely to the truth. The audience is made to understand that Gordianus
+was a very Cato the Elder in personal virtue and a Scipio Africanus in
+his success as a general. When that ceremony is completed the whole
+company sets forth again--this time toward one of the gates beyond
+which is the funeral pyre.[93]
+
+
+=155. Family Tombs. The _Columbarium_ and the Garden.=--Burials are not
+unknown in Rome, but most bodies are disposed of by cremation. Even
+persons of very modest means will try to provide money for a good pyre.
+This is partly because the very poor, the worthless slaves, and the
+lowest of the plebeians, are not burned, but their bodies simply are
+dumped in hideous open pits not far from the Esquiline itself. Nothing
+is done to the bodies thus exposed except to leave them to the dogs and
+ravens, and only the favor of Jupiter averts from the city an incessant
+pestilence in consequence. Long since, however, Gordianus’s family has
+erected along the Appian Way (though another frequented highroad could
+have been selected) a stately tomb, calculated to attract attention
+from all passers.
+
+Handsome tombs can take many forms; there is even a good-sized stone
+pyramid, 116 feet high, erected to guard the ashes of Gaius Cestius,
+a great man under Augustus. That of the Gordiani is of a more modest
+character; a circular masonry tower, about fifty feet in diameter and
+rather higher, surmounted by a castellated battlement adorned with
+life-sized marble statues of famous members of the family. Inside there
+is no huge chamber for a sarcophagus, but simply a series of arched
+vaults the walls of which are honey-combed with little niches, each
+intended to receive a funeral urn. This kind of interior, therefore,
+is not unhappily called a _columbarium_--a “pigeon-cote”; and here
+will be placed not merely the urns of all the regular scions of the
+family, but (in inferior niches of course) those of all the freedmen
+and even of all the better loved slaves. The ashes of the Gordiani,
+mighty or humble therefore rest all together.
+
+  [Illustration: SCENE ALONG THE APPIAN WAY: showing
+  the tombs and the gay crowds passing.]
+
+Outside this massive tower there is a considerable open compound, laid
+out as a pleasant garden, with shrubbery, flower-beds, and a little
+lodge for the slave in residence who acts as caretaker. There is even a
+small but handsome building, where members of the family can meet for
+the periodic feasts in honor of the dear departed. Handsome statues
+and fine bas-reliefs on the inclosing walls abound, and the place in
+short seems much more like a small pleasure park than a cemetery. This
+mortuary compound, however, is one of the better types of inclosures.
+The taste displayed in some adjacent is execrable. Already across
+the Appian Way opposite, a rich freedman has purchased a large lot
+and is erecting in his own lifetime a tall central statue of himself,
+flinging money from a bag to the populace, with the base surrounded by
+bas-reliefs showing his favorite small dog, some gladiator fights, and
+deep-laden craft under full sail--to explain how he made his money.[94]
+
+  [Illustration: PYRAMID--TOMB OF GAIUS CESTIUS:
+  Ostia Gate of the Wall of Aurelian (built _circ._ 275
+  A.D.) in background.]
+
+For many miles out into the Campagna around Rome extend these strange
+cemeteries--not in seclusion, but passed by incessant traffic. Some
+of the monuments are magnificent, some simple; they illustrate almost
+every type of sculpture--but the object of nearly all is the same,
+to remind the living of the one-time existence of the dead, and so
+to provide a kind of spurious immortality often for very commonplace
+persons, in an age when the immortality of the soul seems no favored
+doctrine.
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW ALONG THE APPIAN WAY SHOWING FUNERAL
+  MONUMENTS.
+
+  _Restored after Von Falke._]
+
+
+=156. The Funeral Pyre and Its Ceremonies.=--At last the funeral
+procession has reached the great mausoleum of the Gordiani. The pyre
+of choice wood, sprinkled with perfumes, unguents, and costly spices
+is ready at a safe distance. The sides of the pile have been covered
+with dark leaves, while cypress boughs have been set upon the top.
+Amid these the bier and the corpse, just as they have been borne, are
+now planted and various articles of clothing, jewelry, trinkets, etc.,
+used by the deceased are next placed upon the pyre. If the ex-consul
+had been a younger man fond of hunting, deer nets and boar spears might
+have been added; or favored horses and dogs slaughtered and their
+carcasses added to the pile.
+
+  [Illustration: STREET OF THE TOMBS AT POMPEII, SHOWING
+  TYPICAL MONUMENTS OF THE SMALLER CLASS.]
+
+At length all is ready. Young Gordianus is handed a torch, and with
+averted face he touches it to the wood impregnated with perfumed oils.
+Instantly a great blaze shoots up, the smoke from the aromatic wood
+smelling most sweetly. The company waits in mournful silence until the
+tall pyre collapses and the bier has been utterly consumed. Then as
+the fire glows away, several loyal freedmen dash forward and quench
+it with great jars of chilled wine. Certain calcined bones and ashes
+are collected, wrapped in fine linen cloths and placed in a superb
+funeral urn, blue and white glass cut into exquisite designs, showing
+boys piping and treading the grapes in a festival of Bacchus. The last
+mortal remains of the departed senator are, therefore, at rest amid
+scenes eminently cheerful.
+
+
+=157. Funeral Monuments. Memorial Feasts to the Dead.=--The ceremony
+is over. “_Vale!_”--and again “_Vale!_” cries all the company ere
+departing. The urn will now be placed in one of the niches in the
+columbarium; but in Gordianus’s honor they will erect a special statue,
+at its base chiseled a peaceful ship gliding steadily toward a distant
+shore; the son and widow evidently recalling the peaceful thoughts of
+Cicero in his essay “On Old Age”--“I find the nearer I come to the time
+of death the more I feel like one who begins to see land, and knows
+that sometime he will enter the harbor after the long voyage.”
+
+On Gordianus’s birthday, on the anniversary of his death, and also
+for eight days in February sacred to the honored dead, his heirs and
+loyal freedmen will visit the spot, deck his statue with wreaths of
+roses, violets, and other flowers, sacrifice a black sheep or pig to
+the “Manes,” and indulge in a feast in his honor. This will be kept up,
+perhaps, until his own son is placed on the pyre and the fame of the
+“great Gordianus” has sunk to the barest memory.
+
+
+=158. Funerals of the Poor. “Funeral Societies.”=--We have witnessed
+obsequies of a rich senator. Less favored persons, of course, are
+buried with ever-increasing degrees of simplicity. There is almost no
+religious element in Roman funerals. The bodies of unfortunates can be
+disposed of with brutal abruptness and lack of decorum, but the great
+host of plebeians and of those freedmen who cannot hope for an urn in
+the columbarium of a noble family have a recourse. They often club
+together in a “Funeral Society.” Everybody pays a fixed assessment into
+a common chest; out of these funds space is hired in one of the great
+public columbaria which are often erected as legitimate speculations.
+When a member dies he is assured of a respectable procession of
+buffoons and weepers (imagines being out of the question), a private
+harangue in his honor, and a thoroughly adequate funeral pyre. Funds
+not needed for this purpose are spent on feasts once or more a year in
+which the names of dead members are solemnly commemorated.
+
+Some of these funeral “colleges” are really elaborate affairs, with
+considerable ritual, a permanent hall, and a corps of elective
+officers, “prætors,” “curators,” etc., whose tinsel pomp makes the
+wearers forget that most of the time they are humble plebeians or even
+slaves. The collegia, in other words, appeal to those who in another
+age may find a certain inferior type of “lodge” very congenial. They
+are grandiloquently named for some patron god, calling themselves “The
+Worshippers (_cultores_) of Apollo,” or perhaps for an Oriental deity,
+“The Servants of Serapis”; but their fundamental purpose is the same;
+to insure against the horrid thought of having one’s body flung into
+the open pits of the potter’s field and then perhaps having one’s ghost
+wander in misery over sea and land instead of finding a calm oblivion
+in Hades.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER X
+
+                        CHILDREN AND SCHOOLING
+
+
+=159. Theoretical Rights of Father over Children. The _Patria
+Potestas_.=--When a child is born into a Roman home the father
+has complete legal rights even as in Athens to determine whether it
+is to live or to die.[95] If theoretically he has the terrific power
+as _pater familias_ to kill his children in later life if they
+merely displease him, how much more can he claim the right to decide
+that “This boy will be one too many,” or “We can afford no more
+girls,” or “This child will be sickly and deformed.” If his decision
+is adverse, mother and nurse may beseech in vain; the babe is simply
+“exposed”--that is, carried by a slave to some spot by the highway and
+left to perish. This harsh old law is unrepealed.
+
+Possibly such deserted children will be taken up by those whose homes
+are desolate and who require consolation. There is a greater and
+fouler chance that such babes will be carried away and reared by human
+harpies who raise boys and girls to sell as victims of gross wickedness
+among the rich, or who even mutilate the children to convert them into
+grotesque buffoons or pathetic beggars to wheedle the coppers from
+the tender-hearted. Perhaps some of those horribly deformed creatures
+who cry “Give! Give!” behind the litters of the senators are blood
+relations to the gilded lords themselves. This is physically possible,
+if we can believe many ugly stories.
+
+Legal right and actual custom can often, however, stand miles asunder.
+No Roman gladly will see his house dying out, despite the “advantages
+of childlessness.” In fact to keep up the family name, resort is
+often had to _adoption_, sometimes of mature adults, to an extent
+quite unknown in other ages. The upper classes under the Empire are
+dwindling so rapidly, thanks to many causes, that rare indeed is the
+house where a lawful child is unwelcome; and in the lower classes
+fathers are fathers still. In short though the cruel old “right of
+exposure” exists, it is not exercised often enough to make its practice
+a wholesale evil, and a man of distinction who exposes a babe (unless
+his family is remarkably large and expensive) will fall under social
+ostracism; in fact the Emperor may even be advised to strike him from
+the list of senators or equites as “a bad citizen.”
+
+
+=160. Ceremonies after Birth of a Child. The _Bulla_.=--The birth
+of a child in a good family is, therefore, the signal for no common
+rejoicing, and thanks to the favored position of Roman women, girls
+are not a serious discount as against boys. Then comes the grand
+celebration--the _lustratio_, the name-day for the babe.
+
+This occurs nine days after the birth of boys and the eighth after that
+of girls; the idea being not to name the child prematurely lest it die
+in first infancy. The ceremony takes place in the atrium. The mother
+cannot, perhaps, be present, but there is a general gathering of the
+near friends, kinsmen, clients, etc., before whom the nurse solemnly
+presents herself and then lays her little bundle of swaddling clothes
+at the feet of its father. With equal solemnity the father bends and
+takes up the infant and with his formal “lifting up” the whole company
+raises a shout of joy.[96] Henceforth, the babe is of undoubted
+legitimacy, a member of the family, entitled to the protection alike of
+the family lares and of the public law, and a new citizen of the Roman
+state. Then the father, turning to the company, if the child is a boy,
+announces in clear voice his prænomen, _e.g._, “Let the lad be called
+Marcus!”
+
+After these formalities are ended the kinsmen and also the favorite
+slaves rush forward and throw around the neck of the infant cords
+bearing little metal toys, tiny swords, axes, flowers, or even dolls,
+all called _crepudia_, from the manner in which they clank together.
+Most important of all, however, is the golden _bulla_, an elaborate
+locket containing charms, which the father himself hangs about the
+child’s neck. If the family is poor, one of painted leather may answer,
+but a bulla there must be. It will never be laid aside permanently
+until the proud day when the grown-up lad “assumes the manly toga,” or
+when the girl leaves her parents’ house as a bride.
+
+
+=161. The Roman Name: Its Intricacy.=--It is no slight thing, this
+matter of the Roman personal names, and they are far more complicated
+than are the Greek. Under the Republic names were so standardized among
+the upper families, that those of a young nobleman were practically
+determined the moment he touched the cradle. How many “Appii Claudii”
+figure in the history of the Commonwealth! Omitting technicalities,
+practically every Roman citizen then had three names: his _prænomen_,
+a personal designation something like the Christian “John” or
+“George,” his _nomen_, fixed on him by his _gens_ (special clan)
+such as Cornelius, Fabius, Julius, etc., and finally his _cognomen_,
+which marked the particular family of the gens to which his father
+belonged. Cæsar, Sulla, Cicero, Scipio, and the like were all cognomens
+corresponding closely to later-day surnames, and were anything but the
+individual property of certain famous holders of the same. Thus even a
+cognomen could have many bearers, and sometimes a second cognomen was
+added--such as Publius Cornelius Scipio _Nasica_.
+
+This is all very well, but how few are the options left to the parents
+in selecting the prænomen! There are only eighteen regular Roman
+prænomens, of which Marcus, Gaius, and Lucius are perhaps the most
+common. Certain families confine themselves to a very few prænomens.
+Thus no Cornelian ever names his sons anything but Gnæus, Lucius, and
+Publius unless the gods bless him with a fourth boy. The Domitii were
+nearly all either Gnæus or Lucius. Rare was the Claudian eldest son who
+escaped being called Appius.[97]
+
+These cases simply register what is true in most of the old families.
+The rule is to name your first son always after your own father. Thus
+Publius Calvus’s young Titus is the grandson of a Titus and the great
+grandson of a Publius. His younger brother, however, was not thus named
+by rigid precedent. He could be named Decimus.[98]
+
+
+=162. Irregular and Lengthy Names under the Empire. Names of
+Slaves.=--Things are far more irregular, however, since the Empire
+has brought the Roman name along with the Roman citizenship to hordes
+of freedmen and foreigners. They Latinize their alien names, or
+they take an altered form of their ex-master’s names, for example,
+Claudianus Licinianus; or often, being complete upstarts, swell around
+with absurdly long names often meaning nothing at all. This is true
+even of some high officers, and there is now ruling as proconsul of
+Africa a senator calling himself pompously Titus Cæsarinus Statius
+Quintius Statianus Memmius Macrinus, while that of the governor of
+North Britain, a certain “Pollio,” has _nine_ names if you give
+him his full title.[99]
+
+As for slaves they were ordinarily called in simpler days of the
+Republic merely “Marcipor,” or “Lucipor,” etc.,--“Marcus’s boy,” or
+“Lucius’s boy”; but such descriptions in the days of the great familiæ
+become impossible. Most house slaves are either named for Greek
+deities or heroes, or else for some Oriental potentate, precisely as
+“Cæsar” and “Pompey” will figure on slave plantations of another day.
+“Mithridates,” “Pharnaces,” “Cyrus,” and the like appear in every
+atrium. There are also plenty of handsome boys answering to such
+fine names as “Eros,” “Polydorus,” “Xenophon”; or who are named for
+their native country as “Syrax” for a Syrian, and “Cappadox” for a
+Cappadocian.
+
+
+=163. Names of Women. Confusion of Roman Names.=--When a girl is born
+in an old family her chance of a distinctive name seems even less than
+that of her brothers. There are really no recognized prænomens for
+girls, and until lately there have been hardly any regular cognomens.
+Calvus’s daughter should have been merely called Junia for her gens:
+“The Junian Woman.” If it is needful, however, to separate her from
+her cousins, she can be called _Junia Calvi_--“Calvus’s Junia.” If she
+had a younger sister, she would be simply “_Junia Prima_” as against
+“_Junia Secunda_”--Junia No. 1 and Junia No. 2.
+
+This kind of effacement is, however, becoming very displeasing to
+high-spirited Roman women. They are now asserting their personality
+by demanding special names. The result is that they are getting a
+kind of irregular cognomens. Calvus’s daughter is, therefore, known
+as Junia _Gratia_ (from her mother), and should the house be favored
+with another young mistress, she will probably be Junia _Calva_ in
+compliment to her father’s cognomen.
+
+Nevertheless, with every explanation, the names alike of men and women
+at Rome are utterly confusing. Duplication seems incessant and anything
+like a complete directory of the city would apparently carry many pages
+of identical entries. Of course, a ready use of nicknames (constantly
+invented by Italian ingenuity) overcomes the actual difficulty. Among
+near friends or dependents it is quite proper to cry “Hail, Spurius!”
+or “Well said, Tiberius”; but it is an impolite familiarity to employ
+the prænomen except for intimates. Ordinarily the cognomen is the
+proper form, used, be it said, without any “Sir” or “Mister,” and
+in the Senate the archaic usage requires that the Conscript Fathers
+should be summoned by prænomen and gentile name only. “_Dic, Marce
+Tulle_,” “Speak, Marcus Tullius,” was the form by which Cicero was
+often called before he began his great orations.
+
+
+=164. Care of Parents in Educating Children.=--So a Roman child
+receives that great thing, his name. What is the course of his life if
+he grows to manhood? Very much the same as in other civilized lands,
+where most parents are loving and where most children bring joy to
+the house. Boys and girls, until school age, are largely in the hands
+of the womenfolk. Gratia’s old nurse, brought with her to Calvus’s
+house, is still more of a beloved mentor and tyrant to Gratia’s
+children, usually bribing her charges to be good “with honey, nuts and
+sweet-cakes.” But as soon as boys, at least, begin to pass out of early
+childhood their fathers are expected to take them in hand, and even a
+man of high rank is criticized if he leaves his sons too much to the
+guidance of paid tutors and of slaves.
+
+This paternal discipline may be harsh but it is seldom negligent. Boys
+are taught to go with their fathers almost everywhere; to watch and
+listen in silence, but to ask intelligent questions afterward. Thus
+young Titus is already old enough to accompany his father Calvus to
+the sessions of the Senate itself. On a seat reserved near the door
+for senators’ sons he listens through many a solemn debate. Presently
+the routine of business is so familiar to him, that he presumptuously
+thinks he can correct the consul on certain points of order. He and
+his companions of like rank already are playing “prætor’s court”--with
+one of them on the tribunal and the others (like their parents) the
+orators in the great basilica. As the good old customs have waned this
+companionship of fathers and sons has perhaps somewhat waned also--but
+it still remains one of the worthiest features of the Roman training.
+
+
+=165. Toys and Pets.=--Roman children lack nothing in playthings.
+All but the elaborate mechanical toys of a later age are at their
+disposal. Little children have their rattles, balls, and carts. Small
+Junia plays with very life-like dolls of ivory, wax, and painted terra
+cotta, often fashioned by exceedingly skilful Greek craftsmen. She and
+her brothers rejoice in swings and hobby horses, while Titus and young
+Decimus also make glad in a finely painted “century” of wooden soldiers
+and in tops, hoops, and marbles--such as are transmitted almost
+unchanged across the ages, and they receive somewhat suspiciously (as
+soon as they are of proper age) a gift of a carefully carved set of
+wooden letters, a sly device for teaching the alphabet.
+
+Much more welcome than these last are, of course, the New Year and
+birthday presents of tame nightingales, talking parrots, and caged
+blackbirds, of dogs, large and small, of that somewhat rare animal from
+Egypt--a delightful furry cat, and best of all--when they grow a little
+older--being children of a senator, each a well-broken pony--of little
+use in Rome, but a splendid comrade when the family goes to its villas.
+
+As they get older still a decent allowance of pocket money is added
+and an earnest attempt is made to teach the children financial
+responsibility, to add accounts, to save their sesterces, and not to
+run up bills. It is not ungenteel, however, for a youth of family to
+be an easy spender, and Pliny the Younger has scolded a friend as
+outrageously severe for “thrashing his son because he was too lavish in
+buying horses and dogs.”
+
+
+=166. The Learning of Greek by Roman Children.=--Even before formal
+schooling begins, the young Calvi, like all other Romans of the better
+class, have begun an important part of their education--the learning of
+Greek. The Athenian education was a single-language education with no
+studies outside those of the mother tongue.[100] The Roman education is
+a bi-lingual education.
+
+Without Greek everybody confesses that a full half (probably more)
+of the world’s entire wit and wisdom is locked away. Without Greek
+not merely must a man refuse to claim the least real culture; he is
+handicapped in all the professions and in most forms of business. He
+can have no commercial dealings with the Levant. If he travels anywhere
+East of the Adriatic, he can hardly make himself understood outside of
+the governors’ prætoria and the camps. Even into the literary Latin
+there have crept an enormous number of Greek terms, mostly having to
+do with matters of learning or luxury. In short without the mastery of
+Greek a Roman of any ambitions is hopelessly lost.
+
+A scholar need not, however, bother about any third language.
+Practically all Levantines can jabber _some_ Greek, even though
+their accent be abominable, and their native tongue Syriac or Coptic.
+As for Spaniards, Gauls, and Britons doubtless interpreters are needful
+if you visit their crude villages, but all their upper classes are
+now busily learning Latin just as they are learning the joys of Roman
+baths, circus races, and cookery. With Latin and Greek you are ready to
+meet the world.
+
+Greek is taught in the schools, but hardly as a painfully acquired
+foreign language. From infancy Titus, Decimus, and Junia have had
+Greek-speaking attendants, and their own parents (very fair Greek
+scholars) take pains to talk in good Attic part of the time while they
+play with them. As the children grow up about half of all the more
+elegant and refined conversation they must hear will be in Greek--and
+so through all their education. The result will be that Junia may turn
+out to be a learned lady like the poetess Julia Balbilla, the Empress
+Sabina’s friend, who has written some very fine Greek elegiacs,[101]
+“worthy of Sappho,” say her friends; or Titus if he dabbles in
+philosophy, may write a long treatise in good Attic prose as well as
+can his contemporary the destined emperor, Marcus Aurelius.
+
+
+=167. Selection of a School.=--In the good old days a father was
+expected not merely to give his son moral and practical lessons, but
+actually to be his schoolmaster--to flog reading, writing, and a little
+arithmetic into him; even as Cato the Elder (234–149 B.C.) boasted
+that he did with his own son. But that stage has long passed, and the
+main question now for every boy or girl is, “tutors or school?” No
+doubt families of the highest rank find private tutors fashionable and
+convenient; thus such a personage as Augustus employed the skilful
+freedman, Verrius Flaccus, to teach his grandsons; but the advantages
+of contact with other children of about the same social class are
+clearly understood. The young Calvi, therefore, have been sent to
+a carefully selected school. This arrangement is exceptionally good
+because their father’s colleague, the ex-prætor Aponius, owns a
+remarkably gifted slave, one Euganor, who is allowed not merely to
+teach his master’s children but (by a recognized custom) to take in
+others; their fees going toward his _peculium_ saved up to buy his
+freedom.
+
+
+=168. Extent of Literacy in Rome. Education of Girls.=--Schools
+exist everywhere in Rome, and there are all sorts and conditions of
+schools. There is no system of public education, and probably a good
+many poor plebeians and slaves are barely literate enough to spell out
+the gladiator notices and to jot down a few accounts or memoranda; but
+public opinion condemns parents who deny their children at least a
+little schooling, and absolutely illiterate persons are rare.[102]
+
+Girls in poor families are rather less sure of instruction than
+boys, and in superior families they seldom pass on to the upper and
+the rhetoric schools; but apparently in the ordinary schools they
+frequently go with their brothers on terms of perfect equality. There
+seems to be no prudish separation of the sexes, although when the grown
+boys go off to learn the tricks of orators and philosophers, nobly-born
+girls spend the years just before their marriages under good tutors
+learning the poets, and being taught a graceful proficiency in harp
+playing and also enough of dancing to give them the erect carriage and
+the stately, calm movements of destined matrons.
+
+
+=169. Schools for the Lower Classes.=--Between the select establishment
+of Euganor in a side apartment of Aponius’s great mansion and the
+cheapest type of school along Mercury Street there is a great gulf
+fixed. Any kind of a shelter will do for a low-grade school, and any
+kind of a half-educated fellow can set up as a school teacher.
+
+  [Illustration: BOY STUDYING.]
+
+Take for example poor Platorius who, having failed as an inn-keeper
+at Ostia, is trying to earn a living by leasing a vacant shop near
+the Insula Flavia. The shallow room opens directly upon the noisy
+street, and the passing throngs divert the children, while the clamors
+of the children distress all the semi-invalids in the big insula.
+Every thrashing by the master attracts a knot of brutal idlers just
+outside. Platorius’s school is of the lowest grade, but he has to make
+a certain pretence of learning by setting up a few chipped busts of
+Homer, Virgil, Horace, etc., and erecting a high seat (_cathedra_)
+for himself. His class sits before him on long backless benches.
+There are no desks, and every child holds his smudgy wax-covered
+tablets uncomfortably upon his knee, as he copies or erases with his
+stylus.[103]
+
+To all the better schools the children come each accompanied by his or
+her “pedagogue,” much after the Greek manner; a private slave being
+especially assigned to each boy or girl, and obligated to lead his
+charge to and from school, help with the lessons, guard the child’s
+morals, and even assist in chastising.[104] But few of Platorius’s
+pupils come from parents who can afford the luxury of a pedagogue
+for their children. They appear by themselves so early in the morning
+in winter time that they have to bear smoky lanterns; the most
+self-sufficient of them being “the sons of centurions, with satchels
+and tablets hung on their left arms, and carrying every Ides (middle
+of the month) their fee of eight brass pieces each.” [Horace.] Each
+boy has devoured a crust before leaving home and the school continues
+without recess until noon when there is an intermission of fair length
+to get the prandium or at least to buy some sausages from the street
+dealers, and perhaps to indulge in a short siesta. After that the
+deafening study is resumed, and there is relief in the neighboring
+tenements only when the school is dismissed towards dusk.
+
+
+=170. Scourging, Clamors, and Other Abuses of Cheap Schools.=--A
+school is no asset to the neighborhood. Vainly do the satiric poets
+implore a teacher to “be kind to his scholars” and to “lay aside his
+Scythian scourge with its horrible thongs” and his “terrible cane, the
+schoolmaster’s scepter.” Poor Platorius knows well enough that the type
+of parents who employ him believes the old maxim “he who is not flogged
+is not educated.” The Romans are a military people and the ideal of a
+school is always somewhat the stern discipline of the centurion with
+his vinestock (see p. 323). Precepts in many a classroom are enforced
+with curses and blows, and Seneca has declared in disgust that it is a
+common thing “to find a man in a violent passion teaching you that to
+be in a passion is wrong.”
+
+The children, too, are often permitted to study their lessons aloud
+even as in the schools of the Orient. All this adds to the buzzing
+confusion, so that it is claimed that a school causes more noise than
+a blacksmith at his anvil or the amphitheater applauding a favorite
+gladiator.
+
+The teaching and the flogging keep up through a long season. The
+school year begins on March 24th, when Platorius painfully counts the
+entrance fees brought by each scholar, reckoning himself lucky if he
+does not have to split his gains with the pedagogues who attend a
+favored few of the children. There is a considerable holiday in summer
+when it is too hot to study, and children of good family are likely to
+be attending their parents in the country. There is another interval of
+about a week at the Saturnalia and over New Year’s Day; another just
+before the new school year begins in March. Otherwise, except for the
+more important religious festivals, and the “Nones” (5th or 7th days
+of each month), the studying and the beating go on, with rather fewer
+holidays than in the twentieth century.
+
+  [Illustration: SCHOOL DISCIPLINE.]
+
+Platorius is near the bottom of the educational ladder. His fees are
+only about four sesterces (16 cents) per month per pupil, and he is
+none too sure of prompt payment. The miserable room costs something
+for rental. If his pupils fail to progress, their parents storm at him
+and promptly shift to another master. In short he leads a dog’s life.
+The green grocer and the copperpot monger who have stalls opposite the
+school despise him as entirely beneath them.
+
+
+=171. A Superior Type of School.=--Quite different is the atmosphere of
+Euganor’s schoolroom. He is technically a slave, but a slave of very
+superior class. The children come to him accompanied not merely by
+extremely genteel pedagogues but by subordinate slaves, _capsarii_, who
+carry their books and tablets, and the establishment has a convenient
+ante-room, where all these gentry can foregather and match gossip, “My
+master says”--while their charges are being instructed.
+
+The school itself is held in an elegant chamber adorned with fine
+frescos of historical events such as the campaigns of Alexander,
+speaking statues of great literary figures, and, conspicuous upon the
+wall, an elaborately painted map of the Roman Empire, “for,” affirms
+Euganor, “the boys should have daily before their eyes all the seas
+and lands, and all cities and peoples comprehended therein; for the
+name and position of places, the distance between them, the source
+and outflow of rivers, the coastline with all its seaboard, its gulfs
+and its straits are better taken in by the eye than by the ear.”[105]
+Euganor, too, has his rod and does not bear it in vain, but he never
+allows his discipline to degenerate into stupid cruelty. He is, in
+short, an extremely competent man who studies each of his charges
+carefully and who would prove an excellent teacher in any schoolroom in
+any age.
+
+
+=172. Methods of Teaching.=--All Roman schools are small. The idea
+of vast “graded” establishments where year after year pupils are passed
+from teacher to teacher and at last “graduated” has occurred to no man.
+Platorius conducts his school entirely alone. Euganor has a couple of
+efficient monitors, but neither he nor Platorius tries to handle more
+than say thirty pupils. Many of Euganor’s pupils came to him while
+little more than babies and will only leave him when actually ready
+for the rhetoric schools. He is largely responsible for their entire
+elementary education, although many of the higher class children know
+the Latin and Greek alphabet and can spell a little before being put
+under his charge.
+
+This is no place for a real discussion of the actual forms of
+education. First there comes the mere teaching of reading, writing, and
+simple arithmetic, with very little use of books, the master dictating
+sentences and correcting the tablets whereon the children write them
+down. Such a teacher as Platorius may have a few musty rolls of papyrus
+which his charges are allowed to handle gingerly, but “First Readers”
+as understood in later schools are unknown. Euganor is better off, and
+a considerable library is at his disposal, although barring a few books
+of fables it contains little that is directly appealing to children.
+
+In the poorer schools the average master congratulates himself if his
+charges stay long enough to become fairly literate, but the better
+establishments, of course, accomplish far more. When a child can once
+read with tolerable fluency, and can write the characters on his wax
+tablets without wandering from the traced lines or needing too many
+corrections, he begins to have the great poets, especially Virgil and
+Horace in Latin and Homer in Greek, pounded into him. He is compelled
+to learn very long passages of such authors by heart,[106] and as an
+especially desirable exercise he is forced to translate both from Greek
+into Latin and also from Latin into Greek.
+
+Since many of Euganor’s pupils will presumably become orators, they
+are furthermore aided to improve their diction also in every possible
+manner, to acquire a good stock of metaphors, and to have on hand a
+great supply of apt, pungent quotations. All the possible meanings
+in the literary texts are explained, likewise the mythological,
+historical, and geographical allusions, etc. The study of literature
+thus becomes what is really a form of a “General Information” course.
+
+
+=173. Training in Higher Arithmetic.=--Before the children leave
+Euganor they are also taught the higher forms of arithmetic. Prior
+to the coming of Arabic numerals this is pretty serious business,
+yet every Roman of property must be able to keep elaborate accounts,
+and not be too dependent upon his stewards. Indeed, in some superior
+schools a special arithmetic teacher is called in; a _calculator_,
+who is entitled to demand extra large fees, although one suspects
+that most of his pupils are equites’ sons who will probably engage
+in commerce. One thing, however, Euganor does not have to bother
+about--physical culture. The Greeks can send their sons to the
+_palæstra_ and to the harpist to learn gymnastics and music. The
+Romans try merely to see that their boys get exercise enough to keep
+them in good health, but they cannot grasp the practical value of a
+training that neither makes the lads better soldiers nor better men of
+business. Many Romans, of course, learn also about the fine arts, but
+never in the regular classroom.
+
+
+=174. The Grammarians’ High Schools.=--By their early teens, however,
+even Euganor’s pupils begin to forsake him. They are passed on to a
+higher teacher, a regular “grammarian” (_grammaticus_), who assumes
+that his charges are well grounded in the fundamentals, and who
+endeavors to instruct them in the real niceties of Greek and Latin
+literature. Sometimes also there is a specialist in each of the
+languages.
+
+In these high schools great stress is laid on proper pronunciation
+and elocution. Euclid’s theorems in geometry are studied, and a good
+deal of history is fluently if not very critically taught. Much of
+the learning is superficial, for it is a fine thing in many circles
+to _affect_ to be erudite,[107] and more stress is sometimes laid
+on absurd problems of mythology than upon learning sober facts.
+Grammarians who teach the sons of the parvenu rich are liable, indeed,
+to be scolded if they cannot themselves explain instantly “Who was
+Anchises’s nurse?” But the better grammarians’ schools turn out pupils
+who are not perhaps men of deep learning but who have a great fund of
+information, who can write a clear accurate Latin (and often a Greek)
+style, and generally carry themselves as cultivated young gentlemen.
+Those, however, who aspire to pass as highly educated will inevitably
+go on to the still higher school of the _rhetor_.
+
+  [Illustration: GRAMMARIAN INSTRUCTING TWO UPPER
+  PUPILS: an attendant (_capsarius_) standing at one
+  side.]
+
+
+=175. Oratory Very Fashionable.=--Oratory seems the keystone to
+success. True, the fall of the Republic makes it impossible to harangue
+the assembled Comitia in behalf of favorite candidates or proposed
+laws. Even in the Senate there are now grave limitations upon free
+eloquence. Nevertheless, the desirability of “fame” as an orator seems
+incalculable. To win your cause in the courts; to make a crowded hall
+resound with applause at your set orations seems the height of peaceful
+triumph. Never will another age set more store on high-soaring formal
+_talk_ than this age of the Roman Empire. The actual performances
+of professional orators and “readers” we can glance at later, and, of
+course, space lacks for any presentation of the “Science of Eloquence”;
+but mention must be made of the rhetoric schools in which by ardent
+anticipation young Titus and Decimus Calvus are already winning laurels.
+
+
+=176. Professional Rhetoricians.=--No slave or ordinary grammarian
+can hope to conduct a rhetoric school. The masters are either Romans
+of such rank that they can mingle with senators, or are distinguished
+Greeks fresh from the schools of Rhodes or Athens.[108] Not many years
+ago in Trajan’s reign, a certain Isæus came to Rome from Greece. He
+dazzled the noblest circles by his proficiency; his diction was the
+purest Attic; his sentences sparkled with epigrams. He called on his
+audience to name any mooted subjects it liked for discussion and to
+state on which side it wanted him to argue. Instantly he would rise,
+wrap his gown around him and “without losing a moment, begin, with
+everything at his finger tips no matter what subject was selected.”
+Presumably his thoughts and the information behind them were very
+superficial; no matter, the flow of his logic, learning, and language
+set his audience into ecstasies. Calvus only hopes he can find an
+equally distinguished master for his own sons.
+
+
+=177. Methods in Rhetoric Schools: Mock Trials.=--Rhetoric schools are
+arranged rather as halls of audience than as ordinary classrooms. The
+students are expected to sit in a proper manner, “to look steadily
+at the speaker, not let their minds wander or to whisper to their
+neighbors, yawn sleepily, smile, scowl, cross their legs, or let
+their heads drop.” The training in its earlier stages, however, seems
+decidedly academic. Great models in Greek and Latin oratory are
+examined and discussed. Then the young advocates-to-be are put to work
+preparing their own orations. They are not, however, allowed to take
+any live and fresh topic. Instead they must seek one in distant history.
+
+Every day the streets of Rome resound with noise from the rhetoric
+schools--some youth is laboriously inciting the Athenian patriots,
+Harmodius and Aristogeiton, to screw up their courage and to free their
+country by slaying the foul Hipparchus. Still more threadbare are the
+ceaseless orations urging Hannibal to advance (or not to advance) on
+Rome after his victory at Cannæ. There are a number of stock subjects
+of a more private kind. Mimic prosecutors work themselves into a
+passion against “The Ravisher,” “The Poisoner,” or “The Wicked and
+Thankless Husband.”
+
+Often a couple of pupils a little more advanced can be pitted against
+one another in an imaginary lawsuit. Suppose a father orders a son to
+kill the youth’s brother, whom the father suspects of intending to
+turn parricide. The boy pretends to have obeyed the order, but the
+second lad really escapes. The father at length discovers the facts and
+prosecutes his first son for “The Crime of Disobedience,”[109]--what
+endless opportunities now for “eloquence” either proving that a parent
+must be obeyed at any cost, or that no one can be compelled to commit
+fratricide!
+
+Again it is supposed that a young girl has been kidnapped, but rescued
+and her ravisher later arrested. Imagine now that the law gives her the
+choice--either the kidnapper must marry her and give her the status
+of an honorable wife or she can require that he be put to death. The
+rhetor will put two of his best pupils to prepare counter exhortations
+to the perplexed girl: “Marry the fellow to assure your social future!”
+or “Let justice be done--summon the executioner!” It is all very
+ingenious, but equally unreal, and it is often hopelessly artificial.
+Angrily wrote Seneca of such debates that by them “we are learning not
+for life but for school.”
+
+
+=178. Enormous Popularity of Rhetoric Studies.=---However impractical
+this study, the upper classes at Rome assuredly dote upon it. When
+each youth in turn mounts the orator’s stand in the school and begins
+his _suasoria_ (set oration) or his _controversia_ (pretended legal
+argument) all his fellows are duty bound to cry in Greek, “_Euge!_”
+or “_Sophos!_” at every booming sentiment or well-rounded climax. At
+least once during the oration it is good form for them to rise from
+their seats and join in a salvo of applause--they will all get like
+courtesies when their own turns come.
+
+When the young declaimer has finished the master will arise. He will
+show how to gesture, making his garments fall in picturesque folds.
+He will take the subject just handled and repeat the argument showing
+how each point can be better developed; how new matter can be brought
+in; how allusions to the gods, the worthies of old, and perhaps to
+the reigning Emperor will improve the effect; how to use one’s voice
+at each particular turn, etc., etc. If the only object of oratory is
+to tickle the ear, the result is magnificent. The students dutifully
+applaud their master even more loudly than they do their fellows, and
+each goes home wondering anxiously, “When can I argue my first case
+before the prætor?”
+
+
+=179. Philosophical Studies: Delight in Moralizing.=--A good many
+Roman nobles of intellectual type advance a step further than the
+rhetoric schools. They study philosophy; and even go to Athens (now a
+quiet, delightful university town) to listen to lectures by the alleged
+successors of Epicurus or of Zeno the Stoic, but to Greece one need not
+follow them. It is proper to say, however, that a certain dabbling in
+philosophy is extremely fashionable.[110] There are plenty of stories
+about noblemen who have treatises on philosophy read to them while
+they are being carried to and fro in their litters under the porticoes
+of their villas; or even of ladies who listen to lectures by a
+professional philosopher every morning while their maids are arranging
+their hair.
+
+Such personages, needless to say, never improve upon the familiar
+guesses at the riddle of human existence; but sometimes their desire
+to moralize becomes worse than comical. People still repeat stories
+of Agrippinus, a high-born victim of Nero. When he caught a fever he
+immediately dictated a panygyric on the moral excellencies of fever. He
+was ordered into exile; he wrote a treatise on the benefits of exile.
+He was made a high judge; he added to the anguish of those he condemned
+by giving his victims long orations to prove that he passed sentence on
+them only for their own good!
+
+
+=180. Children’s Games. “Morra” and Dice.=--It is a long cry from
+child-rearing to philosophy. One must return to the first topic enough
+to notice the games played by young Romans and also by their elders.
+Tag-games, blindman’s buff and its refinements, and like sports, can be
+seen in every street and dusty area in Rome. A favorite game is that
+of “King”; when a group of children elects a _Rex_ who commands
+them to perform all sorts of fooleries. Time fails to tell of all the
+contests with tossing knuckle bones and at “odd and even,” guessing
+at concealed pebbles, shells, and nuts. The later-day Italian game of
+“morra” (_micare digitis_) in which both players hold out a hand
+with a certain number of fingers extended, and then each one tries to
+shout out the correct number of his rival’s fingers before the other
+can do the like by his, is a highly popular if noisy method of killing
+time. At the eating houses and taverns it is regularly used among
+friends to settle who shall pay the score.
+
+All too early boys, and likewise girls, learn also to rattle the dice
+box. Some of the dice are ordinary six-sided cubes, some are oblong,
+with the numbers “2” and “5” omitted from the narrow ends. Almost
+always three dice of bone or fine wood are used; and the familiar
+expression “three sixes or three aces” is the same as saying “all or
+nothing.”
+
+
+=181. Board Games of Skill: “Robbers” (Latrunculi).=--Altogether
+too much time and money are wasted at dice even by fairly grave people,
+while professional gamblers abound; but the Romans have two games in
+which men are moved on a gaming board according to rules involving
+very high degrees of skill. You can play _Duodecim Scripta_ very
+much like later-day backgammon; fifteen white men and fifteen black
+men are shifted about on a board marked with twelve double lines
+(whence the name) according to the casts of the dice. More abstract
+and learned is _Latrunculi_ (“Robbers”), a game without dice and
+seemingly very much like later-day checkers or chess. Some of the
+pieces are called “soldiers” and others “officers”--and the moves
+are very elaborate.[111] Of course, such games are far removed from a
+mere youthful sport. Consuls and Emperors delight in them, and while
+playing forget everything but the problem involved. Devotees cite with
+pride the story of Julius Kanus, one of the mad Caligula’s victims.
+He was in prison but was allowed to have a friend visit him, and the
+two were busy over “Robbers,” when a centurion came in to say he must
+be immediately executed. Kanus at once arose unmoved, but carefully
+counted the men on the board; then said to his friend, “Mind you, don’t
+tell a lie after I’m dead, and say that you won”; then turning to the
+centurion, “Please bear witness for me that I was one man ahead,”--and
+so did Stoicism find its way even to the gaming table!
+
+
+=182. Out-Door Games. Ball Games, _Trigon_.=--Among out-of-door
+amusements, we find that young Romans and some of their elders enjoy
+fairly elaborate games of ball. There are various exercises which show
+that the world is on its way to handball, tennis, and even to polo, but
+hardly any contests foreshadow such things as baseball, foot ball, or
+cricket. The most common game is _trigon_, when three players stand at
+the corners of a triangle, and at least three, or even six balls, are
+kept flying around the circle with great rapidity; the points being
+made on catching and throwing with as few misses as possible. The
+players stand close together, and the whole sport is more a mild form
+of juggling than it is any real field exercise.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XI
+
+                          BOOKS AND LIBRARIES
+
+
+=183. Letters and Writing Tablets.=--The multiplication of schools
+presupposes the constant use of books, correspondence, and other forms
+of writing. What are these like?
+
+  [Illustration: WAX TABLET WITH STILUS ATTACHED.]
+
+“Tablets” are seen everywhere. Upper-class people delight in scribbling
+down memoranda. The story even runs that Augustus wrote out his
+intended conversations with his wife Livia “lest he should say too much
+or too little,” a testimony at once to the need of circumspect dealings
+with the lady and to a great mania for writing. Ordinary tablets are
+made of two or three thin strips of wood joined together like later-day
+book-covers, and spread over the inside with a thin coating of wax. On
+this wax, often black and dingy, day accounts and business messages can
+be scratched with facility. But really important fashionable letters
+demand something better. The leaves can be made of fine citrus wood or
+even of ivory. As for very special correspondence, love letters, and
+the like, these are written on very small tablets in contrast to the
+broad slabs carrying the merchant accounts.
+
+If you want a handsome note book, you can buy one with a number of
+folding leaves and with outside covers of finely chased ivory, silver,
+or gold, and such handsome note books make very convenient presents
+among friends. By a convention attached to the high office, when
+Calvus became prætor, he presented his intimates with tablets adorned
+with his own portrait in low relief on ivory, and with scenes of the
+prætor’s tribunal. If he had been consul, he would have been expected
+to give around bunches of tablets even more elegant.
+
+  [Illustration: WRITING TABLETS AND STILUS.]
+
+When a letter is written no envelope is needed. The tablets are folded
+over upon themselves, fastened with crossed thread and then at the
+point when the ends are knotted is placed a round piece of wax, stamped
+before it can cool with a signet ring. The name of the person to
+whom the letter is going can be written on the outside, and then the
+communication is ready. Letters can be transmitted to distant places
+usually only with tedious difficulty, but around Rome delivery from
+writers of any high position is extremely prompt. The carrying of
+letters is one of the commonest duties for otherwise idle slaves, and
+from a mansion like Calvus’s it is easy every morning to send off ten
+packets each by its own hurrying messenger.
+
+
+=184. Personal Correspondence and Secretaries.=--Calvus, like every man
+of distinction, has a heavy correspondence. It is a fine thing to be a
+good letter writer, to make your epistles seem easy, natural, gossipy,
+and yet in such faultless language that they can be collected presently
+and published in a book. To a few special correspondents, especially to
+absent relatives, Calvus writes almost daily in his own hand. But he
+dictates even more frequently. He has a couple of slave _amanuenses_
+who are with him constantly; they can take down his dictation in a kind
+of abbreviated long hand; then write it out in handsome script, always
+submitting the final text to their master not for his signing but for
+sealing. As a consequence of all this correspondence, the demand for
+new tablets in Rome is prodigious. The wax, indeed, can be melted upon
+letters which one does not care to preserve, and the wood used a second
+time, but the waste inevitably is great.
+
+  [Illustration: BOOK CUPBOARD.]
+
+
+=185. Books Very Common: Papyrus and the Papyrus Trade.=--Nevertheless,
+the activity of such secretaries is vastly less important than that of
+another set of scribes, the makers of books. Poor is the tenement suite
+that does not contain a few musty papyrus scrolls, while a parvenu
+freedman will inevitably acquire a large library (which he may never
+read) just to show himself a man of fashion. Books are so common that
+their divided sheets are wetted, and used in kitchens to keep fish in
+fresh condition, or, if dry, to make wrappers for incense and spices.
+
+Paper is unknown, and parchment although not unknown is used mainly for
+very important correspondence, public documents, and the like, which
+require extremely durable material. Practically all books are written
+on papyrus arranged in rolls.[112] The papyrus is strictly an Egyptian
+monopoly, and if the importation of this precious article should cease,
+apparently all Greece and Italy would be doomed to partial illiteracy.
+
+The papyrus plant grows in the swamps by the Nile to a height of about
+ten feet. The pith of its tall stalks is first cut into strips; next
+the latter are placed one by another upon a wetted board and smeared
+over with a paste. On these there is next laid a second layer forming
+a cross pattern or kind of net work. Then the whole combination is
+pressed and beaten down into a solid sheet and smoothed with an ivory
+knife or a shell. After that it is ready for export from Egypt and to
+be put to proper use.
+
+  [Illustration: BOOK CONTAINER.]
+
+The papyrus trade is well standardized. There are eight well-recognized
+grades of the commodity. The best is _hieratica_, so called because it
+is fine and firm enough to be used by the Egyptian priests for their
+sacred books. The cheapest is _emporetica_, not fit for writing but
+only for wrapping parcels. The intermediate qualities answer for the
+run of books. When the papyrus sheets are ready separately, either they
+can be pasted together at once into a long scroll making a complete
+volume, or first the book can be written off and the sheets pasted
+later.
+
+
+=186. Size and Format of Books.=--Books can, therefore, be of all
+sizes but everybody usually agrees with the Greek saying, “_Big book,
+big evil!_” It is an indescribable nuisance to fumble over a roll of
+more than a certain length hunting for a desired passage. Not many
+volumes run over 100 pages,[113] and many are much smaller. Each sheet
+constitutes a separate page (varying between six to twelve inches
+high), with the writing usually in a single column, four to six inches
+broad, on each page, and a blank space crossed by a red line before the
+next page begins.
+
+  [Illustration: DOUBLE INKSTAND.]
+
+It is impossible to read with any convenience writing on more than
+one side of the papyrus prepared in this manner. The result is that
+discarded books are often used for schoolboys’ exercises or for mere
+scribbling “paper”; although, if the papyrus is very firm, often the
+writing can be sponged out and a whole new work can be written over the
+vanished sentences. Books being of this character, it is impossible
+really to prepare the “ponderous tomes” of a later day. “Volumes” are
+very short. The Iliad of Homer is ordinarily in twenty-four separate
+rolls, one for each of its “books”, and the same arrangement obtains
+for other standard works. Very many “books” in the Roman libraries,
+therefore, are really little more than pamphlets.
+
+  [Illustration: PEN AND SCROLL.]
+
+For writing on parchment, of course, one cannot use the stylus. Reed
+pens skilfully cut may suffice, with a thick ink made of lampblack and
+gum for ordinary purposes and also a red ink, rich and permanent, for
+ornamental lines. In Calvus’s library, as in almost every other, are
+two large beautifully wrought ink wells, made of bronze with silver
+chasings, and attached together--one for the black ink and one for the
+red.
+
+
+=187. Mounting and Rolling of Books.= The mounting of the papyrus
+long roll is a great art, especially if the book is intended for a fine
+library. First, the whole long strip of papyrus is dressed with cedar
+oil to repel worms--thus giving the pages a pleasing yellow tinge.
+Then the last leaf is fastened to a thin cylinder of wood or of rolled
+papyrus called the _umbilicus_. The ends of the roll itself are
+carefully cut and smoothed with pumice stone, and the ends of the
+umbilicus are often gilded. Next a strip of solid parchment bearing
+the title of the book in handsome red letters is attached by a string
+at one end, where it will hang down when the volume is rolled.
+
+After the book itself is ready a neat cylindrical cover or case must
+be made of parchment, colored red or yellow, and also marked with the
+title. For really fine volumes additional elegancies are possible; for
+example, a handsome portrait of the author can be painted or pasted
+upon the first page, and the edges of the entire scroll can be colored.
+Handsomely illustrated works grace every good library.
+
+  [Illustration: BOOK SCROLL.]
+
+To read these books will seem to persons familiar only with
+_codexes_ (flat opening books) extremely cumbersome.[114] You have
+to take the volume in both hands, unrolling with the right while you
+roll up with the left. It seems nigh impossible to “run through” such a
+volume, and hard to trace down a passage; and there are apparently no
+indices. However, practice can make almost perfect. Calvus can roll and
+unroll his books with remarkable dexterity and by a kind of instinct
+hit promptly upon almost any allusion. It will be a real gain for the
+world, nevertheless, when the roll is supplanted by the many-leaved
+book.
+
+
+=188. Copying Books: the Publishing Business. Horace’s and Martial’s
+Publishers.=--Books abound, although of course all are multiplied
+by painful human effort. This is because slave copyists are relatively
+cheap. Atticus, Cicero’s friend, seems to have made a real fortune in
+the publishing business--that is, he owned a great corps of skilful
+slaves incessantly busy transcribing manuscripts. The finest copies
+must be made deliberately one by one, but ordinary volumes can be
+multiplied more summarily. As you go about Rome you will perhaps come
+on large rooms where a great number of scribes are seated in a kind
+of lecture hall desperately following word for word some reader who,
+in a smooth, monotonous voice, is giving out the text either of an
+established classic or the newest essays or epigrams of the successors
+of Pliny the Younger or Martial. In this way what is really an
+“edition” of say a hundred or even two hundred copies can be produced
+in a remarkably short time, without the aid of the printing press.[115]
+
+The publisher, and even more the authors who try to live by their
+literary genius, are, however, under a grave handicap. There is no
+copyright. What you “publish” to-day, may be flagrantly recopied
+and sold under your very nose to-morrow--possibly with errors and
+interpolations calculated to drive an author frantic. The average
+aspirant for literary fame unless he has personal means is therefore
+constrained, as were Horace and Martial, to hunt up a rich patron who
+for the joy of being “immortalized” will keep him from starving.
+
+However, every aspiring author tries to find some bookseller, who will
+turn his works over to a corps of competent slaves, and then vend the
+products. There is a regular booksellers’ quarter in Rome down by the
+Forum of Cæsar in the heart of the commercial district. Here Horace’s
+old publishers, the Sosii, had their stalls; and Martial’s publishers,
+the firm headed by the clever freedman Allectus, are still there in the
+business.
+
+At Allectus’s shop they will tell you how the epigramist used to drop
+in with pardonable vanity to see how from “the first or second shelf
+they would hand down a ‘Martial,’ well smoothed with pumice stone and
+adorned with purple--all for five denarii (80 cents).” On the columns
+by the entrance to this and the rival shops are plastered up long lists
+of new publications--often with sample extracts to prove their wit or
+learning; or announcement of new or old copies of standard works from
+Homer down to that clever Greek litterateur Plutarch, who has recently
+died in Bœotia; or in Latin from old Nævius and Ennius to the recent
+biographies of the Cæsars by the imperial secretary Suetonius.
+
+Considering the labor of copying, the price of books is moderate; a
+small volume of poems by a popular writer can be had for as little as
+two denarii (32 cents), although such a scroll would probably be only
+equivalent to a thin pamphlet of later-day printing, and the works of
+a really voluminous author like Pliny the Elder might appear ruinously
+expensive.
+
+
+=189. Passion for Literary “Fame.”=--Expensive or cheap, by men of
+education a certain number of books must be had. Perhaps the Age of
+Hadrian will fail to leave a great mark in the history of either
+Greek or Latin letters, but that will not be because _literary fame_
+is not passionately sought after. Everybody is anxious to dabble
+in authorship. Everybody (in the upper circles) seems incessantly
+compounding formal “epistles,” memoirs, essays, rhetorical and
+sentimental histories, and last but not least great quantities of
+verses which pass as “poetry.” Pliny the Younger (not long dead) was
+incessantly urging his correspondents to write: “to mould something,
+hammer out something, that shall be known as yours for all time.”
+The same pathetic desire for immortality which leads to ostentatious
+funeral monuments and to endowed funeral feasts, perhaps puts a premium
+upon this mania.
+
+The fine gentlemen and ladies who share these tastes boast that nothing
+can interrupt their furious pursuit of “letters.” Senators like to
+inform their friends that even while hunting boars in the Apennines
+they keep their writing tablets and stylus near them when watching for
+the beaters to drive the game into the nets--what precious sentences
+might escape them otherwise! They like also to have freedman or
+slave “readers” always at their elbows to keep up a flow of poetry
+or philosophy apparently all the time when they are not eating,
+exercising, or conversing.[116]
+
+It is also a kind of etiquette for all members of the gilded literary
+circle to keep sending their unpublished effusions around among their
+friends with demands for “entirely frank and severe criticism”;
+the response always being a long letter of praise even for very
+mediocre efforts. “Terse, lucid, brilliant, stately,” or even “keen,
+impassioned, graceful”--these are grievously overworked adjectives,
+although perhaps at the end of the answers there are a few polite hints
+suggesting a slight improvement.
+
+The Latin-speaking provinces are said to follow Roman literary
+celebrities intently. Nothing delights the latter more than to learn
+that their fame has spread to distant parts. Tacitus was certainly
+a great historian, but he was a man of his time and also a very
+warm friend of Pliny the Younger. Oft repeated is the story of a
+conversation he had in the circus, where on the front benches for
+notables he met a “certain learned provincial.” The twain, without
+introduction, fell into a delightful literary conversation, until the
+stranger who manifestly was very up-to-date asked: “Are you from Italy
+or the provinces?” “Ah,” said Tacitus, “you know me very well from
+my books that you’ve read.” “Then,” cried the other, “you are either
+Tacitus or Pliny!”
+
+  [Illustration: OLD FORUM: looking towards northern
+  side, with the Curia shown behind the high columns in
+  foreground; restoration by Spandoni.]
+
+
+=190. Zeal for Poetry: Multiplication of Verses.=--Prose
+compositions in smooth and fastidious Latin, or in very passable
+Greek are common enough, but even the authors of genuinely superior
+histories or literary essays, often desire to become something more
+magnificent--they wish to be poets. Very famous Romans have put forth
+their energies over iambics, elegiacs, or hexameters; Sulla, Cicero,
+Hortensius the Orator, Julius Cæsar, Brutus, Augustus, Tiberius,
+Seneca, Nerva--the list of such celebrities could be made much longer.
+Of course, every loyal subject knows that the reigning Hadrian is
+the author of clever epigrams, which would really deserve a certain
+fame even if their author had lived in the Subura and not upon the
+Palatine.[117]
+
+Probably if there could be physical measuring rods wherewith to
+determine it, the sheer quantity of Latin, and also of Greek verses,
+being thrust upon the world every year would seem prodigious. At
+Allectus and Company they will tell you that Romanus has just brought
+out some very acceptable “Old Comedies” in the style of Aristophanes,
+and some other “New Comedies” in iambics worthy to be classed with
+Plautus and Terence. The noble Caninius, too, has at last completed
+and published a remarkable Greek epic: “The Dacian War”--celebrating
+Trajan’s victories in a manner quite worthy, let us say, of Homer and
+Hesiod. True, the uncouth names of Dacian barbarians do not fit well
+into the hexameters, and especially that of their king, “Decebalus,”
+is metrically almost impossible, but ingenious poetical license has
+overcome the difficulty. Who can doubt that Caninius’s “long poem” will
+live across the ages?[118]
+
+Such a practical man of affairs as Calvus does not take all the
+smooth compliments proffered his efforts over-seriously; but even our
+friendly senator can feel a thrill of pleasure when he dashes off a
+dozen elegiacs in praise of his mountain villa, and hears the “_Euge!
+Euge!_” (he hopes not _too_ insincere) of his guests as he
+reads them at a dinner party.
+
+
+=191. Size of Libraries.=--With such an affectation for books
+and literary fame there are inevitably great libraries. Long ago
+the old Hebrew gloomily recorded, “Of making of many books there is
+no end,” and his sighs would have increased could he have seen the
+collections in Rome. The small size of the volumes indeed makes it
+hard to compare these libraries with those of other ages. The largest
+library in the world is that at Alexandria with some 400,000 rolls,
+but there are public collections in Rome not very much smaller. As for
+private libraries, a certain rich and learned senator has about 60,000
+rolls.[119] Calvus and his friends make no such boast, and he contents
+himself with some 4000 volumes. This is respectable, but nowise an
+unusual collection for a man of refined tastes, and it has plenty of
+counterparts all over the city.
+
+
+=192. A Private Library.=--The library in the house of Calvus is
+small but sumptuously furnished. Around a large part of the walls
+extend great tiers of large pigeonholes made of finely carved wood,
+and in each hole is a group of rolls, either the complete works of
+a voluminous author, or a collection of smaller books on a single
+subject. The bright red lettering on the dangling labels, the gilt ends
+of the rolling rods, the pleasing soft yellow of the end of the papyri
+(if these are not also colored red) give a luxurious appearance to the
+collection.
+
+Set above the tiers of books in such a room is a long array of fine
+busts in bronze and marble of nearly all the distinguished literary
+figures of Greece or Italy. Calvus has just added a handsome bronze of
+the comedian Menander. The careful frescos on the exposed walls have to
+do with learned mythological subjects; there is also a fine life-sized
+statue of Minerva the patroness of letters, and on a long shelf stand
+really beautiful silver statuettes of all the Nine Muses. Along one
+side of the library there are also tables where Harpocration, Calvus’s
+truly learned and capable freedman librarian (_librarius_), who
+assists in all his patron’s studies, can spread out rolls for patching,
+rewinding, or even for recopying; also a convenient writing couch for
+the senator himself when he wishes to take his tablets and compile
+those fine “extracts” which the literary world delights to cull from
+every possible author, or to try his own hand at original composition.
+
+Calvus is not a virtuoso, however, and does not imitate such wealthy
+enthusiasts as the poet Silius Italicus who collected all kinds of rare
+editions, crammed his house with every imaginable writer, and “kept
+Virgil’s birthday more carefully than he did his own.” For all that
+Harpocration has been commended for hanging a small wreath around the
+bust of Sophocles, this day being the reputed anniversary of the death
+of the great tragedian.
+
+
+=193. The Great Public Libraries of Rome.=--Into the Public
+Libraries of Rome we cannot enter. They exist nevertheless as great
+and beneficent institutions although probably only a favored few are
+permitted to read their treasures except inside their ample halls.[120]
+The oldest public library is that founded by Asinius Pollio (an officer
+of Julius Cæsar) and is located on the rather distant Aventine. Cæsar
+himself projected two very grand Greek and Latin Libraries but did not
+live to create them; Augustus founded a very fine library in the Temple
+of Apollo on the Palatine (making it virtually the imperial palace
+library), and his sister Octavia created another. There is still a
+fourth good library in the Temple of Peace founded by Vespasian; but
+all these are now overshadowed by the relatively new “Ulpian Libraries”
+established by Trajan at his new Forum. These enormous collections
+of Greek and Latin rolls make Rome by far the greatest repository of
+literary treasures in the entire world, barring always the famous
+collection in Alexandria.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XII
+
+          ECONOMIC LIFE OF ROME: I. BANKING, SHOPS, AND INNS
+
+
+=194. Passion for Gain in Rome.=--Much has been said about Roman
+trade and riches, but this is no place for an economic survey of the
+realm of the Cæsars. It is impossible, however, to ignore the outward
+side of that commercial activity which is everywhere in evidence around
+the imperial capital.
+
+The desire for gold, doubtless, had its potence in old Egypt and
+Babylonia, and most certainly in old Tyre and Carthage, but never has
+the fierce passion burned much keener than along the Seven Hills. Go
+into many a pretentious vestibule; in the mosaic pavement are set as
+mottoes, “_Salve Lucrum!_” (“Hail, Profit!”) or “_Lucrum Gaudium!_”
+(“Profit is pure joy!”). Hearken also to the cynical poets of society,
+for example, to Juvenal: “No deity among us is held in such reverence
+as _Riches_; though as yet, O baneful Money, thou hast no temple of
+thine own! Not yet have we reared fanes to Money in like manner we have
+to Peace and Honor, Virtue, Victory, and Concord.” And he speaks again:
+“No human passion has mingled more poison bowls, none has more often
+plied the murderer’s dagger than the violent craving for unbounded
+wealth.”
+
+His less sedate but not less cynical contemporary, Martial, echoes
+his words. He recommends that an honest friend should leave Rome; he
+cannot succeed for he is neither a rake nor a parasite; he cannot tell
+lies like an auctioneer, wheedle old ladies out of their property,
+sell “smoke” (“empty rumors,” in other words political, gaming, or
+commercial tips), nor otherwise earn a corrupt living. Martial tells
+us too of despicable misers who, as their vast fortunes increase, let
+their togas become even more dirty, their tunics still worse, their
+wine mere dregs, and their main diet one of half-cooked peas.
+
+Perhaps such sordid creatures, however, are no worse than the others
+who struggle for riches simply to enjoy gross material vanities;
+who desire “that their Tuscan estates may clink with the fetters of
+innumerable toiling slaves in order that they may own a hundred tables
+of Moorish marble supported pedestals, that gold ornaments may jingle
+from their couches, that they may never drink anything but Falernian
+cooled with snow from large crystal goblets, and that a crowd of
+clients may follow their litters; etc., etc.” And long before Martial,
+Horace has asserted, “All the arches of Janus [the typical Latin deity]
+from end to end teach one lesson to young and old ‘Oh, fellow citizens,
+fellow citizens, _money is the first thing to seek--virtue after
+money_!’”
+
+
+=195. Life in Rome Expensive. Premiums upon Extravagance and
+Pretence.=--With every deduction from such charges Rome is
+undoubtedly an extremely expensive city to dwell in, probably the most
+expensive in the whole Empire, and in all but very limited circles
+the pressure for wealth is inconceivable. A typical man-of-affairs
+is represented as boasting to his cronies, “Coranus owes me 100,000
+sesterces ($4,000); Mancinus 200,000; Titius 300,000; Albinus 600,000;
+Salinus a million; Soranus another million; from the rent of my insulæ
+I get three million ($120,000); from the flocks on my pasture lands
+600,000.” On any night at half the triclinia, the mighty equites
+and senators can be heard talking about investments, real estate
+transactions, government contracts, and foreign trade prospects, far
+more vigorously than concerning either the wisdom of the Emperor’s
+policy in building the wall across Britain, or the philosopher’s
+doctrine of the immortality of the soul.
+
+The very life of the city puts a premium in fact on getting and
+spending. A youth inheriting a modest fortune in the provinces comes to
+Rome. In a few months his patrimony has drifted away on fish-mongers,
+bakers, luxurious baths, ointments, and garlands, not to mention fine
+clothes, gamesters, and dancing girls. In many circles an outlay
+of 40,000 sesterces ($1600) is “a mere pinch of poppy seed for an
+ant-hill.” You must at least _seem_ rich or you amount to nothing.
+
+Half the young men of fashion are therefore, good authorities aver,
+up to their ears in debt; but anybody with a little ready money can
+put on a bold countenance to make an impression. Many is the apparent
+aristocrat who is swung along in a fine litter, his violet robes
+trailing, and with a long train apparently of clients and slaves
+following him, who has actually hired litter and attendants, nay, the
+gown which he wears from a ready contractor--in order perhaps to carry
+his part in some business conference at the Forum. And if you are to
+plead a case as advocate but are unluckily a poor man, nevertheless be
+sure to hire a fine toga and a couple of handsome rings to wear through
+the morning, or the jurors will assume you are a nobody and promptly
+vote against you.
+
+
+=196. Rome a City of Investors and Buyers of Luxuries.=--Everybody
+declaims against this scramble for wealth and yet joins in it. Even
+Martial and Juvenal, it is peevishly averred, would have held back
+their jibes if their financial hopes had prospered. Be it said also
+that this struggle in Rome is probably not much more sordid than it
+can become in other capitals in other ages. The standards of business
+honesty are relatively high. Most bargains are faithfully kept. A great
+credit system has been built up--itself a witness to the fact that most
+traders are honorable.
+
+The business life of Rome flows in many channels, but in general the
+Eternal City does not compete with Alexandria, or even with certain
+smaller Græco-Levantine cities, as an industrial or distributing
+center. Rome _receives_ much. The great incomes from investments
+in the provinces and from the expenditure in the city of the imperial
+revenues, make it possible to pay for enormous quantities of luxuries
+for which no corresponding articles are exported in return. There are
+many petty industries but they exist mainly for local needs. Rome
+exports legions and law-givers, so her inhabitants assert proudly,--is
+it not right, therefore, that she should wax fat upon the tributes
+of the world, when she can repay them with the blessed _pax
+Romana_?[121]
+
+
+=197. Multiplicity of Shops. The Great Shopping Districts.=--But
+if the industrial life of the city is relatively weak, never before
+has there been such a “wilderness of shops” as spreads itself along
+the streets of Rome. A certain type of shops can be found everywhere;
+hardly a street but has grocers’ stalls; the terra cotta plaque with a
+goat, the sign of a milk dealer; the stone relief of two men tugging a
+great jar slung up on a pole, the sign of a wine shop, and the like.
+
+There are nevertheless certain great retail quarters to visit if you
+are seeking for articles of _vertu_ and price. The fashionable
+fish-mongers have their odoriferous stalls under the great porticoes
+and basilicas by the fora; the fruit sellers are along the ascent
+from the Old Forum to the top of the Velia (a spur of the Palatine
+flung out toward the Esquiline); while the jewelers, goldsmiths, and
+makers of musical instruments as well as the great bankers have their
+headquarters directly along the Sacred Way itself. The perfumers’
+shops in turn are well concentrated under the south-east brow of the
+Capitoline.
+
+In addition to these, however, there exist two grand shopping districts
+for Rome outside the Fora themselves: for the cheap trade, where
+elbowing plebeians struggle for bargains, we find that the little shops
+are wedged all along the swarming Tuscan Street (_Vicus Tuscus_)
+going south from the Old Forum toward the Circus Maximus and the
+adjacent cross streets; but for the more select purchases high-born
+ladies and gentlemen order their litters to take them northward along
+“Broadway” (_Via Lata_), where by the Sæpta Julia and the vast
+series of porticoes adjoining or opposite are the finest retail shops
+in the entire world.
+
+  [Illustration: TRADESMEN’S SCALES AND BALANCES.]
+
+
+=198. Arrangement of Shops. Streets Blocked by Hucksters.=--What
+the inferior shops were like has been already seen in the local survey
+of Mercury Street. They are almost countless in number but are very
+small, the bulk of their wares being on sale upon the open counters
+facing the street, and often you can make all your purchases without
+going inside. The proprietor and his wife with a slave or two manage
+the entire business, unless, indeed, they manufacture, let us say, the
+shoes which they retail; in which case a workroom directly in the rear
+keeps busy a few more slaves or free wage-workers.
+
+The shop fronts are protected at night and on holidays by heavy wooden
+shutters which, when raised, project into the street serving as a kind
+of awnings. They are the more necessary to guard against thieves and
+also against a riot. Shop-keepers are proverbially timid folk, and to
+say “all the shutters are being closed down” is practically to say
+that a brawl or a tumult seems possible. The small size of these shops
+makes their owners encroach upon the streets whenever they can. The
+counters thrust out over the scanty sidewalk, while pedestrians trip
+over the boards with placards set in front of the shops advertising the
+wares inside.
+
+In such narrow streets a little knot of bargain hunters can readily
+halt all traffic. Every now and then, indeed, the City Præfect orders
+his deputies, “Enforce the shop edicts!” A few offending hucksters are
+hailed into court and the rest draw back their counters. “Now the city
+is Rome again and not one vast bazaar,” rejoice the poets of the hour.
+Then, after a little, official zeal abates, and the streets are as
+badly cumbered as before.
+
+A great deal of the trading, however, goes on without any permanent
+shops at all. In almost any cross-street or little square one can
+get a license to locate a table and to set thereon a small stock of
+such articles as copper or iron pots, the cheaper grades of women’s
+and men’s shoes, or pieces of cloth, probably woven by the huckster
+himself, not to mention all kinds of edibles, also the stands of
+menders of old pots, and others of public letter-writers for the
+illiterate. Through the midst of all these, beggars glide whining for
+alms, and children dash about playing hide-and-go-seek.[122]
+
+
+=199. Barber Shops and Auction Sales.=--An institution almost as
+familiar in Rome as in Athens[123] is the barber shop. Not that a shop
+is really needful. Many a dirty tonsor will put down a low stool in the
+middle of the crowd in the very street and ply his shears or razor upon
+any poor wight who can find a _quadrans_ (small copper). The finer
+barber shops, however, are really elegant establishments, fitted to
+please the fastidious. Here men of parts and fashion can meet to hear
+the latest gossip, and perhaps to read a copy of the “Daily Gazette”
+(see p. 282). A complete manicure service is afforded; superfluous
+hairs are removed with tweezers or depilatories, and nails polished
+and faces massaged very skilfully; although some inferior barbers are
+railed at bitterly, and it is charged that their patrons “may count
+the scars on their chins like those on an aged boxer, or those marks
+produced by the nails of enraged wives.”
+
+Another institution much frequented is the auctioneer’s room. Auction
+seems at Rome an ideal method for realizing quickly upon property, and
+bidding is often keen. The auctioneers are past-masters in stimulating
+the bidders, and in praising-up worthless articles. An auction sale is
+the normal end for the career of a spendthrift when his creditors seize
+his plate and furniture. A dozen times around the city one can see
+placards like the following, tactfully worded to save the pride of the
+unfortunate debtor:[124]
+
+                         GAIUS JULIUS PROCULUS
+                          WILL OFFER FOR SALE
+                           CERTAIN ARTICLES
+                           HERE-UNDER NAMED
+                FOR WHICH HE HAS NO FURTHER REQUIREMENT
+
+
+=200. Superior Retail Stores.=--However, besides the petty shops
+and street traders there are the really magnificent stores, especially
+toward the Campus Martius where articles of _vertu_ attract the
+wealthy. If you have wealth, you can delight yourself in splendid
+establishments offering citrus-wood tables, veneered with ivory and
+gold, with other articles of furniture to match, or candelabra that are
+massy works of art, or vases and mirrors of every possible style and
+elegance, and where all kinds of fine pottery, plate, and bric-a-brac,
+as well as gorgeous upholsteries, tapestries, and carpets, can be had
+for a price.
+
+To thrust into these places that welcome only the most aristocratic
+clientele is the delight of those professional shoppers, which abound
+in Rome as in many another city. Martial’s Mamurra will have many
+survivors in the next generation. This worthy fellow put in his days
+at the richest bazaars along the Sæpta Julia. He would force his way
+to inner rooms where the handsomest and most expensive slaves were
+on private exhibition. He made obsequious clerks uncover fine tables
+“square and round, and next asked to see some rich ivory ornaments
+displayed on the upper shelves.” He measured a tortoise-shell veneered
+dinner couch five times, then sighed, “It’s not long enough for my
+citrus table.” He smelled of rare bronzes “to see if they were real
+Corinthian”; criticized a statue by Polycleitus, had ten porcelain cups
+“set aside” to be taken by him later, examined some splendid antique
+goblets, made a jeweler let him inspect some emeralds in a splendid
+gold setting, also some valuable pearl ear pendants, and complained
+aloud that he was seeking “_real_ sardonyxes.” At last, just as the
+shops closed for the day, utterly wearied, “he bought two earthen cups
+for one small coin and bore them home himself.”
+
+
+=201. Numerous Banks and Bankers.=--All this trade implies the
+handling of great sums of money, and for its care banks and bankers are
+everywhere in evidence. The Romans naturally run to finance. It appeals
+to their keen sense of the practical. Even before Cæsar’s conquest
+it was boasted that rarely a large sum changed hands in Gaul without
+its being entered in an Italian account book; while in Nero’s day a
+serious revolt in Britain was said to have been precipitated by the
+act of the millionaire philosopher, Seneca, in calling in his British
+loans, thereby reducing certain tribes to beggary.
+
+Stocks, bonds, and long-time government securities do not indeed exist,
+and there is no regular stock exchange, but in many respects about
+all the other financial conveniences of a later age can be found by
+the Tiber. There are two kinds of money handlers--mere coin-changers,
+dealing in foreign mintages and often no doubt accepting sums merely
+for safe keeping in their strong boxes; and above them are the real
+bankers acting under a kind of state license and doing business on the
+largest scale.
+
+
+=202. A Great Banker and His Business.=--The highest classes of
+these _argentarii_ are men whom the Emperor will gladly consult if
+the Parthians break loose in an expensive war, or great public works
+have to be undertaken in Africa. They are strictly under government
+supervision, their business honor is high and bankruptcy is a great
+disgrace.
+
+On this day in question Calvus must needs visit his own personal
+banker, Sextus Herrenius Probus, head of the firm of the Probi, one
+of the oldest houses on the Via Sacra. Probus is an eques, though
+his wealth surpasses that of most senators. His father helped such
+personages as the philosopher Seneca to make and to manage their huge
+fortunes, but the real origin of the firm went back to Augustus’s
+settlement of Egypt, when the successful liquidation of the royal
+estates of Cleopatra provided enormous and lawful commissions. Probus
+now is practically the Custodian of many of the noblest patrimonies in
+Rome. He is all the time consulted concerning investments, and Calvus
+has particularly desired to-day to ask whether his own freedmen are
+wise in urging their patron (acting, of course, through themselves
+as middlemen) to put 300,000 sesterces into a transaction in Arabian
+frankincense.
+
+Probus, of course, runs a regular banking business. Besides several
+junior partners he has a great corps of clerks, some freedmen, and
+some slaves. His office has all the signs of a well-ordered commercial
+establishment. Every item of his business is entered in an elaborate
+system of ledgers, which are regularly brought into court as the most
+reliable kind of evidence.
+
+Such a banker issues bills of exchange on correspondents in such places
+as Athens, Alexandria, Antioch, Lugdunum, Gades, and even on distant
+Londinium in Britain. Money is deposited with him, then withdrawn by
+personal checks (_perscriptio_) in a manner very familiar to another
+age. On long-time deposits he pays interest; and, of course, he is
+always loaning money for long or short terms on what seems good
+security.
+
+On the day that Calvus comes to him Probus has just loaned 200,000
+sesterces on a mortgage on a well-rented insula, at the standard
+rate of 12 per cent; and also a sum to a merchant planning a trading
+voyage to Spain at the heavier rate of 24 per cent until the ships are
+safe in harbor.[125] Probus, too, exchanges foreign moneys at a fair
+commission, although by the reign of Hadrian the coinage of all the
+Mediterranean world has become decidedly Romanized; one seldom now
+has to change drachmas and shekels into sesterces and _aurei_
+(gold pieces), although the old Græco-Oriental coins have not quite
+disappeared.
+
+
+=203. Trust Business: Savings Banks.=--Besides its strictly banking
+business Probus’s firm also does much that could at another time be
+referred to a “Trust Company.” It makes sales or purchases for its
+clients, undertakes to close up estates, attends to legal business,
+collects debts, and above all conducts auctions of large quantities of
+goods in the most responsible manner possible. Somewhat on the side
+the firm also maintains several small savings banks to attract the
+sesterces of the humble.
+
+These modest savings institutions, paying the depositors a fair
+interest, are numerous all over the city; and such concerns also
+make loans for small sums on chattel mortgages--in short, doing a
+business that is sometimes highly legitimate, sometimes griping and
+usurious. Probus’s savings banks, like many others, are intrusted to
+slave managers (_institutores_) who are expected to invest their
+own _peculium_ in the business to insure their watchfulness and
+honesty. The management of such small establishments is naturally held
+in little social esteem, and the heads of Probus and Company affect to
+ignore their savings banks just as much as possible, although the gains
+from them are, perhaps, almost as great as from the dealings with the
+lofty _Clarissimi_ of the Senate.
+
+
+=204. Places of Safe Deposit: The Temple of Vesta.=--At all the
+banks there are very strong brass-bound treasure boxes carefully
+guarded and protected by elaborate locks. These boxes if not actually
+“safe deposit vaults” can defy any ordinary burglars. However, objects
+of great value, caskets of jewels, large sums of bullion, and the like,
+can be deposited in the Temple of Castor at the Old Forum, where (under
+the double sanctions of law and religion) the government undertakes
+their storage for a moderate fee. There is also a second government
+deposit vault at the Temple of Mars Ultor on the Augustan Forum, but
+this unfortunately “lost its helmet” (_i.e._ its reputation for
+inviolability) when it was successfully entered by burglars some years
+ago.
+
+There exists, however, a still safer place than the Temple of Castor,
+although obviously it can only give room to protect very small packets
+and highly precious documents. The Vestal Virgins in their House of
+Vesta, sacrosanct and absolutely guarded, have now in their keeping
+the wills of half of the Senators and of many other distinguished men.
+There they are safe from tampering not merely by common criminals, but
+by designing heirs and even by greedy Emperors; but this service, of
+course, is only at the disposal of the aristocracy.
+
+  [Illustration: MONUMENT OF A HOSTLER.]
+
+
+=205. Inns: Usually Mean and Sordid.=--The very nature of a city
+like Rome presupposes an enormous floating population. The metropolis
+is always full of strangers. The more distinguished of these almost
+inevitably find hospitality at least as “paying guests” in some private
+quarters, so that large hotels for the gentry are almost nonexistent;
+and as stated (p. 112) the universal custom of either dining at home or
+being a dinner guest of friends largely obviates the need of luxurious
+restaurants. But all visitors cannot command noble hospitality; and
+many a plebeian, freedman, or slave cannot go home from his work either
+to the noon-time prandium or to the regular evening dinner. Besides
+there are plenty of loose fellows who desire congenial places for
+tippling and carousing. The result is that Rome is provided with inns
+and with eating houses; although nearly all of both types are sordid
+and held in little aristocratic favor.
+
+The inns (_tabernæ_) usually combine the reception of travelers with
+the providing of meals for chance visitors. Since driving in the city
+is seldom permitted, nearly all wagons have to unload near the gates,
+and around these there is a perfect sprinkling of inns primarily for
+the accommodation of teamsters.
+
+  [Illustration: GATEWAY AT POMPEII: present state.
+  Note the small entrance for foot passengers, available after
+  the main gate for beasts and wagons has been closed.]
+
+A few of these establishments are very large but the most are decidedly
+small. Take for example the “Inn of Hercules,” just outside the Porta
+Capena, where the Appian Way commences. It is kept by one Proxenus, a
+sly-eyed, strong-limbed fellow, who pretends he is an Athenian Greek,
+but who probably comes from somewhere much nearer the Orient. His inn
+stands side by side with a number of competitors, all much alike. There
+is a broad entrance through which wagons can drive; and on either side
+of this passage are rooms, one for the proprietor’s personal use, the
+others for serving meals, drinking, and idling. On the walls are coarse
+frescos, showing besides the Lares (the serpent Genius of the place,
+and the god Hercules) views of the wine trade, perhaps of a man pouring
+wine from a large jar into a still larger earthen hogshead. In the rear
+of these rooms there is a fairly large court for wagons, a stable, and
+a watering trough. Near these are three small chambers for teamsters
+who have to sleep near their beasts; but most of the guests are
+accommodated in small, dirty cubicles in the story above the wine-rooms.
+
+
+=206. Reckonings and Guests at a Cheap Inn.=--Proxenus is not more
+filthy or extortionate than the majority of his kind. He takes it as
+part of his perquisites to hear his tavern cursed as “dirty,” “smoky,”
+“vermin infested”--or things much worse, and laughs heartily when
+he finds that a departing guest has scratched upon the walls of his
+sleeping chamber such doggerel verses as
+
+    “Landlord, may your lies malign
+      Bring destruction on your head!
+    You, yourself drink unmixed wine
+      Water sell your guests instead!”[126]
+
+He can at least claim that his ordinary charges are moderate. His
+regular bill to a driver is likely to be:
+
+    “Bread and a pint of wine      1 as;
+    Meat dish                      2 asses;
+    Mule provender                 2 asses;
+    Night accommodation            2 asses.”
+
+The bronze _as_ is hardly more than 2 cents; and the whole charge,
+including the mule, is thus about 14 cents later-day reckoning. The
+real profit, however, comes when for example a burly soldier off duty
+tramps in with his hob-nailed boots, swings back his military cloak,
+and orders, “Come, mine host (_copus_), some really good wine with
+a little water!” If congenial spirits, male and female, are now ready,
+such may be the beginning of a long sousing evening, when the dice will
+clatter furiously and the soldier will awake in the morning with not
+one sesterce in his pouch.
+
+
+=207. Noble Frequenters of Taverns.=--Sometimes Proxenus rejoices in
+still more exalted company. Certain fast young nobles enjoy “doing the
+rounds” of low taverns; and the Inn of Hercules has fairly regular
+visitors of this very profitable type. When Proxenus sees Gnæus
+Lollius, Gratia’s black sheep of a cousin, entering, he makes haste to
+anoint his own locks with pungent musk, and runs to greet his visitor
+as ‘Dominus’ and ‘Rex,’--while the young profligate, boasting that he
+has come to enjoy a perfect “Liberty Hall” (_æqua libertas_), commands
+the host at once to call in all the loose rascals in the neighborhood
+and insists that they drink with him from the same goblet. At last they
+are all sprawling about the tavern, the noble Lollius “cheek by jowl
+with cut-throats, bargees, thieves, runaway slaves, hangmen, and coffin
+makers.”[127]
+
+All Rome has been laughing in loyal glee at the retort in verse which
+the clever Hadrian has just made to a certain Florus, who wrote some
+lines saying “he would rather not be Cæsar” because the latter was
+always gadding off to outlandish places. Florus is notoriously a
+frequenter of all-night taverns, and the Emperor instead of imitating
+Nero and sending him a centurion with a death message, has hit back
+roundly:
+
+    “Florus would I never be,
+    Now a-tramp to taverns he,
+    Sulking now in cook-shops see,
+    Victim of the wicked flea!”
+
+  [Illustration: CHEAP GROCERY AND COOK-SHOP. _After
+  Von Falke._]
+
+
+=208. Respectable Eating-Houses.=--But not all people are teamsters
+seeking a lodging, or rascals seeking a carouse. Honest hard-working
+men and women must buy their meals every day. The simplest method, if
+you care nothing for appearances, is to halt before one of the cooks
+who station themselves in the open street with caldrons over small
+charcoal fires. At the end of copper sticks they attach little cups
+with which they bring up boiled peas, or some form of stew to be eaten
+on the spot. Of better grade are the _cauponæ_ (eating-houses); these
+are ordinarily arranged with a long counter open to the street whereon
+is arrayed a tempting display of dainties, and above this are marble
+shelves set with cups and glasses. We see also a place for heating
+liquids over a charcoal fire.
+
+On going inside a typical restaurant, one comes to a long room filled
+with small tables and backless stools for the use of the guests. The
+walls are covered with tolerable frescos showing scenes of eating
+and drinking, while from the ceiling dangle strings of sausages,
+hams, and other eatables. Really good meals can be ordered here, also
+good wine at reasonable prices. Most of the guests are honest, quiet
+tradesmen who go about their business, and every sign of a brawl is
+promptly repressed. When two youths in servile dress begin to exchange
+blows over a cast of dice, the strong-armed proprietor promptly gives
+them a push toward the door with the firm injunction, “Please fight
+outside.”[128]
+
+
+=209. Thermopolia--“Hot-Drink Establishments.”=--Such places
+are genuine restaurants where more attention is given to the food
+than to the beverages. Hardly any eating-house, however, can really
+be popular unless it does business also as a _thermopolium_, a
+“hot-drink establishment.” Coffee and tea are unknown; but hard-working
+folk around the city find _calda_ very refreshing especially
+after the toil of the morning. Calda is a kind of diluted wine mixed
+with spices and aromatic herbs, and heated up into a sort of negus.
+It is in constant demand. In fact a cup of calda and a little bread
+and peas make up the average poor laborer’s luncheon; therefore the
+samovar (_authepsa_) is continually steaming in all the Roman
+eating-houses.
+
+Needless to say most inns and even the better restaurants enjoy such
+an evil reputation among the high and mighty that the latter never
+frequent them save, as does Lollius, for the naughty “experience.”
+Even when traveling through Italy, so general is the custom of
+extending hospitality, that only rarely will a great man like Calvus
+have to lodge with his retinue at an inn. The result is that country
+inns are hardly more select than those in the city, with sometimes the
+additional reputation of being the holds of unabashed robbers. Ladies
+and gentlemen, and even their more fastidious slaves, groan when they
+have to put up at country taverns, and what Cicero, Horace, Propertius,
+and other writers have thought of inns and inn-keepers has passed into
+literary history.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XIII
+
+ ECONOMIC LIFE OF ROME: II. THE INDUSTRIAL QUARTERS. THE GRAIN TRADE.
+                        OSTIA. THE TRADE GUILDS
+
+
+=210. Industrial Quarters by the Tiber.=--We have said that Rome
+was not primarily an industrial or commercial city. A million and
+a half people cannot, however, exist without a great deal of local
+manufacturing and an elaborate organization for importing staples and
+luxuries. If we go down the Vicus Tuscus or some other streets leading
+near the Tiber and toward the southern part of the city, the fine
+mansions grow fewer, the insulæ become more squalid, and even these
+last are interspersed with dingy structures of concrete which by the
+noise and smells proceeding thence are obviously factories.
+
+These industrial plants are for the most part small according to the
+standards of another age; there is also a marked absence of complicated
+machinery and a conspicuous dependence simply on patient man-power; but
+some establishments are really on a great scale. The noble House of
+Afer, for example, has a practical monopoly of the brick industry.[129]
+Its products are used all over the city, as may be proved by the name
+stamped on almost every brick, and in the Afer yards and kilns are
+employed several thousands of slaves and free workers.
+
+
+=211. Conditions of Industrial Labor.=--Slave labor has crowded
+free labor hard but has not actually destroyed it. You can never get
+quite the same efficiency from a “speaking tool” as from a man to
+whom life affords honest prospects. Furthermore, the supply of slaves
+is unsteady. While the legions were overrunning helpless kingdoms, it
+was easy enough to buy a hundred more hands for your pottery works or
+metal factory; but now the campaigns of Trajan (the last period, it
+will prove, of the great conquests) are over. There are barely enough
+prisoners in the slave market at present to provide a fair supply of
+servants.
+
+There are other drawbacks to servile labor: though a slave worker
+cannot “strike” against terms of employment, his employer cannot cease
+to feed and clothe him during slack times, when he will gladly lay
+off free labor. As a result the average industry employs slaves and
+free men side by side; the latter are a little more self-sufficient,
+but seemingly they do not object to having slaves as fellow workmen.
+In any case the hours of labor are long and the conditions hard. A
+denarius (16 cents) is apparently wages enough to provide an artisan
+with a few rooms in a dingy insula and to keep his wife and children
+from starvation--especially if they can get the government grain doles;
+greater reward he dares seldom to demand.
+
+
+=212. Great Trade through Ostia and the Campanian Ports.=--But
+Rome, as stated, imports more articles than she manufactures. The
+commerce from the interior of Italy, down the Tiber and along the
+main roads from the north, the Via Cassia and the Via Flaminia, is
+not of first importance--mostly garden produce, stone, and timber.
+Not so that from Ostia, the harbor town, or that coming by the famous
+southern highways, the Via Appia and the Via Latina. Navigation along
+the Italian coast to Ostia has its dangerous features, and a great
+many merchants try to unlade at such south-Latin ports as Antium or
+preferably at the busy harbor of Puteoli in Campania. The result is
+that the southern roads are often black with great trains of heavy
+wagons bumping over the hard pavement all the hundred and fifty odd
+miles from Puteoli to Rome. However, a very large fraction of the
+entire commerce of Rome passes up the Tiber from Ostia, and is set down
+on those long arrays of wharves southwest of the Aventine, known as the
+Emporium.
+
+
+=213. The Emporium and Its Wharves: the Tiber Barges.=--The
+Emporium is not the most beautiful section of Rome, but it is one
+of the most important. From its murk and bustle many a lordly eques
+is swung away every night in his litter for the quiet, aristocratic
+Quirinal or Esquiline; but it is the Emporium trade which makes
+possible his great mansion with its hierarchy of soft-footed slaves. To
+reach the Emporium we go down the Vicus Tuscus past the upper end of
+the tall gray masses of the far-stretching Circus Maximus, then turn
+down narrow lanes where the Aventine crowds closely toward the Tiber.
+Immediately the river opens before us with a scene of teeming life.
+
+We are now below all the regular bridges and at the head of deep-sea
+navigation. In truth the Tiber is too shallow and uncertain a river
+to be very practical for large ships, even of the Græco-Roman type.
+Only small vessels, mostly of the coasting variety, come up to Rome on
+direct voyages. But the regular procedure is to unload the deep-sea
+craft at Ostia and then bring up their lading along the twenty odd
+miles of the crooked river, in light-draft barges. These barges--some
+worked by long oars, some towed by their crews walking along the
+shore--are constantly coming and going. To-day as every day the river
+is alive with them, and many others are moored closely, prow following
+stern, all along the magnificent stone embankments which serve as quays.
+
+Approaching one of these ungainly flat-bottomed craft, we see it has a
+little cabin on the poop, and its name, the “Isis of Geminus,”[130]
+is marked in large red letters upon the black hull. The captain is
+now standing by the mooring cable passed through a sculptured lion’s
+mouth, directing a great gang of porters carrying sacks of grain
+down a bank to the wharf, where Geminus, the owner himself, assisted
+by a government clerk carefully checks off every sack upon their
+bills of lading. A little scrutiny reveals that while all kinds of
+commodities abound on the Emporium two take wide precedence over all
+others--_grain_, from Egypt and provincial Africa; and _marble_, from
+Numidia, Greece, and Asia Minor.
+
+  [Illustration: RIVER BOAT LOADED WITH HOGSHEADS OF
+  WINE.]
+
+
+=214. The Marble and Grain Trades.=--The marble trade, indeed,
+demands a special section of the wharves. For the government buildings
+the imperial procurators in the marble-producing provinces are
+constantly sending in valuable cargoes, and for monolithic columns and
+extra large blocks specially constructed barges are used to bring them
+from Ostia. Even now a great labor gang is painfully disembarking a
+splendid column of Egyptian porphyry for the new Temple of Venus and
+Rome.
+
+Behind the Emporium stretches an ugly complex of offices, warehouses,
+porters’ barracks, and the like, but most conspicuous and ugly of all
+are the public _horrea_. These are tall gaunt storehouses for the
+keeping of grain, enormous fabrics of dull gray concrete, “elevators”
+in fact, carefully maintained by the government for the victualing of
+the capital. There are said to be more than three hundred horrea, and
+the largest are named for the emperors who built them--the Horreum of
+Augustus, of Domitian, and the like. Thousands of men are employed
+around them, and the state of their contents can give anxious nights to
+the Imperial Council. Unlovely as they seem, they are vital to the life
+of Rome.
+
+It is no small task to provide grain for so huge a city, and that, too,
+without the aid of railways or steamships. Even a top-lofty Emperor
+like Domitian can fear the howls of the crowds in the circus if the
+price of wheat becomes high and the customary free distributions are
+not forthcoming. Hence these horrea must be large enough to supply
+a large margin against possible delay in the annual arrival of the
+“Alexandrian” or “African” fleets on which the provisioning of the
+capital depends.
+
+
+=215. The Public Grain Doles.=--All the world knows that one of
+the most precious prerogatives of a plebeian in Rome is the right to
+receive about 5 _modii_ (about 10 gallons dry measure) of grain
+every month at government charges. Is it not only right that the
+wearers of the toga should live on the bounty of the subject world?
+
+In the past there have been, indeed, efforts to make the populace pay
+_part_ of the price of their grain, with the government simply
+discharging the balance. This half measure has broken down because of
+unpopularity. All that the authorities can do now is to see that the
+list of recipients is limited to genuine citizens, and that the alien
+riffraff of the great city is strictly excluded.
+
+  [Illustration: DISTRIBUTING BREAD.]
+
+There are now, as since the time of Augustus, about 200,000 citizens
+upon the precious “Frumentary Lists.” The recipients are not paupers,
+but include very many “small citizens” of the worthier kind. It is
+an honor in many circles to win the precious _tessera_ (metal or
+bone ticket) entitling one to stand in line at the numerous grain
+dispensaries all over the city and get the monthly allowance.[131]
+Every adult male Roman in the city receives this privilege, but under
+some circumstances the tessera can be alienated. You hear of persons
+selling theirs or even bequeathing them by will; and some of the
+holders are thus not merely freedmen but even ex-criminals.
+
+
+=216. Distribution of the Free Bread: Extraordinary Bonuses
+(_Congiaria_ and _Donativa_).=--For a long time this food has simply
+been portioned out unbaked at the numerous grain stations all over the
+city; after which it has to be made into bread at home, or to be handed
+over to private bakers who will return so many loaves per measure,
+deducting a commission in kind. There is a growing tendency, however,
+towards government bakeshops as a new means of pampering the “Sovereign
+People” and towards passing out the food in the form of handsomely
+baked bread.
+
+The custom nevertheless is not yet universal.[132] The private bakeries
+continue to flourish, and since each baker must grind his own flour,
+no sound is more common all over the city than the rasping of the
+millstones worked either by long-suffering donkeys, blindfolded to
+keep them from eating, or by the most recalcitrant and sodden class of
+slaves.
+
+These distributions of free grain are part of the normal life of Rome.
+Inevitably they multiply the number of parasites, busybodies, and sheer
+beggars. Ever since Gaius Gracchus started the evil system, thoughtful
+men have groaned over its consequences, but all have been helpless, and
+the demoralization increases when an Emperor, to insure popularity at
+the beginning of his reign, or to confirm it later, orders a special
+_congiarium_ to all the citizens.
+
+  [Illustration: OVEN AND GRIST MILL IN A BAKERY.
+  _After Von Falke._]
+
+This gift can take the form of special distributions of oil, wine,
+and meat to all the lucky holders of the tesseræ; but presents even
+more lavish are possible. When Trajan died in 118 A.D. and Hadrian was
+proclaimed, the latter, not quite certain of public favor, put all the
+insulæ to roaring in his praise by proclaiming a gift of three aurei
+(gold pieces of $4.00 each) to every “frumentary citizen” in Rome. What
+wonder that later _donativa_ (bonuses) become necessary at dangerously
+frequent intervals to prevent even the most loyal plebeians from
+praying for a new reign![133]
+
+
+=217. The Trade in Sculptures and Portrait Statues.=--But it
+is time to return to the region about the Emporium. Near the marble
+wharves are naturally the huge establishments where all the day long
+the chip, chip of many mallets and chisels indicates that great masses
+of sculptured stone are being turned out--magnificent capitals,
+pediment groups, bas-reliefs that are splendid works of art, for all
+the needs of the government buildings and the mansions of the wealthy.
+
+Many large concerns devote themselves to manufacturing single statues,
+life-size or miniature. Standing around in their courtyards are rows
+of sculptured deities, mostly copies of good Greek masterpieces,
+representing the whole host of Olympus from Jupiter down to the
+inferior demigods; there are also numerous statues displaying orators
+posing in their togas, magistrates in their official robes, and
+generals in their armor, but with the features left in the rough--to be
+finished up on order at short notice to adorn some atrium or small-town
+forum.
+
+A great array of statues of the Emperor are also kept in stock. These
+are needed in every government building, and the demand is constant;
+but it must be admitted that Hadrian’s handsome bearded features are
+often outrageously distorted by the careless journeymen, so that loyal
+folk protest even as does the governor of Pontus, Arrianus, who has
+just written his master, “Your statue at Trapezus [on the Euxine] is
+beautifully placed, but it is not the least like you. Please send on
+another at once from Rome!”
+
+Special markets and warehouses also exist for almost every other
+major commodity. Near the Circus Maximus there is the noisy, fetid
+cattle market where horses, kine, and asses change hands amid coarse
+chaffering very much as in the trade for slaves. There are likewise
+great repositories for oil, flax, lumber, wool, spices, etc.--some
+private, some under government supervision; the clang from all kinds
+of smithies and metal workshops is incessant, and the factories for
+manufacturing bronze statues are almost as large as those for the stone
+sculptures.
+
+  [Illustration: ENVIRONS OF ROME]
+
+
+=218. The Tiber Trip to Ostia: the Merchant Shipping.=--If, however,
+one would learn the real sum of Roman industry and commerce, it is
+needful to charter a slim swiftly-pulling wherry and to glide down
+the yellow Tiber to Ostia. All the way the craft has to dodge the
+enormous barges, but the shores are covered with delightful villas,
+small villages, or with prosperous farms raising poultry, flowers,
+vegetables, and the like for the city trade. In the distance across the
+level campagna can be seen the impressive array of the solemn arches of
+the great aqueducts, reaching back into the hills and bringing their
+supply of pure water to Rome. Ostia itself, however, is strictly a
+harbor town, with an elaborate series of breakwaters, dredged basins,
+naval docks, mercantile docks, and a perfect jumble of shipping.
+
+The vessels have come from all parts of the Mediterranean, and there
+is even a battered trader that has coasted all the way from Britain
+with a cargo of tin ore. The smaller craft can trust sometimes to their
+oars in a calm, but all the larger must depend on their unwieldy lateen
+sails which swing from two or three long yards crossing as many masts.
+
+By far the largest merchantmen are the Egyptian corn ships, and one
+of these, that is just being moved to the quay by a gang of shouting
+half-naked stevedores, is of somewhat unusual size. We are informed she
+is fully 180 feet long and 45 feet in beam.[134] She is provided with
+elaborate and decidedly comfortable cabins for many passengers, so that
+it is easy to believe the story that when the Jew Paullus (previously
+mentioned) on his compulsory trip to Rome was wrecked off Malta, 276
+persons were rescued from the Alexandrian merchantman whereon he and
+his guards had embarked.
+
+
+=219. Imperial Naval Vessels.=--At Ostia, too, can be seen a few
+triremes of the Imperial Navy. Enemies to the Roman dominion have
+practically disappeared from the seas, but there is still a certain
+danger of pirates or local insurrection; therefore, although the clumsy
+four- and five-bankers of the Punic War periods disappeared soon after
+the battle of Actium, small patrol squadrons of swift triremes, pulling
+about 170 oars, or of smaller craft are maintained by the government.
+These ships are extremely like the Athenian triremes of the golden age
+of Greece and call for no special description here.[135] The Romans are
+not naturally a seafaring people. Nearly all the larger merchant ships
+are manned if not owned by Greeks or Levantines; and it has been with
+real satisfaction that the Emperors have felt that they could allow
+their navy to dwindle down to insignificance. With the army, as will be
+seen, things are very different.[136]
+
+
+=220. The Harbor Town of Ostia.=--Ostia has all the accompaniments
+of a busy port: a great mass of squalid lodging-houses for sailors,
+innumerable taverns overrun with dirty loiterers of both sexes, a
+great many uncouth faces along the quays, ear-ringed Syrians, and even
+quaintly jabbering negroes. There are, however, some good houses for
+the rich merchants and directors of the shipping, and a forum flanked
+with handsome temples and government buildings befitting the harbor
+town of the Mistress of the World.
+
+In the outskirts of Ostia one can quickly get out into delightful
+country stretching all along the seashore. The villas of city magnates
+look forth upon the blue Tyrrhenian Sea, or are bowered in lush
+groves surrounded by rich gardens and fruitful orchards. The melons
+raised around Ostia are in demand by every epicure in the capital.
+Who can believe a prophecy that this active bustling port, with its
+enormous shipping, and all these villas, groves, and gardens will
+some day vanish like a dream, and that Ostia will lie in a desolate
+fever-stricken country,--with hardly a house in sight along the
+deserted shores, and with the harbor town of the Eternal City reduced
+itself to a few miserable cabins?
+
+
+=221. The Roman Guilds (_Collegia_).=--Ere turning one’s glance from
+the economic life of Rome it is needful to regard the organization of
+industry. Nearly all free workmen are members of “guilds” (_collegia_)
+which nominally exist for the purpose of worshiping some patron deity;
+thus the bakeries are the special votaries of Vesta the hearth goddess,
+the fullers of Minerva the protectress of wool-working, the smiths of
+Vulcan, and so with others.
+
+These “colleges” are not labor unions for the protection of the
+wage-earners against exploitation; they are more like the guilds that
+are to be developed in the Middle Ages. The chief members are the
+employing “masters,” and paid journeymen and apprentices have little
+share in the control of the organization. However, most industries in
+Rome are on so small a scale and the situation is so complicated by the
+competition of slave labor that the friction between wage-earners and
+their employers seldom becomes dangerously acute.
+
+The trade guilds are carefully watched by the government lest they
+become the hotbeds of sedition and disturbing intrigue,[137] on the
+other hand their existence is often useful in helping to mobilize
+industry in behalf of the army and to keep up the public works in
+general.
+
+They have a fairly tight organization, with their own officials,
+“prætors” and “presidents,” and the like, and the election to such
+a post by one’s fellow craftsmen is no slight honor. The guilds,
+too, have their special corporate property; and many of them possess
+elaborate guild halls for their feasts and meetings.
+
+
+=222. Very Ancient Guilds: the Flute-Blowers.=--Some of the colleges
+are of decidedly recent origin, but eight of them boast that their
+history goes back to the very early days of Rome. These are the
+fullers, cobblers, carpenters, goldsmiths, coppersmiths, dyers,
+potters, and last but not least, the flute-blowers, so important at
+funerals and all public festivals.
+
+From the “good old times” come many quaint stories about these
+guilds, and everybody remembers especially the tale concerning the
+flute-blowers. About 314 B.C. the censors saw fit to forbid these
+somewhat riotous and irregular gentry from joining in the sacred
+banquets to Jupiter in which they had formerly participated. In anger
+the whole college struck and retired in dudgeon to the friendly city
+of Tibur. Soon the Senate found it difficult to conduct the religious
+rites properly without the aid of the flute-players, and endeavored to
+cajole them home, but the strikers had found their fare and quarters
+in Tibur very pleasant and refused any reasonable terms. The people of
+Tibur, however, wearied of their guests and to get rid of them gave
+the whole corporation a generous banquet, during which all the members
+became so drunk that they could be loaded into wagons, trundled back
+to Rome and then laid down in a helpless stupor in the very Forum. The
+next morning the entire guild awoke, rubbed its collective eyes and
+found a vast crowd of jeering friends pressing around. The result was
+an honorable compromise. The censors relented, and the flute-players,
+in return for giving solemn attention to their religious duties, were
+awarded the right to three days of high carnival, with songs, dances,
+and every kind of coarse gayety.
+
+
+=223. Importance of the Guilds.=--The complete list of the guilds
+is very long. Besides those mentioned, among the more prominent are the
+barbers, perfumers, fruit sellers, garment cutters, pack carriers, mule
+drivers, gig drivers, and fishermen, not to mention the great guild
+of the bakers. There is as yet no formal compulsion upon a craftsman
+to join a college, but in fact any “non-union” workman is subject
+to discrimination and sabotage which make his life unhappy. Cases
+are known of funerals being halted amid an unseemly scuffle when a
+non-member of the guild of bier-carriers has been discovered helping to
+carry the litter for the dead.
+
+Certain crafts have perforce to be distributed all over the city but
+inevitably fellow guildsmen like to flock together. In the industrial
+quarters each craft tries to concentrate upon a certain street which is
+then called by its name. Well known is the case of how Catiline’s gang
+had its rendezvous at Marcus Læcas’s house on Scythemaker’s Street.
+There is no annual “labor day” when all the guild members of the city
+hold festival together. On the contrary each college has its own
+separate festival, when the united craft is entitled to parade through
+Rome with horns, pipes, cymbals, and gaudy banners; its officers
+appearing in the guise of magistrates. The whole company with their
+families ordinarily head for the outskirts, where, beside convenient
+temples and hospitable taverns, the good people can spread themselves
+for picnics under the trees, join in vulgar dances, and very often
+spend the night under improvised tents of leaves--everybody sleeping
+the sounder because of much strong wine.
+
+
+=224. Multitude of Beggars.=--To these honest plebeians must be
+added another less noble multitude. Rome literally swarms with beggars.
+The parasitical habits taught by slavery and by the grain doles go
+far to make begging somewhat respectable. At every turn you can run
+on whining wretches often repulsively mutilated in order to excite
+sympathy. They have their regular stand, however, upon the bridges,
+where they crouch on dirty mats shouting their “_da! da!_” “Give!
+Give!” and at the gates where travelers take or leave their carriages
+they are thicker than the flies. Near Ostia and along the Emporium
+may also be seen real or pretended sailors escaped from shipwreck,
+identifiable by their heads, which are shaven because of vows made in
+peril, and who hold out their caps for coppers while “delighting in
+garrulous ease to tell the story of their perils.”
+
+Downright thieves, professional robbers, and petty pilferers are held
+in reasonable restraint by the active police, but the absence of street
+lights makes it risky business to go about after dark without torches
+and a good escort. Serious burglaries are often reported, and every
+now and then the body is found of some wayfarer who was stabbed while
+resisting a hold-up. As for certain districts going down the river
+toward Ostia, or along the Via Appia toward the Pomptine Marshes, their
+reputation is so bad that even in daylight a company of armed slaves is
+desirable.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV
+
+         THE FORA, THEIR LIFE AND BUILDINGS. THE DAILY JOURNAL
+
+
+=225. The Fora, the Centers of Roman Life.=--Hitherto in our prolonged
+“day” in Rome we have carefully avoided visiting those famous quarters
+or buildings which are the glory of the imperial city. These can only
+take on true significance when we have first seen the ordinary life
+of rich and poor. It is now time, however, to visit the “Heart of
+Rome”--the splendid system of fora in that great hollow where five of
+the “Seven Hills” almost come together just north of the Palatine, and
+then to visit the Palatine itself with its abodes of official majesty.
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF OLD FORUM AND
+  CAPITOL: a simplified restoration.]
+
+The renowned and original “Forum” is known technically as the
+_Forum Romanum_, or the Old Forum, and down to Julius Cæsar’s time
+it was the only great plaza inside the official limits of the city.
+Under the emperors it is still revered and famous, but the needs of an
+enormous metropolis have caused first Cæsar, then Augustus, Vespasian,
+Nerva, and finally Trajan to add other wide public squares surrounded
+by buildings far more magnificent than most of those around the ancient
+rallying spot of the men of the Republic.
+
+  [Illustration: OLD FORUM: present state, looking
+  towards the Capitol.]
+
+All these fora are closely connected together, sometimes by no
+very sharp lines of demarkation. You can start in near the Flavian
+Amphitheater and follow down the Sacred Way across the Old Forum, with
+one soaring edifice, triumphal arch, or memorial column succeeding
+another until at the Temple of Trajan you find yourself on “Broadway”
+(_Via Lata_), upon the great avenue leading through the select shopping
+districts, and then past the Campus Martius, and onward to the northern
+suburbs. “Going to the Forum” means visiting any place in this crowded,
+swarming district, where every public and private interest seems to
+have its stronghold, and where the litters of Senators go past so
+frequently that nobody stops to count them.
+
+
+=226. Incessant Crowds at the Forum. The Centers of Gossip.=--If
+driving is impossible in the ordinary Roman streets by day, it is
+doubly impossible in this congested region where only those who delight
+in crowds should endeavor to force their way from one building to
+another. Nevertheless, with that informality so characteristic of
+Mediterranean countries, all the fora are allowed to be overrun with
+idlers. Ragged boys are scampering between the columns fronting the
+most sacred temples, and on the steps of the same adult idlers from
+morn till eve are playing “Robbers” on boards scratched upon the
+stonework,[138] or rattling dice (nominally forbidden) if the police
+are not too near. The foul and the elegant therefore are often in
+amazing juxtaposition.
+
+For the average senator or eques a morning visit to the Forum, after
+he has received his own callers or clients, is almost a required act
+of the day. All his associates are doing the same thing; he can easily
+meet almost any friend without making an appointment, he can read that
+“Daily Journal” presently to be described (see p. 282), hear the latest
+tittle-tattle from the palace and get all the trade reports--all this
+even if he has no real business at the Senate House, the government
+bureaus on the Palatine, or the Record Office on the slopes of the
+Capitol.
+
+If the great men do this, all the lesser fry and above all the genteel
+idlers must do the same. The women frequent the fora almost as much
+as do the men. If there is nothing else to busy one, one can always
+wedge into the crowds listening to the distinguished advocates in the
+Basilicas (Court Houses). It is quite a proper thing to imitate Horace
+who put in many days simply wandering around the business quarters. “I
+go on foot (said he) and go alone. I ask the price of kitchen-stuff
+and grain. I often stroll down toward the cheating [gambling] Circus
+and around the Forum; then perhaps I stop toward evening at the
+fortune tellers. Presently I go home to my supper of leeks, pulse, and
+macaroni.”
+
+Across the fora will parade all personages who wish to put men’s
+tongues to wagging. People laugh at a certain pretentious senator who
+likes to pass for a great hunter and who is incessantly sending his
+slaves around the plazas at the crowded morning hour, bearing nets and
+spears and driving a mule apparently bearing home a wild boar “which
+we all know,” whisper the cunning, “he has just bought in the game
+market.”
+
+Here in the fora also the magistrates with their lictoral fasces pass
+so often that it is really inconvenient the number of times you have
+to bow your head to them, or, if in a litter, to dismount and stand at
+polite attention: and in such frequented places the kissing nuisance
+takes on its greatest bane. The merest chance acquaintance, if only
+he is a citizen, will thrust his damp salute upon you, little heeding
+whether you have a vile cold or his own lips be ulcered and his breath
+foul.
+
+
+=227. Grandiose Architecture: Vast Quantities of Ornaments and
+Statues.=--In viewing these great public squares and buildings
+instantly one is impressed by a single fact--the grandiose character of
+the ornaments and the architecture. All the enormous public buildings
+are literally overladen with adornments. The architects seemed to have
+abhorred the idea of blank spaces. There are no reposeful vistas.
+Everything seems striving to be magnificent and ornate. Statues, singly
+or in groups, occupy all the gables, roofs, niches, intervals of
+columns, and even the stairways. The Triumphal Arches are surmounted
+by equestrian figures or by prancing four-horse chariots. Reliefs and
+medallions cover all the friezes. If there is any space that cannot be
+seized for the mounting of sculptures or at least for bas-reliefs, it
+can be used for painting designs in stucco or colored mosaics. Every
+detail down to the gutters is highly decorated.
+
+Very different, therefore, are these fora from the chaste elegance of
+the public places in Athens. On the other hand much of the effect is
+splendid as well as startling. The utilization of concrete permits the
+erection of vast soaring domes, often covered with gilded tiles. The
+elaborate Corinthian pillars before many of the buildings are often
+simply superb polished monoliths of colored marbles. The use of the
+arch (practically unknown in Greece) permits new effects often graceful
+and pleasing.
+
+The sculptures permitted in such public places are, of course, always
+of the highest order. Sometimes they are original Greek masterpieces
+carried as spoils to Italy. Often they are excellent copies of those
+masterpieces but with small variations, not inelegant, which give the
+reproductions a real character of their own. At every turn one sees
+these triumphs of bronze and marble, Apollos, Minervas, Victories,
+Winged Mercuries, Centaurs, Homeric Heroes, and all the legendary host
+of Græco-Roman mythology--now singly, now in groups. Interspersed with
+these gods mounted on pedestals or on the entablatures of the buildings
+are the honorary statues of the worthies of Rome. Hardly a great leader
+is absent from Romulus to the reigning Hadrian.
+
+A mere walk about the fora with an explanation of their portrait
+statues becomes therefore a detailed lesson in Roman history. Besides
+the images of the truly great and good, there are so many others of
+sheer mediocrities or worse that one is left wondering whether the
+honor of a “statue in the Forum” is so important after all. Even in
+old Cato’s day the abuse was such that he remarked sarcastically that
+“he would rather that men asked why he had _not_ a statue in the
+Public Square, than whisper questioning why he had one.”
+
+
+=228. Use of Color on Sculptures and Architecture.=--Needless to
+say, in Rome as in Athens very many of these buildings are brilliantly
+painted.[139] The great columns of colored or of snow-white Carrara or
+Græcian marbles are usually left in their natural aspect, but nearly
+all the backgrounds, architectural members, and details are colored
+in brilliant greens, reds, and blues. The nude statues are nearly all
+tinted in flesh color, and the hair darkened, and there is perhaps an
+overplus of gilding.
+
+Under a bright Italian sky these color combinations make the vast
+succession of enormous buildings stand out with indescribable
+grandeur; and to this spectacle must be added the huge crowds
+incessantly moving about the fora, great masses of soft white togas
+giving to the wide areas all the exuberance of teeming life. There can
+be many other great plazas in the future capitals of the world; there
+will never be any more clearly marked out as the veritable center of an
+enormous Empire than the succession of fora in Rome.
+
+We are not concerned with archæological descriptions. The arrangement
+of the fora in this reign of Hadrian must be sketched over lightly
+or explained completely, otherwise the result is not knowledge but
+confusion; here a very brief survey will suffice. If we are following
+Publius Calvus’s litter as it traces the Esquiline on routine business
+of a senator, a series of convenient side streets probably will bring
+it past the great baths of Trajan and then down the slope to the
+spot where the vast bulk of the Flavian Amphitheater rears itself
+arrogantly. The baths and the Amphitheater both will be visited later
+(see p. 361 and p. 394), and we can, therefore, ignore them. Then the
+litter bearers swing west and slightly north--and before us lies the
+veritable Heart of Rome.
+
+
+=229. Entering the Series of Fora: the Temple of Venus and
+Rome.=--To avoid being overwhelmed by details only the most
+conspicuous objects and buildings will be mentioned. Some structures
+are obvious at the very first. To the left, lifting vauntingly above
+the visitors’ heads, rise tier upon tier the domes, balconies, and
+pinnacles of the Imperial Palace upon the Palatine, sustained at their
+base by an enormous mass of arches and buttresses of masonry and
+concrete. The lords of the palace at any moment can look down from
+a gilded balcony upon the Old Forum and its bustling life, and they
+need only descend an inclined plane in order to mingle with the mob,
+or cross the Plaza to visit the Senate House. Directly ahead--at the
+end of the vista, rises the Capitol, crowned by the rebuilt Temple of
+Jupiter Best and Greatest (_Jupiter Optimus Maximus_), its roof
+flashing with the gold tiles; its enormous pillars proclaiming it the
+most splendid fane in Rome.
+
+  [Illustration: MAP OF
+
+  THE HEART OF ROME
+
+  The Fora, the Palatine, the Capitoline etc. as in Period of
+  Hadrian: about 135 A.D.]
+
+At the head of the Via Sacra (for this famous route of the great
+Triumphators now opens before us), upon our right, is the new and
+indescribably splendid Temple of Venus and Rome, a building just
+completed by Hadrian. This edifice has been reared by demolishing the
+last of the ruins of the impossibly extravagant “Golden House,” the
+architectural monstrosity of Nero.
+
+In order to get sufficient room for his new structure Hadrian also was
+compelled to move the colossal statue of Nero (99 feet high) located
+near the site and to set it nearer the Flavian Amphitheater. This had
+been a great task, executed by the clever architect Decrianus, with
+the aid of twenty-four elephants--performed to the delight of all the
+idling crowds in Rome. The statue now towers upon its new pedestal,
+with Nero’s unworthy head sagaciously lifted from its shoulders and one
+of the Sun God substituted. The new Temple of Venus and Rome is a truly
+magnificent object; rising as it does upon a terrace 26 feet high,
+500 feet long, and 300 broad, and surrounded by an enormous portico
+of 400 columns each 40 feet high. The versatile Emperor boasts that
+he has been the architect himself, and whatever are the real facts no
+vestibule to the fora could well be more impressive.
+
+
+=230. The Arch of Titus: Continuation of the Sacred Way.=--With
+the Temple of Venus and Rome to our right and the substructures of
+the Palatine to the left we go straight ahead to the Arch of Titus.
+Everybody recognizes the shape of that impressive but relatively simple
+structure. Its bas-reliefs showing the spoils of Jerusalem--the “Golden
+Table” and more particularly the “Seven Branched Candlestick”--are
+destined to be reproduced countless times.
+
+Old men in Hadrian’s day can still recall the Triumphal Procession
+when the son of Vespasian returned in glory; how the great throng of
+cheering soldiers and citizens swept up toward the Temple of Jupiter
+Capitolinus, then halted at the portal of the Temple while Simon
+Bar-Giora, the captive Jewish leader who had been dragged in the
+procession, could be taken to a high place overlooking the Forum and
+deliberately scourged to death. At the news that he had perished all
+the vast company made the crags and columns quake with their brutal
+“acclamation,” and Titus entered the shrine to sacrifice and to bear
+witness how much mightier was Latin Jove than Palestinian Jehovah.
+
+  [Illustration: SPOILS FROM JERUSALEM: Arch of Titus.]
+
+And now the Via Sacra turns at right angles, or, to be more accurate,
+its thronging ways divide. Go to the left and you will come upon a high
+street passing under the brow of the Palatine. It runs a considerable
+distance toward the Capitol, receiving several sloping avenues or
+broad staircases leading down from the Palatine. This is “New Street”
+(_Nova Via_), the most convenient route to certain buildings on
+the southern side of the Forum.
+
+It is better, however, to follow the denser crowds which are swerving
+somewhat to the right, and then by a second turn go straight onward
+again between magnificent structures, with the gilded roofs of the
+Capitol ever looming ahead more clearly. We are now on the Via Sacra
+proper; and caught in the eddying throngs of litters, litter bearers,
+running footmen, following clients, elbowing plebeians with now and
+then a masterful squad of Prætorians in gilded armor, we find it
+perhaps impossible to get more than the names of the structures in
+passing.
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW THROUGH THE ARCH OF TITUS, SHOWING
+  THE FLAVIAN AMPHITHEATER IN DISTANCE.]
+
+
+=231. House and Temple of Vesta: the Regia: the Temple of the Divine
+Julius.=--The venerable temple near which the ways divide is that
+of Jupiter Stator where Cicero convened the anxious Senate when he
+delivered his great assault on Catiline. Next comes to view a long
+high wall broken only by narrow doorways until you see a stately
+portal at the western end, nearest the Old Forum. From above the wall
+can be glimpsed the tiles and marble of an elegant mansion inside,
+also the foliage trees of a really fine garden. This is the House of
+the Vestals, the abode of the six sacrosanct virgins who are the most
+revered personages in all Rome, hardly barring the Emperor.
+
+As we advance there come next to view two buildings--one a small round
+temple of antique and simple structure; the other a handsome arched
+building of no great size. The first is the Fane of Vesta itself, where
+burns the eternal hearthfire of Rome, guarded by the Vestals, and the
+most sacred structure in the entire city. The second is the Regia, the
+official home of the Pontifex Maximus, the head of the Roman religion,
+and actually occupied (since that official is now the reigning Emperor)
+by various clerks and administrative bureaus relating to the upkeep
+of the State cultus. To the right of these buildings are government
+warehouses and offices;[140] and then, closing off the Old Forum proper
+from these structures just named, stands another extraordinarily
+magnificent Temple, that of the deified Julius Cæsar.
+
+
+=232. The Old Forum (_Forum Romanum_).=--We are now close upon the
+actual Forum. It can be entered by two methods: you can go between the
+Temple of Vesta and that of Cæsar, very likely walking through the
+triumphal arch of Augustus, in which case you will see the pillared
+façade of the stately Temple of Castor and Pollux (the divine helpers
+of Rome at the half legendary battle of Lake Regillus), and then across
+that busy shopping street, the Vicus Tuscus, before reaching the
+quieter portico of the great Basilica Julia; or you can take a better
+way by keeping on past the northern side of the Temple of Cæsar and
+coming out pretty directly upon the Forum. In so doing you will have
+the second great court house, the old but capacious Basilica Æmilia
+to the north on your right. Let tribunals and litigants, however,
+wait--before the visitor at last is opening one of the most famous
+areas in the entire world--the _Forum Romanum_.
+
+  [Illustration: OLD FORUM: looking west towards the
+  Capitol. Restoration by Nispi-Landi.]
+
+Of the Old Forum well may one say what Cicero declared of Athens, “On
+whatever spot we tread we awake a memory.” There is hardly an event
+connected with the long reaches of Roman history which is not also
+connected in one manner or another with this public square. The first
+impression, to be sure, may be one of disappointment: the whole open
+plaza barely measures 300 by 150 feet. It seems the more confined
+because a large part of the southern side is hemmed in by the huge
+Basilica Julia, while directly above the square rise the two hills of
+the Capitoline and the Palatine, their summits crowned with lofty and
+noble buildings looking down upon the Forum as a kind of common center.
+
+  [Illustration: OLD FORUM, LOOKING TOWARDS CAPITOL FROM
+  BEFORE THE TEMPLE OF CASTOR: the building on the left,
+  with statues beneath its upper arches, is the Basilica Julia.
+  Restoration after Von Falke.]
+
+As one advances, however, the impression deepens as to how earnestly
+the Romans have tried to concentrate their whole life around this
+beloved square. If statues abound elsewhere in the city, they seem here
+more numerous than even the surging throngs around their pedestals.
+Every kind of human activity is apparently going on simultaneously.
+Along the north side, as we have seen, are the offices of those great
+bankers who hold the nations in fee from the Euphrates to Hibernia, yet
+pedlers are now wandering about, almost under the feet of the consul’s
+lictors, hawking hot sausages, strings of garlic, and pots of eye
+salve, while a snake charmer has obtained the license to exhibit two
+stupid serpents on the actual steps to the Temple of Janus just beyond
+the Basilica Æmilia.
+
+
+=233. The Forum Area: the Posting of Public Notices.=--Walking
+out into the area itself, we find it solidly paved with rectangular
+blocks of travertine. The days are gone when closely packed throngs of
+quirites stood for hours upon this pavement listening to the orators
+bidding them vote upon peace or war, or for or against some proposed
+law, as lay in their right as free citizens. Gone, too, is the day of
+that great funeral pyre of garments, ornaments, trinkets, tables and
+benches, which the frenzied mob heaped around the corpse of Cæsar after
+Marcus Antonius had thundered his invective against Cassius and Marcus
+Brutus. But not gone is the Senate House (the _Curia_), looking
+out across the plaza from the northern side of the square, just beyond
+the Temple of Janus. And around the orator’s stands, the Rostra, at the
+western end of the area there is still another elaborate funeral in
+progress; the wearers of the imagines sitting in their curule chairs,
+and the orator pompously lauding “the noble departed.”
+
+Truth to tell the Forum is frequented every morning largely to get
+the news. Not merely can you meet the bearers of all sorts of public
+or confidential information; you can spend an hour merely reading the
+great “white boards” (_albums_) bearing official and private notices
+which stand around everywhere. The “Daily Gazette” is here posted, and
+we shall consider its contents presently; but apart from that, whether
+you wish to know the price of grain or the day set for a lawsuit;
+whether Syphax the Moor will race his four in the next circus, or
+Epaphroditus the Athenian will lecture to-morrow on the nature of the
+soul, the Forum placards will tell you everything. Gossip incalculable,
+often of a kind which no man dare put in writing, you may also pick
+up, as well as accost half of your acquaintance. A visit to the Forum,
+therefore, is almost as important to a Roman of parts and activity as
+in another age will be the perusal of the paper.
+
+
+=234. Western End of Forum: the Rostra: the Golden Milestone: the
+Tullianum Prison.=--At the extreme western end of the area, more
+temples are seen rising on the slopes of the lofty Capitol. Here is the
+Temple of Saturn; and higher still the Temple of the deified Vespasian,
+the Temple of Concord, and the great “Public Record Office,” the
+Tabularium, and the Rostra are reached just before you quit the level
+area and take the winding ascents towards the Capitol.
+
+These famous stands for the orators constitute an elaborate platform,
+with a fine marble balustrade which is adorned with exceptionally good
+bronze statues of notables such as Sulla and Pompeius; although all
+these ornaments were added by Julius Cæsar and know not the days of
+the Old Republic. Some of the original “beaks” (_rostra_) from
+captured warships which gave the famous pulpit its name are still in
+position, however, with others from such battles as Actium added.[141]
+Even if the Republic is dead, the place remains of decided utility not
+merely for funerals, but also for formal speeches on state occasions;
+and sometimes an emperor will still condescend to harangue the loyal
+quirites from its platform.
+
+Close by the Rostra and near its southern end rises a tall stone pillar
+coated with gilded bronze. This is the “Golden Milestone” whereon
+Augustus inscribed the names of the great roads leading out of Rome,
+and the distances to the chief towns along their course. “_All roads
+lead to Rome_,” and leading to Rome find their convergence in the
+“Golden Milestone.” It comes close, therefore, to being the “Hub” of
+the entire Roman Empire.
+
+  [Illustration: OLD FORUM: present condition, western
+  end looking east. In foreground pillars of Temple of Saturn.]
+
+Near the other, the northern end of the Rostra, when one goes a little
+of the way up to the Capitol, there is quite a different landmark, far
+more venerable--the old prison of the city, the Tullianum, prepared,
+according to the story, by King Ancus Martius. It was originally
+nothing but a kind of well let into the damp rock, with an upper and a
+lower compartment; this second chamber is only accessible by means of
+a hole in its vaulted roof through which prisoners were lowered by a
+rope.
+
+The Tullianum has long since been discarded as the public jail, but
+state prisoners are sometimes confined or executed there. Familiar
+is the story of how Jugurtha, the luckless Numidian, was starved to
+death in the lower dungeon; and how Lentulus and the other Castilinian
+conspirators were strangled in the upper. Since then, if one accepts
+the story told by those very despised creatures, the Christians, their
+great leader, Peter, one of the associates of Christus, was kept there
+in chains before he was taken out to be executed by Nero’s orders. It
+is assuredly a gloomy and fearsome enough place to strike terror even
+into such “Haters of all Mankind,” as official documents assure us
+these Christians must be.
+
+
+=235. The Basilica Æmilia: the Temple of Janus: the Senate House
+(_Curia_).=--But to return to the great buildings lining the Forum.
+The Basilica Æmilia on the north side was erected as early as 179
+B.C., and, though often repaired, it is a substantial monument of the
+great days of the Republic. It is so like the greater Basilica Julia,
+however, that one description will do later for both. Directly by this
+court house stands the venerated Temple of Janus, a structure with many
+arches and sacred to the most characteristic if not the greatest of
+all the gods of Rome.[142] The gates of the shrine, one notices, are
+standing carefully open, as a token that some petty frontier wars are
+still raging. When absolute peace prevails these doors, however, will
+be carefully shut. The Romans are thrifty and practical people. Why
+waste good sacrificial victims and incense on the god when his help
+against the foe is not needed? It would be like paying a doctor when
+one is feeling entirely well.
+
+Leading away from the Forum and this Temple is a series of vaulted
+passages also called _janus_, which form a large part of the banking
+district. Here, because the Sacred Way is too limited, many great
+financiers have their offices; here countless clerks are busy with
+their account books; here great loans are negotiated or investments are
+placed hourly. It is almost a regular exchange and the scene of many
+speculations. Regularly one hears of fortunes made or lost “between the
+janus,” _i.e._ by the workings of high finance.
+
+Beside the Temple of Janus rises the magnificent porch of the _Curia_
+(Senate House). The Conscript Fathers are not yet in session, and a
+visit to the interior can wait. The structure is very splendid, but it
+is not the grand old Curia Hostilia, built according to legend by King
+Tullus Hostilius, and the scene of nearly all those famous Senatorial
+debates across the long annals of the Republic. That ancient building
+was burned in 52 B.C. during the riots following the murder of the idol
+of the populace, the demagogue Clodius. Julius Cæsar, therefore, had a
+good excuse for building a stately new Senate House. This in turn was
+damaged in Nero’s great fire, but Domitian carefully repaired it--and
+with its fine pillars, bronze doors, and galaxy of statues, it forms a
+worthy meeting place for what is still a venerable and powerful body.
+
+
+=236. The Basilica Julia, the Greatest Court House in Rome; the _Lacus
+Curtius_.=--The Basilica Julia on the southern side of the Forum is a
+building into which it is best to enter. The structure was begun by
+Julius Cæsar to meet the imperative need for a larger court house. More
+important business is transacted under its roof and ample porticoes,
+perhaps, than in any other building in Rome; and in bad weather nearly
+all the Forum loungers take refuge beneath its ample shelter. Its
+size is worthy of its important functions; it is 270 feet long and in
+addition to the regular exterior colonnade has a fine inner colonnade.
+
+  [Illustration: INTERIOR OF A BASILICA: restored.]
+
+These double porticoes are the special lounging spots of fashionable
+idlers of both sexes. Young men of fashion seeking to meet congenial
+ladies of easy habits have only to loiter around and stroll about a
+little--their hopes are gratified. Assuredly Venus can hardly reckon up
+the love affairs that here have ripened. The pavements are even more
+marked up for gaming boards than elsewhere and some of the players, we
+note, actually wear the equestrian stripes, while there are senatorial
+laticlaves in the interested throngs standing around them. Along the
+sides of the building are roomy offices, where a large corps of city
+officials and clerks conduct the various municipal boards and bureaus.
+
+The glory of the Basilica Julia, however, is its great hall, used
+for the chief courts of justice, barring always those of the Emperor
+and the Senate. The hall is paved with colored marbles of price; the
+pillars running down either side are splendid monoliths of still rarer
+marbles, and the ceiling is heavy with gilt fretting and painting.
+In every possible niche rise statues of famous jurisconsults and
+advocates. The light streams down abundantly through the windows in
+the upper clerestory, and in this second story at the present moment
+there are standing or sitting groups of very respectable men and women
+listening to the orator pleading before one of the tribunals below. Any
+guide will tell how the mad Emperor Caligula used to delight to stand
+in these upper balconies, fling down money, and roar with delight when
+the crowds trampled one another struggling to get the coins.
+
+So large is this hall that not one but _four_ tribunals have been set
+up in different quarters of the building, and litigation often proceeds
+before all four of them simultaneously, although in the absence of
+partitions strong-lunged advocates sometimes interfere with their
+neighbors; they tell of a certain stentorian Trachalus who once while
+speaking before one tribunal not merely was heard by but drew applause
+from the audiences in the other three. Here Quintilian, Pliny the
+Younger, Tacitus, and other orators of the generation just departed,
+won their fame, and at present every windy amateur in the rhetoric
+schools dreams of the day when he can wave out his toga in the Basilica
+Julia before a crowded and cheering balcony.
+
+These are some of the more famous monuments in and around the Forum
+Romanum. Were one to descend to particulars the task were endless.
+Perhaps there should be mentioned a certain modest altar in the
+very center of the open plaza. This marks the so-called _Lacus
+Curtius_. Antiquarians give one several stories concerning it, but
+the accepted version is this.--Once in the good old days a yawning
+gulf opened at this very spot, the portent, perhaps, of the devouring
+of the entire city--when lo! the brave youth, Marcus Curtius “devoted”
+himself for his country and plunged unflinchingly into the abyss. The
+earth closed over him, he was seen no more, but Rome held his name in
+eternal remembrance. Doubtless he had thus taken upon himself the anger
+of the infernal gods and had saved the state![143]
+
+  [Illustration: THE TARPEIAN ROCK: on slopes of the
+  Capitol. (From this traitors were hurled in the time of the
+  Republic.)]
+
+
+=237. The New Fora of the Emperors: the Temple of Peace.=--After
+surveying the Forum Romanum we are told that five other fora--the
+creations of high-minded Emperors--still await inspection. Truth to
+tell, however, these great plazas--not marking the growth and events
+of centuries, but the mandates of wealthy despots--give one a sense
+of anticlimax. Of them it will be properly written: “The fora of the
+Empire were as much superior in magnificence to the Forum Romanum as
+they were inferior in historical interest and association.”
+
+They are the work of master architects mobilizing armies of laboring
+slaves, stone cutters, and artists. The eye becomes weary with the
+incessant sheen of costly marble; the equestrian statues, the forests
+of ornate Corinthian pillars, the great reaches of tessellated
+pavements, the quantities of colored paint, enamel, and heavy gilding.
+At first these imperial fora appear to the visitor as a hopeless
+complex of pretentious splendor; but after a little, a clever method
+appears in their arrangement by which one great plaza or system of
+public buildings joins itself to another.
+
+Four of these public squares join closely together, but the fifth
+stands a little apart. This last is located near the northeast end of
+the Old Forum, verging toward the Subura and the Esquiline, and is the
+“Forum of Peace,” constructed by Vespasian about 75 A.D. The
+open area, however, is relatively small, for its center is occupied by
+the imposing “Temple of Peace.” This temple is adorned with a perfect
+gallery of sculptures and paintings, nearly all of them masterpieces
+by the Greeks. These works of art had formerly occupied Nero’s Golden
+House until that grandiose structure was destroyed by the thrifty
+Vespasian. In this Temple of Peace likewise are kept those precious
+Jewish spoils shown on the Arch of Titus, and there is not merely a
+fine library but a hall for the savants and scientists when they meet
+for their learned conventicles.
+
+
+=238. The Fora of Julius, Augustus, and Nerva.=--In dealing with
+the four connected fora it profits little to multiply detailed
+descriptions; one glittering marble edifice succeeds another around
+each square. Nearest to the Old Forum lies the Forum Julium. Julius
+Cæsar paid out 100,000,000 sesterces ($4,000,000) merely for the land
+which it occupies, and its buildings are worthy of the costly soil
+whereon they stand. In its center rises the great Temple of Venus
+Genetrix, “mother” of the Julian line. Here at times the Senate can
+convene, while the shops under the porticoes around are among the
+finest in Rome.
+
+  [Illustration: FORUM OF AUGUSTUS AND TEMPLE OF MARS THE
+  AVENGER: restored.]
+
+Directly north of this Forum Julium is the Forum Augustum. When young
+Octavius went forth to avenge his adopted father against Brutus and
+Cassius he vowed a temple to Mars Ultor (“Mars the Avenger”). Later
+as the Emperor Augustus, most splendidly he fulfilled this vow. The
+porticoes around the plaza are of Numidian marble, and variegated
+marbles compose the pavements; the open area is covered with bronze
+_quadrigæ_ (four-horse chariots), triumphal arches, and, of course,
+numerous statues, some of precious metals, while the Temple of Mars
+Ultor itself matches all its rivals in magnificence.
+
+To the south-east of the Forum of Augustus and joining it to the Forum
+of Peace is the smaller Forum of Nerva. This plaza was really begun by
+Domitian, but when that tyrant perished ere completing the task, it was
+finished and named by the eirenic Nerva. It is really a kind of broad
+thoroughfare leading down from the Subura district, although upon it
+fronts a fine Temple of Minerva. One of the features of this square is
+a stately avenue of statues of the deified Emperors.
+
+
+=239. The Forum, Column, and Libraries of Trajan.=--By far the
+finest of the imperial fora, however, is that of Trajan--and all the
+buildings, when we visit them, are still relatively new. It opens to
+the northwest of the Forum of Augustus, and is not really a single
+square but a genuine series of squares.
+
+To get the level space for their great areas, it was needful to cut
+away a whole spur of the Quirinal, excavating to a depth equal to the
+height of Trajan’s Column (128 feet). On entering this precinct, if one
+has been marveling before, it is right to be astounded now. First there
+comes the _Forum Trajani_ proper, a square of most imposing size, with
+lofty porticoes, semi-circular at the ends; and in the center stands
+a remarkable equestrian statue of the imperial founder himself. Then
+there is the vast _Basilica Ulpia_, the third great court house of the
+city, which spreads lengthwise across the northwestern boundary of this
+forum. It is 300 feet long, 185 feet broad, and five lines of pillars
+divide it into four separate halls for different kinds of business; in
+fact it is really a finer building than the older Basilica Julia.
+
+Going through this enormous but very open structure, we come to a
+second smaller plaza, and here rises one of the noblest sights of
+Rome--a monument that will draw the admiration of all ensuing ages--the
+_Column of Trajan_ itself. The bas-reliefs telling in picturesque
+detail the whole story of the Dacian Wars, the 2500 human figures
+executed with infinite fidelity and care, wind spirally from the top
+of the 18 foot pedestal clear to the summit. This last is crowned by a
+colossal bronze-gilt statue of Trajan looking down upon the sculptured
+record of his military glory.
+
+  [Illustration: AN IMPERIAL FORUM, NEAR THE COLUMN OF
+  TRAJAN: restoration after Von Falke.]
+
+This column is, perhaps, the worthiest monument of the whole imperial
+age.[144] The marvels of Trajan’s forum-system, however, are not
+exhausted. North and south of the Column are two fine buildings of
+moderate size; these are the _Bibliothecæ_, the two public “Libraries
+of Trajan,” one Latin, one Greek--containing on the whole the finest
+collections of books in Rome; and directly facing the Column and the
+Libraries across another open area of considerable extent is the
+_Temple of Trajan_, where the priests daily offer their sacrifice to
+the deified manes of the terror of Dacia and of Parthia.
+
+
+=240. The Park System of the Campus Martius: the Pantheon.=--These
+exhaust for the moment the structures we can survey around the fora:
+and it were well to stop lest sheer confusion may follow. With time,
+however, we could wander after the throngs again northwestward along
+“Broadway” past the great porticoes and fine shops of the Sæpta Julia,
+and saunter about the great park system of Campus Martius.
+
+The public baths there located and such structures as the Theater of
+Pompey and the Flaminian Circus can, perhaps, be explained later; but
+a word must be spoken for the one great temple which is here situated
+away from the center of Rome. The _Pantheon_, dedicated to
+Mars, Venus, the deified Cæsar, and to all the other deities of the
+Julian line was the erection of Marcus Agrippa, the mighty coadjutor
+of Augustus. It has just been rebuilt from its very foundations
+by Hadrian.[145] Its noble dome shines with the golden tiles. The
+soaring rotunda inside is encircled with stately altars to the gods
+the building honors. Already one can stand and look upward 143 feet
+to that patch of blue 18 feet in diameter through which sun and
+stars will shine down across at least eighteen centuries of changing
+history--making the Pantheon the one great building, not a ruin, which
+shall link the Rome of the Cæsars with the Rome of another day.
+
+  [Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON: restoration
+  according to Von Falke.]
+
+
+=241. The Daily Gazette (_Acta Diurna_). How Rome Gets Its News.=--One
+thing, to avoid complexity, we omitted while crossing the old Forum
+Romanum. It behooves us to return and to explain it. Before a series
+of tall white boards set up against certain pillars is gathered an
+elbowing, gesticulating throng. Many of the company have tablets and
+seem copying vigorously. The crowd is always receiving additions,
+while others are departing. The white boards (“albums”) when we get
+near enough are seen to be covered with somewhat fine writing. There
+is a special rush and flutter in the crowd when a petty official sets
+up still another white board, and a hundred styli instantly become
+busy. It is easy to learn the excitement caused by these notices: they
+constitute the publication of the new _Acta Diurna_.
+
+Even without the Acta Diurna (“Daily Doings”) a city like Rome
+would have its supply of news. There are professional gad-abouts
+who make themselves desirable guests at dinner-parties merely
+because they are “very well informed.” They have picked up all the
+stories about the Parthian king, the new chiefs of the Germans,
+the number of legionaries mobilized on the Rhine, and the corn
+prospects in Africa and Egypt, as well as every kind of commercial
+information. Other wiseacres of a less reliable cast are known
+as “_subrostrani_,”--“Rostra-haunters,”--for at the Rostra all
+gossipers have their tryst. These people specialize in rumors of
+calamity, reports of great military disasters, of the sudden death of
+magistrates, etc., and take a peculiar glee in circulating vile stories
+about the Emperors--the danger of repeating such rumors only adding
+spice to their game. Usually, however, they are too insignificant fry
+for the government to consider worth prosecuting.
+
+
+=242. Contents of the Acta Diurna.=--The Acta Diurna, however, is
+issued by a government bureau, and a certain degree of official
+responsibility is attached to the more formal statements. The editors,
+nevertheless, are allowed to add racy anecdotes of a personal nature,
+especially concerning the higher aristocracy. The relations between
+the senatorial nobility and the freedmen and equites in the imperial
+government bureaus are none the best; and Hadrian himself is not on
+perfect terms with the Conscript Fathers.[146]
+
+Official circles, therefore, are never careful to suppress spicy bits
+about the aristocrats. The public record offices and dispatches from
+the provinces supply most of the items, but some of the material can
+only have come from direct reportorial activity. In any case the
+interest in this Daily Gazette is enormous. Its single copy will be
+multiplied many times, copies being made of the copies, and the same
+sent to wealthy people in all parts of the Empire. A month from now
+groups will probably be gathering in Spanish Corduba and Syrian Antioch
+to read the items published to-day in Rome.
+
+Owing to the limitations of space, despite the use of many “white
+boards,” the Acta Diurna has to maintain a very dry journalistic style
+indeed. The lively Italian imagination, however, can provide most of
+the details, even if they are not at once eked out by quantities of
+that “smoke,” oral rumor, which is passed about amid the copyists the
+moment the new gazette is posted. This is a very commonplace issue, and
+the albums read something like this:[147]
+
+“Records for the tenth day of June. Yesterday ---- boys and ---- girls
+were born in the city of Rome. ---- bushels of grain were landed at
+the Emporium. ---- head of cattle [and other commodities specified]
+were also brought into the city. On this same day the palace slave
+Mithridates was ordered crucified for blaspheming the guardian genius
+of his master the Emperor. At the imperial treasury ---- million
+sesterces, which it proved impossible to loan out at interest, were
+ordered returned to the public funds. A fire broke out in the insula of
+Nasta in the Viminal district but was extinguished.”
+
+
+=243. Miscellaneous Entries and Gossip in the Gazette.=--The entries
+go on to give the doings in the petty police courts, the copies of
+important wills with especial mention of any bequests that were left
+the Emperor, the statement that a certain eques had caught his wife
+in gross misconduct and divorced her; that a procurator for a large
+trading house was being prosecuted for embezzlement, and a summary of
+the evidence in a great violation of contract case between two marble
+importers now on trial in the Basilica Æmilia. Then follow magisterial
+edicts, lists of judicial appointments, and careful entries about
+all the doings of the Emperor and of his progress back toward Rome.
+Next is given a rather elaborate summary (evidently made by shorthand
+reporters) of the latest debate in the Senate, with careful entry of
+the applause and interruptions which the orators received.
+
+All this is more or less “official”; but the newsmongers are really
+more interested in “human interest stories” added by the publishers’
+private authority. Thus it makes good reading to tell how a frantic
+admirer of a certain “Red” charioteer who was killed in the last races,
+cast himself on the funeral pyre of the beloved jockey, in order not to
+survive his idol; or to relate how a citizen of Fæsule has just visited
+Rome and sacrificed to Jupiter along with “eight children, thirty-six
+grandchildren, and nineteen great grandchildren.”[148] Furthermore, the
+report of love affairs among the noble and mighty is never omitted--how
+a senator’s wife has eloped with a gladiator, and how a certain
+oft-mentioned lady is about to wed an eighth husband. Finally (perhaps
+the most copied of all) there are, of course, the announcements for the
+coming exhibitions in the theater, amphitheater, and circus, with lists
+of the actors, gladiators, and charioteers, and other data, which can
+enable all Rome to arrange its wagers and its holidays.
+
+The Acta Diurna therefore goes about as far as is possible to create a
+real newspaper in the days of mere penmanship. Its vogue is immense.
+Many a fine lady sends her slave or freedman to the Forum every day to
+bring home a special copy. Its items will focus the conversation at a
+thousand dinner tables.
+
+Finally this publication will enjoy a certain degree of historic
+importance. After each issue has served its daily purpose, fair copies
+are deposited in the Public Record Office, and here they can be
+consulted many years later by the learned. It is from the files of the
+Acta Diurna that Tacitus and Suetonius have apparently drawn a great
+many of their anecdotes about the days of the early Emperors.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XV
+
+THE PALATINE AND THE PALACE OF THE CÆSARS. THE GOVERNMENT OFFICES, AND
+                THE POLICE AND CITY GOVERNMENT OF ROME
+
+
+=244. History of the Palatine: its Purchase by Augustus.=--There
+is one other great quarter of Rome, from the political standpoint the
+most important of all, the Palatine.
+
+The Palatine originally was a hill of modest height, in shape fairly
+rectangular, some 1400 feet on the side. Here according to firm
+tradition was that first settlement by the Alban shepherds led out
+by Romulus. The hill seems to have been encompassed by its own crude
+wall, and presently it figured as the earliest “Rome,” often called
+from its squarish configuration _Roma Quadrata_. Time fails to
+count the various memorials such as the “House of Romulus,” alleged to
+have survived since this primitive time. Note should be made, however,
+of certain small but very old temples such as those of Victoria,
+Viriplaca, and Orbona,[149] which are now carefully preserved amid
+surroundings of artificial magnificence.
+
+After the growth of the Republic the Palatine became one of the most
+fashionable residence sections of the city. Public leaders liked to
+mount the roofs of their mansions and see the whole Forum with the
+familiar Senate House spread out at their feet. Here were erected
+the earliest of those sumptuous mansions wherein the aristocracy
+invested their spoils from the great conquests. Marcus Scaurus had
+his pretentious dwelling on the Palatine, and so did Catiline, and
+Marcus Antonius, and Cicero. Last but not least, Hortensius the Orator,
+Cicero’s professional rival, erected an extremely fine dwelling here
+shortly before his death in 50 B.C., which mansion was later
+purchased by Augustus when he had assumed the government and desired
+a suitable residence; and thus it was that the Palatine became the
+“Palace” of the Emperors.
+
+  [Illustration: ARCH OF TITUS: part of Palatine
+  visible to the left.]
+
+
+=245. Extension of the Imperial Buildings: Central Position of the
+Palatine.=--Augustus, posing merely as the “First Citizen” among his
+fellow Quirites, and with a studious abhorrence of the outward forms of
+monarchy, had avoided establishing anything like an Imperial court; but
+he was, of course, entitled to a large senatorial mansion. In addition
+to his private residence elaborate offices had also to be provided for
+the great corps of secretaries and clerks through whom he governed
+half the provinces and controlled the army. This corps of bureaucrats
+has grown with every new accretion to imperial power; furthermore,
+Augustus’s pretence of democratic simplicity has been utterly discarded
+following the extravagances of Caligula and Nero.
+
+One enormous building has, therefore, been added to another. The last
+private dwellings upon the hill have been condemned, and the Cæsars now
+control every inch of the Palatine, making it so completely the abode
+of majesty that “palace” will remain across the centuries as the name
+for any seat of princely authority.
+
+
+=246. Commanding View from the Palatine Hill.=--This is the smallest
+of the Seven Hills, but it is the real focus of the other six, which
+“seem to surround it with their homage, as being their king.” It is
+so close to the Capitol that the crazy Caligula erected a bridge (now
+long demolished) leading from his mansion clear over to the Temple
+of Capitoline Jove, in order that he might frequently “go and visit
+his friend Jupiter.” The view from the crest of the palace structures
+is superb: northward across the Forum, and all the thickly clustered
+roofs on the slopes of the Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline, westward
+to the Capitol where the magnificent temples seem within a stone’s
+toss, southward across the great hollow of the Circus Maximus and then
+across to the densely covered Aventine. Whether the Emperor desires to
+harangue the Senate, to sacrifice to the greater gods, or to grace the
+chariot races--Curia, temples, or circus are all close at hand; with
+the Flavian Amphitheater to the northeast, almost equally near.
+
+
+=247. Magnificence of the Palatine Structures.=--But the Palatine
+itself is perhaps the most glorious sight of all. It rises above the
+city two and three hundred feet to its upper parapets, lifting itself
+on several tiers of arches and pillared stories which gleam with
+marble below and present a perfect treasure house of gilded tiling
+above. Under the morning light with the sun flashing the gold of the
+multitudinous domes back into the clear azure the whole effect is
+incomparable. The natural foundations of the hill are covered with
+enormous substructures of masonry and concrete, and these are continued
+by long tiers of many-arched buildings which house the great government
+bureaus and ministries. Crowning these can be seen equally long forests
+of columns, upbearing a whole complex of gabled roofs covered not
+merely with the gilded tiles, but with a whole legion of gilded or
+richly toned bronze statues. Here and there show forth bits of greenery
+and foliage betraying the gardens and the parks reserved for the Lords
+of the World.
+
+  [Illustration: PALATINE AND PALACE OF THE CAESARS:
+  restoration by Spandoni.]
+
+The effect of this entire mass is overpowering. The eye wearies of
+counting the sweeping porticoes, tall monoliths, colossal statues, and
+quadrigas. The result is also enhanced by the use of great numbers of
+huge awnings, hung over nearly every opening and window, usually made
+in brilliant colors, with the imperial purple very conspicuous. There
+will never be another Palatine in the history of the world.
+
+
+=248. The More Famous Buildings on the Palatine: Enormous Display of
+Art Objects.=--This vast residence compound--it cannot be called
+a single building--can be reached by a number of inclined planes
+or stairways upon all four sides. Access is easy enough and crowds
+of slaves, plebeians, and nobles are incessantly coming and going,
+although a couple of Prætorians loll carelessly on their spear-shafts
+beside each ingress. Possibly the easiest entrance is by the _Clivus
+Victoriæ_ (“Ascent of Victory”) which starts upward from the edge of
+the Old Forum very near to the Shrine of Vesta.
+
+  [Illustration: ROMAN URN: typical art object.]
+
+To find one’s way about the Palatine is, however, far more difficult
+than about the fora. It is not, of course, an area but a jumble of
+buildings, all splendid, but often thrust upon one another without any
+real system. Augustus added extensively to the old house of Hortensius,
+and particularly he built a very pretentious Temple to Apollo.
+Tiberius, the next Emperor, added a new wing, the _Domus Tiberiana_,
+almost doubling the bulk of the former structures. Caligula thrust
+on more buildings still. Across the ages will be pointed out that
+_Cryptoporticus_, the twisting underground gallery connecting parts of
+the palaces, where the stout tribune Cherea struck down and slew the
+insane despot, January 24th, 41 A.D., to the great profit of the entire
+world. Nero added other wings and structures, some of which had to be
+rebuilt after his great fire. Finally, Domitian added a whole series of
+enormous halls, baths, banqueting rooms, and government offices. The
+Palatine is now virtually complete: Trajan and Hadrian have erected
+their monuments elsewhere, and so will most of the later Emperors.[150]
+
+We do not propose to explore all these buildings in so vast a complex.
+It is enough that one superb court or façade follows another; that
+almost every hall and ante-room is of sumptuous splendor; that veined
+marbles, porphyry, elaborate bas-reliefs, and profuse gilding seem
+multiplied until they become commonplace. All the artificiality and
+over-elaborate art of the age seems concentrated around the Palatine.
+Within the great substructures and the arched terraces which bear up
+the more important buildings, even in the cells for the slaves and the
+offices for the toiling clerks there are fine frescos and handsome
+stucco reliefs.
+
+
+=249. The Triclinium and Throne Room of Domitian.=--As for some of
+the special areas and chambers, they justify the praises of the servile
+court poets: “Olympian” is the mildest word which they can use. Take,
+for example, the porticoes of Domitian. On the inner side of their
+vast length, they are lined throughout with marble so highly polished
+that it shines like mirrors. What matter if the original cause for
+their use was the desire of the suspicious tyrant to have a promenade
+wherein nobody could glide upon him without warning from behind. The
+result is indescribably brilliant. But let us go rather into the
+“House of Domitian” itself, and inspect the great banqueting hall, the
+Triclinium. “The gods themselves might quaff their nectar there!” cried
+the enraptured Martial.
+
+This magnificent apartment leads off from a marvelous peristyle-court
+of more than 10,000 square feet in area. The chamber itself is not
+huge, but is arranged so that three tables (each for nine guests) can
+be placed laterally along the walls, with the third, opposite the
+door of entry, for the Emperor and his chief guests. Twenty-seven
+dignitaries thus can dine together. On each side of the hall five large
+windows are separated by massive columns of red granite.
+
+As the guests of majesty repose on their silken cushions they can see
+between the columns still another court where water is softly gushing
+from a fountain, and purling in a small cascade over steps of marble,
+verdure, and flowers. The ornamentation may be grievously overdone; the
+taste of some of the reliefs and wall pictures is questionable, but the
+effect of the sheen from the many colored marbles, the gilding, and
+the heavy fretwork around the lofty dome undeniably justifies all the
+enthusiasm of the verse-mongers.
+
+Equally striking is the Throne Room built by Domitian. It is called the
+tablinum as in humbler dwellings, but it is actually used for great
+state audiences. It is a hall of imposing size. You enter past the
+guards, and directly across the broad area is a niche where sits “Cæsar
+Augustus” upon a gilded dais and curule-chair, every whit as truly a
+throne as that of the Great King of Parthia. The walls of the room are
+covered with extraordinarily costly marbles, and around the circuit
+rise twenty-eight Corinthian columns of intricate workmanship. Eight
+large niches contain as many colossal statues wrought of adamantine
+basalt, and a Hercules and a Bacchus are particularly noteworthy. The
+entrance door is flanked by two enormous columns of _giallo antico_,
+deep yellow marble flushed with pink, imported from Numidia. The
+threshold is a single immense slab of a whiter marble brought from
+Greece.
+
+Words thus exhaust themselves describing these grandiose,
+overpowering, magnificent courts, halls, and apartments. We can
+perforce ignore such features as the separate hippodrome and the
+luxurious gardens reserved for imperial amusement or recreation. Better
+it is to concentrate attention upon the human life wherewith the
+Palatine ordinarily abounds.
+
+
+=250. Swarms of Civil Officials Always on the Palatine.=--All the
+Palatine revolves around the Emperor. Rome is not yet governed by an
+unabashed despotism, yet it would be hard to name a deed that a king
+of old Babylon could perform which a _Princeps et Imperator_ could not
+perpetrate if his heart really desired, although certain restraints
+and decencies make this absolutism endurable save under a Nero or a
+Domitian.
+
+The thousands of persons who dwell upon or are employed upon the
+Palatine are all employed with one of two things, the imperial court or
+the imperial public service. Since Hadrian (despite the grumblings of
+his Italian subjects) is still absent from Rome the court ceremonial
+has practically ceased. A few of the Emperor’s relatives dwell in
+gilded ease in certain wings of the palace, but except for the
+caretakers the great army of self-sufficient slaves and still more
+self-sufficient freedmen who act as valets, cooks, waiters, musicians,
+chamberlains, and in every other menial capacity, can eat, play dice,
+and discuss the races in idleness.
+
+Now as always, however, the imperial public service which sends
+its impulse to the remotest borders of Dacia, Syria, or Britain is
+functioning actively, and most of the vast bureaus and ministries have
+huge offices upon the Palatine. The Prætorian Præfect, as high judge
+for the Emperor’s half of the provinces, daily mounts his supreme
+tribunal. The four Imperial Secretaries for Finance, for Petitions,
+and for Official Correspondence (one for the Greek provinces and one
+for the Latin) direct their great corps of subordinates. The chief
+Procurators (Superintendents) of the enormous Imperial Estates all
+over the Empire are receiving reports and protecting their masters’
+interests; and so with a great body of other high officials.
+
+The huge administrative machine perfected by the practical Roman genius
+is running steadily--so steadily that even under a very bad Emperor,
+even a Nero, it will function for years with no great harm to the
+governed millions. The only condition is that the tyrant will reserve
+his cruelties for the nobility and refrain from tactless interference
+with the secretaries instead of indulging merely in vicious personal
+pleasures.[151]
+
+
+=251. The Emperor Center of High Social Life.=--Into these high
+political concerns we dare not enter, but the social life of the Palace
+cannot be so well ignored. Already the imperial freedmen are busy
+planning the great receptions and state banquets which Hadrian must
+give soon after his return. In half the atria of Rome men and women
+are discussing vigorously, “When ‘Cæsar’ returns will he have any new
+‘Friends,’ and will he have discontinued any old ones?”
+
+Already it is rumored that certain freedmen (supposedly in their
+lord’s confidence) have received a great bribe to get them to induce
+the “Dominus” (so loyal etiquette calls the monarch) to summon back
+to favor a certain Jallius, an indiscreet senator whom, on his last
+sojourn in Rome, Hadrian had ordered excluded from his personal
+receptions. Rome is a city of rumors, but nowhere do these abound more
+than about the Palatine, always centering on the doings, words, and
+even the health of the Emperor. “Smoke” from the valets, barbers, and
+table-servitors of the Augustus can often be sold for precious aurei.
+Self-respecting monarchs punish the tale-bearers pitilessly, but the
+latter can seldom be caught in the act.[152] Every Emperor knows that
+he is the constant victim of outrageous tattling.
+
+
+=252. Friends of Cæsar (_Amici Cæsaris_).=--But an Emperor’s company is
+not confined to menials; neither does he spend all his time at council
+with his ministers. Being a Roman among Romans he is forced to spend
+a good deal of his day receiving the social attentions of those who
+proudly list themselves as his “Friends.”
+
+To be an _Amicus Cæsaris_, to be entitled to greet as a kind of social
+equal the personage who is worshiped as a god in all the Oriental
+provinces, who is (by adoption in Hadrian’s case) the son of a
+Divinity, the “Deified Trajan,” and whose own “divine genius” (guardian
+spirit) receives prayer and incense in every government building--this
+honor seems almost dazzling. Every Emperor ranks his “Friends” in two
+classes--“_First Class Friends_,” great secretaries, ministers, and
+generals who must have constant access to his cabinet, certain very
+distinguished members of the Senate, certain near relatives, and also
+a few congenial personal companions--poets, and philosophers, with
+great Emperors, or jockeys, gamesters, and debauchees with the bad; and
+“_Second Class Friends_,” which great catalogue includes all the rest
+of the Senate, many of the more distinguished equites, and a select
+sprinkling of such plebeians as Cæsar delights to honor.
+
+The First Class Friends, it is true, pay for their glory by a heavy
+obligation--to appear at the Palace every morning usually before
+daylight, and greet the Lord of the World while he sits up in bed and
+is dressed by his valets.[153] Very much of state business is then
+transacted, but the obligation to appear merely to say an “_Ave_” is
+imperative provided the Emperor is in his residence. Sometimes merely
+to avoid giving gouty ministers great inconvenience Hadrian has been
+known considerately to pass the night away from the Palace in order to
+dispense with the ceremonial in the morning.
+
+
+=253. The Imperial Audiences.=--After the Emperor has been clad
+with due ceremony, has conversed with his intimates, and perhaps has
+sealed some urgent rescripts, he is ready for the morning audience. A
+full cohort (1000 men) of the Prætorian Guard is always on service at
+the Palace and a platoon of these without armor, but in magnificent
+cloaks, stands by the entrance to the hall of state. Only men as a
+rule are admitted.[154] Under certain evil or very suspicious Emperors
+such as Claudius there has been the humiliating custom of searching
+every visitor (whatever his rank) for weapons, ere admission; but that
+abomination has ceased at last, beginning with Nerva.
+
+In the broad courts before the audience chamber some dozens of senators
+dismount from their litters every morning when the monarch is in Rome,
+and sometimes the delay ere the doors are opened is so long that much
+personal business can be transacted and philosophical disquisitions
+indulged in. Second Class Friends do not have to appear every morning,
+but it is a serious error to fail to use your entrée fairly often.
+
+
+=254. Social Ruin through Imperial Disfavor.=--The process resembles
+that with the clients in the noble lords’ own houses a little earlier
+in the day, although with greater solemnity and formality.[155] A
+group of gorgeously dressed “admissioners” (_admissionales_) keep
+the doors, and scan every applicant closely, but besides the regular
+Friends they frequently admit certain distinguished visitors from the
+provinces, especially members of those provincial delegations that are
+always junketing to Rome to proffer the homage of their district to the
+Emperor, or to present some kind of a public petition.
+
+The last day that Hadrian gave audience ere leaving Rome, when our
+friend Calvus waited upon him, there was an awkward happening. A very
+roistering and immoral young nobleman, Calvisius, presented himself
+when the doors were opened, whereupon an imperial freedman took him
+by the arm, announcing: “You are no longer admitted to the palace.”
+Calvisius instantly slunk away, overwhelmed by his calamity. He would
+have suffered less if he had forfeited half his fortune.
+
+Even worse was in store for the aforementioned Jallius, who was said to
+have mocked at Hadrian’s pretentions as an art critic (a tender point)
+while over-drunk at a dinner party. He was suffered indeed to enter and
+to approach the imperial seat: “_Ave, Cæsar!_” he called out boldly,
+hoping that his indiscretion had been unnoticed. “_Vale, Jallie!_”[156]
+(“Good-by, Jallius”) answered the monarch, turning his face from him.
+The insult was offered in the presence of at least fifty tale-bearers
+and that night it was over Rome. Under a bad Emperor, Jallius’s life
+would have been in sore jeopardy, and as it was he was socially ruined;
+every time-serving nobleman closed his house to him and his innocent
+wife and children shared his ostracism. His only hope now is that
+when Hadrian returns he can be induced to let Jallius call again, and
+will answer affably “_Ave!_” to the visitor’s greeting. Then the poor
+senator can hold up his head in the world.
+
+  [Illustration: CÆSAR AUGUSTUS: showing costume of a
+  Roman general.]
+
+
+=255. Enormous Value of Imperial Favor.=--On the other hand Calvus
+returned walking on air from this particular audience. The Emperor
+answered his greeting by calling him “My very dear Calvus”; then asked,
+“And how are your Gratia and the boys?” and actually added, “Do you
+think Gallinas, the Thracian, is going to be a good match for Syrus
+in the arena?”--finally, throwing in the sage advice, “These morning
+frosts now are sharp if you don’t dress warmly.”[157]
+
+When Calvus quitted the hall all his friends swarmed around
+congratulating him on “the remarkable favor of the Emperor,” and
+intimating that he was surely destined to be Consul within a few
+years and then the imperial legate of a great province. He can hardly
+persuade them that he has received no private information about the
+boundary settlement with Parthia and the terms being offered the chiefs
+of the Quadi. In fact the imperial looks and moods are studied as
+carefully as is the weather. “Did _he_ frown or look pleased when
+so and so was mentioned?” “Did he offer his cheek graciously to be
+kissed by that ex-consul?” “Did he invite the chiefs of the delegation
+from Provincial Asia to dinner?” “Did he cast down his eyes gloomily
+when they said N---- was about to be tried to-morrow in the Senate?”
+No marvel if bad Emperors are easily persuaded that they are gods on
+earth, and even good Emperors have to strive hard not to allow their
+heads to be turned!
+
+Hadrian is still away from Rome, and both First Class Friends and
+Second Class Friends are probably a little relieved not to have to play
+the client to him. If the days of bloody tyranny seem past, the fate of
+poor Jallius can still overtake almost any of them.[158] But though the
+vast hall of audience stands vacant save for gaping sightseers, there
+are plenty of distinguished visitors upon the Palatine come to transact
+business at the imperial ministries, or very likely at the great
+offices of the City Præfect (_Præfectus Urbi_), who is essentially
+the Mayor of Rome.
+
+
+=256. City Government of Rome: the City Præfect (_Præfectus
+Urbi_).=--It was one of the greatest sins of the defunct Republic
+that it permitted Rome to grow until it became an enormous metropolis
+without providing any respectable police force, fire department, or
+other efficient means of securing law, order, and public safety. The
+old _ædiles_ (commissioners of public works) were overburdened
+men, with imperfect authority, few constables, and great political
+interests. In the days of Cicero great fires, great riots, and serious
+crimes occurred almost daily. In self-protection many prominent men
+had actually to arm their slaves in regular companies and even to hire
+the assistance of armed bands of gladiators. Augustus ended all this.
+Thanks to him, Rome has become one of the best policed and protected
+cities in the world.
+
+The old ædiles[159] are now supplemented and largely superseded by a
+corps of officials all named by the Emperor, for indefinite terms and
+removable by him at pleasure. At their head is that high “Clarissimus,”
+the City Præfect. He is always a senator who has held the consulship,
+and who often has governed great provinces. To be named City Præfect
+is almost the highest civil honor in the gift of the Cæsars, and it
+ordinarily comes to a veteran nobleman of approved experience and
+integrity. He is really in part a military officer because at his
+command stand the “City Cohorts,” the regular armed garrison of Rome,
+four Cohorts of reliable troops, one thousand men in each, ready to
+assist the ordinary police in repressing rioting.
+
+The City Præfect is responsible for the general good order of the
+metropolis; it is his business not merely to punish evil, but to
+take measures to prevent it, _e.g._ by breaking up illicit
+societies and assemblies, such as those of the “debased” Christians.
+In conjunction with the other magistrates he also takes measures to
+keep down the price of provisions. In addition he is the high judge in
+most cases arising around Rome, which are not especially reserved to
+other tribunals. Particularly he and his deputies have jurisdiction
+over cases involving outrageous usury, betrayal of trust by guardians,
+unfilial conduct of children, and disrespect shown to patrons by
+freedmen. And to his court go all the charges of serious crimes sure
+to arise in a great city, barring, however, lesser police court
+cases--these last falling to his colleague, the Præfect of the Watch.
+
+
+=257. The Municipal Superintendents and Commissioners
+(_Curatores_).=--Aiding the City Præfect are several high
+superintendents or commissioners usually of at least prætorian rank
+among the senators. The two “Curators of the Public Works” obviously
+have to look after the municipal buildings and especially the temples
+and the considerable endowments often attached to them. The Præfect of
+the Grain Supply (_Præfectus Annonæ_) is a magistrate who--in view of
+the importance of his function (see p. 242)--will often be chosen with
+almost as great an eye to his efficiency as the City Præfect.
+
+Besides the corps of agents collecting grain in the provinces, the
+special deputy at Ostia, the “Official Grain Measurers,” the “Grain
+Magazine-Keepers” (_horrearii_), and the staff of clerks and porters,
+all the bakers of the city also are under the Præfect of the Grain
+Supply, and he can sit as high judge in all cases, criminal and civil,
+where the provisioning of the city is affected. As for the Tiber, it is
+so often bursting its levees and flooding the lower city that a special
+board of five senators, “Commissioners for the Tiber, River-Banks, and
+the Sewers,” attends alike to the care of the dikes and also to the
+great sewer system which drains the capital.
+
+
+=258. Excellent Water Supply of Rome.=--An official board with
+duties of the first order is that of the “Curators of the Water
+Supply.” There is a chief curator and two assistants, and since the
+task calls for expert professional knowledge, these are not senators
+but imperial freedmen, or at the highest only equites. No sinecure,
+however, is their task. Justly are the Romans proud of the excellent
+water supply of the imperial city. As early as Augustus’s time Strabo
+the geographer warned his fellow Greeks that while they could boast
+that their cities excelled the Roman in artistic adornments, Rome
+rejoiced in a far better water system, in better pavements, and in
+better sewers. Certain of the latter, he declared in admiration, were
+“arched over with hewn stone and were so large that in some parts hay
+wagons can drive straight through them!”
+
+  [Illustration: RUINED AQUEDUCT IN THE ROMAN
+  CAMPAGNA.]
+
+By Hadrian’s day the aqueducts supplying the city have become wholly
+admirable. Time fails us to go out into the Campagna or to the distant
+hills and see how, by gravity alone, and without the aid of pumping
+engines, “copious streams are conducted great distances despite the
+obstacles presented by mountains, valleys, or low-lying level plains,
+sometimes rushing along in vast subterranean tunnels, at other times
+supported on long ranges of lofty arches, the remains of which [in
+after ages] will still be seen spanning the waste of the Campagna.”
+[Lanciani.]
+
+There is difficulty in making very large iron pipes capable of standing
+high pressure over long distances; and as a result the Roman engineers
+prefer to carry the water in channels lined with solid cement and borne
+across the open ground on a vast series of arches. Besides, most of the
+good water near Rome leaves a calcareous deposit; and it is much easier
+to clean out large channels than an underground piping system.
+
+
+=259. The Great Aqueducts.=--When we try to understand the water system
+of Rome we come upon astonishing figures for the great aqueducts.
+There are nine of these huge conduits in constant use. The oldest
+is the _Aqua Appia_, built in 312 B.C. by that tough old censor,
+Appius Claudius, and it starts only about eleven miles from the city,
+with nearly its entire bed underground; but when this supply proved
+inadequate the engineers had to reach much farther back into the hills
+to find powerful jets. An increasing proportion of the channels of
+the newer aqueducts has also to be on arches; for example, the _Aqua
+Julia_, built by Agrippa in 33 B.C., has to go back fifteen and a half
+miles, and six and a half of these are on arches; while the _Aqua
+Claudia_, built about 40 A.D., is no less than forty-six miles long
+with nine and a half on elevated arches. There are two others, the
+older _Aqua Marcia_ and the slightly newer _Aqua Anio Novus_ (taking
+water from the river Anio), that are not much shorter either upon the
+ground or in their elevated sections.
+
+Once inside the city this enormous volume of water is distributed
+in a most scientific manner according to a scheme worked out by the
+mighty Agrippa. There are 700 public pools and basins and 500 public
+fountains drawing their supply from 130 collecting heads or reservoirs.
+Only the poorest or tallest tenement houses, consequently, are bereft
+of a water supply, clear, sanitary, and abundant, such as most later
+cities can desire in vain until close upon the twentieth century.
+
+
+=260. The Police System Instituted by Augustus.=--Almost as
+important, however, as the excellent water supply came the blessing of
+the firm police system instituted by Augustus. There was an end at last
+to the fearful riots and even private wars of the later Republic, as
+when those cheerful desperadoes Clodius and Milo played at being the
+“Hector and Achilles of the Streets,” and ordinary crime soon became
+comparatively rare.
+
+The city has also been divided into 14 “regions” (_regiones_) and these
+into 262 “precincts” (_vici_) distributed among the “regions.” Each
+vicus is in theory a religious unit. It has its own little _ædicula_
+(petty temple) containing the images of the two guardian Lares of the
+neighborhood plus inevitably a statue of the Genius of the Emperor.
+Each vicus also has its two special curators, worthy tradesmen usually,
+elected by their fellow wardsmen and clothed with enough importance to
+make the office desirable. Their chief official duty is to keep up the
+sacred rites at the central shrine and to help to compile the census
+lists, but they are also a kind of local arbitrators or justices of
+the peace who assist the police and look after the general weal of the
+precinct.
+
+
+=261. The Police-Firemen of the Watch (_vigiles_): the _Præfectus
+Vigilum_.=--However, the actual security of Rome is not intrusted to
+any such unprofessional guardians. Augustus understood clearly the
+need of an effective police force apart from a mere armed garrison;
+besides he had to protect the capital against the fearful and incessant
+fires; as a result his new _vigiles_ (“watchmen”) were a combination
+of policemen and firemen. The fourteen regions of Rome have now been
+coupled together into seven police districts, each possessing a regular
+police station (_excubitorium_) and two subordinate watch houses.
+
+Each district is intrusted to a separate cohort of vigiles about 1000
+men strong, thus giving Rome a total force of some 7000. The vigiles
+are not actually soldiers, and not being honorable legionaries they are
+recruited almost entirely from the freedmen. However, after faithful
+service they can be transferred to the army. They are under a rigid
+discipline, nevertheless, and are divided into “centuries,” each
+under a centurion, with a tribune over the entire cohort. They have
+various weapons for an emergency, but the crowd usually mocks them
+for the fire-fighting apparatus with which they often hurry down the
+streets--hooks, ladders, axes, simple hand-pumps, and above all, many
+buckets made of rope rendered water-proof with pitch.
+
+By their promptitude, discipline, and daring, even with such
+inadequate apparatus, these patrolmen can often stop very dangerous
+fires, and their familiar equipment gives them their nickname. “The
+‘_Bucketmen_’ are coming!” is the yell that frequently disperses a
+knot of thieves or of turbulent bullies.
+
+At their different police stations the vigiles when off duty scribble
+many things upon the walls,[160] which give a vivid idea that life “on
+the force” is much the same in every age. At night these “Bucketmen” go
+out in little groups bearing tallow lanterns and patrol the pitch-black
+streets, rounding up evil-doers and detecting incipient fires.
+
+At each station there is a good-sized lock-up which never wants its
+unhappy occupants, also, it must be added, a professional torturer
+(_quæstionarius_) to wring confessions out of slaves and other
+non-privileged prisoners without any tedious “third degree” process.
+Petty offenses are tried summarily before the Præfect of the Watch or
+his deputies in police court at these stations; and for great crimes
+the alleged offenders can be conveyed to a central jail, or admitted to
+bail, prior to a formal trial before the City Præfect.
+
+The Præfect of the Watch (_Præfectus Vigilum_), the head of this
+very important organization, is really the most important municipal
+official in Rome except the City Præfect. Since he has to do with
+much sordid detail, he is not a top-lofty senator, but only an eques;
+nevertheless, his honor and dignity are great. The subpræfect under him
+is also a highly respected officer. The entire force of the vigiles,
+although, of course, incessantly criticized and jeered at, is a very
+capable body of men, whose faithfulness and energy go far to make life
+and property better protected in Rome than in most great cities at any
+age.
+
+So with this glance at the municipal government of a metropolitan
+community of 1,500,000 we quit the Palatine. A new opportunity has
+presented itself: we can visit the Prætorian Camp.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVI
+
+             THE PRÆTORIAN CAMP. THE IMPERIAL WAR MACHINE
+
+
+=262. The Army the Real Master of the Roman Empire.=--The Romans
+beyond all else have been a military people. Their great abilities
+as law givers, administrators, disseminators of civilization through
+Western Europe apparently would have been almost in vain if the
+legions had failed against Hannibal, against Mithridates, against
+Vercingetorix. Furthermore, the power of the Cæsars is primarily
+that of war chiefs. Let the army revolt, and Senate, plebeians,
+and provincials can protest their loyalty ever so frantically--the
+Princeps, the “First Citizen,” nevertheless is a lost man.
+
+Every Emperor knows this fact. His memory goes back to those two
+fearful years 68 and 69 A.D. when first a revolt in Gaul and
+a mutiny by the Prætorians in Rome overthrew Nero and set up Galba,
+then a second mutiny of the Prætorians set up Otho, then a revolt of
+the Rhine legions set up Vitellius, then a counter-revolt by the Danube
+and Syrian legions set up Vespasian; with the civilian population
+looking on helplessly, and being almost as helplessly plundered, while
+decidedly small bodies of professional swordsmen settled the fate of
+the Empire. Still later they remember how after Domitian’s murder, the
+Prætorians (whom that despot had caressed and corrupted) forced his
+successor Nerva to punish the very conspirators to whom Nerva himself
+owed the throne.
+
+Hadrian, in turn, who passes for a very “constitutional” ruler, when
+his kinsman Trajan died (117 A.D.), allowed himself to be “proclaimed”
+immediately by the soldiers in the East where he then was. Next he
+wrote with studious modesty to the Senate begging the Conscript Fathers
+to “excuse” the zeal of the army and to ratify its action in choosing
+him Imperator. Every senator knew the blade might soon be at his own
+neck if he openly opposed confirming the mandate of the legionaries.
+The army, in short, is the final authority in the Roman Empire.
+Presently there may even be an Emperor [Septimus Severus about 210
+A.D.] who will give his sons direfully blunt and effective counsel:
+“Enrich the army and then you can do anything.”
+
+
+=263. Army Held under Stiff Discipline and Concentrated on
+Frontiers.=--Nevertheless at present the army is under a tight rein.
+Trajan and Hadrian by a mixture of donatives and severity have restored
+firm discipline. The Roman world functions freely and normally behind
+the frontier barriers held by the legions, with the great chaos of
+barbarism tossing harmlessly outside. Furthermore, this army, if very
+formidable, is, we shall see, decidedly small. It is distributed mainly
+along the northern and eastern frontiers, with a sizable garrison and
+guard-corps at Rome.
+
+In the arrangement of the army, most of the provinces seem absolutely
+divested of regular soldiers save those in transit, and their governors
+only require a good constabulary to arrest brigands and rioters. The
+collapse of the Jewish insurrection has practically ended the last
+serious attempt to cast off Roman authority, and the provinces submit
+not simply because of fear, but because they are now bound to the
+imperial régime by great cultural and economic interests.[161] In
+Rome itself, thanks to the presence of the imperial guard, soldiers
+are frequent sights upon the streets, but in many other great cities
+of the Empire they are comparative rarities. Their duties are in the
+frontiers, and their officers know well the demoralization wrought by
+keeping their men in city garrisons.
+
+When Augustus found the world at his feet he also found himself with
+armies which were very expensive and somewhat ready to mutiny against
+him. Very promptly, therefore, he reduced his 45 legions to only about
+18. This number proved too few, and by the end of his reign they had
+risen to 25; these in turn have been gradually increased to 30; and
+this will be the ordinary number for a good while longer.[162] The
+legionaries are the regular troops of the line, on whose disciplined
+fighting the safety of civilization may well depend. There are,
+however, no ordinary legionaries stationed in Rome, although we can, of
+course, obtain full information in the capital about them. Their place
+is taken by a magnificent and arrogant guard-corps--the Prætorians.
+
+
+=264. The Prætorian Guard of the Emperors.=--The Prætorian guards
+are the successors of the old _Prætoriani_, picked men, who guarded
+the Prætorium (general’s residence or tent) in the armies of the old
+Republic. But the new Imperators were entitled to a much larger and
+more permanent guard, and they also desired to have a reliable body of
+troops always in or near Rome to protect against an uprising. Augustus,
+therefore, organized nine “prætorian cohorts,” although keeping only
+three directly in Rome; his successor, Tiberius, however, boldly
+concentrated them all in the imperial city, and built for them an
+enormous camp behind the Viminal hill, on the northeast side of the
+metropolis.
+
+  [Illustration: PRÆTORIAN GUARDSMEN.]
+
+Here they have remained as the dreaded engine of the Caesars. Disguise
+the fact as he may, every senator knows in his heart: “If the Senate
+defies the Emperor, the Prætorians can and will sack the Curia.” So
+long as the Prætorians are obedient no Emperor need tremble overmuch
+at stories of a provincial uprising. When the Prætorians desert he had
+better, as did Nero, slink away to commit suicide.
+
+The guard-corps is jealously regarded by the frontier legions who
+sometimes turn against it, but thanks to its position at the capital
+its power is tremendous. Even the privates walk down the streets with a
+confident swagger--can they not make and unmake Emperors? If the army
+really controls the Empire, the Prætorians go far to control the will
+of the army.
+
+
+=265. The Prætorian Præfect and the Prætorian Camp.=--Such being
+the case, there is one high official whom the Cæsars will always select
+with greater care than any other--the _Prætorian Præfect_. On this
+general rests responsibility for the military efficiency and loyalty
+of the corps. If he is a scheming bloody man, he can, like Tiberius’s
+præfect Sejanus, almost place himself upon the throne; and if he is
+simply a faithful competent officer, his public services excel that of
+any civil functionary.
+
+Since curiously enough the Emperor usually intrusts to the Prætorian
+Præfect the task of hearing legal “appeals to Cæsar” from the imperial
+half of the provinces, it is not unusual to name two præfects,
+nominally of equal authority but with one of them often a trained
+jurist, and the other more concerned with the military management of
+the corps. This has the additional advantage of making it harder to
+start an insurrection,--each Præfect will keep watch upon his colleague.
+
+Inasmuch as the Emperor is now absent from Rome a detachment of the
+guard is away with him, but the world being in general peace there
+is no need (as in a major war) for the entire corps to go forth to
+reinforce the frontier legions. The Prætorians are therefore on duty
+as usual; one cohort at the Palatine, the remainder barracked at their
+great camp.
+
+The _Castra Prætoria_[163] is more than a mere cantonment; it
+is a real fortress, only to be stormed after desperate fighting. We
+enter it from the central gateway (_Porta Prætoria_) which looks
+straight westward upon the city. A lofty wall of masonry, brick, and
+concrete, crowned by suitable battlements, surrounds a vast rectangular
+area about 1400 feet wide, and 1100 feet deep. The greater and lesser
+gates are crowned with fine marble sculptures almost worthy of the
+Palatine. In the center of the area rises a mass of office buildings, a
+residence for the Præfect and a small temple to the military gods such
+as Mars, and especially to the deified emperors. The side walls of the
+inclosure are extended on the inside by an enormous system of arches
+and vaulting, making many deep chambers where thousands of men are
+easily barracked.
+
+In the open area fountains are playing, and the sun is sending a flying
+glory from the burnished armor of a cohort standing at rest, while
+certain officers affix medals of honor, or bestow spears and banners of
+honor upon various men who have lately distinguished themselves during
+some detached duty in Mauretania. Everything about the place betrays a
+perfect “police”; all commands are executed with extreme promptness;
+and every individual seems absolutely to know his part, as being one
+cog in an enormous war machine, into the making of which has entered an
+almost inconceivable amount of skill and energy.
+
+
+=266. Organization and Discipline of the Prætorians.=--The Prætorians
+are organized much as the ordinary legionary troops with certain proud
+modifications. The regular legions can be recruited from all over the
+Empire; the Prætorians are still drawn only from Italy. They receive
+twice the pay of the legionaries, and their term of service is only
+sixteen years as against twenty with the regulars. Besides these
+advantages, and the joy of living near to the pleasures of Rome, their
+discipline is said to be much easier.
+
+The emperors, who fear the mutterings of the guard-corps much more than
+they do those of the Senate, often shower special bonuses upon the
+Prætorians. Their centurions and still more their tribunes are welcome
+guests in the most aristocratic houses in Rome. Their weapons are the
+same as the legionaries’, but, of course, their armor is of the finest;
+and on gala occasions when the whole corps is ordered out with gilded
+or silvered helmets and cuirasses over purple military cloaks, the
+sight of these thousands of tall powerful warriors marching in perfect
+rhythm is astonishing beyond words.
+
+In one important respect the organization of the Prætorians differs
+from that of the regular legionaries: their nine cohorts number 1000
+instead of 600 men each and the whole guard-corps therefore amounts
+to about 9000 men. Considering that these troops are chosen for their
+splendid physiques, and are trained for years in every military
+accomplishment, remarkable will be the foe of like numbers that can
+withstand them. As for the city of Rome, its whole raging populace is
+like mere chaff and straw if the trumpets sound through the camp, and
+the centurions thunder down their files, “Open the gates and clear the
+streets!”
+
+
+=267. The City Cohorts (_Cohortes Urbanæ_).=--The Prætorians, however,
+have some humbler comrades in Rome, in addition to police-firemen, the
+vigiles. Sometimes the guard-corps must follow the Emperor on campaign,
+but nevertheless the capital needs a fixed garrison. The City Præfect
+(see p. 300), therefore, commands four additional cohorts (_cohortes
+urbanæ_) also of 1000 each, in a special camp in the northern part
+of the metropolis. These “City Cohorts” are organized much like the
+Prætorians, and in a grave emergency would act with them; but they have
+longer terms of service, lesser pay, severer discipline.
+
+It is far less of an honor to belong to this force than to the
+Prætorians, and there is little “fraternizing” between its members and
+the haughty guard-corps. However, they make 4000 more armed men always
+available for the defense and control of the city. Added to these
+can, of course, be the vigiles (7000 strong), easily changeable into
+genuine soldiers in a crisis. This makes the total garrison of Rome,
+while the Prætorians are in the city, around 20,000 men, plus usually
+some marines detached from the squadrons at Ostia and Misenum.
+
+The frontiers are far away, but the central direction of the great
+imperial war machine is inevitably at Rome. From the Prætorian barracks
+issue those orders which can set the legions marching against the
+Caledonians of North Britain or the Arabs of the Syrian deserts. There
+can be no better place, therefore, for inquiry about the organization
+and discipline of that grim efficient engine which maintains the
+Pax Romana and makes possible the splendid, artificial Græco-Roman
+civilization.
+
+High officers are constantly passing through Rome. Some of these men
+have had long and distinguished careers, and among them is a certain
+Aulus Quadratus, a gray and grizzled veteran, now in the capital for
+honorable retirement, after an unusual term of service. By tracing his
+experience, a good insight can be gained into the organization and
+duties of the legionaries.
+
+
+=268. A Private in the Legions: the Legionary Organization.=--Quadratus
+was born in South Gaul (_Gallia Narbonensis_), a country that has
+already been well Romanized, and from which the government draws many
+excellent legionaries.[164] He was a poor free laborer on a great
+estate, but when he was only about eighteen an enrolling officer
+appeared and demanded a certain number of recruits of his master.
+The latter naturally suggested taking several of the youngest and
+least valuable of the hands. Quadratus was strong, courageous,
+and adventuresome, and he did not object to this informal type of
+“selective draft.” Thus he soon found himself a private in the camp of
+the “Second Augustan Legion” (_legio secunda augusta_) stationed in a
+great fortified camp guarding the Rhine somewhere near later Mayence or
+Strassbourg in “Upper Germany” (Alsace and the Rhenish Palatinate).
+
+Once enlisted, Quadratus realized that at least twenty years of
+unremitting service lay ahead of him. Home life and marriage were
+forbidden the soldiery, and their whole lives revolved around the army.
+The Roman discipline caught each man, and each became a valuable and
+contented soldier only so far as he submitted to this discipline and
+merged his personality in the vast organization.
+
+  [Illustration: A SLINGER.]
+
+Quadratus was, therefore, promptly “put under the vinestock,”
+the stout cudgel of twisted vine twigs with which the centurions
+vigorously corrected their tyros. At first he was a very ignorant and
+unimportant part of the “Second Augustan,” but soon he understood its
+organization and became proud of its history. Every legion consisted
+of ten _cohorts_, each in turn divided into six centuries.[165]
+Each century contained in theory a hundred infantry, making 6000 for
+the entire legion. Besides these, there was a small cavalry force for
+scouting attached to each legion, four _turmæ_ (squadrons) of 30
+horsemen each. The various contingents, however, were seldom quite
+full. When the Second Augustan went to battle it reckoned, therefore,
+somewhere under 6000 men.
+
+  [Illustration: ROMAN SIEGE WORKS: restoration of
+  Caesar’s siege works at Alesia.]
+
+
+=269. Training of the Legionaries: the _Pilum_ and the
+_Gladius_.=--Quadratus, under very severe drill masters, learned the
+use of weapons. Nothing could take the place, so he was taught, of
+cool proficiency with sword and javelin. It was the trained valor of
+the average Roman legionary, not the skill often of his commanders,
+that had given to the Cæsars the mastery of the world, and while the
+discipline was strict, and the training incessant, pains were taken not
+to destroy the young man’s self-respect, or those powers of initiative
+which were the glory of his profession.
+
+He was taught furthermore to despise those enemies, who, like the
+old Macedonians, were so lacking in personal resources that they had
+to go into battle wedged together shield to shield with long spears
+bristling in front--the rigid “phalanx” formation. This is excellent on
+level ground when the foe is all ahead, but often becomes a source of
+danger to itself because the closely packed soldiers are deprived of
+any chance to display personal valor, and are almost helpless to change
+position if attacked on flank or rear. Quadratus in his training was
+taught to stand five feet from his comrades on either side with plenty
+of room to swing his shield and javelin.
+
+  [Illustration: STORMING A CITY WITH THE
+  _Testudo_.]
+
+Long exercise made him a master of his two weapons. The heavy javelin
+(_pilum_) is a devilish missile, as every foe of Rome has learned
+to his cost. It is about six and a half feet long with a heavy wooden
+butt and a long blade-like head, usually barbed and razor keen. Flung
+by a practiced soldier at short range it can knock down any adversary
+who is not firmly braced, even if it does not pierce his shield. Once
+lodged in the shield it is no light thing to draw it out and not expose
+oneself to a second deadlier blow.
+
+The pilum, they told Quadratus, was what had really made the Roman
+Empire possible; but it is duly supplemented by the Spanish short sword
+(_gladius_). This is a weapon borrowed, perhaps, from Spain but
+thoroughly Italianized. The blade is about thirty-three inches long,
+two-edged, sharp-pointed, and always used for thrusting. The instant a
+legionary has flung his pilum, and while his foe if not wounded is at
+least utterly demoralized from the shock, he whips his gladius from his
+thigh and leaps upon him. A single good thrust will disembowel a man,
+and he who is thus assailed by a trained Roman swordsman should pray to
+his native gods--he will need all aid possible.
+
+  [Illustration: CATAPULT.]
+
+
+=270. Defensive Weapons.=--These two very simple weapons Quadratus
+was taught to handle to perfection, until across the years their use
+became simply mechanical to him. Meantime he was learning to march,
+leap, and fight in his heavy defensive armor. He wore a stout metallic
+cuirass of fish-scale plates, and a solid helmet of brass upon which in
+parades and in actual battle he set a nodding plume of horse-hair. This
+helmet had brow- and cheek-pieces giving very perfect protection, but
+was so heavy that while marching he was allowed to carry it swung from
+a strap upon his breast.
+
+Of course, however, his chief defensive weapon was his shield. This
+capital piece of armor is a rectangle of solid leather about four by
+two and one half feet, rimmed with iron and with handles for carrying
+on the left arm. A trained legionary knows how to fend and lunge with
+his shield with marvelous agility, and by means of the solid metal
+base in the center he can strike a tremendous blow. Almost no weapon
+can penetrate the shield, and thanks to it and his cuirass and his
+helmet, a soldier can march unscathed amid a perfect shower of arrows.
+Every technical point about his armor has, of course, been worked out
+scientifically. Simple as it appears, it represents a triumph of human
+skill.
+
+  [Illustration: CUIRASS.]
+
+
+=271. Rewards and Punishments for Soldiers.=--Thus accoutered
+Quadratus gained his first experience when the Second Augusta was
+ordered over the Rhine to punish a tribe of Germanic raiders in
+later-day Hessen. In the fighting that ensued he so proved his skill
+and courage that he received his first decoration, the right to wear
+a small banderole upon his pilum when his cohort appeared on parade
+ground. Discipline was severe, but rewards for faithfulness and valor
+were prompt and conspicuous. He had long seen his older comrades
+marching about with “spears of honor,” banderoles, and above all with
+huge medals and medallions, which, upon gala occasions, they wore upon
+their breasts.
+
+Long before Quadratus’s career was ended, he, like many others, had
+a perfect collection of these medals, which hung jangling over his
+cuirass almost like a second coat of armor. Everybody knew the honors
+awarded his comrades, and there was constant emulation to deserve like
+decorations as well as more substantial rewards. No system could be
+better devised to call out the valorous service of simple-hearted and
+often very uncultivated men.
+
+  [Illustration: JAVELIN: _pilum_ of the
+  legionary.]
+
+While Quadratus, without too many blows from his centurions’ vinestock,
+was thus on his way to promotion, he could witness the punishment of
+less fortunate comrades. Stripes, docking of pay, and extra duty were
+the standard penalties; but sometimes there were worse inflictions.
+Once a whole century acted in a cowardly manner. It was sentenced for
+one month to bivouac outside the camp and to eat bread of barley,--not
+of wheat, the food of brave and obedient troops.
+
+Sometimes, of course, capital penalties were demanded. Once a private
+was guilty of gross insubordination; he had to “run the gantlet”
+(_fustuarium_) between two long files of soldiers who beat him with
+cudgels while he dashed vainly down the line, perishing ere he could
+reach the end. Once a detachment of half-drilled auxiliaries fled in
+an outrageous manner before the enemy. To teach a stern lesson these
+irregulars were “decimated”; being forced to stand disarmed before the
+whole legion, while lots were cast selecting every tenth man, who was
+forthwith dragged from the ranks and beheaded.
+
+  [Illustration: SWORD.]
+
+
+=272. Pay and Rations in the Army: Soldiers’ Savings Banks.=--While a
+private Quadratus, of course, drew the private’s pay, 1200 sesterces
+($48) a year,[166] out of which, however, was deducted a certain part
+of his upkeep and equipment. Even as it was, however, this gave fairly
+ample spending money, and every soldier was required to deposit a part
+of his wages in the legionary savings bank, accumulating against the
+day of his happy discharge, and protected from barrack-room gambling
+and squandering. Besides this, brave service often won an increase of
+stipend, more valuable than many medals; and Quadratus was presently a
+_duplarius_, a “double-pay man,” to the great envy of certain comrades.
+
+Army rations would have seemed to another age extremely monotonous, a
+mere succession of huge portions of coarse bread or of wheat porridge.
+There were also distributions of salt pork, vegetables, etc., but the
+legionaries did not care greatly for meat. There were even cases when
+they protested against “too much beef and too little wheat.” As for
+drink, everybody in camp enjoyed plenty of _posca_--the dilution of
+cheap wine and vinegar.[167]
+
+  [Illustration: HELMET.]
+
+
+=273. The Training of Soldiers: Non-Military Labors.=--Drilling
+went on incessantly. Even soldiers versed in their spear play seemed
+forever under arms merely to keep up the camp routine and morale. Every
+man was trained to be a good swimmer, to run, jump, and indulge in
+acrobatic feats like the _testudo_ (when one group of men climbed
+upon their comrades’ heads) so useful in storming walls. Thrice a month
+the whole legion went on a forced practice march, going at least twenty
+miles at four miles (or more) per hour, each man bearing, besides his
+heavy armor, an elaborate baggage kit, half a bushel of grain, one or
+two tall intrenching stakes, a spade, axe, rope, and other tools--a
+weight of sixty pounds.
+
+If strictly military work failed, there were endless civilian labors.
+Quadratus learned to use his spade almost as well as he could his
+pilum. He assisted in making and in repairing the great network of
+magnificent military roads leading to the frontiers. He worked in the
+legionary brick kilns, making bricks for the camps and the numerous
+small _castella_ used to hold back the onthrusting Germans. He helped
+also to rebuild a temple of Jupiter at the garrison town of Mogontiacum
+(Mayence), and later to tug up the stones for a new amphitheater in
+that city. If he had been attached to a Syrian legion, he and his
+comrades might even have been ordered out to repel an invasion not of
+Parthians but of the more devastating locusts.
+
+  [Illustration: SHIELD OF THE LEGIONARY.]
+
+
+=274. Petty Officers in the Legions.=--All this experience came
+to him while he was earning his first promotions. Everybody in the
+legion--except those lowest and highest--had somebody, indeed, whom he
+could command while some one else could command him, and there was a
+very ingenious division and interlocking of power and responsibility.
+
+Petty officers abounded, and having approved himself, Quadratus became
+one of the _principales_ (high privates, and corporals)--first he
+became a _tesserarius_, “bearer of the watchword” for his century;
+then the “horn blower,” responsible often for important signals,
+then the _signifer_, the bearer of the small red flag (_vexillium_),
+surmounted with a small image of Victory, which was the standard of
+the cohort; then he was named _optio_ (“chosen” man by a centurion), a
+centurion’s deputy and assistant, entitled to rank as a real officer
+and responsible for the control of a large squad of men.
+
+  [Illustration: MILITARY TRUMPET.]
+
+At last came one of the most important days of his life. At a general
+parade of the legion the commanding general (_legatus legionis_)
+announced that Quadratus was appointed centurion and solemnly intrusted
+him with the terrible vinestock. There was no danger he would show
+mercy to the raw recruits!
+
+
+=275. The Centurions: their Importance and Order of
+Promotion.=--Quadratus was now a member of that group of officers to
+which the Roman army owed the greater part of its entire discipline,
+morale, and efficiency. There were sixty centurions in every legion.
+They were usually self-made men, sturdy peasants’ sons like himself,
+who had risen from the ranks and then been selected by the general on
+account of merit.
+
+The six military tribunes of each legion were, indeed, of higher rank,
+but they were often untested young noblemen, obliged to get a certain
+“military experience” before returning to Rome to sue for seats in the
+Senate and the favor of the Emperor. The centurions, however, were
+a permanent body. They had enlisted in the legion, and their whole
+life was tied up with it. If their methods were harsh, they prided
+themselves on showing an example of daring yet scientific valor in
+every battle. They were intensely devoted to their corps, its honor,
+and the honor of their comrades. With good centurions a motley host of
+raw recruits soon became formidable legionaries; without them the most
+skilful general might strive in vain to organize an army.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+  LEGIONARIES (REGULAR TROOPS-OF-THE-LINE): one
+  soldier is carrying his equipment upon a “Marius’s Mule,” a
+  staff arranged to serve as a knapsack, invented by Marius
+  about 110 B.C.]
+
+As centurion Quadratus found a straight line of promotion before him.
+He was obliged to begin as the sixth centurion of the tenth cohort,
+and by process of seniority he was entitled to rise to first centurion
+of the first cohort. He was making fair progress but advancement was
+discouragingly slow, and he might have ended (as did most of his fellow
+officers) only part way up the ladder before he reached the retiring
+age, when a great good fortune came to him.
+
+While only a private he had won the “civic crown” (_corona civica_)
+of oak leaves for saving the life of a comrade in battle; he had also
+gained the golden “mural crown” (_corona muralis_) for being the first
+in a desperate storming party over the parapet of a crude fortress
+held by the Germans. But now, while acting as senior centurion of a
+large detachment, with the commanding tribune absent, he learned that
+a Roman garrison somewhere in the heart of the Black Forest region
+was hard pressed by a horde of Chatti. He led up his men suddenly and
+skilfully, broke through and dispersed the Barbarians and saved the
+garrison when it was at last gasp. For this he was awarded the “siege
+crown” (_corona obsidionalis_), a remarkable honor given by the rescued
+garrison, and plaited out of grass and weeds plucked on the spot of
+battle,[168] to the leader who had saved them.
+
+
+=276. The _Primipilus_: the Great Eagle of the Legion.=--This
+distinction made it inevitable that when the post of first centurion in
+the legion fell vacant, Quadratus should be jumped over the heads of
+many others and made _primipilus_ (“first javelin”)--the head of the
+whole corps of centurions, entitled to participate with the tribunes in
+a council of war, and--being, of course, now a man of great practical
+experience--allowed to speak very openly to the Legate of the Legion
+himself. Quadratus was now in some respects the most important man
+in the Second Augustan. His war pay was considerable, and he added
+to it by the permitted usage of taking fees from the men for certain
+exemptions from duty.
+
+  [Illustration: ROMAN OFFICER.]
+
+As primipilus he had the weighty responsibility of taking charge of the
+great golden eagle of the legion. In battle he would sometimes pluck it
+from the ordinary bearer (_aquilifer_), and electrify his comrades
+by dashing ahead with the full-sized golden eagle with outspread wings,
+surrounded by brilliant streamers, now borne on its pole high above his
+shoulders. Where the eagle went, there honor and devotion made every
+legionary follow with the fury of a man possessed. In a certain shrewd
+tussle with the Hermunduri, the valor of the whole phalanx of those
+Barbarians was snuffed out when they saw the glistening _aquila_
+bearing down on them heading a six-thousand-man wedge, with all the ten
+cohort flags like obedient retainers thrusting on behind, and when next
+came the pitiless beat of the pila succeeded instantly by the rush of
+the expert swordsmen.
+
+
+=277. Locations and Names of Legions.=--Having become primipilus
+while still a fairly young man, Quadratus was not at the end of his
+promotion. He had carefully saved his money, and presently he gained
+official nobility as an eques. Now he was appointed to an independent
+command not in the legionary regulars, but in the “auxiliary cohorts.”
+
+Only about one half of the imperial forces are in the legions. These
+are for the heavy fighting; they are kept in large garrisons and are
+used for secondary work as little as possible, nor are they moved from
+province to province except in serious emergencies.[169] The Second
+Augustan has always been in Upper Germany and there presumably it will
+stay for generations more. The same is true of the Third Augustan in
+North Africa, of the Fourth Scythians on the Danube, of the Twelfth
+Thunderers in Syria, and of a good many others. The result is that
+each legion, largely recruited in the nearby provinces, has small
+desire for distant service; and there is little love between, say, the
+“Twenty-first Ravagers” in Upper Germany and the “Sixth Ironclads”
+stationed along the Euphrates.[170]
+
+  [Illustration: LIGHT-ARMED SOLDIER.]
+
+
+=278. The Auxiliary Cohorts: the Second Grand Division of the
+Army.=--But it is absolutely necessary to have a mobile force,
+composed of troops of many kinds, especially cavalry, archers,
+slingers, and light spearmen for scouting. These men are often enlisted
+in the un-Romanized provinces, and are allowed to keep their native
+arms and discipline. As a rule they are organized in unattached
+cohorts, either in “large” cohorts of 1000 men with ten centuries, or
+“small” cohorts of 480 with six so-called centuries. Their commander
+is regularly a “Præfect,” commonly an officer who, like Quadratus, has
+graduated from the stern school of the centurion in a legion.
+
+Auxiliary cohorts are often embodied and disbanded, they have no
+such glorious history and traditions as the legions, but they have a
+distinctive name and a number. Quadratus was assigned to the command
+of a new “large” cohort made up of tall blonde Germans who were glad
+to forget their feuds with the Romans, cross the Rhine, and take the
+Emperor’s pay, swearing to him the great oath of implicit military
+allegiance (_the sacramentum_). The government is far too wise,
+however, to leave such aliens too near their homes. Quadratus was,
+therefore, promptly ordered to march his “Sixth Nervan” (so named in
+honor of the then Emperor Nerva)[171] to the Danube.
+
+The day the new Præfect quitted his old comrades of the Second Augustan
+he drew from the legionary chest all the savings from his pay, plus
+the sums deposited there after each bonus or donation wherewith the
+Emperors were always conciliating the army. He had also long since
+joined a self-help organization among the officers whereby he was to
+receive a fixed sum for his outfit whenever he received promotion.[172]
+He thus started upon his career as an upper officer a tolerably rich
+man.
+
+
+=279. The Præfect of the Camps and the Legate of the Legion.=--As
+Præfect of the Sixth Nervan he won the good opinion of Trajan in both
+of the desperate Dacian Wars and then in the campaign against Parthia.
+As the next step, he was appointed by imperial patent “Præfect of the
+Camps”--the second in command of a legion, not responsible, indeed,
+for its conduct in battle, but with almost complete authority over
+its management and discipline while in its great permanent garrisons,
+subject only (in extreme cases) to the final authority of the
+commanding legate.
+
+This was as high ordinarily as even a very fortunate soldier, who
+had enlisted as a mere private, could advance. Even as Præfect of
+the Camp Quadratus was looked down upon socially by the six young
+military tribunes, scions of senatorial families, who hung around
+the headquarters (_prætorium_), wrote verses, patronized the
+centurions, and boasted of how “they commanded the legion.” But
+Quadratus was, we repeat, an extraordinarily lucky officer. Grizzled
+now and battle-scarred, he impressed Hadrian as absolutely to be
+trusted. The Emperor, therefore, raised him to the rank of “Legate of
+the Legion,” which carried with it a seat in the Senate, and for the
+past few years accordingly Quadratus has been on the Rhine in chief
+command of that same Second Augustan where once he had “submitted to
+the vinestock” as a raw recruit.
+
+He has now returned to Rome to be honorably retired and to end his
+days in a luxurious villa in the hills, having enjoyed every honor
+possible in the Roman army save that of being Imperial Legatus over an
+entire province, a post ordinarily combined with the command of several
+legions. It is men like Quadratus, hard and fit soldiers of absolute
+faithfulness, coolness, courage, and efficiency; steeped in the
+traditions of the army, and obeying automatically the call of military
+duty, that have been the soul of the Roman war-machine. Perhaps some
+day there will be degeneracy in the camps, even as in the luxurious
+city. Then the perils of the Empire will draw nigh--but not in the
+reign of Hadrian.
+
+
+=280. Care for Veterans: Retiring Bonuses and Land Grants.=--Few
+enough of Quadratus’s messmates kept near to him in his upward career.
+To the average recruit, the most to be hoped for is that, before the
+end of his twenty years’ enlistment, he can be somewhere near the rank
+of centurion. But many men learn to enjoy the military life even as
+privates, and when the time for honorable discharge comes, will often
+be glad to reënlist in picked corps of _veterani_, bronzed and
+hardened warriors who make invaluable scouts and bodyguards for the
+upper officers, and who have quite forgotten the modes of civilian life.
+
+If, however, they elect to be mustered out, not merely are there
+accumulations of pay and donations given them from the legion’s savings
+bank, but along with the _honesta missio_ (honorable discharge)
+they receive either a grant of land for a modest farm, or a lump sum
+(some 3000 sesterces--$120) to start them on a peaceful career. If they
+become sick or disabled while in service, reasonably good care is taken
+of them. In any case the constant award of honorary spears, pennons,
+and medals appeals to the soldier’s vanity, and helps to reconcile him
+to a very long enlistment and an equally stiff discipline.
+
+
+=281. Barrier Fortresses; System of Encampments; Flexible Battle
+Tactics; Siege Warfare.=--Into the details of the Roman war machine
+we cannot enter. We cannot discuss the wonderful system of barrier
+fortresses along the junction of the Rhine and Danube upon which
+the northern tribes beat in vain, nor the newly completed “Wall of
+Hadrian” sundering peaceful and guarded Britain from the stark savagery
+of Caledonia. We cannot explain the scientific system of temporary
+encampments, whereby every night--when a legion is on the march,--it
+occupies a square of ground fortified by solid palisades and with
+every tent in precisely the same spot as in the old camp of the
+preceding night--a method insuring that every camp becomes practically
+a fortress, almost impregnable in case of a defeat in the field. We
+cannot visit the permanent garrison towns, such as Colonia Agrippina
+(Cologne) on the Rhine, or Vindobona (Vienna) on the Danube, where
+extensive cities, with all the paraphernalia of civilization, have
+grown up around the cantonments on the very edge of raw barbarism.
+
+It is still less possible to offer here a discussion of the flexible
+legionary battle tactics, whereby each particular foe is met with
+the formations most formidable to his special arms and weaknesses;
+and of the carefully adjusted order of march whereby an army can move
+with all its baggage train through a hostile country defiant of any
+ordinary harassment and flank attack. We must pass over also the system
+of siege warfare, and the use of long-range casting engines--a genuine
+artillery; and finally the wonderfully scientific engineering service,
+building high-roads through deserts, and throwing strong bridges even
+across such mighty streams as the Rhine, and--on Trajan’s Dacian
+campaigns--the Danube.
+
+  [Illustration: STORMING A BESIEGED CITY: casting
+  engines in foreground.]
+
+
+=282. Limited Size of the Imperial Army: its Great Efficiency.=--Two or
+three things about the army, however, call for particular comment. The
+size of these forces seems decidedly small, considering the vast extent
+of the Empire, the slow communications, the careful demilitarizing of
+the provincials, and the absence of any reserve corps or efficient
+militia. The thirty legions (5000 to 6000 men each) reckon perhaps
+175,000 troops of the line. The Prætorians at Rome, the heterogeneous
+and scattered auxiliary cohorts, the small naval force, and other armed
+groups at the command of the government, in all reckon, perhaps, as
+many more; 350,000 men, however, is a very limited number when spread
+out from Britain to the confines of Arabia and the Nile cataracts,
+although only along the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates are there
+now enemies creating serious military problems.
+
+Except at Rome, we have seen that the bulk of these troops is held
+in the frontier garrisons, with all their corps kept on edge in full
+battle efficiency. Let a frontier be in real peril, however, and there
+is no means of reënforcing the local legions save by calling off other
+legions from posts at great distance. Governmental policy has not
+merely disarmed the provincials, it has systematically discouraged
+maintaining the military virtues.[173] If the frontiers are forced
+and the legions fail, the civilian population of the Empire (possibly
+some 80 to 100 millions) will be nigh helpless before a Parthian raid
+or Germanic invader; they can only call on the gods and the distant
+Emperor for aid.[174]
+
+However, as yet, the legions have not failed. The Roman armies, never
+large, but unsurpassed in quality and composed of highly expert
+soldiers steeped in martial tradition, and organized, and commanded
+with scientific skill, lie as a solid barrier around the Mediterranean
+world, and in Hadrian’s day they are holding back possible invaders
+by the mere terror of their name. When one looks, marveling, upon the
+huge, luxurious, sophisticated capital, let it not be forgotten that
+Rome is imperial Rome because far away on the frontiers thirty brigades
+of iron-handed men night and day keep watch and ward.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XVII
+
+                  THE SENATE: A SESSION AND A DEBATE
+
+
+=283. Apparent Authority and Importance of the Senate.=--Powerful
+is the army and powerful its Emperor, yet there is a body to which
+they both pay lip-service, and which still enjoys a prestige and moral
+authority that stamps itself upon the imagination of every man in the
+Roman Empire--the “venerable Senate.”
+
+Theoretically the Senate shares the government with the Emperor,
+controls the state when there is a vacancy in the palace, selects
+the new ruler and bestows on him the “proconsular” and “tribunician
+power,”--the legal bases of his authority. It must be consulted by him
+in every important act, and when he dies it decides whether he is to be
+deified as a god, or suffer the awful “damnation of memory” (_damnatio
+memoriæ_) branding him for all time as a tyrant. It can also declare
+him suspended or deposed from office, set a price on his head and
+order the armies to refuse him obedience. Its formal decrees (_senatus
+consulta_) constitute, now that the old public assemblies have been
+abandoned, the most binding kind of law.
+
+The Senate also governs directly all of those provinces (about half of
+the whole Empire) which do not require any army for defense or control.
+It has its own treasury, and it can strike copper money, although gold
+and silver are reserved to the Emperor, making a considerable profit on
+the seignorage. It acts as supreme court of appeal on all cases which
+rise in the provinces under its government. By the vote of its members
+are elected all those “old Republican” magistrates from consul down to
+_quæstor_ (treasury supervisor) which carry along with the temporary
+glories of office the right to a life seat in the Senate itself--making
+the latter practically a self-perpetuating body. A good Emperor swears
+at the beginning of his reign, “I will never put any senator to
+death”--_i.e._ the Senate shall judge all capital charges against its
+members, even those involving treason.
+
+Besides these prerogatives senators alone are eligible for the highest
+military commands and the governorships of all the larger imperial
+provinces. As already stated (see p. 156), the senators in addition
+constitute the highest aristocracy; they must each possess at least
+1,000,000 sesterces ($40,000) taxable property, and they enjoy all
+the influence that comes to vested prestige and wealth in an age that
+cringes to titles and fortunes. On this showing, the 600 senators
+apparently constitute the most powerful organ in the government.
+
+
+=284. Actual Weakness of the Senate.=--Unfortunately much of this brave
+showing is only a glittering mask. The Senate has not one swordsman
+in Rome or in any of its provinces to obey the summons, “Resist the
+Emperor and his Prætorians.” It ordinarily has to stand helpless while
+the army decides who is to be the next Cæsar in case of a contested
+succession.
+
+After Caligula’s murder in 41 A.D. the Conscript Fathers debated
+earnestly: “Shall we restore the Republic? If not that, which aspiring
+nobleman can we elect as Emperor?” Meantime, the Prætorians, pillaging
+the palace, found the terrified and demoralized Claudius hiding in a
+closet; they dragged him forth and discovered a survivor of the Cæsars
+whose dynasty they greatly wished to perpetuate. “_Ave Imperator!_”
+rang their shout. Soon the senators were informed that their debates
+were unnecessary--Claudius was being proclaimed in the Prætorian Camp.
+The Fathers made haste to bestow on Claudius full imperial powers and
+to congratulate him on his succession. Nobody doubted after that where
+the real power lay.
+
+Besides all this, without mentioning the army, the Emperor has every
+senator personally within his grasp. He can strike any member from the
+_album_ (Senate List) by use of his irresponsible Censorial Power.
+Through that same power he can appoint any favorite to the order by his
+mere fiat. In the elections held within the Senate, he can control the
+choice for any office by announcing that he favors the aspirations of
+such and such a friend; the “Candidates of Cæsar” are always elected.
+In the debates it is a bold senator who dares to face the unpopularity
+of opposing the Emperor’s suggestions;[175] and once let the monarch
+indicate the slightest wish, a whole pack of servile favor-seekers
+will instantly champion the proposition with fervent loyalty. Finally
+by his “tribunician authority” the Emperor can veto any senatorial
+proposal which he dislikes. The power of the “venerable Senate” seems,
+therefore, to have vanished in thin air.
+
+
+=285. Amount of Power Left to the Senate.=--This last is not quite
+true, however. The Cæsars do not, as yet, represent an unvarnished
+despotism; they need a cover for their autocracy,[176] and they have to
+leave to the Senate a certain show of power. No new Emperor’s throne
+furthermore is secure against pretenders until, after the army has
+proclaimed him, the Senate has confirmed him, and no Emperor likes to
+feel that his sole refuge is with the irresponsible swordsmen.
+
+Besides all this, the moral prestige of the Senate is still so great
+that even a Nero or a Domitian hesitates to flout that famous body
+too openly. Finally, be it said, the task of governing the enormous
+Empire is a tremendous burden. A reasonable monarch is glad enough to
+throw upon the Senate a great many problems over which the “Fathers”
+can exhaust their eloquence and which they probably can settle quite
+as wisely as he. If they fail and the case is then dutifully referred
+back to “Cæsar,” his own importance becomes all the greater. If they
+succeed, he gains a reputation for moderation and liberality. The
+senators, on their part, have long since ceased to dream of restoring
+the old Republic. Since the accession of Nerva, 96 A.D., an era of good
+feeling and equilibrium on the whole has existed. The Senate therefore
+still vaunts itself as a coördinate branch of the Roman government.
+
+
+=286. Organization and Procedure of the Senate.=--The Senate of the
+Empire exists in form and procedure very like its predecessor under
+the Republic. Its debates are the talk of the capital and are duly
+reported in the Acta Diurna; and at present, with Hadrian out of the
+city, its supreme presiding officers, the two consuls, affect to be the
+most powerful personages in Rome, although some of the great permanent
+ministers on the Palatine, and especially the Prætorian Præfect, have
+firm doubts on the subject.
+
+When Publius Junius Calvus is compelled to attend sessions of the
+Senate, he has ordinarily been informed a couple of days in advance
+by a _viator_ of one of the consuls bringing a personal notice to
+his home, although urgent meetings can be summoned on much shorter
+notice merely by sending forth a crier. There is no fixed quorum for
+the Senate; although there are 600 lawful members, many of these are
+high government officials absent in the provinces, others are retired,
+elderly dignitaries very loath to quit their luxurious ease in their
+Etruscan or Campanian villas. Since the post of senator is ordinarily
+for life, the body contains an undue proportion of superannuated,
+doddering old men who will only appear on great occasions.
+
+Sessions can thus be held with only a very thin number, say fifty,[177]
+although if the gathering is disgracefully small, those attending
+can shout to the presiding officer, “_Numera! Numera!_” (“Take the
+number!”) and insist on adjournment until the consul’s tipstaffs
+and bailiffs have rounded up a respectable fraction. On this day in
+question, however, there is no danger of a slim attendance. Every
+member in Rome is sure to be present, including certain invalids who
+have to be helped out of their litters and led inside by their freedmen.
+
+Sextus Annius Pedius, ex-proconsul of Asia has been impeached by
+Publius Calvus and a fellow senator, Titus Volusius Atilius, for gross
+extortion and malfeasance in his government. The case has been referred
+to the Senate by Hadrian as lying within its special competence. Pedius
+is of the highest aristocracy, but like most great men has made plenty
+of enemies. Every possible social influence has been mobilized for and
+against him. A great state trial, with an abundance of soaring oratory
+is consequently in prospect. Every senator is in his element.
+
+
+=287. The Curia (Senate House) and Its Arrangement of Benches.=--On
+days when the Senate convenes, the clients can stream into the empty
+atria of their noble patrons, collect their money doles and depart--the
+patrons themselves have set off at first dawn for the council,
+accompanied very probably (if it is not summertime) by link-boys to
+guide them through the still darkened streets. They gather thus at
+_prima luce_ in the rebuilt Curia at the Forum, although sessions can
+be held in almost any other duly consecrated spot, and Pompey built a
+special Curia near his own mansion in the Campus Martius for use when
+he wished to deliberate with the Fathers.[178]
+
+The Curia Julia has a magnificent hall with tiers of comfortable and
+highly carved benches (_subsellia_) curving in a semi-circle not unlike
+the legislative chambers of other times. The six hundred senators sit
+fairly close together, so that the debates can be in easy voice. At
+the entrance the consuls’ viatores and lictors check off the Fathers
+entering to exclude interlopers, but there is no real secrecy. The
+doors are numerous and stand wide, and a curious crowd is permitted
+to linger around them; especially are the young sons of a good many
+senators seen there, eagerly following all the proceedings wherein they
+hope soon to have a part. (See p. 190.)
+
+Facing the benches rises a low dais whereon is a line of curule chairs
+for the consuls and prætors, also a long solid settee whereon ten
+of the younger senators sit down solemnly together. These ten are
+the tribunes of the Plebs,--shorn now of nearly all their ancient
+authority, but still maintaining the “shadow of a great name,” a name
+surviving from the time when, as in the days of such personages as
+Gaius Gracchus, a tribune could be mightier than a consul.
+
+
+=288. The Gathering of the Senators.=--The Fathers drop into their
+seats. No law adjusts their precedence, but etiquette gives the front
+row to the ex-consuls, the next banks to the ex-prætors, behind them
+the former ædiles, tribunes, and quæstors with the _pedani_[179]
+(senators who have never held elective office) modestly in the rear.
+The defendant Pedius attended by several distinguished senators, his
+relatives, all clad in the gray togas of distress and mourning, and
+also by his two advocates both in conventional white, take seats in the
+front benches. As they do this it is noted as of ominous significance
+that several ex-consuls, who had come in first, promptly shift to the
+other side of the hall.
+
+At the center of the platform is observed a majestic, gilded statue of
+Victory, with expanded wings, flowing robes, standing upon a globe, and
+stretching forth a laurel crown.[180] Before it, upon a little altar,
+a few coals are smoking. Presently a door at the side of the platform
+opens, and a lictor signs with his fasces. The chatter across the now
+crowded hall ceases instantly; all the toga-clad figures rise together,
+while the presiding consul, Gaius Juventius Varus,[181] leads in the
+array of magistrates, each in the ornate toga prætexta.
+
+
+=289. Opening the Session: Taking the Auspices.=--Gravely this official
+company seats itself in the curule chairs; gravely Varus casts a
+handful of incense upon the altar before the Victory, and a cloud of
+fragrance fills the hall. Then Varus, a tall and very majestic figure,
+signs to the senators; they also are seated, next his voice sounds
+clearly: “Bring forth the chickens!”
+
+Not a lip twitches in all that sedate audience as two attendants
+appear upon the platform setting down a small coop containing a few
+barnyard fowls. The consul rises and stands beside them; next to him
+takes station an elderly senator also wearing the prætexta and holding
+a staff with a peculiarly shaped spiral head, a _lituus_--the badge
+of office of an _augur_, lawfully entitled to proclaim the will of
+the gods. In a dead hush the servitors pass a small dish of grain to
+the consul who carefully scatters the grain within easy reach of the
+chickens. The latter, carefully starved since yesterday, snap up the
+grains eagerly. They even devour so fast that the wheat drops from
+their bills, a most excellent sign. The augur bends forward intently,
+watching their action, then motions with his staff: “_There is no evil
+sight nor sound!_” he announces in solemn formula.
+
+  [Illustration: COOP OF SACRED CHICKENS USED IN
+  DIVINATION.]
+
+A mutter of relaxation passes around the Senate. The servitors carry
+out the chicken coop. The consul shakes his great draperies around
+him with studied dignity and turns to the waiting assembly. “Affairs
+divine” have been attended to; “affairs human” can now begin.
+
+
+=290. Presentation of Routine Business: Taking a Formal Vote.=--Even
+under the Empire it is a glorious thing to be consul, with the twelve
+lictors, the temporary colleagueship with the Emperor, and the right to
+preside over the most magnificent council in the world. Varus carries
+himself with the dignity of a nobleman who has enjoyed a long career
+in the Senate and now is at the summit of his aspirations. Every
+tradition of the ancient body has been cherished; and the solemn forms
+still differ little from those in the great conclave that piloted the
+overthrow of Carthage.
+
+The chief business of the day is the trial of Pedius, but a certain
+lesser matter demands prior disposition. The consul has received a
+dispatch from the proprætor of Sicily (a “senatorial” province) asking
+if he can be empowered to remit the taxes of certain peasants near
+Agrigentum, whose crops have suffered from the blight. Varus begins
+with the time-honored formula, “That it may be well and fortunate to
+the Roman people, the Quirites, we refer this thing to you, _patres
+conscripti_.” Then in well-chosen words he gives the substance of
+the governor’s request, and reads certain correspondence explaining the
+plight of the peasants; having thus finished his _relatio_--the
+“presentation of the problem”--he ends with another formula, “What is
+it your pleasure to do concerning this matter?”
+
+If the business be contentious, now might begin a vigorous debate; but
+the governor’s request, based on wise policy, is not worth questioning
+and almost everybody wants to proceed to the trial. The consul,
+therefore, after a pause, demands, “Is it your will to grant this
+thing? Let then all the Conscript Fathers favoring pass to the right!”
+
+One garrulous old senator anxious for a chance to speak, indeed
+begins shouting “_Consule! Consule!_” (“Take counsel!”--_i.e._ start
+a debate.) If many others join him, Varus can be forced to permit a
+long-winded discussion; but the troublemaker is without a second. The
+senators with one accord seem rising and passing to the right side of
+the Curia. Nobody ventures to go to the left. The motion thus carries
+unanimously. The company resume their seats; then all eyes are again
+upon the consul when with clear voice he commands: “Let the accusers of
+Sextus Annius Pedius stand forth.”
+
+
+=291. Presenting an Impeachment at a Senate Trial.=--Publius Calvus
+rises from the front benches opposite the defendant, allows the many
+folds of his toga to fall magnificently around him, thrusting them back
+just enough to reveal the purple laticlave running down his tunic,
+and carefully adjusts a ring so its great emerald will give precisely
+the correct flash as he gestures. Directly behind him, inconspicuously
+garbed stands a favorite freedman, avowedly to pass him papyri and
+tablets which he will read, but really quite as much to whisper, “Drop
+your tones!” “Speak louder!” or “Not so shrill!” and like promptings as
+the oration progresses.[182]
+
+The Senate, of course, cannot be expected to put in weary days
+listening to intricate and sordid testimony. All this has been taken
+before a special board of judges, and on their report there is no real
+doubt of Pedius’s guilt. He has taken a bribe of 300,000 sesterces
+($12,000) to banish a Roman eques from his province and has put seven
+less-protected provincials, friends of this eques, to death; worse
+still, he has taken still another bribe of 700,000 sesterces ($28,000)
+for committing the unspeakable outrage of causing yet a second eques
+to be first beaten with rods, next hustled off to the mines, then
+actually strangled in prison. The prominent provincials from Asia have,
+therefore, presented an absolute case against their evil ex-governor.
+The lesser culprits have mostly confessed and received appropriate
+penalties--and the only question really before the Senate is fixing the
+punishment of Pedius.
+
+He is a great noble with great connections. Ought a senator who has
+held the consulship be banished and ruined even if he _has_ misgoverned
+his province, taken bribes and done to death an eques--one of those
+upstart half-nobles whom every true senator should scorn? Pedius
+does not lack friends who have told him to brazen it out, and that
+no severe penalty can befall him; and he glares defiantly across to
+Calvus as the latter begins his argument.
+
+
+=292. The Water Clocks; Methods of a Prosecutor; Applause in the
+Senate.=--Just as the chief prosecutor commences, the servitors
+reappear and set close beside him a large glass vessel upon a wooden
+stand, perforated to empty slowly into a second vessel beneath, and
+when thus emptied the upper container is promptly refilled. Calvus
+has been informed he can have “only four water clocks” (about two
+hours)--an outrageously insufficient number in his opinion, when many
+an advocate can get twelve--but time must be given the other orators
+and after that the Senate must discuss and vote.
+
+Speedily Calvus warms to his task, and in long periods of sonorous
+Latin his voice resounds through the Curia. He delights to expand upon
+the enormity of the crime of putting to death not a mere provincial,
+not a simple Roman plebeian, but a Roman eques. His speech abounds with
+elegant and apparently impromptu allusions, metaphors and similes--duly
+practiced half a month before. He goes out of his way to pay an
+extended and fulsome compliment to the benignity and liberality of the
+Emperor in condescending to let the Senate settle the issue. Words at
+length almost fail him when he calls on the Fathers in the name of
+Justice, Virtue, Heavenly Vengeance, and all the other guardian deities
+of the state to punish the hideous misdeeds of such a criminal as
+Pedius.
+
+As he proceeds the Senate kindles at his eloquence. First his personal
+friends who are sitting directly behind him begin to shout “_Euge!_”
+and “_Sophos!_” Then the applause re-echoes from all over the hall.
+Presently the occupants of the curule chairs on the platform begin to
+clap, the consul half rises from his seat as if transported by the
+oratory, and even Pedius’s own advocates politely join in that applause
+which Calvus is professionally bound to return with interest as soon
+as they begin to speak in turn.
+
+Soon, all too soon, for the orator, and for those senators who love
+“the good old times,” when an advocate could thunder all day long, the
+four water clocks are exhausted. Calvus subsides, to be immediately
+surrounded by his friends who compare his efforts to those of Cato,
+Hortensius, Cicero, and such later masters as Cornelius Tacitus; while
+the freedman immediately speeds off to inform Gratia of the “wonderful
+triumph” of her husband--a triumph of oratory, whatever be the actual
+verdict.
+
+
+=293. Speech for the Defendant: Methods of a Professional
+Advocate.=--After order is restored a grave old senator--Quintus
+Saturius--arises to answer the prosecutor. He is a professional
+advocate of fame, but evil report has it that in his youth under
+Domitian he was a _delator_ (professional accuser), and won a fortune
+by prosecuting the innocent victims of that bad Emperor’s disfavor.
+Since then he has never been squeamish in accepting doubtful causes.
+The law only allows him 10,000 sesterces ($400) as the fee from each
+legal client, but the latter has plenty of indirect means of showing
+his “gratitude,” and Saturius’s wealth now is enormous. This morning he
+has carefully smeared eye-salve above his left eye--a token that he is
+to speak for the defendant, not over the right as if for the plaintiff.
+His toga also floats in billowy folds, his hands flash with costly
+rings, and his powerful voice soon booms through the Curia.
+
+  [Illustration: CICERO DENOUNCING CATILINE BEFORE THE
+  SENATE: painting in modern Senate House in Rome.]
+
+Saturius does not waste time denying that many of Pedius’s misdeeds
+have been proved, but he praises at great length his client’s
+“glorious ancestry” and distinguished social connections. As for
+the accusations,--what if he did abuse his office? Was a member of
+the great house of the Annii to be held down to the sordid rules
+befitting mere plebeians and freedmen? What if an eques _had_ been
+wrongfully done to death? Was not the fellow by birth a Phrygian who
+had gained first citizenship and then the “narrow-stripe” merely by the
+use of his wits? How could so great a man as the Proconsul of Asia be
+expected to live on a beggarly salary of 1,000,000 sesterces ($40,000)?
+
+At this point Saturius’s voice begins in fact to tremble with pathos.
+How can the Conscript Fathers bring themselves to disgrace all the
+defendant’s distinguished relatives who just now are sitting behind
+him in the gray togas of public mourning? Think of his distressed wife
+whose father and all three uncles were at least prætors! Think of his
+brother who had been killed bravely fighting the Parthians! Think of
+his two sons whose public careers would be blighted by the disgrace of
+their father! Think finally of the Senate itself--what contempt upon
+the “Venerable Order” if one of its most prominent members should be
+ruined on the testimony of mere provincials and upstarts! etc., etc.
+
+
+=294. Concluding Speeches; Interrupting Shouts; Personal
+Invectives.=--Saturius, ere concluding, works himself into a fine
+passion. He also gets sallies of applause--mostly from the self-same
+men who have just cheered Calvus. But at some of his assertions there
+are murmurs of dissent, and even open shouts such as “Drop that
+argument!” “Don’t insult our intelligence!” Finally, however, he
+sits down, having exhausted his four water clocks. More cheers, more
+congratulations, everybody swears to his neighbor the day is proving an
+intellectual feast.
+
+The consul proclaims an interim; and the Conscript Fathers adjourn
+to stretch their limbs, snatch a hasty collation provided by their
+attendants and discuss the arguments. Then all resume when Marcus
+Petreius, Pedius’s junior advocate, continues for the defense. The
+hostile attitude of the Senate has impressed the defendant’s counsel,
+and Petreius enters into an elaborate appeal for mercy, with many fine
+invocations of the “Divine Clemency,” and reminders of how any senator
+might some day find himself in Pedius’s horrid predicament. Petreius
+is allowed “less water” than Saturius; he gets considerable applause,
+however, when he finishes, but knowing members shake their heads: “They
+cheer his oratory and not his cause.”
+
+In fine mettle therefore Titus Atilius, Calvus’s associate, next sums
+up for the prosecution. Atilius is a relatively young man, as yet only
+an ex-quæstor; and to-day is his glorious opportunity. Carried away
+on a flood of invective, he allows himself, as is permitted by usage,
+to cover not merely Pedius but even Pedius’s advocate with a storm of
+bitter personalities. When he thunders against Saturius’s sycophantic
+career there are wild shouts of applause from all over the Curia; and
+more applause follows when he ridicules certain physical infirmities of
+the miserable defendant.[183] Pedius rises with supplicatory gestures
+and appeals loudly to the ten tribunes, “Oh, very noble tribunes
+protect me!”--but the ten sit stolid and silent upon their bench and
+he subsides with blenching cheeks. His advocates, exchanging knowing
+glances, are seen to be gathering up their tablets.
+
+
+=295. Taking the Opinion of the Senate.=--At last Atilius’s “water”
+has likewise ended. Amid another whirlwind of applause and rush of
+congratulating friends he takes his seat. The consul Varus rises with
+extreme dignity, and beckons with his hand. Every senator instantly is
+tense and silent.
+
+“We do now,” proclaims Varus, “take the opinions (_sententiæ_)
+of the Conscript Fathers concerning that which it befits should be
+done in the case of Sextus Annius Pedius this day arraigned and tried.
+You have heard his accusers and his advocates. I shall call the album
+of the Senate.” He holds up tablets whereon are listed the senators
+in order of official rank and precedence; then turns to the members
+seated directly before him, the magistrates-elect for the ensuing year,
+summoning first the senior consul designate, Appius Lupercus:
+
+“_Dic, Appie Luperce!_”
+
+Appius Lupercus, an elderly aristocrat, the head of an ancient family,
+rises amid a portentous hush. The “right to speak first,” possessed by
+the Emperor when present, is invaluable. All the orators for either
+side have really aimed their best arguments toward Lupercus, knowing
+his prerogative, but his “cold looks” toward Pedius have already fallen
+as ice upon the friends of the defendant. His voice now carries through
+the expectant Curia.
+
+“Conscript Fathers:--It is true that Sextus Pedius is a man of exalted
+birth; the more shame, therefore, that he has disgraced the name of
+a _clarissimus_ of the Venerable Senate. It is true his victims were
+either provincials or citizens of provincial origin:--the law is
+impartial, the Roman Empire has been established upon the inflexible
+rule of ‘piety’ giving alike to gods and to men that which is lawfully
+their due. If he has outraged provincials the case is clear; long ago
+the Emperor Tiberius expressed the ruling policy when he said, ‘A good
+shepherd shears his sheep but does not flay them.’ If Pedius has also
+outraged citizens, much more equites, wherein lies the boast ‘_Civis
+Romanus sum!_’, if these men, whatever their original birth, cannot
+demand lawful vengeance at our hands?
+
+“My opinion, therefore, is this: let the defendant’s ill-gotten bribes
+be confiscated to the treasury, and let Pedius himself be banished from
+Rome, and Italy; let his lesser confederates be banished from Rome,
+from Italy, and also from the Province of Asia. Since also Publius
+Calvus and Titus Atilius have pleaded the cause of the provincials
+with diligence and fearlessness, let them receive the thanks of the
+Senate. Such is my opinion!”
+
+A great murmur rises--applause with some shouts of dissent. “Hangman!”
+“Butcher!” rise from the little knot of Pedius’s relatives. Then Varus
+calls on the second consul designate, Atticus, who, rising stiffly,
+says with clear voice, “I agree with the most noble Lupercus,” and
+promptly takes his seat.
+
+One by one the ex-consuls, each summoned by turn, announce that they
+also agree with Lupercus, until one cynical old aristocrat, the
+ex-consul Gavius, notorious for his own sensual life and the manner
+whereby he enriched himself in Africa, yet powerful through his vast
+wealth and influential connections, announces that he is confident
+the Senate should show mercy. “Let Pedius disgorge the money and
+forfeit the priesthood of Mars which he holds--that will be punishment
+enough. A good lesson has been taught and the unfortunate man has been
+disgraced enough already.”
+
+
+=296. An Uproar in the Senate: an “Altercation.”=--Instantly the Senate
+is in an uproar. The shorthand reporters[184] can hardly take down
+all the interrupting shouts that are tossed back and forth: “How now,
+Marcus Æmilius Gavius, will you let such a scoundrel go?” “What are
+those provincials but scum anyway!” etc., etc. A violent “altercation”
+follows, several senators rising and demanding that Gavius explain
+himself. The old reprobate however cleverly stands his ground, and is
+vigorously cheered by many who will not actually support his proposal.
+
+At last the house cools down. The taking of the opinion now proceeds
+among the prætors-designate and the ex-prætors. No senator can
+speak twice, but each man, when on his feet, has great liberty of
+action--several of the younger men half ironically support Gavius, and
+one senator earns unpopularity by insisting on his right of the floor
+and calling attention to the embezzlements reported in the African
+municipality of Utica--a matter quite beside the question. Two or three
+long and eloquent speeches are delivered in favor of Lupercus’s stern
+proposal. It is growing late and nobody wants to call on the ex-ædiles
+and other junior senators,[185] and cries are rising, “_Divide!
+Divide!_”
+
+
+=297. Taking a Vote of the Senate. A Sentence of Banishment.=--Varus
+again rises, “Conscript Fathers: you have heard the opinions of these
+very noble men of consular and prætorian rank. Two propositions are
+before you. Those who favor the penalties for Sextus Pedius proposed by
+Appius Lupercus let them walk to the right! Those the lesser penalty
+proposed by Marcus Gavius to the left.”
+
+The hundreds of togas rise together. Gavius is not without a certain
+minority of supporters who start with him to the left, but most of
+these, seeing how many ex-consuls of birth and character are following
+Lupercus, desert Gavius, who is left with only a trifling band around
+him. There is no need for Varus to count the result. Even while the
+Senate is dividing the luckless Pedius, with his kinsmen and advocates,
+is seen gliding through a side exit. It is the defendant’s right thus
+to anticipate sentence and to slip away with as little ignominy as
+possible into exile.
+
+At a word from the consul the senators return to their seats. The long
+shadows of evening are stretching through the doors of the Curia, as
+Varus announces that Sextus Pedius having been convicted of high crimes
+is banished from Rome and from Italy. He must quit the city to-morrow.
+He must quit Italy in twenty days. Should he tarry or return he will
+be “cut off from fire and water,” and dealt with “after the ancient
+custom”--_i.e._ he will be scourged with his head in a forked
+stake, then sewed in a bag with a cock, a dog, and a viper, and flung
+into the sea.
+
+Everybody is anxious to be gone. In the great mansions six hundred
+expensive cooks are fuming over the delay to six hundred expensive
+dinners. The terrible fate of Pedius will make talk for all Rome
+through ten days. Varus raises his hand and at length pronounces
+the sonorous ancient formula, “_Nihil vos moramur, patres
+conscripti_”--“We detain you no longer, Conscript Fathers.”
+
+Publius Calvus and Titus Atilius are escorted homeward by groups of
+fellow senators as if they were triumphant generals. Their skill,
+eloquence, pathos, and legal learning are praised to the skies. Each
+is assured that “he has rendered himself and his friends immortal!”
+Each to-morrow will begin rewriting his speech, introducing many
+fine arguments which he has had no time to utter.[186] These will be
+embalmed in his published works which will be presumably carried some
+day, tied to poles, in a conspicuous place in his funeral procession.
+
+So ends a typical meeting of the Senate under the Empire; noble forms,
+much dignity, a perfect river of eloquence, a judicial decision in
+this case conforming with justice, but handling no great issues of
+diplomacy, high finance, or peace or war. Already Pedius’s friends are
+consoling him, as he drearily prepares to retire to Macedonia: “In a
+few years at worst we can get your pardon from the Emperor.”
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XVIII
+
+   THE COURTS AND THE ORATORS. THE GREAT BATHS. THE PUBLIC PARKS AND
+                           ENVIRONS OF ROME
+
+
+=298. Roman Court Procedure Highly Scientific.=--If Publius Calvus
+does not have to attend the Senate, two places will assuredly devour
+a great part of his normal day--the court-house and the public baths.
+Even if he is not plaintiff, defendant, or witness, like every man of
+his class he delights in listening to oratory, and etiquette requires
+that, whenever one of his numerous friends argues a case, he, with as
+many other senators and equites as possible should sit in the front
+of the audience, to “lend their distinguished influence,” to lead the
+salvos of applause, and even to stand up conspicuously behind the
+orator at critical points in his argument.
+
+Roman courts are not like the Athenian dicasteries, huge juries of
+many hundreds,[187] with tumultuous appeals from the letter of the
+law to the emotions of the members. Personal influence has its part,
+but everything is regulated, orderly, scientific. Cases which do not
+involve the safety of the state or the fate of distinguished personages
+are usually argued coldly, and with a nice attention to technicalities.
+Your Roman jurisconsult (expert in the law) is as much superior to
+an Athenian in developing the science of formal justice, as another
+Athenian might be to a Roman, in breathing life into chiseled marble.
+The administration of law is intricate. There are courts behind courts,
+with final appeal either to the Senate (as we have just seen) or to
+the Emperor.[188] The “law’s delays” are perfectly well understood by
+adroit advocates; and Martial records a case that took twenty years
+while dragging through three successive courts--to the ruin of both
+sets of litigants.
+
+
+=299. The Great Tribunals in the Basilicas.=--If we visit the great
+basilicas, we find two kinds of tribunals steadily functioning. For
+much civil business there is the great “Court of the Centumviri,” a
+board not of “One Hundred” but actually of one hundred and eighty
+distinguished citizens, who sit sometimes all together, sometimes
+divided into four groups for conducting trials simultaneously. Their
+stronghold is the Basilica Julia. It is a great honor to argue before
+the Centumviri, and every advocate exhausts his wiles to induce the
+grave judges to pay him the highest compliment (as they did to Pliny
+the Younger) by “suddenly leaping to their feet and applauding him as
+if they could not help themselves.”
+
+The most of the higher litigation, however, goes before _judices_. A
+_judex_ may be one of the great panel of 4000 citizens,--senators,
+equites, and plebeians of substance who can be called upon to serve as
+a kind of jury for ordinary trials of importance. The size of such a
+jury depends on the nature of the case as provided by statute,--you can
+have from 32 members up to a full 100. There is a high judge over the
+entire body, either the prætor, or a professional expert in the law,
+the _judex quæstionis_, who controls the presentation of evidence and
+the strictly technical parts of the trial.
+
+After the evidence has been submitted, orally or in writing, and the
+orators have exhausted themselves, the jurors take small wax-covered
+tablets and vote, each man marking simply letters: A = _absolvo_, “Not
+guilty,” C = _Condemno_, “Guilty,” N.L. = _Non Liquet_, “No verdict.” A
+bare majority can either acquit or condemn, but, of course, no man is
+condemned on a plurality, and a tie means acquittal. If “No verdict”
+is the decision, the case can still go to another trial. Roman juries,
+therefore, do not have to be locked up for days to compel them to agree.
+
+However, this jury system is often inconvenient and does not adapt
+itself to that very technical justice in which the Roman jurisconsults
+increasingly delight. More and more cases are being tried by a single
+_judex_, or a small bench of _judices_, men highly trained in the
+law, and especially appointed by the prætor or other high official,
+to investigate a given case and report their findings. Under the
+later Empire the large juries will disappear altogether, and a few
+professional judges will become arbiters alike of the law and the
+evidence--an excellent system from the standpoint of scientific
+jurisprudence, but not so excellent if these judges become corrupt,
+pliable, or subject to class prejudices.
+
+
+=300. Great Stress on Advocacy.=--Whatever the tribunal may be,
+great is the stress laid on the arts of the advocate. Calvus has served
+a long probation arguing in the basilicas before his day of glory
+came in the Senate. All the young Ciceros in the rhetoric schools
+dream of the hour when they can stand in flowing togas before the
+high raised platform of the judices, wave their arms, throw out their
+voices, and plead the cause of some widow, or arraign some embezzler
+or extortioner. The mere fact that senatorial speeches have to be
+extremely careful, lest they trench upon imperial prerogative, puts
+a greater premium upon private argument in the courts where usually
+“Cæsar” has no interests.
+
+The rewards of successful eloquence are great;[189] and if the legal
+fees are small, rich clients, at least, never fail with big New Year’s
+presents, and with legacies in their wills. Besides there are no
+governmental prosecuting attorneys. Criminal actions can be started by
+any citizen against any possible offender. To reward such zeal, a good
+part of the fines or confiscated property of convicted criminals goes
+to the self-appointed prosecutor. It is thus easy to see how, under
+Tiberius, Nero, and Domitian, the delators (“professional accusers”)
+grew fat prosecuting wealthy senators for “treason.” These good days
+for the profession seem over, but the incomes of certain of the
+leading advocates are princely, some almost vying with those of the
+earlier Vibius Crispus and Epirius Marcellus, who had over 200,000,000
+sesterces ($8,000,000) apiece.
+
+
+=301. Cheap Pettifogging Lawyers.=--On the other hand Rome is infested
+with starving pettifoggers, pretentious wretches, sleeping in dirty
+tenements, and with hardly a decent toga to wear when they argue on
+petty cases in the præfect’s court. Sometimes they get a better class
+of client, hire a good robe and ring to wear at the trial, and win the
+case in the Basilica. Their client will very likely decorate the stairs
+to their tenement with palm leaves, but as the only fee[190] send them
+a quantity of uncertain edibles--“a dried-up ham, a jar of sprats,
+some veteran onions, or five flagons of [very cheap] wine that has
+just sailed down the Tiber!” If any money is actually paid, lucky the
+advocate who does not have to split his fee with some agent who has
+secured the case for him!
+
+
+=302. Character Witnesses; Torture of Slave Witnesses.=--One thing
+more concerning these trials must be noted: the testimony of Roman
+citizens carries much greater weight than that of aliens, and the
+unreliability of Græco-Levantines is notorious. Freeborn men, Roman or
+provincial, testify under oath. Only accusers have the right to compel
+the attendance of unwilling witnesses, but the defense can bring not
+merely voluntary witnesses to the facts, but can present as many as ten
+_laudatores_, character witnesses, and if men of high standing are
+vigorous in their friends’ praises, their opinions will offset very
+many ugly facts in the testimony.
+
+Frequently enough, however, the statements of slaves have to be taken.
+These wretches, having little better status before the law than
+animals, can only testify under torture. No master, nevertheless,
+except in cases of treason, can ordinarily be compelled to let his
+slaves testify _against_ him, but it is assumed that torture is
+necessary if a master voluntarily offers his slave as witness,--for
+what slave would dare uncompelled to say anything unwelcome to his
+master in view of the terrific flogging waiting after he gets home?
+The situation in short as to slave testimony is substantially as in
+Athens.[191] This use of the rack and flogging post is one of the worst
+blots upon the highly scientific and usually reasonable and humane
+judicial system of Rome.
+
+
+=303. Written Evidence; High Development of the Advocate’s Art.=--On
+the other hand much weight is given to reliable written evidence.
+Public documents from the record office, and the careful entries on
+bankers’ ledgers are continually being introduced as testimony.
+Much of the forensic oratory also is of a high order. The rhetoric
+schools have not taught their better pupils in vain; despite much
+silly display, “appeals to the emotions,” and artificiality, the art
+of advocacy has never completely lost touch with the promotion of
+justice; and usually the verdict goes still to him who best meets Cato
+the Elder’s pungent definition of the true orator, _vir bonus, dicendi
+peritus_ (“the good man versed in the art of speech”), and who recalls
+that great republican’s classic injunction for all advocates--_rem
+tene, verba sequentur_ (“Grasp the subject and the words will
+follow”).[192]
+
+In all matters not touching certain high interests the Roman courts are
+perhaps as disinterested and clean as human tribunals can well be, and
+the average _judex_ is charged with a passionate desire to do that
+which is formally right. In the courts the spirit of Rome is often to
+be seen at its best.
+
+
+=304. Popularity and Necessity of the Baths.=--As the afternoon
+advances, however, unless the case is extremely urgent, or the
+advocates unwontedly skilful, the impassive toga-clad figures upon
+the high seats of the tribunals begin to show signs of uneasiness.
+The pleaders themselves reach in turn a suitable climax, as the
+last filling of the water clocks runs out;--if necessary they can
+finish their castigations or their excuses to-morrow. The courts are
+adjourned, and judges, litigants, advocates, spectators, all hasten
+from the Basilicas possessed with the thought which is common to nigh
+every man in Rome not of the most unfortunate class--“To the Baths!”
+
+The warm Italian climate makes frequent ablutions not merely
+comfortable but necessary, but in the stern old days of the
+earlier Republic Seneca specifically assures us that the fathers
+of Rome were not wont to wash all over oftener than once a week
+(_nundinæ_).[193] Long before the age of Hadrian, however, a daily
+bath became a personal necessity. No dinner can be enjoyed without it.
+No respectable man can feel comfortable deprived of it.
+
+As the bathing habit grows, its luxury and elaboration grow
+correspondingly. The daily bath becomes a social ceremony, and the
+bathing place becomes almost as indispensable as the forum, or the
+triclinium. Other peoples and ages may equal or surpass the Romans in
+actual cleanliness; none can develop institutions really corresponding
+to the enormous public _thermæ_ scattered over the capital.[194]
+
+
+=305. Luxurious Private Baths.=--Probably every senator and all
+the more pretentious equites have sumptuous private baths in their
+own mansions. Here they can go when visits to the public thermæ are
+inconvenient, or to refresh themselves between the long courses of
+their great dinner parties.
+
+The luxury of these private baths can be so prodigious as to afford
+constant texts for the Stoical philosophers. Seneca has waxed almost
+frantic telling how an aristocrat feels somewhat poverty-stricken
+unless “the walls [of his bath] shine with great costly slabs, and
+marbles of Alexandria tricked out with reliefs in stone from Numidia,
+and with the whole ceiling elaborately covered with all varieties
+of paintings, and unless Thasian marbles inclose the swimming pool,
+and the water gushes out of silver taps”; likewise “how many a rich
+freedman adorns his baths with fine collections of statues and a
+multitude of pillars supporting nothing but serving only as ornaments.”
+Essential, too, are such private baths for those so devoted to the
+enjoyment that they insist on bathing several times a day.
+
+
+=306. Government and Privately Owned Public Baths: Both Very
+Popular.=--Even great nobles, however, enjoy the society and
+recreations afforded by the public establishments; and there is often
+no better way for a rich senator to display pomp and circumstance than
+to enter one of the huge thermæ followed by a long train of slaves,
+freedmen, and clients. Men of business, and, of course, mere toilers
+must visit the baths when their duties give temporary leisure, but for
+everybody who can control his time there is one preferable period--the
+eighth or ninth hour, two or three P.M. It is around this time
+that the bath attendants heat all their huge tanks to boiling and make
+ready with an endless supply of anointing oils and “strigils” (metal
+scrapers) to care for the onrush of the multitudes.
+
+There are about sixteen enormous public baths in Rome owned by the
+government, although often their care is leased to contractors. Small
+baths, privately owned, opened to anybody at a tolerable fee and
+managed solely for profit, exist in addition all over the city, and
+nearly nine hundred stand licensed on the City Præfect’s books. Some of
+these privately owned baths are elegant establishments, offering great
+luxuries at corresponding prices.
+
+The keepers of a bath-house (_balneatores_) rank low in social
+estimation, for many of their places are the scenes of gross reveling
+and debauchery; but there is excellent money in the business. Their
+baths have names something like inns, and going about the metropolis,
+we have noticed the “Baths of Daphne,” “The Æolian,” “The Diana,” “The
+Mercury,” or they are simply called from the names of the owners, as
+“Faustinian Baths” or “The Crassian.” On a signboard one can read
+that the “Thermæ of Marcus Crassus” offer both salt- and fresh-water
+baths.[195]
+
+
+=307. The Great Baths of Trajan: Baths, Club-House, and
+Café.=--However, if one would see and meet the world, a visit to the
+great public baths is absolutely necessary. Some of these are located
+on the outskirts of the capital; for example, the magnificent Baths
+of Agrippa stand near the Pantheon in the Campus Martius; but only a
+short distance from Publius Calvus’s mansion on the Esquiline rise what
+are, perhaps, the finest public thermæ as yet existing in Rome, those
+of Trajan, which were rebuilt on the site of a similar establishment
+earlier erected by Titus.[196]
+
+The Baths of Trajan constitute more than a vast establishment where
+perhaps a thousand persons can bathe in the various tanks and pools
+simultaneously. They supply many of the needs which another age
+will meet partly by the club-house and partly by the café. They are
+frequented by women as well as men, although the former are expected
+to make their visits particularly during the morning hours and certain
+special rooms are set aside for their use. These rules, however, are
+often violated, and scenes can take place at the Baths of Trajan which
+from the standpoint of a later time are simply indescribable.
+
+
+=308. Heterogeneous Crowds in the Great Baths.=--One of the glories of
+the great thermæ is their apparent democracy. Any freedman is entitled
+to make use of them, although there are doubtless special recreation
+and reposing rooms reserved for the rich elect. In theory the public
+baths are free, but except on gala occasions when the Emperor wishes to
+win popularity, there is usually a standard charge for admission of a
+_quadrans_, a small copper coin (about ¼ cent). This simply covers the
+expense of the attendants who look after one’s clothes, and provides
+the oil for anointing--the use of the magnificent building goes for
+nothing.
+
+In such a place persons of every station can be seen mingling
+together, social barriers partially break down, and a delightful
+informality prevails. It is recorded of Hadrian that when he is in
+the city, he proves his “liberal” habits by frequenting the public
+baths and bathing in the great pools along with the meanest of his
+subjects. Every afternoon, therefore, the thermæ are the scenes of
+intensely bustling life. The noise rising from their great halls is
+terrific--the shouting, laughing, splashing, running, exercising, going
+on continuously.[197]
+
+The Romans are preëminently a sociable people. They delight in the free
+and easy contacts of the baths. What place has witnessed more financial
+bargains struck, quarrels started or abated, lawsuits arranged,
+marriage treaties negotiated, philosophical theories spun, artistic
+points discussed, or even matters of imperial policy promoted than the
+thermæ of Trajan? At the thermæ are continued all those matters you
+talked over in the Forum this morning and which you will finish on the
+supper couches to-night. The place, however, to a stranger is utterly
+bewildering in its hugeness, its noise and the hurrying of its crowds
+and its complexity, and few scenes in Rome could be more novel to a
+visitor from another civilization.
+
+  [Illustration: PLAN OF ROMAN PUBLIC BATHS: partly
+  conjectural.]
+
+
+=309. Entering the Thermæ.=--We can follow Calvus as he approaches
+by the great southern portal which looks down from the slopes of the
+Esquiline upon the great gray cylinder of the Flavian Amphitheater.
+Before us stretches an enormous portico, fronting a high masonry
+wall, of course crowned at many points with statues. The entrance
+is relatively narrow in order to control the thousands of persons
+streaming inside, each passing his copper to the attendants at the
+gate. But once past the barrier, we see before us the vista, apparently
+not of a bathing establishment, but of an ample, inclosed park, girded
+on every side with handsome porticoes, scattered with trees, bright
+shrubbery, and groups of sculpture, but with the domes seemingly of a
+magnificent palace rising from the middle of the area.
+
+This park is teeming with life; young men in the scantiest of costume
+are running races on a long sandy track, others are tossing ball,
+others engaged in a wrestling contest, Greek fashion, before a crowd
+of spectators wedged upon seats along a kind of stadium. In a kind
+of kiosk, or small temple, in a remote corner behind the shrubbery a
+venerable man with the long beard of a philosopher is expounding the
+theory of atoms to a small but select audience. We are told that there
+are also _aulæ_ for learned conventicles, likewise excellent
+libraries within the central building.
+
+
+=310. Interior of the Baths: the Cold Room (_Frigidarium_).=--This
+building itself is an enormous mass of brick and concrete, formed into
+correspondingly enormous vaulted apartments and domes, their entire
+surface covered with polished marbles or at least with brilliantly
+colored stucco. At every point there are statues, singly and in groups,
+historical and mythological, in the round or in high reliefs, in stone
+and in bronze. Particularly to be noted is a marvelous if overrealistic
+Laocoön group destined to be celebrated through the coming ages.[198]
+
+It boots little to describe all the special chambers and features of
+the Baths of Trajan; we can only notice those prime features common
+to all public thermæ even in the provincial cities. The great mass of
+visitors makes for the hall of the _frigidarium_ (“cold room”), a vast
+unheated space, albeit comfortable enough on a warm Italian afternoon.
+Here they toss off their garments, to their own personal slaves if they
+are visitors of consequence, although there is a great force of regular
+attendants (_capsarii_) whose prime business it is to take charge of
+togas and tunics. For all their pains, thefts of clothes in the baths
+are very common and give rise to frequent uproars.
+
+Once stripped, even the gravest and oldest visitors are likely to
+indulge in all kinds of gymnastics and horseplay. If they do not go
+outside to limber themselves with tossing ball at trigon (see p. 206)
+or with amateur races in the stadium, there are plenty of diversions
+in the frigidarium itself. One can behold the “Very Noble” Varus, the
+presiding consul, forgetful of all official dignity, competing with an
+imperial legatus, both with their hands tied behind them and trying
+by leaning backward to touch their heads against the tips of their
+toes; while a prætor, an hour earlier an austere judge in the Basilica
+Æmilia, is leaping up and down “murdering a good song by trying to sing
+it.”[199]
+
+
+=311. The Great Swimming Pool and the _Tepidarium_.=--All this
+is usually preliminary to a splashing plunge into the clear cool
+_natatio_, the great swimming pool of unheated water, which is nearly
+200 feet long by 100 broad, and in which scores of Rome’s noblest
+dignitaries now are to be seen splashing, swimming, and cavorting, with
+perfect self-respect beside a much greater number of the plebeians. For
+the many who do not prefer a warm bath, this is sufficient refreshment
+on a summer day, and presently they will call their attendants to
+bring towels, strigils, and ointments and hasten home. But your true
+_habitué_ makes almost as much of his baths as of his dinners. He
+delights in hot baths and all the refreshments that go with them.
+“People want to be parboiled,” once declared Seneca disgustedly.
+
+A hot bath involves an elaborate process. Often one will omit the
+frigidarium with its cold shock, or take it later. In any case one
+goes on to a second enormous chamber, perhaps the finest in the whole
+building. A majestic dome soars over broad pavement. The pillars and
+the fretwork on the ceiling and vaulting groan with heavy gilding. The
+groups of statues flanking each of the huge marble-incrusted piers are
+themselves of heroic size. The light streams down over the polished
+marbles of the walls and pendentives, upon hundreds of persons lolling
+about on stone benches, conversing, or lazily meditating. A warm mist
+is rising; one feels as if in a plant house of tropical exotics, while
+the elaborate mosaic designs are pleasantly warm under one’s bare feet.
+
+Such luxury of course is enjoyed in the _tepidarium_ where the bathers
+are gently warmed before the actual hot bath. It is an oblong hall,
+nearly as large as the great cold swimming tank,[200] and, as stated,
+the decorations are almost overpowering in their richness. Anybody will
+explain that the floors are composed largely of hollow tiles through
+which warm air of just the right temperature is being continually
+forced from the great system of charcoal furnaces (“hypocausts”)
+located in the substructures of the thermæ.
+
+
+=312. The Hot Baths (_Caldaria_): Their Sensuous Luxury.=--At intervals
+some person rises from the couches and hastens away to one of the
+smaller chambers located at the four corners of the tepidarium. These
+are the actual _caldaria_ (hot baths), wherein a perpetual fine steam
+is rising. The water here is so hot that only experienced bathers can
+find a plunge in the large porphyry tanks enjoyable. If one can endure
+the heat, however, soon it becomes a kind of stupid bliss to lie back
+motionless in the heated water, gazing upward to the vaulted ceiling
+which is skilfully painted in a deep blue interspersed with trees,
+foliage, birds, and gilt stars, as if one were dropping off to slumber
+in the forest some summer evening! If the acme of life is merely
+sensuous enjoyment, what can existence offer greatly surpassing this!
+
+After you have lain quiescent in the caldarium until its pleasure has
+begun to pall, the proper thing next is to pass to the _laconicum_.
+Here the hypocausts have heated the floor and walls with an intense dry
+heat. The bathers loll again upon marble slabs, and first are dried off
+and then burst into a profuse perspiration. The ceremony of the bath is
+at last over.
+
+Your slaves or the regular attendant now will scrape you down with
+the thin flexible bronze strigils, rub you thoroughly with towels,
+and anoint you with unguents, the more costly and highly perfumed the
+better. In the numerous small chambers around the great laconicum, open
+for special fees, there is a greater luxury still;--here such elderly
+magnates as Varus, or even young noblemen of the more effeminate type,
+will be elaborately massaged and finally rubbed down with very soft
+woolen blankets, by at least three expert masseurs working together.
+After such an experience surely body and mind ought to be prepared for
+the pleasures of the dinner party.
+
+
+=313. Restaurants, Small Shops, and Sports in or around the
+Baths.=--Very much more might be added about the Great Baths. For
+those people who wish to linger until the edge of meal time, there is
+no need to go hungry. Close by the entrance are numerous restaurants
+(_popinæ_) of more than ordinary elegance. Here you can send your
+slave for sweet cakes, slices of toasted honey bread, sausages, eggs,
+and like viands; and in the great frigidarium and tepidarium the
+peddlers from these restaurants are always going about with trays of
+such food, crying their wares and making the ordinary bedlam so much
+the greater. Directly in the thermæ themselves are small shops for
+the sale of fine perfumes and unguents; and often in the corridors
+and antechambers you can find crowds gazing at special displays of
+paintings, or of new statuary--for the public baths are practically the
+art galleries of Rome.
+
+As for the frequenters of the baths, here even more than in the fora
+are the trysting spots for parasites. Let an approachable nobleman be
+seen lolling at ease in the tepidarium and he is instantly spotted by
+some dinner hunter. Innumerable are the attentions that can then be
+paid him. Does he wish to play handball?--The parasite retrieves for
+him. Does he lay aside a fine garment?--At once “his remarkable taste”
+is praised to the skies. Does he lie perspiring in the laconicum?
+His “friend” tries to anticipate the slaves in wiping the sweat from
+his brow. No act is too obsequious--all in hopes of hearing those
+delightful words, “Come home and dine!” In the halls of the women
+similar scenes are enacted, but we cannot pursue them.
+
+At last the sun dials that stand in every open spot around the thermæ
+indicate that the afternoon is well spent. From the laconicum the
+refreshed bathers return to the milder tepidarium, to recover from the
+shock of the intense heat and to resume their garments. Then the crowds
+all hasten out again. Some of the privately owned bathing-places may
+remain open all night, but the great thermæ, lately the scene of such
+boisterous life, stand vast, dark, and empty.
+
+
+=314. The Great Porticoes along the Campus Martius. The Park System
+towards the Tiber.=--The public baths are not the only places for
+daily enjoyment which a solicitous government has provided for the
+quirites. The fora are limited and the city proper is very closely
+built, but around its outskirts and especially to the north and west
+there is a genuinely magnificent park system. The beginnings of this
+are reached after you go through the Forum of Trajan and follow along
+“Broadway.” Here are the great porticoes and promenades of the Sæpta
+Julia. The famous stores (see p. 228) are mostly on the east side of
+the avenue verging off towards the slopes of the Quirinal, but the west
+side, going clear across the broad Campus Martius to the Tiber, is more
+strictly public property.
+
+This wide level area formed by the great bend in the river has
+long since ceased to be a mere parade ground for the army. There
+are broad masses of greenery, grateful shade trees, spreading over
+neatly graveled walks, as well as literally miles of lofty porticoes
+stretching in every direction and giving comfortable places for
+strolling in bad weather. The greatest of these porticoes is, of
+course, the long Sæpta Julia, but there is a succession of others, so
+that you can almost wander from the Column of Trajan across the Campus
+clear to the Ælian Bridge completely defiant of any rain.
+
+In the open pleasure grounds there are always people exercising without
+the restraints inevitable at the thermæ, playing ball, wrestling,
+exhibiting horses and chariots, as well as very many children chasing
+about with hoops. If legionaries are passing through the city, their
+leathern tents probably stand here, and here, too, can be held all the
+vast open-air pageants which cannot accommodate themselves inside any
+building.
+
+
+=315. Public Buildings upon the Campus Martius.=--Out of the lofty
+trees, however, there rise still loftier structures. Two of the great
+public thermæ, those of Nero and Agrippa, are here upon the Campus
+Martius. In this region, also, are three of the principal theaters,
+that of Pompeius, accommodating some 25,000 people, and two others
+(Theaters of Marcellus and Balbus) only slightly smaller. Here is the
+Flaminian Circus and the Amphitheater of Taurus for those horse races
+and gladiator fights which do not demand the huge Circus Maximus or
+Flavian. Here again is the golden-roofed Pantheon and a great number
+of other temples to such ill-assorted gods as the Egyptian Serapis
+and Isis, Neptune, Minerva of the Campus, and the old Latin goddess
+Juturna. Notable, too, are the triumphal arches raised across several
+of the broad avenues.
+
+You can in fact wander on across this region from one marvelous
+structure to another until the eye and brain become weary trying to
+enumerate, much more to comprehend the succession of buildings every
+one of which is a triumph of marble and of sculpture. Pressing on to
+the marge of the Tiber itself, the river above the commercial bridges
+is seen covered with gay pleasure skiffs plying about under bright
+flags. The shores are lined with handsome little houses, usually
+decorated in the doors with potted shrubs or boughs of foliage.
+Innocent they look in the day time but at night when their windows
+blaze with lamps they will be veritable traps of iniquity for the
+enjoyment and then the ruin of the unwary.
+
+
+=316. The Tombs of Hadrian and Augustus.=--Across the river near
+its main bend, can be noticed the green slopes of the hill of the
+Vatican uncrowned as yet by any temple of fame, but with the suburban
+Circus of Nero stretching along its slopes. Directly across the
+current, also, is rising the enormous circular mass of the Mausoleum
+of Hadrian, with the derricks and staging still above it swinging to
+place the last of that galaxy of statues which will look down upon the
+Tiber.[201]
+
+  [Illustration: CASTLE OF ST. ANGELO: Tomb of Hadrian
+  in its present state.]
+
+We do not cross over to the new structure, but proceeding along the
+bank to the point where the Via Flaminia continuing “Broadway” bears
+down beside the river, we see before us the older but very majestic
+Mausoleum of Augustus. It lifts itself fully 220 feet in the air, its
+base composed of a vast cylinder coated with sculptured marbles, above
+which there is heaped a conical mound of earth, planted with evergreen
+trees, while on the summit stands a colossal statue of its mighty
+builder himself. Within repose the urns not merely of Augustus, but of
+nearly all the worthier members of the imperial families.
+
+  [Illustration: TOMB OF HADRIAN. _Restored after
+  Von Falke._]
+
+These are only some of the features of the Campus Martius which foreign
+visitors such as Strabo acclaim as the most remarkable section of
+Rome, if not the one most charged with her past history. Time fails
+to visit the other great public pleasure-grounds upon the slopes of
+the Pincian--the “Gardens of Lucullus” and the “Gardens of Sallust,”
+or that other wide park northeast of the Esquiline, the “Gardens of
+Mæcenas,” presenting yet other vistas of shrubbery, groves, promenades,
+and green lawns, interspersed with pleasure pavilions. It behooves us
+now to return to Rome and to visit some of the most important centers
+of its life--the theater, the amphitheater, and the circus.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIX
+
+    THE PUBLIC GAMES: THE THEATER, THE CIRCUS, AND THE AMPHITHEATER
+
+
+=317. Roman Festivals: Their Great Number.=--One thing only, besides a
+long session of the Senate, ordinarily will keep men of the class of
+Publius Calvus away from the great thermæ--the celebration of one of
+the greater Public Games.
+
+The _Ludi Publici_, around which so large a part of Roman life
+revolves, like the Pan-Hellenic games and similar Greek festivals,
+always have religious origin; they are in honor of some god or group of
+deities. But the secular has long intruded into their routine. Nobody
+worries greatly about the fact that the _Ludi Apollinares_ are for the
+glory of Apollo, save perhaps as one adds an extra fervent invocation
+of the Delphian god during the placing of wagers. The time consumed by
+the Public Games represents a period of recreation and festival, which
+other ages will find in Sundays and Saints’ Days.
+
+Altogether there are some 76 days per year normally set aside for these
+great _Ludi Sollemnes_, including such prolonged periods as those of
+the _Ludi Romani_ or _Magni_ which extend from September 4th to 18th,
+on a stretch, with several others for six days and more. When to these
+periods are added various extra or very special holidays, during which
+the ordinary life of the city is broken up, the courts are closed, and
+only the most necessary labors of commerce and industry are conducted,
+it is plain that the plebeians and even the slaves get pretty ample
+respite in their year of toil. Without attempting a close study of the
+official lists of holidays it is safe to say that the average Roman
+gains many more periods of lawful vacation than the laboring classes
+can enjoy in other ages,--another factor which tends to make the
+metropolis abound with idlers and parasites.
+
+
+=318. Passion for Public Spectacles: Mania for Gambling.=--Besides
+the great public theaters, amphitheaters, and race courses (circuses)
+there are many smaller private establishments. Good money can be made
+from gladiator fights and chariot races, and they are often given by
+speculators, although more frequently in a provincial town than in Rome.
+
+The passion for such spectacles and contests is incredible;--no
+“baseball” or “football” of another era can so monopolize the popular
+mind. The wagering on all kinds of contests is incessant in every
+insula, shop, or mansion, and, of course, ordinarily it is entirely
+lawful. Only the few select spirits cry out vainly against the passion,
+although Juvenal’s famous protest will echo across the centuries, “The
+Roman people who once gave commands, consulships, legions, and all
+else now yearn simply for two things--_free bread and the Public
+Games_!”
+
+The government doubtless encourages this tendency. If the multitude
+is engrossed with the merits of two charioteers, so much less is the
+scrutiny upon strange doings at the Palatine; yet even excellent
+emperors give very elaborate spectacles as a kind of lawful tribute
+to the multitudes of that city which affords them their right to the
+purple. After the conquest of Dacia, Trajan celebrated his victory by
+giving contests which lasted 123 days, during which 10,000 wild and
+domestic animals were said to have been killed and 10,000 gladiators
+fought, although probably most of the latter were allowed to survive.
+So incessant in fact are the contests of some variety, that rare is the
+day when a thunderous roar does not reverberate over the city telling
+that the “Blue” or “Green” jockeys have won, or a favorite gladiator
+has plunged home his trident.
+
+  [Illustration: AT THE THEATER ENTRANCE. _After Von
+  Falke._]
+
+
+=319. Expenses of Public Spectacles to Great Officials.=--Naturally
+the cost of these contests is enormous. The presidency and supervision
+of them is distributed around among the magistrates, with the chief
+glories and burdens falling usually upon the consuls and prætors.[202]
+The State gives each official a respectable sum to pay for the
+spectacles, but this falls far short of the actual cost. The glory of
+presiding in the central box at the Flavian Amphitheater or Circus
+Maximus is so great that a magistrate is bound to sacrifice a good
+share of his entire patrimony in order to make a fine display, to win
+the “Ave!” of the populace, and to hold up his head among his noble
+rivals. When Hadrian was prætor, his kinsman, Trajan the Emperor, gave
+him personally 4,000,000 sesterces ($160,000) towards the cost of those
+games which the prætorship demanded.
+
+Our Publius Calvus, with no imperial connection, deliberately saved
+and economized for years prior to his elevation to the prætorship,
+and during his term of office he spent almost as much energy in
+corresponding with a friend who was legatus of Numidia to get African
+leopards, and negotiating with certain racing interests to secure a
+very desirable jockey, as he did in settling a certain great lawsuit
+before his tribunal. One good set of chariot races can cost 400,000
+sesterces ($16,000), and some of Calvus’s richer colleagues have found
+the prætors’ games coming to a dozen times as much. He congratulated
+himself, therefore, on getting out of office for about half their
+outlay; as it was he had to live very sparingly for the next two years,
+and sell off a villa.[203]
+
+
+=320. Indescribable Popularity of the Games.=--Everybody in Rome
+attends the games. Once slaves were forbidden to be present, but that
+law had broken down several generations ago. Few are the masters that
+risk the unpopularity of refusing to let their familia frequent at
+least the more famous contests. The waiting litter bearers, the idling
+foot-boys, all the parasitical menials about the great mansions discuss
+every coming event most frantically and wager all the coppers which
+their masters give them upon the outcome, and their zeal is matched by
+the ragged plebeians who infest the fetid insulæ, or sleep under the
+porticoes.
+
+Seemingly half of Rome exists only from one chariot or gladiator
+exhibition to another. Every contest is a display of social
+importance. The front seats are assigned to the magistrates, who occupy
+curule chairs in the order of their rank; there are other seats of
+honor for the senators, others directly behind them for the equites. If
+the Emperor is present, he sits in a special box (_cubiculum_),
+which Trajan with democratic condescension caused to be thrown wide
+open that all the spectators might see him.
+
+These seats of honor are free, but the great multitude of well-to-do
+spectators are expected to purchase tickets for all the better ranges
+behind the tiers of the equites.[204] The prices ordinarily are low,
+but concerning these tickets there is a complaint not unknown in
+another age: that the box-officers (_locarii_) in charge buy up many
+reserved seats for the more popular games, then sell them over again
+at an outrageous advance. However, behind these reserved seats there
+are still a certain number of others thrown open free to the first
+comers, and behind these is a wide space where plebeians and slaves can
+stand as a gesticulating, shouting, steaming mass, gazing down on the
+spectacles below.
+
+
+=321. The Theater Less Popular than the Circus or Amphitheater.=--The
+public exhibitions are three general kinds,--the theatrical
+performances, the circus races, and the gladiatorial combats.
+
+For the great masses, the theater can never have the same vulgar appeal
+possessed by its two rivals; on the other hand some men of intelligence
+and rank do not hesitate to dismiss the latter as “for the mob” and
+affect a great contempt for charioteers and “Thracians.” Even the most
+sophisticated Romans, however, never are true Athenians. Tragedies
+dealing with profound human problems, such as won trophies for Æschylus
+and Sophocles, would fall absolutely flat beside the Tiber.[205]
+There is even a growing distaste for the better kind of comedies.
+What delights the Roman audience in the theater most is some kind of
+elaborate horseplay.
+
+  [Illustration: THEATER AT POMPEII.]
+
+The stage as a rule is long and narrow, some 120 by 24 feet, and is
+raised only about three feet above the orchestra where a chorus can
+dance and parade.[206] The rear of the stage has a fixed background
+painted to represent the front of a palace; it is pierced by three
+doors, and is adorned with columns and niches for the inevitable
+statues of the Muses, of Apollo, and of like deities. A large curtain,
+not dropped from above but rolled up from the bottom, can uncover the
+most amazing spectacles upon this stage. Long ago Horace complained
+of how a Roman audience would depart discontented if the play did not
+require in its middle “either a bear or a boxing match.” For four hours
+and more the curtain is “kept down” while “squadrons of horse and
+bodies of foot are seen flying, while luckless kings with hands tied
+behind their backs and chariots of all kinds and even ships go hurrying
+along, and while spoils of ivory and Corinthian brass are borne by in
+state.”
+
+There are, however, two kinds of performances more certain to crowd the
+theater than these very cheap spectacular plays--they are the mimes and
+pantomimes.
+
+
+=322. The Mimes: Character Plays.=--The mimes are a native Latin
+product, although they have a certain kinship with the Greek “New
+Comedy.” They are character plays of everyday life without the actors’
+masks and buskins; and they are always coarse, vulgar, and in the
+nature of roaring farces. The language is often exceedingly gross
+and the situations frequently match the language. The actors wear a
+kind of harlequin costume, extremely grotesque, and along with the
+chief _mimus_, who takes the leading part, there is usually a second
+actor who draws thunderous applause from the upper benches. He is the
+_strepidus_ or _parasitus_, a kind of pantaloon, a clown with puffed
+cheeks and shaven head, who has to stand a great amount of boisterous
+slapping from the chief actor.
+
+Other parts can be taken by women, who are forbidden to appear on the
+stage in “legitimate” tragedy and comedy. Often the dances and postures
+of these actresses are indescribably vulgar, and their reputation for
+easy conduct is too well established. For all that, their presence
+brings unsteady youths to the theaters like flies, and affairs with
+actresses are quite normal things with a type of young bloods. Once
+Cicero was defending a free and easy client, a certain Plancus. “He’s
+accused of having run off with an actress?” declared the advocate. “Why
+_that’s_ just an amusement excellently sanctioned by custom!”
+
+The stories portrayed by the mimes correspond with their general
+character:--a robber chief befooling the clumsy constables sent to
+take him, a lover surprised by the return of a jealous husband and
+forced to hide in a large box, a beggar who suddenly stumbles into a
+fortune, a descent into the world of ghosts, episodes revolving around
+the introduction of a very clever trained dog, etc. Some of the acting
+is of high order, but there are few mimes which do not abound in lines
+and situations extremely gross,--for all that the open-air theaters are
+packed from morn until sunset.
+
+
+=323. The Pantomimes: Their Real Art.=--All considered, the pantomimes
+represent a higher degree of art. Here we have only one actor, who,
+with the aid of a chorus and a great orchestra of lutes and lyres,
+undertakes to tell a whole story merely by his dancing and rhythmic
+motions. A really great _pantomimus_ wins and deserves the favor of
+highly cultivated aristocrats. Pylades and Bathyllus in Augustus’s day
+had the fashionable world practically at their feet, and Paris was one
+of the prime intimates of Nero.
+
+The greater the skill the fewer the words that need to be spoken; the
+chanting of the chorus while the pantomimus is changing his costumes
+giving hint enough of the characters he is portraying. The music,
+florid and descriptive, keeps the audience in mood for the dancing.
+All sorts of subjects can thus be portrayed, including those of old
+Greek tragedies, the actor slipping from one character to another with
+consummate art:--now he is Agamemnon, now Clytemnestra, now Orestes.
+He can take male or female parts alternately, delineate the deepest
+passions, and tell a whole story with what his admirers call his
+“speaking hands,” and his “eloquence of dancing.”
+
+To see a great pantomimus, clad perhaps in fleshings of soft light
+red Canunian wool, setting off perfectly his graceful figure, dance
+through the story of how Achilles disguised as a maiden was discovered
+by Ulysses and summoned away to the Trojan War, is a joy to the most
+sophisticated and intellectual. The dancer can take many parts--the
+fair youth concealed in the palace of Lycomedes, the embassy of Ulysses
+and Diomedes, the young warrior betraying himself by his interest in
+the helmet and cuirass concealed in the mass of gifts intended for
+women;--the whole impersonation in short may be wonderful.
+
+Not all the dances, however, are so innocent. Many of the coarsest
+stories in Græco-Roman mythology are acted out on the stage, and the
+grosser they are often the louder the applause of the groundlings.
+Nevertheless, the leading pantomimi rightly have the entrée to lordly
+houses, enjoy great incomes, and are among the most admired personages
+in Rome. They are outdistanced, however, by two sets of more vulgar
+rivals--the charioteers and the gladiators.
+
+
+=324. Extreme Popularity of the Circus.=--When a series of superior
+contests is announced for the Circus all Rome seems to become racing
+mad. Words fail to describe the excitement, the tense discussion of
+the charioteers and their fours, the wave of betting from the inner
+Palatine to the most sordid insula, and then the exuberant joy or
+immoderate grief over the results.
+
+Superior folk try in vain to appear disdainful of these contests.
+Thus Pliny the Younger has recorded his deep disgust that “so many
+thousands of men should be eager, like a pack of children, to see
+horses running time after time with the charioteers bending over their
+cars.” “The multitude,” he asserted, “were not interested in the
+speed of the teams or the skill of the drivers, but solely in the
+‘_racing colors_.’” “If in the middle of the race (he added) the
+colors were changed, the enthusiasm of the spectators would change with
+them, and they would suddenly desert the drivers and horses whom they
+now recognized afar and whose names they shouted aloud. Such is the
+influence and authority vested in one cheap tunic!”
+
+
+=325. Popular Charioteers (_Aurigæ_): the Great Racing Factions.=--It
+is all very well to write this, but neither Pliny nor anybody else
+can prevent the greatest charioteers from enjoying temporary incomes
+surpassing those of a majority of the senators. Many of these lucky
+_aurigæ_ are Moors, dark-skinned, hawk-eyed rascals, with sharp white
+teeth and sinews of iron; but a considerable sprinkling of them are
+Spaniards, as was that Diocles, whose heirs proudly recorded on his
+tombstone that in a professional career of twenty-four years he drove
+in 4257 races, and conquered 1462 times, with total winnings of nearly
+36 million sesterces (say $1,440,000). He, however, was not the most
+fortunate--there are drivers on record who boast of at least 3500
+victories, though, of course, many of these were probably won in the
+provinces.
+
+No sport will ever be more thoroughly standardized and professionalized
+than that of the chariot races in Rome. When a magistrate or other
+seeker for applause decides to give a series of contests he appeals to
+the great circus syndicates (“factions”). There were originally only
+the Red and the White; then the Blue and the Green have been added, and
+finally the Purple and the Gold. Each faction maintains huge racing
+stables with expert drivers, grooms, trainers, and veterinaries, as
+well as many superb “fours” of horses.
+
+The donor of the games has to arrange with these organizations how
+many contests he will require, each “faction” entering a chariot in
+each race. Ten races a day is the minimum; twenty-four the ordinary
+maximum. After the contracts have been signed and the programs posted
+all over the city, anxious days follow for all concerned to insure an
+honest race. The wagering is always so general and so reckless, that
+infinite precautions are needful to keep the horses from being drugged,
+the drivers from being bribed to throw the contests, or (if they prove
+incorruptible) the charioteers from being poisoned enough to make them
+lose. The tricks of the race-track will simply endure across the ages.
+
+
+=326. The Circus Maximus.=--After such preparations and excitement
+no wonder that people complain that the Circus Maximus is sometimes too
+small. This long narrow depression between the Palatine and Aventine
+has provided an excellent natural race course since the days of the
+Tarquins. At first the slopes of the hills were simply lined with crude
+wooden benches. By Julius Cæsar’s time many of these benches were made
+of stone, and in all could seat at least 150,000 spectators. After a
+great fire in 36 A.D. Claudius presently rebuilt the whole
+structure so there are now seats, partly of marble and partly of wood;
+and Trajan added still more tiers and more marble ornaments. At present
+the Circus Maximus covers the enormous area of 600 by 2000 feet, and
+it is declared that there is at least standing room, if not seats, for
+385,000 spectators--a good fraction of the entire adult population of
+Rome.[207]
+
+
+=327. The Race-Track: Procession before the Races.=--Inasmuch as horse
+races are not peculiar to the Imperial Age let a brief description
+of the Great Circus and its contests suffice. The long reaches of
+seats are, of course, portioned off to give the senators and equites
+the coigns of vantage. There is a lofty imperial box (_pulvinar_) on
+the northern side leading directly down from the Palatine. Here the
+Emperor and his suite can refresh themselves, and from a wide terrace
+command a marvelous view over the long area of the immense hippodrome.
+
+  [Illustration: CIRCUS MAXIMUS. _Restoration by
+  Spandoni._]
+
+Down the center of this area runs its central “backbone” (_spina_),
+forming a long low wall separating the outward and inward tracks,
+adorned with an unusually elaborate set of statues, columns upholding
+trophies, and even with one or two tapering obelisks imported from
+Egypt. In a kind of open pavilion at either end of the spina can be
+seen seven huge marble eggs and as many marble dolphins. One of each of
+these will be removed as each lap is finished, there being seven laps
+normally in every race.
+
+The great yellow race-track on gala occasions can be sprinkled with
+some powerful perfumes, and with glittering particles of mica or with
+red lead. When at last the multitudes have gathered, the contestants
+enter in solemn procession by the Triumphal Gate at the extreme eastern
+end of the Circus, and ahead of the array of chariots first of all
+there goes the magistrate giving the games, himself in a magnificent
+car and surrounded by a brilliant hedge of attendants on horse and
+foot. Very likely he is then followed by certain priestly colleges in
+pontifical vestments, by statues of deities piously borne on gilded
+litters, by bands of trumpeters and harpists raising their clangor, and
+then last, but not least, come the racing cars themselves.
+
+
+=328. Beginning a Race in the Circus.=--The master of the games takes
+his seat in the _podium_, the center of the reserved benches near
+the end of the track. The chariots disappear in the great line of
+_carceres_, “prison houses,” the carefully closed stalls at the western
+end of the Circus. After due waiting, fidgeting, chattering, wagering
+along the mountainous slopes of the benches, all the trumpets blow
+together. Silence for an instant grips the tens of thousands, while the
+president rises in his lodge and waves out a broad _mappa_, a white
+cloth visible far up and down the entire circus.
+
+Instantly the doors of the carceres fly open; the six chariots[208]
+dash forth at full bound. The aurigæ, in tight-fitting tunics of the
+colors of their factions, stand erect in the light cars, the reins
+looped around their waists, snapping the loose ends over the flying
+horses. Instantly they have dashed to the three tall pillars of the
+nearer goal (_meta_), and only by miraculous chance is a disastrous
+collision avoided at the outset. Then the whole circus rises and shouts
+together. The familiar figure of Scorpus the Moor, a brown giant in the
+tunic of the Greens, shoots ahead. His magnificent _quadriga_ of bays
+have taken the wall at one leap. The flying dust cloud, as the other
+five cars dash after him, almost dims the sight of the race. The noise
+from the benches is deafening. The backers of the trailing cars are in
+an agony.
+
+
+=329. Perils of the Races; Proclaiming the Victors.=--Scorpus’s chariot
+whirls around the lower goal like lightning and comes tearing back on
+the opposite track, while each one of the balls and dolphins is removed
+to indicate the progress of the race. The other cars press hard; and
+as the teams gather speed it is a marvel how the drivers keep their
+stand with the cars leaping hither and thither under them, their wheels
+barely touching the flying track.[209]
+
+Five times around they go, with Scorpus gallantly maintaining his lead.
+Then at the sixth turn the “Gold” driver reins too sharply. His chariot
+crashes over in a complete somersault, but, by a desperate maneuver
+just as he is thrown, he whips out the knife held ready in his belt and
+cuts the reins about his waist. By a miracle he is flung out sprawling
+upon the yielding sands, yet escapes death under the car racing just
+behind. The spectators, therefore, escape the brutal and familiar sight
+of an auriga trampled or crushed to death by the rushing chariots and
+horses. Meantime Scorpus losing not an instant has hurried again past
+the upper goal; a frantic attempt by Cresconius, the “Red” driver just
+behind, fails to head his steeds, and amid a deafening tumult he sweeps
+past the president of the games to victory.
+
+The official _jubilatores_ immediately stride out into the track
+crying with loud voice the name of the winner, and the news is soon
+flying all over the city. Nay, some of the outlying towns are speedily
+informed of the general results, for a certain sports-loving senator
+has come with a cage of homing pigeons, each colored to match one of
+the factions. The instant Scorpus is acclaimed, green pigeons are
+released to tell all the gamblers in Ostia and Præneste that the
+“Green” cars have won the first round.
+
+  [Illustration: RACE IN THE CIRCUS MAXIMUS.]
+
+After the noise has subsided, the trumpets blow again, another set of
+chariots is ready and the whole excitement is repeated. So the contests
+keep up through the day. If there is a long interval between the
+races, rope-dancers, acrobats, and trick-riders are ready to amuse the
+populace. Probably at the end there will be the crowning and decisive
+race between the winners of the preceding contests. If Scorpus can
+triumph in this also, he will carouse with his companions, doubtless
+more praised and fêted for one glad night than even the Emperor.
+
+
+=330. Gladiatorial Contests Even More Popular than the Circus.=--Yet
+Scorpus with all his adulation and ephemeral wealth turns green with
+jealousy toward a rival for fame--the victorious gladiator in the last
+combats in the Flavian. The sports of the arena perhaps excite greater
+favor with the mob, betting more reckless, passions more frantic than
+do even the contests of the Circus.
+
+The gladiatorial games are peculiar to Roman civilization; nothing
+exactly like them will follow in later ages.[210] They illustrate
+completely the pitiless spirit and carelessness of human life lurking
+behind the pomp, glitter, and cultural pretensions of the great
+imperial age. True it is that persons of intellectual tastes sometimes
+affect greater contempt for these contests than they do for the Circus.
+“No doubt the gladiators,” such men as Seneca write to one another,
+“are criminals deserving their fate, but what have _you_ done to
+deserve being compelled to witness their last agonies?” No matter;
+nothing will gain “popularity” for a ruler or for a magnate sooner than
+announcing a fight in the arena.
+
+The very best Emperors arrange elaborate series of combats--perhaps
+with a sigh in their hearts, as colossal and bloody bribes which must
+be thrown constantly to the mob; and Imperator, great officials,
+senators, priests, nay, the Vestal Virgins themselves, will all be
+on hand in the reserved front benches. There is even given out a
+philosophical justification for the butcheries, namely, that the
+spectators become hardened to the sight of death and are, therefore,
+the more courageous when their own hour comes. The reigning Hadrian
+considers the arena combats to be useful also for keeping up the
+military spirit; in short the whole Latin half of the Empire delights
+in them, although they never have become very popular in the Greek
+portion.[211]
+
+
+=331. Gladiator Fights at Funerals.=--Gladiatorial fights claim an
+Etruscan origin, and in Rome they were first exhibited at funerals of
+the great, possibly with the idea that the spirits of the slain would
+serve the dead lord in the underworld. It is still very fashionable
+to give a sizable gladiator fight as the aftermath of any pretentious
+funeral, but this is perhaps more common in the provincial towns than
+in Rome, where the government likes to control such martial spectacles.
+
+We actually hear of the populace of one small city that would not
+let the funeral procession of a distinguished lady proceed through
+the gates until her husband had promised them some public combats.
+Pliny the Younger’s friend Maximus presented a gladiator fight to the
+citizens of Verona “in honor of his most estimable wife,” a native
+of the place, but the exhibition was not quite a success because “on
+account of bad weather the numerous African panthers he had bought
+failed to arrive on the expected day.”
+
+
+=332. Gladiator “Schools” (_Ludi_): Inmates Usually Criminals.=--There
+are four great imperial “schools” (_ludi_) of gladiators in Rome
+maintained as public institutions. These can be drawn upon for the
+regular public games; but there are plenty of private “schools”
+maintained by speculators who can often supply quite as good fighters.
+
+If, as a magistrate, or as a bereaved kinsman or widower, you decide
+to give some combats, and if your purse is full, the rest is easy. You
+merely contract with the _lanista_ (keeper and trainer of a school) for
+so many contests upon specified terms; although, in really pretentious
+affairs, gladiators from several rival schools can be pitted
+together--this adds to the excitement. When the fight is over the free
+gladiators are paid off, the slave fighters are returned to their
+owners and indemnification is given the owners of the slain--all on set
+business terms. There is great expense in training good gladiators and
+slain champions cannot fight again; and this solid fact often prevents
+combats from being _too_ destructive, while wounded survivors may be
+carefully nursed just as a sick race horse may be cared for.
+
+Anybody will tell us that no pity need be wasted on gladiators. Many a
+low-born criminal is dragged from the præfect’s court with a relieved
+grin on his felonious countenance; the magistrate has not ordered “To
+the cross with him!” but merely “Train him for the amphitheater.” Many
+an incorrigible slave has been sold to a lanista by his master instead
+of being promptly whipped to death.
+
+Not a few unfortunate prisoners of war and kidnapped persons, however,
+if they have stout physiques, find their way also to the lanistæ
+instead of to the ordinary slave markets, and brutal masters will
+sometimes sell perfectly innocent slaves if the latter appear likely
+to make good swordsmen. On the other hand many plebeians of the baser
+sort are caught by the glitter and glory of the arena, and submit
+voluntarily to the discipline of the “schools,” while under the
+tyrannous emperors even men claiming noble rank have fought upon the
+sands to truckle to the whims of an evil Cæsar.
+
+
+=333. Severe Training of Gladiators; Their Ephemeral Glory.=--The
+lanistæ’s discipline is terribly severe, as is perhaps needful
+considering the wretches placed under it. The gladiators are kept in
+prison-like barracks. Nothing is omitted to brutalize them and to make
+their whole life center around mere skill with their weapons. They are
+fed upon great quantities of meat. Cruel floggings follow the least
+breach of discipline, and in every _ludus_ is a lock-up, with a long
+line of stocks and shackles, which never wants its many occupants.
+
+On the other hand many a stupid wretch is made to forget the doom
+probably awaiting him in the next combats, by dreaming of the glories
+promised a truly successful gladiator. If he can emerge victorious from
+a series of combats, he is more talked of than even the most daring
+charioteer; great nobles will visit his quarters to watch his training
+and feel of his muscles; his owners will do everything to pamper
+such a valuable piece of property; innumerable women, even among the
+silken-robed _clarissimæ_, will dote upon him; and perhaps he can
+actually elope with a senator’s wife.
+
+Not merely the youths but all the girls in Rome will sing the
+champion’s praises and dream of his valor. He will be named in
+countless wall-scribblings as “The Maiden’s Sigh,” “The Glory of the
+Girls,” “The Lord of the Lasses,” or “The Doctor (_medicus_) of the
+Little Darlings.”[212] If he has lost an ear, if his face is one mass
+of disfiguring scars, the women run after him all the more. “Never mind
+_that_,” scolds Juvenal, “he is a gladiator.”
+
+The end of this glory ordinarily comes speedily and tragically, but
+sometimes the very fortunate and skilful fighter will win such favor
+that, at the popular demand, the giver of the games will present him
+with a wooden sword--the token of honorable discharge. If he is not a
+slave-criminal, he can now quit the _ludus_ with plenty of money and a
+merry life before him, but the taint of his “profession” will always
+stick to him. He can never become a Roman citizen, much less can he be
+enrolled as an eques whatever the extent of his wealth.
+
+
+=334. Normal Arrangements for an Arena Contest.=--Strictly speaking the
+amphitheater is used for two kinds of entertainments--wild beast hunts
+(_venationes_) and direct combats between men. Each form is extremely
+popular, although human gore appears a little cheap and ordinary
+compared with that of an expensive tiger, panther, or lion. It always
+makes a hit with the crowd to turn, for example, a tigress and a fierce
+bull-elephant loose on the sands and watch the two brutes rend one
+another.
+
+It is true nevertheless that nothing can really take the place of
+a sustained combat between two thoroughly trained pupils of the
+“schools.” Ordinarily the management will have the hunts in the morning
+at the amphitheater and the human contests in the afternoon. That will
+send the myriads away happily satiated after a day spent amid the
+perpetual sniff of gore.
+
+No scene visited in our prolonged “day” in Rome can be more repellent
+to non-Roman tastes than that of the amphitheater, but to complete the
+picture it must not be omitted, although horrid deeds will be dismissed
+with few words and still less of moralizing. Publius Calvus’s friend,
+Decimus Cluentius, this year is Prætor. He is a wealthy senator and has
+been saving money carefully for “his games.” He has already made a good
+public impression by his program of races in the Circus; now he will
+“add to the luster of his fame” by a day of contests in the Flavian.
+Already the notice writers have distributed the list of the gladiators
+that he has engaged, in every eating-house and wine-room in the city.
+
+The impression thus made has been excellent: “Cluentius is living up
+to his riches. Many of his gladiators are freemen--the finest blades,
+no running away, the kind of fellows that will stand right up and be
+butchered in mid-arena. Besides, he’s been lucky enough to get from the
+præfect a farm steward who was caught insulting his master’s wife--a
+good dinner for the lions. These fights won’t be as when that miserly
+Norbanus exhibited--his gladiators were such a cowardly, feeble lot
+they’d have fallen flat if you breathed on ’em.”[213]
+
+
+=335. The Flavian Amphitheater (Later “Colosseum”).=--Such an
+exhibition can only be held in the Flavian Amphitheater, the vast
+structure known to later ages as the “Colosseum.” In Republican days
+gladiator fights were held in the open Forum or in the Circus, but
+these were ill-adapted for the purpose. To see the fine points of the
+combats the audience must be concentrated around the contestants as
+closely as possible; hence the “amphitheater”--an immense oval of seats
+looking down upon a central arena.
+
+The building of such a quantity of seats out of permanent materials is
+very expensive and wooden structures were largely used until about 70
+A.D., when Vespasian and Titus began their vast “Flavian” (dedicated
+in 80 A.D. by an enormous beast hunt), now among the chief wonders of
+Rome. Common report has it that thousands of Titus’s Jewish captives
+had to toil first on the masonry and then for the most part to lose
+their lives fighting one another in the opening games.
+
+To avoid prolixity any description of this vast structure must be very
+brief: it stands an oval cylinder, its outer major diameter 620 feet;
+and the greatest diameter of its inner arena 287. Its innumerable
+blocks of travertine are bound together by metal clamps; the exterior
+is faced with marble and adorned with hundreds more of those statues
+which populate Rome. The structure rises 157 feet in four stories. The
+lower three of these tiers are composed each of a series of eighty
+arches backed by piers. In the first story the flanking columns are
+Doric, the second Ionic, the third Corinthian. The fourth story has
+no arches but merely windows and pilasters of the “composite” order.
+Between these upper pilasters project stone brackets which hold lofty
+wooden masts for the great awnings that stretch over the arena. These
+masts and awnings (red, blue, and yellow) when spread out under a
+brilliant sky, make the Flavian look somewhat like an enormous galley
+under a cloud of sail--the effect, of course, being heightened by the
+sheen of the marbles of the exterior and the garish paint and gilding
+covering the statues.
+
+  [Illustration: FLAVIAN AMPHITHEATER (COLOSSEUM):
+  exterior, present state.]
+
+
+=336. Exterior and Ticket Entrances to the Flavian
+Amphitheater.=--Outside of the Amphitheater is a wide circular area
+whereon converge many thoroughfares. This open space is scattered
+with huckster’s booths and with small ticket stands much like those
+around many amusement places in another age.[214] Here one can place
+wagers, purchase programs for the day, obtain food to consume between
+the events, and very probably buy or hire cushions in case the stone
+benches prove too hard.
+
+Also on the outside and close to the foot of the main structure runs
+a high wooden palisade. This is to aid in controlling the crowds. You
+go in at one or two entrances, showing your tickets, then circle the
+masonry until you reach one of the staircases, located under every
+fourth arch, and next you can promptly mount to your reserved seat in
+one of the seventy-six sub-sections (_cunei_).
+
+
+=337. Interior Arrangements of the Flavian.=--Once inside, the
+admirable arrangements of the structure impress the visitor no less
+than its enormous mass. Everything converges upon the central arena;
+even from the topmost seats one can see all the details of the contests
+below. The seats are divided into three great terraces, so easily
+accessible by the stairways and corridors that the fifty thousand
+spectators can pass in and out with the minimum of confusion. The
+lowest tiers, made of marble and comfortably cushioned, are reserved
+here as elsewhere for the senators; and for the _editor_ (the
+giver of the contests), his fellow magistrates, the chief priests,
+and the Vestal Virgins, there are seats of peculiar honor directly
+upon the _podium_, the crest of the twelve-foot wall girding the
+arena;--seats which are protected alike from chance missiles and from
+the leap of desperate beasts by a heavy trellis-work of gilded metal.
+
+Above this podium like the billows of a frozen ocean rise the enormous
+tiers of masonry seats; first those for the equites, then the great
+mass for the paying spectators, then the space crowded with wooden
+benches for the slaves and least select plebeians. An open gallery
+runs around the entire summit of the benches and here alone, by a
+restriction doubtless often lamented, women are allowed to watch the
+contests from afar, unless they are Vestal Virgins or ladies of the
+Imperial family, with the special privilege of the podium.
+
+All the arches, stairways, sections, and tiers are numbered. If you
+have a ticket, it may read “VIth section (_cuneus_), lowest row, seat
+No. 18,” marked upon a round or flat piece of bone. The attendants are
+lynx-eyed for impostors, but legitimate visitors are quickly seated.
+A detachment of sailors from the fleet of Misenum shifts the enormous
+awnings so that the thousands[215] can sit comfortably in the shade
+while a full blaze of sunlight falls on the arena.
+
+By the middle of the morning the multitudes are in place; Cluentius
+the Prætor, with full official magnificence, is in the central box of
+the podium; and strong detachments of Prætorians have been quietly
+distributed in certain half-concealed guard inclosures near the lower
+railing--for gladiators _have_ been known to mutiny and desperate
+lions can leap very high.
+
+
+=338. Procession of Gladiators.=--Presently now trumpets and cymbals
+announce the procession which files through one of the four gates
+leading directly into the arena. The gladiators, some forty in number,
+march two and two, nearly naked save for their glistening armor;
+knitted foreheads, white teeth, wolfish scowls, magnificent physiques
+are displayed by all of them. From far up the applauding benches they
+can be recognized, and many favorite _retiarii_ and _Thraces_ are met
+with a storm of cheering.
+
+The company marches solemnly down the arena led by an enormous lanista,
+one of their trainers, the scarred hero of all the youth of Rome.
+Before Cluentius on the podium they halt and flourish their weapons
+defiantly. Everybody knows that they have just taken their fearful oath
+“to be bound, to be burned, to be scourged, to be slain, and to endure
+all else required of them as proper gladiators, giving up alike their
+souls and their bodies.”[216]
+
+
+=339. Throwing a Criminal to the Beasts. The Animal Hunt.=--However,
+the contests do not begin immediately; there is a preliminary spectacle
+in store. The Prætor’s friend, the City Præfect, most luckily has
+handed over to him a vicious freedman caught maltreating his patron’s
+lady. The wretch, of course, deserves death:--how proper, therefore,
+that he can be made to amuse more honest folk by his very exit! Into
+the middle of the arena they lead him, a pitiful gibbering object,
+half-dead already with fright. The guards strike off his fetters,
+thrust a cheap sword into his hands, and themselves hastily retire into
+one of the numerous caged chambers lining the arena. A tense stillness
+for an instant holds the Flavian.
+
+Suddenly the rattle of chains is heard. In the very center of the sands
+(part of which are over wooden substructures) the arena opens; a cage
+appears lifted by pulleys, and then is opened by some mechanism. Forth
+bounds a tawny lion, lashing his tail and growling with hunger and
+rage. The unskilled victim has been given a sword with the vain promise
+that if he can actually kill the lion his own life will be spared. His
+chances are infinitesimal, but a few desperadoes have thus actually
+saved themselves.
+
+Will the prisoner fight? To the infinite disgust of the thousands he
+collapses upon the sands in sheer terror before the lion can so much as
+strike him. The beast finishes his life almost instantly. The multitude
+hoot and curse--they have been cheated of their passionate desire to
+see a human victim struggling in desperate combat with the great beast.
+Fortunately, they remind themselves, this is only the beginning of the
+performance.
+
+If one need not moralize, one need not linger. After the sacrifice
+of the criminal there are more beasts turned loose in the arena. Of
+course, no Prætor can be expected to show the hundreds of animals which
+an Emperor will exhibit in his greater games, but Cluentius has done
+the thing very respectably. He has in all ten bears, eighteen panthers,
+five lions, and six tigers.
+
+First the animals are goaded on to fight one with another. A bear is
+torn to death by a lion, but kills the lion in a last mortal hug.
+Then the trumpet sounds--some of the gladiators rush into the arena.
+The arena is now covered with frightened, snarling, reckless beasts.
+Even with keen weapons and skill, it is desperate work to slay them.
+One fine young German slips as a tiger bounds on him. His life is
+crushed out at the very foot of the editor’s stand. One panther, driven
+frantic, with a terrific leap almost clears the trellis directly before
+a Vestal Virgin; there is a general scream and recoil from the podium
+as the luckless beast drops back upon the spear of a hunter.
+
+
+=340. Interval in the Contests: Scattering of Lottery Tickets.=--At
+last the _venatio_ is over. All the beasts have been killed with
+reasonable skill, and barring only the German, with no accidents. It
+is now noon and a comfortable intermission follows. Food has been
+brought by many, or is passed about by hawkers. Cluentius, with great
+condescension, remains in the editor’s seat, and dines in public so
+that everybody present can go home boasting merrily, “We have been to
+prandium with the Prætor!”[217]
+
+After hunger has been appeased the spectators begin to grow restive.
+It is the immemorial privilege of the crowds to shout out whatever
+they wish in the Circus or Amphitheater. An unpopular Commissioner of
+the Grain Supply is seen rising in the podium; instantly the great
+awning quakes with the hootings. There is even a volley of date and
+olive stones; when, luckily for the Commissioner, the Prætor orders the
+attendants to begin scattering lottery tickets along the benches.
+
+  [Illustration: BOXERS.]
+
+Instantly all else is forgotten; dignified men scramble over one
+another. In the free benches there are several genuine fights and many
+a torn toga or lacerna. The winning tickets to-morrow will draw jars of
+wine, packages of edibles, or even quite a few denarii in cash; but if
+the editor had been the Emperor the prizes could well have been fine
+jewelry, pictures, beasts of burden, tidy sums of money, or even--as
+the grand prize--a small villa.
+
+This distribution silences all the discordant howlings; and the people
+are further amused by a kind of theatrical pageant, some popular
+pantomimes giving the Judgment of Paris in a clever and not inelegant
+manner, without scenery in the broad arena. After that two ostriches
+are unloosed and the crowd is put in an excellent humor while four
+Moorish riders on shining desert steeds chase down the speeding,
+doubling birds and finally lasso them. All is at last ready for the
+real business of the day--the gladiators.
+
+
+=341. Beginning the Regular Gladiatorial Combats.=--The hunters of the
+beasts, duly reënforced by many others, reënter the arena again in grim
+procession. Approaching the editor’s seat on the podium they can be
+seen passing up their weapons for Cluentius, to let him satisfy himself
+that every edge is sharpened beyond the possibility of shamming.
+He hands back each spear or sword with a nod, then the long file
+straightens and every combatant lifts his right arm: “_Ave, prætor!_”
+sounds the deep chant, “_morituri te salutamus!_” “_Ave!_” answers
+Cluentius gesturing haughtily. “Low-browed scoundrels,” mutters Calvus
+to a fellow senator; “Most of them are lucky to end up this way and to
+escape the cross.--Ah! they begin.”
+
+First, however, to get well limbered, wooden swords are handed about,
+and the troop fence with one another skilfully yet harmlessly; but
+the people are waxing impatient--“Steel! Steel!” rings the shout from
+the whole amphitheater, and the dense array of women in the upper
+gallery is calling it as fiercely as the men on the ocean of benches.
+A terrific blast of trumpets sounds from mid-arena, and a gigantic
+lanista acting as a kind of umpire motions with his spear. Soon every
+heart in the myriads is thrilled by the clash of weapons.
+
+Cluentius (an unoriginal though free-spending magistrate) has arranged
+a very conventional series of combats. First two Britons dash about in
+chariots pelting each other with javelins. Their armor turns the darts
+for long, then one of the horses is wounded and while his driver is
+struggling to control him another missile strikes through a joint in
+the warrior’s armor. He totters in the car while all the amphitheater
+rises and yells together “_Habet!_” “He’s got it!”--and then as the
+poor wight tumbles back into the sands, “_Peractum est!_” “He’s done
+for!”
+
+  [Illustration: GLADIATORS SALUTING THE EDITOR BEFORE
+  JOINING IN MORTAL COMBAT.]
+
+Immediately there appears a grotesque figure, arrayed as Charon,
+the dead man’s ferryman. He bears a hammer wherewith he strikes the
+body of the victim to see if he is counterfeiting death. The fallen
+chariot warrior stirs not--and “Charon” with a long hook drags away
+the corpse into one of the dens under the podium. The benches are now
+leaping, gesticulating, and yelling--the noise is indescribable, and
+Cluentius’s friends hasten to tell him that the combats have started
+admirably.
+
+
+=342. Mounted Combats: the Signals for Ruthlessness and Mercy.=--The
+surviving charioteer disappears amid plaudits. In his place ride out
+four horsemen; and two mounted duels can thus take place at either
+side of the arena. One pair contend evenly and stoutly, but the other
+contest soon ends--the less skilful rider is dashed from his seat
+by his opponent’s sword, and is so hurt he can barely lift himself
+upon the sands. The victor leaps down and stands over him waving his
+reddened blade, while his disarmed victim in sheer helplessness raises
+the right hand, the fist clinched except for one upraised finger--the
+demand for “Mercy!”
+
+  [Illustration: DEFEATED GLADIATOR APPEALING FOR
+  MERCY: spectators, with Vestal Virgins in front seats,
+  turning “thumbs down.”]
+
+The conqueror obsequiously looks toward his employer Cluentius upon
+the podium, and the Prætor, bound to be gracious to the populace,
+motions somewhat inquiringly toward the spectators--let them decide! If
+the defeated gladiator had fought more gamely and had striven to rise
+and renew the fight, possibly enough white handkerchiefs--the token
+of mercy--would have been waved to warrant the editor in flourishing
+his own also;--but the fellow had collapsed too easily and the mood
+of the crowd demanded blood. “_Occide! Occide!_” “Kill! Kill!”
+is the yell; and thousands of thumbs are ruthlessly pointed downward.
+Cluentius’s own thumb is pointed down likewise. The victor raises his
+weapon and without scruple plunges it in the breast of the vanquished,
+who sustains the honor of his profession by receiving the mortal blow
+without flinching.
+
+Again the Charon enters with his hook and clears the arena. In the
+interval the other mounted duelists, cool and experienced warriors,
+have partly suspended their combat and now they profit through their
+comrade’s death by the umpiring lanista’s declaration of a draw. The
+people are sated for an instant and Cluentius nods approval as the two
+ride out; he is inwardly glad to spare them, because the owners of dead
+gladiators have to be indemnified.
+
+
+=343. Combats between Netters (_Retiarii_) and Heavy-Armed Warriors
+(Thracians).=--So combat follows combat, while the sands grow red and
+one warrior falls simply by slipping upon the gore. The suffocating
+fumes of blood rise through the bars of sunlight under the great
+awning. The people grow more and more excited. There will be hundreds
+of beggars to-night in Rome on account of the reckless wagering.
+
+At last the trumpets sound for what is always the crowning feature of
+the exhibition--the chief thing which the multitudes have really waited
+all day to see--ten _retiarii_ are to fight ten “Thracians.” The
+retiarii (“netters”) wear not the least armor. They carry nothing but
+three-pronged lances and thick nets, which last they endeavor to
+fling over their adversaries, entangle them, and then stab with their
+tridents ere they can cut loose. The “Thracians” have heavy suits of
+armor and formidable swords.[218] If a netter misses his cast, there
+is nothing for him to do but to fly for dear life. The sight of a
+powerful, armed Thracian toiling after the leaping, dodging retiarius
+is a source of universal joy to the amphitheaters. The people rise
+on the benches and join in a kind of intoxication and blood orgy.
+“_Verbera! Verbera! Occide! Occide!_” “Lay on! Kill!”--rises as a
+thunder to heaven.
+
+
+=344. End of the Combats: Rewarding the Victors.=--It profits not
+to dwell on the half hour which follows. Plenty of skill, valor, and
+swiftness are shown alike by netters and by heavy-armed warriors. One
+by one part of the twenty drop, and for a while the passions of the
+people permit no mercy. The Charon appears several times; but there is
+a young Spanish netter whose nimbleness and reckless courage win great
+favor, and many are muttering, “We want to see him again.” There is
+also a very experienced Thracian whose owner will demand from Cluentius
+a round indemnity, if the fight is pushed to a finish and his precious
+chattel is slain.
+
+As a result when four wounded men together drop their weapons and
+signal for mercy, white handkerchiefs begin waving all over the
+amphitheater and Cluentius is glad to shake out his also. The combats
+are over. The victorious gladiators, if they are unhurt enough to
+stand, are led before the podium and to each are handed palms of
+victory.
+
+There is furthermore a crowning ceremony. One Certus, a very famous
+netter, has by previous understanding taken only a formal part in
+the combats. Now, while the whole multitude leaps up to acclaim him,
+Cluentius himself rises and gives him the wooden sword--the sign that
+he need fight and risk his life no more. Henceforth Certus will become
+himself no doubt a _lanista_, and train hundreds of other brawny
+youths to yield up their lives for the amusement of Rome.
+
+The amphitheater empties from all its numerous _vomitoria_. The
+crowd goes home well contented, praising Cluentius and hoping he will
+be assigned a fine province to govern. True it has not been as if the
+Emperor were present--then there might have been two hundred or more
+gladiators, an enormous slaughter of beasts; fountains could have
+played in the arena to refresh the air, and perfumes could have been
+scattered from the awnings; or the arena might easily have been flooded
+for a sea fight between two squadrons of small galleys.
+
+Nevertheless, Cluentius has done very well for a mere Prætor; and he
+will have to pay indemnity for about fourteen of his forty gladiators,
+a very fair average to get butchered. “It has been a pleasant enough
+holiday (say many) in a toiling and busy world, and the rumor goes that
+for the next Ides at the Consul’s games they have rounded up a whole
+gang of robbers who will all be fed to the lions!”
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XX
+
+        THE ROMAN RELIGION: THE PRIESTHOODS, THE VESTAL VIRGINS
+
+
+=345. Religious Symbols Everywhere in Rome.=--The circus races and
+the amphitheater butcheries are nominally in honor of some god. It is
+perhaps Vulcan in whose name Cluentius has hired the gladiators to
+slaughter one another. Everywhere about Rome are imposing temples and
+lesser shrines, and there are almost more statues of gods and demigods
+than there are people in the swarming streets. The symbolic snakes
+for the Lares of the locality or of the household, are painted upon
+thousands of walls. All this would indicate that the Romans of the
+Empire are extraordinarily religious. How far does this outward seeming
+correspond to the actual facts?
+
+
+=346. Epicureanism and Agnosticism among the Upper Classes.=--If
+we penetrate the life of men like Publius Calvus and others of the
+upper circle, apparently we are dealing with persons who are almost, if
+not complete, agnostics. Some are cheerful Epicureans who formally deny
+that there are any deities that concern themselves with mortal affairs,
+and who for their own part look upon the world as a chance aggregation
+of atoms, and upon life as one physical sensation after another with
+nothing later awaiting a man but eternal slumber in the grave. Moral
+“laws” merely exist to adjust human relationships, so that you can win
+the maximum enjoyment from day to day.
+
+Theories like this can be justified in sonorous, noble language,
+as in the great poems of Lucretius, but the underlying philosophy
+remains the same. Cluentius, the Prætor, whose library is crammed with
+Epicurean writings, has, in fact, just been ordering chiseled on his
+ostentatious funeral monument, “_Eat, drink, enjoy yourself--the rest
+is nothing._”[219]
+
+[Illustration: MAISON CARRÉE, NÎMES, FRANCE: the best
+preserved temple of the Roman type in existence.]
+
+
+=347. Stoicism: Revival of Religion under the Empire.=--Calvus
+himself, a decidedly practical man not too fond of nice speculations,
+takes greater pleasure in the theories of the Stoics. The stern
+teaching that “duty” is the be-all and end-all of life, and that
+true freedom and happiness come only by a scrupulous discharge of
+every obligation, appeals strongly to many hard-headed Romans. It
+fits in well with their old native religion, and they accept it
+without much abstract philosophizing. But the “God” discussed by Zeno,
+Cleanthes, and the later Stoics is only a hard, impersonal, resistless
+force,--“Eternal Law” under another name. He is in nowise a merciful
+Heavenly Father, any more than he is a youthful, beauteous, and very
+human Apollo. Calvus, in short, is hardly more convinced than his
+friend Cluentius, the Epicurean, that there really exists any personal
+deity.[220]
+
+However, religion as an outward institution, has been steadily gaining
+under the Roman Empire. Probably never were there ever more unabashed
+atheists than such personages as Sulla and Julius Cæsar in the last
+decades of the Republic,--men not without pet superstitions perhaps
+and a belief in their “stars,” but who were almost cynical in their
+expressions of disbelief in any ruling Providence, and to whom temples
+and worship were only convenient political engines for befooling the
+mob.
+
+Augustus nevertheless was probably somewhat more of a believing man
+himself, and he grasped the enormous value of reinvigorating the old
+cults, rebuilding the crumbling shrines, and finally of rekindling
+the conviction that there existed a stabilizing and avenging host of
+deities as a means for getting moral sanction and support for his new
+imperial régime. Since the battle of Actium, temples have multiplied,
+priesthoods have been carefully maintained, and solemn religious
+ceremonies and sacrifices have been promoted by the government; in
+short, a great and partially successful effort has been put forth to
+galvanize into a kind of life that early “Religion of Numa,” which once
+molded the ideals of the little city by the Tiber.
+
+
+=348. Foreign Cults Intruded upon the “Religion of Numa.”=--Religious
+beliefs and institutions at Rome, however, are only in part derived
+from the cults and forms of old Italy, whether Etruscan or Latin. The
+Greek mythology has been so taken over by the poets that often it is
+hard to sift out the indigenous Italian stories from the great mass of
+imported legends in which Jupiter and Juno manifestly are merely the
+Latin names for Hellenic Zeus and Hera. Furthermore, there has come a
+perfect influx of oriental gods: Egyptian Isis, Syrian Baal, Phrygian
+Cybele, Persian Mithras--these are merely some of the more important.
+
+The Roman attitude toward foreign deities is tolerant; provided one
+keeps up the outward forms of reverence for the old native deities, it
+does no serious harm if people feel happier because they burn incense
+to the dog-headed Anubis, or to the uncouth gods of Phœnicia. Of course
+these alien rites must not be too gross; such as were the outrageous
+old Bacchanals who were broken up in 186 B.C., or the Gallic Druids
+who permitted human sacrifice. Otherwise a “foreign superstition” is a
+matter merely for a contemptuous shrug or sneer.
+
+The result is that the cults seen in Rome under the Empire often appear
+as a vast jumble of things Greek, Levantine, Oriental, and even Celtic.
+The Emperor and Senate seldom bother themselves about matters of inward
+belief; Rome has its gladiators but it has no Inquisition.
+
+Nevertheless, the old Italian religion is still the official cultus of
+the state. Its forms are carefully cherished; it is insensibly modified
+but it is never repudiated. There are almost the same priesthoods, the
+same sacred formulas and machinery of religion as in the days of the
+Punic Wars.[221] They are kept up partly out of patriotic pride in all
+survivals of the heroic past, partly because they help the government
+to control the “mob” and the highly superstitious soldiery, partly (it
+must in fairness be added) because very intelligent persons believe
+that the ancient Italian religion somehow contributes to the safety
+and stability of the Empire,--that when Jupiter Capitolinus falls the
+dominion of Rome will actually fall with him.
+
+
+=349. Superstitious Piety of the City Plebeians.=--As for the
+multitude, the enormous population in the insulæ, if it has little
+intelligent faith, it has abundant ignorant credulity. The outward
+service of the gods brings good luck.
+
+If the public rites fail and if blasphemers (like the execrable
+Christians) arise, the corn ships will not get through from Alexandria,
+the Tiber will overflow, the pestilence will sweep off thousands
+and--almost equal calamity--the favorite aurigæ and gladiators on the
+gamblers’ tablets will lose in the games. If a private man neglects the
+gods, his shop or business ventures can go bankrupt, his children die,
+his wife decamps with a freedman, disease can rack him, premature death
+smite him, and his tomb be demolished to the complete obliteration
+of his memory. Possibly even his ghost will drift about unhappily in
+desert places. Every possible motive, therefore, requires governors and
+governed to stand in well with the gods.
+
+Let us, therefore, examine this “Religion of Numa” which is living yet,
+as the official cultus of Rome; then a few words can be said about its
+alien competitors.
+
+
+=350. Roman Religion Originally Developed by Italian Farmers.=--The
+old Italian farmers who shaped this religion were singularly lacking
+in imagination. Very few are the myths for which the poets can claim a
+non-Greek origin. The world is conceived of as being full of deities
+which often are so little personified that one cannot be sure of their
+actual sex: “Be propitious, O Divine One (_numen_), be thou male or be
+thou female!” is the proper formula for beginning many ancient prayers.
+
+Some of these divinities, to be sure, are well-defined and powerful
+gods such as Jupiter the Sky-God, Mars the War-God, and Juno the potent
+and matronly spouse of Jupiter. Such deities came with the ancestors of
+the Italians when they wandered down from the North into that southern
+peninsula which they occupied many centuries ago.
+
+Other divinities are ancient adoptions from the Etruscans or from the
+Greeks. Minerva, the protectress of such female arts as weaving and
+spinning and later of the more masculine arts, sciences, and learning,
+is pretty clearly the Minerva of the Etruscans, and has caught many
+attributes from the Pallas Athena of the Greeks. Apollo came, perhaps,
+via Etruria, where they called him Aplu, and not directly from Hellas,
+but no temple was built to him until after Greek as well as Etruscan
+influence in Rome had become very strong. Diana or Luna (“Madame Moon”)
+was an old moon goddess, possibly the same as the Etruscan Losna, and
+only by a late and very unfortunate identification has she become
+confounded with Apollo’s Greek sister Artemis, the virgin huntress on
+the Arcadian hills.
+
+One great goddess, however, Venus, is probably a good old Italian
+deity of substantial homely virtues: she is still invoked as Venus
+Cloacina (“Venus the Purifier”), when it is necessary to cleanse the
+great sewers; a function seldom remembered when giddy youths confound
+her with the Greek Aphrodite, and beg her to help their illicit love
+affairs!
+
+
+351. =Native Italian Gods: Janus, Saturn, Flora. The Lares and
+Penates.=--All these gods and certain other familiar deities such
+as Mercury patron of trade and gain, Neptune lord of the sea, Vulcan
+the clever smith, and finally, but in nowise least, Vesta the hearth
+goddess, and Ceres the Mistress of the Corn, make up the official
+“Great Gods” in whose honor the public games are held, and to whom
+Emperors and Consuls proffer vows and sacrifice.
+
+  [Illustration: FARMER’S CALENDAR: showing festivals
+  each month.]
+
+Highly important also is the strictly native Italian Janus, the
+two-faced lord of beginnings and endings, probably an ancient Sun-God;
+whom one should invoke at the opening of every fresh day, and in
+whose honor (quite appropriately) the month of January is named with
+New Year’s Day especially designated to his festival.[222] There is
+furthermore Saturn, a rural deity, who has been identified with the
+Greek Cronos (“Father Time”); there is Orchus who rules the underworld;
+there is Liber the masculine field god, consort of Ceres and sometimes
+confounded with the Greek Bacchus; there is Bona Dea (“Good Goddess”) a
+mistress of agriculture, possibly only another aspect of Ceres; there
+is Flora, the kindly patroness not merely of the flowers but of all
+the prosaic vegetable gardens; and there also is Robigus, a malevolent
+garden deity who must be propitiated with frequent offerings or he will
+mildew the crops.
+
+All these gods (except the evil Robigus) are near and dear to the
+average plebeian, and especially to the farmers. In addition there
+are the Lares and Penates. We have seen how they are guardian spirits
+of the households--never forgotten in any mansion or upon any social
+occasion.
+
+The state has its own “Public Lares and Penates” as well as private
+households; the former are the spirits of the gallant patriots of old
+like the first Brutus, Cincinnatus, Camillus, and Scipio Major. The
+second are the immortal “Twin Brethren”--Castor and Pollux, who have
+ridden to rescue Roman armies on many a hard-fought field. No public
+sacrifice can avail unless at least formal reference is made to the
+public Lares and Penates along with the special god receiving honor.
+
+Reënforcing these divinities is a whole host of special rural deities,
+who, in a country still very dependent on agriculture, receive special
+honor in all the profitable villas and farms crowding up to the gates
+of Rome; Faunus and Lupercus are herdsmen’s gods well matching the
+Hellenic Pan; Silvanus presides over the woodlands and timber-lots,
+Pales is a much beloved shepherd’s god, Pomona cares for the orchards,
+Vertumnus for the normal change of the seasons; Anna Perena is the
+goddess of the circling year; and Terminus takes care that the boundary
+stones (so important to farmers) are not disturbed.
+
+
+=352. Personified Virtues as Gods: Cold and Legalistic Character of
+the Roman Religion.=--However, these deities are increased by a
+great host of personified moral and civic qualities. Nothing is easier
+in Rome than to assume that every desirable virtue must have some kind
+of a numen (divine potence) behind it. Around the city one can find
+temples, _e.g._ to Honor, Hope, Good Faith, Modesty, Concord,
+Peace, Victory, Liberty, Public Safety, Youth, and Fame. This is only a
+minor part of the list.
+
+  [Illustration: CIRCULAR TEMPLE, PROBABLY OF OLD ITALIAN
+  GODDESS MATUTA: now Church of Sancta Maria del Sole,
+  Rome.]
+
+It is assumed in fact that every act or process of human life has its
+special numen who can be invoked to make that act successful. Thus
+after young Sextus, Calvus’s son, was born, his very pious nurses first
+invoked Vaticanus who opened his mouth for his first cry, then Cucina
+who guarded his cradle, then Edulia and Potina who taught him to eat
+and drink, Stabilius who aided him first to stand up, and Abeona and
+Adeona who watched over his first footsteps “going” and “returning.”
+His sophisticated parents doubtless smiled at this scrupulous piety,
+but they did nothing to discourage it.
+
+These cold impersonal divinities stand to man in a legal rather than
+a theological relationship. Men and the numina have made a kind of
+contract--so much prayer and ceremonial sacrifice must be offered in
+return for so much good favor, prosperity, and protection. _Do ut
+des_ (“I give that you may give”) sums up the whole spirit of the
+Roman religion.
+
+Numa the alleged founder of so many cults was not a prophet or an
+inspired poet but a king and lawgiver. A wise man is always pious;
+that is, he always gives to the gods their precise due according to
+carefully set forms, otherwise the divinities may evade their part of
+the contract, just as a merchant is not bound to execute a bargain in
+which the other party has failed to do precisely as was stipulated.
+
+If prayers and sacrifice fail in their purpose, it is reasonable to
+suppose that the fault lies in the formula and the victims employed.
+The pig, sheep, or other victim must then be sacrificed over again with
+greater scrupulosity. On the other hand, willful neglect of worship is
+as surely punished by the gods as willful neglect of paying one’s debts
+is punished by the Prætor. The fate of the impious will be somewhat
+like that of the absconding debtor, only much more dreadful.
+
+Needless to say this “Religion of Numa” contains no more spirituality
+than the hard stones which pave the Forum. It does, however, put
+a genuine premium upon the rigid performance of duty, and thereby
+sometimes reacts favorably upon human conduct.
+
+
+=353. Priestly Offices: Little Sacrosanct about Them.=--For these
+necessary ceremonies mankind requires priests, but they are not
+revered interpreters of the divine will, nor are they mysterious
+mediators between Providence and men; they are rather attorneys
+employed by men to represent them competently in their dealings with
+the divinities.
+
+Small religious matters, the minor private sacrifices, etc., can be
+attended to without a priest, just as you do not need a jurisconsult to
+assist in petty purchases. Greater religious matters, private and still
+more if public, however, require experts to see that the right formulæ
+are spoken and sacrifices proffered. Any Roman of flawless birth and of
+good character is eligible for most of the priesthoods, although there
+are a few reserved for the narrow circle of the old patrician families.
+Holding these religious offices does not ordinarily imply dropping
+one’s secular interests or having the least philosophical belief in
+the ceremonies so carefully performed. Julius Cæsar was Pontifex
+Maximus while he was Proconsul of the Gauls, and while he was a firm
+disbeliever in the existence of any gods at all.
+
+Of course every small temple has to have its proper custodians whom
+we may call “priests,” to attend to the private sacrifices; and there
+are besides plenty of unofficial diviners and soothsayers who can
+answer your question, “Is this a lucky day for the wedding of my
+daughter?” or “Do the omens warn against buying this farm?” The great
+public ministers of religion, however, are really officers of state,
+appointed by the Emperor,[223] and usually they are grouped in famous
+“Sacred Colleges” wherein the members hold office for life. Ordinarily
+the persons thus honored are distinguished senators selected after an
+honorable civil and military career.
+
+
+=354. The Pontifices.=--On the whole the greatest official glory comes
+to the fifteen _pontifices_. Not merely do they possess the general
+oversight of everything concerning cultus, but they have as their chief
+colleague the Emperor himself, who always holds the post of _Pontifex
+Maximus_--head of the Roman religion.
+
+Before Julius Cæsar reformed the calendar the pontifices had the
+important task of settling each year what days were to be _dies
+fasti_, whereon alone legal business could be lawfully conducted,
+and they have still the power to interfere in almost any doings
+concerning sacrifice, ritual, temple properties, etc. Their head, the
+Pontifex Maximus, has particularly to watch over and control the Vestal
+Virgins; and the college at large still has the custody of the famous
+_Libri Pontificales_, the “Pontifical Books,” famous and ancient
+volumes containing instructions for all kinds of unfamiliar religious
+rites and procedure in strange religious emergencies.[224]
+
+
+=355. The Augurs.=--The pontiffs, however, are really “Commissioners
+for Religious Affairs” rather than actual priests, and along with them
+goes another important group of “sacred” personages who seem almost
+equally unpriestly. These are the _augurs_, the official interpreters
+of the will of heaven; and almost every senator cherishes the hope of
+being appointed to this college, notwithstanding the fact that long ago
+Cicero remarked that “two augurs ought never to meet without winking!”
+There are sixteen augurs, who are entitled to wear the embroidered
+toga prætexta and to carry the sacred crooked staff, the lituus. The
+science of augury, whereof they are supposedly the supreme custodians,
+is something whereon the men of old, especially the Etruscans, expended
+an enormous amount of energy.
+
+The Italians in general put relatively little trust in astrology
+and not much more in dreams as revealing the divine intentions.
+What greatly matters is the flight of birds, the strange actions of
+animals, monstrous births, thunder, meteors, and like prodigies. Even
+in Hadrian’s day plenty of intelligent men will shudder with dread if
+they behold a crow cawing on their funeral monument; or will give up a
+journey if a black viper shoots across the road just as their carriage
+is starting.
+
+Sneezing or stumbling furthermore can mean much, and before many an
+atrium the janitor is constantly shouting “_Dextro pede!_” “Right
+foot first!” to every guest entering the vestibule. Certain signs are
+very dreadful; _e.g._ any gathering at which somebody is seized
+with epilepsy (a manifest token of divine anger) must be instantly
+dissolved.
+
+If, however, the gods do not speak thus openly, no public act should
+be performed without at least asking the formal question, “Is heaven
+favorable?” This may be done by watching the consecrated chickens
+while they devour the grain as at the opening of the Senate (see p.
+340),[225] but more elaborate and reliable is a careful watching of
+the heavens for signs. If an augur sees ravens on the right-hand side
+of the sky, the sign is lucky; but a crow in order not to forbode evil
+must appear on the left. The actions of eagles, owls, woodpeckers, and
+certain other birds are more complicated. Their cries, the manner of
+their flight, as well as the direction whence they come all have to be
+considered.
+
+Time fails to describe the careful ritual necessary for the augurs,
+when, at the request of some high magistrate, they interrogate the gods
+to see if heaven is pleased at some proposed official action. It is
+not necessary, however, to get a positively favorable sign; often it is
+enough that during a suitable interval the augur should _fail_ to
+observe any unhappy bird, any meteor, thunder claps, or the like. This
+propitious interval constitutes a formal “silence” (_silentium_);
+and many an augur has shown himself conveniently deaf or blind to
+noises or sights that might prohibit some desired deed. Nevertheless
+the solemn farce is always maintained, for when do Romans ever discard
+any time-honored custom?
+
+
+=356. The Flamines.=--The augurs rank with the pontiffs high in
+public honors, but the most important actual priests in Rome are the
+_flamines_. There are fifteen flamines distributed among the services
+of the various gods, but three rank above all others--the flamens of
+Jupiter, Mars, and of Quirinus (deified Romulus), with the first named,
+called more particularly the _Flamen Dialis_, at their head.
+
+It is an extraordinary honor to be named Flamen Dialis, and Gratia
+reckons it among the chief of her family glories that she has an uncle
+now enjoying for life this high priesthood. The Flamen of Jupiter
+is entitled to a curule chair as if he were a magistrate, and takes
+social precedence above nearly everybody save the Emperor and the
+consuls; he also wears the toga prætexta like other exalted personages,
+although it must be of thick wool woven by the hands of his wife. In
+addition he has to appear always crowned with a special high pointed
+cap, not unlike the “fool’s-cap” of other times, and tipped with the
+_apex_, a pointed spike of olive wood wound with a lock of wool.
+
+Old Papirius is among the most envied men in Rome, yet he complains
+bitterly of the price he has to pay for his glory. He cannot mount a
+horse, or even look upon an army in battle array. He cannot swear an
+oath, or spend a single night away from the city, however comfortable
+may be his family villas in the hot season. The cuttings of his hair
+and nails must be carefully preserved and buried beneath an _arbor
+felix_ (lucky tree). He must never eat of or even mention a goat,
+beans, or several other forbidden objects.
+
+Above all Papirius’s wife, the _flaminica_, whom he had to marry
+with special ceremonies, is indispensable to him in many acts of
+religion and he is forbidden to divorce her, although his life with
+the noble Claudia is none too happy. Worse still if she should die, he
+must immediately resign his office. The other fourteen flamines enjoy
+somewhat lesser glories, offset by slightly lesser taboos. They are,
+however, the fifteen most sacred male individuals in all Rome.
+
+
+=357. The _Salii_ (“Holy Leapers”).=--Of less glory than the flamines,
+but nevertheless of venerable sanctity are the twelve other priests
+of Mars, the college of the _Salii_ (“Holy Leapers”). To them are
+committed the twelve holy shields, the _Anciliæ_, one whereof is
+affirmed to have fallen from heaven.
+
+Calvus has an elderly cousin, Donatus, who lately was appointed by
+Hadrian to the Salii. During the last Kalends of March nobody cracked
+a smile when these twelve sedate and aristocratic gentlemen, wearing
+their apex-crowned caps, long embroidered tunics, and brazen cuirasses,
+with spear in one hand and the holy shields on the other, went through
+the city stopping in many of the squares and before the larger temples
+and executing violent dances, leaping, cavorting, and chanting with
+loud voice “Salian Hymns”--verses in such ancient Latin that they
+hardly understood their own shrill jargon. When the round of the city
+was ended and they had danced and sung for the last time, the holy men
+were quite exhausted.
+
+The consolation for these holy men followed quickly, however. That
+evening they held a grand corporation dinner. The augurs are famous
+for their elaborate banquets worthy of an Apicius, but the Salii on
+the whole surpass the augurs. A _Saliares daps_--“Holy Leaper’s
+dinner”--has become the synonym for the triumph of good eating.
+
+
+=358. The _Fetiales_ (“Sacred Heralds”): Ceremony of Declaring
+War.=--Calvus himself belongs to a religious college of rather
+waning consequence, but of great antiquity. He is a fetial.
+
+Anciently at least no treaty was binding unless it had been ratified
+with most solemn religious ceremonies. To deal with the gods in
+international affairs Numa is said, therefore, to have established a
+college of twenty _fetiales_--the holy heralds. Their president,
+the _Pater Patratus_, represented the whole Roman people when it
+came to swearing the oaths and offering the sacrifices for concluding
+a treaty, and even in Hadrian’s day some of the ancient usages are
+maintained. A peace has lately been made with the King of Parthia, and
+in the presence of his envoy at Rome the venerable ex-consul, the Pater
+Patratus, took his sacred flints, laid a special wreath of the holy
+“verbena” plant on the altar, and kindled the fire for the sacrifice
+that confirmed the peace.[226]
+
+More important once was the chief herald’s duty in declaring a war;
+for it seemed useless to hope for victory unless first by legalistic
+formula the enemy was put in the wrong before the gods. The Pater
+Patratus with at least three of his colleagues was expected to march
+solemnly to the hostile frontier, next with due ceremony to recite the
+wrongs of Rome and demand redress and to hurl a spear dipped in blood
+across the boundary; then and not till then could the legions march
+forth in any offensive war.
+
+It is a great distance now, however, to the frontier of the Empire and
+the white-headed Pater Patratus keenly dislikes to quit for months
+his luxurious residence on the Quirinal; but legal ingenuity has long
+since enabled him to preserve at once his bodily comfort and the good
+old custom. Before the Temple of Bellona in the Campus Martius is a
+bit of ground whereon stands a certain column. When recently it seemed
+desirable to declare war on an unneighborly German tribe, a captive
+from these barbarians was duly hunted up in the slave market at Rome,
+and a legal deed was solemnly made out transferring this land to the
+prisoner. The spot was now technically “hostile ground,” and the
+Pater Patratus and his fellow fetials all ordered their litters and
+were peacefully taken out to the Temple of Bellona. The Germans were
+carefully summoned to “do the Romans right,” and no answer coming, the
+head fetial with all the ancient formulas and curses flung the spear
+into the column.
+
+The war could now proceed with the gods’ full blessing--a thoroughly
+Roman proceeding, and very typical of many other survivals, religious
+or secular.
+
+
+=359. The Arval Brethren (_Fratres Arvales_).=--There is another
+“ancient and honorable” religious brotherhood--the _Fratres Arvales_.
+There are twelve Arval brethren, always including the Emperor. In May
+they hold a three-day festival to the _Dea Dia_.[227] Besides regaling
+themselves then with an extraordinarily luxurious feast, they assemble
+in the grove of the Dea Dia and offer to her two pigs, a white heifer,
+and a lamb. Next they clear her temple of all but the necessary priests
+and attendants, and dividing themselves into two bodies of six, tuck
+up their long tunics and execute a solemn dance around the holy house,
+singing meantime a kind of hymn for the blessing of the fields, a hymn
+preserved in such an uncouth antique Latin that the meaning of many
+words is doubtful.[228]
+
+It is a most desirable thing to be one of these “Brothers of the
+Fields.” The records of the college are kept with the greatest care and
+their dinners compete with those of the Salii.
+
+These are _some_ only of the holy colleges, membership wherein
+carries marked social prestige. The fifteen “Keepers of the Sibylline
+Books,” the _Epulones_ who arrange many of the banquets in honor of
+the gods, and the _Haruspices_ who assist the augurs particularly in
+interpreting the omens from the entrails of slaughtered victims, are
+all distinguished personages. How many of them have one scintilla of
+belief in the deities they address and the rites they execute it were
+most unbecoming to inquire closely!
+
+
+=360. Rustic Ceremonies; Soothsaying, Astrologers, and Witches.=--This
+religion, then, is one purely of outward ritual coupled with not a
+little superstition. In the country the farmers at the festival to the
+Lemures (malevolent ghosts of the dead) still may rise at midnight,
+walk barefoot through the house, fill their mouths with black beans
+which they spit forth nine times without looking around, saying each
+time, “With these beans I redeem me and mine.” Then they clank two
+brazen vessels together and nine times shout out, “Manes depart!” This
+is a sample of many similar ceremonies.
+
+Soothsayers, who are often sheer charlatans, are very naturally in
+constant demand among the unlearned to resolve such queries as, “Will
+my mother-in-law recover from jaundice?” or “How long will my husband
+live and keep me from my lover?” Such rascals usually tell the future
+by examining the lungs of a dove. The entrails of a dog, however, are
+better although much more expensive.
+
+Among the rich, however, “Chaldæan astrologers” are somewhat
+fashionable, slippery Orientals who know how to wheedle the gold out
+of credulous parvenus, even if the official religion sets no great
+store upon star-gazing.[229] The women are inevitably the best patrons
+of these pretenders, but their husbands and brothers often refuse to
+start on a journey or to begin anything else important until assured
+“the horoscope is favorable.” Time fails us to tell of the employment
+of Etruscan witches, or of the belief in ghosts and goblins. The latter
+are dreaded by many hard-headed epicureans who will argue convincingly
+that there can be no such thing as a god or immortality.
+
+  [Illustration: ROMAN ALTAR.]
+
+
+=361. A Private Sacrifice.=--Nevertheless, with all its faults this
+Roman religion has few truly _debasing_ superstitions. There are
+practically no human sacrifices, no constant and outrageous use of
+sordid ceremonies, no acts or beliefs which actually degrade one’s
+manhood or womanhood.[230] All is deliberate, ordered, and, within
+certain pagan limitations, tolerably reasonable.
+
+A typical Roman sacrifice is a dignified and well standardized
+procedure. Only recently Publius Calvus enjoyed a birthday, and custom
+required that all his kinsmen should come to congratulate him while he
+offered to the gods a snow-white lamb, in gratitude for another year
+of life and prosperity. The ceremony took place at a small temple of
+Juno near the senator’s mansion on the Esquiline, Juno being accounted
+the special patron deity of the Junii Calvi. The victim was carefully
+selected by Calvus himself, who paid an extra price for a creature
+newly weaned and with horns just sprouting. Ostentatious freedmen
+sometimes offered a fat bull on their birthdays, and poorer folk
+merely a small pig,[231] but a white lamb was a very fitting private
+sacrifice, not too mean, not too pretentious, and fell in perfectly
+with the Roman idea of dealing with the gods on honorable business
+principles.
+
+
+=362. Ceremony at the Temple.=--On the day of the ceremony Calvus
+presented himself at the temple, with his toga girded tightly around
+his body in the special “Gabinian Cincture” required in sacrifices. The
+groups of kinsmen, friends, freedmen, etc., all followed decorously.
+The special Flamen of Juno, a friendly senator, appeared with his
+vestments and apex, to direct Calvus in the technical details of the
+ceremony, but, be it noticed, the actual priest was Calvus himself.
+
+After all the company had gathered near the altar and put on chaplets
+of ivy, a public crier (_præco_) commanded in loud voice, “Let there
+be silence!” and a tense interval followed, every person holding
+his breath lest an unlucky cough or sneeze should vitiate the whole
+proceeding. Nothing ill-omened following, the elder of Calvus’s small
+sons acting as camillus (acolyte) extended to his father a silver basin
+of purifying water wherein the latter carefully washed his hands, dried
+them upon a towel borne by his younger boy, then drew the great folds
+of his toga over his head, almost but not quite concealing his face.
+
+  [Illustration: A MILITARY SACRIFICE; TRAJAN’S ARMY ON THE
+  DANUBE: from Trajan’s Column.]
+
+At this juncture a flute player standing near promptly struck up
+with a piercing blast, which he continued much of the time until the
+ceremony was nearly over, not to supply music but simply to prevent any
+ill-omened sound from being heard. Thereupon other youths led up the
+lamb. Its little horns had been gilded and a heavy garland of flowers
+twined about its neck. It was needful for the creature to _seem_
+to approach willingly, therefore the halter had to be quite slack, but
+a little fodder spread under the altar made the brute only too ready
+for its fate.
+
+Calvus approached the victim, and with the flamen at his elbow to
+dictate every detail, took wine, incense, and a mixture of meal
+and salt, and sprinkled a trifle of each upon the hungry creature’s
+forehead. A professional attendant cut a few hairs from between the
+horns and cast them on the burning altar. Then again prompted by the
+flamen, Calvus prayed aloud:
+
+
+=363. A Formal Prayer; the Actual Sacrifice.=--“O Mother Juno, I
+pray and beseech thee that thou mayest be gracious and favorable to me
+and my home and my household, for which course I have ordained that
+the offering of this lamb should be made in accordance with my vows;
+that thou mayest avert, ward off, and keep afar all disease visible
+and invisible, all barrenness, waste, misfortune and ill-weather;
+that thou mayest cause my family, affairs, and business to come to
+prosperity; and that thou grant health and strength to me, my home and
+my household!”[232]
+
+  [Illustration: ROMAN ALTAR WITH DESIGN SHOWING A
+  SACRIFICE.]
+
+It was all very like the formulas used by the lawyers before the
+Prætor. No waste of fine words, but very comprehensive and no
+contingency unprovided for.
+
+When Calvus finished, the temple attendant (_popa_) standing near
+by asked in set form, “Shall I strike?” “Strike him!” ordered Calvus.
+Instantly the attendant smote the lamb a single merciful blow on the
+skull with a heavy mallet. The creature dropped dead, and his slayer
+immediately knelt and stabbed him with a knife. As the blood ran out,
+it was caught in a basin and sprinkled upon the altar, along with some
+wine, incense, and a consecrated cake.
+
+The lamb was now promptly cut up, and a crafty-looking haruspex
+inspected the color and form of the still palpitating entrails. If
+these had been declared “unfavorable” in form, color, or otherwise, a
+second lamb must have been procured and the whole ceremony perforce
+repeated until the results were fortunate, but the haruspex, certain of
+his fee, after a decent studying of the gall, intestines, and liver,
+lifted his head and said solemnly, “_Exta bona!_” “The entrails are
+good!” Thereupon the flamen, hitherto passive or muttering formulas,
+stepped forward, threw wine, meal, and incense upon the entrails; then
+cast the whole mass of them upon the brightly kindled altar-fire.
+Meantime the actual flesh of the lamb was being gathered up by Calvus’s
+servants to take home for private consumption.
+
+Calvus himself now drew the toga up over his head the second time,
+and then called on Juno with loud voice, “since thou hast accepted
+this lamb, duly proffered,” to continue her favor on him and his house
+during the coming year, “in which case I vow unto thee another lamb,
+white and without blemish even as is this.” He was again, it would
+seem, the lawyer reminding the other party to the contract that by the
+acceptance of the payment proffered, he or she was strictly obligated
+to continue friendly for the next twelve months.
+
+The ceremony was therewith ended. The flamen raised his hand and spoke
+the solemn word of dismissal, “_Ilicet_,” “It is permitted to go.”
+Sacrificer, flamen, spectators, and attendants all now hurried away
+with shout and laughter to Calvus’s residence, there to join in a fine
+feast wherein everybody received a portion of the slaughtered lamb.
+
+
+=364. The Vestal Virgins: Their Sanctity and Importance.=--Great
+are the pontiffs, the augurs, the flamens, and the members of the
+other sacred colleges. But they are all too pragmatic and secular to be
+taken quite seriously when they demand religious veneration. There is
+one Roman college, however, which is beyond words holy, at whose claims
+the most godless never scoff, and whose members will keep alive the
+best traditions of the religion of Numa until old Rome is tottering to
+its fall--the Sisterhood of the Vestal Virgins.
+
+  [Illustration: VESTAL VIRGIN.]
+
+Numa himself, hoary tradition affirms, instituted this body of six
+holy maidens, although no doubt similar companies could have been
+discovered in many other primitive Italian communities. Their origin
+is clear enough. To early man, fire was a thing very mysterious and
+very necessary. Before the discovery of flint and steel it was no
+trifling matter to kindle a new blaze by rubbing together a hard stick
+and a soft; every village, therefore, maintained a central hearth
+(_focus_) where some brands were ever smoldering and whither a boy
+could be sent running for a spark to replenish the kitchen fires.
+
+But beyond all other peoples the old Latins made of this homely need
+a sacrosanct institution and a ritual. The Temple of the Fire Goddess
+was perhaps at first only the hearth of the king, and her priestesses
+were the king’s own daughters. Then the king disappeared: the Pontifex
+Maximus took his place; and quite naturally just as the high pontiff’s
+official residence, the Regia, stood on the verge of the Forum, the
+Shrine of Vesta and the home of her maiden ministers stood close beside
+it.
+
+All across the ages this fire of Vesta has burned, tended with
+inconceivable care; and for this humble shrine of Vesta and the six
+Vestal Virgins all Romans from Emperor to lowest plebeian still retain
+more genuine reverence than for anything else in the world, not
+excluding the gilded Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus crowning the
+Capitol and its pompous Flamen Dialis.
+
+
+=365. The Temple of Vesta and the House of the Vestals.=--The Temple
+of Vesta, directly on the verge of the roaring Forum and under the
+shadow of the Imperial Palatine, is an ostentatiously small, simple
+building, with a circular portico of pillars and surmounted with a low
+cupola covered with sheets of metal. Often repaired, great pains have
+been taken (so Ovid tells us) to preserve the original “style of Numa.”
+Directly behind it, as you go east from the Forum, is the _Atrium
+Vestæ_, the House of the Vestals, noticed when we traversed the Heart
+of Rome.
+
+Very simple externally, once inside those privileged to enter the House
+discover not merely a fine comfortable dwelling, suitable for ladies of
+rank and their numerous female attendants, but a very beautiful garden
+some 200 feet long by 65 wide. There are spreading trees, winding
+paths, marble seats, fountains and even a tiny grove--all within easy
+stone’s throw of the very center of the metropolis.
+
+The need for this garden, however, is obvious. The Vestals are women
+of the very highest rank, yet they cannot leave Rome in the hot
+season when nearly all other noble ladies flee to their cool villas.
+The garden is their breathing spot and their recompense. Around the
+garden runs a line of statues of the _Maximæ_ (Senior Vestals),
+an imposing array of dignified elderly women of the grave Roman type.
+Here too in the Atrium Vestæ, in a little room, is a small hand-mill
+where the sacred virgins themselves can be seen each day laboriously
+grinding the consecrated meal required in the cult of the Hearth
+Goddess.
+
+Within this house also the six Sisters spend their lives in a routine
+of holy duties, and although the building is not an officially
+consecrated “temple” it is really the most revered and sacrosanct spot
+in Rome. In the Atrium Vestæ, therefore, are deposited the wills and
+other precious documents of half the nobility, and the gods pity the
+wretch who may do the place violence,--his fate at human hands will be
+awful!
+
+
+=366. Appointment of Vestals.=--This little sisterhood is divided
+always into three categories--the novices, the active members, the
+senior Vestals, of two members each. When there is a vacancy the
+Pontifex Maximus makes choice among the girls of between six and ten
+years in the patrician families,[233] who have both of their parents
+living and happily married. A girl has to be physically perfect and
+intellectually acute, certain, in short, to do honor to the greatest
+position open to women in Rome.
+
+The present Maxima is Salvia, a distant kinswoman of the late Emperor
+Nerva. She was appointed many years ago in the reign of Titus. There
+was such competition for the vacancy then that several noble families
+offered their daughters, but Salvia was chosen because her parents were
+on the best of terms, whereas her nearest rival’s father and mother
+were known to have quarreled. The high pontiff (Titus) solemnly took
+her by the hand repeating the ritualistic words, “I take you to be
+‘Amata,’ that as Vestal Virgin you may perform the sacred rites lawful
+for vestal virgins.” The title of _Amata_ was simply honorary. It
+implied the gentle and loving character of the service of Vesta.
+
+Salvia was immediately led over to the house of Vesta, her hair was cut
+off, and hung upon the sacred lotus-tree in the garden; she was clothed
+in long white garments with a special white band around her head, the
+holy _infula_; and next she took oath to abide in her office and
+to maintain her virginity not less than thirty years. She was now a
+lawful vestal, withdrawn from the power of her father, and subject only
+to the jurisdiction of the Pontifex Maximus.
+
+
+=367. Duties of the Vestals: the Maxima.=--The six vestals enjoy
+no sinecure. From the fountain of Egeria by the Cœlian Hill they must
+bear all the water required for kneading their sacred cakes.[234] Daily
+they must carefully cleanse the actual Temple in front of their mansion
+with a mop, and deck it around with laurel. There are various great
+festivals in which they have to play an important part, especially in
+the very important Vestalia held June 9th, when all Rome unites to
+honor the beloved Hearth Mother; and on June 15th when there is the
+official cleansing of the Temple, and all the refuse of the year is
+collected and removed with scrupulous ceremonies just as a good farmer
+should cleanse his barns before the harvest.
+
+The chief duty is, however, the simple and gracious task of tending
+the sacred fire. For the first ten years of her sisterhood Salvia was
+learning her responsibilities in this all-important particular; for the
+next ten, she, or her associated second-class Vestal, had the actual
+watch-care of the holy flame on the maintenance whereof seemed to rest
+the prosperity of Rome; after that as one of the two senior Vestals she
+could turn over to her juniors the active duties, confining herself to
+the general oversight of the sisterhood. When the older senior Vestal
+died she herself became Maxima--the most important woman in Rome,
+enjoying a reverence and a certainty of tenure by no means shared by
+every Empress.
+
+
+=368. Punishments of Erring Vestals.=--To allow the sacred fire to
+go out, by some fearful mischance, is an almost unheard-of calamity.
+The ancient books ordain that the responsible Vestal on duty shall
+first be stripped and scourged by the Pontifex Maximus, administering
+his blows in the dark, then two pieces of wood must be taken from a
+“lucky tree” and he must laboriously rekindle the fire with elaborate
+ceremonies. After that other prolonged rites are needful to save the
+state from the results of such a fearful “prodigy.”
+
+Such lapses in the service of Vesta almost never occur. Slightly more
+frequent have been charges of breaking the vow of chastity. In the few
+recorded cases the guilty sister after trial before the college of
+pontiffs has been buried alive with a kind of funeral ceremony in the
+“Accursed Field” (_Campus Sceleratus_) just within the Colline
+Gate. It is “bad luck” actually to put to death a consecrated Vestal,
+but a deep pit is dug and in it are placed a couch, a lamp, and a
+table bearing a little food. Then the guilty woman is lowered into the
+pit and earth heaped upon it. She has simply been dismissed from the
+presence of men:--what occurs out of all human sight is strictly the
+affair of gods! Meantime her paramour has been publicly scourged to
+death in the Forum with every form of ignominy.
+
+The vow of virginity, nevertheless, is not perpetual. After thirty
+years in the service, at an age still far below old womanhood, a Vestal
+can quit the Atrium, and marry; but Salvia and her sisters seldom dream
+of such a thing. Public opinion, though not the law, frowns upon the
+act, and it means resigning a position of incomparable importance,
+honor, and dignity.
+
+
+=369. Remarkable Honors Granted the Vestals.=--If Salvia, for twenty
+years at least, has thus taken her duties very seriously, she has
+her great compensation. The Vestal Sisterhood is rich with a great
+corporate income. The members alone of all Romans give their testimony
+in court without the least oath. They have the seats of honor at all
+public games and festivals. A lictor precedes each of them everywhere,
+securing for his mistress the same public honors granted a magistrate,
+and a magistrate’s lictors lower their fasces in respectful homage when
+in a Vestal’s superior presence.
+
+The slightest molestation of these priestesses’ persons is of course
+punished capitally. They have the right to intercede even with the
+Emperor in matter of pardons, and they nominate to sundry public
+offices--_e.g._ the librarianship of the Imperial library, and
+certain military tribuneships. Finally if they chance accidentally
+to meet a criminal bound for execution, upon their demand he must be
+spared and released--not out of motives of mercy, but because it is a
+bad omen for the State for any holy Vestal to meet a person formally
+condemned to die.[235]
+
+One crowning honor also Salvia can anticipate: even Emperors
+must ordinarily be buried outside the consecrated city limits
+(_pomerium_), but the law specifically admits Vestals not merely
+to the glories of a public funeral, but to burial inside the Heart of
+Rome itself. What wonder that Salvia is loath to quit a post of such
+glory and power for the uncertain prospects of matrimony!
+
+Despite all the ceremonies, irrational and vain though they may seem
+to a later standpoint, the worship of Vesta, the goddess of the honest
+home, and the corporate life of her six maiden ministers remain among
+the fairest things of the Roman Empire. Matters cannot be hopelessly
+bad, when thus, in the center of the great, luxurious, sensual Imperial
+city, womanly purity and orderly virtue are preëminently honored.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XXI
+
+THE FOREIGN CULTS: CYBELE, ISIS, MITHRAS. THE CHRISTIANS IN PAGAN EYES
+
+
+=370. Saturnalia: the Exchange of Presents on New Year’s Day.=--Could
+our visit to Rome be prolonged across the year we should dwell on such
+so-called religious festivals as the Saturnalia which lasts seven
+days, beginning the 17th of December, when the whole city abandons
+itself to carnival mirth, when slaves for a brief and happy interval
+put on the tall pileus, the liberty cap, are allowed to be very pert
+to their masters, and indulge in all kinds of pranks and liberties;
+and when people exchange with all their friends semi-comic gifts of
+wax tapers and amusing little terra-cotta images, or other gifts of
+real value such as napkins, writing tablets, and dishes of preserved
+sweetmeats.[236]
+
+More decorous is the ensuing holiday on the Kalends of January (New
+Year’s Day) when ceremonious official calls are paid on every magnate
+from the Emperor downward, and more gifts are exchanged, often of the
+highest value.[237] In these festivities and distributions of presents
+can perhaps be found the prototypes for the winter holidays of another
+religion and later age.
+
+
+=371. Multiplication of Oriental Cults.=--One dare not quit the
+Rome of Hadrian, however, without a cursory inspection of something
+extremely evident since we began our explorations on plebeian Mercury
+Street--the foreign religions and their temples.
+
+Very reluctantly did the grave fathers of the old Republic admit
+Anatolian, Syrian, and Egyptian cults into their beloved city. Even
+unlicensed Greek ceremonies were frowned upon and the disorderly
+orgiastic rites of the Eastern gods for long were extremely repulsive
+to the dignified builders of the Commonwealth. But as the Republic
+declined the foreign cults thrust themselves in and with the coming of
+the Empire all attempts to prohibit them practically disappeared. The
+most the authorities can now do is to see that these strange private
+worships are conducted with a certain degree of decency. Rome has never
+countenanced the vile revelings of the groves of Syrian Astarte, much
+less the horrid child-burnings of the Phœnician Moloch.
+
+The votaries of these Eastern gods are not merely Orientals who
+have drifted to Rome. The new religions have a great appeal to many
+persons of good old Latin stock and especially to the women. The
+reason for this is fairly obvious: the Roman official religion is a
+legalistic religion devoid of the slightest spirituality. “Sin” except
+in the sense of reckless contract breaking, “communion with God,”
+“reconciliation with God,” “The Hereafter,” “Life Eternal,” and like
+phrases are utterly unknown to pontiff, augur, or flamen.
+
+For intelligent persons to whom neither the Stoic nor the Epicurean
+guesses at the riddle of existence prove satisfying, who are torn in
+conscience, bowed with bereavement, or crushed by disaster, there
+must be some outlet better than that of scrupulously offering a black
+pig to Mars. Atheism can never satisfy for long,--and the Oriental
+religions, appealing at once to the love for the mysterious, and to the
+passionate desire for some supernatural explanation of the problems
+of humanity, as a result draw in their votaries by thousands. Some
+of these worshipers are utterly ignorant and credulous. Others are
+men and women of wealth and deep learning, who can turn the Syrian or
+Egyptian jargon into elegant Platonic myths, and see, behind the coarse
+Levantine ritual, spiritual allegories which would have astonished old
+Memphis or Tyre.
+
+
+=372. The Cult of the Deified Emperors.=--The Imperial Government
+itself has added to this tendency to multiply cults--it created a new
+and a very important one, that of the “Deified Emperors.” Augustus
+Cæsar was far too shrewd and matter-of-fact an Italian to permit
+himself to be worshiped as an actual deity within his native land;
+but he did not discourage Orientals (accustomed to adore almost any
+successful monarch as a “god”) from setting up altars to him, and he
+took a great satisfaction in having his adoptive father Julius Cæsar
+officially deified at Rome, and then in accepting for himself the
+glories coming to the _son_ of the “Divine Julius.”
+
+Furthermore, even a living Emperor has his _genius_--his special
+guardian spirit, often to be half-confounded with his own personality.
+The worship of Augustus’s genius was soon an important part of the
+state religion. Oaths were taken by it; an insult to it became the
+vilest blasphemy. If Augustus did not become a god in his lifetime, the
+aura and effluence of divinity assuredly played all around him.
+
+
+=373. The “Divine Augustus” and His Successors.=--The instant Augustus
+died a solemn decree of the Senate forthwith made him “Divus Augustus,”
+with temples, priests, and ritual--all the paraphernalia in short of a
+prominent member of the Pantheon. Since then in the provincial towns
+the priests of Augustus, _Augustales_, are ordinarily appointed from
+among the rich freedmen--men of short lineage but of great economic
+influence, who are delighted at the trappings and pompous honors
+awarded this holy office, and who become, therefore, the ardent
+supporters of the imperial régime.
+
+Since 14 A.D. there have been still other gods thus enrolled by vote
+of the Senate--notably the “Divine Claudius” (“dragged to heaven by a
+hook,” people sarcastically remark, remembering Agrippina’s poisoned
+mushrooms), and the equally “divine” Vespasian, Titus, Nerva, and
+Trajan. Their temples and cults are among the most splendid and
+prominent in Rome. In the basilicas and in the government houses
+(_prætoria_) and magistrates’ halls all over the Empire stand the
+arrays of statues of these Deified Augusti along with that of the
+“genius” of the reigning Hadrian himself. Every litigant and every
+witness must cast his pinch of incense into the brazier before them and
+swear by their godhead.
+
+Intelligent men, of course, understand that these Imperial “gods”
+somehow differ in nature from Jupiter, but the homage offered to them
+seems really an affirmation of loyalty to the great principles of law
+and order which bind the vast Empire together. Every good Emperor
+is entitled to expect this honor, after a worthy reign. “I think
+I’m becoming a god!” muttered the pragmatic Vespasian while on his
+death-bed. On the other hand the refusal of deification is a form of
+branding a tyrant’s memory; and Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, and Domitian
+receive no incense.[238]
+
+The state thus teaches all its subjects how easily new deities can be
+introduced--apparently by very human agencies. Of the host of Oriental
+gods that have thrust themselves into Rome there are three or four
+which have won peculiar prominence; notably the cults of Cybele, Isis
+and Serapis, and Mithras. There is also the extremely despised sect of
+the Christians.
+
+
+=374. The Cult of Cybele, the “Great Mother.”=--The cult of Cybele
+is the oldest and best recognized of this foreign group. Cybele is an
+Asiatic goddess with her most famous temple at Pessinus in Galatia. In
+the crisis of the Hannibalic War when public opinion was on edge, the
+Romans fetched an image of this “Great Mother of Pessinus” to Rome and
+set up a temple to her on the Palatine. The Roman matrons, henceforth,
+honored her with the festival of the Megalesia.
+
+  [Illustration: ARCHI-GALLUS, PRIEST OF CYBELE.]
+
+The worship of Cybele, the Great Mother, despite this naturalization,
+retains something about it that is grossly orgiastic and un-Italian.
+Everywhere over the city can be met groups of her priestesses, the
+Corybantes, and especially of her smooth-cheeked, squeaky-voiced eunuch
+priests, the _Galli_, executing their wild, noisy dances with drums,
+cymbals, and trumpets, and leaping about in suits of armor which they
+clash violently, while uttering screams alleged to be inspired.
+
+In the country districts bands of these Galli are reported to drift
+frequently from village to village, exciting the rustics by displays
+of “mysteries” which are simply a gross hocus-pocus, and which often
+wind up in scenes of sheer depravity. Nevertheless, the cult has great
+attractions for the superstitious. The processions of these effeminate
+figures with redolent locks, painted faces, and soft womanish bearing
+are always able to wheedle the sesterces out of the crowd.
+
+The coarse legends of the Great Mother are furthermore caught up by
+the philosophers and given a refined, metaphysical meaning, and among
+the priests at her temples about the city are enrolled many senators
+and equites, and among the priestesses a good many more of these
+noblemen’s wives. To be a chanter, drummer, or cymbal player at her
+great spectacular “orgies” has a morbid fascination--all the more
+because much of the cult of Cybele worship is so gross that words
+may not describe it. The Great Mother is, therefore, one of the most
+undesirable of all the gifts offered to Rome by the conquered East.
+
+  [Illustration: SHRINE OF CYBELE.]
+
+
+=375. Cult of Isis and Associated Egyptian Gods.=--Worthier and more
+popular with the better classes is the worship of Isis.
+
+The Egyptian story of Isis and Osiris, of the temporary death of the
+latter and the sufferings of the former, a story that connected itself
+with the Greek myths about Demeter and Dionysus, and also those about
+Adonis, had become very old a thousand years before the founding of
+Rome. The cult was a late invader of Italy; not until the time of Sulla
+did it figure even as an important private superstition, and on account
+of the marked Oriental tendencies of the Isis worship the Senate for
+long discouraged it; nevertheless the stately ritual and the appeal of
+the mysterious made the cult extremely popular with the multitude.
+
+In vain in 50 B.C. the consul Lucius Æmilius himself (his
+superstitious lictors hesitating) struck the first blow with the ax
+to demolish a prohibited Isis temple. Augustus had to content himself
+merely with forbidding the erection of such buildings within the
+official pomerium of Rome, but these could multiply in the suburbs, and
+by the time of Vespasian practically all restraints disappeared.
+
+Everybody now frequents the shrines of Isis, and many of the noblest
+citizens and matrons are among her initiates. Her great temple in the
+Campus Martius is among the stateliest in Rome and every morning before
+its doors are arrayed a perfect host of votaries.
+
+
+=376. Ceremonies at an Isis Temple.=--If we desire, it is easy
+to witness a large part of the ritual, although the meaning of
+the allegories is refused the unelect.[239] Before day-break the
+shaven-skulled priests, clothed in trailing robes of snow-white linen,
+enter the temple by a side entrance and throw back the great central
+doors, although a long white curtain still hangs across the interior.
+The multitude of the devout now stream into the temple. The curtains
+whisk aside, and a statue of the goddess, a majestic female sculptured
+somewhat in the Egyptian style, with her head crowned with a lotus
+flower and in her right hand a holy rattle (_sistrum_), is exposed
+to view. At her side stands her son Horus, a naked boy, holding his
+forefinger in his mouth, a lotus flower also upon his head, and a horn
+of plenty in his left hand.
+
+The worshipers now stand or sit on the stones for a long time in silent
+prayer and contemplation; while the new light of the rising sun streams
+athwart the silent columns and draperies of the great temple. Presently
+a priest appears bearing a golden vessel of holy water from the Nile,
+and he pours it over a sacrifice of fruits and flowers upon the altar
+standing before the images. The worshipers all prostrate themselves in
+awe, then rise. The ceremony is over.
+
+This is the ordinary side of the Isis worship but at times there
+lack not violent dances; processions of all manner of harlequin
+participants, men robed as soldiers, hunters, or gladiators, women
+leaping in white gauzy garments, and shaven priests bearing holy
+vessels--usually wrought with Egyptian hieroglyphics, and carrying
+especially as center of all the tumult a sacred snake, lifting its
+wrinkled and venomous head upon an ark of burnished gold.
+
+The Isis worship appeals often to men of high intelligence who grow
+weary and disgusted at the failure of secular philosophy to solve the
+great problems of existence. An elaborate explanation exists for all
+these symbols; one might even add a spiritual meaning. It is even
+claimed that Isis is simply “Nature,” and that her cult is merely the
+worthiest expression of “the One Sole Divinity whom the whole earth
+venerates under a manifold form.”
+
+To the initiates (into whose esoteric lore we cannot penetrate) is
+promised in this world a very fortunate life and that then “having
+accomplished the span of this existence, they shall descend to the
+realms below, and even there, dwelling as they shall in the Elysian
+fields, they shall frequently adore me--the goddess.”[240]
+
+
+=377. Cult of Serapis and of Other Oriental Gods.=--The Isis
+worship thus has its nobler side. Not unworthy too is that of her
+Græco-Egyptian associate Serapis, the patron deity of Alexandria,
+who has a considerable following in Rome, acclaiming him as “lord of
+all the elements, dispenser of all good and master of human life.”
+Unfortunately, however, along with these deities there goes a whole
+swarm of lesser Oriental divinities who do nothing but provide fine
+chances for the scoffers and the charlatans.
+
+The priests of the dog-headed Nile-god Anubis are denounced by Juvenal
+as a “linen-clad and cheating crew,” who levy on silly women, and who
+will declare any infamy to be morally “pardoned” for the bribe of a fat
+goose or some thick slices of cake. Korybus, Sabazius, the bull Apis,
+and the Syrian Baal cannot pretend to be better. Many a decent Roman
+beholding their worship will reëcho Plutarch’s recent words, “Better
+not to believe in a god at all, than to cringe before a god who is
+worse than the worst of men.” Nevertheless there is _one_ Oriental
+cult now penetrating Rome which seems to lay stress on moral purity and
+on noble living--the religion of Mithras.
+
+
+=378. The Cult of Mithras: Its Relative Nobility.=--Mithras is
+by origin the Sun God of the Zoroastrian Persians.[241] He is the
+“fiend smiter”; the beneficent light which disperses mental as well as
+material darkness. _Sol Invictus_--“The All-Conquering Sun”--his
+votaries call him, but in statues and pictures he is commonly
+represented as a handsome youth, wearing the Phrygian cap and mantle,
+and kneeling upon a bull which has been thrown upon the ground, and
+whose throat the god is cutting. In the Mithras pictures there often
+appear also the mysterious figures of a dog, a serpent, and a scorpion,
+all somehow connected with the ritual of the god.
+
+This cultus first passed from the East to the hardy pirates of
+Cilicia, whom Pompey the Great subdued in the last years of the old
+Republic. Then gradually the Western world began to learn about the
+Mithras “chapels,” about the seven grades of initiates, about solemn
+purifications from sin, and about an esoteric teaching which laid great
+stress on personal righteousness, condemned vicious pretenses and
+claimed to reconcile man with god in a manner promising the former a
+joyous and noble hereafter.
+
+  [Illustration: MITHRAS THE BULL-SLAYER.]
+
+The Mithras cult is now making its way very rapidly, especially in the
+imperial army. All up and down the great garrison towns and standing
+camps along the frontiers “Mithras chapels” are being erected, small
+chambers suitable for only a few dozen of initiates. The rites and
+teachings are very secret, and it is impossible to penetrate them as we
+can part of the worship of Isis.
+
+Mithras worship furthermore makes no pretense of being a cult for
+the masses--it is a blessing reserved strictly for the proved and
+purified. All we know about it, however, convinces us that its ethics
+are noble, that it repudiates all coarse sensuality, and that it
+leaves its votaries genuinely better men and women, summoning them to
+be coadjutors of the “Unconquerable Sun” in his glorious war against
+spiritual darkness.
+
+As yet the Mithras worship in the West is relatively young, but the
+time will approach when great Emperors, Aurelian and Diocletian,
+will proudly number themselves among its initiates, and in Mithraism
+ancient paganism will make its last real proffer for the allegiance of
+high-minded men.[242]
+
+  [Illustration: MITHRAIC EMBLEMS.]
+
+
+=379. The _Taurobolium_= (“=Bath in Bull’s Blood=”).--Connected with
+these Oriental cults, worthy and unworthy, there has come in a ceremony
+utterly strange to the religion of Numa, which, nevertheless, is
+gaining increasing vogue,--the _Taurobolium_. Originally it belonged
+to the votaries of Cybele, but the Mithras worshipers have adopted it
+likewise.
+
+The rite is supposed to give one a peculiar cleansing from sin, and
+being decidedly expensive appeals not a little to wealthy personages
+who do not mind showing how their riches can put them on better terms
+with heaven than is possible for the run of mortals. With increasing
+frequency can be seen tombstones of magnates inscribed “Reborn to
+Eternity through the Taurobolium,” and it is held by many that persons
+submitting to this ordeal are assured of a happy immortality--at least,
+if they should die within twenty years of the ceremony; after which it
+can be repeated.
+
+Old line Romans ordinarily have not as yet felt a great need for the
+Taurobolium,[243] but one of Calvus’s acquaintances, the senator
+Faventinus, has followed his initiation into Mithraism by celebrating
+the rite. It is indeed something which only deep religious convictions
+can induce persons of sensitive and luxurious tastes to undergo,
+although the special priests who conduct the proceeding know how to
+render it an impressive ceremony.
+
+Faventinus appeared at the appointed place before a concourse of
+Mithraic initiates, wearing a golden crown and with his toga tightly
+girded about him; then he descended into a deep pit over which was
+placed a platform of stout boards. With mystical words and songs
+a consecrated bull was led upon the platform and there directly
+slaughtered in a manner causing its blood to flow freely through the
+chinks in the timbers upon the worshiper below. As the blood descended
+Faventinus extended his arms and uplifted his face that as much might
+cover him as possible.
+
+When the initiate was taken out--his whole person and garments
+blood-soaked--other mysterious liturgies were recited over him. He
+was now a “Father” in the Mithraic order--of the highest class of
+initiates, purged of all human dross, and entitled to close communion
+with the deity. After all, the price of a fine bull and round fees to
+the priests seem little enough to pay for such an exalted privilege.
+
+
+=380. The Christians: Pagan Account of Their Origin.=--There is still
+another cult in Rome, although cultivated men and women no less than
+the run of plebeians speak of it with utter aversion. Since the
+reign of Claudius there has existed a sect of degraded creatures, at
+first Jews[244] and Levantines, but later comprising also Greeks and
+Italians, known as _Christians_.
+
+Excluding the vulgar tattle of the mob, as good an authority as Tacitus
+writes thus: “Christus from whom the name of the sect is derived was
+put to death in the reign of Tiberius, by the procurator Pontius
+Pilatus. The deadly superstition having been checked for a while, began
+to break out again not only throughout Judea, where this mischief first
+arose but also at Rome, where from all sides all things scandalous and
+shameful meet and become fashionable.”[245]
+
+By Nero’s time the Christians were in such disfavor with the populace,
+being “misanthropes” and “enemies of the human race,” as well as
+blasphemers of the gods, that the evil Emperor tried to make them
+scapegoats for the burning of Rome--although the pretense was too
+thin. People said the Christians were wicked enough, but that they were
+not guilty at least of _that_!
+
+
+=381. The Persecution of Christians: Their “Insane
+Obstinacy.”=--Nowhere, in those respectable quarters in which our
+visit has moved, can we get any detailed information as to what these
+Christians really do and believe. Very few important persons have so
+far adhered to them, although there is a story that Flavius Clemens,
+a consul and a kinsman of Domitian (who put him to death along with
+so many other nobles), was actually caught by their supposedly crazy
+doctrines.
+
+The sect has been declared unlawful ever since Nero’s day, and from
+time to time its members have been arrested and their conventicles
+(usually held in half-concealed burial places or in sand pits in the
+suburbs) have been broken up. The magistrates, however, are slack; the
+vigiles are busy chasing down ordinary thieves and murderers; and the
+Christians most of the time are left alone. Hadrian, in fact, with
+his general tolerance, is said somewhat to have discouraged active
+persecution. The Christians, nevertheless, are still under the ban of
+the law; and being mostly slaves, freedmen, and resident foreigners,
+get very short shrift if actually brought before the Præfect.
+
+It is extremely easy to convict them: there is no need of elaborate
+testimony, you merely summon the defendants to burn incense to the
+image of the Genius of the Emperor and to curse the name of Christus.
+No Christian will ever do this. The trials therefore are usually very
+brief, and soon after they occur the crowd at the Flavian is ordinarily
+gratified by the sight of one of the Christians’ “overseers” (bishops)
+or “assistants” (deacons) instead of an ordinary bandit, awaiting the
+spring of the lion.
+
+These sectaries are said to be very bold, professing not to fear death
+which will only give them a surer and a better immortality than that
+secured by the Taurobolium. Beyond a doubt (any cultivated man will
+tell us) such defiant persons ought to be executed, if merely for their
+“insane obstinacy,” although the edicts are only enforced spasmodically
+and the Christians are often allowed several years of peace.[246]
+
+
+=382. Current Charges against the Christians.=--If popular gossip,
+however, means anything, these people should deserve the worst possible
+fate. At their nocturnal gatherings, where men and women assemble,
+it is alleged, for a wild orgy, the central rite is said to consist
+of killing a babe and drinking its blood, while celebrants pledge
+themselves to commit every kind of wickedness. Finally they tie a dog
+to the lamp standards and incite the brute to upset the lights; then in
+the ensuing darkness follow deeds of violence indescribable.
+
+It is also rumored that their Christus (who, of course, died the basest
+of possible deaths on the cross) actually had the head of an ass. You
+can see crude wall drawings deriding his votaries, as for example, one
+showing a youth kneeling before an ass-headed figure on a cross, with
+the scribbled legend, “Alexander is adoring _his_ god.”[247]
+
+How far are these gross charges true? Such aristocrats as Calvus
+merely shrug their shoulders; they are not interested. However,
+about 112 A.D. Pliny the Younger, while governor of Bithynia, being
+compelled to enforce the Anti-Christian laws, seized two Christian
+women known as “deaconesses” and put them to torture in order to find
+out what _really_ happened at their gatherings. He reported that he
+had discovered that nothing criminal went on but only “a perverse and
+excessive superstition.” Probably, senatorial circles will assure us,
+there is not much to be dreaded from such a movement which cannot
+possibly appeal to educated men well grounded in philosophy. Of
+course, Mithraism is very much more respectable, and according to all
+fashionable judgment has a far greater future before it!
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XXII
+
+                A ROMAN VILLA. THE LOVE OF THE COUNTRY
+
+
+=383. Appreciation of Country Life by the Romans.=--No study of
+Rome can be complete without recognition of one cardinal fact--the
+intense desire of all Romans to get away from their turbulent city
+for a large part of the year. The wealthier the citizen the longer is
+likely to be his absence, although no doubt many a senator or eques
+growing weary of his luxurious retreat begins to sigh again for the
+Curia or the counting room long ere the formal “season” has ended.
+
+During the parching summer months the city is really deserted by a
+great part of its inhabitants. Only the most needful business goes on;
+the public games are attended merely by the humblest type of plebeians;
+the rhetoric schools cease their floods of oratory; the great baths
+really seem empty; and the Forum crowd becomes thinned and spiritless.
+Every person blessed with a moderate income and leisure has sought the
+seashore or the mountains.
+
+
+=384. Praises of the Country Towns and Villas.=--Never in after
+ages will the blessings of country as against city life be better
+appreciated than under the Roman Empire. The congestion, the noise, the
+hurly-burly of the world metropolis probably exceeds that of any future
+competitor.
+
+The poets all sing the praises of existence amid rural charms. Martial
+for example waxes enthusiastic over the chance to “get away” from the
+porticoes of cold, variegated marbles and from the need of running on
+morning greetings, so that he can empty his hunting nets before his own
+fire, lift the quivering fish from the line and draw the yellow honey
+from the “red-stained cask,” while his plump stewardess cooks his own
+eggs for him. Juvenal extols the cheapness and satisfaction of living
+in the country towns where for the rent of a dark garret in Rome you
+can afford to buy a small house with a neat little garden and a shallow
+well whence you can draw the water for your own plants. Wealthier folk
+share the same passion, and Pliny the Younger writes that he longs for
+the pleasures of his villas “as ardently as an invalid longs for wine,
+the baths, and the fountains.”
+
+  [Illustration: TRAVELING CARRIAGE (_Reda_).]
+
+The sentiment, indeed, is so common that no further instances need
+be cited, save that of Similis, Trajan’s veteran prætorian præfect,
+who, having retired under Hadrian, has just died after seven years of
+honorable self-banishment in a quiet country retreat. On his tombstone
+he has ordered to be graven: “_Here lies Similis, an old man, who has
+LIVED just seven years._”
+
+
+=385. Comfortable Modes of Travel: Luxurious Litters and
+Carriages.=--So then at least by the time of the “tyrannous reign of
+the Dog Star or the Lion” (mid-summer and September) all the roads
+leading from Rome are covered with the great cortèges, if indeed, the
+magnates have not quitted the city much earlier.
+
+  [Illustration: ROMAN BRIDGE: typical of thousands
+  which covered the Empire.]
+
+This is no place to speak of the admirable Roman road system which
+spreads as a vast network all over the Empire, and which is, of course,
+at its best in Italy. Travel for the rich in Hadrian’s day is extremely
+luxurious if not correspondingly rapid. If you are in no hurry, you can
+ride in a comfortable litter borne by six or eight even-paced bearers
+and so outfitted that you can read, write, sleep, and even play at
+dice, while your retinue is winding its slow way over the Campagna, or
+up into the mountains. If you are in greater haste, there are speedy
+if somewhat less steady gigs and other open carriages which energetic
+people drive themselves, although great folk, of course, demand plenty
+of postilions and “well-girt running footmen.” In any case the journey
+from Rome is a matter of great display for anybody with claims to
+fortune. Fifty slaves and twenty baggage wagons are hardly enough to
+become a senator; and four times as many of each is not an excessive
+retinue.
+
+However, less distinguished people can drive about in their own light,
+open two-wheeled carriages (_cisia_), or can hire them at the posting
+stations just outside the gates, and time would fail to tell of all
+the kinds of _carpenta_ (two-wheeled covered vehicles) or _redæ_
+(four-wheeled traveling carriages) which one can meet on the Via Appia
+or the Via Latina.
+
+Since Rome is a city without railroads and without first-class shipping
+facilities, necessity has developed this carriage service to a fine
+point. Some people indeed still bestride mules, like that of Horace,
+“short of tail and heavy of gait,” and government carriers ride
+horseback--but the wheeled vehicles are excellent. It will be a long
+time before they can be surpassed in comfort.[248]
+
+
+=386. Multiplication of Villas: Seashore Estates at Baiæ,
+etc.=--Distant journeys we cannot consider, nor the service of imperial
+and private messengers to the provinces. Our concern is with the fact
+that over the whole of west-central Italy, well up into the Apennines,
+and all along the Etruscan, Latin, and Campanian coasts one luxurious
+estate follows upon another.
+
+Many of these vast establishments indeed combine profit with pleasure.
+Landed property is the most genteel form of wealth and close beside
+the sumptuous _villa urbana_ which imitates the glories of the city
+mansion, there often spreads the humbler and more utilitarian _villa
+rustica_ which houses the great gangs of slaves or hireling laborers
+who keep the broad acres under cultivation.
+
+One cannot turn aside to examine Italian agriculture, but the residence
+villas are so essential to every Roman of breeding and property that
+to ignore them is impossible. Persons of means seem always purchasing
+more villa property, indeed there are not a few magnates who can take a
+long journey up and down Italy, spending each night upon one of their
+own estates. If Publius Calvus contents himself with only _four_
+country residences, he shows that he is poorer and less pretentious
+than many fellow senators of prætorian rank.
+
+Inevitably certain places are preferred beyond others. Upon the Bay
+of Naples people of leisure, who do not mind a hundred and fifty
+mile journey from Rome, find a famous and delightful center at Baiæ;
+and indeed in the entire region of this bay, recovering now from
+the ravages of the outbreak of Mt. Vesuvius. Outward along the more
+southerly Bay of Pæstum [Bay of Salerno] the shore is lined with one
+lofty marble-crowned villa after another, often erected upon elaborate
+jetties thrusting far out into the sapphire sea.
+
+There is, however, a whole series of handsome seaboard villas all the
+way southward from Ostia--and Antium, Circei, Tarracina (where the
+Via Appia strikes the coastline), and Formiæ are only a few of those
+luxurious colonies to which the wealth and fashion of Rome scatter
+during several months of the year. Many is the senator, eques, or great
+freedman who can boast also of his magnificent yacht, painted in gay
+colors, with purple sails, purple awnings on the poop, with rigging
+entwined on gala days with leaves and flowers, and with liveried rowers
+who are trained to swing together like automata.
+
+
+=387. Villas in the Mountains; Small Farms near Rome.=--A great
+many Romans, however, disperse towards the hills; indeed there are
+many rich persons whose business will not permit them to go many miles
+from the city, and others who keep a suburban villa for casual visits
+from the town, reserving the seashore or the Apennines for the months
+when the law courts are closed and the Senate forgets to assemble.
+Calvus, we have seen, possesses a remote estate in the North by one of
+the Italian lakes which he can visit only on set occasions, another
+at Bauli close to Baiæ, also somewhat rarely visited, a third in the
+Etruscan hills which is his regular retreat in hot weather, and a
+fourth, a simpler affair, located a few miles up the Anio toward Tibur.
+
+This last near Rome, so the senator likes to boast, is of real Spartan
+simplicity. He affects to take great pleasure there in his hennery
+maintained so near to the metropolis, the great flocks of geese,
+Numidian (guinea) fowl, and Rhodian cocks and hens and the fields of
+vegetables very grateful when sent down by the _villicus_ (farm
+steward) to the city mansion. One suspects, however, that there is
+greater satisfaction taken in the hot houses where, under the expensive
+but well-known luxury of glass, rare fruits are ripened in cold
+weather, and whence roses, violets, narcissus, hyacinths, and lilies
+are dispatched to Rome for the _clarissimus’s_ banquets.
+
+  [Illustration: ROMAN SPADES.]
+
+This establishment near the capital is, in fact, hardly the kind of
+retreat Calvus likes best, although a good many literary gentlemen,
+like Suetonius the biographer of the Cæsars, retire to modest suburban
+estates “large enough to engage their minds but not large enough to
+give them worry.” In such retreats they can pursue their learned
+labors, “get rid of their headaches and walk lazily around their
+boundary paths,” and yet keep in touch with their city friends.
+
+
+=388. Great Estates in the Hills: Pliny’s Tuscan Villa.=--It is the
+great villa in the hills which is the normal retreat and joy of Calvus,
+his noble Gratia, and their equally noble children. Such places, be it
+noticed, the true Roman does not care to locate very near to grandiose
+mountain scenery. He is not fond of overpowering sublime views; what
+he prefers is a gentle aspect over smiling plains, lush meadows, and
+fertile corn-fields.
+
+Lucretius rejoiced in the happy intervals when he could “recline by a
+brook of running water beneath the leafage of a lofty tree,” and Virgil
+desired “that he might always love tilled fields and streams that flow
+among the valleys.” Hadrian is somewhat exceptional, among other ways,
+in that he enjoys toiling up high mountains like Ætna for the sake of
+the magnificent view. The average senator desires to ascend no further
+than he can comfortably drive in his cisium, or be swung along in his
+litter.
+
+  [Illustration: RUINS OF HADRIAN’S VILLA AT TIVOLI
+  (_Tibur_): partial view.]
+
+The Tuscan villa of Calvus is easily visited. It constitutes, in fact,
+an estate which the senator purchased some years ago from the heirs
+of the younger Pliny. Few changes beyond needful repairs have been
+made since its completion, and no words of ours can surpass those of
+its former owner in explaining why life seems very pleasant to those
+whom Jupiter or Destiny have made rich and fortunate in the imperial
+age.[249]
+
+  [Illustration: RUINS OF HADRIAN’S VILLA AT TIVOLI
+  (_Tibur_): partial view.]
+
+
+=389. Charming Location of Pliny’s Villa.=--“This property (wrote
+Pliny) lies just under the Apennines, which are the healthiest of
+our mountain ranges. In winter the air is cold and frosty; myrtles,
+olives, and all other trees which require a constant warmth the climate
+spurns, although the laurel usually prospers. But in summer the heat
+is marvelously tempered; there is always a breath of air stirring,
+and mild breezes are more common than high winds. The contour of the
+district is most beautiful.
+
+“Picture an immense amphitheater, wrought by Nature, with a
+wide-spreading plain ringed with hills and the summits thereof covered
+with the tall and ancient forests. Here there is plenty of hunting,
+while down the mountain slopes there are stretches of underwoods, and
+among these are rich deep-soiled hillocks which bear excellent crops.
+Below these hillocks in turn, along the whole hillsides, stretch the
+vineyards which present an unbroken line far and wide, bordered with
+a fringe of trees. Then you can come down to the meadows and fields
+where the soil is so thick that only the most powerful oxen can tug the
+plows; but the meadows are jeweled with flowers, and produce trefoil,
+and other herbs, always tender and soft.
+
+  [Illustration: VILLA OF PLINY THE YOUNGER: restored.]
+
+“Through the middle of this plain flows the Tiber. Here it is navigable
+for boats which carry down grain to the city in winter and spring,
+although in summer the channel is only a dried-up bed. Gazing over the
+district from the heights you think you are not looking so much upon
+earth and fields but at a landscape picture of wonderful loveliness.
+
+“My villa, though, lies at the foot of the hill enjoying as fine a
+prospect as though it stood on the summit, the ascent is so gentle,
+easy and unnoticeable. Behind lie the Apennines, but at a considerable
+distance, yet even on a cloudless day the spot gets a gentle breeze
+duly tempered from the hills.”
+
+
+=390. Terraces of the Villa: the Porticoes: Summer-Houses and
+Bedrooms.=--“Most of the house faces southward inviting the sun as
+it were into the portico which is broad and long to correspond, and
+contains a number of apartments and an old-fashioned hall. In front
+there is a terrace bounded with an edging of box, then comes a sloping
+ridge of turf with figures of animals on both sides cut out of the box
+trees, while on the level ground stands an acanthus tree, with leaves
+so soft that I might almost call them liquid. Around about there is a
+walk bordered by evergreens pressed and trimmed into various shapes;
+then comes an exercise ground, round like a circus, which surrounds
+the box trees which are cut into different forms, and the dwarf shrubs
+that are kept well clipped.[250] Beyond these there stretches a meadow
+delightful for its natural charm as the things just described are for
+their artificial beauty.
+
+“At the head of the portico juts out the triclinium from the doors
+whereof can be seen this terrace, meadow, and the expanse of country
+beyond. Almost opposite the middle of the portico is a summer-house
+with a small open space in the middle shaded by four plane trees.
+Among them stands a marble fountain, from which the water plays upon
+and sprinkles slightly the roots of the plane trees and the grass plot
+around the four.
+
+“In this pavilion there is located a bed chamber which excludes all
+light, noise and sound, and adjoining it is another dining room
+especially for my friends, which commands also a delightful view.
+There is still another bed chamber, however, which is embowered and
+shaded by the nearest plane tree and built of marble up to the balcony;
+above [in the ceiling] is a picture of a tree with birds perched in
+the branches, equally as beautiful as the marble. Here, too, there is
+a small fountain with a basin around the latter, and into it the water
+flows from a number of little pipes which produce a most agreeable
+liquid sound.
+
+  [Illustration: ROMAN GARDEN SCENE.]
+
+“In the corner of the portico there is yet a third bed chamber leading
+out of the dining-room, some of its windows looking forth upon the
+terrace, others upon the meadow, while the windows in front face the
+fish-pond which lies just beneath them: right pleasant it is both to
+eye and to ear, as the water falls from a considerable height and
+glistens like snow as it is caught in the marble basin. This bed room
+is agreeably warm even in winter, for it is flooded with an abundance
+of sunshine.”
+
+
+=391. The Baths: the Rear Apartments: the Riding Course.=--“To the
+last named room adjoins the calidarium of the baths, and on a cloudy
+day we can turn in the steam heat to take the place of the warm sun.
+Next comes an ample and cheerful undressing room for the bath, from
+which you pass into the cool frigidarium containing a large and shady
+swimming pool. Adjoining this cold bath is the mild tepidarium, for
+the sun shines upon it lavishly, although not so much as upon the hot
+bath which is built further out. Above the adjacent dressing room is
+a ball court where various kinds of exercise can be taken and several
+games can go on at once; and close to this are more bed-chambers all
+commanding enchanting views over the gardens, meadows, vineyards and
+mountains.
+
+  [Illustration: MARBLE URN OR GARDEN ORNAMENT.]
+
+“Such is the front part of the villa. In the rear and to the sides are
+still other dining rooms and bedrooms; especially there are certain
+that are so far underground as to be perfectly cool even in the hottest
+weather. There is also an elaborate set of quarters for the servants.
+
+“However, the most delightful part of the entire establishment is
+perhaps the riding course. Around its borders are plane trees covered
+with ivy, which creeps along the trunks and branches and spreading
+across to the neighboring trees joins the whole line together. Between
+the plane trees are set box-shrubs, and on the further side of the
+shrubs is a ring of laurels which mingle their shade with that of the
+plane.
+
+“At the farther end, the straight boundary of the riding course is
+curved into a semi-circular form which quite changes its appearance.
+It is inclosed with cypress-trees, casting in places a dark and gloomy
+shade, though spots are left quite open to the sunshine; in these last
+bloom roses, and the warmth of the sun gives a delightful change from
+the cool of the shadows. All around these avenues run paths lined with
+other box-shrubs; and here and there are more of the box trimmed into a
+great variety of patterns, some being cut into letters forming my name,
+as being the owner, or that of the gardener.”
+
+
+=392. The Fountains and Luxurious Pavilions in the Gardens.=--“At
+the upper end of this hippodrome is a couch of white marble covered
+with a vine. Jets of water gush from under the couch through small
+pipes, and look as if they were forced out by the weight of the
+persons reclining on the pillows, while the water rushes down into a
+graceful marble basin with an underground outlet so it fills but never
+overflows. When I dine at this spot the heavier dishes and plates are
+set by the side of the basin, but the lighter ones, made in the shape
+of little boats and birds, float on the surface and turn round and
+round.
+
+“Directly opposite this couch is a sleeping pavilion. It is formed of
+glistening marble, and through the projecting folding doors you can
+pass at once among the foliage, while from the windows you look upon
+the same green picture. Within is a bed, and the shade is so dense that
+little light can enter, while a wonderfully luxuriant vine has climbed
+upon the roof and covers the whole building. You can fancy you are in
+a grove as you lie here, only you do not feel the rain as you do amid
+the trees. Here, too, a fountain rises, then immediately loses itself
+underground. There are a number of marble chairs placed up and down,
+very restful if you do not wish the bed. Near these chairs, yet again,
+there are little fountains, and throughout the whole riding course you
+can hear the murmur of tiny streams carried through pipes which run
+wherever you please to direct them.”
+
+
+=393. Life of Sensuous Luxury at Such a Villa. Contrast in Human
+Conditions under the Roman Régime.=--“Besides the beauties herein
+described one has perfect comfort, repose, and freedom from anxiety at
+such a villa. I need not don the heavy toga; no neighbor ever calls to
+drag me out; everything is placid and quiet; and this peace adds to the
+healthfulness of the place, giving it, so to speak, a purer sky and a
+more limpid air. Here I enjoy better health both in mind and body than
+anywhere else, for I exercise the former by study, and the latter by
+hunting. May the gods preserve to me this place in all its beauty!”
+
+If life can consist of nothing more than a series of delightful
+sensations, the eye to be pleased by entrancing vistas of marble,
+greenery, or wooded hills, the ear by the soft murmur of musical
+fountains, and every creature want ministered unto by scores of highly
+trained menials, whose sole object in life seems to be to anticipate
+their masters’ needs,--what greater fortune, one may ask, can any age
+provide than to be possessor of such a villa, with the wealth and rank
+such possession must imply? Happy its former, happy its present owner!
+Is it forbidden to regret that one’s lot is not cast for a lifetime in
+Italy in these prosperous days of the Empire?
+
+Yet tarry--even while as Calvus’s guests we take our seats upon his
+marble benches beside the musical fountain under the whispering
+cypresses, and before we can converse amiably with the senator,
+perhaps upon the Stoic theory of “The Highest Good” there are sounds
+discordant--the clink of fetters, the snap of whips, the curses of
+drivers, the groans of human cattle.
+
+Along the road concealed by the shrubbery, is passing the slave coffle,
+the gang of “speaking tools” on its way from the underground dungeon
+(ergastulum) upon the great farm attached to the villa, to the daily
+toil in the fields beneath a broiling sun. The refined luxury of the
+fortunate few is purchased by the squalor, the ignorance, and often by
+the lifelong misery of the brutalized many.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XXIII
+
+                       THE RETURN OF THE EMPEROR
+
+
+=394. Character of Hadrian: Prosperity and Good Government of His
+Reign.=--Purposely we had visited Rome in the absence of Hadrian;
+our interest had been in the city and its people, not in the versatile,
+ever-wandering Cæsar and the administration of the Empire. But before
+Publius Calvus could set forth for his Tuscan villa he and all other
+Senators had to attend a great state ceremony--the reception of the
+Emperor returning from his travels.
+
+More than any other Roman ruler Hadrian had been an insatiable
+traveler. The frontiers of Britain, Syria, and Africa, the garrison
+towns on the Rhine, and the Danube--he knew them all. The peaceful
+cities of Gaul, Spain, and Egypt reaped the benefits of his intelligent
+benevolence when he visited them. Twice he had sojourned in Athens, the
+city which perhaps he loved the best in all the world, finishing the
+great Temple of Olympian Zeus left uncompleted since the days of the
+Peisistratidæ and otherwise beautifying the now sleepy old university
+town, so that its grateful dwellers acclaimed him as a second founder
+like unto the original Theseus.
+
+Hadrian’s personal life had been indeed marred with certain acts of
+arbitrary caprice and even of cruelty; many senators grumbled at his
+long absences from Rome and they somewhat dreaded his sudden judgments,
+but the Empire at large had been incalculably happy under his sway.
+The legions were under firm discipline, wars there were not save petty
+rumblings on the frontiers and the embers of the last struggle of the
+unhappy Jews, while peaceful commerce whitened the Mediterranean, and
+merchants’ caravans wound confidently over the great road system with
+little fear of bandits.
+
+Under such an Emperor laws were scientifically administered without
+fear or favor. The provincial governors were, despite an occasional
+plunderer such as we saw haled before the Senate, men of genuine
+intelligence, probity, and zeal. If the Senate was becoming a venerable
+debating club, if the other forms of political liberty were either dead
+or dying, under Hadrian despotism was showing its fairest face--with
+a highly capable monarch earnestly devoting himself to his subjects’
+good. What man, surveying the august fabric and social and governmental
+machinery of the Empire, could have failed to echo the current
+notion--that the dominion of Rome was divinely ordained and find that
+her departed Cæsars were worthily ranked among the gods?[251]
+
+  [Illustration: HADRIAN.]
+
+
+=395. Return of Hadrian to Italy.=--But Hadrian had been growing
+old and a little weary of his philanthropic wanderings. And now at
+length a peaceful armada had borne him back from Greece to Puteoli.
+Hence with an enormous cortège he had traveled by easy stages along
+the “Queen of Roads,” the Via Appia, to the outskirts of the capital.
+And now to welcome him back to the Palatine the obsequious magistrates
+arranged the inevitable public spectacle.
+
+The Emperor is not returning as a conquering _triumphator_. No
+formal triumph can therefore be ordained in his honor. He cannot wear
+laurel as he rides in a gilded chariot, preceded by the long files of
+fettered captives and, followed by the cohorts of his acclaiming army,
+drive his car through the Porta Triumphalis near the Circus Flaminius,
+next take a long circuit through the Circus Maximus and then down the
+Via Sacra and across the Forum and finally mount upward to pay his vows
+to Jupiter Best and Greatest on the Capitol. A magnificent procession,
+nevertheless, is possible. At the third milestone from the city along
+the Via Appia all the senators and equites in gala robes meet the
+advancing Imperator. His Empress Sabina is greeted with equal ceremony
+by the wives of the entire aristocracy.
+
+In the city all the vast colonnades are hung with garlands of spring
+flowers, all business is suspended; all the fora and streets along the
+line of march are packed with throngs in brilliant costumes and equally
+brilliant chaplets. One grows weary counting the magnificent litters
+everywhere passing, followed by the gorgeously liveried retinues of the
+wealthy.
+
+
+=396. Imperial Procession Entering Rome.=--At last after duly
+impressive delays the imperial procession starts from the spot known
+as the Three Fountains.[252] The Prætorians are there in full force,
+the City Cohorts, and heavy drafts of the vigiles, all the tribunes,
+centurions, and privates parading in silvered or gilded armor with
+scarlet plumes and mantles. The magistrates and ex-magistrates all wear
+the colorful toga prætexta.
+
+The ruler himself, “Holder of the Tribunician and Proconsular Power,
+Pontifex Maximus, Cæsar Augustus, Father of his Country, First
+Citizen and Imperator”; that is to say Hadrian in person rides in the
+glittering chariot wherein Augustus rode in his triumph after the
+battle of Actium. Four snow-white horses draw the car, and beside the
+slim Greek charioteer stands the object of universal envy, the man
+who is all but a god even in Italy, who is the “Son of the Divinity,”
+Trajan, and who is actually worshiped as a deity before a thousand
+altars throughout the subjected East.
+
+Hadrian is a handsome bearded man of stature above the average. The
+gray of advancing age is streaking his hair, but he retains that
+graceful presence and piercing glance which would make him a notable
+figure had he never donned the purple. Before him, bound to the end of
+staves, are carried placards in large letters reciting the benefits he
+has conferred on hundreds of communities; there is also a large roll
+of papyrus symbolic of the “Perpetual Edict” which he has inspired
+the learned jurist Salvus Julianus to compile preparatory to the
+codification of the vast Civil Law.
+
+Directly before the Emperor there is borne upon an open car a gilded
+image of the beautiful youth Antinöos, Hadrian’s favorite companion,
+whose mysterious death in Egypt the monarch has never ceased to mourn;
+while behind the imperial chariot rides the marveling envoy of Chosröes
+the Parthian King who has received peace at the hands of the Cæsar.
+The hundreds of senators and thousands of equites marching in the
+procession, now and again, perhaps at some signal, raise shouts of
+applause to the master and sun of that glorious human universe wherein
+they rejoice as the fortunate stars.
+
+
+=397. Hailing the Emperor.=--So the procession enters Rome. At sight of
+the tall, majestic Imperator, whose purple mantle gleams with gold, all
+the streets and plazas burst into tumults of cheering. “_Io Triumphe!
+Io Triumphe! Ave Cæsar! Ave Hadriane!_” while not a few in ecstatic
+loyalty make haste even to salute him as “_Dominus et Deus!_”
+
+As the imperial car passes each crossing of the streets, victims are
+sacrificed, while loud prayers are raised for the monarch’s safety. The
+air grows heavy with the perfumes of the incense burning on hundreds
+of improvised altars. From the balconies matrons rain down masses of
+roses; and at many a turn great volumes of saffron are sprinkled over
+the marchers.
+
+Onward Hadrian rides, his handsome features curling perchance with
+pleasure but looking not to the right hand nor the left. Perhaps he
+recalls that were this a formal triumph, a slave would have been
+required to stand behind him whispering at intervals, “Remember, you
+are but a man!”
+
+
+=398. The Donatives, Fêtes, and Games.=--The procession thus
+sweeps along the Sacred Way, pauses for a moment that the Emperor
+may survey the latest touches upon his new Temple of Venus and Rome,
+passes the holy House of Vesta and then turning away from the Forum
+and the Capitol ascends into the Palatine. Here the gorgeously
+arrayed companies of the official bureaucracy swell again the “_Io
+Triumphe!_” and Hadrian dismounts from the car to offer his own
+special thanksgiving for safe return, and to burn his own incense
+within the Temple of Apollo of the Palatine.
+
+All that afternoon the fête continues. The great public baths stand
+open, absolutely free, not even the petty quadrans being exacted
+from the plebeian visitors. The grain and bread doles are doubled;
+the ticket holders receiving to boot measures of oil and wine. The
+Prætorians drink deeply the imperial health--for a special donative of
+1000 sesterces ($40) per man has been ordered for the entire corps.
+
+In the Flavian Amphitheater Hadrian himself presides in the podium
+while a lioness contends with an elephant, the most famous and skilful
+netters and Thracians slaughter one another, and a desperate robber is
+done to death by three panthers. Late into the evening the streets are
+illuminated; there is feasting, dancing, reveling all through the wide
+parks and the bosky groves stretching across the Campus Martius to the
+Tiber. Everybody is praising the greatness and glory alike of Emperor
+and Empire; and as for Rome, Imperial Rome, the center of all the
+earth, who doubts that her power is ordained to stand forever?
+
+=399. A Christian Gathering.=--Not all Rome this night is given over
+to roses, wine, and reveling under the torchlight. In one of those
+subterranean burial galleries near the Via Appia, which a later age
+will call “Catacombs,” in a spot where a chamber of some dimensions has
+been excavated, a group of soberly clad folk have gathered. They have
+met stealthily,--posting sentries to give the alarm, for the vigiles
+may not have become too drunk that night to be active.
+
+  [Illustration: VIEW IN THE CHRISTIAN CATACOMBS:
+  present state.]
+
+The leader of their service is the Bishop Higinius whose name will
+stand as the eighth Pope following the Apostle Peter. During their
+simple liturgies some strains of boisterous music from the luxurious,
+sensual, pitiless metropolis outside interrupt their hymns, and the
+good bishop signs to one of the deacons. The latter opens the scroll
+of the Book of Apocalypse where under the cryptic name of “Babylon” is
+forewarned the fate even of imperial Rome; and thus he reads:
+
+“For her sins have reached unto heaven, and God hath remembered her
+iniquities; therefore shall her plagues come upon her in one day, death
+and mourning and famine; and the kings of the earth who have committed
+wickedness and lived deliciously with her shall bewail and lament her
+when they see the smoke of her burning.
+
+“And the merchants of the earth shall weep and mourn over her, for no
+man buyeth their merchandise any more;--the merchandise of gold and
+silver, and precious stones, and of pearls, and fine linen and purple
+and silk and scarlet and all rare woods and all manner of vessels
+of ivory, and all manner of vessels of most precious wood, and of
+brass, and iron, and marble, and cinnamon, and odors and ointments,
+and frankincense, and wine, and oil, and fine flour, and wheat, and
+beasts, and sheep, and horses, and chariots, and slaves, _and souls
+of men_.”
+
+
+
+
+                                 INDEX
+
+                      [References are to pages.]
+
+
+    _=Acta Diurna=_, 282 ff.
+
+    =Advocates=, methods of, 345;
+      great importance of, 355;
+      cheap pettifoggers, 356;
+      high abilities of some lawyers, 358.
+
+    =Agrippa=, Baths of, 361.
+
+    =Aliens=, vast numbers of, 123;
+      colonies of, in Rome, 145.
+
+    =Amphitheater=, 394 ff.;
+      (_see_ Gladiator Contests).
+
+    =Antiques=, often spurious, 58.
+
+    =Apicius=, the gourmand, 100.
+
+    =Aqueducts=, 303–304.
+
+    =Arch=, use of, 13.
+
+    =Architectural Forms=, usually Greek, 12;
+      use of arch and vault in, 13.
+
+    =Architecture=, very grandiose, 258.
+
+    =Arena=, arrangement of, 392;
+      (_see_ Gladiator Contests).
+
+    =Armor=, of legionaries, 318.
+
+    =Army=, real master of the Empire, 307;
+      held under stiff discipline, 308;
+      stationed on frontiers, 308–309;
+      legions in, 309 ff.;
+      size of, 331;
+      efficiency of, 332;
+      no reserves to, 332;
+      (_see_ Legionaries).
+
+    =Arria= (wife of Cæcina Poetus), 76.
+
+    =Atrium=, 42, 43.
+
+    =Auctions=, 226.
+
+    =Audiences= with emperors, 296.
+
+    =Augurs= and augury, 418–419.
+
+    =Augustus=, tomb of, 372;
+      deified, 439.
+
+    =Auspices=, taken in Senate, 340.
+
+    =Auxiliary cohorts=, 327–328.
+
+
+    =Ball games=, 206.
+
+    =Banks= and bankers, 227 ff.;
+      a great banker, 228;
+      forms of investment, 229;
+      trust business of, 229;
+      savings banks, 230;
+      safe deposits, 230;
+      deposits in Temple of Vesta, 231.
+
+    =Banquets= (_see_ Dinners).
+
+    =Barber shops=, 90, 91.
+
+    =Basilica Æmilia=, 271.
+
+    =Basilica Julia=, 272–274.
+
+    =Baths=, popularity of, 358;
+      luxurious private, 359;
+      private-owned, 360–361;
+      large government-owned, 360;
+      great Baths of Trajan, 361 ff.;
+      crowds at, 362;
+      often a kind of club house, 362–363;
+      entrance to, 363;
+      interior of, 364;
+      cold room (_frigidarium_), 365;
+      swimming pool, 365;
+      _tepidarium_, 365–366;
+      hot baths (_caldaria_), 366;
+      extreme luxury of, 367;
+      restaurants and shops at, 367–368;
+      parasites at, 368.
+
+    =Beards=, revival of, 91.
+
+    =Beast fights=, 399.
+
+    =Beggars=, multitude of, 252.
+
+    =Bonuses= (_donativa_), 245.
+
+    =Books=, 209 ff.;
+      format of, 210;
+      mounting and rolling of, 211;
+      copying of, 212;
+      publication of, 212, 213.
+
+    =Bread=, 103, 104.
+
+    =Breakfast= (_jentaculum_), 110.
+
+    =Building materials= used in Rome, 10.
+
+    =_Bulla_=, 186.
+
+
+    =_Caldaria_=, 366.
+
+    =Camp= of prætorian guard, 311.
+
+    =Camps=, military, 330.
+
+    =Campus Martius=, view from, 7;
+      general description of, 280;
+      great porticoes along, 368;
+      public buildings upon, 369.
+
+    =Carriages=, varieties of, 455–456.
+
+    =Catacombs=, used by Christians, 473.
+
+    =Cemeteries=, 179–180.
+
+    =Cena= (_see_ Dinner).
+
+    =Centurions=, in legions, 323–325.
+
+    =Chairs=, forms of, 55–56.
+
+    =Charioteers=, 383;
+      (_see_ Circus).
+
+    =Chests=, 57.
+
+    =Children=, legal status of, 184;
+      exposure of, 184;
+      very desirable, 185;
+      ceremonies after birth, 185;
+      names given, 186–189;
+      care in educating, 189;
+      toys and pets, 190;
+      taught Greek, 191;
+      schooling and education, 192 ff.
+
+    =Christianity=, pagan account of, 449;
+      persecution of, 450–451;
+      charges against, 451;
+      attitude of educated men towards, 452.
+
+    =Christians=, gathering of, in the Catacombs, 473.
+
+    =Circus=, popularity of, 382;
+      charioteers in, 383;
+      racing factions in, 383;
+      wagering in, 384;
+      _Circus Maximus_, 384 ff.;
+      race track, 384;
+      procession before races, 385–386;
+      beginning of races, 386;
+      dangers in races, 387;
+      proclaiming victors, 387–389.
+
+    =Circus=, Flaminian, 370.
+
+    =_Circus Maximus_=, 384 ff.
+
+    =Citizenship=, desirability of, 146;
+    case of St. Paul, 147.
+
+    =Claudius Etruscus=, powerful freedman, 142.
+
+    =Clientage=, old type, 147–148;
+      new type, 148.
+
+    =Clients=, morning salutation by, 148–149;
+      doles given, 150;
+      attend their patron, 151;
+      undergo insults, 151, 152.
+
+    =Clothing= (_see_ Garments).
+
+    =Cohorts=, city (_cohortes urbanae_), 313.
+
+    =_Collegia_=, 249 ff.
+
+    =Color=, used upon sculpture, 259.
+
+    =Column of Trajan=, 278–280.
+
+    =Concrete=, great use of, 11.
+
+    =_Congiaria_=, 244.
+
+    =Cookery=, refinements in, 109, 110.
+
+    =Correspondence=, 208.
+
+    =Couches=, general use of, 54.
+
+    =Country=, around Rome, 5;
+      view of, 5, 6.
+
+    =Country-life=, Roman love of, 453–454;
+      (_see_ Villas).
+
+    =Court=, imperial;
+      (_see_ Emperor).
+
+    =Courts=, law, 353 ff.;
+      (_see_ Legal Procedure).
+
+    =Crowds=, typical, upon a Roman street, 21.
+
+    =_Curia_=, 272.
+
+    =Curia Julia=, arrangement of, 339.
+
+    =Cybele=, worship of, 441.
+
+
+    =Daily Gazette= (_Acta Diurna_), 282 ff.;
+      entries and gossip in, 284, 285.
+
+    =Decurions=, provincial nobles, 152.
+
+    =Deified Augustus= and later emperors, 439.
+
+    =Dining room= (_triclinium_), 45, 46.
+
+    =Dinner= (_cena_), 111 ff.;
+      time for, 111;
+      standard number for, 113;
+      preparing for, 114;
+      arranging couches, 115;
+      serving of, 116;
+      courses at, 117;
+      drinking bout after, 118;
+      garlands and perfumes at, 119;
+      very elaborate banquets, 120;
+      simple home meals, 121.
+
+    =Dinner hunters=, 112;
+      at baths, 368.
+
+    =Discomforts= of life in Rome, 33.
+
+    =Doles=, public, of grain, 242, 243;
+      distribution of, 244.
+
+    =_Domus_= (mansions), 39 ff.;
+      often several owned by one magnate, 39;
+      plan of early, 40;
+      plan of developed, 40, 41;
+      price of a handsome, 41;
+      entrance to, 42;
+      atrium of, 42, 43;
+      decorations of, 43;
+      _peristylium_, 44;
+      _triclinium_, 45, 46;
+      special rooms in, 47;
+      garden behind, 47;
+      slaves’ quarters, 48;
+      floors and windows of, 49;
+      frescos in, 50;
+      statues in, 51, 52, 53;
+      furniture in, 54 ff.
+
+    =_Donativa_=, 245.
+
+    =Drinking bout= (_commissatio_), 118.
+
+
+    =Eagle= of legion, 325.
+
+    =Eating-houses=, 235, 236.
+
+    =Education=, selection of school, 192;
+      extent of literacy, 193;
+      instruction of girls, 193;
+      for lower classes, 193, 194;
+      low-grade schools, 194;
+      cruelty in schools, 195;
+      superior types of schools, 196;
+      methods of teaching, 197;
+      reading and writing, 198;
+      arithmetic, 199;
+      grammarians’ high schools, 199;
+      passion for oratory, 200;
+      rhetoric schools, 201;
+      mock debates, 202;
+      popularity of rhetorical studies, 203;
+      philosophy, study of, 204.
+
+    =Egypt=, worship of its gods, 442.
+
+    =Emperor=, center of social life, 294;
+      “friends of Cæsar,” 295;
+      audiences with, 296;
+      ruin through disfavor of, 296, 297;
+      favor most valuable, 298.
+
+    =Emperors=, cult of the deified, 439–440.
+
+    =Emporium=, 240.
+
+    =Encampments=, military, 330.
+
+    =Entrance= to house, 42.
+
+    =Epicureanism=, popular, 407.
+
+    =Equites=, second class nobles, 153;
+      qualifications and honors of, 154, 155;
+      review of, 156.
+
+    =Escorts=, of rich nobles, 25.
+
+
+    =Factions=, in circus, 383.
+
+    =Fame=, passion for, in letters, 214, 215;
+      in poetry, 216.
+
+    =_Familia_= of slaves, 129, 130;
+      organization of, 131.
+
+    =Festivals=, great number of, 374;
+      passion for spectacles, 375;
+      (_see_ Games, Public).
+
+    =_Fetiales_=, 422.
+
+    =Fire department=, 304 ff.
+
+    =Fish=, great demand for, 106.
+
+    =Flamens=, 420.
+
+    =Flavian amphitheater=, 394–397.
+
+    =Floors=, of houses, 49.
+
+    =Flowers=, varieties supplied from villa gardens, 458.
+
+    =Flute-blowers=, guild of, 251.
+
+    =Fora=, centers of Roman life, 254;
+      series of, 256;
+      crowds in, 256, 257;
+      centers for new, 257;
+      grandiose architecture in, 258;
+      use of color on sculptures, 259;
+      entrance upon the series, 260;
+      Temple of Venus and Rome, 261, 262;
+      colossal statue of Nero, 262;
+      Arch of Titus, 262;
+      Temple of Vesta, 265;
+      Temple of the Divine Julius, 265;
+      Old Forum, 265 ff.;
+      of the Emperors, 275 ff.
+
+    =Foreign= cults, numerous in Rome, 437;
+      why popular, 438;
+      cult of Cybele or “Great Mother,” 441;
+      Isis worship, 442;
+      ceremonies at Temple of Isis, 443;
+      Serapis worship, 445;
+      Mithras worship, 445;
+      nobility of Mithras cult, 446;
+      _Taurobolium_ ceremony, 448–449;
+      Christianity, pagan view of, 449 ff.
+
+    =Fortresses=, frontier, 330.
+
+    =Forum=, morning visit to, 111;
+      of Julius, 276;
+      of Augustus, 277;
+      of Nerva, 278;
+      of Trajan, 278;
+      (_see_ Old Forum _and_ Fora).
+
+    =_Forum Romanum_=, 265 ff.;
+      (_see_ Old Forum).
+
+    =Fountains=, public, 20.
+
+    =Freedmen=, how created, 140;
+      status of, 140, 141;
+      humble types of, 141;
+      wealthy, 142;
+      importance of, 143.
+
+    =Frescos=, in a Roman house, 50, 51.
+
+    “=Friends=” of Emperor, 295.
+
+    =_Frigidarium_=, 365.
+
+    =Fruits=, 104, 105.
+
+    =Fullers=, 89.
+
+    =Funeral monuments=, 179, 182.
+
+    =Funerals=, great interest in, 172;
+      preliminaries to, 173;
+      procession of “ancestors,” 174;
+      exhibits in procession, 175;
+      orations at, 176;
+      tombs, 177–180;
+      funeral pyre, 180, 181;
+      for poorer classes, 182.
+
+
+    =Gain=, passion for, 220.
+
+    =_Galli_=, 441.
+
+    =Gambling=, mania for, 375.
+
+    =Games=, children’s, 204;
+      played on boards, 205, 206;
+      out-door, 206.
+
+    =Games=, public, passion for, 375;
+      mania for gambling at, 375;
+      vast scale of, 375–376;
+      great expense of, 376;
+      popularity of, 377;
+      seating at, 378;
+      (_see_ Theater, Circus, _and_ Amphitheater).
+
+    =Gardens=, public, around Rome, 372.
+
+    =Garlands=, at dinners, 119.
+
+    =Garments=, types of, 80 ff.;
+      toga, 81;
+      tunica, 84;
+      capes, cloaks, and gala garments, 85;
+      women’s stola and palla, 86, 87;
+      materials of, 88;
+      use of silk, 89;
+      changing styles of, 89.
+
+    =Gladiators=, notice of display of, 29;
+      popularity of, 392;
+      (_see_ Gladiator Contests).
+
+    =Gladiator contests=, enormously popular, 389;
+      at funerals, 390.
+
+    =Gladiator schools=, 390;
+      inmates usually criminals, 391;
+      severe training in, 392;
+      typical arrangement of, 393;
+      Flavian Amphitheater, 394–395;
+      its interior arrangements, 395–396;
+      procession before contests, 397;
+      criminals thrown to beasts, 398;
+      fights with wild beasts, 399;
+      interval in sports, 400;
+      distribution of lottery tickets at, 400;
+      beginning of regular, 401;
+      chariot warfare, 402;
+      cavalry combats, 403;
+      signals for ruthlessness and signals for mercy, 403;
+      “Netters” and “Thracians,” 404–405;
+      reward of victors, 405–406.
+
+    =Glass=, used in windows, 49.
+
+    =Gluttony=, 100–102.
+
+    =Golden Milestone=, 269, 270.
+
+    =Gourmandizing=, delight in, 100.
+
+    =Government= of Rome, 299 ff.;
+      city præfect, 300;
+      curators and commissioners, 301;
+      water supply of, 301–302;
+      great aqueducts, 303;
+      police and fire department, 304–305.
+
+    =Grain=, trade in, 242;
+      doles of, 243;
+      distribution of, 244.
+
+    =Grammarians’ schools=, 199.
+
+    “=Great Mother=,” 441.
+
+    =Greek language=, constantly used in Rome, 22, 23.
+
+    =Guests= at dinner, proper number nine, 113;
+      arrangement on couches, 115.
+
+    =Guilds=, 249;
+      very ancient ones, 250;
+      importance of, 251;
+      festivals of, 252.
+
+
+    =Hadrian=, prosperity of his reign, 1, 468;
+      tomb of, 370;
+      his return to Italy, 469;
+      his procession entering Rome, 470;
+      how saluted, 472;
+      presides over fêtes, 472–473.
+
+    =Hairdressing=, women’s, 93;
+      ornaments on hair, 93.
+
+    =Heating= of houses, 49.
+
+    =Hills=, Seven, of Rome, 9.
+
+    =Hospitals=, almost nonexistent, 168.
+
+    =Hotels=, (_see_ Inns).
+
+    =House fronts=, on typical Roman streets, 18.
+
+    =Houses= (see _Insulæ_ and _Domus_).
+
+
+    =Idlers=, vast number of, 27.
+
+    =_Imagines_= (death masks), 54.
+
+    =Impeachment trial=, before Senate, 343 ff.
+
+    =Industry=, quarters for, 238;
+      conditions of labor in, 238, 239;
+      organization in guilds, 249 ff.
+
+    =Inns=, usually sordid, 231;
+      type of, 232;
+      reckonings at, 233;
+      frequenters of, 234;
+      eating houses, 235 ff.
+
+    =_Insulæ_= (tenement houses), 34 ff.;
+      typical _insula_, 35;
+      flats in, 36;
+      cheap attics in, 37;
+      dangers of, 37, 38.
+
+    =Isis=, cult of, 442 ff.
+
+
+    =Janus=, 413.
+
+    =_Jentaculum_= (breakfast), 110.
+
+    =Jesus=, legal status of, 144.
+
+    =Jewels=, 96 ff.
+
+    =Jews= in Rome, 145.
+
+
+    =Kissing=, habit of, in public, 27.
+
+    =Kitchens=, 109.
+
+
+    =_Lacerna_=, 85.
+
+    =Lacus=, Curtius, 274.
+
+    =Lares= and Penates, 414.
+
+    =_Latrunculi_= (game), 205.
+
+    =Lawyers= (_see_ Advocates).
+
+    =Legacies=, 170;
+      hunting for, 171;
+      public bequests, 172.
+
+    =Legal procedure=, highly scientific, 353;
+      great tribunals for, 354;
+      forms of verdicts, 355;
+      importance of advocates, 355;
+      cheap pettifoggers, 356;
+      character and slave witnesses, 357;
+      use of written evidence, 357–358.
+
+    =Legate= of the legion, 329.
+
+    =Legionaries=, enlistment of, 314;
+      organization of, 315;
+      training of, 316;
+      weapons of, 317–318;
+      armor of, 318;
+      rewards and punishment of, 319–320;
+      retiring bonuses for, 329;
+      pay and rations of, 320;
+      training of, 321;
+      non-military labors of, 322;
+      petty officers of, 322–323;
+      centurions of, 323–324;
+      _primipilus_ of, 325;
+      eagle of, 325.
+
+    =Legions=, number of, 309;
+      organization of, 315 ff.;
+      location and names of, 326;
+      commanders of, 328;
+      (_see also_ Legionaries).
+
+    =Letters=, 207, 208.
+
+    =Libraries=, size of, 217;
+      private, 218;
+      public, 219;
+      of Trajan, 280.
+
+    =Literary fame=, passion for, 214 ff.
+
+    =Luncheon= (_prandium_), 111.
+
+
+    =Magistrates=, public honors paid to, 24.
+
+    =Mansions= (see _Domus_).
+
+    =Manumission=, 139, 140.
+
+    =Marble trade=, 241.
+
+    =Marriage=, men often reluctant to marry, 61;
+      usually arranged by girls’ parents, 63;
+      marriage treaties, 64;
+      betrothal before, 65;
+      dowries, 66;
+      dressing bride, 66, 67;
+      actual ceremonies of, 67 ff.;
+      contract of, 68;
+      wedding procession, 69;
+      ceremonies at bridegroom’s house, 70;
+      often unhappy, 72;
+      divorce, easy and frequent, 74;
+      happy marriages, 75.
+
+    =Masks=, death (_imagines_), 54.
+
+    =Matrons=, honors paid to, 71, 72;
+      (_see_ Women).
+
+    =Meals= and meal times, 110 ff.
+
+    =Meat= and poultry, 105.
+
+    =Medicine= (_see_ Physicians).
+
+    =Mimes=, 380.
+
+    =Mithras=, worship of, 445–446.
+
+    =Morning=, how spent by gentlemen, 110.
+
+    =Morra=, game of, 205.
+
+    =Mosaics=, in Roman mansion, 43.
+
+
+    =Names=, intricacy of, 186;
+      irregular, 187;
+      of slaves, 188;
+      of women, 188;
+      confusion of, 189.
+
+    =Nero=, colossal statue of, 262.
+
+    =Notices=, public, 29.
+
+
+    =Old Forum=, 265 ff.;
+      noble traditions of, 266;
+      impression created by, 267;
+      crowds in, 268, 269;
+      area of, 268, 269;
+      western end of, 269;
+      Rostra, 269;
+      Golden Milestone, 269, 270;
+      Tullianum, 270, 271;
+      Basilica Æmilia, 271;
+      Temple of Janus, 271;
+      Senate House, 272;
+      Basilica Julia, 272;
+      Lacus Curtius, 274.
+
+    =Olive oil=, 107.
+
+    =Omens=, belief in, 419–420.
+
+    =Oratory=, passion for, 200;
+      training in, 201 ff.;
+      in Senate, 343 ff.
+
+    =Ostia=, trade through, 239;
+      shipping at, 247;
+      naval shipping at, 248;
+      harbor town at, 249.
+
+
+    =_Pænula_=, 85.
+
+    =Palace=, imperial, 288 ff.;
+      magnificent aspect of, 289;
+      famous buildings in, 290;
+      triclinium and throne-room of Domitian, 291–292;
+      enormous luxury of, 292;
+      swarm of officials present in, 293.
+
+    =Palatine=, view from, 260;
+      history of, 286;
+      fine residences upon, 287;
+      Augustus settles upon, 287–288;
+      commanding view from, 288;
+      imperial palace upon, 288 ff.
+
+    =_Palla_=, 88.
+
+    =Pantheon=, 280–282.
+
+    =Pantomimes=, 381;
+      high art in, 382.
+
+    =Papyrus=, 209, 210.
+
+    =Parasites=, swarm of, in Rome, 27;
+      at dinners, 112, 113;
+      at baths, 368.
+
+    =Park system= around Rome, 280;
+      toward Tiber, 369.
+
+    =_Patria Potestas_=, 184.
+
+    =Paul=, legal status of, 147.
+
+    =Pavements=, in Roman streets, 18.
+
+    =_Pax Romana_=, blessings of, 1.
+
+    =Pearls=, 97.
+
+    =Perfumes=, 98;
+      at dinners, 119.
+
+    =_Peristylium_=, 44.
+
+    =Pet animals=, 58;
+      of children, 190.
+
+    =Philosophy=, study of, 204.
+
+    =Physicians=, no training required, 160;
+      superior class of, 161;
+      fashionable doctors, 161, 162;
+      instruments and books of, 163;
+      famous remedies of, 164;
+      absurd medicines, 164;
+      theriac, 165;
+      fear of poisons, 165, 166;
+      disciples of, 166;
+      quack doctors, 167.
+
+    =Placards=, public, 28, 29.
+
+    =Plebeians=, the “mob,” 145.
+
+    =Pliny the Younger’s Tuscan villa=, 459;
+      charming location of, 460;
+      view from, 461;
+      terraces and porticoes of, 462;
+      bed-chambers of, 463–464;
+      gardens of, 465.
+
+    =Poetry=, passion for, 216.
+
+    =Police department=, 304–305.
+
+    =Pontiffs=, 417.
+
+    =Population= of Rome, 3, 4.
+
+    =Porticoes=, along Campus Martius, 368–369.
+
+    =Portrait busts=, trade in, 246.
+
+    =Præfect=, of city of Rome, 300;
+      of the police (_vigiles_), 306;
+      of the camps, 328.
+
+    =Prætorian guard=, 309–311;
+      præfect of, 311;
+      camp of, 311–312;
+      organization of, 313.
+
+    =Prætorian præfect=, 311.
+
+    =Prayer=, formal, at sacrifice, 428.
+
+    =Priests=, duties of, 417;
+      (_see_ Flamens).
+
+    =_Primipilus_=, 325.
+
+    =Processions=, attending great nobles, 24.
+
+    =Provincials=, status of, 143.
+
+    =Public games=, 375 ff.
+
+    =Publishers of books=, 213, 214.
+
+    =Punishments=, of slaves, 136;
+      of soldiers, 320.
+
+
+    =Regia=, 265.
+
+    =Regions= of Rome, 15.
+
+    =Religion=, signs of, everywhere, 407;
+      upper classes sceptical, 407–408;
+      Stoicism popular, 408;
+      revival of, under Empire, 409;
+      many foreign cults, 410;
+      plebeians very superstitious, 411;
+      based on old Italian agriculture, 412;
+      native Italian gods, 413;
+      Lares and Penates, 414;
+      personified virtues as gods, 415;
+      legalistic character of, 416;
+      priests not sacrosanct, 417;
+      _Pontifices_, 417–418;
+      _Augurs_, 418;
+      Flamens, 420;
+      _Salii_, 421;
+      _Fetiales_, 422;
+      Arval Brethren, 423;
+      rustic, 424;
+      soothsayers and astrologers, 424–425;
+      sacrifices, private, 425;
+      ceremony at temple, 426;
+      slaughtering the victim, 427;
+      formal prayer, 428;
+      Vestal Virgins, 429 ff.;
+      (_see_ Foreign Cults).
+
+    =Restaurants= (_see_ Eating-Houses).
+
+    =Rhetoricians=, 201;
+      schools of, 202 ff.
+
+    =Rings=, 96.
+
+    =Robbers=, game of, 205.
+
+    =Roman Empire= very prosperous under Hadrian, 1.
+
+    =Rome=, beautified by Augustus and later Emperors, 3;
+      reaches architectural perfection about 135 A.D., 3;
+      population of, 3, 4;
+      crowded condition of, 4;
+      country around, 5;
+      view from Campus Martius, 7;
+      Seven Hills of, 9;
+      regions and social quarters of, 15;
+      typical street in, 16;
+      discomforts of life in, 33;
+      vast alien population in, 122;
+      divisions of society in, 123 ff.;
+      great Jewish colony in, 145;
+      plebeians in, 145, 146;
+      life in, extravagant and expensive, 221;
+      a city of investors and buyers of luxuries, 222;
+      great shopping quarters in, 223;
+      industrial quarters in, 210 ff.;
+      city government of, 299 ff.
+
+    =Rostra=, 269.
+
+
+    =Sacrifices=, private description of, 425 ff.
+
+    =_Salii_=, 421.
+
+    =Salutations=, form of, in public, 26.
+
+    =Sandals=, 95.
+
+    =Saturnalia=, 437.
+
+    =Schools= (_see_ Educators).
+
+    =Scribblings=, upon every wall, 30, 31.
+
+    =Sculptures=, trade in, 246;
+      often colored, 259.
+
+    =Seat of honor=, at festivals, 378.
+
+    =Secretaries=, 209.
+
+    =Senate=, outward glory of, 334;
+      actual weakness of, 335;
+      actual authority of, 336;
+      organization and procedure of, 337–338;
+      _Curia_ (Senate House) for, 338;
+      arrangement of seats, 339;
+      precedence in, 339–340;
+      opening of session, 340;
+      auspices in, 340–341;
+      routine business in, 341;
+      taking of vote, 342;
+      impeachment before, 342–343;
+      use of water clocks, 344;
+      oratory in, 344;
+      advocates before, 345;
+      shouts and invectives during debates, 347;
+      taking the opinion of, 348 ff.;
+      speeches from floor of, 349;
+      uproar in, 350;
+      formal division in, 351;
+      decree of banishment, 352;
+      end of session, 352.
+
+    =Senate House=, 272.
+
+    =Senatorial order=, 156;
+      includes relatives of senators, 158.
+
+    =Senators=, social glories of, 157;
+      form a high aristocracy, 158;
+      insignia and titles of, 158;
+      great importance of, 159.
+
+    =Serapis=, worship of, 445.
+
+    “=Seven Hills=” of Rome, 9.
+
+    =Shipping=, merchant, 247, 248;
+      naval, 248.
+
+    =Shoes=, 95.
+
+    =Shop fronts=, 18.
+
+    =Shops=, vast number of, 18;
+      shopping districts in Rome, 223, 224;
+      arrangement of shops, 224;
+      of barbers, 225;
+      superior retail stores, 226.
+
+    =Shrines=, upon streets, 20.
+
+    =Siege warfare=, 331.
+
+    =Siesta=, custom of, 112.
+
+    =Silk=, use of, 89.
+
+    =Slaves=, notice to, 42;
+      vast numbers of, 124;
+      power of master over, 125;
+      city slaves and country slaves, 125–126;
+      purchase of, 126, 127;
+      auction of, 128;
+      sale of superior, 129;
+      size of household of, 129, 130;
+      workmen as, 130;
+      duties of, 131;
+      organization of, 131;
+      discipline of, 132;
+      frequently idle, 133;
+      degradation of slave system, 133;
+      evil results on masters, 134;
+      punishment of, 135;
+      branding of, 136;
+      pursuit of runaways, 137;
+      torture of, 138;
+      manumission of, 139.
+
+    =Society=, divisions of, 123, 124.
+
+    =Soldiers= (_see_ Legionaries).
+
+    =Soothsayers=, 424.
+
+    =Statues=, vast multiplication of, 51;
+      portrait busts, 52, 53.
+
+    =_Status_=, in Roman society, 123.
+
+    =Stoicism=, popularity of, 408.
+
+    =_Stola_=, 87.
+
+    =Streets=, typical in Rome, 16;
+      very narrow, 17;
+      paving of, 17, 18;
+      shops upon, 18;
+      shrines and fountains upon, 20, 21;
+      crowds in, 21;
+      noise and turmoil of, 23;
+      dark and dangerous at night, 32;
+      extremely noisy towards dawn, 33.
+
+    =Suicide=, not condemned, 168.
+
+
+    =Tables=, 56;
+      costly, of citrus wood, 57.
+
+    =Tablets=, writing, 207.
+
+    =Tactics=, in battle, 330.
+
+    =_Taurobolium_=, 447.
+
+    =Taverns= (_see_ Inns).
+
+    =Temple=, of the Divine Julius, 265;
+      of Janus, 271;
+      of Mars Ultor, 277;
+      of Peace, 276;
+      of Venus and Rome, 261, 262;
+      of Vesta, 265.
+
+    =Tenement blocks= (_insulæ_), 34 ff.
+
+    =_Tepidarium_=, 365.
+
+    =Theater=, not extremely popular, 378;
+      stage in, 379;
+      spectacles in, 380;
+      mimes, 380;
+      pantomimes, 381;
+      high art in latter, 382.
+
+    =Theaters= upon Campus Martius, 369.
+
+    =_Thermopolia_=, 236.
+
+    =Tiber=, and valley of, 6;
+      barges upon, 240;
+      trip down to Ostia, 247;
+      shipping upon, 248.
+
+    =Time=, measured by water clocks, 344.
+
+    =Titus=, arch of, 262.
+
+    =Toga=, 81–84.
+
+    =Toilets=, very elaborate, 94.
+
+    =Tombs=, 177–180;
+      of Hadrian, 370;
+      of Augustus, 372.
+
+    =Toys=, 190.
+
+    =Trade=, through Ostia and Campania, 239;
+      Emporium and wharves, 240;
+      upon Tiber, 240, 241;
+      in marble and grain, 241, 242;
+      in sculptures and portrait statues, 246.
+
+    =Trajan=, forum and column of, 278–280;
+      baths of, 361 ff.
+
+    =Travel=, modes of, 454–456.
+
+    =Traveler’s escorts=, 25, 26.
+
+    =_Triclinium_= (dining room), 45, 46.
+
+    =_Trigon_= (ball game), 206.
+
+    =Triumph=, ceremonies of a, 470.
+
+    =Tullianum=, 270, 271.
+
+    =_Tunica_=, 84.
+
+    =Turia=, story of, 78.
+
+
+    =Vegetables=, 104.
+
+    =Veterans=, care and rewards of, 329–330.
+
+    =Vesta=, Temple of, as safe deposit, 231.
+
+    =Vestal Virgins=, 429 ff.;
+      origin and sanctity, 430;
+      temple and residence of, 431;
+      how chosen, 432;
+      duties of, 433;
+      senior vestal (_Maxima_), 433;
+      punishment of, 434;
+      great honors of, 435.
+
+    =Via Sacra=, 261, 263 ff.
+
+    =Victory=, statue of, in Senate, 340.
+
+    =_Vigiles_=, city police, 28;
+      description of, 304 ff.
+
+    =Villas=, several owned by one senator, 39;
+      greatly enjoyed, 453;
+      comfortable travel to, 454–456;
+      multiplication of, 456;
+      by the sea shore, 457;
+      in the mountains, 457–458;
+      near Rome, 458;
+      great estates in the hills, 459;
+      Pliny’s Tuscan villa, 459 ff.
+
+    =Vitellius=, imperial glutton, 102.
+
+
+    =Wall scribblings=, 30.
+
+    =War=, ceremony of declaring, 423.
+
+    =Water clocks=, 57;
+      in Senate, 344.
+
+    =Water supply of Rome=, 301 ff.
+
+    =Wealth=, vast premium upon in Rome, 220, 221.
+
+    =Weapons=, of legionaries, 317, 318.
+
+    =Wills=, 169.
+
+    =Windows= of houses, 49.
+
+    =Wines=, 107, 108, 109.
+
+    =Writing tablets=, 207.
+
+    =Women=, honorable status of, 60;
+      rights and privileges when married, 61, 71, 72;
+      have control of property, 62;
+      selection of husbands for girls, 63;
+      marriage treaties, 64;
+      betrothal ceremonies, 65;
+      dowries of, 66;
+      marriage of, 66 ff.;
+      frivolous type of, 72, 73;
+      nobler types of, 75;
+      famous and devoted wives, 76, 77;
+      case of Turia, 78, 79.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Outside of these limits were, of course, wide and populous suburbs
+whose inhabitants might be included in the estimated total of 1,500,000.
+
+[2] At present, of course, largely a treeless waste, very sparsely
+populated and afflicted with malaria.
+
+[3] These are modern heights; since the days of the Empire there has
+been much leveling down. All the hills were then somewhat higher.
+
+[4] He wrote his great “Geography” not long after 1 A.D.
+
+[5] This and many other terms for Roman building materials are from the
+modern Italian.
+
+[6] Very possibly the Etruscans were the actual inventors, although the
+principle of the arch was known in the Old Orient.
+
+[7] He died about 110 A.D.
+
+[8] A well-known avenue in Pompeii was called “Mercury Street.”
+
+[9] In describing Roman street life and its scenes let it be said
+once and for all that many very obvious things were so disgusting and
+revolting to modern notions that any description thereof is perforce
+omitted. Ancient life contained a great deal of social dross and filthy
+wickedness. There is no need to dwell on such matters, but their
+existence should not be forgotten.
+
+[10] If a magistrate had met any persons on horseback, they also would
+have been bound to dismount on meeting him.
+
+[11] If a praetor had been acting as governor, he would probably have
+had six lictors instead of merely two while he was a judge in Rome.
+
+[12] The wall placards and inscriptions quoted in this and the
+following section are all substantially as found at Pompeii.
+
+[13] For quotations of election notices at Pompeii see the author’s
+“Readings in Ancient History,” Vol. II, “Rome,” pp. 261–262.
+
+[14] These figures seem to come from the fourth century, but there is
+no reason to think that housing conditions in Rome had changed very
+much since the second century.
+
+[15] Rentals in Rome, for all classes of lodgings, were unreasonably
+high, as compared with the relative cost of other necessities: just as
+is now complained to be the case in New York, Paris, and other great
+cities.
+
+[16] A familiar description of such a place by Juvenal.
+
+[17] In small provincial cities like Pompeii the proportion of the
+people who could live in separate houses was much greater than in Rome;
+in fact separate residences were somewhat the rule. The Pompeiian
+houses were usually of two stories and nearly all were decidedly small.
+In Rome itself real estate was far too valuable to permit separate
+houses except for the wealthy.
+
+[18] That was the price that Cicero paid for his town house, at a time
+when Roman real estate was worth probably much less than in the days of
+Hadrian.
+
+[19] Petronius represents his rich upstart Trimalchio as having four
+ordinary dining rooms and also a special second story dining room.
+
+[20] This heating by _hypocausts_ was used much more in Roman villas in
+Gaul, the Rhinelands, and Britain, where winters were severe, than in
+Italy. In Rome itself people ordinarily managed to shiver through the
+relatively short cold spells by means of portable _charcoal braziers_,
+placed in the more important rooms, and by piling upon themselves extra
+tunics.
+
+[21] One can make a long list of the marbles constantly used at
+Rome: _e.g._ white marbles from Carrara, Paros, and Pentelicos;
+crimson-streaked from Phrygia; orange-golden from Numidia; white and
+pale green from Carystos; serpentine from Laconia; porphyry from Egypt,
+etc.
+
+[22] At this writing the number of wall paintings rescued from the
+excavations of Pompeii runs well up to 4000; and Pompeii was a city
+perhaps only a fortieth the size of Rome.
+
+[23] Most of the finer scenes in Roman frescos seem to have been
+pretty good copies of famous paintings from Greek mythology originally
+produced by the masters of the Hellenistic age.
+
+[24] It may be noted that the Romans seldom had built-in upholstery
+upon their couches and chairs. They depended upon removable cushions
+and apparently they had no metal springs.
+
+[25] It had been suppressed for all practical purposes soon after 14
+A.D.
+
+[26] Witness, as most famous example, the case of Cornelia, mother of
+Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. Very many other instances could be cited.
+
+[27] Readers of Plutarch will recall the story of how Appius Claudius,
+then “Princeps Senatus,” proposed to Tiberius Gracchus at an evening
+banquet of the College of Augurs that he should marry Claudius’s
+daughter. Young Gracchus promptly accepted and the older nobleman
+rushed home in delight (Tiberius being a great “catch”). On entering
+his house Claudius called out with loud voice to his wife “Antistia,
+I’ve got a husband for Claudia!” “What’s all the hurry about,” answered
+she, “unless he’s Tiberius Gracchus?” Antistia evidently had to be
+informed first; the glad news could be broken to her daughter later.
+
+[28] This anecdote and the quotations are all from the letter of Pliny
+the Younger to his friend Mauricius advising the latter (as per request
+for counsel) to seek the hand of Minucius Ancilianus for his niece.
+
+[29] All silk was imported by extremely long caravan routes from China.
+If this veil was actually of pure silk and not mixed with cotton, it
+was of enormous value.
+
+[30] Possibly meaning “Hurrah for Talassus, the marriage god!” but the
+exact significance of this time-honored shout had probably been long
+since lost.
+
+[31] Both of these instances are from Pliny the Younger.
+
+[32] For a complete quotation of this highly interesting tablet, see
+Fowler’s “Social Life at Rome,” pp. 159–167.
+
+[33] The use of this garment gave his familiar nickname to the Emperor
+Bassianus, “Caracalla,” who reigned 212–217 A.D. The Gauls also had
+kind of trousers. This was counted against them as a token of sheer
+barbarism: _bracatæ nationes_ (“trouser-wearing peoples”) was a term of
+extreme contempt in Italy.
+
+[34] Probably there were simpler and more complicated forms of togas.
+The first were apparently shaped like an irregular semi-circle. We hear
+of extremely large togas (in bad taste) whereof the total length was
+four yards before draping. Experiments in certain American universities
+at making and then draping a toga corresponding in effect to many
+well-known statues have amply illustrated the great difficulty of
+putting on the garment gracefully, and the real art required of a Roman
+nobleman’s valet.
+
+[35] See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 44.
+
+[36] There were various simpler garments, similar to the stola,
+permitted to common women and to young girls. The distinctive feature
+of the stola, forbidden to all save honorable matrons, seems to have
+been the lower flounce, reaching to the feet.
+
+[37] About twenty years after the reign of Hadrian, Chinese annals
+record that certain “Roman” (Græco-Levantine?) traders actually reached
+China, and gave themselves out as envoys to the “Son of Heaven” from
+“Antun” (Antoninus Pius).
+
+[38] Very like a modern copying press.
+
+[39] Apuleius, writing probably a little later than this time, asserts
+that a lady, with no matter how fine clothes or jewels, cannot be
+considered really handsome unless an equal amount of attention has been
+bestowed upon her hair.
+
+[40] Called the “luna” (crescent); but the origin is really unknown,
+although attempts were made to trace it back to some institution of
+Romulus.
+
+[41] Diamonds were not unknown, but they were so hard to cut and so
+scarce that they figured rather seldom in Roman jewelry. They do not
+appear in the list of the twelve precious stones given in Revelation,
+XXI: 19–20.
+
+[42] Stories about pearls are easily multiplied: _e.g._ how the son of
+Asopus, a famous actor, on coming into a vast patrimony, deliberately
+dissolved a large pearl in vinegar, then drank it down, in order to
+boast that he had “tossed off a million sesterces ($40,000) at one
+gulp!”
+
+[43] Even less profitable, it would seem, is to try to list the
+cosmetics wherewith many Roman ladies, like their sisters of all times,
+covered their faces. Rouge was used in great quantities, and effeminate
+young men were known to have employed it. Eyebrows were blackened with
+antimony; lips were reddened, and of course hair dye was a familiar
+article. Propertius suggests that some women went so far as to trace
+over the veins in their temples with blue. Other women indulged in
+small black patches somewhat as did English ladies in the days of Queen
+Anne:--“There is nothing new under the sun.”
+
+[44] In Capua there was a whole great square of the city, the Seplasia,
+given over to perfumery shops and their wholesale trade.
+
+[45] Vitellius was by no means alone in this disgusting practice.
+Seneca denounced the numerous gluttons who “Vomit that they may eat,
+and eat that they may vomit.”
+
+[46] The difficulty of preserving fresh meat, once butchered, would
+militate against its use as compared with poultry easily killed for
+each customer.
+
+[47] See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 20.
+
+[48] _Posca_ was probably the drink in which the sponge was steeped,
+that was extended to Jesus as He hung on the cross.
+
+[49] A long and curious list of gourmand’s precepts are enumerated
+ironically by Horace in a familiar Satire (_Sat._, bk. II. 4).
+
+[50] The very imperfect means of illumination alone available with
+olive-oil lamps, would make many modern evening entertainments out of
+the question. The ancient lamps were beautiful in shape but utterly
+ineffective for lighting large halls, indoor theaters, etc.
+
+[51] The love of “first-seats” at feasts, denounced in the New
+Testament, was anything but a strictly Jewish vice; Greeks and Romans
+were every whit as bad as Orientals.
+
+[52] So given because here dispatches, etc., could be most readily
+handed to a consul or other great officer if he were among the guests.
+
+[53] Sometimes a guest’s personal valet brought a special towel for
+his own master. Diners of an objectionable variety were occasionally
+charged with stealing the towels or napkins if the host supplied them.
+
+[54] This, of course, was a very simple private dinner. For the menu
+of a really extensive banquet, see the citation from Macrobius, in the
+writer’s “Readings in Ancient History,” Vol. II (Rome), p. 253.
+
+[55] Brought, of course, from the summits of the Apennines with
+infinite labor.
+
+[56] They could not, of course, wear the toga, or, if female slaves,
+the matronly stola.
+
+[57] The ancients had intense fear of epilepsy, supposedly a visitation
+of the gods. The questions given were the points on which slave-venders
+had to give assurance, or formally to waive all responsibility.
+
+[58] This is almost precisely the slave auctioneer’s speech in Horace.
+(_Epodes_, bk. II, 1.)--If the dealer had failed to mention that the
+boy had once tried to run away, he would have been legally liable.
+
+[59] Probably, however, it would be counted discreditable to sell a
+slave born in one’s house (a _verna_) unless the fellow was wholly
+reprobate, or the master was in great financial straits.
+
+[60] Slave unions had no legal status, but only a harsh and tactless
+master would ordinarily break them up.
+
+[61] Of course, in a large slave household frequently there were unruly
+elements who often had to be punished privately, when, if free men,
+their actions would have landed them in the police courts. The stripes
+might be inflicted as a mild correction with the cane, or leather
+strap, or more severely with the terrific _flagellum_ (loaded whip),
+usually with three chains set with metal. A sound lashing with this
+could cause death (see below, p. 137). The prejudice against brutal
+whipping and the like was growing steadily, thanks to the advance of
+the Stoic philosophy, even before the triumph of Christianity. Juvenal
+denounces those who inflict outrageous floggings for slight faults.
+“Does a man set his son a good lesson by calling in the torturer and
+having a slave branded for stealing a couple of towels? Does such a man
+hold that the bodies and souls of slaves are of the same elements as
+our own?”
+
+[62] “Three Letter Man” or “Man of Letters” became a common taunt among
+slaves.
+
+[63] A slave might be lashed to a _furca_ for some hours, as a minor
+penalty without desire to put him to death.
+
+[64] An actual proclamation from Petronius.
+
+[65] There would be just enough of negroes in Rome for them to cease to
+be great curiosities.
+
+[66] It is impossible to estimate the proportion of the population
+“enfranchised” finally by the oft-discussed edict of Caracalla in 214
+A.D. It must have been over one half of the entire total.
+
+[67] Apparently it was quite possible for impecunious persons to sleep
+much of the year under the public arches and porticoes, and thus even
+dispense with the need of paying rent!
+
+[68] These hopes had practically died out by Hadrian’s day.
+
+[69] That St. Paul was presently released after trial at Rome is the
+consensus among very many competent scholars.
+
+[70] Women as well as men could sometimes be enrolled as clients.
+Comical stories abounded; how a husband appeared with a litter claiming
+that his “sick wife” was inside--“and would the steward please hurry
+with the fee”--when, on brushing aside the curtains, the litter was
+found to be empty.
+
+[71] Especially in Gaul, Spain, and North Africa; in the Eastern
+provinces the city governments were not run so strictly in the Roman
+mold and often kept their native characteristics.
+
+[72] Hence they were often called _Curiales_ from their seat in the
+local Senate House (_Curia_).
+
+[73] This name is not wisely translated as “Knights,” unless there is
+complete disassociation from the idea of the mediæval baron in armor.
+
+[74] Apparently at this time two thirds of the jurors were equites and
+one third senators, but the point is not quite certain.
+
+[75] The Republican censors could also give the order, “Sell your
+horse” without stigma to equites who appeared in the review when too
+old or too fat!
+
+[76] By the age of Hadrian we see signs of that rigid separation
+between upper-class citizens (_majores_) and lower-class (_minores_)
+which marked the Later Empire. The equites tended to be mingled with
+the senators in the _majores_.
+
+[77] Marcus Aurelius confirmed this legally about 170 A.D.
+
+[78] See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 77.
+
+[79] Antoninus Pius, the ruler succeeding Hadrian, formally enjoined
+the remission of civic burdens for “community physicians” in the
+Province of Asia; five in small cities, seven in larger ones, and ten
+in the largest.
+
+[80] Establishments selling ready prepared salves, plasters, and other
+standard remedies were not unknown, and must have supplied many doctors.
+
+[81] Chemical analysis was, of course, unknown.
+
+[82] These titles and much more of the data here given are from the
+writings of the great Galen--the master physician of the imperial age;
+who wrote his books under Commodus about 185 A.D.
+
+[83] As in the case of the death of Cæsar Germanicus (19 A.D.)
+whose death at Antioch was probably natural, but which all his friends
+attributed to poison given by his personal enemy, the Proconsul Piso.
+
+[84] Probably there were such in the eastern provinces.
+
+[85] Without clinical thermometers or second-watches, the taking of
+temperature, timing of pulse, etc., must have been a very tedious and
+disagreeable as well as uncertain process.
+
+[86] Apparently the organization of _public hospitals_ in the
+fourth century of our era, was among the earliest and worthiest of the
+distinctly Christian charities, after the toleration of Christianity by
+the Roman government.
+
+[87] Two similar cases are recorded in Pliny the Younger; in one
+of them the person contemplating suicide, on being assured by the
+physicians that his case was not quite desperate, “agreed to fight on a
+little longer.”
+
+[88] The legal status of women made it needful to resort to various
+legal fictions when they drew wills, but they could execute effective
+testaments also.
+
+[89] Still greater revenge could be taken by making insulting
+references in wills to old enemies, making them bequests of no value,
+or burdened with unwelcome conditions, or even explaining at length,
+without fear of a slander suit, why no bequest was left to them at all!
+
+[90] An actual tomb inscription.
+
+[91] A hundred imagines of curule ancestors would be a very respectable
+but not an extraordinary showing. When young Marcellus (Augustus’s
+nephew) died, _six hundred_ imagines of noble ancestors were borne
+in his procession.
+
+[92] Under the Empire only the Emperor could actually ride in a
+triumph; but his lieutenants could enjoy the “triumphal ornaments.”
+
+[93] The granting of an actual funeral pyre inside of Rome was an
+extraordinary honor--reserved only for emperors and other unusually
+favored personages.
+
+[94] This, of course, was the monument which Trimalchio, Petronius’s
+famous character, arranged for himself.
+
+[95] Compare “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 57.
+
+[96] The father might have “taken up” the child earlier to indicate his
+intentions not to expose it, but some later act of legal acknowledgment
+before witnesses was necessary.
+
+[97] And hardly anybody outside the Claudian gens was ever named Appius.
+
+[98] Literally “Number Ten”; but that meaning had disappeared.
+
+[99] Very many such lengthy names are found under Hadrian.
+
+[100] See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 63.
+
+[101] These verses have been preserved to the present age by being
+inscribed upon the foot of the colossal statue of the “Speaking Memnon”
+in Egypt, during the visit there of Hadrian and Sabina.
+
+[102] Of course, there would be many lower class Italians who, although
+fairly at ease with Latin, would be entirely unfamiliar with Greek.
+
+[103] The writing end of the stylus (bone or metal) was sharp. The
+opposite end was blunt and flattened for erasing on the soft wax.
+
+[104] See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 64.
+
+[105] These are the words of Eumenius, a teacher of about 300
+A.D., but they would have been equally proper in the age of
+Hadrian.
+
+[106] Persons who could recite the whole of the Iliad and Odyssey from
+memory were not unknown, although they were usually learned slaves, not
+Romans of the higher class.
+
+[107] A tombstone for a boy who died at the age of ten boasts that its
+subject “knew the dogmas of Pythagoras and the teaching of the books of
+the learned.” He was also alleged to have read all of Homer and to have
+studied Euclid “tablets in hand.”
+
+[108] Senators, degraded and banished for reasons good or bad, could
+earn a living in the provinces by opening rhetoric schools. Thus
+Lucinianus did so in Sicily in Trajan’s time. Pliny the Younger records
+that he began his first set oration by declaring: “O Fortune, what
+sport you make to amuse yourself! You make professors into senators,
+and senators into professors.”
+
+[109] An actual case for young orators as explained by the Elder
+Seneca. Less advanced pupils could be pitted in arguments as to
+“Whether country life is better than city life,” or “married life
+better than celibacy.”
+
+[110] The zeal for philosophy and rhetoric, or at least for the
+patronage thereof, is shown by the story of how Trajan, a very
+simple-minded soldier, used to invite the great rhetorician Dion
+Chrysostom to visit him and take long journeys with him. The Emperor,
+greatly impressed by the other’s learning, openly declared to him, “I
+don’t in the least understand what you keep talking about, but for all
+that I love you like my own soul!”
+
+[111] It is impossible to recover the exact details of these two games.
+We know of “solitaire” forms of these games, with the board made of
+terebinth wood, and with crystal pieces, or with gold and silver coins
+in place of the common black and white counters.
+
+[112] In very early Roman days public records seem to have been kept on
+books of _linen_; but these soon disappeared.
+
+[113] We hear, however, of a single copy of Thucydides that required
+578 pages, making a roll about 100 yards long--a most cumbersome volume.
+
+[114] The use of flat opening books of the style later so familiar came
+in before the fall of the Roman Empire, but they were apparently used
+only for merchants’ ledgers, etc., in the time of Hadrian.
+
+[115] This was the probable method of multiplying popular books, but we
+lack very precise knowledge.
+
+[116] Pliny the Younger had a favorite reader Eucolpus. When he fell
+ill his master was sadly tormented: “Who will read my books and take
+such an interest in them? Where can I find another with so pleasant a
+reading voice?”
+
+[117] Hadrian’s famous and pathetic poem “To his own soul” was not, of
+course, composed until he lay on his death bed (138 A.D.).
+
+[118] These men were well-known poets according again to Pliny the
+Younger. The world undoubtedly gained when their verses perished.
+
+[119] The record for a private collection--62,000 rolls, owned by the
+senator Serenus, dates about 235 A.D., but there is no reason
+to suppose that there were not libraries equally large under Hadrian.
+
+[120] Concerning the actual arrangement of these public libraries we
+know very little.
+
+[121] Of course, by Hadrian’s time an increasingly large proportion of
+the privates of the army was being recruited in the provinces.
+
+[122] All these hucksters’ stalls as well as the beggars and the
+playing children are depicted in certain very informing frescos in a
+house at Pompeii, showing life in the forum of that little city.
+
+[123] See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 24.
+
+[124] This form of advertisement is given in Petronius.
+
+[125] 12 per cent (one per cent per month) was the lawful and normal
+rate of interest. Greater interest could be demanded on risky ventures,
+especially those by sea. Rates of 36 and 48 per cent, heard of under
+the Later Republic, were excessive, and usually unlawful.
+
+[126] These verses are from the wall of an inn in Pompeii, and the
+foregoing description is that of an actual Pompeiian inn.
+
+[127] This scene is a familiar one from Juvenal.
+
+[128] Another scene taken from an actual bas-relief and inscription.
+
+[129] Marcus Aurelius belonged to this rich family on his mother’s side.
+
+[130] The real name of such a vessel.
+
+[131] The expression “Sharer in the Public Grain Doles” appears on many
+tombstones of worthy burghers, to indicate that they enjoyed the full
+rights of citizenship.
+
+[132] It became so under the Later Empire.
+
+[133] When Commodus became Emperor in 180 A.D., the congiarium
+came to the ruinous sum of 725 denarii per citizen. This was $96.00
+each, if the coins were of full weight and fineness, which probably at
+that period they were not.
+
+[134] Figures given by Lucian for a craft of this type.
+
+[135] See “A Day in Old Athens,” pp. 125–134.
+
+[136] There was practically no naval warfare worth mentioning in
+the whole course of Roman history from the battle of Actium (31
+B.C.) to 323 A.D., when considerable naval fighting
+took place at the time Constantine captured Byzantium from his rival
+Licinius.
+
+[137] As at Ephesus where Demetrius used the guild of the silversmiths
+to start his riot against St. Paul. (Acts, 19:25.)
+
+[138] Such improvised gaming-boards have been discovered by the
+archæologists.
+
+[139] See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 216.
+
+[140] Later than the age of Hadrian this area was occupied by such
+famous structures as the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, the Basilica
+of Constantine, etc.
+
+[141] A difficult archæological question is connected with the exact
+site of the Rostra _before_ Julius Cæsar’s time. Probably its
+original position was nearer the other end of the Forum.
+
+[142] Janus was about the only Latin deity for whom there could not be
+assigned a Greek counterpart.
+
+[143] Later visitors to the Forum would, of course, be impressed with
+the fine, if ornate, _Arch of Septimius Severus_, erected about
+211 A.D. at the northwest corner of the plaza.
+
+[144] The column of Marcus Aurelius, erected about 180 A.D. in
+much the same style as that of Trajan, although a magnificent monument,
+is not equal in execution to the older column.
+
+[145] He magnanimously allowed Agrippa’s name still to appear as the
+builder of the temple. The Pantheon apparently owed its preservation
+through the Middle Ages to the fact that it was early consecrated as a
+Christian church, and hence was exempt from profanation.
+
+[146] At the end of his reign the Senate so disliked him that (although
+he had been in the main an excellent ruler) his successor Antoninus had
+much trouble in getting him voted a “_divus_,” as were all good
+Emperors.
+
+[147] We have no copy of the Acta Diurna. We possess, however, what
+seems a pretty literal parody of its style and contents in Petronius,
+and can reconstruct part of an issue with some confidence.
+
+[148] Both of these are actual cases from the reign of Augustus.
+
+[149] Old Latin goddesses.
+
+[150] The only important addition after Domitian was made by
+Septimius Severus, who, about 200 A.D., built the very lofty
+_Septizonium_, a new palace at the south-east corner of the hill.
+
+[151] As is, of course, well known, such emperors as Tiberius, Nero,
+and Domitian were popular with the provinces, which were usually well
+governed under them. Their cruelties smote mainly upon the senatorial
+nobility.
+
+[152] About 230 A.D. Alexander Severus caught a palace menial
+selling gossip, and had him executed by being burned in a fire of damp
+wood. “He is punished by smoke,” said the irate monarch, “who sold
+‘smoke.’”
+
+[153] The ceremony was not unlike that of the _levée_ of French kings
+like Louis XIV, under the Old Régime before 1789.
+
+[154] The Empresses would give a similar reception, however, to the
+wives of their husbands’ “Friends.”
+
+[155] Sometimes, with an affectation of democracy, almost any decently
+clad person would be admitted to present petitions or merely to pay
+respects. Servile prostrations before the Emperor were not encouraged
+under the Early Principate; once when a petitioner went through great
+bowings and scrapings while presenting a scroll to Augustus, the latter
+cried testily, “You act as if you were presenting some money to an
+elephant.”
+
+[156] This was the form used by Augustus in announcing to Fabius
+Maximus the withdrawal of imperial favor.
+
+[157] Polite chatter, as reported by Horace, such as was vouchsafed by
+Augustus and his great associate Mæcenas, to their social favorites.
+
+[158] Hadrian, although not a bloody man, was so averse to being
+opposed in argument that the philosopher Favorinus, with whom he took
+issue on a point in etymology, promptly announced that “Caesar was
+correct,” and so ended the discussion amiably. “But _you_ were
+really correct,” protested Favorinus’s friends afterward. “Ah!” replied
+he with a laugh, “the master of thirty legions must be allowed to know
+better.”
+
+[159] These old “Republican” officers, now six in number, retained a
+certain control of the public markets, baths, taverns, etc.
+
+[160] As discovered by modern archæologists.
+
+[161] For the attitude of provincials under Roman rule the student can
+with interest read the speech put in the mouth of King Agrippa, the
+descendant of Herod, by Josephus (“Jewish War”: book II, ch. 16) in
+which he tells the Jews of Nero’s day, (1) that on the whole the Roman
+rule is so reasonable and tolerable they have no real cause to revolt
+against it; (2) that all nations, including the most warlike such as
+Sparta, Macedonia, the turbulent Gauls and Spain, have long since
+submitted; (3) that these have not merely submitted but keep obedient
+with only a trifling local display of armed force; (4) that resistance
+to Rome is so hopeless in any case that a revolt would be impious
+suicide.
+
+[162] About 200 A.D. they were raised to 33.
+
+[163] Its site to-day is occupied by the chief railroad station of
+Rome, by which most foreign visitors enter the city and depart.
+
+[164] An ever larger proportion of legionary troops had to be enlisted
+in the provinces, although preferably in the parts somewhat Romanized.
+
+[165] In Hadrian’s time a change was taking place whereby the first
+cohort in a legion contained about twice as many men as there were
+in any of the other nine; but this alteration became only gradually
+effective.
+
+[166] In the earlier Empire it was only 900 sesterces ($36).
+
+[167] It might be added that Roman legions appear to have had a medical
+department under a _medicus legionis_, which cared efficiently
+for the health of the troops. Camp sanitation was well understood, and
+epidemics in the army were rare.
+
+[168] The only materials for a crown assumed to be available in a
+rescued fortress.
+
+[169] The distribution of the legions varied somewhat from one period
+to another according to the probable dangers on the exposed frontiers,
+but the largest armies were always stationed along the Rhine, the
+Danube, and the Euphrates. In Hadrian’s time apparently the main forces
+lay thus:
+
+Britain, 3 legions.
+
+Germany (Rhinelands), 4 legions.
+
+Danubian lands and Dacia, 10 legions.
+
+Syria and Palestine, 5 legions.
+
+Cappadocia, 2 legions.
+
+In all the other provinces requiring legionary troops at all
+(_e.g._ Egypt, Spain, Numidia, etc.), only one legion.
+
+Apparently in the second Christian century the greatest danger point
+seemed near the Danube, and the second greatest along the Euphrates,
+with the Rhinelands relatively more secure than earlier, when more
+legions had been stationed near them.
+
+[170] Some legions were named for their organizers: Augustus,
+Claudius, etc.; some for real or alleged martial qualities, “Ferrata,”
+“Fulminata,” “Victrix,” and the like; one, the “Alauda,” from the
+lark’s wings worn on the helmets; several which were made by dividing
+existing legions were known as “Gemina,” and some from their place of
+original recruiting, “Gallica,” “Italica,” etc.
+
+[171] The centurion to whom St. Paul’s custody was intrusted (Acts
+XXVII, 1) was of the “Augustan band,” _i.e._ one of the somewhat
+numerous cohorts named for Augustus--the special number not being given.
+
+[172] Also we know from the by-laws of these soldiers’ benefit clubs
+that every member was entitled to a fine funeral, to an allowance for
+travel money if obliged to go on a long journey, and finally to a fixed
+sum as consolation money in case he was demoted!
+
+[173] The process of demilitarizing the population went so far that
+Trajan even discouraged the organization of regular bands of firemen in
+cities of Bithynia “lest they become the prey of factions”--_i.e._
+somehow start a movement against the government.
+
+[174] The Roman Empire has been rightly called a “military monarchy,”
+but was such only because the disarming of the civilian population
+and the extreme efficiency of the professional army put the former at
+the mercy of the latter. The imperial army and navy hardly exceeded
+350,000 men, and _may_ have been as small as 300,000. At the time
+this book was written the United States, with a population not greatly
+exceeding that of the Roman Empire, had a total of some 250,000 men in
+its standing forces (army, navy, and marine corps) not counting any
+organized militia. Almost nobody would have pretended that the addition
+of some 100,000 men to this force could have rendered a “military
+monarchy” possible in America except as very peculiar conditions
+favored it--as they did in the Roman Empire.
+
+[175] Bad Emperors, _e.g._ Domitian, made it a practice to
+_speak first_ in the Curia; any senator who later opposed their
+opinions was liable to charges of disloyalty. If, however, an Emperor
+spoke last he also left the groundlings miserable because they might
+unwittingly have opposed him.
+
+[176] The last avowedly constitutional “Princeps” was Alexander Severus
+(murdered 235 A.D.); then followed the military monarchy.
+Aurelian (270–275 A.D.) took on practically all the trappings
+of a despot, and with Diocletian (284 A.D.) the absolute
+monarchy existed without concealment.
+
+[177] The law required, however, a minimum of certain specified numbers
+for the passing of various important kinds of decrees.
+
+[178] He did this because as holder of the military power it
+was unlawful for him to come inside the consecrated city limits
+(_pomerium_); so he built a suburban Senate House outside of these
+confines.
+
+[179] So called because, being last on the Senate list, and seldom
+called upon to speak, they could express themselves with their “feet”
+only--_i.e._ by voting when they walked out in divisions of the
+house.
+
+[180] Under the later Empire this statue (originally set up by
+Augustus) came to be looked upon as the “Palladium” of Rome and its
+removal from the Senate House in 384 A.D. by Valentinian the
+Second, despite vigorous protests by the pagan party, was looked upon
+as an official announcement of the triumph of Christianity.
+
+[181] The other consul in 134 A.D. was Gaius Julius Servianius. The
+consuls would settle as to their presidency from day to day either by
+mutual agreement, by taking turns in rotation, or by the casting of
+lots.
+
+[182] This trial follows closely the account of the prosecution of
+Marius Priscus, proconsul of Africa, before the Senate by Pliny the
+Younger and Tacitus the historian; but in Priscus’s trial the mere
+oratory actually took three whole days! (See Pliny the Younger: Book
+II, 11.)
+
+[183] Any student interested in the coarse and violent personalities
+permissible in speeches before the Senate, should read Cicero’s speech
+“Against Piso.”
+
+[184] Short-hand reports of the Senate meetings were taken, and
+seemingly embodied everything said, including even the applause and the
+unfriendly interruptions. We do not know, however, whether they were
+taken by senators, or by reporters brought in for the purpose.
+
+[185] Apparently men not of prætorian rank rather seldom got the floor,
+although in highly important cases the presiding officer had to call
+for _sententiæ_ down through the ex-quæstors.
+
+[186] As did, of course, Cicero in his “Orations against Verres,” and
+in other orations.
+
+[187] See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 135.
+
+[188] Very few civil cases involving merely private rights would be
+heard by the Emperor, although they might by his deputy, the Prætorian
+Præfect. Claudius sometimes seems to have sat on the tribunal, out of
+a pedantic sense of duty, but often falling asleep until the advocates
+bawled “O Cæsar!” loudly enough to wake him.
+
+[189] “Eloquence” was looked upon as indispensable for everybody
+expecting any kind of a public career. Even in the army there was much
+speech-making prior to a pitched battle. Tacitus speaks of how an army
+was so utterly surprised that its general “could neither harangue
+his men nor draw them up in battle array”--two operations apparently
+equally necessary. (Tacitus, “History,” iv, 33.)
+
+[190] Litigants were required by law to take oath that before the trial
+they had not promised any sum to their advocates or entered into any
+bargain with them. After the trial they were “allowed” to “offer” their
+lawyers not over 10,000 sesterces if they wished.
+
+[191] See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 138.
+
+[192] Space lacks for a discussion of the formal training of the Roman
+lawyer-orators, or concerning those public recitations which sometimes
+were the means of winning even greater reputation than any ordinary
+successes in the courts.
+
+Some of these recitations in hired halls, with the audience carefully
+sprinkled with a paid claque, were worse than pedantic and artificial.
+Pliny the Younger, although he denounced the use of a claque, repeated
+with pleasure how he gave a reading from his own works and plays which
+lasted two days, “necessitated by the applause of my audience”; and
+boasted how he “had not allowed himself to skip one word.”
+
+[193] The Roman week, _nundinæ_, had eight days--seven working days,
+then a market day. The Jewish week of seven days (_hebdomas_) became
+known to the Romans by the time of Pompeius Magnus, but it was not
+generally adopted until Christianity became the state religion.
+
+[194] Undoubtedly along with this incessant bathing there often went
+the presence of much squalor, dirt, obnoxious insects, etc. which seem
+inescapable in Mediterranean countries. Probably many persons injured
+their health by excessive and debilitating bathing.
+
+[195] An actual inscription. From the small provincial towns we have
+other inscriptions, advertising bath-houses “in city style (_more
+urbico_) and fitted with every convenience.”
+
+[196] The great Baths of Caracalla (built _circ._ 215 A.D.) and those
+of Diocletian (_circ._ 300 A.D.) were not in existence, of course,
+in the days of Hadrian. Their ruins are at present among the most
+imposing in Rome, and they were probably somewhat larger than the Baths
+of Trajan, which are to-day nearly demolished, but their aspect and
+general arrangement were hardly different.
+
+[197] Houses near private baths were counted undesirable for residence
+or investment purposes on account of the noise, which, in private
+baths, often kept up late into the night.
+
+[198] The famous group of Laocoön and his sons, now in the Vatican, was
+found in the ruins of these Baths of Titus and Trajan.
+
+[199] Petronius’s “Satyricon” gives a vivid and informing picture of
+the amusements and horseplay in the thermæ.
+
+[200] The tepidarium in the later Baths of Diocletian was about 300
+feet long by 92 feet wide, but probably that in the Baths of Trajan was
+somewhat smaller.
+
+[201] The Tomb of Hadrian was not actually completed until 139
+A.D.--after his death.
+
+[202] Under the Republic the ædiles had to preside over very expensive
+games. Augustus, however, turned the _Cura Ludorum_ (“supervision
+of the games”) over to the prætors, and the ædiles only gave spectacles
+voluntarily.
+
+[203] In the later Empire we hear of the case of Symmachus, an
+office-holder whose games cost him 2000 pounds of gold, about $400,000.
+
+[204] Italian audiences stowed very close. According to the marking
+upon the stone seats in the theater at Pompeii, only 16 inches were
+allowed for each spectator.
+
+[205] High-flying tragedies were indeed ground out by Seneca and
+by many inferior literary dabblers, but these “dramas” were hardly
+intended to be genuine acting plays, but only to be read aloud.
+
+[206] The ancient orchestra was of course for the dances of the chorus
+never for seating the spectators.
+
+[207] This figure seems decidedly too high; but the present ruinous
+state of the Circus Maximus makes it very difficult to determine the
+number more exactly.
+
+[208] As many as ten cars could contend at once in the greatest games.
+
+[209] The description of the Roman-style chariot race in Lew Wallace’s
+famous novel “Ben Hur” is technically as well as rhetorically admirable
+and accurate. However, no high-rank Roman, such as Messala is
+represented to have been, would have driven a quadriga in the public
+circus. The drivers were nearly always low-born men of provincial if
+not of servile origin.
+
+[210] The Spanish bull fights at their very worst were a relatively
+harmless imitation.
+
+[211] The gladiatorial games were never introduced in Athens. Once
+when, in the local council, it was proposed to imitate Rome and build
+an amphitheater, a prominent philosopher quashed the whole project by
+moving “first to abolish the altar of Pity.”
+
+[212] Actual epithets bestowed on gladiators in the Pompeiian wall
+inscriptions.
+
+[213] Taken from the “Gladiator Gossip” at Trimalchio’s Dinner in
+Petronius’s “Satyricon.”
+
+[214] As we know from paintings showing the surroundings of the
+Amphitheater at Pompeii.
+
+[215] Ordinarily it is stated that there was room for about 87,000
+persons in the Flavian Amphitheater. There were seats, however, for
+only some 50,000, although possibly 20,000 more could find standing
+room in the great upper sections.
+
+[216] The regular gladiatorial oath.
+
+[217] Augustus once protested against the custom of eating in the
+amphitheater as being undignified and said he would prefer to go away
+and return. “That is all right for _you_,” answered his hearer,
+“but _your_ seat is sure to be kept for you!”
+
+[218] There were at least two other types of heavy-armed gladiators
+who are often mentioned--the “Samnites” and the “Myrmillones”; but it
+hardly seems profitable to examine the small particulars in which their
+arms differed from those of the “Thracians.”
+
+[219] An actual Roman epitaph. The Epicurean theory was capable of
+statement in much more pleasing language than is given above, but the
+effect of such a philosophy upon the ordinary human viewpoint and
+conduct was inevitable.
+
+At the Roman colony of Thamugade in Africa, a checkerboard was found
+scratched in the pavement of the Forum, and beside it this plebeian
+version of the Prætor’s inscription: “_To hunt, to bathe, to gamble,
+to laugh--that’s living!_”
+
+[220] In all the extensive correspondence of Pliny the Younger there is
+hardly a single reference indicating that he had any religious beliefs,
+or took the least interest in religious matters save as they involved
+outward ceremonies or official policies.
+
+[221] This apparently continued true until well into the fourth
+century, when the whole pagan system was swept away by Christianity.
+
+[222] Janus had no Greek counterpart. It was one of the absurdities of
+the late Græco-Latin mythology that his wife Diana (_Dia Jana_ =
+“Madame Goddess Jana”) should have been confounded with Artemis.
+
+[223] Under the later Republic these sacred colleges were filled
+according to the majority vote of 17 tribes of the people, selected
+by lot from the entire 35 tribes into which the Comitia Tributa was
+divided.
+
+[224] In early times the Pontifex Maximus also kept a kind of dry
+annals of sacred and profane events (_Annales Maximi_), valuable
+for the preservation of many facts in early Roman history.
+
+[225] A general in the field had to “take the auspices” to get good
+omens for his army, but of course he could not always have an augur
+present. Once in the first Punic War, Publius Claudius, a consul about
+to engage in a naval battle, was disgusted to be told, “The chickens
+will not eat.” “Very well then,” he retorted, “let them drink!” and
+flung them into the sea. To his own ruin and to the vindication of
+the official religion he was thereupon completely defeated by the
+Carthaginians!
+
+[226] These plants (_verbenæ_) seem to have been grown within one
+special inclosure on the Capitol hill. They were carried by one of the
+fetiales known as the _verbenarius_.
+
+[227] A rustic goddess sometimes also called Ops.
+
+[228] For a translation of this “Song of the Arval Brethren,” see the
+author’s “Readings in Ancient History,” vol. II, p. 6.
+
+[229] As is well known Tiberius in his ignoble retirement on the
+Isle of Capri surrounded himself with “Chaldæans” and other types of
+stargazers and magicians.
+
+[230] There were a few isolated survivals in Italy of the practices of
+ancient savagery. For example at Aricia, in Latium about 16 miles from
+Rome, there was a holy grove of Diana wherein the priest was always a
+runaway slave who obtained his position by killing his predecessor.
+He was then safe from pursuit as long as he remained in the grove,
+until another fugitive slave in turn killed him--and so on through a
+succession of tragedies!
+
+[231] Pigs were very common Roman offerings and were the regular
+victims in most of the rustic sacrifices.
+
+[232] Slightly adapted from the form of prayer given in Cato the
+Elder’s “Handbook on Agriculture.”
+
+[233] This qualification of patrician birth was sometimes waived under
+the Empire, when genuine old-line patricians had become extremely few,
+but great pains were taken as to all the other requirements.
+
+[234] Alone of all the important buildings in Rome, the Atrium Vestæ
+had no piped water-supply; everything had to be borne in by the vestals
+or (for non-religious purposes) by their numerous attendants.
+
+[235] This did not prevent Vestals from attending the arena spectacles.
+The gladiators and persons thrown to the beasts had in theory a chance
+for life.
+
+[236] It was quite proper to play “April Fool” jokes at the Saturnalia:
+_e.g._ to present what seemed a platter of delicious food when all
+the viands were actually of clay.
+
+[237] Substantially on the scale of “Christmas presents.”
+
+[238] Owing to rough dealings with the Senate, Hadrian himself came
+near missing deification, but Antoninus won his title of “Pius” by
+his zeal for vindicating his adoptive father’s memory. Antoninus Pius
+himself and Marcus Aurelius after him were, of course, promptly deified.
+
+[239] Much of what we know of these cults of the pagan Orient comes
+from early Christian writers who have no hesitation in betraying the
+“Mysteries,” but whose statements naturally are often biased and very
+incomplete.
+
+[240] The quotations are from Apuleius, “The Golden Ass” (book XI,
+_passim_), and are given at greater length in the author’s
+“Readings from Ancient History,” vol. II (Rome), pp. 282–284.
+
+[241] Technically he was the highest archangel under the one actual god
+Ahura-Mazda, but the Persian “magi” soon attributed to him practical
+divinity.
+
+[242] Nearly all our evidence for Mithraism is archæological; we
+know little of either its doctrines or its ritual. Apparently it had
+a system of priests not unlike the Christian clergy and a ceremony
+resembling the Christian sacrament. It owed its success largely to
+the real nobility of its doctrines, but could not in the end maintain
+itself by appealing simply to a remote myth, while Christianity was
+able to appeal to a personal Founder.
+
+[243] Mithras worship was only beginning to be important in the Age of
+Hadrian, and the Taurobolium was then still comparatively rare; by 200
+A.D. it had become decidedly common; by 300 A.D. it
+was very frequent indeed.
+
+[244] From the age of Augustus to that of Nero Judaism had a
+considerable popularity in Rome. Its austere monotheism coupled with
+the mysterious Mosaic law and ceremonies made a considerable appeal
+to public opinion, and many fashionable persons--including apparently
+Nero’s Empress, the notorious Poppæa Sabina--gave “Jewish doctrines”
+a superficial patronage. It was also somewhat the fad to treat the
+Hebrew Sabbath as a kind of “holy day.” All this favor collapsed after
+the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. The Jews became a scattered
+and persecuted sect, without influence. As for Christianity, after 70
+A.D. it lost nearly all its Jewish element and became pretty
+strictly a Gentile religion.
+
+[245] Tacitus undoubtedly obtained his statement about Christ and
+Pilate from the official government reports in the Roman Record Office.
+There is no reason to suppose that he, any more than his friend Pliny,
+investigated Christian sources.
+
+[246] The following are _some_ only of the reasons why the Roman
+government insisted on persecuting the Christians, despite its usual
+policy of religious tolerance:
+
+   1. The Christians persistently refused to sacrifice to the
+   deified Emperors and to the Genius of the reigning Emperor,
+   an act practically amounting in common opinion to a denial
+   of loyalty to the government, or at least capable of that
+   construction.
+
+   2. The Christians demanded the repudiation of the old gods,
+   including, of course, the official gods of Rome; they were not
+   content with simply worshiping “Christus” along with Jupiter,
+   Apollo, etc. as were for example the devotees of Isis.
+
+   3. The Christians maintained a tight interior organization,
+   separate socially from the pagans, under the control of its
+   bishops, presbyters, and deacons, and so far as possible judging
+   the disputes of its members. This seemed meddling with political
+   matters, a ticklish business with any Emperor.
+
+   4. The private meetings of the Christians, and the
+   misconstructions laid upon their ceremonies, gave rise to the
+   vilest possible stories.
+
+   5. The great proportion of slaves and of the lowest grade of
+   plebeians in the early Church seemed to justify the belief that
+   here was a subversive, degraded, and illicit movement.
+
+
+[247] An actual wall-picture. For the charges here given against
+Christian assemblies and for many gross details, see Minucius Felix
+(“Octavius” VIII, 9.), who quotes the stories in order to refute them.
+
+It seems needless in a book concerned strictly with pagan Rome, to
+discuss the actual tenets and liturgies of the Early Christians. The
+only point to be understood here is the vile character of the charges
+brought against them by the ignorant heathen.
+
+[248] Probably the Roman carriages were more convenient than anything
+known later in Europe prior to 1800; and travel facilities in general
+were as good, the inns possibly averaging worse but the roads decidedly
+better, than at the dawn of the Nineteenth Century.
+
+[249] The following is an abridgment of Pliny the Younger’s well-known
+description of his Tuscan villa.
+
+[250] The Romans delighted in formal and highly artificial gardens such
+as were in vogue in the Italian Renaissance and the France of Louis XIV.
+
+[251] Well known, of course, is the famous dictum of Gibbon (“Decline
+and Fall of Roman Empire”: vol. i, chap. 2. Bury edition, p. 78): “If
+a man were called to fix the period during which the condition of the
+human race was most happy and prosperous he would, without hesitation,
+name that which elapsed from the death of Domitian to the accession of
+Commodus.” From the standpoint of a believer in aristocracy or monarchy
+this opinion is largely justifiable.
+
+[252] Where according to firm Christian tradition St. Paul was beheaded
+in the days of Nero, having been rearrested after having once been set
+at liberty.
+
+[252] Where according to firm Christian tradition St. Paul was beheaded
+in the days of Nero, having been rearrested after having once been set
+at liberty.
+
+
+Transcriber’s Notes:
+
+1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been
+corrected silently.
+
+2. Where hyphenation is in doubt, it has been retained as in the
+original.
+
+3. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have
+been retained as in the original.
+
+4. Italics are shown as _xxx_.
+
+5. Bold print is shown as =xxx=.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76087 ***
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+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76087 ***</div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_frontis" style="max-width: 376px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_frontis.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller">Interior of Great Public Baths in Imperial Rome.</p>
+     <p class="p0 smaller"><i>Restoration according to Von Falke.</i></p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h1>A DAY IN OLD ROME</h1></div>
+
+<p class="center lg p2">A PICTURE OF ROMAN LIFE</p>
+
+<p class="center sm p4">BY</p>
+
+<p class="center">WILLIAM STEARNS DAVIS</p>
+
+<p class="center xs">PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN THE<br>
+UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter">
+    <img
+    class="p4" 
+    src="images/i_title.jpg"
+    alt="">
+  </div>
+
+<p class="center p4"><span class="lg">ALLYN</span> AND <span class="lg">BACON</span></p>
+
+<p class="center sm">BOSTON&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;NEW YORK&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;CHICAGO<br>
+ATLANTA&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;SAN FRANCISCO&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;DALLAS</p>
+
+<p class="center p4 xs">COPYRIGHT, 1925<br>
+BY ALLYN AND BACON</p>
+
+<p class="center p2 xs">PAP</p>
+
+<p class="center p4 xs">Norwood Press<br>
+J. S. Cushing Co.—Berwick &amp; Smith Co.<br>
+Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[iii]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="p4">PREFACE</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>This book tries to describe what an intelligent person would have
+witnessed in Ancient Rome if by some legerdemain he had been translated
+to the Second Christian Century, and conducted about the imperial city
+under competent guidance. Rare and untypical happenings have been
+omitted, and sometimes to avoid long explanations <i>probable</i>
+matters have been stated as if they were ascertained facts: but these
+instances it is hoped are so few that no reader can be led into serious
+error.</p>
+
+<p>The year 134 after Christ has been chosen as the hypothetical time of
+this visit, not from any special virtue in that date, but because Rome
+was then architecturally nearly completed, the Empire seemed in its
+most prosperous state, although many of the old usages and traditions
+of the Republic still survived, and the evil days of decadence were
+as yet hardly visible in the background. The time of the absence of
+Hadrian from his capital was selected particularly, in order that
+interest could be concentrated upon the life and doings of the great
+city itself, and upon its vast populace of slaves, plebeians, and
+nobles, not upon the splendid despot and his court, matters too often
+the center for attention by students of the Roman past.</p>
+
+<p>To acknowledge all the modern books upon which the writer has drawn
+heavily would be to present a list of almost all the important
+handbooks or discussions of Roman life and antiquities. It is proper
+to say, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[iv]</span> that such secondary sources have been mainly useful
+so far as they reënforced a fairly exhaustive study of the Latin
+writers themselves, especially of Horace, Seneca, Petronius, Juvenal,
+Martial, and, last but nowise least, of Pliny the Younger. Inevitably
+this volume follows the lines of its companion “A Day in Old Athens,”
+published several years ago, a book which has enjoyed such public favor
+as to prove the usefulness of this method of presentation; but life
+in the Roman Imperial Age has seemed so much more complex than that
+in the Athens of Demosthenes, and our fund of information is so much
+greater, that the present volume is perforce considerably longer than
+its companion. The “day” devoted to Rome will probably seem therefore a
+somewhat lengthy one.</p>
+
+<p>To my colleague and friend Dr. Richard C. Cram, Professor of Latin in
+the University of Minnesota, I am deeply grateful for a careful reading
+of the manuscript and for many helpful and incisive suggestions; and
+for a careful checking over of every feature of the work I must once
+again gladly acknowledge the gracious and untiring services of my wife.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations, which, it is hoped, add considerably to the interest
+of the book, have been collected from many sources. Many of the highly
+informational “restorations” included are from the monumental work of
+Jakob von Falke, <i>Hellas und Rom</i>, the English version whereof has
+long ceased to be available to American readers.</p>
+
+<p class="r2">W. S. D.</p>
+
+<p class="smcap p-min sm">The University of Minnesota</p>
+<p class="smcap p-min sm left">Minneapolis</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="p2">CONTENTS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table class="smaller" style="max-width: 40em">
+  <tr>
+    <th class="chap"></th>
+    <th></th>
+    <th class="pag">PAGE</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn"></td>
+    <td class="cht smcap">List of Illustrations</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_xxi">xxi</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter I. The General Aspect of the City</th>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="chap">SECTION</th>
+    <th></th>
+    <th class="pag"></th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">1.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Prosperity of Rome in the Reign of Hadrian (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 117–138)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">2.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Increasing Glory of the Imperial City</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">3.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Population and Crowded Condition of Rome</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">4.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Country around Rome</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">5.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Tiber and Its Valley</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">6.</td>
+    <td class="cht">A View over Rome from the Campus Martius</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">7.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Seven Hills of Rome</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">8.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Building Materials Used in Rome</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">9.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Great Use of Concrete</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">10.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Greek Architectural Forms Plus the Arch and Vault</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter II. Streets and Street Life</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">11.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Regions of Rome: Fashionable and Plebeian Quarters</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">12.</td>
+    <td class="cht">A Typical Short Street, “Mercury Street”</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">13.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The House and Shop Fronts</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">14.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Street Shrines and Fountains</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">15.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Typical Street Crowds</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">16.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Frequent Use of Greek in Rome</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">17.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Clamor and Thronging in the Streets</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">18.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Processions Attending Great Nobles</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">19.</td>
+    <td class="cht">A Great Lady Traveling</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">20.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Public Salutations: the Kissing Habit</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">21.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Swarms of Idlers and Parasites</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">22.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Public Placards and Notices</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">23.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Wall Scribblings</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">24.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Streets Dark and Dangerous at Night</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">25.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Discomforts of Life in Rome</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter III. The Homes of the Lowly and of the Mighty</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">26.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Great <i>Insulæ</i>—Tenement Blocks</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">27.</td>
+    <td class="cht">A Typical Insula</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">28.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Flats in an Insula</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">29.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Cheap Attic Tenements and Their Poor Occupants</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">30.</td>
+    <td class="cht">A Senatorial “Mansion” (<i>Domus</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">31.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Plan of a Large Residence</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">32.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Entrance to the Residence</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">33.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Atrium and the View across It</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">34.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Rooms in the Rear and the <i>Peristylium</i></td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">35.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Dining Room (<i>Triclinium</i>) and the Chapel</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">36.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Garden and the Slaves’ Quarters</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">37.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Floors and Windows</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">38.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Frescos, Beautiful and Innumerable</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">39.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Profusion of Statues and Art Objects</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">40.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Family Portrait Busts</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">41.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Death Masks (<i>Imagines</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">42.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Couches, Their General Use</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">43.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Elegant Chairs and Costly Tables</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">44.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Chests, Cabinets, Water Clocks, and Curios</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">45.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Spurious Antiques</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">46.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Pet Animals</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter IV. Roman Women and Roman Marriages</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">47.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Honorable Status of Roman Women</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">48.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Men Reluctant to Marry</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">49.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Rights and Privileges of Married Women</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">50.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Selection of Husbands for Young Girls</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">51.</td>
+    <td class="cht">A Marriage Treaty among Noble-Folk</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">52.</td>
+    <td class="cht">A Betrothal in Wealthy Circles</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">53.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Adjusting the Dowry</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">54.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Dressing the Bride</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">55.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Marriage Ceremonies</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">56.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Wedding Procession</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">57.</td>
+    <td class="cht">At the Bridegroom’s House</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">58.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Honors and Liberties of a Matron</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">59.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Unhappy Marriages and Frivolous Women</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">60.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Divorces, Easy and Frequent</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">61.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Celibacy Common: Old Families Dying Out</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">62.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Nobler Types of Women</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">63.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Famous and Devoted Wives</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">64.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Story of Turia</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter V. Costume and Personal Adornment</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">65.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Type of Roman Garments</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">66.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Toga, the National Latin Garment</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">67.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Varieties of Togas</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">68.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Draping the Toga</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">69.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Tunica</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">70.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Capes, Cloaks, and Gala Garments</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">71.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Garments of Women: the <i>Stola</i> and the <i>Palla</i></td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">72.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Materials for Garments. Wool and Silk</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">73.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Styles of Arranging Garments. Fullers and Cleaners</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">74.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Barbers’ Shops. The Revived Wearing of Beards</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">75.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Fashions in Women’s Hairdressing. Hair Ornaments</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">76.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Elaborate Toilets</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">77.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Sandals and Shoes</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">78.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Mania for Jewels and Rings</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">79.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Pearls in Enormous Favor</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">80.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Perfumes: Their Constant Use</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter VI. Food and Drink. How the Day is spent. The Dinner</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">81.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Romans Fond of the Table. Gourmandizing. The Famous Apicius</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">82.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Vitellius, the Imperial Glutton</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">83.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Simple Diet of the Early Romans</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">84.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Bread and Vegetables</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">85.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Fruits, Olives, Grapes, and Spices</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">86.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Meat and Poultry</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">87.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Fish in Great Demand</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">88.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Olive Oil and Wine: Their Universal Use</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">89.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Vintages and Varieties of Wine</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">90.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Kitchens and the Niceties of Cookery</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">91.</td>
+    <td class="cht">A Roman Gentleman’s Morning: Breakfast (<i>jentaculum</i>)
+and the Visit to the Forum</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">92.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Afternoon and Dinner-Time. Importance of the
+Dinner (<i>cena</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">93.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Dinner Hunters and Parasites (“Shadows”)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">94.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Standard Dinner Party—Nine Guests</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">95.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Preparing the Dinner and Mustering the Guests</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">96.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Arrangement of the Couches: Placing the Guests</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">97.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Serving the Dinner</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">98.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Drinking Bout (<i>Comissatio</i>) after the Dinner</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">99.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Distribution of Garlands and Perfumes. Social Conversation</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">100.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Elaborate and Vulgar Banquets. Simple Home Dinners</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter VII. The Social Orders: The Slaves</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">101.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Enormous Alien Population in Rome. The “Græcules”</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">102.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Strict Divisions of Society. The Régime of <i>Status</i></td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">103.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Vast Number of Slaves. Universality of Slavery</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">104.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Power of Master over Slaves</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">105.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The City Slaves and the Country Slaves</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">106.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Purchasing a Slave Boy</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">107.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Traffic in the Slave Pens</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">108.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Sale of Slaves</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">109.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Size of Slave Households (<i>Familiæ</i>). Slave Workmen</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">110.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Division of Duties and Organization of Slave Households</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">111.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Discipline in a Well-Ordered Mansion. Long Hours of Idleness</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">112.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Inevitable Degradation Caused by Slavery. Evil
+Effect upon Masters</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">113.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Punishment of Slaves</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">114.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Branding of Slaves. <i>Ergastula</i>—Slave Prisons</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">115.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Death Penalties for Slaves. Pursuit of Runaways</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter VIII. The Social Orders: Freedmen, Provincials,
+Plebeians, and Nobles</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">116.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Manumission of Slaves Very Common</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">117.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Ceremony of Manumission</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">118.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Status of Freedmen. Their Great Success in Business</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">119.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Humble Types of Freedmen</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">120.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Wealth and Power of Successful Freedmen</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">121.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Importance of Freedmen in a Roman Family</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">122.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Status of Provincials. The Case of Jesus</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">123.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Great Alien Colonies in Rome</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">124.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Roman Plebeians, the “Mob” (<i>Vulgus</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">125.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Desirability of Roman Citizenship. The Case
+of St. Paul</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">126.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Clientage: Its Oldest Form</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">127.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The New Parasitical Clientage: the Morning Salutation</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">128.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Dole to Clients (the <i>Sportula</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">129.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Attendance by Clients in Public. Insults They Must Undergo</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">130.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Decurions: the Notables of the Chartered Cities</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">131.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Equites: the Nobles of the Second Class</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">132.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Qualifications and Honors of the Equites</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">133.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Review of the Equites. Pretenders to the Rank</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">134.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Senatorial Order. The First-Class Nobility</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">135.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Social Glories of Senators</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">136.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Senatorial Aristocracy Greater than the Senate</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">137.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Insignia, Qualifications, and Titles of Senators</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter IX. Physicians and Funerals</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">138.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Scanty Qualifications and Training of Doctors</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">139.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Superior Class of Physicians</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">140.</td>
+    <td class="cht">A Fashionable Doctor</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">141.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Medical Books and Famous Remedies</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">142.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Absurd Medicines. Theriac</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">143.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Fear of Poisoning. Popularity of Antidotes</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">144.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Medical Students, “Disciples,” Beauty Specialists</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">145.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Cheap Doctors: No Hospitals</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">146.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Suicide as Escape from Hopeless Disease</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">147.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Execution of Wills. Numerous Legacies Customary</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">148.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Regular Incomes from Legacies. Professional Legacy Hunters</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">149.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Public Bequests</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">150.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Great Funerals Very Fashionable. Desire to Be
+Remembered after Death</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">151.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Preliminaries to a Funeral</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">152.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Funeral Procession. The Display of Masked “Ancestors”</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">153.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Exhibits in the Procession. The Retinue around the Bier</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">154.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Funeral Oration in the Forum</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">155.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Family Tombs. The <i>Columbarium</i> and the Garden</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">156.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Funeral Pyre and Its Ceremonies</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_180">180</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">157.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Funeral Monuments. Memorial Feasts to the Dead</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">158.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Funerals of the Poor. “Funeral Societies”</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter X. Children and Schooling</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">159.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Theoretical Rights of Father over Children. The
+<i>Patria Potestas</i></td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">160.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Ceremonies after Birth of a Child. The <i>Bulla</i></td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">161.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Roman Name: Its Intricacy</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">162.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Irregular and Lengthy Names under the Empire.
+Names of Slaves</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">163.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Names of Women. Confusion of Roman Names</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">164.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Care of Parents in Educating Children</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">165.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Toys and Pets</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">166.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Learning of Greek by Roman Children</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">167.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Selection of a School</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">168.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Extent of Literacy in Rome. Education of Girls</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">169.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Schools for the Lower Classes</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">170.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Scourging, Clamors, and Other Abuses of Cheap Schools</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">171.</td>
+    <td class="cht">A Superior Type of School</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">172.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Methods of Teaching</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">173.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Training in Higher Arithmetic</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">174.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Grammarians’ High Schools</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">175.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Oratory Very Fashionable</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">176.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Professional Rhetoricians</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">177.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Methods in Rhetoric Schools: Mock Trials</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">178.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Enormous Popularity of Rhetoric Studies</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">179.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Philosophical Studies: Delight in Moralizing</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">180.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Children’s Games. “Morra” and Dice</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">181.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Board Games of Skill: “Robbers” (<i>Latrunculi</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">182.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Out-Door Games. Ball Games, Trignon</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter XI. Books and Libraries</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">183.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Letters and Writing Tablets</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">184.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Personal Correspondence and Secretaries</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">185.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Books Very Common: Papyrus and the Papyrus Trade</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">186.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Size and Format of Books</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">187.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Mounting and Rolling of Books</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">188.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Copying Books: the Publishing Business. Horace’s
+and Martial’s Publishers</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">189.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Passion for Literary “Fame”</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">190.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Zeal for Poetry: Multiplication of Verses</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">191.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Size of Libraries</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">192.</td>
+    <td class="cht">A Private Library</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">193.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Great Public Libraries of Rome</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter XII. Economic Life of Rome: I. Banking,
+Shops, and Inns</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">194.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Passion for Gain in Rome</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">195.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Life in Rome Expensive. Premiums upon Extravagance
+and Pretence</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">196.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Rome a City of Investors and Buyers of Luxuries</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">197.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Multiplicity of Shops. The Great Shopping Districts</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">198.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Arrangement of Shops. Streets Blocked by Hucksters</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">199.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Barbers’ Shops and Auction Sales</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">200.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Superior Retail Stores</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">201.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Numerous Banks and Bankers</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">202.</td>
+    <td class="cht">A Great Banker and His Business</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">203.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Trust Business: Savings Banks</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">204.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Places of Safe Deposit: The Temple of Vesta</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">205.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Inns: Usually Mean and Sordid</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">206.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Reckonings and Guests at a Cheap Inn</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">207.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Noble Frequenters of Taverns</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">208.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Respectable Eating-Houses</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">209.</td>
+    <td class="cht"><i>Thermopolia</i>—“Hot Drink Establishments”</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter XIII. Economic Life of Rome: II. The
+Industrial Quarters. The Grain Trade. Ostia.
+The Trade Guilds</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">210.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Industrial Quarters by the Tiber</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">211.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Conditions of Industrial Labor</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">212.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Great Trade through Ostia and the Campanian Ports</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">213.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Emporium and Its Wharves: The Tiber Barges</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">214.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Marble and Grain Trades</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">215.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Public Grain Doles</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">216.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Distribution of Free Bread: Extraordinary Bonuses
+(<i>Congiaria</i> and <i>Donativa</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">217.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Trade in Sculptures and Portrait Statues</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">218.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Tiber Trip to Ostia: The Merchant Shipping</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">219.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Imperial Naval Vessels</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">220.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Harbor Town of Ostia</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">221.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Roman Guilds (<i>Collegia</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">222.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Very Ancient Guilds. The Flute-Blowers</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">223.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Importance of the Guilds</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">224.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Multitude of Beggars</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter XIV. The Fora, Their Life and Buildings.
+The Daily Journal</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">225.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Fora, the Centers of Roman Life</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">226.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Incessant Crowds at the Forum. The Centers of Gossip</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">227.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Grandiose Architecture: Vast Quantities of Ornaments
+and Statues</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">228.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Use of Color on Sculptures and Architecture</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">229.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Entering the Series of Fora: the Temple of Venus and Rome</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_260">260</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">230.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Arch of Titus: Continuation of the Sacred Way</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">231.</td>
+    <td class="cht">House and Temple of Vesta: the Regia: the Temple
+of the Divine Julius</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">232.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Old Forum (<i>Forum Romanum</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">233.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Forum Area: the Posting of Public Notices</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">234.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Western End of Forum: Rostra: the Golden Milestone:
+the Tullianum Prison</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_269">269</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">235.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Basilica Æmilia: the Temple of Janus: the Senate
+House (<i>Curia</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_271">271</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">236.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Basilica Julia, the Greatest Court House in Rome;
+the <i>Lacus Curtius</i></td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">237.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The New Fora of the Emperors: the Temple of Peace</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">238.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Fora of Julius, Augustus, and Nerva</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">239.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Forum, Column, and Libraries of Trajan</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">240.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Park System of the Campus Martius: the Pantheon</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">241.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Daily Gazette (<i>Acta Diurna</i>). How Rome Gets Its News</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">242.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Contents of the Acta Diurna</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">243.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Miscellaneous Entries and Gossip in the “Gazette”</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_284">284</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter XV. The Palatine and the Palace of the
+Cæsars. The Government Offices, and the Police
+and City Government of Rome</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">244.</td>
+    <td class="cht">History of the Palatine: Its Purchase by Augustus</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_286">286</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">245.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Extension of the Imperial Buildings: Central Position of
+the Palatine</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_287">287</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">246.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Commanding View from the Palatine Hill</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">247.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Magnificence of the Palatine Structures</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">248.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The More Famous Buildings on the Palatine: Enormous
+Display of Art Objects</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">249.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Triclinium and Throne Room of Domitian</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">250.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Swarms of Civil Officials Always on the Palatine</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">251.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Emperor Center of High Social Life</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">252.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Friends of Cæsar (<i>Amici Cæsaris</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">253.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Imperial Audiences</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_296">296</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">254.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Social Ruin through Imperial Disfavor</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_296">296</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">255.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Enormous Value of Imperial Favor</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">256.</td>
+    <td class="cht">City Government of Rome: the “City Præfect” (<i>Præfectus Urbi</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">257.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Municipal Superintendents and Commissioners
+(<i>Curatores</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">258.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Excellent Water Supply of Rome</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">259.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Great Aqueducts</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">260.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Police System Instituted by Augustus</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_304">304</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">261.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Police-Firemen of the Watch (<i>Vigiles</i>). The
+<i>Præfectus Vigilum</i></td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_304">304</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter XVI. The Prætorian Camp. The Imperial
+War Machine</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">262.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Army the Real Master of the Roman Empire</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">263.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Army Held under Stiff Discipline and Concentrated
+on Frontiers</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">264.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Prætorian Guard of the Emperors</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">265.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Prætorian Præfect and the Prætorian Camp</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">266.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Organization and Discipline of the Prætorians</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_312">312</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">267.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The City Cohorts (<i>Cohortes Urbanæ</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_313">313</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">268.</td>
+    <td class="cht">A Private in the Legions. The Legionary Organization</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">269.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Training of the Legionaries: the <i>Pilum</i> and the
+<i>Gladius</i></td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_316">316</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">270.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Defensive Weapons</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_318">318</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">271.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Rewards and Punishments for Soldiers</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_319">319</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">272.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Pay and Rations in the Army: Soldiers’ Savings Banks</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">273.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Training of Soldiers: Non-Military Labors</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">274.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Petty Officers in the Legions</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">275.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Centurions: Their Importance and Order of Promotion</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_323">323</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">276.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The <i>Primipilus</i>: the Great Eagle of the Legion</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">277.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Locations and Names of Legions</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">278.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Auxiliary Cohorts: the Second Grand Division of the Army</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_327">327</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">279.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Præfect of the Camps and the Legate of the Legion</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">280.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Care for Veterans: Retiring Bonuses and Land Grants</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_329">329</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">281.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Barrier Fortresses; System of Encampments; Flexible
+Battle Tactics; Siege Warfare</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">282.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Limited Size of the Imperial Army: Its Great Efficiency</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_331">331</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter XVII. The Senate: A Session and a Debate</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">283.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Apparent Authority and Importance of the Senate</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">284.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Actual Weakness of the Senate</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">285.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Amount of Power Left to the Senate</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_336">336</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">286.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Organization and Procedure of the Senate</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">287.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The <i>Curia</i> (Senate House) and Its Arrangement of Benches</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_338">338</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">288.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Gathering of the Senators</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">289.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Opening the Session: Taking the Auspices</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">290.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Presentation of Routine Business: Taking a Formal Vote</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_341">341</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">291.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Presenting an Impeachment at a Senate Trial</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_342">342</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">292.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Water Clocks; Method of a Prosecutor; Applause
+in the Senate</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_344">344</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">293.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Speech for the Defendant: Methods of a Professional Advocate</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_345">345</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">294.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Concluding Speeches; Interrupting Shouts; Personal Invectives</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">295.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Taking the Opinion of the Senate</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_348">348</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">296.</td>
+    <td class="cht">An Uproar in the Senate: An “Altercation”</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_350">350</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">297.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Taking a Vote of the Senate. A Sentence of Banishment</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_351">351</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter XVIII. The Courts and the Orators. The
+Great Baths. The Public Parks and Environs of Rome</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">298.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Roman Court Procedure Highly Scientific</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_353">353</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">299.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Great Tribunals in the Basilicas</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_354">354</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">300.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Great Stress on Advocacy</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_355">355</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">301.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Cheap Pettifogging Lawyers</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_356">356</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">302.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Character Witnesses; Torture of Slave Witnesses</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_357">357</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">303.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Written Evidence; High Development of the Advocate’s Art</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_357">357</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">304.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Popularity and Necessity of the Baths</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_358">358</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">305.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Luxurious Private Baths</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_359">359</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">306.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Government and Privately Owned Public Baths: Both
+Very Popular</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_360">360</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">307.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Great Baths of Trajan: Baths, Club-House, and Café</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_361">361</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">308.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Heterogeneous Crowds in the Great Baths</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_362">362</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">309.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Entering the Thermæ</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_363">363</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">310.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Interior of the Baths: the Cold Room (<i>Frigidarium</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_364">364</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">311.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Great Swimming Pool and the <i>Tepidarium</i></td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_365">365</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">312.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Hot Baths (<i>Caldaria</i>): Their Sensuous Luxury</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_366">366</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">313.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Restaurants, Small Shops, and Sports in or around the Baths</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_367">367</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">314.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Great Porticoes along the Campus Martius. The
+Park System towards the Tiber</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_368">368</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">315.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Public Buildings upon the Campus Martius</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">316.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Tombs of Hadrian and Augustus</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_370">370</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter XIX. The Public Games: the Theater,
+the Circus, and the Amphitheater</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">317.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Roman Festivals: Their Great Number</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_374">374</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">318.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Passion for Public Spectacles: Mania for Gambling</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_375">375</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">319.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Expenses of Public Spectacles to Great Officials</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_376">376</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">320.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Indescribable Popularity of the Games</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_377">377</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">321.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Theater Less Popular than the Circus or Amphitheater</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_378">378</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">322.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Mimes: Character Plays</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_380">380</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">323.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Pantomimes: Their Real Art</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_381">381</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">324.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Extreme Popularity of the Circus</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_382">382</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">325.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Popular Charioteers (<i>Aurigæ</i>): the Great Racing Factions</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_383">383</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">326.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Circus Maximus</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_384">384</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">327.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Race-Track: Procession before the Races</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_384">384</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">328.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Beginning a Race in the Circus</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_386">386</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">329.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Perils of the Races; Proclaiming the Victors</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_386">386</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">330.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Gladiatorial Contests Even More Popular than the Circus</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_389">389</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">331.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Gladiator Fights at Funerals</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_390">390</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">332.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Gladiator “Schools” (<i>Ludi</i>): Inmates Usually Criminals</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_390">390</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">333.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Severe Training of Gladiators; Their Ephemeral Glory</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_392">392</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">334.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Normal Arrangements for an Arena Contest</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_393">393</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">335.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Flavian Amphitheater (Later “Colosseum”)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_394">394</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">336.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Exterior and Ticket Entrances to the Flavian Amphitheater</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_396">396</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">337.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Interior Arrangements of the Flavian</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_396">396</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">338.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Procession of Gladiators</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_397">397</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">339.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Throwing a Criminal to the Beasts. The Animal Hunt</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_398">398</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">340.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Interval in the Contests: Scattering of Lottery Tickets</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_399">399</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">341.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Beginning the Regular Gladiatorial Combats</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_401">401</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">342.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Mounted Combats: the Signals for Ruthlessness and Mercy</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_403">403</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">343.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Combats between Netters (<i>Retiarii</i>) and Heavy-Armed
+Warriors (“Thracians”)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_404">404</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">344.</td>
+    <td class="cht">End of the Combats: Rewarding the Victors</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_405">405</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter XX. The Roman Religion: the Priesthoods,
+the Vestal Virgins</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">345.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Religious Symbols Everywhere in Rome</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_407">407</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">346.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Epicureanism and Agnosticism among the Upper Classes</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_407">407</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">347.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Stoicism: Revival of Religion under the Empire</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_408">408</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">348.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Foreign Cults Intruded upon the “Religion of Numa”</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_410">410</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">349.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Superstitious Piety of the City Plebeians</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_411">411</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">350.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Roman Religion Originally Developed by Italian Farmers</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_411">411</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">351.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Native Italian Gods: Janus, Saturn, Flora. The
+Lares and Penates</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_413">413</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">352.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Personified Virtues as Gods: Cold and Legalistic Character
+of the Roman Religion</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_414">414</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">353.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Priestly Offices: Little Sacrosanct about Them</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_416">416</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">354.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Pontifices</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_417">417</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">355.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Augurs</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_418">418</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">356.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Flamens</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_420">420</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">357.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The <i>Salii</i> (“Holy Leapers”)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">358.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The <i>Fetiales</i> (“Sacred Heralds”): Ceremony of Declaring War</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_422">422</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">359.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Arval Brethren (<i>Fratres Arvales</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_423">423</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">360.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Rustic Ceremonies; Soothsaying, Astrologers, and Witches</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_424">424</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">361.</td>
+    <td class="cht">A Private Sacrifice</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_425">425</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">362.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Ceremony at the Temple</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_426">426</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">363.</td>
+    <td class="cht">A Formal Prayer: the Actual Sacrifice</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_428">428</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">364.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Vestal Virgins: Their Sanctity and Importance</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_429">429</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">365.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Temple of Vesta and the House of the Vestals</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_431">431</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">366.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Appointment of Vestals</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_432">432</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">367.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Duties of the Vestals: the Maxima</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_433">433</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">368.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Punishments of Erring Vestals</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_434">434</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">369.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Remarkable Honors Granted the Vestals</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_435">435</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter XXI. The Foreign Cults: Cybele, Isis,
+Mithras. The Christians in Pagan Eyes</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">370.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Saturnalia: the Exchange of Presents on New Year’s Day</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_437">437</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">371.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Multiplication of Oriental Cults</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_437">437</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">372.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Cult of the Deified Emperors</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_439">439</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">373.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The “Divine Augustus” and His Successors</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_439">439</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">374.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Cult of Cybele, the “Great Mother”</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_441">441</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">375.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Cult of Isis and Associated Egyptian Gods</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_442">442</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">376.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Ceremonies at an Isis Temple</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_443">443</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">377.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Cult of Serapis and of Other Oriental Gods</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_445">445</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">378.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Cult of Mithras: Its Relative Nobility</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_445">445</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">379.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The <i>Taurobolium</i> (“Bath in Bull’s Blood”)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_447">447</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">380.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Christians: Pagan Account of Their Origin</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_449">449</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">381.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Persecution of Christians: Their “Insane Obstinacy”</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_450">450</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">382.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Current Charges against the Christians</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_451">451</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter XXII. A Roman Villa. The Love of the Country</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">383.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Appreciation of Country Life by the Romans</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_453">453</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">384.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Praises of the Country Towns and Villas</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_453">453</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">385.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Comfortable Modes of Travel: Luxurious Litters
+and Carriages</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_454">454</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">386.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Multiplication of Villas: Seashore Estates at Baiæ, etc.</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_456">456</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">387.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Villas in the Mountains; Small Farms near Rome</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_457">457</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">388.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Great Estates in the Hills: Pliny’s Tuscan Villa</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_458">458</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">389.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Charming Location of Pliny’s Villa</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_460">460</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">390.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Terraces of the Villa: the Porticoes: Summer-Houses
+and Bedrooms</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_462">462</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">391.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Baths: the Rear Apartments: the Riding Course</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_464">464</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">392.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Fountains and Luxurious Pavilions in the Gardens</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_465">465</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">393.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Life of Sensuous Luxury at Such a Villa. Contrast in
+Human Conditions under the Roman Régime</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_466">466</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <th class="header" colspan="3">Chapter XXIII. The Return of the Emperor</th>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">394.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Character of Hadrian: Prosperity and Good Government
+of His Reign</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_468">468</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">395.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Return of Hadrian to Italy</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_469">469</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">396.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Imperial Procession Entering Rome</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_470">470</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">397.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Hailing the Emperor</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_472">472</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">398.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Donatives, Fêtes, and Games</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_472">472</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="chn">399.</td>
+    <td class="cht">A Christian Gathering</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_473">473</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+   <tr>
+    <td class="cht1 smcap" colspan="2">Index</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_475">475</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxi">[xxi]</span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table class="smaller" style="max-width: 40em">
+  <tr>
+    <th></th>
+    <th class="pag">PAGE</th>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Interior of Great Public Baths in Imperial Rome</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_frontis"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Map of Rome in the Days of Hadrian</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_006">6</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Capitoline Hill and Temples as seen from Palatine</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_008">8</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Typical Temple Front</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_012">12</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Arch of Constantine</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_013">13</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Street in Pompeii</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_016">16</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Stepping Stones across a Side Street</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_017">17</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Street Scene before a Cook-Shop</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_019">19</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Shrine at the Crossways</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_020">20</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Monument of a Wine Seller</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_028">28</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Tenants Paying Rent to a Landlord’s Agent</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_038">38</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Atrium of House in Pompeii</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_041">41</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Plan of a Roman Mansion</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_043">43</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Interior of a Roman Mansion</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_044">44</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Scene in a Peristylium</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_045">45</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Roman Type of House at Pompeii</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_046">46</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Corner in a Garden in Rear of a Roman House</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_048">48</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Portrait Bust—Pompey the Great</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_052">52</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Typical Roman Portrait—Marc Antony</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_053">53</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Roman Lamps</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_055">55</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Altar with Design of a Curule Chair</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_056">56</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A Roman Matron</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_062">62</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Wedded Pair with <i>Camillus</i></td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_076">76</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Seated Noblewoman</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_077">77</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Romans wearing the Toga</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_081">81</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A Roman Matron: showing the <i>stola</i> and <i>palla</i></td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_087">87</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Scene before a Barber’s Shop</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_091">91</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Roman Female Heads</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_092">92</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Sandals</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_095">95</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Roman Jewelry and Ornaments</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_096">96</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Roman Banquet Scene</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_101">101</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Grist Mill turned by Horse</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_103">103</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Nine Guests in a Triclinium</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_116">116</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Roman Serving Forks</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_117">117</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Drinking Cup</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_118">118</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Slaves working in a Bakery</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_131">131</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Clients gathering in the Rain, before their Patron’s Door</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_149">149</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Invalid with Attendants</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_162">162</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Scene along the Appian Way</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_178">178</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Pyramid—Tomb of Gaius Cestius</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_179">179</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">View along the Appian Way showing Funeral Monuments</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_180">180</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Street of the Tombs at Pompeii</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_181">181</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Boy Studying</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_194">194</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">School Discipline</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_196">196</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Grammarian instructing Two Upper Pupils</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_200">200</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Wax Tablet with Stilus Attached</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_207">207</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Writing Tablets and Stilus</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_208">208</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Book Cupboard</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_209">209</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Book Container</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_210a">210</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Double Inkstand</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_210b">210</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Pen and Scroll</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_211">211</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Book Scroll</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_212">212</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Old Forum, looking towards Northern Side: restoration</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_216">216</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Tradesmen’s Scales and Balances</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_224">224</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Monument of a Hostler</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_231">231</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Gateway at Pompeii: present state</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_232">232</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Cheap Grocery and Cook-Shop</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_235">235</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">River Boat Loaded with Hogsheads of Wine</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_241">241</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Distributing Bread</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_243">243</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Oven and Grist Mill in a Bakery</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_245">245</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Environs of Rome</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_247">247</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">General View of Old Forum and Capitol</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_254">254</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Old Forum: present state, looking towards the Capitol</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_255">255</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">The Heart of Rome; the Fora, the Palatine, etc.</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_261">261</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Spoils from Jerusalem: Arch of Titus</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_263">263</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">View through the Arch of Titus</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_264">264</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Old Forum: looking west. Restoration</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_266">266</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Old Forum, looking towards Capitol. Restoration</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_267">267</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Old Forum, present condition, looking east</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_270">270</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Interior of a Basilica: restored</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_273">273</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">The Tarpeian Rock</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_275">275</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Forum of Augustus and Temple of Mars the Avenger: restored</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_277">277</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">An Imperial Forum, near the Column of Trajan. Restoration</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_279">279</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Interior of the Pantheon. Restoration</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_281">281</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Arch of Titus</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_287">287</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Palatine and Palace of the Cæsars. Restoration</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_289">289</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Roman Urn</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_290">290</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Cæsar Augustus</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_298">298</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Ruined Aqueduct in the Roman Campagna</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_302">302</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Prætorian Guardsmen</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_310">310</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A Slinger</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_315">315</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Roman Siege Works. Restoration</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_316">316</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Storming a City with the <i>Testudo</i></td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_317">317</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Catapult</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_318">318</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Cuirass</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_319">319</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Javelin: <i>pilum</i></td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_320a">320</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Sword</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_320b">320</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Helmet</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_321">321</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Shield of the Legionary</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_322">322</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Military Trumpet</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_323">323</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Legionaries</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_324">324</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Roman Officer</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_325">325</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Light-Armed Soldier</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_327">327</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Storming a Besieged City</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_331">331</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Coop of Sacred Chickens</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_341">341</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Cicero denouncing Catiline before the Senate</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_346">346</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Plan of Roman Public Baths</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_363">363</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Castle of St. Angelo: Tomb of Hadrian in its present state</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_371">371</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Tomb of Hadrian. Restored</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_372">372</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">At the Theater Entrance</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_376">376</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Theater at Pompeii</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_379">379</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Circus Maximus. Restoration</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_385">385</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Race in the Circus Maximus</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_388">388</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum): present state</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_395">395</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Boxers</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_400">400</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Gladiators saluting the Editor</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_402">402</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Defeated Gladiator Appealing for Mercy</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_403">403</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Maison Carrée, Nîmes</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_408">408</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Farmer’s Calendar</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_413">413</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Circular Temple, probably of Goddess Matuta, Rome</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_415">415</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Roman Altar</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_425">425</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">A Military Sacrifice</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_427">427</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Roman Altar</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_428">428</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Vestal Virgin</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_430">430</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Archi-Gallus, Priest of Cybele</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_441">441</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Shrine of Cybele</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_442">442</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Mithras the Bull Slayer</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_446">446</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Mithraic Emblems</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_447">447</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Traveling Carriage (<i>Reda</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_454">454</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Roman Bridge</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_455">455</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Roman Spades</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_458">458</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Ruins of Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli (<i>Tibur</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_459">459</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Ruins of Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli (<i>Tibur</i>)</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_460">460</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Villa of Pliny the Younger; restored</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_461">461</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Roman Garden Scene</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_463">463</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Marble Urn or Garden Ornament</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_464">464</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Hadrian</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_469">469</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">View in the Christian Catacombs</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#i_473">473</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center p4 xl">A DAY IN OLD ROME</p>
+</div>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE GENERAL ASPECT OF THE CITY</span></h2>
+
+<p class="p2"><b>1. The Prosperity of Rome in the Reign of Hadrian</b> (117–138
+<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>).—In the year 134 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> the great Emperor
+Hadrian was turning his steps back to Rome after three long journeys of
+inspection over his enormous dominions. Never before had that Empire
+seemed so prosperous. No serious war was upon the horizon. The Parthian
+king and the Germanic chiefs were only too happy to keep beyond the
+Euphrates or the Rhine and the Danube, highly respectful before the
+disciplined power of the guardian legions.</p>
+
+<p>In the provinces there was generally loyalty and contentment, save
+only in unhappy Judæa where the Roman generals were stamping out
+the last embers of a desperate rebellion, undertaken by those Jews
+allowed to remain in Palestine after Titus’s capture of Jerusalem
+(70 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>). The imperial government created by Augustus and
+strengthened by later emperors appeared an unqualified success, while
+the tyrannies of Nero and Domitian were becoming things merely of
+frightened memory.</p>
+
+<p>All over this vast Empire with a population and area nearly equal to
+that of the United States there reigned the blessed <i>Pax Romana</i>.
+Robbers had been cleared from the roads and pirates from the seas.
+Commerce went to and fro with surprisingly little interference from
+customs barriers or provincial boundaries. The same coin was current
+from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span> cataracts of the Nile to the Caledonian Wall across Britain.
+A scientific system of law, on the whole administered with remarkable
+firmness and justice, prevailed between the same wide boundaries.</p>
+
+<p>The central government was, indeed, in essence a despotism, but it was
+a despotism infused with an extreme intelligence, and it left many of
+the forms of liberty, especially of local liberty, in the municipal
+matters which touch men nearest home. The Emperor Hadrian, himself,
+although sometimes guilty of eccentricities and even harshness, was, in
+the main, a ruler singularly intent upon benefiting his subjects. In
+all his constant travels he had showered favors upon the communities
+which he visited. It was as if he (and his great predecessor Trajan)
+had set out to justify monarchy as an ideal government by showing how
+much good monarchs could do to the governed.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>2. Increasing Glory of the Imperial City.</b>—All this prosperity
+had inevitably reacted upon the city of Rome itself. In a most literal
+sense of the word “all roads led to Rome,” not merely the vast network
+of government highways and the paths of maritime commerce, but those of
+intellectual, artistic, and moral influence. Rome was incomparably the
+best market for the merchant, it provided the largest audiences for the
+philosopher or rhetorician, the wealthiest patrons for the sculptor. It
+had, in fact, become the common center and crucible for everything good
+and bad in the huge, teeming Mediterranean World.</p>
+
+<p>Outwardly the city was near the summit of its architectural perfection.
+In Cicero’s day it could not compare in the elegance of its squares
+and avenues, and the magnificence of its buildings with Alexandria,
+Antioch, or several lesser cities which lay at the mercy of the
+legions; but with the coming of the Empire there has been an incessant
+process of demolishing, rebuilding, and extending. “I found Rome<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span>
+built of brick; I leave it built of marble,” Augustus had boasted when
+near his end (14 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>). However, even after him, there had
+been only a gradual transformation until the great fire of Nero in 64
+<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> Terrible as has then been the devastation, the calamity
+has at least required a general rebuilding of almost half of the city
+usually upon a much handsomer and more artistic scale. Since then each
+succeeding Emperor has tried to leave some great architectural memorial
+behind him. Vespasian and Titus have built the Flavian Amphitheater
+(Colosseum), Trajan a noble Forum, and Hadrian is now completing a
+magnificent “Temple of Venus and Rome.”</p>
+
+<p>After this time there will perhaps be a few more remarkable structures
+erected, <i>e.g.</i> the Baths of Caracalla and of Diocletian and the
+Basilica (Court House) of Constantine, but for practical purposes
+imperial Rome has now been created. In 134 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> it is already
+architecturally what it will be in 410 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> (except then for a
+certain decadence) when Alaric’s Goths knocked at the gates. There is,
+therefore, hardly a better time than this year, 134 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, to
+visit the “Eternal City,” if we would discuss the best and the worst,
+the strength and the weakness of that Roman society which is to hold
+men fascinated across the ages. Let it be assumed, therefore, that on
+a warm spring morning we are being guided about the enormous capital
+of which bronze-skinned Arabs and blond-haired Frisians alike speak in
+awestruck whispers; the city apparently ordained by the gods to be the
+center and ruler of the conquered world.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>3. Population and Crowded Condition of Rome.</b>—Before entering
+such a metropolis it is a fair question to present: “How large is
+Rome, at this time of our supposed visit?” Unfortunately the imperial
+government will fail to transmit to later ages its census statistics,
+and the conjectures of learned men will vary most seriously. By
+taking into account<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span> some data as to the number of citizens receiving
+grain doles, by adding to these the known size of the garrison, by
+establishing the extent of a great colony of resident foreigners and
+the still greater hordes of slaves, assertions can be made that the
+population exceeds 2,000,000, and again that it is barely 800,000.
+Both reckonings may be quite wrong. It seems reasonable to suppose
+that in Julius Cæsar’s day the city lacked considerably of 1,000,000
+inhabitants, but these probably increased with the rising prosperity
+of the Empire. Hadrian’s “City Praefect” perhaps has to administer the
+peace for some 1,500,000 people. In later generations, however, the
+population will again slowly dwindle with the wave of the imperial
+system.</p>
+
+<p>However, this million and a half produces a sense of immensity greater
+perhaps than that in a later New York or London. Rome is, roughly
+speaking, some three miles long and nearly the same in breadth, no
+remarkable area as American cities will go;<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> but, as duly explained,
+population within these limits is extraordinarily congested. The
+streets overflow with pedestrians to the exclusion of most wheeled
+traffic. There are no “rapid transit” cars, no taxicabs, no telephones,
+and even no public postal service.</p>
+
+<p>If, therefore, you have the slightest business across the city, you
+must walk the entire distance, or be borne in a litter or send a
+messenger—methods taking about equally long. As will be seen, even
+the use of horses and carriages is largely prohibited. Besides, the
+mild climate and method of building the houses compel people to spend
+a great fraction of their day in the streets, or in the public plazas
+and buildings. Human life teems everywhere. One is overwhelmed by
+the jostling multitudes even in the remoter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span> quarters. Everything
+(including many personal acts which other ages keep in strict privacy)
+seems going on in public. There is, in fact, no city where it is easier
+to be “lost in a crowd” than in Rome; no city where the good and the
+bad, the divine and the bestial in humanity are so incessantly in
+evidence and in such abrupt contact.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>4. The Country around Rome.</b>—Rome is some thirteen miles from
+the nearest seacoast, but the distance down the twisting “yellow” Tiber
+to Ostia (“River Mouth”) is nearly twice as great. The city itself lies
+near the northerly end of that broad plain later called the Campagna
+which stretches southeasterly for nearly seventy miles but whereof the
+width betwixt ocean and Apennines seldom exceeds twenty-five. Looking
+off from any of the heights of Rome towards the east, the whole horizon
+from north to south seems traced by a continuous chain of mountains
+about ten to twenty miles distant. Very beautiful they are when seen
+through a soft blue or golden haze beneath the Italian sky; and by
+facing straight north one can discover the round isolated peak of
+Mount Soracte (2420 feet high), made famous by the poets, near whose
+southeastern base the Tiber winds on its tortuous progress towards the
+sea.</p>
+
+<p>Then following the line of mountains southward one can notice the chain
+of the Sabine hills, some with peaked and lofty summits, and next is
+discovered the spot where the Tiber rests embosomed in its gray olive
+groves. More southward still are the hills on whose slopes rests “Cool
+Præneste,” and then, running over a horizon of four or five miles and
+ending in the plain, is beheld the noble form of Mount Albinus, the
+isolated volcanic peak sacred to the Latin Jupiter and at whose base by
+tradition lay Alba Longa, the parent town of Rome; after that the view
+takes in nothing but the undulating plain, which at length sinks off
+into the sea.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_006" style="max-width: 686px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_006.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 center smaller">Map of ROME in the Days of Hadrian about 135 A.D.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>5. The Tiber and Its Valley.</b>—Near at hand, of course, is the
+Campagna itself, a series of gentle ridges, covered at this epoch with
+one long series of delightful suburban villas and thrifty produce
+farms, sometimes grouped into rich little villages.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> In a general
+direction of north to south the Tiber flows along the western skirts of
+Rome, with only a minor settlement on the western banks. If it ran by
+a less famous city, the Tiber would pass for a rather ordinary stream.
+Its yellow, turbid waters come with such force from the Apennines
+that there can be little navigation for part of the year beyond the
+point where the Anio flows into it from the east, about three miles
+above Rome. Grain and timber can, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span> be floated down on barges,
+and when the mountain snows are melting the river swells to a truly
+dangerous size, flooding all the lowlands near the city and sometimes,
+despite a careful system of dykes, causing freshets which are simply
+ruinous to large sections of the metropolis inhabited by the very
+poor. The Emperors Augustus and Tiberius set up a regular board of
+“Tiber Commissioners” to keep the rebellious river in bounds, but their
+efforts are still often vain.</p>
+
+<p>Between Rome and Ostia the Tiber is indeed navigable at most seasons
+for the smaller kind of vessels, but, as will be seen, Rome is scarcely
+a first-class seaport; however, special river craft easily bring up
+heavy freight from Ostia—an enormous economic advantage for the great
+city.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>6. A View over Rome from the Campus Martius.</b>—Before descending
+into the city it is well to ascend some height or lofty building well
+to the western verge of the <i>Campus Martius</i> (“Field of Mars”)
+at the great bend of the Tiber as it sweeps by its levees. Before the
+onlooker there spreads what seems at first an indescribable confusion
+of enormous buildings, gilded roofs, stately domes, serried phalanxes
+of marble columns and far-stretching porticoes, some on level ground,
+others upon the summits or clinging to the slopes of several hills.
+Mixed with these are an incalculable number of red-tiled roofs
+obviously covering more humble private structures. Here and there,
+mostly on the outskirts, are also broad patches of greenery, public
+parks, and private gardens.</p>
+
+<p>After more study, however, the first confusion begins to adjust itself
+into a kind of order. It is possible, for example, to recognize
+directly in the foreground a small and comparatively abrupt hill
+crowned at either end by temples of peculiar magnificence. This is
+the <i>Capitol</i>, particularly the seat of the fane of <i>Jupiter
+Optimus Maximus</i> (“Jupiter Best and Greatest”), officially the chief
+temple of Rome. Beyond it at a certain distance rises a gray cylinder
+of enormous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span> bulk. That, of course, is the <i>Flavian Amphitheater</i>,
+and in the hollow between it and the capitol but nigh concealed by
+many structures stretches the <i>Old Forum</i> of the Republic—the
+most famous spot in Rome. To the south of the Forum, and in no wise
+concealed, lifts another hill covered with a vast complex of buildings,
+which, even when seen in the distance, is of extraordinary splendor.
+This is the <i>Palatine</i>, the present residence of the Cæsars and
+the seat of the government.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_008" style="max-width: 750px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_008.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 center smaller"><span class="smcap">Capitoline Hill and Temples as seen from
+Palatine</span>: restored according to Von Falke.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Just to the south and right of the Palatine there runs a long hollow,
+the edges of which flash with settings of marble; it is the <i>Circus
+Maximus</i>, the chief race course. These are the structures or
+localities that stand out clearly at first glance. Close at hand,
+in the Campus Martius itself, is a perfect labyrinth of covered
+promenades, dome-capped public baths, theaters, and circuses, as well
+as the remarkable <i>Pantheon</i> and other far-famed structures, the
+details whereof can wait. Behind the onlooker is winding the Tiber,
+spanned by at least eight bridges; and across the river, before the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span>
+view wanders off into the hills of Etruria, are seen numerous suburban
+settlements and heights whereof the most conspicuous is that around
+<i>Mount Janiculum</i> crested with verdant gardens. But our attention
+must be centered upon Rome itself. Before descending from the coign of
+vantage it is needful to distinguish her Seven Hills.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>7. The Seven Hills of Rome.</b>—The two most famous of these
+hills (the <i>Capitoline</i> and the <i>Palatine</i>) have been
+named already, but they have five distinguished rivals. Probably in
+prehistoric days all these “mountains” rose like separate islands from
+a treacherous marsh or even from a lake connected with the Tiber; but
+long since they have silted down, and presently man came to add his
+drains and channels. They are now, therefore, connected by valleys
+which are crammed with habitations, although in any case the most
+desirable residences are near the summits of the hills and the humble
+folk are compelled to live in the gulleys. Each of these hills has a
+history: for example, the Aventine is alleged to have remained apart
+from the others for long after the founding of the city, merely as a
+fortified outpost for the protection of shepherds; but we cannot stop
+to recite pleasant legends.</p>
+
+<p>The “Seven Hills” of Rome have really become eight, as the city has
+extended. Not one of these is lofty, but they give a diversity to the
+city that prevents the great masses of blank walls and of ungainly
+tenement houses lining most of the streets from becoming too ugly,
+and they secure light and air to many quarters that are grievously
+congested.</p>
+
+<p>These hills can be thus catalogued:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>1. <i>Capitoline</i>, about 150 feet above sea level.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Palatine</i> (S. E. of Capitoline), about 166 feet high.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span></p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Aventine</i> (South of Palatine), about 146 feet high.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Cœlian</i> (East of Palatine), about 158 feet high.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Esquiline</i> (North of Cælian), about 204 feet high.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Viminal</i> (North of Esquiline), about 160 feet high.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Quirinal</i> (N. E. of Capitoline), about 170 feet high.</p>
+
+<p>To the familiar “seven” ought to be added the hill of the great
+northern suburb.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Pincian</i>, or “Hill of the Gardens” (North of Quirinal),
+about 204 feet high.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Highest of all rises the <i>Janiculum</i> beyond the Tiber, 297 feet
+high; commanding a noble prospect over the city and the whole Campagna
+beyond. It formed, therefore, in the olden days, a very proper place
+for the fort with its watch-tower and its sentinel, when Rome dreaded
+an Etruscan raid from the north, and when the citizens dropped their
+tools to seize their weapons the minute the “flag on Janiculum” was
+struck as signal that the foe was at hand.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>8. Building Materials Used in Rome.</b>—The most cursory view of
+the city gives an overwhelming impression of the <i>enormous quantities
+of building material</i>, as well as of the expenditure of human labor
+which has gone into the creation of Rome. Strabo the geographer<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+has wisely observed that it is lucky that the city can get a constant
+supply of stone, timber, etc., on account of “the ceaseless building
+which is rendered needful by the pulling down of houses and on account
+of the great fires and constant sales of [house] property,” everybody
+being incessantly scrapping old buildings, erecting new ones, and
+speculating generally in real estate.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, the great public buildings are erected with extremely
+durable materials which will defy the assaults of time, but the
+vast districts of ugly tenement houses are often<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span> thrown together
+in as flimsy a manner as those in the least elegant quarters of
+American cities of another age. However, there are almost no wooden
+houses in Rome; and for the better structures there is provided most
+excellent building stone. The standard masonry is of <i>tufa</i>,
+a soft red or black stone needing a stucco to protect it from the
+weather; for superior work there is dark brown <i>peperino</i>, golden
+<i>travertine</i>, and last but not least, for the finest buildings,
+white and many colored <i>marble</i>. The marble trade, as will be
+explained, is, in fact, one of the greatest commercial activities of
+the city.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>9. The Great Use of Concrete.</b>—Going about Rome one is led to
+imagine, however, that many very pretentious structures are of solid
+brick. This is seldom the case. Bricks and tiles are often in evidence
+because they can be worked into the face of naturally ugly concrete to
+disguise the nakedness of its surfaces. <i>Concrete</i> has really made
+it comparatively easy to create Rome as an enormous city. If concrete
+has not been invented by the Romans, they are at least the first great
+people to put it to a very general use. In their neighborhood can
+be found huge quantities of <i>pozzolana</i>,<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> a volcanic deposit
+which can be readily worked up into admirable cement. It is this very
+practical material which makes the vast domes, cupolas, and other
+architectural triumphs possible. Many a pretentious temple or residence
+flaunts a marble exterior; this, however, is a mere shell and covering;
+strip it away, and within is an enormous mass of concrete.</p>
+
+<p>This material can be handled by comparatively small labor gangs,
+rendering it feasible to erect huge structures without mobilizing such
+wholesale man-power as was needed for the great monuments of Egypt.
+It is very durable,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span> almost nothing can destroy it. Indeed it will be
+written later that “This <i>pozzolana</i> [for concrete] more than any
+other material contributed to make Rome the proverbial ‘Eternal City.’”
+[Middleton.]</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>10. Greek Architectural Forms Plus the Arch and Vault.</b>—Every
+building by the Tiber apparently bears the impress of Greece. Greek
+architects are said to have designed many of the finest public
+edifices, while Greek artists have chiseled the statues or painted the
+pictures which all the Roman world admires. The “orders” of the columns
+everywhere in evidence are the Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian that one
+might find at Athens, although it can be complained that the Romans are
+over-fond of the most ornate form—the florid Corinthian.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_012" style="max-width: 440px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_012.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Typical Temple Front.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>In general, lovers of the purer architectural types of Hellas may
+allege that Roman architecture and ornamentation is too elaborate and
+extravagant. There are too many scrolls and floriated designs. Every
+possible surface is covered with statuary or bas-reliefs, often in
+decidedly inferior taste. There is too garish a display, also, of blue,
+green, white, and orange-colored marble. The whole effect of most Roman
+buildings is, therefore, <i>grand rather than beautiful</i>. It is the
+architecture of a civilization apparently growing a little weary and
+striving to startle itself by remarkable effects.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_013" style="max-width: 631px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_013.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Arch of Constantine</span>: typical of many triumphal
+arches: date about 315 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, this borrowing from Greece has not been slavish. Romans,
+if not great artists, are master adapters. Perhaps they have not
+invented the <i>arch</i> and the <i>vault</i>,<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> but in any case they
+have utilized them in connection with the Greek system of columns to
+produce magnificent effects whereof Argos and Ephesus never dreamed.
+By concrete vaulting can be made those enormous substructures which
+sustain the great palaces, and again, the lofty domes of such splendid
+creations as the Pantheon. By the arches can be upheld the tiers of the
+Flavian Amphitheater, the pretentious company of theaters and circuses,
+and last but not least the long arrays of stately aqueducts which bring
+the great water<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span> supply so many miles to Rome. Underground also the
+arch system is upbearing the vast network of sewers which has redeemed
+the city from a quagmire. In the <i>fora</i> and across many avenues
+are thrown in their turn the imposing <i>triumphal arches</i>, crowned
+with heroic statues or with prancing chariots which are unmatched by
+anything in Greece.</p>
+
+<p>Having taken in the generalities, it is now proper to go down from our
+viewpoint and plunge boldly into the vast city. The wise man should
+not, however, visit at first the Fora, the Palatine, and the other
+“show places” which officious guides here as everywhere are always glad
+to display to visitors. More helpful it is to examine at the outset
+certain typical streets first in a poor and next in a more aristocratic
+quarter, to enter the houses, and to penetrate the daily lives of the
+masses of the people. Then with better understanding can one approach
+the famous “Heart of Rome.”</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II<br>
+<span class="subhed">STREETS AND STREET LIFE</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>11. The Regions of Rome: Fashionable and Plebeian Quarters.</b>—The
+great Augustus divided the capital into 14 <i>regiones</i> or “wards”
+and these in turn into 265 <i>vici</i> or precincts. Obviously some
+of these districts are more select than others. No citizen of decent
+tastes will, unless compelled by dire poverty, live in the network of
+hovels beyond the bridges and under the brow of the Janiculum, where a
+great colony of Jews and other Orientals exist in what is alleged to be
+extreme squalor. If you go south also from the Forum and Palatine, you
+are likely to run into a wide complex of unlovely industrial districts
+and laborers’ quarters, especially along the Tiber, although there are
+still some very good residential streets upon the Aventine.</p>
+
+<p>In general the northern end of the city is the fashionable section,
+although the Subura, the street running out between the Esquiline and
+the Viminal, is notorious for containing some of the vilest tenements
+in all Rome. To live in a “Subura garret” is about the greatest
+possible degradation socially. Right above this ill-favored avenue,
+however, slopes the Esquiline itself, lined with the palaces of many
+of the most exclusive Senators. Pliny the Younger resided there in his
+lifetime,<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> and a rich ex-consul has his house at present. Rome is,
+in fact, decidedly like many later cities; walk only a few blocks,
+and one can pass from the bottom to the top of the social ladder.
+Further north, in the regions of the parks and public gardens, the fine
+residences are probably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span> more continuous, but one can never know Rome
+by merely visiting its ultra-genteel quarters. There is, consequently,
+no better place to begin an investigation than near the Esquiline,
+let us say where the disreputable Subura runs northeast towards the
+somewhat more select “Patrician Street” (<i>Vicus Patricius</i>).</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_016" style="max-width: 665px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_016.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller"><span class="smcap">Street in Pompeii</span>: present state. Note the
+pavement, the stepping stones, the wayside fountain, and the numerous
+subdivisions into small houses or shops.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>12. A Typical Short Street, “Mercury Street.”</b>—We may wisely
+take our stand facing somewhat southward, with our backs to the Viminal
+and with the domes of the huge Baths of Trajan partially in sight upon
+the heights ahead. It is a little after dawn on a warm spring morning;
+but all Rome, we shall discover, rises very early, and normally goes to
+bed correspondingly early. Even the sedate “Conscript Fathers” of the
+Senate are supposed to convene at <i>prima luce</i>,—gray morn. What
+can be seen?</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span></p>
+
+<p>To any later judgment this “Mercury Street” (so named from a local
+temple)<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> is very narrow, not over fifteen feet from housewall
+to housewall. Although the sun has now risen the way is still
+uncomfortably dark, because the houses pressing on either side rise
+to at least thirty or forty feet. The roadway, one discovers, is
+skillfully and durably paved with heavy lava blocks, and since it forms
+a regular thoroughfare it has been swept reasonably clean; although to
+right and left in the semi-darkness can be descried impossible alleys
+barely ten feet wide winding off between the tall buildings, and these
+side passages are more than dirty. This street, like the great majority
+in Rome, is comparatively short. You come to an abrupt turn, or perhaps
+to an ascending flight of stone steps worn slippery by innumerable
+sandals, and immediately enter into a quite different quarter.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_017" style="max-width: 353px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_017.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Stepping Stones across a Side Street</span>: a
+gentleman followed by personal slave with umbrella. <i>After Von
+Falke.</i></p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>There is a very narrow stone sidewalk but it differs slightly before
+each house, every owner being required to make his own repairs. In
+the pavement broad ruts have been worn<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span> by the wagons, despite the
+restrictions (presently stated) upon wheeled traffic. Very few streets
+of Rome are wide enough for two carts to pass freely; and every driver
+has to look ahead and frequently to wait at corners to let other teams
+get by. Upon the pavement and especially at intersecting crossways are
+set groups of four or five large oblong stepping stones; these seem
+needless at present but can be a veritable godsend in the rainy season
+when every “Via” and “Vicus” in Rome seems converted into a raging
+torrent.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>13. The House and Shop Fronts.</b>—Looking upward now, one is
+instantly confronted by a long expanse of stuccoed walls—some pink,
+yellow, or bluish, but mostly an ugly brown. The lower story, quite on
+the street level, is broken either by the petty shops which open their
+shutters and thrust their counters clear out upon the pavement, or else
+it is merely a solid blank space with only here and there a doorway, or
+a few small windows, mere peepholes for fear of burglars. The second
+and upper stories, however, are less solid. There are many larger
+windows set with window-boxes displaying bright flowers, or even with
+projecting balconies which reach out so far that neighbors in opposite
+houses can sometimes clasp hands above the hurrying life below.</p>
+
+<p>Shops abound almost everywhere. In the great commercial quarters by
+the fora, the Tiber and the Campus Martius, will be found the splendid
+establishments which cater to wealth, but no quarter of Rome is
+too mean for its bakeries, vegetable stands, wine shops, and cheap
+restaurants. In fact, the absence of a speedy means of interurban
+communication makes a multiplication of small shops absolutely
+necessary. Most of these retailers do business on the pettiest scale,
+and a glance reveals that nearly the whole stock in trade is spread
+on the counter facing the street. As for the shopkeeper, ordinarily
+he lives and sleeps either in a dark cell just in the rear or in an
+equally narrow chamber directly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span> above his business. “Born over a
+shop,” snobbish people say when they wish to brand some person as a
+nobody.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_019" style="max-width: 409px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_019.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Street Scene before a Cook-Shop.</span> <i>After Von
+Falke.</i></p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>14. Street Shrines and Fountains.</b>—Nevertheless, commonplace and
+darksome as this street may seem, there are clear tokens both of an
+active religious, also of an artistic life. On the flat wall, beside
+a grocer’s stand, two serpents are crudely painted in yellow—emblems
+of the guardian genii of the place. Opposite, by a money-changer, is
+painted a fairly presentable Mercury, the god of Gain. As one goes
+about the city the painted snakes appear almost everywhere, and also
+pictures of Jupiter, Minerva, and Hercules.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_020" style="max-width: 344px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_020.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Shrine at the Crossways.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>At the nearby crossroads, however, is something more important. Set
+against the side of a building is a little niche let into the wall
+in lieu of an altar. Upon this pious neighbors can deposit small
+articles of food for the “Gods of the Street Crossings” (<i>Lares
+Compitales</i>), and above is a low relief of two youthful deities,
+male and female. Early as it now is, an old woman has already stolen up
+to deposit a small crust—for the little neighborhood Lares are good
+and trusty friends; they will never be forgotten.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span></p>
+
+<p>Opposite this shrine, however, a group of laughing, chattering girls is
+mustering around a gushing fountain. Romans are justly proud of their
+excellent water supply. Every house of any pretentions has its separate
+faucets, perhaps in great number; but the poor tenement dwellers must
+depend upon the street fountains. Pure, clear water is shooting from
+a metal pipe into a broad separate stone basin. The stream is issuing
+from the sculptured head of a Medusa executed with admirable detail and
+vigor, although this is only one of thousands of similar fountains all
+over the city. At the next corner the water is spouting from an eagle’s
+beak; at another from the mouth of a calf, or the head of a Mercury.</p>
+
+<p>The surplus water overflowing the basin trickles away in a streamlet
+down to the middle of the street, and although this adds to the
+inconvenience of pedestrians the pitch of the ground makes the flow
+carry away much of the rubbish (often very filthy) which is thrown
+out recklessly from the shops and even from the upper windows. It is
+thanks partly to this admirable water system that Rome is not even more
+scourged by epidemics, than is unhappily the case.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>15. Typical Street Crowds.</b>—So much for the inanimate objects in
+Mercury Street; what now of its surging humanity? A wise law of Julius
+Cæsar has indeed forbidden the ordinary use of wheeled vehicles in the
+city streets between sunrise and the “tenth hour” (4 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>).
+This is a blessed regulation considering the narrow width of even
+the finest avenues, but, nevertheless, the wagons that were allowed
+to enter by night bringing heavy building materials to the Senator
+Rullianus’s new mansion have now to be suffered to depart, and also the
+wain that had rattled up in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span> darkness with flour for the nearby
+public bakery. Also one may possibly see a Vestal Virgin or one of the
+superior priests exercising their special privileges and driving in a
+chariot.</p>
+
+<p>The street, however, is crowding with life, even if not a horse is in
+sight. The most conspicuous are literally dozens of men, each with
+a heavy toga wrapped carelessly around him, hurrying frantically in
+every direction. In other cities and other ages they might be “making a
+train.” Here they are in fact “clients,” duty bound to be at the doors
+of their patrons early every morning to pay their respects and seek
+their bounty (see p. <a href="#Page_149">149</a>)—but almost every other type of humanity is
+represented. Great numbers of boys and girls are trudging reluctantly
+along to their schools, the poorer bearing their own packages of
+writing tablets, the better dressed each followed by a sedate male
+attendant, a pedagogue, bearing the weapons of learning.</p>
+
+<p>In and out there also go youths in humble attire, often running at
+breakneck speed, thrusting and jostling to make their way; they are
+the slave messengers from the great houses flying on early errands for
+their masters. One of them elbows aside a tall and venerable man with a
+prodigiously long beard and wrapped in a trailing but none too spotless
+mantle—he is a Greek philosopher on his way to some mansion where he
+will perhaps expound the theories of Epicurus to a pleasure-loving
+nobleman. A few steps further and there is seen a fair-haired German
+clad in his outlandish costume of undressed wolf skins; hardly behind
+him is a red-headed Gaul in a short tartan cloak; one can speedily
+recognize also a hawk-eyed, white-robed Arab from the edge of the
+deserts and presently appears a grinning negro, black as ebony and in
+a splendid gilt and scarlet livery—the foot-boy probably of some rich
+lady.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>16. Frequent Use of Greek in Rome.</b>—The bulk of the crowd, to be
+sure, is Italian, with keen, olive faces, dark<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span> hair, and rather short
+stature, graceful and incessantly gesturing. But the Latin chattered
+on every hand is full of uncouth idioms, the <i>sermo plebis</i>
+calculated to make Cicero turn in his grave, and there is a great
+co-mingling of foreign words; above all, about one person out of every
+four seems to be <i>speaking Greek</i>, now abominably corrupt, now
+in the purest Attic, and upon penetrating the great houses one would
+discover Greek to be even more truly a familiar language.</p>
+
+<p>All educated Romans write and speak Greek as Englishmen and Americans
+will never learn to use French. Learned books are being written by
+the Tiber in the incomparable tongue of Hellas, and only the most
+ignorant Romans fail to understand simple Greek sentences. In short
+Rome seems close to becoming a bi-lingual city. The reigning emperor
+is so enthusiastic for things Hellenic that his foes brand Hadrian as
+“the Graecule.” Athens and Corinth seem almost to have conquered their
+conquerors.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>17. Clamor and Thronging in the Streets.</b>—As the sun rises,
+every instant the street becomes more crowded. A great din is rising
+from a forge just inside an alley; a second noise from a carpenter
+shop. As if determined to be heard above everything else, from a
+second story comes a voice bawling out some kind of a declamation—it
+is a rhetoric school getting into action, and an ambitious youth is
+denouncing the dead tyrant Phalaris at the top of his lungs. By yonder
+wall, almost completely blocking the sidewalk, a nondescript barber has
+set down a stool and is clipping a victim with huge scissors. Close
+by him stands a cook’s boy guarding two braziers, on one of which are
+boiled peas, on the other small sausages that are kept smoking hot.
+Early as the hour may be, workmen and others who have an active day
+before them are standing around and laying in a hearty breakfast.
+Almost upsetting this throng comes a countryman flogging a donkey whose
+huge paniers laden with garden truck project dangerously to either
+side.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span></p>
+
+<p>The noise increases continually. From another lane there comes more
+shouting. An auctioneer is knocking down the furniture of a poor
+bankrupt, and the bidding is growing violent. All the shopkeepers are
+bawling their wares to each prospective purchaser. Now there is a clang
+and jangling; pushing the crowd aside march ten soldiers, five abreast,
+with insolent strides, their <i>optio</i> (sub-centurion) stalking
+before them. Their gilded armor and helmets and the scarlet kilts
+peeping under their cuirasses, proclaim them to be “Praetorians,” proud
+members of the imperial guard. Gilded shields clatter on their backs;
+they warn the slaves and hucksters away with their spear butts while
+their officer’s red plume nods arrogantly.</p>
+
+<p>Hardly are they gone before there comes the crash of some barbaric
+music; one hears castanets, trumpets, drums, and sistra (a kind of
+glorified bronze rattle), and unmelodious singing. Tossing their arms,
+waving blunted swords or pounding them on light shields, along comes a
+troupe of the priests and priestesses of Cybele, the uncouth Asiatic
+goddess; the women, dark-skinned Syrians, whirling in wild dances with
+hair aflying, the priests puff-cheeked, smooth-faced creatures, busily
+pounding with their noise-making instruments. They are headed for their
+temple to spend a day of orgy.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>18. The Processions Attending Great Nobles.</b>—Suddenly there
+is a partial silence. Youths in livery are moving down the street
+flourishing white wands: “Way, way for his Excellency,” they are
+shouting. Instantly the word flies around, “The Praetor Fundinus!”
+Hucksters cease shouting. Everybody stands still and all who wear
+hoods or hats hastily bare their heads,<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> for the praetor represents
+“The Majesty of the Roman People.” Behind his <i>viatores</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span> “Way
+Clearers”) a full score of toga-clad clients swing into sight marching
+ahead of the great man. He rides in a blue tasseled litter borne by
+eight tall Cappadocians of equal height and pace. Just in front of them
+march two haughty lictors, attendants of honor, with bundles of rods,
+the official “fasces,” conspicuously resting upon their shoulders.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
+Close beside the litter walks a well-groomed man with a marked
+Greek profile—the confidential freedman and man of business of the
+magistrate. Behind trail more clients and a greater retinue of slaves.
+Fundinus himself heeds little the incessant greetings cast at him. He
+can be seen lolling on his cushions, with the little curtains thrown
+back just enough to show the purple embroidery on his official toga.
+A book, half unrolled, is in his hand—for it is the best of form to
+affect a certain bookishness in scenes of great distraction.</p>
+
+<p>As the praetor’s train advances, however, it is met by another headed
+in the opposite direction. A great concourse appears of handsome
+slaves, all wearing brown coats and each bearing a box or package upon
+his shoulder; then follows a group of pretty Levantine slave-girls
+gaudily clad, then a brown Egyptian boy carrying a pet monkey; then a
+simpering Celtic maid with a large basket from which peers a small and
+very uneasy lap-dog; next a perfect hedge of upper slaves and freedmen,
+some carrying musical instruments, some small caskets obviously crammed
+with valuables, and some conveying ostentatiously costly garments, and
+then borne high by her eight slaves in light red livery comes a great
+lady herself—an ex-consul’s wife, the multi-millionaire Faustina.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>19. A Great Lady Traveling.</b>—“Her Magnificence”
+(<i>Clarissima</i>) also leans back on her cushions with a studied
+attitude of indifference and boredom, letting the whole<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span> street take
+in the silky sheen of her embroidered mantle, the gem-set handle of
+her ostrich fan, the gold dust that her maids have sprinkled on her
+tall pile of brown hair, and the great pearls that shed luster from her
+ears, neck, and every finger. She is merely making one of her incessant
+pilgrimages between her Viminal palace and some one of her ten country
+villas. She would feel disgraced to travel with less than about two
+hundred slaves and freedmen. Very likely her grandfather was a freedman
+himself; what matter?—official rank yields to the conquering flash of
+gold.</p>
+
+<p>Fundinus’s lictors lower their fasces; his litter is set down hastily.
+As the trains meet the great man hastens to the side of the greater
+<i>matrona</i>. Faustina is evidently in a gracious mood. She is seen
+to flip the praetor’s face daintily with her fan. The magistrate climbs
+back to his own litter smilingly—perhaps he has been bidden to an
+ultra-select house party at Tusculum. The two trains of attendants
+elbow past each other, and the street resumes its plebeian bustle.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>20. Public Salutations: the Kissing Habit.</b>—As the crowds thin
+a little, so that the types and faces are more easily seen, several
+things become noticeable. First the salutations—there are surely
+advantages in being borne high in a litter. No person in good clothes
+can proceed far without being incessantly beset with greetings.
+Everybody seems to know everybody else. It is polite to cry <i>Ave!</i>
+(“Hail”) or <i>Salve!</i> (“I hope you’re well”) to persons of the
+scantiest acquaintance, and then, when they return your salute, if
+there is nothing more to add, <i>Vale!</i> (“Good luck”).</p>
+
+<p>More serious, however, is the incessant kissing. A sedate old gentleman
+with a narrow purple stripe on his tunic (the token of the “equestrian”
+rank) appears followed by two spruce slave boys. A nondescript fellow
+immediately pushes up to him, seizes his hand, then smacks him roundly
+on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span> cheek. Doubtless the rascal’s lips are foul and his breath
+charged with garlic; it is nevertheless most discourteous for the older
+man to resent it. There is no escaping the incessant attacks, unless
+you can have a litter, and the poet Martial has vainly complained of
+acquaintances who insisted on kissing him in December “when round his
+nose hangs a veritable icicle.” Even the Emperor has to submit to the
+usage, although the privilege is confined to that envied and exalted
+circle known as “Cæsar’s friends.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>21. The Swarms of Idlers and Parasites.</b>—Another thing becomes
+obvious after a short scrutiny—<i>the vast number of idlers</i>.
+People are incessantly lounging up and down the street manifestly with
+nothing important to do. Hard work and common trade are, as later
+explained (see p. <a href="#Page_146">146</a>), by no means genteel; and many a Roman who
+possesses merely a threadbare toga and has his name on the list for
+corn doles prefers living by his wits in busy idleness, fawning on the
+great, and hunting dinner invitations to doing a stroke of honest labor.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the idlers nevertheless are slaves. In the vast <i>familia</i>
+of the palaces the tasks are all so subdivided that the average slave
+has far too much time on his hands. He puts in many hours, therefore,
+wandering about the sights of the city, gaming, following coarse love
+affairs, and seeking tips on the circus and amphitheater contests. The
+amount of worthless chatter is infinite. Even at this early hour from
+the tables of a wine-shop comes the rattle of dice boxes. Another dirty
+group is actually throwing dice on the pavement under pedestrian’s
+heels. The law nominally forbids open gaming, but the police are very
+busy men. Rome, one discovers thus promptly, is all too much a city of
+“parasites.” By exploiting the world, she is able to maintain a horde
+of human bipeds, bond or free, who minister nothing to her prosperity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span></p>
+
+<p>The gamesters on the pavement halt, however, instantly, when a tumult
+arises from a neighboring vintner’s stall. A Spanish boy has tried to
+steal a jar of fine old Massic, but the vessel has been wisely fastened
+to a pillar with a chain. While he tugs to break this the dealer spots
+him: “Stop thief!” rises the cry. Instantly appear two broad-shouldered
+men, in half armor with small steel caps. They carry stout poles
+tipped with strong hooks useful in fires. These are <i>vigiles</i>
+(police-firemen) of the city watch. The thief is seized and hustled
+off howling and protesting, to tell his troubles at the court of the
+City Praefect. Before the players can resume, they have to stand aside
+also for a funeral procession—flute players, professional mourners
+screaming and gesticulating, manumitted slaves of the deceased wearing
+liberty caps, mourning relatives around the bier; all headed for the
+cremation-pyre outside the gates.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_028" style="max-width: 362px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_028.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Monument of a Wine Seller.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>22. Public Placards and Notices.</b>—Just as the dice are about
+to rattle again a shrewd-looking fellow with a piece of red chalk is
+seen stepping up to a space of blank wall. “Celer, the notice writer,”
+whispers everybody. A large crowd elbows and gathers around him,
+as to general delight, with quick strokes he letters the following
+announcement of a gladiator fight:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span></p>
+
+<div class="border">
+
+<p class="center"><b>IN THE AMPHITHEATER OF TAURUS
+THE GAMES OF THE AEDILE BALBUS</b></p>
+
+<p class="center"><b><i>From the 12th to the 15th of May</i></b></p>
+
+<p class="center">THE ‘THRACIAN’ PUGNAX</p>
+
+<p class="center xs">OF THE</p>
+
+<p class="center">NERONIAN GLADIATORIAL SCHOOL</p>
+
+<p class="center sm">Who Has Fought Three Times Will Meet</p>
+
+<p class="center">THE ‘MURMILLO’ MURANUS</p>
+
+<p class="center xs">OF THE</p>
+
+<p class="center">SAME SCHOOL</p>
+
+<p class="center sm">And The Same Number of Fights</p>
+
+<p class="center">THE ‘HEAVY ARMOUR FIGHTER’ CYCNUS</p>
+
+<p class="center xs">FROM THE</p>
+
+<p class="center">SCHOOL OF JULIUS CAESAR</p>
+
+<p class="center sm">Who Has Fought Eight Times</p>
+
+<p class="center xs">WILL MEET</p>
+
+<p class="center">THE ‘THRACIAN’ ATTICUS</p>
+
+<p class="center xs">OF THE</p>
+
+<p class="center">SAME SCHOOL</p>
+
+<p class="center sm">And of Fourteen Fights</p>
+
+<p class="center sm"><b><i>Awnings will be provided against the sun</i></b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>“<i>Euge! Euge!</i> Bravo, Balbus!” cry the expectant idlers as they go
+back to their game, and Celer hurries off to repeat his notice on some
+wall in the next street.</p>
+
+<p>The dice contest can be omitted. Not so with the wall inscriptions
+which we now discover are scattered over almost<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span> every space of
+available stucco along the thoroughfare. Some are formal notices of
+games, articles for sale, auctions, tenements to let, etc., written
+with some skill, although with many puzzling abbreviations, by
+professional sign-writers like Celer. Thus on one building can be read
+in tall red letters: “<i>To rent, from the first of July, shops with
+the floors above them and a house in the Arrius Pollio block, owned by
+Nigidius Maius. Prospective lessees may apply to Primus his slave</i>,”
+and another sign advertises the “<i>Venus baths, fitted up for the best
+people, shops, rooms over shops and second story apartments, in the
+property owned by Julia Felix</i>.”<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>23. Wall Scribblings.</b>—More interesting really are the wall
+scribblings of the humble. “The walls were the writing paper of the
+poor,” will be declared later by students of Rome. All kinds of
+sentiments are scratched upon the stucco; sometimes with considerable
+care with a stylus; sometimes with merely a finger nail; sometimes
+drawn with charcoal or a red crayon. There are indeed so many writings,
+especially in frequented places, that we notice a wag has actually
+added a word of protest:</p>
+
+  <div class="poetry-container">
+   <div class="poetry">
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <div>I wonder O wall,</div>
+        <div>That your stones do not fall</div>
+        <div>All scribbled thus o’er</div>
+        <div>By the nonsense of all!</div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+<p>Every kind of opinion is to be found along a limited stretch of wall.
+Coarse insults abound where your enemy can promptly see them: “Vile
+wretch,” “Bold rascal,” “Old fool,” “I hope you’ll die!” “May you be
+crucified!”—these are merely the mildest. Then other sentiments are
+more friendly: “Luck to you!” “Good health to you everywhere!” “A Happy
+New Year and a lot of them,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span> and “What wouldn’t I do for <i>you</i>,
+dear eyes of Luscus” (the names of the enemy or friend involved being
+often added).</p>
+
+<p>Lovers also take up their tale. A girl records her frank opinion:
+“Virgula to her dear Tertius—You are mighty mean.” A penitent swain
+spreads forth this “personal” to his mistress: “<i>Do</i> have pity
+on me and let me come back.” A young lady announces tartly: “Where
+Verus is there’s nothing <i>veracious</i>” (a pun on words). A gay
+philanderer explains, “A blonde girl taught me to hate brunettes, and
+I <i>will</i> hate them if I can—but loving them would come so much
+easier!” And another youth demands passionately: “My dear Sava, please
+do love me!” While finally a jealous suitor has broken into verse:</p>
+
+  <div class="poetry-container">
+   <div class="poetry">
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <div>If any man shall seek</div>
+        <div>My girl from me to turn,</div>
+        <div>On far-off mountains bleak,</div>
+        <div>May Love the scoundrel burn!</div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+<p>The prosing moralist must likewise have his say. Somebody has
+sagely scribbled, “A trifling ailment if neglected can grow to be
+very serious.” There are in addition conundrums and children’s
+sketches—pictures of playmates, friends, foes, and especially of
+popular gladiators, marked with red ochre or charcoal, and sometimes
+limned with considerable vigor, but usually in the manner of the
+childish drawings in all ages, with forehead and nose marked by a line
+and with two dots serving for eyes. School boys have scratched down
+some of the verses in Vergil and Ovid that have just been flogged into
+them by their masters.</p>
+
+<p>The only thing we can miss in Rome are the election notices which would
+abound on the walls of all chartered provincial or free Italian cities,
+entreating us to vote for soand-so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span> for <i>duumvir</i> “he’s a good
+man”; or declaring that “all the fullers’ guild are out for —— as
+aedile.”<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> Rome, alas! has lost her liberty; the city is paternally
+governed by the Emperor aided by the Senate, and popular elections are
+a thing of the past.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>24. The Streets Dark and Dangerous at Night.</b>—One is warned,
+however, not to tax the patience of the adjacent shopkeepers and linger
+too long in this street. Written above a drug seller’s stand appears
+clearly, “<i>No idlers here! Move on you loungers!</i>” and a little
+distance along upon a wall, “<i>Here you! What are you loitering
+for?</i>” Indeed the passing throngs are becoming somewhat monotonous.
+The hurly-burly abates. About noon almost everybody will take first a
+fairly hearty luncheon, and then a siesta. Nearly every shop will be
+closed. Then the bustle will be resumed while the more genteel element
+will be seen headed in great numbers towards the public baths.</p>
+
+<p>By four o’clock, however, the shops will be closing behind heavy
+shutters, the clamor from the work rooms will cease, and even the
+humble will begin to prepare for the crowning event of a Roman’s
+day—dinner, often begun still earlier. After sundown the silence
+almost of the grave shuts down upon avenues which a few hours earlier
+were simply swarming with life. There are no street lights. Nobody
+stirs outdoors if possible, unless accompanied by friends or slaves
+with lanterns or torches; and it is no harm to carry heavy bludgeons,
+for despite the watch there are all too many sneak thieves, cutpurses,
+and even open bandits, “dagger men” (<i>siccarii</i>), with their “your
+money or your life.” Also lawless young nobles sometimes get an evil
+pleasure (as did Nero and his companions) by ranging the streets and
+beating up harmless and poorly guarded citizens.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>25. Discomforts of Life in Rome.</b>—People also tell you that
+at night there is no small peril of being brained by loose tiles
+which rattle down from the lofty house-tops, or less dangerous but
+most disgusting, of being drenched by buckets of filthy slops flung
+recklessly from upper windows into the streets. Then toward dawn your
+sleep is ruined by the incessant rumbling of the wagons with timber,
+brick, building stone, cement, and all kinds of food supplies which
+have to be excluded from the city in the day hours. These are all part
+of the general discomforts of life in Rome, along with the squalid
+flat-buildings, the peril from the collapse of rickety houses, the
+occasional great floods of the Tiber, the fearful conflagrations, the
+ubiquitous throngs of people, and the grievous absence of privacy.</p>
+
+<p>The complaints are incessant. “School masters in the morning; corn
+grinders at night; and braziers’ hammers day and night” are subjects
+for standard diatribes of poets like Martial and Juvenal. And they,
+like everybody, first praise the quiet simple life possible in the
+Italian country towns—and then they remain in Rome. The great city
+with its multitudes, its ceaseless variety of all things good and bad,
+its appeal to every kind of human interest holds them with so many
+other mortals fascinated. They are unhappy while in Rome; but still
+more unhappy until they can return to her.</p>
+
+<p>So much for the merely outward side of a typical street on the slopes
+of the Esquiline. We can now penetrate the homes of the people, first
+visiting an <i>insula</i>, a great tenement block of the lowly, and
+then investigating a more elegant <i>domus</i>, the residence of a
+magnate.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER III<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE HOMES OF THE LOWLY AND OF THE MIGHTY</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>26. The Great <i>Insulæ</i>—Tenement Blocks.</b>—Perhaps another
+age will imagine that most Romans have lived in vast marble palaces,
+moving through spacious halls amid stately pillars and spraying
+fountains. Nothing like this is the case for the great majority.
+A census report declares “there are some 44,000 tenement blocks
+(<i>insulæ</i>) in the city and only about 1750 separate ‘mansions’
+(<i>domus</i>).”<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Such figures can merely imply that an overwhelming
+proportion of “the toga-wearing race, the Lords of the world” (to quote
+Virgil’s threadbare line) are flat-dwellers.</p>
+
+<p>Considering the extreme congestion of population, no other solution
+than this is possible if Rome is to remain Rome. There is a great
+profit in building these huge, ungainly “islands,” the tenement blocks.
+Everywhere around the city we meet the gangs of laborers mixing the
+concrete whereof the structures are mostly constructed, or setting the
+wooden molds to shape the material as it solidifies; or else tearing
+down and carting away the wreckage of insulæ that have begun to decay.
+Such property employs a great amount of capital. Nearly every senator
+has his men of business caring for his housing investments and rentals,
+and the “realtor” is a very familiar personage.</p>
+
+<p>Rightly is it complained also that many insulæ are put up in a cheap
+and absolutely dangerous manner, and at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span> best are dark, dirty, and
+unsanitary. The very name implies that they should be built with a free
+space all around them. The old law of Twelve Tables (450 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>)
+required a passage way (<i>ambitus</i>) of at least two and a half feet
+on either side, but this law was recklessly disregarded until the great
+fire of Nero enabled the government to enforce a fairly scientific
+building code. Even now, however, the tenement houses are often hemmed
+in on all sides by miserable black alleys hardly accessible to the
+public scavengers.</p>
+
+<p>This struggle to use every scrap of ground is completely matched by the
+effort to build as high as possible. “The immense size of Rome,” wrote
+Vitruvius, about 1 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, “makes it needful to have a vast
+number of habitations, and as the area is not sufficient to contain
+them all on the ground floor, the nature of the case compels us to
+raise them in the air.”</p>
+
+<p>There are no passenger elevators in Rome; furthermore, the concrete
+construction does not permit the safe erection of extremely high
+buildings without unusual precautions, and with such narrow streets
+tall structures obstruct both light and air; nevertheless, the real
+estate interests grumbled loudly when Augustus limited the height of
+dwellings to seventy feet. Hadrian has just vexed them still more by
+a decree that if an owner allows his insula to fall into dangerous
+repair, he must either sell it, or rebuild it thoroughly. For all that,
+many insulæ seem to be towering rookeries, ready to collapse at any
+flood or earthquake.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>27. A Typical Insula.</b>—Upon Mercury Street, which we have just
+examined, stands a very average insula, built about forty years ago,
+and, therefore, loyally named the <i>Flavia Victoria</i> for the then
+reigning dynasty. It belongs to the widow of the rich eques Gaius
+Macer, and is managed by the lynx-eyed procurator, or bailiff, who
+superintends her estate. Despite the fact that it is safer than some
+of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span> its neighbors, the tenants complain on rent days that the upper
+stories are built so largely of wood as to be in peril of fire, and
+that one of the outer walls is so cracked that it has to be propped up
+with heavy timbers.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Flavia Victoria</i> is just under the legal building height,
+and contains five stories. On the street there are several shops of
+the usual kind, also several separate entrances whereof the doorways,
+flanked with pillars, give access to certain extra-select flats above;
+but most of the tenants have to go in through the central portal under
+the eyes of a porter.</p>
+
+<p>Upon entering they find themselves in a fairly ample square court, upon
+which open many windows of the tiers of rooms in the upper stories.
+There is a fountain in the court, but the pavement below is decidedly
+slimy and dirty. Quantities of half-naked small children are scampering
+about in noisy play. The windows, however, like those facing upon the
+streets, often have balconies on which simple boxes of flowers are
+blooming. The blue Italian sky above and the bars of intense sunlight
+upon the flag-stones make the filthiness of the court and the dinginess
+of the yellow stuccoed walls less obnoxious. Dirt and even the numerous
+fleas lose part of their terrors amid picturesque surroundings in a
+mild climate.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>28. The Flats in an Insula.</b>—From the courtyard several
+staircases, often dark and dank, rise to the tenements above. The
+<i>Flavia Victoria</i> is a fair-sized insula, and just as in
+European flat buildings later, can contain many social strata under
+one ample roof. In the apartments on the first floor, there are
+really comfortable suites, each with a series of rooms—living room
+(<i>atrium</i>), dining room, kitchen, bedrooms, and the like, chambers
+not large indeed, but sufficient for a modest household keeping perhaps
+ten slaves. The walls are covered with bright frescoes, and the floors
+with very fair mosaics. Such a superior apartment can bring some
+10,000<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span> sesterces ($400) per year, and a good many flats rent for even
+more.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>The rentals fall rapidly as the tenants scale higher. In the second
+floor the apartments are much smaller; there is merely a living room
+and a few smaller chambers. The appointments are correspondingly
+mean and dingy, while the annual rent is only 2000 sesterces ($80);
+and between the prosperous grain factor on the third floor and the
+hard-working brickyard superintendent on the fourth there is never the
+least sociability.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>29. The Cheap Attic Tenements and Their Poor Occupants.</b>—Both
+unite, however, in despising the wretched creatures who plod wearily up
+to the dirty, vermin-infested sleeping pockets upon the fifth or sixth
+stages, where, under the roof tiles, the hot sun beats pitilessly. If
+we care to thrust ourselves into the tiny chambers of the unfortunate
+Codrus, the bath attendant, we will find, perhaps “a bed too small for
+the dwarf Procula, a marble slab whereon are set six small food jars
+and a small drinking cup, a statue of Chiron [some decaying heirloom],
+and an old chest of Greek books gnawed by the unlettered mice.”<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>Vainly do Codrus and his wife complain to the bailiff that the roof is
+collapsing over them. He merely laughs and bids them “sleep at ease,”
+although a deadly crash is threatened any night. They have another
+peril, because fire may at any time break out in Ucalegon’s flat below
+and leave them cut off, possibly while in their beds, and with no
+chance of escape after the alarm spreads.</p>
+
+<p>Such poor tenants never stay in one place long. Rome is a city of
+inveterate flat-hunters. The first of July (the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span> Calends) is the
+regular moving day. Every tenant who cannot or will not pay his rent,
+has to go forth seeking even cheaper and more squalid quarters. There
+are endless family processions bearing off the few poor chattels.
+The satirists make ungenerous fun of their plight, telling how a
+wretched man has to march away followed by “his carroty-headed wife,
+his white-haired mother and his giantess of a sister.” Between them
+they carry off “a three-legged bed, a two-footed table, a lamp, a
+horn-cup, a rusty brazier, some cracked dishes, some jars of very stale
+pickled fish,” also a supply of cheese and onions, and “a pot of resin
+belonging to the poor fellow’s mother and used by the beldame for
+anointing herself.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_038" style="max-width: 650px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_038.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Tenants paying Rent to a Landlord’s Agent.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Such luckless plebeians, of course, may delude some house agent in a
+distant part of the city into giving them a dark garret in the vain
+hope that they can pay their rent; “but really,”—says the bailiff with
+a shrug, “they belong at the Aricine bridge—the haunt of the beggars.”</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately a large fraction of Rome is little better off than this.
+Poverty stalks everywhere. There are plenty of fetid insulæ which do
+not contain a single family that can be sure of next week’s dinners.
+Nevertheless there are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span> mitigations; as will be seen, the government
+takes great pains that in Rome nobody will actually starve; and again,
+there are so many free circuses and gladiatorial shows that a man has
+abundant diversion from his troubles. There is a magnificent water
+supply, and the kind Italian sun prevents heavy fuel bills. Poverty,
+therefore, does not imply the acute misery which it does in the North.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the most fortunate insula dweller probably dreams of the
+day when he can crown his inevitable ambition. “When can I cease to
+live in a <i>cenacula</i> (flat) and live in a <i>domus</i>?”<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>30. A Senatorial “Mansion” (<i>Domus</i>).</b>—Publius Junius
+Calvus is a senator of ancient lineage, whose domus lifts itself
+arrogantly near the summit of the Esquiline, at the head of Mercury
+Street, looking down upon the tiles of the humble insula <i>Flavia
+Victoria</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Calvus, although a member of the upper aristocracy, is not
+extraordinarily wealthy. He does not, like some of his friends, possess
+simultaneously three large city houses, often moving from one to
+another according to season and mood. He has only four country villas,
+one far in the North by the Italian lakes, one in the Etruscan hills,
+one fairly close to Rome, and a fourth on the delightful Bay of Naples.
+His city residence is inferior in magnificence not merely to those of
+many senators but even of many equites (second-class nobles) and of
+a whole cohort of rich, upstart freedmen. Nevertheless, it is a fine
+mansion, which has been in the Calvian family for many generations, and
+it is crammed with treasured heirlooms. Calvus, unlike certain noble
+colleagues,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span> is happily married and rejoices in two half-grown sons and
+a daughter. For them a <i>familia</i> of only one hundred and fifty
+slaves suffices, although the noble Gratia sometimes complains to her
+husband: “Our staff is disgracefully small.”</p>
+
+<p>The Calvi are really an extremely old family in what is now becoming a
+city of upstarts. Publius’s forebears have lived for centuries on the
+Esquiline and their domus has been rebuilt many times. In Punic War
+days it probably consisted only of a central atrium, with an opening
+in the ceiling to admit light and emit smoke, and a few dark cell-like
+chambers radiating from the great living room. This hall rightly
+received its name of the “black place” (<i>ater</i>) from the soot
+from the open hearth which was perpetually caked around the rafters.
+The walls were of rubble, the floor of simple tiles or even merely of
+pounded earth, and the roof was of thatch. Such a house could stow away
+the many children and the relatively few servants of a senator who
+helped to humiliate Carthage.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>31. The Plan of a Large Residence.</b>—Very different is the
+domus now as we approach the lofty Ionic pillars before its portal,
+nevertheless, the plan of the old house has not quite vanished in the
+stately mansion. The Roman house is always (like the Greek) essentially
+the typical <i>southern</i> dwelling built around <i>courts</i>, and
+getting its light thence, and with little dependence upon exterior
+windows. What has happened now is that the old living room has expanded
+into a magnificent light-bathed hall, with the sun streaming not
+through a smoke-hole but an ample opening. The rooms leading from this
+court have multiplied in number and vastly increased in size. Then
+through a series of passages one enters a second court even larger and
+handsomer, and with another array of dependent chambers.</p>
+
+<p>In such a house the main apartments are on the first floor, but there
+is a second story for the lodging of the retinues of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span> slaves. In
+the rear of all there is usually a garden. Every domus has its own
+particular plan and pretentions but all conform to the general scheme
+of two main courts, just as almost every house of another civilization
+will demand its parlor and its dining room.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_041" style="max-width: 662px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_041.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Atrium of House in Pompeii looking towards the
+Peristylium</span>: present condition.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Calvus’s mansion is priced by the real estate experts at about
+3,500,000 sesterces (say $140,000);<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> but there are not a few houses
+of richer senators worth four times as much. The structure faces a
+street which is reasonably clear of shops and where all the neighbors
+are at least equites or else very wealthy freedmen. The building does
+not rise as high as an insula; in fact it possesses only two stories:
+the first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span> broken by mere peepholes in the solid stuccoed walls, the
+second by larger windows all heavily grated. One can guess part of the
+reason for these bars from a placard hanging in the entrance:</p>
+
+
+<div class="border">
+<p class="p-left">NO SLAVE IS TO QUIT THE HOUSE WITHOUT<br>
+THE MASTER’S ORDERS. PENALTY 100 LASHES</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p2"><b>32. Entrance to the Residence.</b>—The entrance itself, however,
+is handsome. The columns on either side are of fine Luna marble.
+Pass between these, and you enter a vestibule, a considerable outer
+chamber with fine pilasters let into the walls, where at this moment
+a swarm of the Senator’s clients are mustering. Then you approach the
+actual doors of the <i>ostium</i>. These stand open but every passer
+is being scrutinized, and if questionable, is stopped by a janitor, a
+highly responsible slave, who has a seat just inside. Many a janitor
+is supported in his duty by a surly dog, but here there is merely a
+life-like mosaic creature, wrought in the tiles of the pavement, with
+<span class="allsmcap">CAVE CANEM</span> (“Beware the dog”) written beneath him. Overhead in
+a gilt cage however is swinging a tame magpie, and the creature croaks
+out his “<i>Salve! Salve!</i>” as the guests press into the atrium.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>33. The Atrium and the View across It.</b>—The moment we are
+inside the transformation of scene from the dusty, dingy street is
+startling. If other persons do not obstruct the view, you can see clear
+down the long vistas of the house from the entrance to the greenery
+of the garden. Before us is the atrium, a magnificent court, paved
+with elaborate mosaics, and with four elegant Corinthian columns in
+pink marble upholding the roof around a wide light-well. Under this
+light-well is a complicated fountain, where bronze tritons<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span> and dancing
+nymphs are shooting great jets into a white marble basin in which grow
+luxurious water plants. On the inner sides of the atrium, and on either
+of the numerous doors opening into the same, stand statues, bronze or
+marble, upon carved stone pedestals.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_043" style="max-width: 332px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_043.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Plan of a Roman Mansion</span> (<i>Domus</i>):
+strictly conventionalized.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Many of the doorways around this elegant hall are closed by heavy
+curtains, of rich saffron, purple, olivine, or blue, the hues being
+selected to blend marvelously with the tints of the columns. Where the
+walls are not a sheen of marble, they are spread with elaborate and
+wonderfully decorative frescos—of which more hereafter. On special
+pedestals of honor are fine art objects, valuable bric-a-brac, tripods,
+vases, silver cups, war trophies. The mosaics on the floor (could we
+stop to gaze) are more beautiful than any carpet. In brilliant jewel
+work, for it is little else, has been wrought out a series of pictures
+showing the campaigns of Alexander. There is another series giving the
+legend of Perseus. The sunlight, the spray from the fountain,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span> the
+sheen of the marbles, the brilliance of the frescos, all combine in an
+effect that is dazzling.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>34. The Rooms in the Rear and the <i>Peristylium</i>.</b>—But
+this hall is merely the beginning, not the end of the domus. In the
+rear of the atrium there is the master’s office, the <i>tablinum</i>,
+a very large alcove, a handsome apartment where he will receive
+those guests who are come strictly on business. This and the atrium,
+however, are merely the public rooms of the house; the real living
+rooms are beyond, although, by a survival of old custom, the symbolic
+marriage couch of the master and mistress stands on a back wall by
+the tablinum. The heavy curtains have been swept aside from the broad
+passageways (<i>fauces</i>) which lead into the second court—the
+<i>peristylium</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_044" style="max-width: 706px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_044.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Interior of a Roman Mansion, looking from the Atrium
+into the Peristylium</span>: restored.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Here the atrium is duplicated—but on a much more elaborate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span> scale.
+There is another column-girdled court; but the pillars are taller and
+of an exquisite blue-veined marble. A huge curtain swings on its cords
+ready for expansion as the sun grows hot. Beneath the light-opening,
+there is not merely a second fountain, but a real plat of greensward,
+a <i>viridarium</i>, with a bright bed of rare flowers and even a
+few tropical plants. There is another phalanx of statues. Under the
+long quadrangular colonnades around the court are spread out deeply
+upholstered couches, easy chairs, small tables, and other appurtenances
+for luxurious existence. The ceilings of the colonnades and of the
+rooms leading thence are covered with metallic fretwork gilded in a
+soft sheen, while the intense light filters down gratefully between the
+columns, and sinks to a pleasant twilight in the niches and nooks in
+the walls of the peristylium.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_045" style="max-width: 650px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_045.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Scene in a Peristylium.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>35. The Dining Room (<i>Triclinium</i>) and the Chapel.</b>—From
+this second court to left and to right open doors which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span> lead to the
+master’s and mistress’s sleeping chambers, and those of their children,
+their guests, and their upper servants. The rooms are small, but are
+always daintily frescoed.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_046" style="max-width: 650px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_046.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center"><span class="smcap">Roman Type of House at Pompeii, looking across the
+Atrium</span>: present condition.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Far more important than these chambers is the great dining room
+(<i>triclinium</i>). Calvus’s friends tell him he really ought to
+rebuild his residence and provide a special “summer dining room” on
+the north side of the house, and a warmer “winter dining room” on the
+south side as in all the newer mansions.<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> However, his triclinium is
+very handsome; with good pilasters of Hymettus marble, fine statuary,
+sideboards loaded with rare old plate, and a ceiling fretted with ivory
+and arranged so that it can be partly opened at the climax of a feast
+to drop garlands and to spray down unguents upon the guests.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the rear of the house there are also a smaller breakfast room,
+and a special hall (<i>oecus</i>) for the display of even additional
+art objects, likewise a library, and a private bathroom, both to be
+described later; while in the rear of the peristylium is one of the
+most important rooms assuredly in the entire mansion—the kitchen
+(<i>culina</i>), where Gratia’s proudest possession, a truly superior
+cook, prepares dinners that atone for the sorrowful fact that “we have
+only one dining room.”</p>
+
+<p>Off the peristylium, too, one notes what amounts to a miniature chapel.
+Before a temple front composed of short columns mounted on a kind of
+table are set several little images of beautiful fairy-like creatures
+of both sexes. These are the family <i>lares</i>, the honored guardians
+of the old house of the Calvi. Once they stood in the atrium, but in
+later days although withdrawn to the more private peristylium, they
+have not ceased to be dear. Calvus discusses with his philosopher
+friends, “Are there really any gods?”; but he never fails to cast his
+incense night and morning upon the small gilt brazier which smokes
+before his family lares. In the kitchen, also, there is a second little
+niche and still other images of the lares, where they receive bits of
+food and innocent prayers from all the servants—even more devotedly
+than from the lordly folk in the peristylium.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>36. The Garden and the Slaves’ Quarters.</b>—Another passage
+beside the kitchen leads us into what can be just glimpsed as one
+enters the atrium—the rear garden set in by high walls. Land is too
+valuable in Rome for Calvus to permit himself much more than a short
+graveled walk under a few fine old box trees, but by an intensive
+gardening that another age might style “Japanese” there is laid out a
+miniature brooklet, a cascade plunging into a little pool containing
+tame lampreys, and some small pines, which have been forced into
+the semblance of a tiny forest. A broad marble seat now strewn with
+cushions, a good statue<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span> of a dancing Pan, the rushing music of
+the water, and the breeze rustling the foliage—all these make the
+tumultuous, squalid street and the dirty garrets of the <i>Flavia
+Victoria</i> seem very far away.—In reality they are barely a stone’s
+throw down the hill.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_048" style="max-width: 366px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_048.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Corner in a Garden in Rear of a Roman House.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Where do Calvus’s slaves keep themselves? Undoubtedly in the very
+cramped barracks of the second story, a section of which looks down
+from an upper tier of columns above the court of the peristylium. Even
+lordly Romans spend little time in their chambers and need only small
+bedrooms. For the slaves there is extremely little accommodation; any
+kind of a sleeping pocket, very truly called a “cell” (<i>cella</i>)
+will answer, where a stool, a blanket, and a thin mat on the floor
+suffice for all save the upper servants.</p>
+
+<p>Under the house there are ordinary cellars for the storage of
+provisions. Somewhere, too, is a strong room, with barred windows, and
+heavy door, and inside, fastened upon the floor, a set of stocks and
+manacles. Lucky is the day when, in a slave-familia of this size, this
+lock-up has not at least one backsliding occupant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>37. The Floors and Windows.</b>—Inquiring about certain details of
+such a mansion we discover that like most other Roman houses, it is
+built of concrete, faced with brick or coarse stone and stucco, and
+then with as many interior surfaces as possible, covered with slabs of
+marble or decorative frescos. The roof is of brick tiles; the floors
+in the humbler chambers, where mosaic is unnecessary, are partly of
+concrete and partly of small pieces of stone and tile roughly fitted
+together and then pounded down by a rammer (<i>pavimentum</i>). Two
+or three rooms most used in winter have a special and very luxurious
+device—part of their floors are made of hollow tile pipes, and through
+these hot air from a furnace can be forced to warm them precisely as is
+done at the baths.<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p>Little thus far has been said about the windows. These open mainly upon
+the courts, and they are so few that very many rooms, especially those
+used by the slaves, seem disagreeably dark, although in the long, hot
+season this drawback somewhat vanishes. Most of the windows are closed
+merely by board shutters swinging in leaves, and rather handsomely
+paneled; but shutting them results in a state of artificial night.</p>
+
+<p>For certain rooms used by the master and mistress there is a much
+better arrangement. Numbers of small pieces of glass are set in bronze
+lattices and inserted in the windows. Glass cannot be made that is
+strictly transparent, but it is highly translucent. Such rooms are
+delightfully illuminated all day long. Certain other wealthy houses
+use windows set with translucent talc (soft magnesium silicate), but
+these openings are hardly as satisfactory. Glass is slowly coming<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span> into
+general use, and the window panes will improve as glass-makers learn
+how to blow larger sheets and to make their product more transparent.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>38. Frescos, Beautiful and Innumerable.</b>—From the house itself
+we can turn to its ornamentation and furniture. The use of marble
+columns and of great slabs of marble veneer has been repeatedly
+mentioned. Africa, Egypt, and Greece as well as Italy have been
+ransacked by Roman contractors for their treasures of stone.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Even
+this private mansion of the Calvi boasts its green and black monolithic
+pillars, as well as its ceiling of gilded fretwork.</p>
+
+<p>Where the sheen of polished marble does not meet the eye almost
+invariably there are bright <i>frescos</i>. These are the <i>Roman wall
+paper</i>. Even in the poorest insulæ we have met them, cheap hackneyed
+things, garish in color, the work not of artists but of common
+craftsmen. Yet most of even these are not without a certain decorative
+beauty and their number is enormous.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> In the humble tenements the
+pictures often consist of pillars painted upon the walls, with gardens
+and landscapes represented as if seen between the portico, so the
+lodgers may have the pretence of looking upon the greenery reserved for
+the mighty.</p>
+
+<p>In a fine domus, however, the frescos, infinite in number, often
+approximate real works of art. There is no time to discuss their types
+and history; it is sufficient to say the decorative effect is amazingly
+effective. Some rooms have their walls covered with a variety of bright
+conceits and patterns,*<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span> —balconies, perches, tapestries of fruit and
+flowers, garlanded columns and flying sprites and maidens. Another
+room has pictures of all the possible handicrafts and trades; but with
+cupids working the forges and wine presses, or chaffering as merchants.
+Gratia’s boudoir is full of amorous scenes of brides adorning
+themselves and of lovers’ meetings. In the triclinium there are elegant
+pictures of still life—fishes, fruit, birds; and in the peristylium
+and atrium are elaborate landscapes, scenes from Greek mythology, and a
+series of pictures depicting the voyages and adventures of Æneas.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>
+There are no picture frames, but a skilful use of colored lines and
+sometimes of a painted setting of columns and architectural pediments
+makes each scene stand out to great advantage.</p>
+
+<p>The colors of all these frescos are very brilliant but they are never
+painfully crude. Where the walls are not covered by painting or marble
+they are tinted a soft brown or gray; and where the columns are not of
+naturally shaded marble they also are gently tinted to a neutral tone,
+although the lower third is usually painted a bright red or yellow.</p>
+
+<p>The numerous statues about the house are all in their turn given a kind
+of flesh color, with some other hue laid upon their drapery. Perhaps
+in the open, under the light of a northern summer these features would
+appear barbaric and offensive; under the gentle radiance diffused from
+the apertures of the atrium and the peristylium they create a scene of
+marvelous beauty, fascinating, and generally restful to the eye.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>39. The Profusion of Statues and Art Objects.</b>—So much for the
+wall decorations, and we must turn to the statues. The mansion seems
+to swarm with slaves, yet they are hardly more numerous than the
+sculptures in bronze and marble.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span> Many of these are good copies of the
+best masterpieces of Greece. The splendid athlete in the atrium is from
+an original by Praxiteles; the Penelope in the peristylium follows
+precisely the noble work of Scopas. Many others are simply graceful and
+ornamental but less pretentious works by lesser geniuses, often adapted
+in detail by the clever copyists.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_052" style="max-width: 235px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_052.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Portrait Bust—Pompey the Great.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>The whole quantity of art objects in such a house is enormous. The legs
+and arms of the chairs and every knob and handle upon the furniture
+are chased or carved with an amazing skill. The veriest knick-nacks
+and articles for everyday life have been transformed into things of
+beauty. In the triclinium is a long series of statuettes presenting the
+myths of Bacchus—the god himself, the drunken Silenus, the satyrs,
+bacchants, and all the other revelers. It would be easy, indeed, to
+reconstruct a good part of the standard Græco-Roman mythology from
+the statues, statuettes, and reliefs, no less than from the frescos
+scattered about the mansion and garden.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>40. Family Portrait Busts.</b>—However, there is one lengthy array
+of sculptures in the atrium that does not bear the hand of Greece.
+These are the portrait busts of the Junii Calvi. There they stand, a
+full score of them; all the more distinguished members of the great
+house since sculpture became a facile art in Rome.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_053" style="max-width: 277px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_053.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Typical Roman Portrait—Marc Antony.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>It is an array of cold, hard, yet withal terribly efficient faces.
+Slightly battered is the broad homely countenance of that tough old
+Calvus who was Scipio’s legate at Zama. Here also is the sharp shrewd
+face of his great-grandson who was prætor under Sulla; here the more
+refined and intellectual lines of the grandson of the last named
+worthy who won Octavius’s thanks at Actium for gallantry with his
+bireme, and afterward was a famous governor of Syria; here the high
+forehead of that courageous Stoic, the present master’s grandfather,
+who bade Nero do his worst, and who calmly “opened his veins” when the
+centurion arrived with the tyrant’s order to commit suicide. There are
+also displayed the busts of several distinguished women of the family
+including that Junia who was the bosom friend of the Empress Livia.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these, there are the portrait busts of the present
+Publius Calvus, of his wife Gratia, and of his three children. They
+are all executed with remarkable verisimilitude and without the least
+flattery. Customs with the hair often change, and the headdress of
+Gratia is made detachable so that if her style of headdress alters, the
+portrait may be promptly brought up to date. Young Sextus the second
+boy had a birthday yesterday; his statue is still hung with wreaths;
+flowers too hang around the likeness of Gnæus Calvus, Publius’s
+brother, who lately died while proprætor of Bætica (South Spain).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>41. Death Masks (<i>Imagines</i>).</b>—The sight of these busts
+is a constant incentive to both the young Calvi to remember their
+lordly lineage; but they have a still prouder treasure. The enormously
+rich freedman Vedius just down the street would give twenty million
+sesterces for the social preëminence implied by the possession of the
+great cupboard all bound with gilt and bronze bands which stands in the
+tablinum. Here, carefully labeled, are kept several scores of waxen
+death masks, blackened, marred, and ugly enough now, but all taken when
+the successive heads of the family lay in their last slumber.</p>
+
+<p>Many of these date from before the production in Rome of sculptured
+portrait statues. Here, for example, is the mask of the Calvus who
+helped win the consulship for the plebeians; and here of him who
+seconded Appius Claudius in the Senate when he turned away the glozing
+envoys of Pyrrhus. When alien upstarts complain of “noble pride,”
+it is easy for a Calvus to toss his head: “Have we not something to
+be proud of!”—and later, it will be duly explained how these waxen
+<i>imagines</i> appear very conspicuously at public funerals (p. 175).</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>42. Couches, Their General Use.</b>—One cannot, however, sit
+or lie down upon statues or portrait busts, and the domus is well
+provided with conventional furniture. In general the Romans prefer
+to <i>recline</i> when men of a later age may prefer to <i>sit</i>.
+Visitors sprawl down on couches for a little conversation, and the
+regular method of writing is not at a desk but lying on a couch with
+the right leg doubled and the tablet held on the knee. Long habit makes
+this attitude quite comfortable.</p>
+
+<p>There are many special kinds of beds for reading, dining, and for
+sleeping. Of course the latter are the most elaborate, and in Calvus’s
+and Gratia’s chamber the wooden bed is so high that it has to be
+reached by a footstool. The legs are of bronze, elaborately turned and
+carved, the frame is veneered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span> with tortoise shell and the supports at
+the sides of the sloping pillow-rest are set with plates of silver.
+As for the thick mattresses they are of the finest down and the ample
+blankets are dyed purple and embroidered with gold thread. The couches
+in the triclinium are lighter and lower although of very fine cabinet
+work,<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> but they have to be made larger for they must accommodate
+three diners. The reading couches (<i>lectuli</i>—“little beds”)
+are still lighter and simpler, although of elegant design, and those
+scattered under the peristylium are overlaid with plates of gold leaf.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_055" style="max-width: 585px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_055.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Roman Lamps</span>: collection in Naples Museum.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>43. Elegant Chairs and Costly Tables.</b>—Excluding the couches
+the furnishings of a Roman domus seem much simpler<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span> than those used
+in a later age. There are few carpets, no great loss in view of the
+beautiful mosaic floors, although there are rich, heavy portières
+across many passages. The chairs, frequently of light and elegant
+workmanship, are as a rule simple and often backless. Some, however,
+are splendidly inlaid with silver, and there are a few great
+<i>cathedræ</i>, ponderous arm chairs with lofty backs.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_056" style="max-width: 203px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_056.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Altar with Design of a Curule Chair.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>In the atrium, moreover, there stands an object surveyed with great
+pride by Calvus’s children—their father’s <i>sella curulis</i>, the
+folding, backless arm chair with a seat of leather straps which the
+senator had occupied while prætor. Presently (they hope) he will sit
+again thereon before the admiring Senate house, this time presiding as
+the veritable consul. The “curule chair,” despite its gold and ivory
+arms and cushions covered with purple Alexandrian fabrics, is anything
+but a comfortable seat through a tedious official ceremony; but who
+thinks of personal comfort when reckoning the glories of its public
+occupancy!</p>
+
+<p>Besides the chairs there are everywhere the tables. These are numerous
+but low and small. In the dining room they are round and barely two
+feet in diameter; but what a wealth of art and taste has gone into
+their making! All are of extremely fine wood, but the three reserved
+for the regular couches of the dinner guests have their legs overlaid
+with plates of magnificently embossed gold, and the material<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span> upon the
+tops is composed of single thin slabs cross-sawn from the trunks of the
+great citrus trees (a form of cypress) on Mount Atlas.</p>
+
+<p>This wood can be finished to show an exquisite wavy pattern or
+curly veins—“tiger citrus,” “panther citrus,” or “peacock-tail
+citrus”—the experts call the varieties. Over really fine specimens
+true connoisseurs go into ecstasies, and fortunes can be wasted. A
+table somewhat larger than Calvus’s has been known to sell for 500,000
+sesterces ($20,000); and there is a record price of twice that figure.
+The tables in the present mansion are nowhere nearly so valuable; yet
+they are among the most precious objects in the house. If there is a
+fire, they will be rescued almost before anything else, always barring
+the waxen <i>imagines</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>44. Chests, Cabinets, Water Clocks, and Curios.</b>—Of course
+there are many other articles of furniture like the great <i>arca</i>,
+the master’s strong box in the tablinum; heavily locked and riveted
+down upon the stone beneath. There are the elegant tall candelabra,
+of bronze or even of silver, elaborately ornamented and swinging at
+night with such batteries of olive-oil lamps as to make the marbles,
+frescos, and mosaics give back an alluring glitter. There is the water
+clock in the peristylium, a kind of glorified hour-glass, so adjusted
+as to record small fractions of time, and beside which a special slave
+usually stands all day long to call off the passage of each hour to the
+family. There are great cabinets, chests, and cupboards full of plate,
+fine blankets, and extremely elaborate wardrobes.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to all these upon a kind of sideboard there stand forth
+real or alleged objects of value or antiquity, a silver cup taken
+at the capture of Syracuse; a tall black and red vase signed by the
+master potter Callisthenes; and a statuette of a dancing girl which
+is probably a true work of Lysippus. Conspicuous, too, is a silver
+bowl, battered and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span> discolored, and of extreme simplicity. Mock it
+not, however, it is “the ancestral salt cellar” (as remarks Horace),
+the one silver dish possessed by the good old Calvi, when in all the
+Roman Senate there was only a single complete silver dinner service
+to be exchanged from house to house when high officials entertained
+ambassadors.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>45. Spurious Antiques.</b>—Publius Calvus is happy in possessing
+undeniably genuine antiques. He can afford to laugh at the collection
+of the rich freedman across the way. That poor fellow, anxious to
+“keep in style” and to display an art collection, has fallen into the
+clutches of unscrupulous dealers. He has filled his atrium with absurd
+specimens such as “cups from the table of Laomedon, a double vase
+that belonged to Nestor and a tankard used by Achilles.” His citrus
+tables are of very thin veneer, and in his atrium his impossible wife
+has actually on display a ponderous golden box in which her husband’s
+first beard is deposited. It is also gossiped about that this crude
+fellow actually pretended sickness lately, merely that he might receive
+condoling friends in bed and display to them the gold chasings on the
+bedstead, the magnificent scarlet coverlets, and proclaim his riches by
+having the mattress steeped in expensive perfumes.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>46. Pet Animals.</b>—One thing more must be stated about the house
+of the Calvi before passing to its human denizens. There are a great
+many tame animals in evidence. Over the doorway one already notes
+the caged magpie. From a dark corner within a large cage blinks a
+morose-looking owl. The master’s fine greyhound has a litter of puppies
+which are now scrambling around the peristylium with a special slave to
+look after them. Behind a column is seen gliding a slinky civet. The
+children delight in a small monkey tethered now in the garden. Gratia
+especially has her own beloved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span> lap dog and its personal slave-boy
+custodian. She does not, however, imitate a certain female friend who
+dotes upon snakes, and who has a whole cage of the creatures which she
+often twines about her neck to scare her companions.</p>
+
+<p>So much for the material aspects of a Roman insula and a Roman domus.
+It is time to examine their inhabitants.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IV<br>
+<span class="subhed">ROMAN WOMEN AND ROMAN MARRIAGES</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>47. Honorable Status of Roman Women.</b>—Calvus is the lordly
+senator when his litter swings him down to the Curia by the Old Forum
+to participate in what is still the most venerable council in the
+world, but in his own house his authority is divided. He is not even
+sure that one-half the power is really his. In all private matters his
+sway is shared by his spouse Gratia.</p>
+
+<p>Many are the evils inflicting Imperial Rome, but oppression of women is
+not one of them. By the age of Hadrian it has long since come to pass
+what Cato the Elder sadly predicted three centuries earlier, when Roman
+women were learning the way to freedom: “On the day that women are our
+equals, they will be our masters.”</p>
+
+<p>Roman women are, indeed, excluded from seats in the Senate and from
+the long-defunct right to vote in the public assemblies.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> They
+cannot command armies nor receive governorships, although every now
+and then an angry senator vainly proposes a resolution that governors
+shall not take their wives along with them to their provinces, lest the
+latter constitute themselves the real rulers of the district. Women do
+not act as judges or jurors. Nay more: legally they are under legal
+disabilities calculated to stir the rage of their “equal suffrage”
+sisters of a later day. They have always the status of minors, and are
+subject to the legal control of either father, guardian, or husband to
+their dying hour.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span></p>
+
+<p>All this is true, yet, what of it? The jurists have long ago devised
+fictions of the law whereby the women have practically as complete
+control of their property as have their brothers; and the government
+of the Empire is peculiarly a government of backstairs intrigues and
+of secret influence. What chance have mere men against women in such
+warfare? Custom also assigns to women an amount of freedom in most
+social matters which makes Imperial Rome a feminine paradise that can
+only be matched by Twentieth Century America.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>48. Men Reluctant to Marry.</b>—Long since leaders of the bolder
+sex have had to reason with their fellow citizens on the necessity of
+marriage as a patriotic duty. The pragmatic old censor Quintus Metellus
+in 102 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> delivered a kind of a lay sermon: “If we could
+get along without wives, fellow citizens (<i>Quirites</i>) we should
+all spare ourselves the <i>tedium</i> of marriage, but nature has
+ordained that we can neither live pleasantly with wives, nor exist at
+all without them—therefore let us sacrifice our personal interests
+to those of society.” After him Emperor Augustus enacted stiff laws
+to decrease the alarming number of bachelors, and to give special
+privileges to the parents of three children. This does not prevent
+many prominent Romans from looking upon a wife as a kind of expensive
+bondage often to be shunned altogether.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>49. Rights and Privileges of Married Women.</b>—The great majority
+of all Romans are married. Even the slaves are allowed to join in a
+kind of unofficial wedlock known as <i>contubernium</i>, which only a
+very harsh master will dissolve. As for the free married women they
+go everywhere and do almost everything. No husband’s permission is
+needed when they visit the Forum or theater. They can sue and be sued
+or give testimony in the courts without his intervention. They manage
+their own property. Gratia, for example, is well off in her own right.
+Her estates are in charge of a dapper<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span> young freedman Ephorus, who is
+incessantly visiting her, and who never dreams of taking orders from
+her husband. So long as Gratia is barely faithful to Calvus he has no
+right to complain. He thanks his “Good Genius,” therefore, that things
+are not as in his friend Probus’s house, where the mistress’s factotum
+is suspected of being on altogether too familiar terms with his fair
+employer.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_062" style="max-width: 262px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_062.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">A Roman Matron.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, this freedom is supposed to carry with it corresponding
+responsibilities. Every Roman woman theoretically is responsible for
+her husband’s good name and for the wise ordering of his family. No
+right-minded woman dismisses the hope that at the end they will put
+the great words on her tombstone: “<i>She counselled well. She managed
+well. She spun wool.</i>”</p>
+
+<p>The control of the vast <i>familia</i> of slaves is usually in a
+matron’s hands, a duty calculated to bring out every executive quality
+within her. She largely conducts the education of her sons, no less
+than of her daughters. No Roman is ashamed to admit (as an Athenian
+in Pericles’s day might have been ashamed) that in the great crises
+of life he took the authoritative advice of his mother.<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span> Roman
+civilization is, therefore, for better or worse, a civilization to
+which women no less than men have been suffered to apply the full
+powers of their genius. <i>It is a “hundred per cent civilization”</i>;
+whereas, that of Athens, considering the manner in which Athenian women
+were confined and ignored, was hardly more than a “fifty per cent
+civilization.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>50. Selection of Husbands for Young Girls.</b>—It is a fact,
+however, that in one great and vital matter Roman women are not
+free agents. They usually have their husbands, at least their first
+husbands, chosen for them by their parents. This comes to pass largely
+because usage requires that girls should be married so young that no
+rational romance on their part is really possible.</p>
+
+<p>Custom amounting to law requires that a girl shall be at least twelve,
+and a boy fourteen before marriage. In the case of girls this minimum
+is often adhered to pretty closely, but betrothals can be arranged
+still earlier. Cicero’s daughter Tullia was betrothed at ten and
+married at thirteen—a very common arrangement. Nobody imagined she had
+the least right to complain. Marriage involves a great shift in family
+relations, and the control of the family pertains strictly to the
+<i>pater familias</i> and to his <i>matrona</i>. They will ordinarily
+exercise loving pains in selecting a suitable spouse for a daughter,
+but the decision must be very largely theirs.</p>
+
+<p>Boys as a rule marry much later, often not until well into manhood.
+They can demand inevitably a certain right of choice, although the
+parents still exercise a marked authority. As for bachelors, if they
+indulge in various coarse “affairs” with dancing girls, only very
+peevish persons are critical. After marriage, however, they must treat
+their wives with reasonable outward respect, if by no means always
+with austere faithfulness. In any case a girl is likely to be married
+off<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span> too young either to resist her parents’ choice or to pick out
+intelligently any proper husband for herself.<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>51. A Marriage Treaty among Noble-Folk.</b>—When Gratia’s parents
+decided she was old enough to “become settled” they applied to a
+distinguished kinsman, an ex-consul, to help them to find a suitable
+bridegroom. This noble gentleman looked over a list of his younger
+friends, selected Calvus, and wrote a careful letter commending him,
+praising his lineage, and his firm hopes of official distinction,
+and telling how “he had a frank, open countenance, fresh colored and
+blooming and a handsome well-knit figure”; in short “he was quite
+the fellow to deserve so fine a girl.” The great man went on to add
+that the favored candidate had a respectable fortune, for “though I
+dislike to speak of the financial aspects of the matter, still one must
+consider the tendencies of the day.” Not one word was said as to how
+Gratia herself might want to be consulted; her consent was taken for
+granted.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p>Gratia’s parents, therefore, approached Calvus’s guardian, his uncle.
+He being satisfied as to dowry and social adjustments, both young
+people were informed of what had been determined for them. Gratia
+and Calvus alike had always expected some such arrangement and
+capitulated with reasonable grace. The ensuing marriage, founded not
+on any romance,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span> but on a cold-blooded study of what supposedly made
+for domestic happiness, in this case at least has been fortunate and
+fruitful. The wedded pair have come truly to love one another, and they
+dwell in great harmony. In this general manner marriages are arranged
+every day in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Of course these are first marriages. Let Gratia become a widow, or let
+her imitate so many of her friends and divorce her husband, and her
+second spouse will ordinarily be of quite her own choosing; and Calvus,
+of course, in selecting again, would be completely his own master.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>52. A Betrothal in Wealthy Circles.</b>—Gratia’s daughter Junia
+is only ten, yet her parents are already beginning to think about
+betrothals; but only a block up the street there has just been the
+excitement of an actual wedding. Aulus Statilius Pomponius is only an
+eques, but the gods have blessed him with a hundred million sesterces
+($4,000,000). He and his wife have a daughter who will inherit vast
+possessions, and wealth is a splendid substitute for lineage. They have
+found a young Gaius Ulpius Pollio, already in the Senate, who claims a
+distant cousinship to the Emperor himself. Pollio is none too wealthy
+and is already a widower, but Statilia and her mother are infinitely
+delighted at an alliance with the edges of an imperial house. Nothing
+has lacked, therefore, for an ultra-fashionable wedding, the talk of
+the entire capital.</p>
+
+<p>First came the betrothal, a great social concourse in Pomponius’s
+atrium, a throng of equites and senators with their wives, jewels
+flashing, countless tongues gossiping, with Statilia led in by her
+father to the center of the circle to meet the bridegroom-to-be.
+Statilia said not a word through the entire proceedings. All Pollio’s
+dealings were with her father, and in clear voice the two men exchanged
+the legal formulas: “Do you promise to give your daughter, Statilia to
+me, to be my wedded wife?” said the younger man.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span></p>
+
+<p>“The gods bring luck! I betroth her.”</p>
+
+<p>“The gods bring luck!”</p>
+
+<p>After that technically Statilia became a bride-elect; she was a
+<i>sponsa</i>. Either side had legally the right still to break the
+agreement, but it was socially ruinous to do so. Pollio presented
+Statilia with various valuable toilet articles, and especially with a
+ring to be worn on the third finger of the left hand, because everybody
+said that “a nerve ran directly from this particular finger to the
+heart.” It was the engagement ring of a later age almost precisely.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>53. Adjusting the Dowry.</b>—Then followed weeks of frantic
+preparation: the women busy with the things which always have
+made women busy over weddings long before the days of Romulus and
+Remus; Pomponius and Pollio with wrestling over the very nice legal
+adjustments of Statilia’s dowry. How much would the old eques give
+in all, in cash, land, and banker’s securities? How much for his
+daughter’s special use? How much as <i>dos</i>, the funds which the
+new son-in-law could touch? How could the property be arranged so that
+if the marriage ended presently in a divorce (as spiteful wagers were
+already being laid that it might) the <i>dos</i> could be given back to
+Statilia without grievous loss of principal?</p>
+
+<p>At one time the betrothal almost had to be cancelled, such extreme
+shrewdness was shown on both sides. But finally the matter was
+adjusted. Three noble friends for either side pressed their seal rings
+in witness to the contracts. The day came for the wedding.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>64. Dressing the Bride.</b>—Family exigencies required a
+springtime wedding, when there were a great many unlucky days to be
+avoided; but an expert Etruscan haruspex at length found a day that
+satisfied Statilia and her parents’ scruples. On the night before
+the great event she laid all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span> her playthings, her childish amulet
+(<i>bulla</i>), and her childish garments on the altar of the paternal
+Lares whose protection she was quitting forever. Then she went to bed
+in a <i>tunica recta</i>, a fine, yellow garment woven in one piece,
+supposedly an article of extremely good omen.</p>
+
+<p>The next day the bride was dressed personally by her mother with
+unusual care. However expensive her ornaments she had to wear this
+same one-piece tunic next to her skin, the gown being held around the
+waist by a band of wool tied with a complicated “knot of Hercules.”
+She wore, of course, all the jewels loaded upon neck, ears, arms, and
+fingers which by the contract she was to bring Pollio in her trousseau.
+Her long hair had been parted according to ancient custom by a spear
+into six locks, braided now with ribbons weighted down with pearls.
+Her shoes were of finest white leather covered with more pearls. Over
+her head streamed a long, gauzy flame-colored veil of silk—worth
+very literally more than its weight in gold.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> Pressing down this
+bridal veil was a garland of flowers picked, as custom required, by the
+bride’s own hand, and interspersed with sprigs of the sacred “verbena”
+herbs. Pollio, when he presented himself, was in the best gala costume
+of a senator, but there were no special “wedding garments” for the
+bridegroom, corresponding to the bridal veil.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>55. The Marriage Ceremonies.</b>—The afternoon was at hand, and the
+insulæ in neighboring quarters emptied their plebeian throngs to gaze
+at the gilded litters which went swinging up to the house of Pomponius,
+the armies of scarlet-clad running footmen, the pompous freedmen
+marching beside their patron’s sedans, the bravery of purple robes,
+the flash of gold and of jewels. Of course, the atrium had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span> been hung
+with garlands. The air inside was heavy with the perfumes of flowers,
+of costly unguents, and of the finest Arabian incense, while the noble
+guests elbowed and pushed one another to get near the altar near the
+tablinum and win the best sight of the happy pair.</p>
+
+<p>Roman marriages are pretty strictly civil ceremonies. There is no legal
+requirement for any religious rites. Hardly anybody now is married
+according to the stale old formula of the <i>confarreatio</i>, when the
+betrothed couple became wedded by eating a cake which had just been
+consecrated by the Pontifex Maximus. A much simpler form is now used,
+but before the ceremony there always has to be the sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>Amid a decently pious hush a sheep is led to the side of the water
+tank (<i>impluvium</i>) in the atrium; the shrewd-eyed old haruspex,
+trailing his long robe and muttering jargon that passes for Etruscan,
+is aided by two skillful assistants in killing the creature promptly
+and avoiding disgusting gore; then in ripping open its belly and
+examining with expert eye the still quivering entrails. (See p. 429.)
+It is proper now for Statilia to turn pale and clutch the arm of her
+mother. What if the signs were unfavorable? “Whoever heard of bad omens
+being discovered at a great wedding?” cynically whispers a senator.
+“<i>Bene</i>—good!” announces the haruspex with a leer. “<i>Bene!
+Bene!</i>” echo all the guests. The soothsayer retires. The wedding can
+proceed.</p>
+
+<p>The final ceremony is very simple. First the tablets of the marriage
+contract and the transfer of the dowry are produced, read, and, if not
+already witnessed, are signed by the proper attestors. Then a young
+matron-of-honor, Statilia’s <i>pronuba</i>, leads the bride up to
+Pollio. She thrusts out her hand from under her great veil and takes
+the hand of her husband-elect. Everybody listens while he, and not any
+priest or official for him, puts the direct question: “Will you be my
+<i>mater familias</i>?” “Yes,” answers Statilia, perhaps<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span> a little too
+readily; and then she asks him openly: “And will you be my <i>pater
+familias</i>?” “Yes,” and immediately there is a general shout of
+congratulation.</p>
+
+<p>These decisive words once spoken, Pollio, his bride, and her parents
+unite in placing a cake of coarse bread upon the altar, uttering brief
+dedications of the food to Jupiter and Juno, and also to the quaint
+rural gods Tellus, Picumnus, and Pilumnus who will bless the estates
+of the new couple. The cakes are presented in a basket held by a young
+boy, Statilia’s cousin, her <i>camillus</i>, both of whose parents are
+required to be living. The company now redoubles its cry of “Good luck!
+Good luck! <i>felicitas!</i>”—and everybody is assuredly in excellent
+appetite for the ensuing wedding feast.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>56. The Wedding Procession.</b>—This is not the place for
+describing a great banquet (see p. <a href="#Page_113">113</a>); it is enough here to state
+that Pomponius is obliged to justify his wealth by a prodigal
+hospitality. Vain has proved Augustus’s law limiting the cost of
+wedding feasts to one thousand sesterces ($40). Such regulations win
+only laughter!</p>
+
+<p>As the climax after the dainties comes the distribution of pieces of
+the huge wedding-cake (<i>mustaceum</i>), made of fine meal steeped in
+new wine and served upon bay leaves. By this time everybody has drunk
+enough good Massic and Falernian to be excited and talkative, it has
+become twilight in the street, and Pomponius’s chief freedman (the
+master of ceremonies) gives the signal: “The procession!”</p>
+
+<p>In the vestibule musters a squad of flute players and torch bearers.
+As the music strikes up, good form requires Statilia to cast herself
+into her mother’s arms and weep and scream violently. Good form
+equally requires Pollio to tear her thence with playful violence—“a
+remembrance,” people say, “of the Romans’ rape of the Sabines.”
+Statilia promptly ceases struggling and submits cheerfully to being led
+through the door.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span></p>
+
+<p>The wedding procession is an indispensable part of the ceremony.
+Probably if Pollio lives in another city, some family friend will
+now loan his residence for “leading home the bride.” As it is, the
+bridegroom fortunately possesses a handsome house about a mile distant
+on the Quirinal. For all her wealth Statilia has to walk the entire way.</p>
+
+<p>First go the flute players bringing the crowds out of all the insulæ
+when they cross the Subura; then long files of the younger guests of
+both sexes, talking vivaciously, and flourishing white-thorn torches;
+then the camillus and a youthful assistant bearing ostentatiously the
+bride’s spindle and distaff, token of the household labors presumably
+ahead of her; then the bride herself, led on either hand by a boy both
+of whose parents are living, while a third of like good fortune carries
+a special torch of honor. Pollio himself walks just behind the bride,
+and is kept busy tossing walnuts to all the children in the crowd
+in token of the fact that he has now (for the second time) put away
+childish things. After them, with more flambeaux and in merry disorder,
+taking pains to exhibit their fine robes and jewels, follow all the
+older relatives and friends of both parties. The torchlight, the music,
+the brave colors, and gems gleaming out of the darkness make the scene
+bewitching. No wonder all the gaping crowds join in the marriage shouts
+“Io Talasse!”<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> or in the oft-repeated “Felicitas!”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>57. At the Bridegroom’s House.</b>—The guests and many of the
+spectators fail not also to raise the “Fescinne songs” proper for
+marriage processions; old folk songs very coarse, and interspersed with
+extremely broad quips and personalities. At last the house of Pollio is
+reached. It is a blaze of light from vestibule to garden, and all the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span>
+<i>decuriæ</i> (squads of ten) of slaves are mustered to greet their
+new <i>domina</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At the entrance Statilia stops to wind the door pillars with bits of
+wool, and to touch the door itself with oil and fat, the emblems of
+plenty. She is then promptly <i>lifted</i> over the threshold to avoid
+an ill-omened stumble, and is immediately confronted by her husband who
+has slipped in before her and who now presents her with a cup of water
+and a glowing fire brand, token that she is entitled to the protection
+of his family Lares. Statilia accepts these and in clear voice repeats
+the very ancient and famous marriage formula, “Where thou art Gaius, I
+am Gaia” (<i>Ubi tu Gaius, ego Gaia</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The invited guests now sweep inside and there is more elbowing while
+Statilia produces three silver coins; one of these she gives to her
+husband as emblem of her dowry; one she lays on the altar for the
+Lares of her new home; one she casts back into the street, a gift to
+the “Lares of the Highway” who guarded the door. Then her marriage
+torch is blown out, and tossed away to be scrambled for as emblem of
+supreme good luck by all the younger guests. The matron of honor has
+already arranged the luxurious marriage chamber, and the happy pair
+are led inside and the door shut upon them, while all their friends
+join in the rollicking “nuptial song” just outside the portal. There
+is nothing left now for the guests to do but to go home; all being
+invited, however, to return to Pollio’s house the next day to join in
+a second great feast, with Statilia this time presiding as mistress of
+the establishment.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>58. Honors and Liberties of a Matron.</b>—Before her marriage
+Statilia had been a mere girl, completely controlled by her parents,
+unable to appear in public save under severe restrictions, and
+apparently with hardly a will of her own. The day after entering
+Pollio’s house she finds herself become by one act a noble
+<i>matrona</i>, with the destinies of a huge<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span> retinue of slaves and
+freedmen at her disposal, enjoying a great property, meeting her
+husband’s friends as their equal, going where she pleases, saying what
+she pleases, almost (within wide limits) doing what she pleases.</p>
+
+<p>Abroad in crowds, her dress, the <i>stola matronalis</i>, secures
+the young married woman extreme respect. Every March, she, with
+all the other honorable wives in Rome, enjoys the honors of the
+<i>matronalia</i>, an official festival, kind of “Mother’s day” devoted
+to celebrating the virtues of the gracious heads of each household.
+On this day no less than on her birthday, she receives presents from
+her husband, her family, and all her dependents. Finally, being a
+Senator’s wife, when she comes to die, she probably will be entitled
+to a great state funeral, with a formal eulogy in the Forum as if she
+were a public personage. No wonder that Roman girls yearn eagerly for
+marriage! It is their astonishing emancipation.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>59. Unhappy Marriages and Frivolous Women.</b>—Will a fashionable
+alliance like that of Statilia and Pollio turn out happily? There
+are scoffers even among the friends who bore the torches. Nobody
+expects Pollio (a gay young aristocrat) to prove an example of austere
+faithfulness, although he must never do anything to insult his wife
+publicly. As for Statilia the cynics about the fair sex are very many.
+Long ago Ovid has written, “Every woman may be won if only she’s
+rightly tempted.” If a young wife is light-minded, she has plenty
+of opportunities to acquire lovers, and at the great festivals and
+banquets, at the theaters, gladiator fights, and circuses women have
+every chance to meet intriguing men without interference by their
+husbands.</p>
+
+<p>The very fact that as unmarried girls Roman matrons were denied
+all chance for lawful romances, now makes devious love affairs
+seem all the more racy. Any number of fine ladies have indulged in
+unwise “friendships” with dissolute<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span> actors, public dancers, or even
+gladiators. In many a mansion there is a handsome freedman or even a
+slave who can become extraordinarily familiar with his mistress. There
+are said to be coarse-grained mothers who actually teach their married
+daughters how to push intrigues and to smuggle in or out love-letters
+under the very noses of their husbands; and there are plenty of young
+men, rich, “noble,” and very idle, who spend their time philandering
+with married ladies.</p>
+
+<p>With every deduction and allowance for scandal the number of such
+unsteady women is very great. “What snakes are driving you mad,” cried
+Juvenal, “that you think of taking a wife? Why not leap from a high
+window or from the Æmilian bridge rather than submit to a she-tyrant?”</p>
+
+<p>However, even if women lead lives that are outwardly respectable, there
+are plenty of minor charges against Roman ladies. Some are utterly
+extravagant; haunting the fine shops along the Via Lata and running
+up ruinous bills. Some are laughed at for taking up music, poetry, or
+Greek antiquities as shallow fads and “chattering in a mixture of Latin
+and Greek, and making their tongues go incessantly like a gong.” Some
+are said to take fencing lessons and to waste their days practicing
+on a dummy antagonist with a foil, and learning to handle a shield
+as if intending to join the army. Others are never happy unless they
+know all the latest news: “What the Thracians and the Seres (Chinese)
+are doing”; “Who has just married a notorious widow”; “Whether a
+comet threatens the King of Parthia.” Others are utterly selfish and
+heartless; they will weep at the loss of a pet sparrow, but treat their
+slave girls with hideous brutality, and “let a husband die to save a
+lap-dog’s life.” Worst of all are certain women actually suspected of
+giving their unloved husbands a dose of poison when various reasons
+make a divorce inconvenient.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>60. Divorces, Easy and Frequent.</b>—However, divorce is the
+regular outcome of very many unlucky marriages. Every Roman girl, when
+her parents tell her “We have chosen for you—”; knows in the back
+of her mind: “Marriage will give me freedom. If this wedlock isn’t a
+success, my next husband will probably be my own choosing.”</p>
+
+<p>The first divorce mentioned in Roman history was in 231 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>
+when a certain Ruga put away a truly beloved wife, out of a high sense
+of public duty—because she bore him no children. The public was
+shocked at such action then, but soon it was shocked no longer. Under
+the later Republic lucky was the nobleman or noblewoman who was not
+divorced at least once. Cicero divorced Terentia after a long wedded
+life seemingly because he wanted a new marriage portion; Cato the
+Younger (immaculate Stoic) repudiated his wife to please a friend, then
+calmly took her back again at the friend’s death.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Empire things hardly seem to have become any better. “Trial
+marriages” are not a recognized institution; but surely they exist. It
+is direfully easy for either a man or woman to take the initiative.
+No court proceedings are necessary. “Take away your property!” spoken
+formally and before witnesses is sufficient to break up the household,
+although the more usual method is to “<i>send a messenger</i>”;
+<i>i.e.</i> dispatch a delegation of friends to the other party to
+break the news. Vainly did Augustus try by legislation to make divorces
+less prompt and convenient. The whole proceeding is still grievously
+popular and simple.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, divorced persons are under no stigma in the fashionable set.
+Many a time a couple has separated, married elsewhere, separated again,
+and then resumed the old wedlock. Women are charged with “flitting
+from one home to another, wearing out the bridal veil”; and indeed,
+spicy instances are cited of ladies who boasted “eight husbands<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span> in
+five autumns, a fact worthy of commemoration on their tombs”; or of
+reckoning the years not by the annual consuls but by their annual
+husbands.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>61. Celibacy Common: Old Families Dying Out.</b>—Under such
+conditions what wonder many a rich Roman prefers celibacy! They often
+proclaim the “advantages of childlessness.” Old men of property
+without children are fawned upon with offers of every kind of service.
+Social and even public honors are thrust upon them. Their atria are
+crowded every morning with genteel visitors; their least wishes
+anticipated—all in the desperate hopes that “when their tablets are
+opened” they will have remembered the swarm of lackeys in their wills.
+Indeed, adventurers have been known to go far in Rome by making a false
+show of wealth, concealing the fact they actually have children, and
+“seeming bilious and complaining of indigestion.” Everybody apparently
+will give them favor or credit. It is a familiar scandal.</p>
+
+<p>Under such circumstances what wonder most of the old Republican
+families have died out by the age of Hadrian, that the Calvi feel very
+isolated; and that of the strictly patrician families only the famous
+Cornelii appear now to survive.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>62. Nobler Types of Women.</b>—But do the above stories represent
+the true moral condition of most women in Rome? Certainly not, or
+society could not exist. In the first place such women represent the
+rotten crust of the nobility; the ordinary equestrian and middle-class
+women are still relatively modest and moral, efficient managers, good
+mothers, and, if they are poor, hard workers. In the second place, even
+among the upper Senatorial nobility, there are plenty of matronæ of the
+very best type; true props to their husbands, wise mothers to their
+children, kindly mistresses to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span> their slaves. Gratia has many friends
+whose households are schools of virtue, and many a Roman, from the
+Imperial Augustus down, has confessed that his wife has been his tower
+of strength.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>63. Famous and Devoted Wives.</b>—People still talk of the famous
+Arria, wife of Cæcina Pætus, who, when the Emperor Claudius ordered him
+to commit suicide, and he could hardly pluck up courage for a manly
+exit from life, as an example plunged the dagger in her own breast,
+then held it out to her husband, saying, “Pætus, it doesn’t hurt me.”
+Her own daughter, the younger Arria, and Fannia, the wife of the
+philosopher Helvidius Priscus, grossly murdered by Nero, won hardly
+less reputations for fortitude. Pliny the Younger has recorded a more
+humbly born Italian dame, who, when her husband was suffering from
+incurable ulcers, but lacking the hardihood to kill himself alone, tied
+herself to him and with him jumped into the lake at Larium so that both
+were drowned.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_076" style="max-width: 482px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_076.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Wedded Pair with Camillus</span> (Boy Attendant).</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Fortunately the days of tyrannous emperors seem long since over. Wives
+usually can show their virtue by living for their husbands and not by
+dying with them. Rather lately there passed away an old man, Domitius
+Tullus. Vast was his wealth but it brought him no pleasure; he was so
+crippled and racked in every limb “that he could only enjoy his great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span>
+riches by looking at them. He was so helpless that he had to get others
+to clean and wash his teeth.” He had a young and a very pretty wife;
+but so far from neglecting him or trying to hasten his end, she kept
+him alive for years by extraordinarily faithful personal care. Lately,
+too, the venerable Senator Macrinus has lost his wife, “who if she had
+lived in the good old days would have been counted an exemplary woman.
+They lived together for thirty-nine years, with never a single quarrel
+or disagreement.”<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_077" style="max-width: 407px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_077.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Seated Noblewoman.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>These are simply random cases. Of course, many people know the tribute
+Pliny the Younger paid to his own wife Calpurnia, much younger than
+himself but absolutely devoted to her husband: “She has a keen
+intelligence, she is wonderfully economical, and she loves me.” He went
+on to add that she read all his literary effusions most carefully,
+sat behind a curtain to listen when he gave public recitations before
+a male audience, and that when he had to argue in court had relays
+of runners to keep her informed as to how well he was impressing the
+judges. When the twain were separated she “would embrace his letters as
+though they were himself,” while he (if he got no new letters from her)
+“would read over her old letters and take them up again and again as
+though they were new ones.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>64. The Story of Turia.</b>—One day when Gratia had caught young
+Junia overhearing a very uncanny story of a rich old lady who kept a
+whole troupe of profligate actors for her own private amusement, she
+took her out upon the magnificent avenue of stately tombs along the
+Appian Way to visit the memorial to a venerated ancestress,—a certain
+Turia who had lived in the troubled days of the Second Triumvirate,
+and who by her rare courage, fortitude, and intelligence had saved her
+husband the noble Vespillo from disgrace and death.</p>
+
+<p>Turia’s husband in a long inscription recited how she had saved his
+life in the Civil Wars at sore peril to her own, and how she had lived
+with him afterward in perfect affection and harmony, although, being
+childless, such was her devotion to him that she actually offered
+to let Vespillo divorce her that he might have children by a second
+marriage, promising very literally “to be a sister” to his new wife.
+But her husband repudiated the strange idea with anger: “That you
+should have ever thought it possible we could be separated save by
+death was most horrible to me. The one sorrow that was in store for me
+was that I was destined to survive you.”</p>
+
+<p>And thus the tablet concluded: “You were a faithful and obedient wife;
+you were kind and gracious, sociable and friendly; you were assiduous
+in your spinning; you followed our family and national religious rites
+and admitted no foreign superstitions; you did not dress conspicuously,
+nor make any kind of household display. Your management of our house
+was exemplary; you tended my mother as carefully as if she had been
+your own. You had innumerable other excellencies, common to the best
+type of matrons, but these I mention are peculiarly your own.”<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span></p>
+
+<p>Turia has been dead over a hundred years, but there are still high-born
+women in Rome who are her equals. One of them, Calvilla, has a fine
+young son now about thirteen, who owes an infinite debt to his mother,
+and whom the Emperor will presently select as the heir presumptive to
+the throne. History will call him Marcus Aurelius.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER V<br>
+<span class="subhed">COSTUME AND PERSONAL ADORNMENT</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>65. The Type of Roman Garments.</b>—How is it possible to mention
+Roman women and Roman weddings without thoughts also of Roman costume
+and personal adornment? Seldom, indeed, has there been or will there be
+an age in which fine wearing apparel, and jewelry, and elaborate hair
+dressing can occupy so great a place in the thoughts of both sexes as
+it does in this era of the Roman Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Good clothes and fine rings are in fact so important that if you do
+not possess them, on many social occasions you must hire them. There
+were several guests at Statilia’s wedding who appeared in gala robes
+with handsome jewels to match. With them went attendants who passed
+for confidential freedmen; yet it was whispered they were actually the
+agents of costume purveyors charged to see that every hired banqueting
+gown and topaz-set ring was promptly returned.</p>
+
+<p>Roman garments are like the Greek: they are usually <i>wrapped on</i>,
+they are not like those of a later age which must be <i>put on</i>.
+Pins, buckles, and brooches usually take the place of buttons.
+Sometimes, however, costumes of a different type can be met with in
+the cosmopolitan crowds in the fora. Occasionally are seen Persians
+and Parthians wearing tight-fitting leathern casings around their
+lower limbs, like the articles that another day will style “trousers”;
+and more frequently are met blond or red-headed Gauls wearing
+<i>caracallæ</i>, close-fitting garments with long sleeves, slit down
+in front and reaching to the knee.<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> Such dresses are, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span>
+exceptional. Loose shawl-like apparel prevails in Rome just as with
+nearly all the classical Mediterranean peoples.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_081" style="max-width: 650px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_081.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Romans wearing the Toga.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>66. The Toga, the National Latin Garment.</b>—But Roman tailors
+have never been servile imitators of Sparta or Athens. Long before
+Greek costumers became familiar visitors by the Tiber, the Latin folk
+had found their own national garment—the <i>toga</i>. Every true
+Roman is proud of the right to wear this distinctive garment, and
+its use is prohibited to non-Romans, however princely or wealthy. A
+group of ex-slaves has just come from the prætor, where their master
+has emancipated them—thereby making them Roman citizens. In a body
+they are flocking to the clothiers’<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span> stalls whence they can emerge
+as arrogant <i>togati</i>—lawful members of the imperial race. An
+unfortunate senator has lately been condemned for malfeasance in office
+and sentenced to banishment. It is not the least of his penalty that
+he must also divest himself of his toga: it can never be worn by a
+degraded exile. Clients have to wear this gown <i>de rigueur</i> when
+they visit their patrons in the morning—he would feel insulted if they
+omitted it.</p>
+
+<p>Anybody also having the least official business at the palace must
+wear the toga; and the reigning Hadrian has just issued an edict
+commanding all senators and equites to wear the garment on the city
+streets at all times except when returning from dinner parties; while
+the distinguished rhetorician Titus Castricius has lately delivered a
+public lecture,—probably by imperial request, on “the proper costume
+for senators walking about Rome,” urging obedience to the law. The toga
+in short occupies a place in Roman manners hardly equaled by any other
+garment in any other nation.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, many a client or nobleman, as he dons this mantle,
+inwardly curses the folly of the men of “the good old times” in
+selecting the toga as the national garment. It is very hot, very
+clumsy, very hard to drape around one’s self without expert assistance.</p>
+
+<p>Everybody knows the story of old Cincinnatus, how when he was out
+plowing and the committee of Senators suddenly appeared to say, “You
+are named dictator; make haste to save the imperilled army”, would
+not receive them until his wife had run and fetched his toga and he
+was suitably clad. In his day, however, the toga was almost the only
+garment worn and was hardly more than a small-sized woolen shawl. Now
+one always wears a <i>tunica</i> as a house and undergarment, and the
+toga has been growing ever larger and more elaborate. Dandies still
+wear togas so huge as to justify Cicero’s sneer: “They wrap themselves
+in <i>sails</i> not in togas.” But even for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span> decent citizens the
+garment is disagreeably complicated. The use thereof is one of the
+penalties for the splendid right to boast, “Civis Romanus sum!”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>67. Varieties of Togas.</b>—The normal toga is always of wool
+and is usually of a dull white, the natural color of the wool; but
+in the Republican days seekers for election to public office would
+have their togas bleached to a conspicuous snowy whiteness, and hence
+their name, <i>Candidati</i>—“extra-white” men. Boys wear the <i>toga
+prætexta</i>, a toga with an elaborately embroidered purple hem. When
+they put this off on reaching manhood (fourteen to sixteen) they
+proudly assume the pure white toga, inwardly hoping, however, that
+they can some day reappear in the <i>prætexta</i>—for it is also the
+official robe of the high “curule” magistrates.</p>
+
+<p>More glorious still is the <i>toga picta</i> entirely of purple and
+with gold embroidery, which can be worn by great officials while they
+are presiding over public games, and which is used by the Emperors
+on all state occasions. Quite different, of course, is the gloomy
+<i>toga pulla</i>, dyed to some dark color, and worn as mourning or to
+excite sympathy in some threatened calamity; <i>e.g.</i> if one is the
+defendant in a dangerous lawsuit.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>68. Draping the Toga.</b>—The plain white toga, however, suffices
+in most cases for most Romans. Of course, there is a vast difference
+between the dirty shawls not without moth holes, which some of Calvus’s
+clients have thrown around them the morning we visit his mansion, and
+the garment which his special valet, Parmenio, drapes about him when
+presently the Senator announces, “I must visit the Forum.”</p>
+
+<p>Parmenio has to be assisted by no less than three other slaves while
+he literally winds the soft white mass of fine Milesian wool around
+his master. When skillfully draped, the toga appears to be an easy and
+elegant garment, leaving<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span> the right arm at liberty, and flowing around
+the person in noble lines implying dignity and deliberation. Well can
+it be called “one of the handsomest dresses ever worn by man”; but who
+can tell the pains required to get the huge semi-circular fabric into
+shape.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+<p>Every fold has to settle with precision; every corner has to trail to
+exactly the right length; and the whole has to be so adjusted that
+Calvus can walk easily without fear of dislocating his toga, although
+it is without brooches or other fastenings. When at last, however, all
+is ready, the results justify the effort. Its wearer appears every inch
+a Senator: one of the leaders of the arrogant imperial race.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>69. The Tunica.</b>—The toga has to be worn everywhere in public,
+but the instant he is back from the hot Forum, Calvus is more than
+glad to fling it off. Indoors he, with all other Romans, wears the
+<i>tunica</i>. The tunic is a comparatively new garment in Italy. In
+early Rome probably the toga was the only clothing worn at all except
+a simple undershirt or loin cloth. The tunic in fact resembles closely
+the Greek <i>chiton</i>,<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> and is made much the same for men and
+for women. It is a kind of long shirt fashioned by sewing two pieces
+of cloth together, with holes for the arms or with short sleeves, and
+secured around the waist by a girdle. Long sleeves (Gallic style) are
+not unknown but they are accounted very effeminate. Without the belt
+the tunic falls well down to the ankles, but it is easily shortened by
+drawing the cloth up<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span> through the girdle and letting it tumble around
+the waist in a loose fold.</p>
+
+<p>In warm weather the tunic is often the only garment that a Roman wears
+indoors. In cold weather he will put a second tunic (or two or three
+extra, as did Augustus) under his outer one. Like the toga the tunic is
+ordinarily made of white wool, the finer the better, but, unlike the
+toga, if the wearer is of the nobility, the tunic is never plain. When
+the owner is an eques a narrow strip of purple (<i>angusticlavia</i>),
+if a senator a broad strip (<i>laticlavia</i>), runs down the entire
+length of the garment both behind and in front. This is the official
+token of his rank, that all men may reverence his nobility, and one of
+the chief tasks of a great man’s valets is to hang the toga so that the
+purple strips on the tunic will always peep out conspicuously from the
+undergarment.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>70. Capes, Cloaks, and Gala Garments.</b>—The toga and the tunic
+are the two standard male garments in peace times, but they do not meet
+every requirement. On festival days, unless the imperial edict is very
+strictly enforced, most of the younger citizens will be seen streaming
+to the theater or circus in the <i>lacerna</i>. This, at first, was
+merely a short sleeveless mantle of light stuff thrown over the toga to
+protect against dust or rain. Presently it was made into a more festive
+garment, usually of brilliantly dyed wool, and was substituted for the
+toga outright. There is a hood usually attached and it is convenient,
+therefore, to wear the lacerna if one is not anxious to be recognized
+on the streets; it is so very easy to conceal one’s face.</p>
+
+<p>In bad weather, and with poor country people in general, however,
+the <i>pænula</i> is more useful. This is much like the lacerna, a
+sleeveless (“Shaker”) cloak or cape, also provided with a hood, but
+always made of coarse heavy material. Most travelers wear the pænula,
+and it is a common garment for the slaves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span></p>
+
+<p>Like the pænula in turn is a third type of swinging cloak, but usually
+cut shorter,—the <i>sagum</i>, issued to soldiers. Sometimes it is
+of rough material for the severest purposes, sometimes it is a truly
+elegant garment for officers, floating in bright colors over flashing
+armor. The generals wear a special sagum of conspicuous red, the
+<i>paludamentum</i>. The sagum is, in fact, so decidedly the military
+cloak that the phrase “changing the toga for the sagum” has become a
+regular way of saying “being suddenly called to arms.”</p>
+
+<p>One can see many Oriental and Greek-style garments in Rome, but
+native gentlemen have only one other article of apparel that must
+be mentioned. Everybody ought to keep a gauzy and brilliantly dyed
+<i>synthesis</i> for indoor wear at formal dinner parties, to wear over
+the tunic. It can never be worn outdoors except during the jolly riot
+of the Saturnalia, but indoors it is light, comfortable, and a fine
+contrast to the heavy togas. Saffron, amethystine, and azure are the
+favorite colors, and at ultra-fashionable parties it is good form for
+a male guest to rise between courses and put on a new synthesis of a
+different hue, held ready by his slaves.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>71. Garments of Women: the <i>Stola</i> and the
+<i>Palla</i>.</b>—Calvus, of course, keeps many specimens of all
+these garments in his wardrobe. The average poor citizen gets along
+with a toga, a tunic or two, and probably a pænula. Gratia’s clothes
+chests and presses are inevitably more ample than her husband’s, but
+the garments of a Roman lady resemble those of a Greek—they are far
+more like the masculine garments than are those of women of a later
+age. Gratia really seldom wears any save three kinds of garments: her
+tunics, her stolæ, and her pallæ.</p>
+
+<p>Roman ladies anxious about their figures cannot squeeze themselves
+with corsets, but sometimes they do wear bands of soft leather pressed
+tightly around their bodies. Then comes the tunic, extremely like the
+inner tunic worn by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span> men, but it fits the body rather more closely;
+sometimes it has no sleeves, and it falls only to the knee and it
+needs no belt. Over this single garment is the essential dress of the
+Roman matrona, her <i>stola</i>. It is decidedly more elaborate than
+the outer tunic of the men. In the main it is not sewn, but is held
+together by a whole series of clasps and pins—giving an admirable
+opportunity for the display of gem-set buckles. There is a girdle,
+passing high, above the waist; the many folds tumble to the feet, but
+at the very bottom there is an embroidered flounce or hem, and with
+noble women at least this flounce is always of purple as is the border
+around the neck.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_087" style="max-width: 262px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_087.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">A Roman Matron</span>: showing the <i>stola</i> and
+<i>palla</i>.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Like the toga, the stola is an extremely ample garment, giving its
+owner a chance to display innumerable graceful folds; and like the
+toga, good taste requires that it should usually be of clear white. To
+wear the stola is the proud privilege of Roman matrons, and in it no
+woman of light character is permitted to flaunt herself.<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> Girls put
+on the stola immediately<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span> after their marriage, and even more than the
+toga it is a garment of grace, permitting beautiful poses of statuesque
+dignity.</p>
+
+<p>Outdoors a Roman lady will wrap herself in her <i>palla</i>. This
+is merely a large shawl, although often with elaborate arrangement.
+Gratia’s maids usually throw one third of its length over her left
+shoulder, letting the end trail almost to her feet, while the remainder
+is carried behind the back and wound skilfully around the wearer,
+although if a head covering is needed, one can draw up some of the
+cloth and form a loose and convenient hood.</p>
+
+<p>Every woman in Rome possesses a palla; and the wealthy, of course, own
+whole arsenals of them in every possible size, weight, material, color,
+and embroidery, suitable for all purposes from winter travel to snaring
+susceptible youths beside one in the theater.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>72. Materials for Garments. Wool and Silk.</b>—So much for the
+types of garments. Needless to say that their fabrics and details are
+infinite. <i>Wool</i> is still the standard material. Even now “in
+these degenerate days” the best Roman matrons keep the spindles and
+distaffs working with their maids in the peristylia, and make up a
+large part of all the coarser garments needed by the household. Calvus
+takes pride in wearing and exhibiting a really handsome toga and in
+telling his friends “my Gratia made that”; but various other senators
+can utter like boasts, their wives merely imitating such empresses as
+Livia, who wove all Augustus’s everyday garments.</p>
+
+<p>On the great villa estates the slaves are kept from busy idleness in
+winter by weaving cloth, not merely for themselves, but for their
+masters’ families in the city. But such fabrics, ordinarily, are
+decidedly coarse. There are really fine woolens made in southern Italy,
+but the very best comes from the East. “Milesian wool” is a trade name
+in every market,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span> though very likely much of it actually is from Tyre,
+Sidon, or Alexandria. A good deal of linen is woven up into comfortable
+house dresses. Enough cotton comes in from the Orient to make it no
+rarity for superior garments, but it is too scarce for any common use.
+What every Roman of fashion dotes upon, however, is <i>silk</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Far away in the East is a half-mythical land, <i>Serica</i> or
+<i>Seres</i>. Hardly any European has ever penetrated there,<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> but
+caravan traders pass along small parcels of a wonderful material
+alleged to grow on trees. Garments made thereof are incomparably
+lovely; but the material is worth its full weight in gold or even
+more. As a result the stuff is spun up into the flimsiest and gauziest
+gala dresses imaginable, and these are often partly made of cotton.
+Seneca has written in disgust “We see silken garments, if indeed, they
+can be called ‘garments’ which neither afford protection to the body,
+nor concealment to modesty.” For all that women like Statilia and her
+mother will be miserable if they have not plenty of “Serician tissues”
+wherewith to float into the Amphitheater or Circus and dazzle their
+rivals in a city where, as complains Juvenal: “Everybody always dresses
+above his means.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>73. Styles of Arranging Garments. Fullers and Cleaners.</b>—With
+garments so simple in their sewing as togas and stolas there is little
+call in Rome for exclusive tailoring establishments or for fashionable
+makers of “gowns.” Practically all purchased clothing, however costly,
+is “ready-made,” although the shifting styles in girding, arranging the
+folds, buckles, etc., are infinite. For example, there is a special
+arrangement of the toga in peculiarly ample folds known as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span> the
+“Gabinian cincture,” and this form is practically required every time a
+man joins in an important sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>If, nevertheless, the dressmaker’s skill is simple, there is constant
+demand for that of the <i>cleaner’s</i>, whose art is brought to great
+perfection. The huge squares of fine woolen seem continually going
+to or coming from the fullers’ establishments. The fullers pass for
+peculiarly jovial, friendly people, and the “jolly fuller” is a stock
+character in comedy.</p>
+
+<p>Soap is a Gallic invention and it is just coming into fairly common
+use. Garments are still cleansed, however, with “fuller’s meal,” a
+kind of alkaline earth. Wherever you go around the humbler parts of
+Rome you hear a monotonous song being trolled over and over, and
+coming usually from a pungently smelling establishment. It is the
+fullers’ <i>tripudium</i> (“three step”), sung as they tread out the
+clothes in the great vats all day long. After the direct cleaning, a
+fine garment has to be recarded to bring up the soft nap, then it is
+carefully smoothed in a large wooden press with powerful screws.<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>
+Every household can do its own laundry work, but in no later age will
+the “cleaner” reign with the supremacy which he enjoys in Rome. His
+justification comes when, at great public assemblies, thousands of
+togas and stolas veritably shine under the Italian sun like newly
+fallen snow.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>74. Barber Shops. The Revived Wearing of Beards.</b>—Rome, too, is
+a city of barbers. Their shops abound everywhere and are great places
+for lounging and gossip. Most men have their hair clipped quite short,
+although a good many dandies delight in wearing fringes or rows of
+short crisped curls (as did Nero) often reeking with pomatum. People
+who dislike appearing old sometimes use black hair dye; and not a few
+elderly senators are said to wear wigs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_091" style="max-width: 676px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_091.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Scene before a Barber Shop.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>The barber shops, however, have recently received a terrific blow; and
+loud is the lament of the entire profession shared in by all those
+private “house barbers” who care for the wealthy. Since not long after
+300 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Romans have been smooth shaven, beards ordinarily
+being counted the sign of rusticity or of poverty; although teachers
+of philosophy wore long whiskers as a kind of professional badge. The
+day when a youth shaved off his first beard was celebrated almost as
+elaborately as the day he assumed the pure white “manly” toga. But to
+general consternation the reigning Emperor Hadrian, in his passionate
+admiration for Periclean Athens, has astonished all Rome by appearing
+with a full beard. Of course, every courtier and government official
+has loyally imitated him. Of course, every senator and eques has with
+equal loyalty done likewise. Feminine protests have been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span> utterly
+vain. Beards, sometimes closely trimmed, sometimes long and venerable,
+have blossomed on almost every manly chin across the entire Empire.
+Imperial Rome will henceforth continue bearded until the era of
+Constantine, nearly two hundred years, when the razor will suddenly
+resume its sway. Such is the power of Cæsarian example!</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_092" style="max-width: 750px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_092.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Roman Female Heads</span>: showing elaborate
+arrangement of the hair.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p><b>75. Fashions in Women’s Hairdressing. Hair Ornaments.</b>—If the
+barbers are unhappy, their gentler rivals, the <i>ornatrices</i>, who
+dress the hair of ladies, still reign in full glory. No Roman girl
+dreams of cutting off her hair, but the modes of arranging it are, as
+says Ovid, “More numerous than the leaves on the oak or the bees on
+Mount Hybla.” Fashions come and go with astonishing rapidity, and we
+have seen how Gratia’s statue was devised so that a new coiffure could
+be substituted for the old (see p. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>).</p>
+
+<p>As a rule young girls bind back their hair in simple coils or clusters
+of curls, but some of the styles permitted to them from the moment
+they become matrons defy easy description. The prevailing mode rather
+favors building up the hair in an elaborate semi-circular mound in
+front with ringlets and plaits behind; but many a lady appears with
+a perfect tower-like structure that would collapse instantly were it
+not an affair compacted with extreme art. Of course, such edifices put
+a premium on false hair, preferably blonde from Germany, or even on
+wigs. Auburn hair, however, is extremely fashionable, and many a lady
+buys the expensive “Batavian caustic” supposed to bleach to the proper
+shade. Even very modest women can rejoice in great treasure chests of
+hair ornaments, elaborate hair pins, and combs made of precious metal
+or fine boxwood, ivory, and tortoise shell; besides all kinds of snoods
+and wimples usually of scarlet, amethystine, or ivory. Noble dames
+will keep at least one <i>diadem</i>, a long band of golden chains set
+with as many pearls and jewels as possible. On simple social occasions
+they will wear<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span> their hair in a net of gold thread. As for the very
+wealthy, they have one simple and favorite method of displaying their
+riches—that of bidding their maids, almost every day, to sprinkle the
+whole coiffure liberally with pure gold dust.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>76. Elaborate Toilets.</b>—Needless to say, the toilet is, to
+ladies of fashion, a slow and serious business, consuming most of the
+morning.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> Statilia’s mother, for example, who is now old enough to
+have to guard her complexion, has as her first duty that of suffering
+her maidens to peel off the thick layer of cosmetic paste smeared upon
+her face ere retiring. She complains that her husband is stingy because
+he will not let her imitate Poppæa (Nero’s Empress), who took a bath in
+asses’ milk every morning to improve her looks.</p>
+
+<p>Such a lady, of course, requires two maids to dress her and to pile the
+masses of hair upon her head; the pair being supported and directed by
+an old freedwoman who “assists at the council,” skilfully improves and
+flatters, and who perhaps can do something to assuage the domina’s fury
+if the latter’s silver mirror reveals a misplaced curl, and she stabs
+the clumsy maid’s arm with a sharp hairpin, or even shrieks out in
+wrath “Bring in the whipper!”</p>
+
+<p>Blessed with such “tiers and storys” upon their heads, Roman women
+seldom need anything else out-of-doors except a veil or hood in extreme
+heat or bad weather. There are no milliners’ shops along the Via
+Lata or Vicus Tuscus. The men likewise seldom bother about hats, and
+everybody on normal days goes about town bareheaded, although travelers
+have the hoods upon their pænulas. Workingmen, however, who are
+continually exposed to the weather, wear small conical felt hats—the
+pilei; and travelers who find hoods<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span> irksome can keep off the sun by a
+comfortable broad-brimmed hat, the <i>petasus</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>77. Sandals and Shoes.</b>—Shoes, however, are more necessary and
+nobody but a slave goes barefooted around the streets. In the house
+nevertheless it is sufficient to wear very light and simple sandals,
+mere leather soles fastened to the foot with thongs; and even these are
+laid aside when you stretch out on the couch for meals. To “call for
+your sandals” is the same thing as “leaving the table.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_095" style="max-width: 437px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_095.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Sandals.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Outdoors one often puts on the <i>calceus</i>, which is practically
+like the shoe of other ages, although fastened not so much by lacings
+as by a complicated system of straps. Women’s shoes are much like
+men’s, although inevitably lighter and more often made of brightly
+colored leathers. High magistrates are proud to wear red “Patrician
+shoes” with an extra elaborate scheme of bands and an ivory ornament
+“C” conspicuous upon the outside of the ankle.<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> Ordinary senators
+wear red shoes without the “C”; and equites a kind of tall boot
+recalling the days when to be an eques really implied being a horseman.
+Soldiers naturally clatter about in hob-nailed <i>caligæ</i>, ponderous
+sandals with such heavy straps and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span> thongs that they become practically
+marching boots. As for stockings, they are all but unknown in Rome.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>78. The Mania for Jewels and Rings.</b>—But what dandy and what
+fashionable woman is content to appear merely with the standard
+quantity of clothing? The mania for jewelry is inordinate. Teachers of
+oratory have to warn their pupils as did the great Quintilian that “the
+hand [of a good public speaker] should not be covered with rings, and
+especially these should not be set below the middle joint.” Exquisites
+of both sexes, in fact, often wear half a dozen rings at once; all with
+as fine jewels as possible, and with a separate “light” set of rings
+for summer, and a “heavy” set for winter.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_096" style="max-width: 285px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_096.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Roman Jewelry and Ornaments.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>The jewelry work is, of course, exquisite. In the best shops by
+the Campus Martius can be seen rings of magnificent chasing and
+carving, set with onyx, sard, banded agate, amethyst, ruby, and
+sapphire,<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>—some plain,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span> some engraved, and all of a beauty which
+any later age can envy. Inevitably there are pendants, coronets, and
+innumerable brooches, and buckles every whit as fine.</p>
+
+<p>In addition, every Roman of equestrian or senatorial rank will wear
+with pride one perfectly <i>plain</i> gold ring (like a later wedding
+ring) as the token of his own nobility, and as the memorial of a time
+when a simple gold ring was the sign of real wealth. Every person of
+consequence also will wear a special signet ring, often an intaglio cut
+with some mythological character. The impression of this frequently
+takes the place of a personal signature, and the illicit use of such a
+ring constitutes the gravest kind of forgery.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>79. Pearls in Enormous Favor.</b>—Time fails to speak of the
+beautiful cameos, intaglios, engraved medals, and huge engraved
+gems which are the triumphs of the lapidaries, and which many rich
+connoisseurs put in their collections; but one must not omit certain
+precious objects which Romans seem to prize above all others:
+<i>pearls</i>. The more pearls apparently that the fashionable can
+spangle upon shoes, dress, fingers, and (for women) upon the hair, the
+better. The great jewelers will say that they sell more pearls than all
+the ordinary gems put together.</p>
+
+<p>The imperial councilors protest in vain at the ceaseless export of gold
+to India to pay for the unprofitable imports of pearls from Taprobane
+(Ceylon), but the mania for such gems continues. People still tell
+how Julius Cæsar gave to Servilia, the mother of Marcus Brutus, a
+single weight pearl worth six million sesterces ($240,000); or how
+the inordinately rich Lollia Paulina, one of Caligula’s overnumerous
+wives, appeared at a dinner party, with great pearls spangled over
+her unlovely person worth all together every whit of forty million
+sesterces ($1,600,000).<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> There are no such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span> tantalizing collections
+as hers now in Rome, but many a lady of modest means has in her coffers
+a few pearls large and beautiful; and the cynics declare that in a
+crowd “the sight of a big pearl in a woman’s ear is better than a
+lictor to clear the way for her.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>80. Perfumes: Their Constant Use.</b>—Nevertheless, something
+else is needful for a fine toilet beyond clothes, rings, and pearls,
+namely, perfumes. The old-line Italians were a coarse and hardy folk;
+and later the Orientals, whom slavery or self-interest has brought
+into Italy, have a truly barbaric love for powerful odors. Even modest
+women, therefore, of reputed good taste like Gratia, will appear in
+public charged with scents which another generation would find highly
+unwelcome.</p>
+
+<p>There is no alcohol in which to carry perfumery. The odorous substances
+have to be dissolved in olive oil, making them at best greasy and
+liable to grow flat and obnoxious after a little exposure. But
+perfumery is practically indispensable. Men use it hardly less than do
+women. At fine banquets vials of perfumery are passed among the guests
+to pour over their heads and hands. The foppish youths who wave the
+hair on their heads, and render the rest of their bodies sleek and
+shiny with depilatories, simply reek with strong perfumery.</p>
+
+<p>On almost every important street you can find the little shops, usually
+kept by women, where are sold scented powders, fragrant oils for
+bathers, and the precious bottles of gold, silver, glass, and alabaster
+for the unguents, as well as the standard perfumes themselves.
+Profitless it is to catalogue these last; Pliny the Elder has listed
+twenty-one standard varieties mostly named after favorite flowers
+(<i>e.g.</i> narcissus)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span> or Oriental spices (cinnamon, etc.).<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> Every
+funeral demands its supply of myrrh; every sacrifice a quantity of
+Arabian frankincense. The perfume trade with the East is an important
+factor in Roman commerce, but very many of the popular unguents are
+compounded in Italy. The great city of Capua in Campania grows rich
+by the industry;<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> and the “perfumery interest” is one of the prime
+business elements in the economic life of the Empire. So much for the
+garments and ornaments which typical Romans put upon their persons. It
+is now right to ask concerning a more important matter still—what do
+they have for dinner?</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VI<br>
+<span class="subhed">FOOD AND DRINK. HOW THE DAY IS SPENT. THE DINNER</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>81. Romans Fond of the Table. Gourmandizing. The Famous
+Apicius.</b>—Seldom can there be another age when the importance of
+good eating and drinking occupies the place that it does in Rome.
+Vast numbers of coarse-grained people devoid of the least ability to
+criticize fine bronzes or to comprehend Homer or Virgil can go into
+ecstasies over superior oysters. Epicurean philosophers can argue
+that “the true, the beautiful and the good” are to be as genuinely
+apprehended by the enjoyment of ravishing tastes as by ravishing music.
+Gastronomy has become a kind of supreme science and art, and no slaves
+sell for better prices than truly expert cooks.</p>
+
+<p>Repeatedly huge fortunes have been ruined merely because their
+possessors wished to surpass all rivals with the extravagant
+refinements of gluttony. Since 69 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> and the coming to power
+of the simpler Flavian Cæsars there has been a fortunate decline in
+many absurdities, but there are still plenty of people who admire and
+envy the fame of Apicius, the true example for the gourmand.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_101" style="max-width: 384px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_101.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Roman Banquet Scene.</span> <i>After Von Falke.</i></p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Marcus Apicius flourished in Tiberius’s age; and he developed a
+positive genius for inventing new sources of culinary delight. Every
+quarter of the Roman world was ransacked to find strange objects
+whereon to whet his appetite. In Hadrian’s day people continue to
+eat Apician cakes and Apician sauces, such as are described in his
+encyclopædic cook books. But although he inherited a hundred million
+sesterces<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span> ($4,000,000), at last his steward reported glumly, “You
+have only ten million ($400,000) left.” How was it possible for a true
+gourmand to exist in such poverty?—Apicius, therefore, committed
+suicide rather than live on commonplace fare! Many will tell you that
+he showed the right spirit and that his busts stand as a kind of
+inspiration for dozens of rich epicures in their marble triclinia.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>82. Vitellius, the Imperial Glutton.</b>—One of Apicius’s
+disciples, Vitellius, rose to Empire. In his brief reign
+(April-December 69 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) before Vespasian’s troops killed him,
+he taught his subjects how truly a man can live to eat. He had trained
+himself by the constant use of emetics to devour four heavy meals per
+day.<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> His senatorial friends, obliged to invite him to their houses,
+never dared to offer him a dinner costing less than 400,000 sesterces
+($16,000). His brother gave him a banquet at which were served “2000
+choice fishes and 7000 birds”; but he returned the favor by giving a
+feast at the imperial palace in which he served his favorites with
+“The Shield of Minerva”—a kind of salad-supreme made of “the livers
+of charfish, the brains of pheasants and peacocks, the tongues of
+flamingoes, and the entrails of lampreys.” Warships had been sent as
+far as the Ægean or Spain to round up some of these viands. It was
+lucky for the treasury that his reign was a very short one.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>83. Simple Diet of the Early Romans.</b>—And yet these worthies
+gorged and guzzled in a city whose founders had been famous for their
+abstemiousness. For many a generation even prosperous Romans had lived
+very largely on coarse bread or even on a coarser wheat porridge
+(<i>puls</i>). Wheat porridge was what supplied the brawn and courage
+to the legionaries who brought to ruin Pyrrhus, Hannibal, Philip<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span> of
+Macedon, and Antiochus. They were fortunate if their meal was not made
+of barley, later counted as being barely fit for inferior slaves.</p>
+
+<p>Even senators, we are told, were glad to pick a few green vegetables in
+their gardens to help out the porridge. On feast days there would be a
+little pork or bacon from the hanging rack, and if there was a public
+sacrifice the worshipers might each take home a lump of beef. Such was
+the dietary of the men who originally made possible the fortunes of an
+Apicius, and as late as 174 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> there were no professional
+cooks in Rome. Now, however, there are plenty of purple-fringed
+exquisites who “can tell at first bite whether an oyster comes from
+Circeii, or the Lucerine rocks or clear from Britain; or at one glance
+discover the native shore of a sea-urchin.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_103" style="max-width: 342px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_103.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Grist Mill turned by Horse and filled and emptied by
+a Slave.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>84. Bread and Vegetables.</b>—However, there are still multitudes
+who have to be content with very simple fare, and for them bread in
+some form is (as with all the Mediterranean peoples) very literally
+“the staff of life.” In the great mansions there is, of course, a
+bakehouse for the huge familia, but the bulk of people frequent the
+numerous public bakeries, near which the mills driven by patient
+donkeys or by less patient slaves are incessantly grinding flour.</p>
+
+<p>The standard loaves are made very flat, of moderate size, and about
+two inches thick, their backs often marked with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span> six or eight notches.
+There is a cheap bread of coarse grain (<i>panis sordidus</i>) for the
+humblest; a second quality (<i>panis secundus</i>) for better class
+purchasers, and also the very white and sweet <i>siligineus</i>. You
+ask for “Picenian bread” if you want fine biscuit, and for <i>libæ</i>
+if you desire smaller rolls. At feasts there will be wonderful
+structures of pastry, and by use of honey and chopped fruits sweet
+“cake” truly delectable comes out of many ovens.</p>
+
+<p>Vegetables and fruits can hardly play the part that they will in
+later gastronomy: potatoes, tomatoes, oranges, lemons—all these are
+grievously wanting. But there are admirable cabbages, “the finest
+vegetable in the world,” declared Cato the Elder, and turnips, the
+favorite dish of tough old Manius Curius, conqueror of the Samnites.
+Around Rome, for many miles, are long stretches of profitable truck
+gardens, which send an incessant supply of artichokes, asparagus,
+beans, beets, cucumbers, lentils, melons, onions, peas, and pumpkins
+into the city. A visitor to Rome should promptly accustom himself to
+garlic; and there is a certain fashionable rusticity about garlic
+eaters, as if they were trying to bring back the flavor and odor of
+“the good old times.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>85. Fruits, Olives, Grapes, and Spices.</b>—Italy, of course, is
+an excellent fruit country. In the markets are apples, pears, plums,
+and quinces, besides an abundance of very fine nuts, such as walnuts,
+filberts, and almonds. Peaches, apricots, cherries, and pomegranates
+are familiar, although some of these are rather late introductions to
+the peninsula from the East. Of course, in season there never fail
+magnificent olives and grapes which have abounded in Italy since time
+immemorial.</p>
+
+<p>A great demand exists, too, for all kinds of salad greens; cresses
+and fine lettuce, also edible mallows. Poppy-seed mixed with honey is
+a standard dish for desserts, and such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span> seasonings as anise, fennel,
+mint, and mustard can be bought in all the innumerable little grocery
+shops scattered over Rome. In the larger foodshops can be had likewise
+those Oriental spices in heavy demand by the epicures; and also very
+costly imported fruits, often preserved with great ingenuity in an age
+that knows not the use of canning processes, refrigerating plants, or
+sugar.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>86. Meat and Poultry.</b>—The demand for meat has been steadily
+increasing with the growth of luxury and economic prosperity. Butchers’
+shops abound. Poor people buy goats’ flesh, which, however, is
+completely disdained by the finical. Many citizens nevertheless never
+taste beef or mutton except when it is distributed in the form of a
+sacrifice at some of the great public festivals; and even for the rich
+beef is not in extraordinary favor.</p>
+
+<p>Pork, however, is always popular. The despised Jews never seem to the
+Romans to show their national folly more clearly than in refusing to
+eat thereof. Pork in all forms, especially bacon and pork sausages
+figure in every important banquet; and up in the Apennines in the vast
+acorn forests, uncounted herds of swine are always fattening to satisfy
+the incessant demands of the great capital. Poultry is on the whole in
+greater demand than meat.<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> Squawking coops of common fowl, ducks,
+and geese are on sale at almost every street corner. There is also
+good money in raising upon country preserves quantities of partridges,
+thrushes, and grouse, and even of cranes. In Cicero’s day peacocks made
+a very fashionable dish, and they are still in request, although losing
+their old popularity. Hares, rabbits, venison are comparatively cheap,
+and everybody with a price can buy wild boar at the better purveyors’
+shops.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>87. Fish in Great Demand.</b>—Rome, however, somewhat resembles
+Athens in one particular; the butcher shops are less important than the
+fish dealers’ stalls.<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> Poor people eat salt fish or pickled fish,
+from little sardines to slices of the big <i>cybium</i>, as forming
+frequently the only break in an otherwise vegetarian diet. They also
+make up salt fish with various vegetables and cheese into a kind of
+fishballs. A man of income, however, is unhappy without his fresh
+fish daily. This creates a serious and expensive problem for Rome.
+There are a few eels and pike of good flavor caught right in the Tiber
+between the bridges, but the great fish supply must be brought from a
+distance—often in warm weather without aid of refrigerating plants.
+Frequently along the road from Ostia, and very often down the Via Appia
+clear from Puteoli can be seen large wagons tearing in hot haste. They
+bring not government dispatches but fresh fish that will frequently
+command absurd prices in the city.</p>
+
+<p>Often all kinds of sea-food are transported still alive in small tanks;
+and sometimes the distance whence they can be imported is astonishing.
+The best turbots (large flat fish) come from Ravenna on the Adriatic.
+Eels can be brought in good flavor from Sicily and even from Spain.
+Gourmands go into ecstasies over oysters from Circeii or Baiæ, but of
+late people wishing to astonish their fashionable friends have actually
+claimed to import such shellfish from Britain. The real fish for the
+epicure, notwithstanding, is by common confession the noble mullet. The
+flavor of the best specimens is ravishing, and, for a truly large and
+perfect mullet, the prices paid are astonishing. It is a common story
+that a certain Crispinus, a satellite of Domitian’s, once gave 6000
+sesterces ($240) for a single six-pound mullet; “More than the cost of
+the slave-fisherman!” indignantly exclaimed the outraged Juvenal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span></p>
+
+<p>Many great nobles, however, disdain having to depend on the public
+markets. At their seaside villas they have huge salt-water tanks and
+artificial fishponds; therein mullet, turbot, carp, and eels can be
+bred, fattened, and brought to perfection, and on the day of a feast a
+slave will hurry them up to Rome still gasping.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>88. Olive Oil and Wine: Their Universal Use.</b>—Supplementing
+the salt fish and bread, the poor of the capital, like all genuine
+Mediterranean folk, seldom fail to get their oil and wine. Olives are
+gladly eaten green, ripened, or preserved in great quantities with salt
+or pickle, but their greatest value comes from their oil. To Rome as
+to Athens olive oil is not merely food; it largely takes the place of
+toilet soap, and it supplies also the most common illuminant (see “A
+Day in Old Athens,” p. 177). It is a complete substitute for butter in
+the average dietary, often making dry or moldy bread palatable, and as
+earlier stated (p. 98), it is the basis for most of the ointments and
+perfumery wherein the average citizen delights.</p>
+
+<p>As for drink, practically every Roman has his wine. There are, indeed,
+beverages made from wheat and barley, and also from fermented quince
+juice, but for daily purposes beer and distilled liquors never appear
+at Italian banquets. Cider is sometimes drunk, and a little so-called
+“wine” made from mulberries; but the enormous vineyards existing in
+every part of the country testify to the importance of ordinary grape
+wine.</p>
+
+<p>Vintners’ stalls are almost as common along the streets as bakeries.
+The drink they sell in jars, skins, or small flagons is sometimes
+decidedly resinous after the Greek fashion, and in any case is
+extremely sour, so that a large admixture of honey is often required
+to make the favorite sweet <i>mulsum</i>. In any case only sheer
+barbarians will drink their wine undiluted, and really good wine can
+stand as much as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span> eight parts of water to one of itself without losing
+too much flavor.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>89. Vintages and Varieties of Wine.</b>—There are as many varieties
+of wine as there are regions around the Mediterranean. Each produces
+a vintage that is tolerable, and some are highly select. Your average
+poor plebeian can get a large jug of palatable stuff for a sesterce
+(4 cents). The wealthy will think nothing of paying heavily for
+<i>amphoræ</i> (tall jars) of choice old Setinian (the best wine in
+Italy), or for Falernian, Albanian, or Massic which count next among
+the native vintages. If, however, you are giving a formal dinner
+party, etiquette dictates that at least one imported drink should be
+served. It makes an excellent impression to bring in Chian, Thasian, or
+Lesbian from the Ægean, or even Mareotian from Egypt and the splendid
+Chalybonium from Damascus, the delight of Oriental kings.</p>
+
+<p>In summer time wines, of course, are drunk cold, and at luxurious
+banquets they are even chilled with snow water. In winter, however,
+you will often see a kind of bronze samovar, heated by charcoal, used
+for preparing <i>calda</i>, warm water and wine, heavily charged with
+spices; and at the cheap eating houses the calda counter is often
+thronged, especially on chilly afternoons. Common soldiers, slaves, and
+plebeians of the lowest class have a special beverage all their own,
+namely <i>posca</i>, which is simply vinegar mixed with enough water to
+make it palatable. It probably forms a really refreshing drink, if one
+can acquire the taste for it.<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>Time fails to tell of various rare vintages which are treasured by the
+epicures as if worth their weight in gold. In 121 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> there
+was a wonderful yield of wine called Vina Opimia from the then Consul
+Opimius. By Hadrian’s day<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span> the last drops of this precious liquor have
+long since disappeared, but men still discuss the traditions of its
+nectarous flavor. In every great house the wine cellar retains a number
+of web-covered and dirty glass jars carefully sealed with gypsum, and
+with labels showing that they were laid away perhaps a hundred years
+ago. As for the undesirability of wine-drinking, that idea has hardly
+crossed any man’s head; and Horace in Augustus’s day voiced a universal
+thought when he sang that good wine, “Made the wise confess their
+secret lore; brought hope to anxious souls, and gave the poor strength
+to lift up his horn.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>90. Kitchens and the Niceties of Cookery.</b>—With such attention
+to good eating and drinking a Roman kitchen necessarily requires
+an elaborate equipment. Cook stoves there are none; but there are
+extensive masonry or brick hearths. The charcoal fire heats the stones
+until a broad surface is glowing and ready for remarkable culinary
+achievements. The head cook in Calvus’s house rejoices in a great
+battery of copper utensils often of truly elegant shape; and copper
+ware (more expensive than tin, but far more durable) appears in every
+Roman kitchen. There are pastry molds, dippers, ladles, great spoons,
+little spoons, baking pans for small cakes, in short, everything to
+delight the heart of the housewife of another age.</p>
+
+<p>Nobody expects us to investigate rudely the peculiar dishes evolved in
+the kitchen of a genuine gourmand. Cookery, the disciples of Apicius
+aver, is not a common handicraft, but the noblest of sciences. Only a
+thrice-initiated epicure, a man who has carefully trained his tongue
+to discriminate the least shades of taste, and his fingers to endure
+hot viands so that he may pluck out the morsels at precisely the proper
+temperature, can appreciate many of the refinements.</p>
+
+<p>Calvus laughs, indeed, at a friend of his who lately insisted on
+serving “a wild boar from Lucania caught when the South<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span> wind was
+blowing,” with “honey apples picked under a waning moon,” and
+“lampreys caught just before spawning.” Such people will also explain
+dogmatically that “eggs of oblong shape have better flavor than round
+ones;” and that “after drinking wine the appetite is better stimulated
+by dried ham than by boiled sausage,” or that “it spoils the flavor of
+Massic wine to strain it through linen; but you can clear it by mixing
+with the lees of Falernian and then adding the yolk of a pigeon’s
+egg.”<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> A new dish coming loyally into favor is that to which Hadrian
+is personally so partial—a huge meat pie wherein pheasant, peacock,
+sow’s udder, and wild-boar flesh are all baked up together.</p>
+
+<p>Needless to say many coarse fellows who boast themselves “epicures”
+really are merely gluttons. Their appetites have become simply animal.
+Rome has plenty of twin-brothers to that Santra derided by Martial, who
+at a banquet “asked three times for boar’s neck, four times for the
+loin, then for hare, thrushes, and oysters.” After that he bolted sweet
+cakes, and finally devoid of all decency hid some fruit and a cooked
+dove in the folds of his gown and sneaked home with a small jar of wine!</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>91. A Roman Gentleman’s Morning: Breakfast (<i>jentaculum</i>)
+and the Visit to the Forum.</b>—However, even gluttons like Santra
+spend all the earlier part of the day under conditions of relative
+abstemiousness. Romans never eat three hearty meals a day; they merely
+stay their stomachs until dinner, the event they ordinarily look
+forward to from early morning. In Calvus’s house everybody is supposed
+to rise at gray dawn. Just as the first bars of light are making
+darkness visible a <i>decuria</i> (squad of ten) of slaves under a
+chamberlain (<i>atriensis</i>) brushes down the atrium and peristylium
+before the master and mistress rise and are dressed by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span> their body
+servants. As promptly as possible these noble folk are served, often
+in their chambers, with their breakfast, the <i>jentaculum</i>—merely
+a few pieces of fine bread, sprinkled with salt or dipped in wine, and
+with a few raisins and olives, and a little cheese added. If Calvus is
+now expecting to go on a journey or to put in a hard day debating in
+the Senate, he may however call for some eggs and a cup of heartening
+mulsum.</p>
+
+<p>After that, the clients are let into the atrium, greet their patron
+with their <i>aves</i>, receive his counter greetings, and get their
+money doles for service (see p. <a href="#Page_150">150</a>). Next, upon an ordinary day,
+Calvus calls for one of his second-best togas, and issues forth. If the
+Senate is convening, he, of course, seeks the Curia. If not, he will
+often visit his banker upon the Via Sacra to talk over investments,
+will call at the mansion of a sick friend, will go to witness a will
+for another friend (a very familiar ceremony), or will go to one of the
+Basilicas, where still another friend is arguing a case, and expects
+all his best acquaintance—the more distinguished the better—to sit
+near him and applaud as he makes his points. During all these rounds
+Calvus is, of course, followed by some two dozen clients and freedmen
+as well as by at least as many slaves.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>92. The Afternoon and Dinner-Time. Importance of the Dinner
+(<i>cena</i>).</b>—After that it is near the sixth hour (12
+<span class="allsmcap">M.</span>). All over Rome work ceases almost automatically; the
+poorer classes make for the cook shops or itinerant food venders; while
+people of rank either go home or accept the hospitality of friends for
+the mid-day lunch, the <i>prandium</i>. This is a real meal, although
+taken as informally as possible. The food is mostly cold,—bread,
+salads, olives, cheeses, and meats remaining from last night’s dinner;
+although sometimes there are hot dishes, such as hams and pigs’ heads,
+and a good deal of common wine is drunk.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span></p>
+
+<p>During the next hour everybody who can possibly spare the time takes
+a short siesta. Rome, in fact, in summer seems to have gone to sleep
+under the glaring sun. Then for the humbler folk toil resumes;
+while the fortunate classes make for the great baths where, indeed,
+under the guise of sociability a great deal of real business can be
+transacted. By the ninth hour (3. <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>) Calvus and Gratia
+alike have usually finished all the formal duties for the day and are
+being escorted homeward preparatory to the standard climax of every
+four-and-twenty hours—the dinner.</p>
+
+<p>The dinner (<i>cena</i>) is always eaten at home or at the house of
+some friend. It is so strictly personal an affair that there are
+almost no first-class, handsomely appointed, public restaurants in
+Rome, although there is a superabundance of cheaper eating houses,
+yet many of these close up during the afternoon. There are almost no
+other evening entertainments—no receptions, no balls, no theaters,
+no concerts.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> But Italians in every age have been a sociable,
+talk-loving, gregarious people, and the dinner seems to many of them
+apparently the “be all and end all” of existence.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>93. Dinner Hunters and Parasites (“Shadows”).</b>—Wealthy and
+popular personages never have to bother about the dinner problem; every
+night they can invite whom they desire, or be sure of a summons to a
+congenial board. Plenty of substantial citizens are willing and happy
+to join in a simple family meal in the good old style, the master
+reclining on a couch, with his wife in a somewhat more conventional
+attitude beside him, the younger children sitting on a lower couch, the
+freedmen and more important slaves arranged on benches at a respectful
+distance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span></p>
+
+<p>The city nevertheless abounds in shabby-genteel individuals or social
+climbers who are miserable every afternoon because some senator or an
+eques does not tell them, “Come home to dinner!” For example, there
+is a certain ubiquitous Selius. He hangs about the law courts, and
+if a pleader is rich and noble, is always interrupting with a loud
+“Excellent!” or “How clever!” Some afternoons, however, he is seen
+dragging about, “the picture of misery.” Has his wife just died or his
+steward embezzled? Not so. He “must dine alone at home.” Thus there
+develops a type of high-class parasites, “<i>shadows</i>,” men of thick
+hide and nimble wit who snap at every possible excuse for thrusting
+into a dinner party, and who are willing to pay for the least honored
+place on the couches by becoming the butts of the jests, or by bringing
+laughter on themselves by such feats as swallowing whole cheese cakes
+at a mouthful.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>94. The Standard Dinner Party—Nine Guests.</b>—In Athens in other
+days a delightful informality prevailed at banquets. The number of
+guests was seldom fixed, and it was quite proper to intrude two or
+three more at the last minute. Romans are more grave, methodical, and,
+be it said, more commonplace. The standard size for a dinner party is
+determined by an almost inflexible custom—nine. Three couches, three
+guests to a couch;—that number can concentrate around a single set of
+serving tables, and let everybody mingle easily in the conversation.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, you can get along with fewer guests, but it is the height
+of meanness to have more than three to a couch. For a larger affair
+one must therefore have two or three or more triclinia,—eighteen or
+twenty-seven guests, etc. Unlike Athens, however, it is perfectly
+proper to invite high-born ladies to mixed dinner parties, although
+not to the free and easy drinking bouts that sometimes follow; and
+the women apparently recline on the couches with perfect decorum and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span>
+modesty. Nevertheless, “stag” parties are extremely common, and one
+such, of a very conventional nature, Calvus gave recently in honor of a
+friend, Manlius, who was just departing as <i>proquæstor</i> (assistant
+governor) of Africa.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>95. Preparing the Dinner and Mustering the Guests.</b>—The guests
+were invited by personal greetings at the Forum or Baths of Trajan
+except one who had to be summoned by slave messenger at his home.
+However two places on the couches have been left vacant deliberately
+to let Manlius invite any two acquaintances he desired—a frequent
+prerogative of the guest of honor. The dinner was to be a strictly
+decorous affair, and, therefore, it did not begin before the tenth hour
+(4 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>). If Calvus had desired a carouse, he might have begun
+at 3 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span> in order to get plenty of leeway for a long riotous
+evening; but “early dinners” are ordinarily as great a reproach in Rome
+as “late dinners” will be later.</p>
+
+<p>During the morning while the master-cook was tyrannizing over his
+scullions in the kitchen, and evolving various triumphs in pastry, the
+chamberlain, an upper-slave, was standing whip in hand over a whole
+platoon of lower slaves, giving orders like a centurion: “Sweep and
+scrub the pavement!” “Polish up those pillars!” “Down with all those
+spider webs!” “One of you clean the plain silver ware, and another
+the embossed dishes!” The whole mansion, therefore, was furbished up
+thoroughly, for a few signs of dirt before dinner guests is the most
+disgraceful of shortcomings.</p>
+
+<p>By the tenth hour the triclinium was in perfect order. The three
+elegant sofas with purple cushions embroidered with gold thread were
+arranged around the finest citrus-wood table. Small pillows were
+laid upon the cushions to mark the positions of the feasters and for
+them to thrust under their elbows as they lay and ate. Presently the
+street before the vestibule became jammed with the retinues of the
+eight<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span> guests as each swung up in his litter. Calvus greeted each of
+the invited friends in the atrium, while the bulk of their escorts
+turned back home to return again with torches when the party should be
+over; but each guest was followed into the house by his own special
+valet, who took off his shoes as soon as he stretched himself out upon
+the couch, and then stood by to help Calvus’s servants serve his own
+master. The triclinium was thus a decidedly crowded place, with eight
+strange slaves present, besides a mobilization of all the handsomest
+and most efficient of the house servants.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>96. Arrangement of the Couches: Placing the Guests.</b>—The guests
+were each in the gay <i>synthesis</i> or other gala costume, and
+quite in the mood to obey the grave <i>nomenclater</i>, a handsome
+and experienced slave of the host who pointed out to each his place
+on the couches. This location of feasters, however, was an extremely
+solemn business. How many social feuds have been created by blunders
+concerning it! Nay, if the guest chances to be a public character, a
+certain position is really a matter of legal right to many dignitaries
+and its refusal possibly can give matter for a lawsuit.<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> The three
+couches were set around three sides of the table, the fourth being left
+open for the service. Approaching from the open side that couch to
+the right was reckoned the first (<i>summus</i>), then the middle one
+opposite (<i>medius</i>), then the one on the left (<i>imus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The best place of all was reckoned to be the third position on the
+middle couch “The Consul’s Post,”<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> and here, of course, Manlius
+was consigned. Calvus by custom took the host’s place, on the third
+couch, but nearest the guest of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span> honor. The distribution of the other
+places was a matter for great discrimination, but peace was kept by
+placing the two African gentlemen whom Manlius brought, upon the middle
+couch beside him, and setting the young eques Nepos (the junior of the
+company) at the outer end of the third couch. All nine, therefore,
+spread themselves out unconventionally and chattered about the newest
+jockeys in the circus, while a troupe of slave-boys, half-stripped
+but pomaded and curled, passed around silver bowls of water and fine
+towels for washing and wiping the hands.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> This ceremony happily
+accomplished, a tall upper slave magnificently arrayed nodded from the
+doorway to Calvus that the cook had declared himself ready, and Calvus
+nodded back his approval. The dinner could begin.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_116" style="max-width: 650px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_116.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Nine Guests in a Triclinium.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>97. Serving the Dinner.</b>—The giver of this feast only desired
+a grave and conventional dinner for sedate people, and a strictly
+normal order was followed without epicurean niceties or a low revel
+as a climax. No tablecloths; the serving<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span> boys running to and from
+the kitchen set on the beautiful polished surface of the table before
+the guests first a preliminary course, the <i>gustatio</i>, supposed
+to stimulate the appetite. On silver dishes were served some choice
+crabs, salads, mushrooms, and also eggs. The guests ate these without
+forks, dexterously picking up the food in their fingers. The handsomely
+embossed silver cups were handed about filled with sweet mulsum
+properly diluted in order not to befuddle the intellect; after that
+followed the formal dinner itself.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_117" style="max-width: 399px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_117.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Roman Serving Forks.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>At really elaborate feasts there would be six or even seven courses,
+but Calvus had merely ordered the orthodox number of three—a
+succession of daintily cooked meats and fish tastily garnished with
+vegetables, but with no rarities such as heathcock from Phrygia or
+sturgeon from Rhodes. The honor of the house, however, required that
+every viand should be arranged carefully on its dish, and every dish
+upon its tray by a special slave, the <i>structor</i>, a true artist,
+who also acted as master carver, cutting up a roast of boar with his
+knife keeping time to a flute-player. The mere fact, however, that one
+man was allowed both to arrange the dishes and then to do the carving
+was a sign that Calvus was among the less ostentatious senators.</p>
+
+<p>Between each course water and towels were again passed about, and the
+guests washed their hands. Finally for dessert there was brought on
+a great quantity of curious pastry—artificial oysters and thrushes
+filled with dried grapes and almonds; and a great dish whereon stood
+an image, made of baked dough, of the orchard god Vertumnus, holding a
+pastry apron full of fruits, while heaped around his feet were sweet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span>
+quinces stuck full of almonds, and melons cut into fantastic shapes.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_118" style="max-width: 452px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_118.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Drinking Cup.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>98. The Drinking Bout (<i>Comissatio</i>) after the
+Dinner.</b>—This concluded the regular dinner, but Calvus had invited
+his friends (since Manlius had much to talk about) to stay to a
+<i>comissatio</i>, a social drinking spell afterwards. The nine guests
+rose and adjourned to the host’s private baths, whence, after they had
+refreshed themselves and taken a turn around the colonnades in the
+peristylium, they returned to the triclinium to find that the slaves
+had changed all the couch covers and pillows, had swept the floor, and
+had actually brought in new tables. It was now quite dark, beautiful
+silver lamps gleamed on high against the fretwork of the ceiling and
+on the tall inlaid sideboard stood two great silver tankards; one was
+filled with snow;<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> the other had a charcoal brazier beneath it and
+steamed with hot water.</p>
+
+<p>If Calvus’s party had now been composed of younger merrymakers, some
+one would have called out, “Let’s drink in the ‘Greek style’ and elect
+a king”; and everybody would have joined in throwing dice to select
+the <i>rex</i>, or lord of the revels. That potentate would have been
+obligated to decide how much water was to be mixed with the wine, and
+how<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span> many cups must be drunk to the health of each feaster’s lady love,
+and to arrange the forfeits, riddles, and practical jokes inseparable
+from a jolly evening. If the party had been still more uproarious,
+Spanish dancing girls might have been provided by the host, or a corps
+of pantomimes, acrobats, or farce players, and the whole scene could
+have ended in a very coarse orgy.</p>
+
+<p>In the present case Calvus had decided to let his friends merely drink
+enough to loosen their tongues and to exchange their best wit and
+wisdom. The slaves, therefore, brought in with decent solemnity the
+little images of the family lares, and a small smoking brazier, and
+Calvus cast a trifle of meal and salt and a few drops of wine upon
+the fire. “The gods are propitious!” announced a slave in loud voice,
+after which the guests preserved a reverent silence for an instant, to
+be followed by vigorous conversation the moment the divine images were
+carried out.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>99. Distribution of Garlands and Perfumes. Social
+Conversation.</b>—While one corps of slaves was passing about
+the wine, asking each guest whether “Hot?” or “Cold?” others were
+distributing wreaths of fragrant flowers, to put on the forehead and
+even around the neck (by their odor supposedly preventing drunkenness)
+and also little alabaster vials of choice perfumes which the guests
+immediately broke and poured upon their hands and hair. Then followed
+long conversations, grave or gay according to the mood. Calvus had not
+provided any professional entertainers, but all through the drinking
+a good flute-player and a good harpist hid behind a curtain kept up a
+soft pleasing melody.</p>
+
+<p>While Manlius and the older guests discussed the control of the Moorish
+tribes of Numidia, young Nepos and one or two others found much to say
+about a new “Thracian” who had just fought at the Flavian Amphitheater,
+and presently all the others pressed the host (knowing him to be a
+little vain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span> on the subject) to show some new moves in “robbers”
+(<i>latrunculi</i>, a board game with men extremely like checkers)
+which he had evolved with peculiar pride. It would have been good
+form also to have played at making impromptu verses, or at matching
+riddles, but for a Roman gentleman to indulge in anything like singing
+a song, even before a group of friends, would have been undignified;
+Nero possibly shocked public opinion even more by appearing openly as a
+common theater performer than he did by killing his mother!</p>
+
+<p>At last the evening ended. It was only 8 o’clock by later reckoning;
+but everybody had to be up again by gray dawn. The streets were already
+dark and deserted save by prowlers and the police-watch. “My shoes,
+boy,” called Manlius to his valet. All the other guests imitated him,
+and already their retinues with slaves and torches were crowding in the
+vestibule. The eight diners departed after thanking Calvus. The slaves
+cleared out the triclinium, and quenched the lights. Soon the whole
+domus was asleep.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>100. Elaborate and Vulgar Banquets. Simple Home Dinners.</b>—Such
+was a very decorous and ordinary dinner. It could easily have run
+off to greater follies and vastly greater magnificence, useless to
+describe. Space lacks, also, to describe the magnificent imperial
+banquets at the palace when all the gold, glitter, and luxury of the
+capital is on display. Calvus is no great philosopher, or he might have
+followed the mode and insisted upon his guests conversing solely about
+the “Stoic Conception of Duty”; or the “Immortality of the Soul.”</p>
+
+<p>A host of another type might have imitated certain very mean patrons
+who would invite poor clients to fill up the triclinium and then
+deliberately serve them with cheap wine and coarse scrappy food,
+while the best was being set before himself and the guests of honor.
+Such great men were also equal to pettiness of stationing special
+slaves behind each<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span> less-favored guest to watch lest the latter
+should with his finger nails pick out the gems set in the drinking
+cups. Pliny the Younger has already recorded his emphatic opinion of
+noblemen who will not serve dependents with as good fare as they get
+themselves,—declaring that if the host <i>must</i> economize, he
+should eat and drink nothing better that night than what he gives his
+clients and freedmen.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, many an evening meal is far simpler than the one just
+described. If the triclinium is not full, Calvus and Gratia may
+sometimes offer their near acquaintances merely “some lettuce, three
+snails, two eggs, spelt mixed with honey and snow, olives from Spain,
+cucumbers, onions, and a few like delicacies.” Old Roman simplicity
+still—but every dish will be perfect of its kind, and the cookery
+excellent; and even the modest Calvi are none too fond of this diet
+praised by the philosophers. Rome is not merely the mistress of the
+world, she is the citadel of the gourmands.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VII<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE SOCIAL ORDERS: THE SLAVES</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>101. Enormous Alien Population in Rome. The “Græcules.”</b>—Rome,
+as already discovered, is a city with an enormous cosmopolitan
+population, and in that population is a sadly large proportion of
+drones, parasites, and selfish purveyors to the vices or luxuries of
+the rich. The influx of aliens, of course, impresses one at every turn,
+be the visit to obscure Mercury Street or to the famous Old Forum.
+“The Syrian Orontes (quoting lines of Juvenal hackneyed already) has
+long since poured into the Tiber, bringing its lingo and its manners,
+its flutes and its timbals, and its coarse girls who hang around the
+Circus.”</p>
+
+<p>A large fraction of these invaders, however, are not confessed
+Orientals, but olivine-featured, nimble creatures of very Levantine
+morality who like to be called “Greeks.” The poet, just cited, has
+other familiar lines deriding their suppleness, servility, and
+willingness for any shift promising favor or reward. The self-same
+adventurer is ready to be “grammarian, orator, geometrician, painter,
+trainer, rope-dancer, augur, doctor, or astrologer,” or if you bid
+“‘Græculus’ to mount to heaven—why, to heaven he’ll go!’” They squeeze
+out tears or split with laughter at a sign, and, of course, they
+readily sell themselves for any well-paid villainy.</p>
+
+<p>Do these creatures prosper? If so, Roman citizenship comes next. They
+change their names, assume the toga, and their sons or at least their
+grandsons will be borne along in their high litters toward the Senate
+House. There is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span> another large group of “Conscript Fathers” who,
+Calvus angrily tells Gratia, are only crude Celts from Spain, Gaul,
+or even distant Britain. Another group can only speak Latin with a
+pronounced North African accent. There is even a certain dark-skinned
+“Julius” (a good Roman name surely), who wears his broad purple stripe
+proudly enough, but who,—every one swears,—was born far up the Nile
+in Egypt—“How did he get the Emperor’s favor!” At first thought,
+therefore, Rome seems one of the most democratic cities socially in the
+world.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>102. Strict Divisions of Society. The Régime of
+<i>Status</i>.</b>—But closer acquaintance discloses the fact that
+Roman society is utterly undemocratic. Wealth to be sure can surmount
+many barriers, but even a hundred-million sesterces plus imperial
+patronage cannot <i>quite</i> do everything. The whole Roman Empire
+is founded not on the basis of human brotherhood and equality, but on
+“<i>piety</i>.” “Pious Æneas” is the hero of the national epic poem.
+But what in fact is this piety? Not the rendering of due homage to
+the gods merely, but the bestowing of exact justice upon every man
+according to his <i>status</i>—the great stratum in society in which
+the law has placed him, and whence he can neither rise nor fall without
+important formalities. Are you brought into court? Instantly the
+question is, “What are you?” And on that answer, regardless of guilt or
+innocence, your fate will largely depend.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman Empire in reality is essentially <i>a régime of
+status</i>—giving to every man a certain social and legal due. This
+accent on <i>status</i> has been increasing ever since Augustus founded
+his dominion; and it will intensify even more rapidly down to the very
+end of the Empire.</p>
+
+<p>In the 1,500,000 odd people in Rome, there are these six well-defined
+social classes, each with a distinct legal condition: I. <i>Slaves</i>;
+II. <i>Freedmen</i>; III. <i>Free Provincials</i>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span> IV. <i>Ordinary
+Roman Citizens, or “Plebeians”</i>; V. <i>Equites</i>; VI.
+<i>Senators</i>. In Rome the third class, of course, is necessarily
+small, being made up solely of visitors and resident aliens, some
+of whom, if notables from such free allied towns as Athens, enjoy
+excellent protection and privileges. Nearly all the freedmen are
+technically Roman citizens but are still under certain civil and social
+disabilities. The Plebeians, Equites, and Senators are all reckoned
+officially as “majores,” persons with superior legal rights, however
+much the two upper orders may scorn the one inferior. Socially,
+however, there are many cross sections, with the upper slaves of rich
+noblemen despising the petty tradesmen, who wear moth-eaten togas, and
+the higher “Cæsarians” (slaves at the imperial palace) have been known
+to patronize equites and even senators.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>103. Vast Number of Slaves. Universality of Slavery.</b>—The
+slaves, however, are always officially at the bottom of the human
+ladder. Their number is great, making up close to half, if not quite
+half, of the population of Rome. They are not required to wear a
+special dress.<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> Some years ago it was proposed to order this in the
+Senate, but the motion was voted down: “It would be dangerous to show
+the wretches how numerous they really were.” Ordinarily they go about
+in sad-colored tunics and long cloaks like most of the common citizens,
+or else they wear some bright livery devised by their masters.</p>
+
+<p>Only a few of these unfortunates have Italian countenances and can
+speak Latin without some foreign accent. Plenty of alien adventurers,
+it is true, drift to Rome as willingly, but probably the great bulk
+of the cosmopolitan multitudes everywhere observable, even if free at
+present, come to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span> Latium involuntarily—as slaves imported to wait on
+the masters of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Almost no one has questioned the rightfulness and necessity of slavery.
+Seneca, indeed, has written that no man can be enslaved beyond a
+certain point—his body is his master’s, but his mind is his own.
+Horace has written grandiloquently “Who is truly free? The wise man
+alone; who is stern master of himself.” This sounds well but does not
+alter the practical results of a situation wherein, for example, all
+farm implements are solemnly classified in the handbooks under three
+heads: I. <i>Dumb tools</i>—plows, mattocks, shovels, etc.; II.
+<i>Semi-speaking tools</i>—oxen, asses, etc., that can bellow or bray;
+III. <i>Speaking tools</i>—slaves useful as farm hands.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>104. Power of Master over Slaves.</b>—Until very lately, before
+Hadrian’s time, these “Speaking Tools” have had rather less legal
+protection than may be granted to horses by the “humane” legislation
+of later civilization. The reigning Emperor, however, a remarkable
+innovator, and tinctured with the Stoic philosophy, has lately issued
+an edict that a slave cannot be killed outright by his master without
+some kind of consent by a magistrate.</p>
+
+<p>Every owner of human bipeds has probably grumbled that “discipline is
+now made impossible,” but the new law is of little practical help to
+the slave. His master can still order a punishment so brutal that death
+is certain, and if he should murder a servant, slave witnesses can give
+no valid testimony, and almost no citizen will turn traitor to his
+class and prosecute. Half of Rome, therefore, continues in the absolute
+power and possession of the other half.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>105. The City Slaves and the Country Slaves.</b>—Calvus and Gratia
+have a familia of about one hundred and fifty slaves in their city
+house. Scattered upon their villas there<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span> are always at least as many
+more, but between the <i>city slaves</i> and the <i>rustic slaves</i>
+there is a great gulf fixed. The first class utterly despises the
+latter. The city slaves are mostly soft-handed ministers to their
+owners’ luxuries. The country slaves are toiling farm hands often
+under extremely severe discipline. When the master, attended by a
+great retinue from his town house, sojourns at a villa, squabbling
+and even fights between the two contingents are extremely probable.
+Let a serving boy become too insolent, or a tiring maid fail in her
+duty—the master or mistress can simply order, “Send him or her to the
+villa!” The wretch will then beg instead to be flogged in sheer mercy.
+Banishment to the rustic slave colony seems a mere death in life.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>106. Purchasing a Slave Boy.</b>—In any large city familia,
+the purchase of new slaves to replace vacancies caused by death or
+otherwise is an everyday occurrence. Very lately a new errand boy was
+wanted by Calvus, who could not condescend to purchase such a menial
+in person; and he left the task to a competent freedman, Cleander. The
+latter conscientiously went through the great slave bazaars near the
+fora and especially along the Sæpta Julia, the great porticoes lining
+the Via Lata.</p>
+
+<p>Here any quantity of human bipeds were on sale as in a regular cattle
+market. There were numbers of little stalls or pens with crowds of
+buyers or mere spectators constantly elbowing in and out, and from many
+of them rose a gross fleshly odor as from closely confined animals. At
+the entrance to these pens notices, written on white boards with red
+chalk, recited the nature of the slaves inside, and sometimes the hour
+when they would be sold at auction. Every nationality was represented
+among these vendable commodities—Egyptians, Moors, Arabs, Cilicians,
+Cappadocians, Thracians, Greeks and alleged Greeks, Celts from Gaul,
+Spain, and Britain, and a good many Teutons, fair-haired<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span> creatures
+from beyond the Rhine. They were of both sexes and of all ages, but
+with youths and grown-up girls predominating. As Cleander went about he
+heard a crier announcing that a new coffle of Jews was just being put
+on sale, the results of the latest success of the Emperor’s generals in
+capturing one of the last rebellious strongholds in Palestine.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>107. Traffic in the Slave Pens.</b>—It avails not to dwell on the
+hideous brutality and degrading character of many of the scenes. The
+slave-dealers were men counted the scum of the earth socially, but the
+vast gains from lucky speculation in human flesh drove many shrewd
+scoundrels into the trade. At last Cleander found the stall he desired.
+Several boys from the Black Sea region were about to be knocked down.
+They did not seem so very miserable. Truth to tell their barbarous
+parents had probably sold them in way of regular trade, and the boys
+looked forward to entering a fine Roman familia as a great adventure.</p>
+
+<p>The lads stood in line on raised stones, stripped almost naked and with
+white chalk on their feet as a token that they were for immediate sale.
+Cleander and other would-be purchasers examined them as they might so
+many cattle; felt of their muscles, examined their teeth, and made them
+converse enough to be sure they could speak fair Greek and a little
+Latin. Another buying agent was accompanied by a physician to give the
+proffered merchandise a regular physical examination, and Cleander in
+his turn interrogated the selling clerks very specifically: “Did they
+warrant the health of a certain boy, especially his freedom from fits?
+Was he thievish? Was he prone to run away? Did he get despondent and
+attempt suicide?”<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span></p>
+
+<p>One ill-favored youth was standing with a tall felt hat on his head.
+That implied he was being sold “as is,” without the least warranty; “An
+incorrigible thief” went the whisper, and the great welts on his back
+betrayed repeated whippings. If the sellers failed, however, to “cap”
+their chattels, they had to answer all queries truthfully, and take
+back the slave if he developed various defects within six months. Such
+a liability, however, was hard to enforce. A slave trade involved all
+the points of shrewdness, hard bargaining, and smooth prevarication of
+the proverbial horse trade.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>108. Sale of Slaves.</b>—At last a bell rang. A boy whom Cleander
+had inspected approvingly was stood on a higher block. The glib
+auctioneer began his patter to the little group before him: “The
+lad’s clear-skinned and well-favored from head to foot, a well-bred
+fellow carefully trained for good service. Has a smattering of Greek
+learning—you can educate him for a secretary if you want to. He can
+also sing a bit at dinners—not professionally, but enough to make
+you jolly over your wine.—All this is sheer and simple truth. You’ll
+wait long for another such bargain. Just one point (with a deprecatory
+smirk) I am obliged to warn about—once he <i>did</i> have a lazy fit,
+and hid himself for fear of a lashing,—Well, he’s yours for a mere
+8000 sesterces.” [$320.]<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p>
+
+<p>“Take 2000,” stolidly retorted Cleander, naming the standard price
+for male slaves of no extra qualities. Counter bidding and much
+chaffering followed. All ended when “Crœsus” (slaves were often given
+fancy oriental names) was knocked down to Cleander for 4000 sesterces
+($160), a very fair bargain if the youth had not been praised too<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span>
+extravagantly. On the same errand the freedman also purchased for
+his master a stout Gaul, needed as an expert muleteer on one of the
+farm villas,—such a fellow if at all capable was well worth the 6000
+sesterces asked for him.</p>
+
+<p>The next day, however, it was announced by Gratia that she required
+a first-class lady’s maid, a girl not merely versed in all toilet
+mysteries, but comely to look upon should she have to appear with her
+mistress in public. Such damsels commanded a high price, and Gratia and
+Calvus together condescended to do the shopping. Along the Sæpta Julia
+they visited special booths, from which vulgar idlers were carefully
+excluded, and where human chattels of the superior grades were shown to
+bona fide purchasers.</p>
+
+<p>The dealer whom they visited had handsome slave boys to act as
+statuesque cup bearers and worth up to 100,000 sesterces ($4000)
+apiece; he also had a truly competent physician at the same price; a
+good private schoolmaster; two very expert dancers, and a remarkably
+fine cook just thrown on the market by a bankrupt ex-consul. Girls
+fit for kitchen service could be had in the common stalls as cheap as
+1000 sesterces ($40); but Gratia and her husband had to pay a round
+25,000 ($1000) for a truly pretty little Greek, who was a dexterous
+hair-dresser and who could read aloud to her mistress with a good Attic
+accent.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>109. Size of Slave Households (<i>Familiæ</i>). Slave
+Workmen.</b>—Thus the <i>familia</i> of the Calvi has been made up.
+People complain that owing to the surcease of great wars the supply of
+cheap slaves fit for farm service is running down. Great landowners
+are actually being driven to fall back on free hired labor or a system
+of tenantry; but kidnapping, the sale of children by their barbarian
+parents, the ceaseless petty wars in Africa, Asia, and along the
+Rhine, as well as the sale of slaves born and bred on the Roman farms
+or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span> mansions themselves<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> keep up a sufficient supply for domestic
+service.</p>
+
+<p>The very poor plebeians are, of course, slaveless and servantless, and
+plenty of small tradesmen or minor officials get along with only two or
+three slaves-of-all-work; but it is impossible to be a “somebody” and
+to exist in Rome without <i>at least ten slaves</i>. The social ladder
+and the size of the familiæ ascend together until we find senators and
+very rich equites who boast many more than two hundred in their city
+houses alone. “How many slaves has he got?” is the regular formula
+for asking “What’s his fortune?” In Augustus’s day there was a very
+wealthy freedman who owned 4116 slaves, although the majority of these
+were scattered on his numerous farms; but well known is the story of
+Pedanius Secundus, City Præfect under Nero: One of his slaves murdered
+him, and by the harsh old law making the entire familia liable for the
+killing of its master by one member, all of the slaves in his Roman
+mansion, almost 400 in number, were actually put to death, although his
+farm slaves were spared.</p>
+
+<p>There are many slaves, however, in Rome that are not strictly servants.
+They act as craftsmen and tradesmen of every kind, sometimes hired
+out by their masters to contractors, sometimes working on their
+own account. Custom, though not law, entitles them to a part of
+their earnings; this is their <i>peculium</i> (“special property”)
+and only a very harsh owner will deprive them of it. Indeed it is
+clearly understood that an intelligent slave cannot be expected to
+do his best without a personal incentive. You can even find savings
+banks and really large commercial enterprises run by slaves, often
+put in positions of great trust, but such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span> persons undoubtedly have
+an understanding about being manumitted if they are faithful and
+successful.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_131" style="max-width: 650px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_131.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Slaves working in a Bakery.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>110. Division of Duties and Organization of Slave
+Households.</b>—In Calvus’ house as in every other great mansion one
+is impressed with the multitude of attendants. The master, mistress,
+and their friends are dependent on every kind of menial service. Before
+Calvus rises from bed, he is massaged every morning by an expert
+masseur, and some of his more effeminate friends insist on having not
+walking sticks but handsome slave boys of convenient height always at
+hand, on which to lean as they move about. In a well-ordered mansion,
+indeed, it seems needless really for the master to do much more than
+feed himself and draw his own breath—the servants can do all the rest
+for him!</p>
+
+<p>A familia of one hundred and fifty slaves, such as Calvus’s, requires
+a semi-military organization. Everything should run smoothly. At
+the head of all are the upper slaves, proud, arrogant beings with
+their own body servants, the commissioned officers of the army. The
+<i>procurator</i> (sometimes a freedman), who does the purchasing and
+outside business; the <i>dispensator</i>, who manages the storerooms;
+the <i>atriensis</i>, who acts as general chamberlain, and especially<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span>
+the <i>silentarius</i>, who enforces “silence” and general discipline
+form the heads of this category. They are often petty tyrants, and the
+newcomer Crœsus will have far more to fear from their harshness than
+from Calvus, who will hardly know him by sight.</p>
+
+<p>The staff at large is carefully split up into <i>decuriæ</i> (squads
+of ten) each under its special chief. There are the house cleaners,
+the table retinue, the kitchen force, the chamber boys and maids, the
+keepers of the wardrobes, the master’s valets, the mistress’s maids,
+the special attendants of Calvus’s children, the litter bearers, the
+corps of messengers—each forming a separate contingent. The master,
+too, has several secretaries, expert copyists and readers, and a
+librarian. There are several slave physicians although their duties are
+largely confined to the familia; the masters will call in fashionable
+free professionals for their own serious ills. The two sexes are about
+equally divided, and a great many slaves are respectably if informally
+married,<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> although a familia is anything but a school of social
+virtue.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>111. Discipline in a Well-Ordered Mansion. Long Hours of
+Idleness.</b>—In such a mansion the master and mistress have little
+acquaintance with the lower run of the human beings over whom they
+possess absolute power. Calvus, however, knows his upper servants, his
+favorite valets, and his first secretary, and being a genuinely kindly
+man has come to esteem them and trust them familiarly; and it is the
+same between Gratia and her confidential maids.</p>
+
+<p>The other slaves they treat fairly humanely, all things considered,
+but absolutely impersonally—their presence is to be taken for granted
+like articles of furniture, and their personal problems are ignored.
+In the peristylium there is always posted a bulletin board informing
+the slaves of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span> nights when their master is going out to dinner,
+and although Calvus does not imitate certain very haughty individuals
+by trying to give all his orders through signs and never addressing
+a menial, it is good breeding to speak to ordinary slaves as seldom
+and then as curtly as possible, just as one should not waste words
+addressing a yoke of oxen.</p>
+
+<p>Roman house-slaves have their sorrows but they need not ordinarily fear
+two mortal evils—hunger, or overwork. They have, of course, their own
+dining quarters and are kept on sufficient, if simple rations of meal
+cakes, salt, oil, common wine, and a little fruit. Butcher’s meat they
+seldom touch, except as the kitchen staff get the leavings from the
+banquets, although the upper servants naturally fare more sumptuously.</p>
+
+<p>As for slaves’ working hours, they are absurdly short. Every servant
+has some limited appointed task. When that is finished nothing else
+is expected of him, and to require other duties would not merely make
+the master unpopular with his servants, it would stamp him before his
+equals as an extremely mean and sordid man. Thus, on very many days,
+Calvus’s six litter bearers have absolutely nothing to do. On the many
+nights that he and Gratia dine out the great kitchen staff is concerned
+mainly with the dice-box. The boudoir maids are usually idle from the
+time their mistress is dressed until she must dress again for dinner.
+All this makes for gossiping, gaming, and for the worst kinds of busy
+idleness.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>112. Inevitable Degradation Caused by Slavery. Evil Effect upon
+Masters.</b>—Are these “speaking tools” very miserable? Calvus’s
+familia is not exceptional in that a tolerably kindly relation often
+exists between owner and owned. The Stoic philosophy is making its
+impression, and there are plenty of theoretical arguments that “a slave
+is also a man” and entitled to humane treatment. A master<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span> or mistress
+who is habitually cruel is frowned on socially as might be a man
+accustomed to abuse his horses.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the status of a slave is always morally degrading. He
+feels himself a mere chattel. Whatever he enjoys, he enjoys merely on
+suffrance. Any sort of iniquity is condoned in his mind “if the master
+orders it,” and he is likely to be honest and faithful more through the
+fear of harsh punishment than because of any high ethical motives.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand just because slavery has perforce its brutal,
+soul-destroying elements, it is almost equally evil for the master.
+It is seldom good for a man to have the lives often of hundreds of
+fellow beings in his power; or to be relieved of every possible kind of
+honest exertion by a swarm of officious menials. Furthermore, slavery
+being inevitably so brutal, masters often live in terror of a mutiny by
+the brutes themselves. “<i>So many slaves, so many enemies</i>,” is a
+standard maxim; not always true, but true enough to excuse many horrid
+practices.</p>
+
+<p>The slave revolt led by Spartacus in 73 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> is now half
+forgotten in history, but that rebel gladiator had later several almost
+as successful imitators. Every now and then something happens which
+makes senatorial blood run cold. Only in Trajan’s day there was one
+Lagius Macedo, an ex-prætor, a cruel and overbearing master, indeed,
+who was beaten to death by his slaves while he was bathing at his
+Formiæ villa. The wretches were all crucified, of course, but (as wrote
+Pliny the Younger just after it happened): “You see what we masters
+are exposed to; and nobody can feel safe because he’s an easy and mild
+master; for it’s sheer villainy, not premeditation, that prompts our
+murder.”</p>
+
+<p>Another danger, especially under evil emperors, comes from the
+incessant presence of slaves at the most private affairs of their
+lords, their willingness to tattle, to assist informers, and often to
+help ruin their masters outright in return for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span> freedom and reward.
+“The tongue is the worst part of a bad slave,” runs a familiar saying,
+and even an honest and high-minded man must shudder at the idea of
+having all his intimate doings passed on to delight his enemies.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>113. Punishment of Slaves.</b>—Under these circumstances, and with
+so many slaves who are undoubtedly by origin and nature unreliable if
+not incorrigible, every large house has its small private dungeon, and
+also a low-browed wolfish creature who serves as jailer and official
+“whipper.” Even in Calvus’s house he finds occupation, for in so large
+a familia some luckless boy or maid is often caught loitering or
+pilfering, and gets a dose of the many-lashed scourge—at the orders of
+the upper-slave managers.<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> Under-slaves, indeed, think nothing of a
+lashing beyond its mere pain; there is no disgrace, it is all part of
+one’s lot in life.</p>
+
+<p>There can be much worse things than this in many houses. Servilia, one
+of Gratia’s acquaintances, often beats her tire-women cruelly with the
+flat of her bronze mirror for the most trivial offenses. Ambustus, the
+new ædile, lately ordered a boy to get one hundred stripes merely for
+being slow in bringing hot water. The rich widow Lepidia so enjoys
+having her slaves flogged, that she makes the whipper actually do his
+pitiless work in her dressing room, while she is reading<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span> the “Daily
+Journal” (<i>Acta Diurna</i>, see p. 282) and having her face rouged.
+Many a slave has been whipped to death because of some small folly
+which sent his master or mistress into a rage, and noblemen have been
+known to keep huge flesh-eating carp in their fish ponds, and to toss
+in a recalcitrant slave occasionally to improve the flavor of the fish,
+although such actions disgust all decent people.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>114. Branding of Slaves. <i>Ergastula</i>—Slave Prisons.</b>—If a
+slave’s offense is too great to be rewarded by a mere whipping, and yet
+does not provoke the death penalty, there are plenty of intermediate
+punishments. Toiling around Calvus’s atrium is an ill-favored lad with
+the scars of branding barely healed on his forehead: “FVR” he is marked
+“Thief”)<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a>. He is taking the place of another youth who, to cure
+extreme laziness, has been sent for a month to the “mill gang”—chained
+to the great lever which turns the grist mill and forced to toil all
+day like a hard-driven ass—an excellent cure for idleness.</p>
+
+<p>This fate is not so bad, however, as what befell one of the eques
+Pollio’s valets, a bright clever lad, who foolishly became too pert
+to his master. In a fit of anger Pollio ordered, “Give him six months
+in the <i>ergastulum</i>.” The soft-handed boy was, therefore, not
+merely shipped off to severe farm labor, itself utterly repulsive,
+but was obliged to work in the fields in a chain-gang along with the
+very scum of slave-criminals; always in fetters, lashed by brutish
+keepers themselves slaves, and confined at night in underground prisons
+(<i>ergastula</i>) that were mere kennels.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>115. Death Penalties for Slaves. Pursuit of Runaways.</b>—If
+a slave really deserves death, there are, of course, two standard
+methods of capital punishment, both very degrading<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span> as well as fearful.
+Everybody knows about crucifixion with its hours and perhaps days
+of hideous agony; but more common and nearly as painful is death on
+the <i>furca</i>.<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> The victim’s head is placed at the opening of
+two “V”-shaped beams and his arms tightly lashed upon them; then the
+professional floggers strike the wretch with their loaded whips, the
+leaden balls worked into the thongs making them a terrific weapon,
+until death comes as blessed relief. It has been a long day since there
+has been an execution at Calvus’s house, but some years ago a Spanish
+boy who murdered an upper-servant perished thus under the lash. There
+is, however, a much simpler way of disposing of criminal slaves, one
+bringing a certain return to their masters,—namely, to sell them to
+the givers of public shows to train as gladiators or merely to set in
+the arena to give sport to the bears or lions.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, under such conditions slaves will often try to run away.
+They seldom really succeed, however, unless they are persons of marked
+intelligence and can make off with considerable money. The Roman
+Empire is one vast police unit, unattached strangers are everywhere
+scrutinized carefully and when a slave disappears a reward is promptly
+offered. Only now a crier has gone down Mercury Street, with a crowd
+after him, as he proclaims: “<i>Disappeared from the public baths, a
+boy aged about sixteen. Free and easy habits. Curly hair. Good-looking.
+Answers to name of Giton. A thousand sesterces to anybody haling him
+back to Aulus Sulpicius near the Temple of Ops, or to anyone who will
+betray his whereabouts!</i>”<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p>
+
+<p>If Giton is retaken, he can thank the gods if he is merely flogged
+almost to death, and is not also given a year in the ergastulum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span></p>
+
+<p>Naturally slaves can only testify in court by their master’s consent
+and under torture, although the reigning humane Emperor has just issued
+a decree limiting its use to the last resort. Hadrian, also, contrary
+to the usage in Nero’s day, has ordained that if a man is murdered by
+his slaves, only the slaves near the actual scene of crime are to be
+tormented, and he has actually banished a certain matron, Umbricia, for
+“abusing her slave girls most atrociously for trivial reasons.” All
+this perhaps dimly foreshadows a new day; but what human chattel can
+wait to see the abuses of slavery whittled down by the law across the
+centuries?</p>
+
+<p>Have the slaves along Mercury Street any nearer hope? Possibly. The
+other day many of them saw in the front benches of honor at the
+Circus a man of dignity. His hands glittered with sardonyx rings; his
+lacerna was of Tyrian purple; his shoes were scarlet, his hair reeking
+with costly essences; a great train bowed and cringed to him. But
+his forehead was covered with “numerous white patches like stars”;
+“sticking plaster,” everybody whispered, to cover up the FVR once
+branded on his countenance. He was an ex-slave, an exalted freedman,
+who, a couple of decades before, had stood on the auction block, but
+now was a mighty power in Roman high finance.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE SOCIAL ORDERS: FREEDMEN, PROVINCIALS, PLEBEIANS, AND NOBLES</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>116. Manumission of Slaves Very Common.</b>—A Roman slave’s legal
+position may be miserable, but usually he is not under that fearful
+stigma of race and color weighing upon the slaves of another era. His
+complexion and his brain power do not differ essentially from his
+master’s.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> If he is a Greek or Levantine, often his mental acuteness
+may be greater than that of his lord. An intelligent slave under not
+too harsh a master will devote himself to the latter in every possible
+way, expecting pretty certainly the great reward for faithfulness and
+zealous service—freedom. Of course, many dull hardened wretches,
+especially upon the farms, will die as the toiling chattels they have
+lived; but freedom comes often enough to make manumission something for
+which to hope eagerly.</p>
+
+<p>Often the death of a master is the signal for a grand enfranchisement
+of all the older members of his familia. It costs nothing thus to
+reward faithful service at the expense of your heirs; and it is a fine
+thing to have a long file of newly created freedmen, all wearing the
+tall red caps of “liberty,” march in your funeral procession. Everybody
+will praise your “generosity,” and the freedmen can be expected to
+cherish their lord’s memory. Incidentally, also, there are few better
+ways of punishing a generally incompetent slave than having him
+ostentatiously <i>refused</i> freedom when all his comrades go about
+rejoicing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>117. The Ceremony of Manumission.</b>—Nevertheless, many slaves
+need not wait for their masters to die. They are perhaps suffered to
+work at a trade, and accumulate their “peculium,” and then very likely
+to purchase their own and their wives’ and children’s liberty. With
+rich masters of the better sort, it is also a gracious act at certain
+intervals to select a few extra-deserving slaves and say to them the
+blessed words, “Come with me to the prætor!”</p>
+
+<p>When they are all before the magistrate a solemn legal formality
+is gone through. One of the official lictors steps forward, gives
+a light tap with his rod upon the head of each slave and says
+loudly, “I declare this man is free!” The master laying hold of the
+slave and turning him around, replies, “And I desire that this man
+should be free!” adding a slight blow on the cheek; whereat the
+magistrate declares officially, “And I adjudge that this man is free.”
+This completes the “manumission”; then home the happy “freedman”
+(<i>libertinus</i>) goes to be greeted with the congratulations of his
+former fellow-slaves, showers of sweet cakes, dates, and figs and all
+kinds of humble rejoicings.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>118. The Status of Freedmen. Their Great Success in
+Business.</b>—Henceforth, the ex-slave is the freedman of his former
+master. He takes the first part of his master’s name; thus that
+Cleander, manumitted a few years ago by Publius Junius Calvus, now
+swells about proudly as Publius Junius Cleander. His children will
+henceforth be Junii, no less lawfully than Calvus’s children; with a
+result that the gentile names of some of the proudest houses in Rome
+are now also borne by families perforce acknowledging swart Africans or
+tow-headed Batavians as very near ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>Once escaped from actual slavery a great career in life can open before
+an energetic freedman. If his ex-master is a Roman citizen, he also
+is now a Roman citizen without any naturalization process. True he
+is under a social stigma.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span> Not merely he, but his children also, are
+excluded from the Senate and all the higher offices of the state; but
+an ex-slave is not likely to suffer from thinness of skin. Compelled in
+his youth to use his wits and put forth all his energies, he now often
+possesses abilities, often not very refined or delicate, which carry
+him far in trade, general business, and finance.</p>
+
+<p>Usually before a master manumits a slave it is arranged that he shall
+remain in the mansion as some kind of an invaluable “man of business”
+for handling a large estate. Many a senator is like Cicero, in all
+private affairs completely at the mercy of a confidential <i>alter
+ego</i>, a freedman like Cicero’s able and beloved Tiro. Practically
+every dignitary in Rome will refer his business matters to “my
+freedman,” a shrewd consequential fellow, probably of Græco-Levantine
+origin, who has the right to use his patron’s seal ring, and who knows
+all the family secrets. Supple, obsequious, and indispensable, he is
+certain of a great legacy when his patron dies; and if the patron is
+childless, he often becomes his heir. There are, indeed, plenty of
+cases where a slave-boy who entered a house as a valet, first earned
+freedom, then became a general confidant, and ended not merely with
+inheriting the house itself but with marrying the late owner’s widow.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>119. Humble Types of Freedmen.</b>—Of course, the bulk of freedmen
+have no claim to such expectations. They are petty shop keepers or
+skilled craftsmen. They make up the great bureaus of upper clerks in
+the huge government offices on the Palatine. Everywhere they compete,
+as a rule very successfully, with the free born, and, of course, they
+add to the cosmopolitan multitudes in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>An ex-slave cannot avoid becoming substantially the client of his
+former master. He is supposed to show his patron and his patron’s
+family constant respect and usually a certain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span> amount of service
+without compensation. Thus a while ago Calvus manumitted a very
+faithful slave-physician. It was stipulated that he should continue
+to physic the familia without charge. For a freedman to show himself
+neglectful of these obligations, above all to do anything to injure
+his ex-master, is the depth of depravity. The legal penalties for such
+“ingratitude” are very severe, and in extreme cases the actual act of
+manumission itself can be cancelled.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>120. Wealth and Power of Successful Freedmen.</b>—Nevertheless,
+top-lofty freedmen abound. Their ready wits bring them riches—the
+power before which all the Empire bends. Once more Juvenal describes
+an obnoxious type: “Though I’m born on the Euphrates, a fact which
+the little windows [holes for earrings] in my ears would prove if I
+denied it—yet am I the owner of five shops which bring me in 400,000
+sesterces [$16,000] per year. What better thing does a senator’s robe
+bestow? Therefore, let everybody give way to one who but yesterday
+with the chalked feet of a slave entered our city.” Freedmen, of
+course, get ahead marvellously because nothing is too sordid if only
+it promises gain. “He [a certain freedman],” says Petronius, “started
+with an <i>as</i> [large copper coin], and was always ready to pick a
+<i>quadrans</i> [farthing] out of the filthy mire with his teeth. So
+his wealth grew and grew like a honey comb!”</p>
+
+<p>Very probably, the ideal set before this species of persons is that of
+becoming all-powerful imperial freedmen, such as that pair, Pallas and
+Narcissus, who literally ruled the Roman Empire through their patron,
+Claudius. Trajan and Hadrian have, indeed, greatly reduced the power of
+freedmen around the Palace, turning the great secretarial offices over
+to equites, but there are still ex-slaves in the service of “Cæsar,”
+who have only a little less influence than that mighty Claudius
+Etruscus who died of old age under Domitian after having served six
+Emperors. He<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span> began life in Rome as a slave boy from Smyrna. Tiberius
+manumitted him. He rose to become practically the head of the Treasury.
+His wealth was great, but his integrity matched his vast power, and
+few senators had such commanding influence in the government as he
+possessed.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>121. Importance of Freedmen in a Roman Family.</b>—In such a house
+as that of Calvus there are neither imperial ministers nor miserly
+speculators. The freedmen are honored and trusted members not of the
+slave familia but of the actual “family.” When they are sick Calvus and
+Gratia are greatly concerned, as was Pliny the Younger over the illness
+of his beloved reader, Zosimus. If there is any domestic crisis, their
+counsel is sought and they take a zealous interest in the education of
+their lord’s children.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, on the nearby Flora Street spreads the huge garish
+palace of the ex-slave Athenonius, who won his freedom by catering to a
+foolish master’s worst passions, and then gathered enormous wealth by
+speculating in Egyptian corn. “<i>Freedmen’s riches</i>” have become a
+proverb. Not all freedmen are by any means wealthy, but enough of them
+have risen to the seats of the mighty to make every toiling slave dream
+dreams and see visions of something better than a dishonored, servile
+grave.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>122. The Status of Provincials. The Case of Jesus.</b>—All freedmen
+are Roman citizens, albeit citizens under a formal handicap, but in a
+city like Rome there are always many free persons who are not citizens
+at all—visiting provincials. Every year the Emperors issue some edict
+granting the franchise to a new group of non-citizens, but the numbers
+of the latter in all the provinces of the Empire is still great.<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a>
+At Rome their position is ordinarily comfortable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span> enough, although if
+arrested, they are liable to a more summary trial than Roman citizens
+and in case of famine or public disturbance they are liable to sudden
+expulsion from the city (as Claudius expelled the Jews) without any
+redress. The real disadvantage which they endure is that they cannot
+be appointed to any kind of public office under the Roman government.
+They are also sometimes under a legal handicap in making and enforcing
+commercial contracts; and last but not least in their own provinces
+they cannot “appeal to Cæsar” (if in an “Imperial” province) or to the
+Senate (if in a “Senatorial” province) against the decision, however
+arbitrary, of the Roman governor.</p>
+
+<p>If you search the public records at the great <i>Tabularium</i> (Public
+Record Office) by the Forum, you can find for example the report of the
+trial of a certain Jew, one Christus, who was accused of sedition in
+Judæa, about a hundred years before our visit to Rome. The procurator
+Pilatus yielding to popular clamor had him executed ignominiously by
+crucifixion. This was, of course, within Pilatus’s legal authority.
+Christus was only a provincial and he could take no appeal.</p>
+
+<p>The status of the provincials depends much on whether their communities
+enjoy any treaty with or charter from Rome. Athens and a few other
+favored places are nominally “equal allies” with full rights of
+self-government, and their citizens can claim a favored position among
+the mass of provincials. Other places possess charters giving great
+privileges but revocable in case of gross abuse.</p>
+
+<p>The bulk of the provincials are mere “stipendiaries,” often permitted
+local self-government, but subject to Roman taxation, and to the
+complete jurisdiction of the Roman governor. Under the Empire these
+governors are only by exception corrupt and arbitrary, but their
+decisions must usually be final.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>123. Great Alien Colonies in Rome.</b>—Apart from the great alien
+slave population there are inevitably large groups of resident aliens
+in various parts of the capital. There is a Little Syria, Little Egypt,
+Little Spain, and a Little Greece as surely as in certain great cities
+of a later civilization, but the most famous and conspicuous is the
+great Jewish colony.</p>
+
+<p>This exists mainly in the Trans-Tiber district under the shadow of the
+Janiculum, although Jews are allowed to settle and to do business in
+any section of the city. The total number of free Jews in Rome has been
+set at 35,000 in Augustus’s day, and it received a great reinforcement
+through the captives of Titus, many of whom regained their liberty. The
+Jews are obliged to pay to the Capitoline Jupiter that tribute which
+they formerly paid to their Temple in Jerusalem, but otherwise they
+are not harassed by the government. For the most part, however, they
+are very poor; few of them are great bankers or merchants, but nearly
+all the rest are petty shopkeepers and peddlers—also a great many are
+alleged to increase their living by fortune-telling and by like dubious
+arts.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>124. The Roman Plebeians, the “Mob” (<i>Vulgus</i>).</b>—Greatly
+surpassing the resident aliens in number are inevitably the ordinary
+Roman plebeians. It is a fine thing in the provinces to boast,
+“<i>Civis Romanus sum</i>,” but in the capital many a freedman, many
+an upper-slave of a magnate even, looks down with scorn on a large
+fraction of this “common herd” (<i>grex</i>) that still claims to
+form “the Roman People.” However, if you are really a Roman citizen
+entitled to wear a toga, and to share in the grain doles and other
+public distributions, you can really live on very little. Somehow you
+must find means for the rental of a sleeping garret in an insula,
+but the daytime you can spend hanging around the fora, porticoes,
+or the entrances to the circuses<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span> and gladiator schools, playing
+<i>morra</i> and checkergames (see p. <a href="#Page_205">205</a>); idling in the great public
+baths; frequenting every possible public exhibition in the theater or
+amphitheater and often getting a bare income by toadying most abjectly
+to the rich.</p>
+
+<p>Everybody despises this Roman “mob,” and yet cringes to it. Its yells
+across the circus send the blood from the cheeks of very tyrannous
+emperors. The mild Italian climate renders an existence amid dirt and
+sunshine, eked out by very little labor, decidedly tolerable.<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a>
+Assuredly very many of these “citizens” are simply honest thrifty
+industrialists, trades people, or professional men, holding their
+own stubbornly against the competing slaves, freedmen, and aliens.
+Nevertheless, the proportion of undesirables is dangerously great. Many
+of the idle plebeians are the sons of freedmen, who have inherited
+their parents’ non-Italian vices but who have not been under their
+necessity of hard work and faithfulness; and when one examines the
+moral and social qualities of the alleged heirs of the virtuous
+old-time plebeians the idea of “restoring the Republic,” still
+sighed after by a few aristocratic philosophers, appears absolutely
+laughable.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>125. The Desirability of Roman Citizenship. The Case of St.
+Paul.</b>—It is as contrasted with the status of provincials that
+Roman citizenship still preserves its remarkable value. A citizen can,
+indeed, no longer go to the Republican assemblies to elect magistrates
+and vote on proposed statutes, but he has his personal and property
+rights protected by the best kind of “Quiritian” law. The government is
+never, indeed, iniquitous enough to enact that, as between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span> Roman and
+provincial, the judge must always decide for the former, nevertheless
+the advantages of the citizen are great.</p>
+
+<p>A Roman can command all sorts of protection not open to provincials.
+The judge will almost inevitably be a little prejudiced in his favor.
+If arrested, a citizen can ordinarily demand the right to give bail. It
+is a gross outrage to “examine him by scourging.” He cannot be put to
+torture. If he is finally sentenced to die, he cannot be crucified, but
+ordinarily must be beheaded—a very merciful end. Particularly, unless
+the case is extremely clear, in matters touching his life and status as
+a citizen he can appeal from the decision of a provincial governor to
+“Cæsar” or to the Senate (if in a province governed by that body).</p>
+
+<p>If we visit the Record Office again, this matter is clearly
+illustrated. About twenty-five years after the crucifixion of
+Christus, one of his followers, a certain Paulus, was also arrested
+in Jerusalem on much the same charges of attempted sedition and
+inciting disturbance. But Paulus, when arrested, promptly pleaded his
+Roman citizenship. Vainly the local mob clamored for his life even as
+they had demanded that of Christus. When the local procurator Festus
+hesitated to set him at liberty, the prisoner demanded to be sent to
+Rome—and thither at great trouble and expense he had to be shipped;
+to be tried ultimately before the Prætorian Præfect sitting as Nero’s
+deputy; and the charges were dismissed and he was set at liberty.<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a>
+If he had not been a Roman, assuredly the weak-kneed governor of
+Palestine would have sacrificed him “to please the Jews” just as
+Pilatus sacrificed Christus.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>126. Clientage: Its Oldest Form.</b>—Between the poorest classes
+of plebeians, sleeping within porticoes and despised<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span> by the superior
+slaves, and those dignified well-to-do gentlemen who have almost the
+means to pass as equites, there are, of course, an infinite number of
+social strata. The most important section of the better plebeians is
+undoubtedly to be numbered among the <i>clients</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Clientage is a very old Roman institution. The kings and nobles of
+Rome in the very twilight of history had their clients. Those were
+the days when poor plebeians had little or no legal protection unless
+they enlisted the patronage of a magnate. They entered his <i>gens</i>
+(inner-clan), followed him in war, voted (when they obtained the vote)
+in his interest, assisted him in certain money matters, in short,
+became members of his household although very much better off than the
+slaves. In return the patron was bound to defend their legal rights
+in the courts and to protect them from all forms of outrage. Men were
+proud to confess themselves as clients of a Fabius or an Æmilius. But
+by the end of the Republic the institution had practically disappeared
+in its original form. There was little legal discrimination then
+against poor citizens, and about all the real clients who now remained
+were freedmen, who, as just seen, were bound to be loyal and helpful to
+their <i>patroni</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>127. The New Parasitical Clientage: the Morning
+Salutation.</b>—Now, however, a new and wholly parasitical clientage
+has come into being. Early every morning the clients can be seen
+hurrying down Mercury Street in their hastily donned togas. Sometimes
+a patron lives a great distance across the city; sometimes a fawning
+myrmidon hopes to visit <i>two</i> patrons in the same morning and get
+a double reward. Calvus does not rejoice in a great horde of clients,
+but being a senator his dignity requires that he should maintain
+perhaps a score of them.</p>
+
+<p>These clients are an assorted lot. Some are merely cheap hangers-on,
+some are adventurers visiting Rome and expecting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span> to prosper by earning
+the favor of the great, there is also a mediocre poet who hopes for a
+tidy gift some day because of laudatory verses about his “Rex” and the
+latter’s family, there are several distant relatives of the Calvi, poor
+relations to whom the doles are a form of pension; and finally there
+are two or three men of good family and tolerable incomes who actually
+dance attendance on Calvus just to get a little extra pocket money.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_149" style="max-width: 650px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_149.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Clients gathering in the Rain, before their Patron’s Door.</p>
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><i>After Von Falke.</i></p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>The clients gather in the vestibule at dawn, rubbing their eyes,
+rearranging their hastily donned togas, and each trying to induce the
+not very civil porter to permit him to enter first. At last the word
+is passed to the door that, “The patron is ready.” The valves open;
+the clients swarm inside together. Publius Calvus dressed for the
+morning is standing in the rear of his atrium, just behind the pool of
+the impluvium. At his elbow is his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span> nomenclator, the slave who “knows
+everybody,” to whisper a name in case he should not connect it promptly
+with a face.</p>
+
+<p>“<i>Ave, patrone, ave!</i>” cries each client coming up in turn.
+“<i>Ave, Marce!</i>” or “<i>Sexte!</i>” or “<i>Lucie!</i>” answers
+Calvus with a more or less formal smile.</p>
+
+<p>If his mood is very gracious, each client is allowed to seize his hand,
+and two or three in extra favor are suffered to kiss his cheek. The
+nomenclator meantime prompts him in undertone, “Ask about his wife,”
+“Congratulate him on his niece’s marriage,” etc. And if that evening
+there are not more important guests in view, the senator will delight
+the souls of several by saying affably, “Come to-night to dinner.” The
+clients in any case congratulate themselves that their patron is not
+like some of those very haughty parvenus, who simply hold out their
+hands to be kissed and never speak a word, and who like to be called
+“dominus,” as if their clients were merely slaves.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>128. The Dole to Clients (the <i>Sportula</i>).</b>—After the
+clients will appear more pretentious visitors—equites and fellow
+senators—who call to see Calvus on business. Their own clients are
+probably waiting listlessly in the street, while Calvus’s dependents
+have to stand respectfully near their lord until an upper slave beckons
+them toward the office—the tablinum. He has a list in his hand and
+checks off all present as might a master the pupils in his school,
+and then comes the reward which brought all these toga-wearing gentry
+thither, a distribution of money.</p>
+
+<p>In former years every client had received an actual portion of
+victuals, known as <i>sportula</i> from the “little basket” which
+everybody brought to bear the viands hence. But this custom of
+distributing actual food was inconvenient, and far more pleasing is an
+actual gift of money. Only regularly listed clients can receive this;
+and no client, sick<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span> or lazy, can send a deputy.<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> He must appear in
+person or stand his loss. At length, to every lawful retainer present
+is carefully counted out a hundred <i>quadrantes</i>, small coppers
+(rather under 25 cents), and besides the clients entertain a few hopes
+of a fairly liberal present at New Year’s Day, and at some other
+festivals, and as seen, in a kind of rotation they are invited at broad
+intervals to dinner.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>129. Attendance by Clients in Public. Insults They Must
+Undergo.</b>—After the sportula has been paid, the clients look
+anxiously toward Calvus. Will he tell them, as he does about half of
+the time, “Nothing more to-day,” and let them scatter down the streets?
+Not so; “My litter” he orders. The clients are obliged to march before
+and behind, along with the slaves, helping to elbow aside the crowd,
+while the senator visits other senatorial houses, next his banker at
+the Forum, and then the law courts for a consultation, and so goes his
+round. If he detains the clients through the noon hour, he is obligated
+to give them some kind of luncheon; but he can command the attendance
+of them all even up to the tenth hour, when he may turn them loose to
+refresh themselves in the public Baths of Titus, after they have left
+him perhaps at the more select Baths of Agrippa.</p>
+
+<p>As for the clients invited to Calvus’s dinner, if the fare is plainer
+than on the night of a high banquet, there is at least no insulting
+discrimination. A decent patron and patrona are bound to show
+themselves “friends” of their clients and to keep up a pretence of
+democratic manners. But as stated earlier (see p. <a href="#Page_120">120</a>), many a vulgar
+plutocrat, feeling that he has paid good money to get a proper retinue<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span>
+to follow him to the Forum, delights to insult his clients’ feelings
+when he invites them. The host enjoys his fine white loaf, while the
+client’s is almost too hard to break; the host a splendid lobster
+garnished with asparagus, the client “a crab on a tiny plate hemmed in
+by half an egg”; the lord “noble mushrooms,” the client “toadstools of
+doubtful quality,”—and all other treatment is to match. Yet such is
+the servility and pettiness of many that they will endure all this and
+worse merely in order to boast the next day of “last night when I dined
+with my friend the senator——!” “You think yourself a citizen and the
+guest of a grandee,” cries the indignant poet. “<i>He</i> thinks, and
+he’s nearly right, that you’ve been captured by the fine smell from his
+kitchen.”</p>
+
+<p>Clientage then is a typical institution of imperial Rome—a means for
+letting rich men flatter their desire for a huge company of obsequious
+attendants by trading on the wretched ambition of so many to appear
+to be on familiar terms with the great. It multiplies the horde of
+shabby-genteel persons around the city, and the vast number of those
+who flee from their greatest aversion—honest work.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>130. The Decurions: the Notables of the Chartered Cities.</b>—Above
+the run of clients or even of the better plebeians is the actual
+nobility. Strictly speaking only the senators and equites are reckoned
+in this group, but always in Rome are sojourning a certain number of
+other men who hold themselves decidedly better than any plebeians—the
+<i>decurions</i> from the enfranchised towns covering all Italy and
+dotted over the entire Empire.<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p>
+
+<p>The decurions are the notables of the smaller chartered cities. In
+their own communities they are local senators and enjoy in a small way
+the position of an actual Senator<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span> in Rome.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> Nobody can be elected
+decurion without a reasonable property qualification, in many cities
+100,000 sesterces ($4000), and from their body of wealthy dignitaries
+the local public assemblies still elect (even under the Empire) city
+magistrates, duumvirs, ædiles, etc., who take the place in each
+community of the old consuls and censors of Republican Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Since the loyalty of the population and the popularity of the imperial
+régime often depends on this very influential class of decurions, the
+government makes much of them; allows them high-sounding titles and
+tinsel honors, and any who visit Rome are given social precedence
+directly behind the actual equites. Furthermore, many high Roman nobles
+themselves are proud to be enrolled as patrons and <i>honorary</i>
+decurions of the Italian towns, looking after the interest of their
+client communities in the capital, and, if they visit the smaller
+cities, being received as particular guests of honor. The number of
+decurions, however, in Rome itself is always small, although their
+importance everywhere else in the Empire is vast, and they virtually
+form a third order of nobility.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>131. The Equites: the Nobles of the Second Class.</b>—Everywhere
+around the metropolis you meet the second-class nobles—the
+Equites.<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> This “Splendid Order” dates, of course, from the oldest
+days when to keep a cavalry horse implied having considerable property.
+The equites sank to unimportance in the prosperous era of the Republic,
+but were revived to great power by Gaius Gracchus; they were later
+reorganized and made an effective part of the new imperial régime by
+Augustus.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span></p>
+
+<p>The dividing line between Senators and Equites is not always sharp.
+Young men of senatorial family who renounce a political career have to
+“make narrow their purple stripe,” as did Ovid, and without disgrace
+appear henceforth as second-class nobles. Supposedly no persons but the
+sons of free-born men are eligible for enrollment as equites, but the
+members of the old-line families fume vainly at the way the Emperors
+(who have complete dispensing power) will grant “the right of the
+gold ring,” not merely to the sons of freedmen, but sometimes even to
+downright ex-slaves. There are in truth very few equites in Rome who do
+not reckon a slave among their not remote grandparents.</p>
+
+<p>The equites are all carefully enrolled in a public bureau under
+imperial control, and one of the surest holds which the Emperor
+possesses upon the government lies in the fact that he can refuse
+enrollment arbitrarily to any young man and thereby practically exclude
+him from any kind of high public office except in the municipal towns,
+or from any military rank above that of centurion. The senators, all
+the more important officials, and all the commissioned officers of the
+army are equites, although their greater honors cause them to ignore
+the lesser, while if the Emperor has an eligible son or heir, he is
+often proclaimed the <i>princeps juventutis</i> (“Chief of the Roman
+Youth”) and is nominally the first member of the Equestrian Order.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>132. Qualifications and Honors of the Equites.</b>—To be enrolled
+as an eques one must possess besides unstained birth (with exceptions
+above noted), a good public reputation, and taxable property worth at
+least 400,000 sesterces ($16,000); sufficient therefore to pass for
+a tolerably rich man. The honor comes for life, subject to demotion,
+however, for disgraceful conduct, or lapse into poverty. A son normally
+inherits his father’s status, if his own share of the patrimony comes
+to over 400,000 sesterces; and of course,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span> to make up that magic figure
+many plebeians pinch and slave.</p>
+
+<p>The honors of an eques are great in any age laying such stress on
+outward praise and glory. Besides the right to the plain gold ring,
+the narrow purple stripe running down the front of the tunic proudly
+proclaims the fact, “I am of the nobility.” The equites also enjoy
+fourteen rows of seats in the public games and theater directly behind
+the four front ones reserved for the senators. They provide a large
+fraction of all the jurors in the great civil tribunals which handle
+most of the litigation.<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> Very many of the great imperial ministries
+and superintendencies are reserved for them, for the Emperor does not
+like to trust the senators too implicitly, and some of the smaller
+provinces have equestrian “Procurators” as their governors, as also
+does the enormously wealthy province of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of the equites, however, are in private life. Senators
+ought not (except through convenient middlemen) to engage in
+commerce and trade. Not so the equites—the powerful bankers with
+whom the imperial treasurer may confer; the owners of the peaceful
+armadas that enter Puteoli or Ostia; the proprietors of the finer
+retail establishments along the Sæpta Julia as well as of the huge
+wholesale houses; the directors of the vast brickyards, and other
+highly developed industries; the owners of so many of the squalid but
+profitable insulæ—nearly all will show their “Angusticlave”—their
+narrow purple stripe. Equites appear at banquets with senators without
+the least awkwardness; and they like to be addressed by fine booming
+titles: <i>insignes</i>, <i>primores</i>, <i>illustres</i>, or, if
+holding high office, <i>eminentissimi</i>, but in most cases as
+<i>splendidi</i>; and “splendid” they appear to the envious slaves and
+plebeians.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>133. Review of the Equites. Pretenders to the Rank.</b>—The equites
+are still in theory a military body. Every 15th of July, unless the
+review is deliberately omitted, all members who are physically able are
+supposed to procure horses and take part in a grand parade before the
+Emperor. Sometimes there are at least 5000 equites in the procession.
+The Emperor still has the right of the ancient censors to brand a man
+as a bad citizen by the public command, “Sell your horse!” as he rides
+by the reviewing stand;<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> but the parade has now become merely an
+unpleasant formality for portly men unaccustomed to horseback, and old
+gentlemen are usually excused.</p>
+
+<p>In so large a body of “gentry,” however, imposture becomes fairly
+common. Nearly every Emperor issues an edict for the purging of the
+order, and every now and then some adventurous nobody is divested of
+his “narrow stripe.” Calvus came home lately from the Flaminian Circus
+laughing heartily. Just behind his senatorial tier a perfumed and
+beringed fellow set off with a splendid lacerna sat down saying loudly,
+“Now at last, thanks to our Cæsar, due honors have come to the Roman
+equites, and the vulgar are kept away”; but hardly had he spoken ere a
+lynx-eyed usher identified him and amid the jeering of hundreds “forced
+that very fine lacerna to get up!”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>134. The Senatorial Order. The First-Class Nobility.</b>—The first
+class in the nobility is the Senatorial. The actual functioning of
+the Senate which is still a most venerable and powerful council will
+be told later (see p. <a href="#Page_334">334</a>); here we have to see its members merely
+in social and unofficial life. They number six hundred and entrance
+into their gilded circle comes usually by a kind of hereditary right.
+The sons of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span> senator can almost always count on becoming senators
+themselves if the family fortune is not too impaired and they have
+not fallen under imperial disfavor. To win the honor you must either
+be elected (by the Senate itself) to some one of the old Republican
+offices—quæstors, ædiles, prætors, consuls, etc.,—which carried a
+life seat in the Senate with them, or be appointed outright by fiat of
+the Emperor. The latter, furthermore, is always pushing forward his
+favorites by “inviting” the senators to elect them to office, and the
+“Conscript Fathers” never disregarded such a broad hint from “Cæsar.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>135. Social Glories of Senators.</b>—Senators alone are eligible
+for the highest commands in the army, for the governorships for the
+more important provinces, except Egypt, and for most of the other
+exalted offices which do not involve a vulgar handling of money. The
+Emperor himself ranks as the head of their noble body. Even when he
+is at bitter odds with them, he must not forget that they share part
+of his glory. Still is told the story of how one of Nero’s parasites
+raised a laugh from the tyrant one day. “I hate you, Cæsar!” he
+announced. “And why is that?” “Oh, just because you are a senator.”</p>
+
+<p>All the senators are officially the “friends,” <i>amici</i>, of the
+monarch.</p>
+
+<p>These great nobles are entitled to visit the Emperor in the palace
+somewhat as clients visit their patron. He is expected to extend his
+hand to them; to treat them as a kind of social equals; and to allow
+the more important of them to kiss him. They and their wives must be
+invited to all the greater palace banquets. Finally all the better
+monarchs are expected to take oath at the beginning of their reigns
+that they “will never put any senator to death”—that is, that the
+Senate shall be the supreme judge over its own members.</p>
+
+<p>Although parvenus are promoted by even the best of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span> emperors, the
+senatorial families average much older than do the equestrian; and it
+is still a very desirable thing to boast of “ancient blood and the
+painted visages of one’s forebears.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>136. The Senatorial Aristocracy Greater than the Senate.</b>—The
+“Senatorial Aristocracy,” nevertheless, is something greater than the
+actual membership of the great council itself. Not merely the sons
+but all the male descendants of a senator to the third degree are
+reckoned as equal socially to the actual “Conscript Fathers,” though
+many such connections dress merely as equites with the narrow stripe.
+This may be from “lack of ambition” or it may be from desire to engage
+in trade. Gratia has two brothers. One is a senator, his wealth
+invested in lands, and at present he is imperial legate over part of
+Britain. The second is technically only an eques, busy with enormous
+financial transactions with Alexandria; but the second is the richer
+and probably the more influential man of the two. Of course, all the
+wives of senators rank with their husbands, and every cousin, niece, or
+nephew of the latter feels a reflected luster. The six hundred senators
+are, therefore, the center of an upper aristocracy with at least six
+thousand actual members.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>137. Insignia, Qualifications, and Titles of Senators.</b>—The
+actual senators make no concealment of their honors. They have their
+special shoes (see p. <a href="#Page_95">95</a>), and most important of all they have the
+broad purple stripe running down the front of their tunics, the
+precious <i>laticlave</i>, distinguishing them instantly from the
+equites. Nobody, furthermore, can be enrolled as senator unless
+he possesses the taxable fortune of at least 1,000,000 sesterces
+($40,000); and this insures that he is a passing rich man, above petty
+bribes and able to live with the dignity becoming a Lord of the Empire.</p>
+
+<p>The public glories of these dignitaries match their fortunes. At all
+the public games and spectacles the senatorial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span> tiers are directly
+behind the Emperor’s loge. In the public feasts the senators are not
+merely entitled to the seats of honor, but frequently to extra-generous
+portions of the food. If a senator tours the provinces, he can command
+every kind of servile attention, even if the Emperor refuses him
+the “right of free legation”—the privileges of traveling with the
+honors of an ambassador. Finally if he is arrested, not merely is he
+ordinarily tried before his peers—in the Senate; he is subject to much
+lighter penalties than the run of citizens in case of conviction.<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>
+
+<p>Finally the senators have a title of nobility which they are
+able to command practically as a formal right<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a>—<i>vir
+clarissimus</i>—“Very distinguished Lord” or “Your Magnificence.”
+Gratia, like every senator’s wife, is a <i>femina clarissima</i>; even
+her small sons can be addressed pompously as <i>pueri clarissimi</i>.
+To the multitude who make way for their litters, the rank of
+<i>clarissimus</i> appears the acme of attainable happiness.</p>
+
+<p>The political power of the Senate has waned, but emperors are only
+mortal individuals. They come and go; the existence of the great,
+proud, wealthy, landed aristocracy seems to go on forever. Emperors
+usually succeed so far as they win its loyalty and favor; they somehow
+fail, and are branded across history as tyrants (often cut short by
+dagger thrusts) when they earn its hate. In an Empire of nigh one
+hundred millions the six thousand of the Senatorial Order form the
+normal apex of the human pyramid. It is a fine thing to be a senator.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IX<br>
+<span class="subhed">PHYSICIANS AND FUNERALS</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>138. Scanty Qualifications and Training of Doctors.</b>—People
+fall sick in Rome quite as much as in every other great center of
+humanity, but the healing art has not really progressed a great deal
+beyond that in Athens in the days of Hippocrates nearly five hundred
+years earlier.<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> A great proportion of even the most fashionable
+doctors are freedmen, and nearly all of these have Greek (or sometimes
+Egyptian) names. There is no medical examination. Anybody who has made
+a failure in other callings is welcome to pose as a physician and try
+to extract money from the unfortunate. There are many “surgeons” and
+“therapists” around the city who, a little while ago, were shoemakers,
+carpenters, or smiths, and who, perhaps, keep up their old handicraft
+on the side. Six months is time enough to learn a little medical jargon
+while serving as “disciple” to some experienced doctor; after that, let
+the invalids beware.</p>
+
+<p>Under such circumstances the glory of the medical profession suffers.
+Rightly did Pliny the Elder complain of doctors: “Any voluble person
+has powers of life and death over us, just as though thousands of
+persons did not live on without doctoring, as Rome existed for six
+hundred years [before the first physicians came].” Such gentry
+inevitably, if they fail at quackery, can then drift off to something
+else, and very familiar is Martial’s epigram: “Diaulus has been a
+surgeon and is now an undertaker. At last he’s begun to be useful to
+the sick in the only way that he’s able.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>139. Superior Class of Physicians.</b>—Nevertheless, the physicians
+of Rome are by no means all of them charlatans. If their theories are
+grossly imperfect, many of them are men of wide experience and keen
+insight. A sick man able to command the best, need not give up in
+despair unless his case is really complicated and difficult. Great
+cures are recorded, as that of Augustus, whose life was saved in a
+most critical illness by the “cold-water treatment” ordered by his
+doctor, the wise freedman Antonius Musa—a cure which by saving an
+all-important life affected the world’s history.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever their qualifications, physicians, if not highly educated,
+assuredly abound in large numbers. Every chartered city maintains
+a corps of them for the free treatment of the citizens, and keeps
+up public <i>hiatreia</i>—well-lighted, spacious halls for offices
+and dispensaries.<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> Every cohort of the army has four physicians
+attached, with superior medical officers over the larger divisions, and
+camp sanitation has been worked out excellently by the Roman military
+experts.</p>
+
+<p>In the Imperial Court, the <i>archiater</i> (“head physician”) is a
+well-paid and very important dignitary. Between him and the miserable
+slave doctors who bleed and physic their fellows in the private familia
+there are any number of gradations. Most of the doctors, of course,
+practice for fees, although in Rome, too, a system of free clinics and
+dispensaries is coming in, with a special public physician for each of
+the fourteen regions of the city.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>140. A Fashionable Doctor.</b>—A doctor of the superior kind is
+Symmachus whom Calvus summons whenever any of his own family are
+seriously ill. He has one of the most fashionable practices in Rome,
+and his annual income is not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span> much under that of Quintus Stertinus
+whose fees in Claudius’s day brought him 600,000 sesterces ($24,000)
+per year. A high-grade physician does not render a monthly bill. He
+expects to be paid once annually—on the first of January. Besides he
+counts on receiving a substantial legacy whenever a regular patient at
+length escapes him and dies. Lower grade doctors, however, are less
+delicate. They are charged with being greedy for unreasonable fees and
+with prolonging illnesses easily curable, demanding outrageous sums for
+common medicines, and taking every sordid advantage of the needs of the
+sick.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_162" style="max-width: 508px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_162.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Invalid with Attendants.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Symmachus is apparently above all such <i>gaucheries</i>. He has been
+trained to bear himself as a polished gentleman. His visits are long
+or short according to the desires of his patients. He never blurts
+out unpleasant truths and he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span> always repeats the Hippocratic maxim,
+“A cure depends on three things, the sick man, his sickness, and the
+physician”; and that the physician’s business is to help the sick man
+to cure himself. The result is that while his anatomical theories would
+distress a later age, and some of his medicines are very crude, he
+often effects excellent results especially in those cases where mental
+therapeutics can avail a little.</p>
+
+<p>Such a doctor possesses a set of surgical instruments quite as good
+as any available in a later age until at least the time of the French
+Revolution, and assuredly he knows how to use them very skillfully. He
+can dull pain for operations or induce sleep by juice of mandragora or
+atropin, and he can operate for cataract by distending the eye-pupil
+by anagallis. Delicate surgical operations, however, he will probably
+turn over to specialists. There are such surgeons who operate, no
+doubt with reasonable success, for hernia and fistula, who take out
+gall-stones, and deal with very dangerous fractures. There are also
+lesser specialists who can remove or fill aching teeth and can banish
+superfluous hair, and there is one shrewd old fellow who commands a
+princely income—he can really erase the degrading marks of branding
+upon slaves, after they become lordly freedmen.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>141. Medical Books and Famous Remedies.</b>—Symmachus affects to
+be a man of professional learning. He possesses and claims to have
+studied carefully the great medical treatises of Hermogenes of Smyrna
+in 72 books, and that of Tiberius Claudius Menecrates in 156 books. To
+impress his patients he will talk learnedly of the jangling theories
+of the “Dogmatics,” and “Methodics,” “Pneumaticists,” etc., although
+professing himself to be an “Eclectic.” However, his own shrewd common
+sense is usually of greater avail than all his books.</p>
+
+<p>A large part of a popular physician’s gains come not from regular
+fees, but from supplying his patients with medicine.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span> There are
+many shops selling crude drugs in Rome but no regular prescription
+pharmacists.<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> Public opinion avers that the more costly remedies are
+always the best, and Symmachus does not discourage that idea too much,
+although telling his select patients that cheap medicaments often are
+as effective. It is often hard, however, to get pure drugs, and genuine
+ingredients.<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> Even the best doctors will be deceived by oriental
+drug dealers palming off false balsams, and similar commodities.</p>
+
+<p>Many physicians consider it professional to keep their remedies secret,
+and boast of private formulas, which they will not share with their
+rivals. In Tiberius’s day there was a Paccius Antiochus who prepared
+a marvellous powder, a kind of panacea for many ills. He compounded
+it behind locked doors and mystified even his assistants as to its
+nature; but on his death he had the decency to bequeath his formula
+to the Emperor who had it deposited for inspection in all the public
+libraries; and Hadrian has just done the same with some formulas left
+by the great Marcellus of Side.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>142. Absurd Medicines. Theriac.</b>—Some of these remedies are
+of an extraordinary nature and so intelligent a man as Symmachus can
+have no confidence in them. Still plenty of good doctors will tell
+you that a piece of hyena-skin is an excellent remedy for mad-dog
+bites, and that certain very filthy substances make good poultices for
+swellings. The imperial government actually employs several slaves to
+catch adders, whence are derived several important medicaments; and it
+is claimed that medicines to cure gall-stones must be pounded with a
+pestle that contains no iron. There is no need to dwell on the absurd
+articles foisted on the gullible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span> by the quacks; pills made from dried
+bugs and centipedes are among the very least obnoxious.</p>
+
+<p>There is supposed to be a specific medicine for every disease, and
+Symmachus’s office is crammed with little chests bearing such labels as
+“<i>Drug from Berytus for watery eyes. Instantaneous</i>”; “<i>Ointment
+for gout. Made for Proculus, imperial freedman. Safe Cure</i>”;
+“<i>Remedy for scab. Tested successfully by Pamphilius during the great
+scab epidemic</i>,” or “<i>Eye-salve tried by Florus on Antonia, wife
+of Prince Drusus, after other doctors had nearly blinded her</i>.”<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a>
+There is also a large box of a famous compound to be used whenever
+diagnosis is uncertain. <i>Theriac</i> is a mixture of sixty-one
+different elements including dried adders. Whoever takes it is sure to
+find at least <i>one</i> substance that will assist his disease; and
+it is prescribed by almost every physician at the opening stages of a
+malady, before he can attempt diagnosis.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>143. Fear of Poisoning. Popularity of Antidotes.</b>—A large
+part of the doctor’s drug collection is, however, made up of
+<i>antidotes</i> for poisons. Everybody dreads being poisoned. Many
+peculiar deaths which ought to be diagnosed as caused by natural
+illness are charged up to venomous drugs<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> and indeed a deadly dose
+rather than a deadly dagger seems a favorite means for murder. People
+still whisper stories of that awful poison-vender, the woman Locusta,
+who probably supplied Nero’s mother Agrippina with the fatal powder
+she sprinkled on her husband Claudius’s dish of mushrooms, and then
+another dose to Nero himself to kill his stepbrother, Britannicus, with
+a highly spiced goblet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span></p>
+
+<p>If a man has many deadly foes, he is likely to take a potion of the
+precious theriac daily—because antidotes for so many poisons are
+carried in the compound; and all histories tell how Mithridates of
+Pontus, that famous adversary of Sulla and Pompeius, used to take
+antidotes so constantly that he became entirely immune to the venoms
+prepared by all his enemies. Symmachus, as part of his stock in trade,
+therefore, keeps the proper antidotes for all such familiar poisons as
+hemlock, opium, henbane, gypsum, white lead, etc., as well as for many
+obscurer foods of evil. Rumor says that not long since he had to use
+several of them on the old ex-consul, Annæus, whose spendthrift sons
+seemed very anxious to get their inheritance.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>144. Medical Students, “Disciples,” Beauty
+Specialists.</b>—Symmachus like all responsible physicians keeps an
+office on a good street, but although patients can visit him there,
+the place is mainly for the compounding of medicines by various slaves
+under the direction of several “disciples.” There are no medical
+schools in Rome,<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> and these young disciples follow their master
+about, study a little, and learn by watching him. They are kept away
+from his most select patients; but are allowed to troop into the sick
+room of the poorer, feel of the pulse, examine the wounds, etc., in a
+manner most distressing. People, in fact, dread to call in a doctor—it
+often means being felt over not by one but by a half dozen clammy
+hands, usually when one is very ill.<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p>
+
+<p>In addition to the men of medicine are the “beauty
+specialists”—persons who claim to have reduced the supplementing of
+nature to a science. A court physician Crito once wrote four books of
+standard authority on the compounding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span> of cosmetics. Every physician is
+called upon to prescribe skin washes, depilatories for rendering the
+bodies of young dandies perfectly hairless, and formulæ for fragrances
+for clothes or chambers; but it takes a specialist to know the
+intricacies of rouge and enamel, and otherwise to assist the ladies.
+The dividing line also between the physician and the hair-dresser is
+not always easy to mark. Petronius tells about the dames who not merely
+have abundant false hair, but “take their eyebrows out of a little box”
+and “put their teeth away at night just as they do their silks.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>145. Cheap Doctors: No Hospitals.</b>—The inferior grades of
+doctors do a great deal of office work. In mere booths or small shops
+opening upon the street they receive patients, sometimes even standing
+by the door and bidding the hesitant “Step in!” Their surgeries are
+decked out with a display of ivory boxes, silver cupping glasses, and
+golden-handled lancets,—the more incompetent the leech the greater
+often being the display.</p>
+
+<p>To advertise their skill practitioners of this class will often set
+bones and perform minor operations before a gaping crowd just outside
+in the streets—actions denounced by men of Symmachus’s caliber; and
+all their patients are examined with great publicity. Lower still are
+the itinerant quacks who will diagnose diseases on a street corner
+and vend alleged theriac and other “medicines” from a pedlar’s pack.
+There are other unlovely members of the profession who grow rich
+by performing criminal operations, and to whom unfaithful wives or
+legacy-seekers can appeal, begging them to “put the patient out of
+his misery!”—with results deliberately murderous. More legitimate of
+course are the numerous women who attend to the maladies of their own
+sex. Some of these women are said to be physicians of high capacity and
+able to command generous compensation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span></p>
+
+<p>A serious handicap to medicine exists because there are no public
+hospitals in Rome, although sick strangers are probably allowed to lie
+around the Temples of Asculapius or of other healing deities.<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> The
+control of epidemics is very imperfect. Rome has been visited severely
+by the plague, and in the reign of Marcus Aurelius it will be ravaged
+yet again. The age is a brutal one. Much is done to keep the populace
+amused and to delight the eye; relatively little to preserve precious
+human lives. In the great slave familia, however, self-interest if no
+better motive impels the owners to try to keep their chattels healthy.
+As already explained nearly every slave household has its special
+slave physicians, men of tolerable competence; and there is also the
+<i>valetudinarium</i>, the infirmary—a detached building or a large
+room in which sick slaves can be properly tended, and also isolated to
+prevent infection.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>146. Suicide as Escape from Hopeless Disease.</b>—Symmachus,
+despite his reputation for “wonderful cures,” has just lost a wealthy
+patient. The circumstances were somewhat unusual but by no means
+unprecedented. Quintus Gordianus, an elderly senator, had been
+suffering from a very painful internal disease. Symmachus assured him
+the case was incurable, but that he might, nevertheless, live for
+years. Thereupon Gordianus announced that he would commit suicide.</p>
+
+<p>The right of a sane man voluntarily to surrender his life is undoubted.
+Philosophers have written fine essays on the desirability of suicide;
+only it must be entered upon discreetly and not as a cowardly means
+of escaping the duties of life. Many of Nero’s and Domitian’s noble
+victims obviously<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span> obeyed the mandate “Open your veins” more because
+they were tired of existence than because a desperate attempt to
+overthrow the tyrant would have been hopeless. Many a Roman aristocrat
+has sucked all the sensual pleasure so completely out of life that the
+latter has become one great boredom, and no religion commands “Live
+on!” when it is evident that the remainder of existence must merely be
+months or years of helplessness and pain.</p>
+
+<p>As soon, therefore, as Gordianus was satisfied that his case was
+hopeless he declared to his relatives that, “He would starve himself to
+death.” They pleaded with him faithfully and caused most tempting food
+to be always within his reach, but later they took pride in telling of
+his iron will which rejected all their efforts. At last the end came,
+and all his circle remarked that Gordianus died as became a Roman
+senator and a true philosopher. Suicides for more trivial reasons than
+the above are, of course, reported every day.<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>147. Execution of Wills. Numerous Legacies Customary.</b>—Before
+Gordianus became too weak, he called in a group of friends to witness
+the revision of his will. The right to execute a will is a precious
+privilege for Roman citizens,<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> and the law allows wide options in
+disposing of one’s property. A Roman gentleman makes his will many
+times and is constantly revising or adding codicils to the same. Slaves
+are not supposed to make testaments—their small <i>peculia</i> must
+legally revert to their masters; but the more decent owners allow even
+slaves to bequeath their belongings to fellow-slaves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span></p>
+
+<p>A will implies much more than merely distributing one’s property among
+near kin. Gordianus’s widow and son were in fact well content when
+they found not more than two-fifths of the large estate was to pass
+outside the family. It is a deadly insult—all the more deadly because
+the departed are beyond retaliation—to fail to remember a familiar
+acquaintance with a sizable legacy.<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p>
+
+<p>“When the tablets are opened” all Rome knows how a man has paid his
+social debts, usually to people who have no blood connection.</p>
+
+<p>Was the ex-ædile Numerius angry because he only received 10,000
+sesterces ($400)? And why was that ill-mannered old eques Albinus
+left 20,000? And why was the banker Velocius, once such a confidant,
+left nothing at all? Did Gordianus wish to brand the last-named as
+a scoundrel? The list of slaves enfranchised, and also of those
+specifically refused enfranchisement is carefully scanned; as well as
+various legacies to certain great advocates who have evidently rendered
+Gordianus service in tight lawsuits, and above all a sum of 100,000
+sesterces ($4000) to “Our Lord Hadrianus Augustus Cæsar.” Gordianus
+had been by no means a great intimate at the palace, but it would
+have been most untactful to fail to remember the Emperor. Under bad
+rulers such a slight would probably involve the actual setting aside
+of the will, posthumous charges of treason, and the ruin of the heirs
+by the confiscation of the entire property. Under a good Emperor such
+an insertion puts the donor’s son in good odor with the government,
+and insures that the imperial procurators (who guard their master’s
+property) will assist in defending the will if disgruntled kinsmen
+should try to break it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>148. Regular Incomes from Legacies. Professional Legacy
+Hunters.</b>—The granting of legacies is in fact so ordinary a part
+of Roman life that distinguished men like Cicero and Pliny the Younger
+can almost count on a steady flow of bequests (often from people whom
+they know but slightly) as part of their income. Gordianus is leaving
+a mature and proper son to take over his great name, clients, and a
+good share of his property. His bequests therefore are relatively
+small, and that fact robs his will of most of its interest. If,
+however, he had been childless, all Rome would have been agog as soon
+as people knew that he was dying. Great, if evil, are “the advantages
+of childlessness.” The rich bachelor is sure of obsequious service from
+innumerable quarters. The more he coughs and the paler he grows, the
+more the presents he receives and the more do loudly condoling friends
+press to his bedside. They reach the very depth of servility, and
+sometimes they are rewarded.</p>
+
+<p>Years ago Horace gave directions to the successful legacy hunter. “If
+a man hands you his will to read, be sure to refuse and push the wax
+tablets from you—-yet take a side-glance to catch the second line
+of the first table [below the preamble]. Run your eye quickly along
+to see whether you are the <i>sole</i> heir or one of many.” If the
+prospective victim has a “crafty woman, or a freedman looking after the
+dotard, strike a partnership with them and praise them to him, that
+they may praise <i>you</i> behind your back.” Then when the testator
+at last dies lament him loudly, as a “worthy and true friend,” shed as
+many tears as you can, and don’t grudge a splendid funeral.</p>
+
+<p>Thus fortunes can be and often are won, but not invariably. In Trajan’s
+reign there died a rich Domitius Tullus. He allowed the legacy hunters
+to fasten upon him; to shower him with all kinds of favors—then he
+actually left everything to a niece and to grandchildren. All Rome
+was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span> divided: “Perfidious hypocrite!” some gossips buzzed in the great
+baths; but others praised him for “cheating the hopes of the rascals.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>149. Public Bequests.</b>—Gordianus, besides these legacies to
+friends, also makes some public bequests. This is an age when the rich
+are expected to justify their good fortune by showering favors upon the
+community. If the rich testator had lived in a municipal town, he would
+have been expected in his life time to have provided feasts, public
+games, new civic buildings, and probably to have repaired the city
+walls. As it is, he leaves the cost of a good gladiator fight to an
+Italian town that once elected him patron; increases the endowment for
+a public library which he had earlier founded at another such town near
+one of his villas; and institutes a trust fund to provide an annual
+feast in honor of his “Manes” to be shared in by all the freedmen of
+his family and by their own descendants.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>150. Great Funerals Very Fashionable. Desire to Be Remembered after
+Death.</b>—Before he died, Gordianus also gave particular orders about
+his funeral. Every Roman seems to look forward to his obsequies with
+a melancholy, but an enormous interest. If he is poor, he hoards his
+money and joins a coöperative burial society to provide for final rites
+that will be long remembered. If he is rich, he will leave nothing
+undone to succeed in impressing the entire city that it has lost an
+important citizen. Under the Republic the funerals of great personages
+were really public pageants, deliberately calculated to teach young
+nobles the glory of a long career spent in the service of the state.
+Under the Empire these customs are still maintained, although often
+they are nothing more than vulgar displays showing forth the wealth of
+the deceased.</p>
+
+<p>The age does not believe earnestly in immortality. Epicureans<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span> deny
+it outright, and Stoics more than doubt. Sometimes a very gross view
+of death is taken, that it is merely the careless end of a round of
+sensual pleasures. You can occasionally read on tombstones inscriptions
+like this: “<i>Bathing, wine, and love-affairs—these hurt our bodies,
+but they make life worth living. I’ve lived my days. I revelled, and
+I drank all that I desired. Once I was not; then I was; now I am not
+again—but I don’t care!</i>”<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> But most persons, especially grave
+Stoics like Gordianus, view death otherwise. Death means a going out
+into the dark; a process of being forgotten by those who once loved or
+admired you. If, by a splendid funeral, you can make your memory last
+a little longer, who would fail having one? Hence the excuse for very
+costly obsequies, often for unimportant individuals.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>151. Preliminaries to a Funeral.</b>—The moment Gordianus seemed
+to be breathing his last his son bent over his face as if to catch
+his final sigh. Then immediately the young man called his father
+three times “Quintus! Quintus! Quintus!” partly to make sure he was
+dead; partly as a signal to start off all the expectant slaves and
+freedmen in loud and frenzied lamentation through all the wide domus. A
+messenger promptly summoned a fashionable <i>libitinarius</i> (funeral
+director) who undertook to conduct everything in the best possible
+style. While the house rang with outcries, professional experts washed
+the body in warm water and took immediately a waxen impression of the
+features.</p>
+
+<p>The dead was thereupon dressed in an embroidered toga, such as he might
+have worn when a magistrate, and was placed on a gilded couch in the
+atrium with the feet towards the door, beside which was set a bunch
+of cypress or pine, in token of the sorrow in the house. Skillful
+embalmers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span> were available and the actual funeral could have been
+delayed as much as a week. This was not necessary, however, and the
+ceremony took place in two days—time enough to arrange the great pyre
+and other necessary matters.</p>
+
+<p>The old practice was for every funeral to be held at night, and
+“funeral torches” were once about as common along the streets as the
+more festive marriage torches. But under the Empire the greater display
+can, of course, be made by daytime, although by a peculiar survival a
+few torch bearers will solemnly march along in the procession as if to
+outvie the sunlight.</p>
+
+<p>The mustering of a large funeral procession calls for no mean executive
+skill. If the deceased is from an old family, persons must be hired to
+wear all the death masks found in his atrium, and costumes improvised
+or rented so that the wearers can appear as consuls, prætors, etc.,
+and all the various articles and exhibits needful for the procession
+must be assembled. Above all there must appear at the house of mourning
+a clever Greek actor, selected partly because of some physical
+resemblance to the dead. This is the <i>archimimus</i>, who carefully
+confers with Gordianus’s freedmen and even with his son to learn the
+speech, mannerisms, and the personal foibles of the departed.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>152. The Funeral Procession. The Display of Masked
+“Ancestors.”</b>—At last at a time sure to command the best attention,
+the criers begin going about all the streets where Gordianus is likely
+to have had friends. They shout a formula in quaint, archaic Latin.
+“This citizen, Quintus Gordianus, is being surrendered to death. For
+those who find it convenient, now is the time for his funeral. He is
+being borne from his house!” and the procession sets forth commanded by
+a master-undertaker—the pompous <i>designator</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At the head marches a band of players, their flutes, lyres, and
+dulcimers keeping up a most melancholy music. Then<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span> unavoidably follows
+a whole platoon of professional clowns and buffoons singing ribald
+songs and shouting very coarse jokes to the thronging spectators.
+Next, apparently, there walks Gordianus himself—it is the archimimus
+dressed like the ex-consul, imitating his gait, gestures, and voice,
+and even making broad personal jests at the expense of the deceased.
+Then follows the really imposing part of the display, and the bereaved
+widow and her son thrill with aristocratic pride at the thought of
+it. Theirs is a very old house, and a hundred actors are needed to
+wear all the wax <i>imagines</i> (often battered and blackened) from
+the great cupboards in the atrium. All his “curule ancestors” going
+back to the Gallic invasion seem to be accompanying Gordianus to the
+grave. The spectators are checking off the “consuls” and “ædiles” on
+their fingers, and at last some cry “a censor,” and presently even
+more admiringly a “dictator.”<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> One can almost feel that it is no
+misfortune to die, if only one can look forward properly to this moment
+of posthumous glory.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>153. The Exhibits in the Procession. The Retinue around the
+Bier.</b>—Behind the procession of death-masks come slaves bearing on
+poles large crudely sketched pictures upon boards, showing incidents
+in the Dacian wars where their master commanded as one of Trajan’s
+legates. Gordianus also had dabbled in literature, and copies of
+his essays and poems are now tied on tall rods and carried along
+conspicuously by the marchers. Next comes the corpse itself—exposed to
+view, upon a couch decked with purple, fretted with gold, and carried
+aloft upon the shoulders of eight picked bearers. All can see that
+Gordianus wears the “triumphal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span> ornaments,” the laurel wreath as well
+as the toga prætexta awarded the favorite generals in the army.<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p>
+
+<p>After that follows the family procession. Young Gordianus is robed
+in black, and leads by the hand his mother, a venerable matron, who
+wears the mourning color for women, white, and who lets her gray locks
+stream in disorder over her shoulders. If he had possessed sisters,
+they would now tear their hair, dig their nails in their cheeks, and
+utter piercing cries of grief. This clamor is produced sufficiently by
+a group of slave women led by two or three professional female wailers
+who, at intervals, set up a shrill chant of lamentation for the dead.
+Next follow a great company of Gordianus’s more distinguished friends,
+all walking with down-cast looks and clad in black or sad-colored
+togas. After them is the large retinue from the familia, first the
+older freedmen, then groups of ex-slaves wearing tall caps—token of
+manumission by will, and trying not to appear <i>too</i> exultant in
+their new freedom, then bringing up the rear the whole group of actual
+slaves, supposed to be torn with grief at the loss of “so good a
+master.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>154. The Funeral Oration in the Forum.</b>—The procession heads at
+first not toward the place of the final pyre but toward the Old Forum.
+The honor of a public funeral oration is granted to practically every
+distinguished citizen, including many noblewomen. Indeed, this use
+of the Forum is an extremely common occurrence. The space around the
+orator’s stand (the <i>rostra</i>) has been cleared of idlers, and an
+array of suitable “curule chairs” has been set out for all the wearers
+of the death masks, as if they were again sitting like the magistrates
+of old.</p>
+
+<p>After a suitable delay a kinsman of the deceased, a senator somewhat
+vain of his reputation as an orator, mounts the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span> rostra and delivers
+a fulsome eulogy. It is notorious that such “laudations” never stick
+closely to the truth. The audience is made to understand that Gordianus
+was a very Cato the Elder in personal virtue and a Scipio Africanus in
+his success as a general. When that ceremony is completed the whole
+company sets forth again—this time toward one of the gates beyond
+which is the funeral pyre.<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>155. Family Tombs. The <i>Columbarium</i> and the
+Garden.</b>—Burials are not unknown in Rome, but most bodies are
+disposed of by cremation. Even persons of very modest means will try to
+provide money for a good pyre. This is partly because the very poor,
+the worthless slaves, and the lowest of the plebeians, are not burned,
+but their bodies simply are dumped in hideous open pits not far from
+the Esquiline itself. Nothing is done to the bodies thus exposed except
+to leave them to the dogs and ravens, and only the favor of Jupiter
+averts from the city an incessant pestilence in consequence. Long
+since, however, Gordianus’s family has erected along the Appian Way
+(though another frequented highroad could have been selected) a stately
+tomb, calculated to attract attention from all passers.</p>
+
+<p>Handsome tombs can take many forms; there is even a good-sized stone
+pyramid, 116 feet high, erected to guard the ashes of Gaius Cestius,
+a great man under Augustus. That of the Gordiani is of a more modest
+character; a circular masonry tower, about fifty feet in diameter and
+rather higher, surmounted by a castellated battlement adorned with
+life-sized marble statues of famous members of the family. Inside there
+is no huge chamber for a sarcophagus, but simply a series of arched
+vaults the walls of which are honey-combed with little niches, each
+intended to receive a funeral urn.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span> This kind of interior, therefore,
+is not unhappily called a <i>columbarium</i>—a “pigeon-cote”; and here
+will be placed not merely the urns of all the regular scions of the
+family, but (in inferior niches of course) those of all the freedmen
+and even of all the better loved slaves. The ashes of the Gordiani,
+mighty or humble therefore rest all together.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_178" style="max-width: 633px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_178.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Scene along the Appian Way</span>: showing the tombs
+and the gay crowds passing.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Outside this massive tower there is a considerable open compound, laid
+out as a pleasant garden, with shrubbery, flower-beds, and a little
+lodge for the slave in residence who acts as caretaker. There is even a
+small but handsome building, where members of the family can meet for
+the periodic feasts in honor of the dear departed. Handsome statues
+and fine bas-reliefs on the inclosing walls abound, and the place in
+short seems much more like a small pleasure park than a cemetery. This
+mortuary compound, however, is one of the better types of inclosures.
+The taste displayed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span> in some adjacent is execrable. Already across
+the Appian Way opposite, a rich freedman has purchased a large lot
+and is erecting in his own lifetime a tall central statue of himself,
+flinging money from a bag to the populace, with the base surrounded by
+bas-reliefs showing his favorite small dog, some gladiator fights, and
+deep-laden craft under full sail—to explain how he made his money.<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_179" style="max-width: 614px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_179.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Pyramid—Tomb of Gaius Cestius</span>: Ostia Gate
+of the Wall of Aurelian (built <i>circ.</i> 275 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) in
+background.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>For many miles out into the Campagna around Rome extend these strange
+cemeteries—not in seclusion, but passed by incessant traffic. Some
+of the monuments are magnificent, some simple; they illustrate almost
+every type of sculpture—but the object of nearly all is the same,
+to remind the living of the one-time existence of the dead, and so
+to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span> provide a kind of spurious immortality often for very commonplace
+persons, in an age when the immortality of the soul seems no favored
+doctrine.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_180" style="max-width: 649px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_180.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">View along the Appian Way showing Funeral
+Monuments.</p>
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><i>Restored after Von Falke.</i></p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>156. The Funeral Pyre and Its Ceremonies.</b>—At last the funeral
+procession has reached the great mausoleum of the Gordiani. The pyre
+of choice wood, sprinkled with perfumes, unguents, and costly spices
+is ready at a safe distance. The sides of the pile have been covered
+with dark leaves, while cypress boughs have been set upon the top.
+Amid these the bier and the corpse, just as they have been borne, are
+now planted and various articles of clothing, jewelry, trinkets, etc.,
+used by the deceased are next placed upon the pyre. If the ex-consul
+had been a younger man fond of hunting, deer nets and boar spears might
+have been added; or favored horses and dogs slaughtered and their
+carcasses added to the pile.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_181" style="max-width: 564px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_181.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Street of the Tombs at Pompeii, showing Typical
+Monuments of the Smaller Class.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>At length all is ready. Young Gordianus is handed a torch, and with
+averted face he touches it to the wood impregnated with perfumed oils.
+Instantly a great blaze shoots up, the smoke from the aromatic wood
+smelling most sweetly. The company waits in mournful silence until the
+tall pyre collapses and the bier has been utterly consumed. Then as
+the fire glows away, several loyal freedmen dash forward and quench
+it with great jars of chilled wine. Certain calcined bones and ashes
+are collected, wrapped in fine linen cloths and placed in a superb
+funeral urn, blue and white glass cut into exquisite designs, showing
+boys piping and treading the grapes in a festival of Bacchus. The last
+mortal remains of the departed senator are, therefore, at rest amid
+scenes eminently cheerful.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>157. Funeral Monuments. Memorial Feasts to the Dead.</b>—The
+ceremony is over. “<i>Vale!</i>”—and again “<i>Vale!</i>” cries all
+the company ere departing. The urn will now be placed in one of the
+niches in the columbarium; but in Gordianus’s honor they will erect a
+special statue, at its base chiseled a peaceful ship gliding steadily
+toward a distant shore; the son and widow evidently recalling the
+peaceful thoughts of Cicero in his essay “On Old Age”—“I find the
+nearer I come to the time of death the more I feel like one who begins
+to see land, and knows that sometime he will enter the harbor after the
+long voyage.”</p>
+
+<p>On Gordianus’s birthday, on the anniversary of his death, and also
+for eight days in February sacred to the honored dead, his heirs and
+loyal freedmen will visit the spot, deck his statue with wreaths of
+roses, violets, and other flowers, sacrifice a black sheep or pig to
+the “Manes,” and indulge in a feast in his honor. This will be kept up,
+perhaps, until his own son is placed on the pyre and the fame of the
+“great Gordianus” has sunk to the barest memory.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>158. Funerals of the Poor. “Funeral Societies.”</b>—We have
+witnessed obsequies of a rich senator. Less favored persons, of course,
+are buried with ever-increasing degrees of simplicity. There is almost
+no religious element in Roman funerals. The bodies of unfortunates
+can be disposed of with brutal abruptness and lack of decorum, but
+the great host of plebeians and of those freedmen who cannot hope
+for an urn in the columbarium of a noble family have a recourse.
+They often club together in a “Funeral Society.” Everybody pays a
+fixed assessment into a common chest; out of these funds space is
+hired in one of the great public columbaria which are often erected
+as legitimate speculations. When a member dies he is assured of a
+respectable procession of buffoons and weepers (imagines being out
+of the question), a private harangue in his honor, and a thoroughly
+adequate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span> funeral pyre. Funds not needed for this purpose are spent
+on feasts once or more a year in which the names of dead members are
+solemnly commemorated.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these funeral “colleges” are really elaborate affairs, with
+considerable ritual, a permanent hall, and a corps of elective
+officers, “prætors,” “curators,” etc., whose tinsel pomp makes the
+wearers forget that most of the time they are humble plebeians or even
+slaves. The collegia, in other words, appeal to those who in another
+age may find a certain inferior type of “lodge” very congenial. They
+are grandiloquently named for some patron god, calling themselves “The
+Worshippers (<i>cultores</i>) of Apollo,” or perhaps for an Oriental
+deity, “The Servants of Serapis”; but their fundamental purpose is the
+same; to insure against the horrid thought of having one’s body flung
+into the open pits of the potter’s field and then perhaps having one’s
+ghost wander in misery over sea and land instead of finding a calm
+oblivion in Hades.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER X<br>
+<span class="subhed">CHILDREN AND SCHOOLING</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>159. Theoretical Rights of Father over Children. The <i>Patria
+Potestas</i>.</b>—When a child is born into a Roman home the father
+has complete legal rights even as in Athens to determine whether it
+is to live or to die.<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> If theoretically he has the terrific power
+as <i>pater familias</i> to kill his children in later life if they
+merely displease him, how much more can he claim the right to decide
+that “This boy will be one too many,” or “We can afford no more
+girls,” or “This child will be sickly and deformed.” If his decision
+is adverse, mother and nurse may beseech in vain; the babe is simply
+“exposed”—that is, carried by a slave to some spot by the highway and
+left to perish. This harsh old law is unrepealed.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly such deserted children will be taken up by those whose homes
+are desolate and who require consolation. There is a greater and
+fouler chance that such babes will be carried away and reared by human
+harpies who raise boys and girls to sell as victims of gross wickedness
+among the rich, or who even mutilate the children to convert them into
+grotesque buffoons or pathetic beggars to wheedle the coppers from
+the tender-hearted. Perhaps some of those horribly deformed creatures
+who cry “Give! Give!” behind the litters of the senators are blood
+relations to the gilded lords themselves. This is physically possible,
+if we can believe many ugly stories.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span></p>
+
+<p>Legal right and actual custom can often, however, stand miles asunder.
+No Roman gladly will see his house dying out, despite the “advantages
+of childlessness.” In fact to keep up the family name, resort is often
+had to <i>adoption</i>, sometimes of mature adults, to an extent
+quite unknown in other ages. The upper classes under the Empire are
+dwindling so rapidly, thanks to many causes, that rare indeed is the
+house where a lawful child is unwelcome; and in the lower classes
+fathers are fathers still. In short though the cruel old “right of
+exposure” exists, it is not exercised often enough to make its practice
+a wholesale evil, and a man of distinction who exposes a babe (unless
+his family is remarkably large and expensive) will fall under social
+ostracism; in fact the Emperor may even be advised to strike him from
+the list of senators or equites as “a bad citizen.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>160. Ceremonies after Birth of a Child. The <i>Bulla</i>.</b>—The
+birth of a child in a good family is, therefore, the signal for no
+common rejoicing, and thanks to the favored position of Roman women,
+girls are not a serious discount as against boys. Then comes the grand
+celebration—the <i>lustratio</i>, the name-day for the babe.</p>
+
+<p>This occurs nine days after the birth of boys and the eighth after that
+of girls; the idea being not to name the child prematurely lest it die
+in first infancy. The ceremony takes place in the atrium. The mother
+cannot, perhaps, be present, but there is a general gathering of the
+near friends, kinsmen, clients, etc., before whom the nurse solemnly
+presents herself and then lays her little bundle of swaddling clothes
+at the feet of its father. With equal solemnity the father bends and
+takes up the infant and with his formal “lifting up” the whole company
+raises a shout of joy.<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span> Henceforth, the babe is of undoubted
+legitimacy, a member of the family, entitled to the protection alike of
+the family lares and of the public law, and a new citizen of the Roman
+state. Then the father, turning to the company, if the child is a boy,
+announces in clear voice his prænomen, <i>e.g.</i>, “Let the lad be
+called Marcus!”</p>
+
+<p>After these formalities are ended the kinsmen and also the favorite
+slaves rush forward and throw around the neck of the infant cords
+bearing little metal toys, tiny swords, axes, flowers, or even dolls,
+all called <i>crepudia</i>, from the manner in which they clank
+together. Most important of all, however, is the golden <i>bulla</i>,
+an elaborate locket containing charms, which the father himself hangs
+about the child’s neck. If the family is poor, one of painted leather
+may answer, but a bulla there must be. It will never be laid aside
+permanently until the proud day when the grown-up lad “assumes the
+manly toga,” or when the girl leaves her parents’ house as a bride.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>161. The Roman Name: Its Intricacy.</b>—It is no slight thing, this
+matter of the Roman personal names, and they are far more complicated
+than are the Greek. Under the Republic names were so standardized among
+the upper families, that those of a young nobleman were practically
+determined the moment he touched the cradle. How many “Appii Claudii”
+figure in the history of the Commonwealth! Omitting technicalities,
+practically every Roman citizen then had three names: his
+<i>prænomen</i>, a personal designation something like the Christian
+“John” or “George,” his <i>nomen</i>, fixed on him by his <i>gens</i>
+(special clan) such as Cornelius, Fabius, Julius, etc., and finally
+his <i>cognomen</i>, which marked the particular family of the gens
+to which his father belonged. Cæsar, Sulla, Cicero, Scipio, and the
+like were all cognomens corresponding closely to later-day surnames,
+and were anything but the individual property of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span> certain famous
+holders of the same. Thus even a cognomen could have many bearers, and
+sometimes a second cognomen was added—such as Publius Cornelius Scipio
+<i>Nasica</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This is all very well, but how few are the options left to the parents
+in selecting the prænomen! There are only eighteen regular Roman
+prænomens, of which Marcus, Gaius, and Lucius are perhaps the most
+common. Certain families confine themselves to a very few prænomens.
+Thus no Cornelian ever names his sons anything but Gnæus, Lucius, and
+Publius unless the gods bless him with a fourth boy. The Domitii were
+nearly all either Gnæus or Lucius. Rare was the Claudian eldest son who
+escaped being called Appius.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p>
+
+<p>These cases simply register what is true in most of the old families.
+The rule is to name your first son always after your own father. Thus
+Publius Calvus’s young Titus is the grandson of a Titus and the great
+grandson of a Publius. His younger brother, however, was not thus named
+by rigid precedent. He could be named Decimus.<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>162. Irregular and Lengthy Names under the Empire. Names of
+Slaves.</b>—Things are far more irregular, however, since the Empire
+has brought the Roman name along with the Roman citizenship to hordes
+of freedmen and foreigners. They Latinize their alien names, or
+they take an altered form of their ex-master’s names, for example,
+Claudianus Licinianus; or often, being complete upstarts, swell around
+with absurdly long names often meaning nothing at all. This is true
+even of some high officers, and there is now ruling as proconsul of
+Africa a senator calling himself pompously Titus Cæsarinus Statius
+Quintius Statianus Memmius Macrinus, while that of the governor of
+North Britain, a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span> certain “Pollio,” has <i>nine</i> names if you give
+him his full title.<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p>
+
+<p>As for slaves they were ordinarily called in simpler days of the
+Republic merely “Marcipor,” or “Lucipor,” etc.,—“Marcus’s boy,” or
+“Lucius’s boy”; but such descriptions in the days of the great familiæ
+become impossible. Most house slaves are either named for Greek
+deities or heroes, or else for some Oriental potentate, precisely as
+“Cæsar” and “Pompey” will figure on slave plantations of another day.
+“Mithridates,” “Pharnaces,” “Cyrus,” and the like appear in every
+atrium. There are also plenty of handsome boys answering to such
+fine names as “Eros,” “Polydorus,” “Xenophon”; or who are named for
+their native country as “Syrax” for a Syrian, and “Cappadox” for a
+Cappadocian.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>163. Names of Women. Confusion of Roman Names.</b>—When a girl is
+born in an old family her chance of a distinctive name seems even less
+than that of her brothers. There are really no recognized prænomens for
+girls, and until lately there have been hardly any regular cognomens.
+Calvus’s daughter should have been merely called Junia for her gens:
+“The Junian Woman.” If it is needful, however, to separate her from her
+cousins, she can be called <i>Junia Calvi</i>—“Calvus’s Junia.” If
+she had a younger sister, she would be simply “<i>Junia Prima</i>” as
+against “<i>Junia Secunda</i>”—Junia No. 1 and Junia No. 2.</p>
+
+<p>This kind of effacement is, however, becoming very displeasing to
+high-spirited Roman women. They are now asserting their personality by
+demanding special names. The result is that they are getting a kind of
+irregular cognomens. Calvus’s daughter is, therefore, known as Junia
+<i>Gratia</i> (from her mother), and should the house be favored<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span> with
+another young mistress, she will probably be Junia <i>Calva</i> in
+compliment to her father’s cognomen.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, with every explanation, the names alike of men and women
+at Rome are utterly confusing. Duplication seems incessant and anything
+like a complete directory of the city would apparently carry many pages
+of identical entries. Of course, a ready use of nicknames (constantly
+invented by Italian ingenuity) overcomes the actual difficulty. Among
+near friends or dependents it is quite proper to cry “Hail, Spurius!”
+or “Well said, Tiberius”; but it is an impolite familiarity to employ
+the prænomen except for intimates. Ordinarily the cognomen is the
+proper form, used, be it said, without any “Sir” or “Mister,” and
+in the Senate the archaic usage requires that the Conscript Fathers
+should be summoned by prænomen and gentile name only. “<i>Dic, Marce
+Tulle</i>,” “Speak, Marcus Tullius,” was the form by which Cicero was
+often called before he began his great orations.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>164. Care of Parents in Educating Children.</b>—So a Roman child
+receives that great thing, his name. What is the course of his life if
+he grows to manhood? Very much the same as in other civilized lands,
+where most parents are loving and where most children bring joy to
+the house. Boys and girls, until school age, are largely in the hands
+of the womenfolk. Gratia’s old nurse, brought with her to Calvus’s
+house, is still more of a beloved mentor and tyrant to Gratia’s
+children, usually bribing her charges to be good “with honey, nuts and
+sweet-cakes.” But as soon as boys, at least, begin to pass out of early
+childhood their fathers are expected to take them in hand, and even a
+man of high rank is criticized if he leaves his sons too much to the
+guidance of paid tutors and of slaves.</p>
+
+<p>This paternal discipline may be harsh but it is seldom negligent. Boys
+are taught to go with their fathers almost everywhere; to watch and
+listen in silence, but to ask intelligent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span> questions afterward. Thus
+young Titus is already old enough to accompany his father Calvus to
+the sessions of the Senate itself. On a seat reserved near the door
+for senators’ sons he listens through many a solemn debate. Presently
+the routine of business is so familiar to him, that he presumptuously
+thinks he can correct the consul on certain points of order. He and
+his companions of like rank already are playing “prætor’s court”—with
+one of them on the tribunal and the others (like their parents) the
+orators in the great basilica. As the good old customs have waned this
+companionship of fathers and sons has perhaps somewhat waned also—but
+it still remains one of the worthiest features of the Roman training.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>165. Toys and Pets.</b>—Roman children lack nothing in playthings.
+All but the elaborate mechanical toys of a later age are at their
+disposal. Little children have their rattles, balls, and carts. Small
+Junia plays with very life-like dolls of ivory, wax, and painted terra
+cotta, often fashioned by exceedingly skilful Greek craftsmen. She and
+her brothers rejoice in swings and hobby horses, while Titus and young
+Decimus also make glad in a finely painted “century” of wooden soldiers
+and in tops, hoops, and marbles—such as are transmitted almost
+unchanged across the ages, and they receive somewhat suspiciously (as
+soon as they are of proper age) a gift of a carefully carved set of
+wooden letters, a sly device for teaching the alphabet.</p>
+
+<p>Much more welcome than these last are, of course, the New Year and
+birthday presents of tame nightingales, talking parrots, and caged
+blackbirds, of dogs, large and small, of that somewhat rare animal from
+Egypt—a delightful furry cat, and best of all—when they grow a little
+older—being children of a senator, each a well-broken pony—of little
+use in Rome, but a splendid comrade when the family goes to its villas.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span></p>
+
+<p>As they get older still a decent allowance of pocket money is added
+and an earnest attempt is made to teach the children financial
+responsibility, to add accounts, to save their sesterces, and not to
+run up bills. It is not ungenteel, however, for a youth of family to
+be an easy spender, and Pliny the Younger has scolded a friend as
+outrageously severe for “thrashing his son because he was too lavish in
+buying horses and dogs.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>166. The Learning of Greek by Roman Children.</b>—Even before
+formal schooling begins, the young Calvi, like all other Romans of the
+better class, have begun an important part of their education—the
+learning of Greek. The Athenian education was a single-language
+education with no studies outside those of the mother tongue.<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> The
+Roman education is a bi-lingual education.</p>
+
+<p>Without Greek everybody confesses that a full half (probably more)
+of the world’s entire wit and wisdom is locked away. Without Greek
+not merely must a man refuse to claim the least real culture; he is
+handicapped in all the professions and in most forms of business. He
+can have no commercial dealings with the Levant. If he travels anywhere
+East of the Adriatic, he can hardly make himself understood outside of
+the governors’ prætoria and the camps. Even into the literary Latin
+there have crept an enormous number of Greek terms, mostly having to
+do with matters of learning or luxury. In short without the mastery of
+Greek a Roman of any ambitions is hopelessly lost.</p>
+
+<p>A scholar need not, however, bother about any third language.
+Practically all Levantines can jabber <i>some</i> Greek, even though
+their accent be abominable, and their native tongue Syriac or Coptic.
+As for Spaniards, Gauls, and Britons doubtless interpreters are needful
+if you visit their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span> crude villages, but all their upper classes are
+now busily learning Latin just as they are learning the joys of Roman
+baths, circus races, and cookery. With Latin and Greek you are ready to
+meet the world.</p>
+
+<p>Greek is taught in the schools, but hardly as a painfully acquired
+foreign language. From infancy Titus, Decimus, and Junia have had
+Greek-speaking attendants, and their own parents (very fair Greek
+scholars) take pains to talk in good Attic part of the time while they
+play with them. As the children grow up about half of all the more
+elegant and refined conversation they must hear will be in Greek—and
+so through all their education. The result will be that Junia may turn
+out to be a learned lady like the poetess Julia Balbilla, the Empress
+Sabina’s friend, who has written some very fine Greek elegiacs,<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a>
+“worthy of Sappho,” say her friends; or Titus if he dabbles in
+philosophy, may write a long treatise in good Attic prose as well as
+can his contemporary the destined emperor, Marcus Aurelius.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>167. Selection of a School.</b>—In the good old days a father was
+expected not merely to give his son moral and practical lessons, but
+actually to be his schoolmaster—to flog reading, writing, and a little
+arithmetic into him; even as Cato the Elder (234–149 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>)
+boasted that he did with his own son. But that stage has long passed,
+and the main question now for every boy or girl is, “tutors or school?”
+No doubt families of the highest rank find private tutors fashionable
+and convenient; thus such a personage as Augustus employed the skilful
+freedman, Verrius Flaccus, to teach his grandsons; but the advantages
+of contact with other children of about the same social class are
+clearly understood. The young Calvi, therefore, have been sent to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span>
+a carefully selected school. This arrangement is exceptionally good
+because their father’s colleague, the ex-prætor Aponius, owns a
+remarkably gifted slave, one Euganor, who is allowed not merely to
+teach his master’s children but (by a recognized custom) to take in
+others; their fees going toward his <i>peculium</i> saved up to buy his
+freedom.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>168. Extent of Literacy in Rome. Education of Girls.</b>—Schools
+exist everywhere in Rome, and there are all sorts and conditions of
+schools. There is no system of public education, and probably a good
+many poor plebeians and slaves are barely literate enough to spell out
+the gladiator notices and to jot down a few accounts or memoranda; but
+public opinion condemns parents who deny their children at least a
+little schooling, and absolutely illiterate persons are rare.<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p>
+
+<p>Girls in poor families are rather less sure of instruction than
+boys, and in superior families they seldom pass on to the upper and
+the rhetoric schools; but apparently in the ordinary schools they
+frequently go with their brothers on terms of perfect equality. There
+seems to be no prudish separation of the sexes, although when the grown
+boys go off to learn the tricks of orators and philosophers, nobly-born
+girls spend the years just before their marriages under good tutors
+learning the poets, and being taught a graceful proficiency in harp
+playing and also enough of dancing to give them the erect carriage and
+the stately, calm movements of destined matrons.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>169. Schools for the Lower Classes.</b>—Between the select
+establishment of Euganor in a side apartment of Aponius’s great mansion
+and the cheapest type of school along Mercury Street there is a great
+gulf fixed. Any kind of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span> shelter will do for a low-grade school, and
+any kind of a half-educated fellow can set up as a school teacher.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_194">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_194.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Boy Studying.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Take for example poor Platorius who, having failed as an inn-keeper
+at Ostia, is trying to earn a living by leasing a vacant shop near
+the Insula Flavia. The shallow room opens directly upon the noisy
+street, and the passing throngs divert the children, while the clamors
+of the children distress all the semi-invalids in the big insula.
+Every thrashing by the master attracts a knot of brutal idlers just
+outside. Platorius’s school is of the lowest grade, but he has to make
+a certain pretence of learning by setting up a few chipped busts of
+Homer, Virgil, Horace, etc., and erecting a high seat (<i>cathedra</i>)
+for himself. His class sits before him on long backless benches.
+There are no desks, and every child holds his smudgy wax-covered
+tablets uncomfortably upon his knee, as he copies or erases with his
+stylus.<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p>
+
+<p>To all the better schools the children come each accompanied by his or
+her “pedagogue,” much after the Greek manner; a private slave being
+especially assigned to each boy or girl, and obligated to lead his
+charge to and from school, help with the lessons, guard the child’s
+morals, and even assist in chastising.<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> But few of Platorius’s
+pupils come<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span> from parents who can afford the luxury of a pedagogue
+for their children. They appear by themselves so early in the morning
+in winter time that they have to bear smoky lanterns; the most
+self-sufficient of them being “the sons of centurions, with satchels
+and tablets hung on their left arms, and carrying every Ides (middle
+of the month) their fee of eight brass pieces each.” [Horace.] Each
+boy has devoured a crust before leaving home and the school continues
+without recess until noon when there is an intermission of fair length
+to get the prandium or at least to buy some sausages from the street
+dealers, and perhaps to indulge in a short siesta. After that the
+deafening study is resumed, and there is relief in the neighboring
+tenements only when the school is dismissed towards dusk.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>170. Scourging, Clamors, and Other Abuses of Cheap Schools.</b>—A
+school is no asset to the neighborhood. Vainly do the satiric poets
+implore a teacher to “be kind to his scholars” and to “lay aside his
+Scythian scourge with its horrible thongs” and his “terrible cane, the
+schoolmaster’s scepter.” Poor Platorius knows well enough that the type
+of parents who employ him believes the old maxim “he who is not flogged
+is not educated.” The Romans are a military people and the ideal of a
+school is always somewhat the stern discipline of the centurion with
+his vinestock (see p. <a href="#Page_323">323</a>). Precepts in many a classroom are enforced
+with curses and blows, and Seneca has declared in disgust that it is a
+common thing “to find a man in a violent passion teaching you that to
+be in a passion is wrong.”</p>
+
+<p>The children, too, are often permitted to study their lessons aloud
+even as in the schools of the Orient. All this adds to the buzzing
+confusion, so that it is claimed that a school causes more noise than
+a blacksmith at his anvil or the amphitheater applauding a favorite
+gladiator.</p>
+
+<p>The teaching and the flogging keep up through a long<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span> season. The
+school year begins on March 24th, when Platorius painfully counts the
+entrance fees brought by each scholar, reckoning himself lucky if he
+does not have to split his gains with the pedagogues who attend a
+favored few of the children. There is a considerable holiday in summer
+when it is too hot to study, and children of good family are likely to
+be attending their parents in the country. There is another interval of
+about a week at the Saturnalia and over New Year’s Day; another just
+before the new school year begins in March. Otherwise, except for the
+more important religious festivals, and the “Nones” (5th or 7th days
+of each month), the studying and the beating go on, with rather fewer
+holidays than in the twentieth century.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_196">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_196.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap sm center">SCHOOL DISCIPLINE.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Platorius is near the bottom of the educational ladder. His fees are
+only about four sesterces (16 cents) per month per pupil, and he is
+none too sure of prompt payment. The miserable room costs something
+for rental. If his pupils fail to progress, their parents storm at him
+and promptly shift to another master. In short he leads a dog’s life.
+The green grocer and the copperpot monger who have stalls opposite the
+school despise him as entirely beneath them.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>171. A Superior Type of School.</b>—Quite different is the
+atmosphere of Euganor’s schoolroom. He is technically a slave, but a
+slave of very superior class. The children come to him accompanied
+not merely by extremely genteel pedagogues but by subordinate
+slaves, <i>capsarii</i>, who carry their books and tablets, and the
+establishment has a convenient<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span> ante-room, where all these gentry can
+foregather and match gossip, “My master says”—while their charges are
+being instructed.</p>
+
+<p>The school itself is held in an elegant chamber adorned with fine
+frescos of historical events such as the campaigns of Alexander,
+speaking statues of great literary figures, and, conspicuous upon the
+wall, an elaborately painted map of the Roman Empire, “for,” affirms
+Euganor, “the boys should have daily before their eyes all the seas
+and lands, and all cities and peoples comprehended therein; for the
+name and position of places, the distance between them, the source
+and outflow of rivers, the coastline with all its seaboard, its gulfs
+and its straits are better taken in by the eye than by the ear.”<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a>
+Euganor, too, has his rod and does not bear it in vain, but he never
+allows his discipline to degenerate into stupid cruelty. He is, in
+short, an extremely competent man who studies each of his charges
+carefully and who would prove an excellent teacher in any schoolroom in
+any age.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>172. Methods of Teaching.</b>—All Roman schools are small. The idea
+of vast “graded” establishments where year after year pupils are passed
+from teacher to teacher and at last “graduated” has occurred to no man.
+Platorius conducts his school entirely alone. Euganor has a couple of
+efficient monitors, but neither he nor Platorius tries to handle more
+than say thirty pupils. Many of Euganor’s pupils came to him while
+little more than babies and will only leave him when actually ready
+for the rhetoric schools. He is largely responsible for their entire
+elementary education, although many of the higher class children know
+the Latin and Greek alphabet and can spell a little before being put
+under his charge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span></p>
+
+<p>This is no place for a real discussion of the actual forms of
+education. First there comes the mere teaching of reading, writing, and
+simple arithmetic, with very little use of books, the master dictating
+sentences and correcting the tablets whereon the children write them
+down. Such a teacher as Platorius may have a few musty rolls of papyrus
+which his charges are allowed to handle gingerly, but “First Readers”
+as understood in later schools are unknown. Euganor is better off, and
+a considerable library is at his disposal, although barring a few books
+of fables it contains little that is directly appealing to children.</p>
+
+<p>In the poorer schools the average master congratulates himself if his
+charges stay long enough to become fairly literate, but the better
+establishments, of course, accomplish far more. When a child can once
+read with tolerable fluency, and can write the characters on his wax
+tablets without wandering from the traced lines or needing too many
+corrections, he begins to have the great poets, especially Virgil and
+Horace in Latin and Homer in Greek, pounded into him. He is compelled
+to learn very long passages of such authors by heart,<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> and as an
+especially desirable exercise he is forced to translate both from Greek
+into Latin and also from Latin into Greek.</p>
+
+<p>Since many of Euganor’s pupils will presumably become orators, they
+are furthermore aided to improve their diction also in every possible
+manner, to acquire a good stock of metaphors, and to have on hand a
+great supply of apt, pungent quotations. All the possible meanings
+in the literary texts are explained, likewise the mythological,
+historical, and geographical allusions, etc. The study of literature
+thus becomes what is really a form of a “General Information” course.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>173. Training in Higher Arithmetic.</b>—Before the children leave
+Euganor they are also taught the higher forms of arithmetic. Prior
+to the coming of Arabic numerals this is pretty serious business,
+yet every Roman of property must be able to keep elaborate accounts,
+and not be too dependent upon his stewards. Indeed, in some superior
+schools a special arithmetic teacher is called in; a <i>calculator</i>,
+who is entitled to demand extra large fees, although one suspects
+that most of his pupils are equites’ sons who will probably engage
+in commerce. One thing, however, Euganor does not have to bother
+about—physical culture. The Greeks can send their sons to the
+<i>palæstra</i> and to the harpist to learn gymnastics and music. The
+Romans try merely to see that their boys get exercise enough to keep
+them in good health, but they cannot grasp the practical value of a
+training that neither makes the lads better soldiers nor better men of
+business. Many Romans, of course, learn also about the fine arts, but
+never in the regular classroom.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>174. The Grammarians’ High Schools.</b>—By their early teens,
+however, even Euganor’s pupils begin to forsake him. They are passed
+on to a higher teacher, a regular “grammarian” (<i>grammaticus</i>),
+who assumes that his charges are well grounded in the fundamentals,
+and who endeavors to instruct them in the real niceties of Greek and
+Latin literature. Sometimes also there is a specialist in each of the
+languages.</p>
+
+<p>In these high schools great stress is laid on proper pronunciation
+and elocution. Euclid’s theorems in geometry are studied, and a good
+deal of history is fluently if not very critically taught. Much of
+the learning is superficial, for it is a fine thing in many circles
+to <i>affect</i> to be erudite,<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> and more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span> stress is sometimes
+laid on absurd problems of mythology than upon learning sober facts.
+Grammarians who teach the sons of the parvenu rich are liable, indeed,
+to be scolded if they cannot themselves explain instantly “Who was
+Anchises’s nurse?” But the better grammarians’ schools turn out pupils
+who are not perhaps men of deep learning but who have a great fund of
+information, who can write a clear accurate Latin (and often a Greek)
+style, and generally carry themselves as cultivated young gentlemen.
+Those, however, who aspire to pass as highly educated will inevitably
+go on to the still higher school of the <i>rhetor</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_200" style="max-width: 692px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_200.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Grammarian Instructing Two Upper Pupils</span>: an
+attendant (<i>capsarius</i>) standing at one side.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>175. Oratory Very Fashionable.</b>—Oratory seems the keystone to
+success. True, the fall of the Republic makes it impossible to harangue
+the assembled Comitia in behalf of favorite candidates or proposed
+laws. Even in the Senate there are now grave limitations upon free
+eloquence. Nevertheless, the desirability of “fame” as an orator seems
+incalculable. To win your cause in the courts; to make a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span> crowded hall
+resound with applause at your set orations seems the height of peaceful
+triumph. Never will another age set more store on high-soaring formal
+<i>talk</i> than this age of the Roman Empire. The actual performances
+of professional orators and “readers” we can glance at later, and, of
+course, space lacks for any presentation of the “Science of Eloquence”;
+but mention must be made of the rhetoric schools in which by ardent
+anticipation young Titus and Decimus Calvus are already winning laurels.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>176. Professional Rhetoricians.</b>—No slave or ordinary grammarian
+can hope to conduct a rhetoric school. The masters are either Romans
+of such rank that they can mingle with senators, or are distinguished
+Greeks fresh from the schools of Rhodes or Athens.<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> Not many years
+ago in Trajan’s reign, a certain Isæus came to Rome from Greece. He
+dazzled the noblest circles by his proficiency; his diction was the
+purest Attic; his sentences sparkled with epigrams. He called on his
+audience to name any mooted subjects it liked for discussion and to
+state on which side it wanted him to argue. Instantly he would rise,
+wrap his gown around him and “without losing a moment, begin, with
+everything at his finger tips no matter what subject was selected.”
+Presumably his thoughts and the information behind them were very
+superficial; no matter, the flow of his logic, learning, and language
+set his audience into ecstasies. Calvus only hopes he can find an
+equally distinguished master for his own sons.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>177. Methods in Rhetoric Schools: Mock Trials.</b>—Rhetoric
+schools are arranged rather as halls of audience<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span> than as ordinary
+classrooms. The students are expected to sit in a proper manner, “to
+look steadily at the speaker, not let their minds wander or to whisper
+to their neighbors, yawn sleepily, smile, scowl, cross their legs, or
+let their heads drop.” The training in its earlier stages, however,
+seems decidedly academic. Great models in Greek and Latin oratory are
+examined and discussed. Then the young advocates-to-be are put to work
+preparing their own orations. They are not, however, allowed to take
+any live and fresh topic. Instead they must seek one in distant history.</p>
+
+<p>Every day the streets of Rome resound with noise from the rhetoric
+schools—some youth is laboriously inciting the Athenian patriots,
+Harmodius and Aristogeiton, to screw up their courage and to free their
+country by slaying the foul Hipparchus. Still more threadbare are the
+ceaseless orations urging Hannibal to advance (or not to advance) on
+Rome after his victory at Cannæ. There are a number of stock subjects
+of a more private kind. Mimic prosecutors work themselves into a
+passion against “The Ravisher,” “The Poisoner,” or “The Wicked and
+Thankless Husband.”</p>
+
+<p>Often a couple of pupils a little more advanced can be pitted against
+one another in an imaginary lawsuit. Suppose a father orders a son to
+kill the youth’s brother, whom the father suspects of intending to
+turn parricide. The boy pretends to have obeyed the order, but the
+second lad really escapes. The father at length discovers the facts and
+prosecutes his first son for “The Crime of Disobedience,”<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a>—what
+endless opportunities now for “eloquence” either proving that a parent
+must be obeyed at any cost, or that no one can be compelled to commit
+fratricide!</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span></p>
+
+<p>Again it is supposed that a young girl has been kidnapped, but rescued
+and her ravisher later arrested. Imagine now that the law gives her the
+choice—either the kidnapper must marry her and give her the status
+of an honorable wife or she can require that he be put to death. The
+rhetor will put two of his best pupils to prepare counter exhortations
+to the perplexed girl: “Marry the fellow to assure your social future!”
+or “Let justice be done—summon the executioner!” It is all very
+ingenious, but equally unreal, and it is often hopelessly artificial.
+Angrily wrote Seneca of such debates that by them “we are learning not
+for life but for school.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>178. Enormous Popularity of Rhetoric Studies.</b>—-However
+impractical this study, the upper classes at Rome assuredly dote upon
+it. When each youth in turn mounts the orator’s stand in the school and
+begins his <i>suasoria</i> (set oration) or his <i>controversia</i>
+(pretended legal argument) all his fellows are duty bound to cry in
+Greek, “<i>Euge!</i>” or “<i>Sophos!</i>” at every booming sentiment or
+well-rounded climax. At least once during the oration it is good form
+for them to rise from their seats and join in a salvo of applause—they
+will all get like courtesies when their own turns come.</p>
+
+<p>When the young declaimer has finished the master will arise. He will
+show how to gesture, making his garments fall in picturesque folds.
+He will take the subject just handled and repeat the argument showing
+how each point can be better developed; how new matter can be brought
+in; how allusions to the gods, the worthies of old, and perhaps to
+the reigning Emperor will improve the effect; how to use one’s voice
+at each particular turn, etc., etc. If the only object of oratory is
+to tickle the ear, the result is magnificent. The students dutifully
+applaud their master even more loudly than they do their fellows, and
+each goes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span> home wondering anxiously, “When can I argue my first case
+before the prætor?”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>179. Philosophical Studies: Delight in Moralizing.</b>—A good many
+Roman nobles of intellectual type advance a step further than the
+rhetoric schools. They study philosophy; and even go to Athens (now a
+quiet, delightful university town) to listen to lectures by the alleged
+successors of Epicurus or of Zeno the Stoic, but to Greece one need not
+follow them. It is proper to say, however, that a certain dabbling in
+philosophy is extremely fashionable.<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> There are plenty of stories
+about noblemen who have treatises on philosophy read to them while
+they are being carried to and fro in their litters under the porticoes
+of their villas; or even of ladies who listen to lectures by a
+professional philosopher every morning while their maids are arranging
+their hair.</p>
+
+<p>Such personages, needless to say, never improve upon the familiar
+guesses at the riddle of human existence; but sometimes their desire
+to moralize becomes worse than comical. People still repeat stories
+of Agrippinus, a high-born victim of Nero. When he caught a fever he
+immediately dictated a panygyric on the moral excellencies of fever. He
+was ordered into exile; he wrote a treatise on the benefits of exile.
+He was made a high judge; he added to the anguish of those he condemned
+by giving his victims long orations to prove that he passed sentence on
+them only for their own good!</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>180. Children’s Games. “Morra” and Dice.</b>—It is a long cry from
+child-rearing to philosophy. One must return<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span> to the first topic enough
+to notice the games played by young Romans and also by their elders.
+Tag-games, blindman’s buff and its refinements, and like sports, can be
+seen in every street and dusty area in Rome. A favorite game is that
+of “King”; when a group of children elects a <i>Rex</i> who commands
+them to perform all sorts of fooleries. Time fails to tell of all the
+contests with tossing knuckle bones and at “odd and even,” guessing
+at concealed pebbles, shells, and nuts. The later-day Italian game of
+“morra” (<i>micare digitis</i>) in which both players hold out a hand
+with a certain number of fingers extended, and then each one tries to
+shout out the correct number of his rival’s fingers before the other
+can do the like by his, is a highly popular if noisy method of killing
+time. At the eating houses and taverns it is regularly used among
+friends to settle who shall pay the score.</p>
+
+<p>All too early boys, and likewise girls, learn also to rattle the dice
+box. Some of the dice are ordinary six-sided cubes, some are oblong,
+with the numbers “2” and “5” omitted from the narrow ends. Almost
+always three dice of bone or fine wood are used; and the familiar
+expression “three sixes or three aces” is the same as saying “all or
+nothing.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>181. Board Games of Skill: “Robbers” (Latrunculi).</b>—Altogether
+too much time and money are wasted at dice even by fairly grave people,
+while professional gamblers abound; but the Romans have two games in
+which men are moved on a gaming board according to rules involving
+very high degrees of skill. You can play <i>Duodecim Scripta</i> very
+much like later-day backgammon; fifteen white men and fifteen black
+men are shifted about on a board marked with twelve double lines
+(whence the name) according to the casts of the dice. More abstract
+and learned is <i>Latrunculi</i> (“Robbers”), a game without dice and
+seemingly very much like later-day checkers or chess. Some of the
+pieces are called “soldiers”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span> and others “officers”—and the moves
+are very elaborate.<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> Of course, such games are far removed from a
+mere youthful sport. Consuls and Emperors delight in them, and while
+playing forget everything but the problem involved. Devotees cite with
+pride the story of Julius Kanus, one of the mad Caligula’s victims.
+He was in prison but was allowed to have a friend visit him, and the
+two were busy over “Robbers,” when a centurion came in to say he must
+be immediately executed. Kanus at once arose unmoved, but carefully
+counted the men on the board; then said to his friend, “Mind you, don’t
+tell a lie after I’m dead, and say that you won”; then turning to the
+centurion, “Please bear witness for me that I was one man ahead,”—and
+so did Stoicism find its way even to the gaming table!</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>182. Out-Door Games. Ball Games, <i>Trigon</i>.</b>—Among
+out-of-door amusements, we find that young Romans and some of their
+elders enjoy fairly elaborate games of ball. There are various
+exercises which show that the world is on its way to handball, tennis,
+and even to polo, but hardly any contests foreshadow such things as
+baseball, foot ball, or cricket. The most common game is <i>trigon</i>,
+when three players stand at the corners of a triangle, and at least
+three, or even six balls, are kept flying around the circle with
+great rapidity; the points being made on catching and throwing with
+as few misses as possible. The players stand close together, and the
+whole sport is more a mild form of juggling than it is any real field
+exercise.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XI<br>
+<span class="subhed">BOOKS AND LIBRARIES</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>183. Letters and Writing Tablets.</b>—The multiplication of schools
+presupposes the constant use of books, correspondence, and other forms
+of writing. What are these like?</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_207" style="max-width: 229px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_207.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Wax Tablet with Stilus attached.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>“Tablets” are seen everywhere. Upper-class people delight in scribbling
+down memoranda. The story even runs that Augustus wrote out his
+intended conversations with his wife Livia “lest he should say too much
+or too little,” a testimony at once to the need of circumspect dealings
+with the lady and to a great mania for writing. Ordinary tablets are
+made of two or three thin strips of wood joined together like later-day
+book-covers, and spread over the inside with a thin coating of wax. On
+this wax, often black and dingy, day accounts and business messages can
+be scratched with facility. But really important fashionable letters
+demand something better. The leaves can be made of fine citrus wood or
+even of ivory. As for very special correspondence, love letters, and
+the like, these are written on very small tablets in contrast to the
+broad slabs carrying the merchant accounts.</p>
+
+<p>If you want a handsome note book, you can buy one with a number of
+folding leaves and with outside covers of finely chased ivory, silver,
+or gold, and such handsome note books make very convenient presents
+among friends. By a convention<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span> attached to the high office, when
+Calvus became prætor, he presented his intimates with tablets adorned
+with his own portrait in low relief on ivory, and with scenes of the
+prætor’s tribunal. If he had been consul, he would have been expected
+to give around bunches of tablets even more elegant.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_208" style="max-width: 451px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_208.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Writing Tablets And Stilus.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>When a letter is written no envelope is needed. The tablets are folded
+over upon themselves, fastened with crossed thread and then at the
+point when the ends are knotted is placed a round piece of wax, stamped
+before it can cool with a signet ring. The name of the person to
+whom the letter is going can be written on the outside, and then the
+communication is ready. Letters can be transmitted to distant places
+usually only with tedious difficulty, but around Rome delivery from
+writers of any high position is extremely prompt. The carrying of
+letters is one of the commonest duties for otherwise idle slaves, and
+from a mansion like Calvus’s it is easy every morning to send off ten
+packets each by its own hurrying messenger.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>184. Personal Correspondence and Secretaries.</b>—Calvus, like
+every man of distinction, has a heavy correspondence. It is a fine
+thing to be a good letter writer, to make your epistles seem easy,
+natural, gossipy, and yet in such faultless language that they can
+be collected presently and published in a book. To a few special
+correspondents, especially to absent relatives, Calvus writes almost
+daily in his own hand.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span> But he dictates even more frequently. He has a
+couple of slave <i>amanuenses</i> who are with him constantly; they can
+take down his dictation in a kind of abbreviated long hand; then write
+it out in handsome script, always submitting the final text to their
+master not for his signing but for sealing. As a consequence of all
+this correspondence, the demand for new tablets in Rome is prodigious.
+The wax, indeed, can be melted upon letters which one does not care to
+preserve, and the wood used a second time, but the waste inevitably is
+great.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_209" style="max-width: 252px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_209.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Book Cupboard.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>185. Books Very Common: Papyrus and the Papyrus
+Trade.</b>—Nevertheless, the activity of such secretaries is vastly
+less important than that of another set of scribes, the makers of
+books. Poor is the tenement suite that does not contain a few musty
+papyrus scrolls, while a parvenu freedman will inevitably acquire a
+large library (which he may never read) just to show himself a man of
+fashion. Books are so common that their divided sheets are wetted, and
+used in kitchens to keep fish in fresh condition, or, if dry, to make
+wrappers for incense and spices.</p>
+
+<p>Paper is unknown, and parchment although not unknown is used mainly for
+very important correspondence, public documents, and the like, which
+require extremely durable material. Practically all books are written
+on papyrus arranged in rolls.<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> The papyrus is strictly an Egyptian
+monopoly, and if the importation of this precious article should cease,
+apparently all Greece and Italy would be doomed to partial illiteracy.</p>
+
+<p>The papyrus plant grows in the swamps by the Nile to a height of about
+ten feet. The pith of its tall stalks is first cut<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span> into strips; next
+the latter are placed one by another upon a wetted board and smeared
+over with a paste. On these there is next laid a second layer forming
+a cross pattern or kind of net work. Then the whole combination is
+pressed and beaten down into a solid sheet and smoothed with an ivory
+knife or a shell. After that it is ready for export from Egypt and to
+be put to proper use.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_210a" style="max-width: 291px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_210a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Book Container.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>The papyrus trade is well standardized. There are eight well-recognized
+grades of the commodity. The best is <i>hieratica</i>, so called
+because it is fine and firm enough to be used by the Egyptian priests
+for their sacred books. The cheapest is <i>emporetica</i>, not fit
+for writing but only for wrapping parcels. The intermediate qualities
+answer for the run of books. When the papyrus sheets are ready
+separately, either they can be pasted together at once into a long
+scroll making a complete volume, or first the book can be written off
+and the sheets pasted later.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>186. Size and Format of Books.</b>—Books can, therefore, be of
+all sizes but everybody usually agrees with the Greek saying, “<i>Big
+book, big evil!</i>” It is an indescribable nuisance to fumble over a
+roll of more than a certain length hunting for a desired passage. Not
+many volumes run over 100 pages,<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> and many are much smaller. Each
+sheet constitutes a separate page (varying between six to twelve inches
+high), with the writing usually in a single column, four to six inches
+broad, on each page, and a blank space crossed by a red line before the
+next page begins.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_210b" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_210b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Double Inkstand.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span></p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to read with any convenience writing on more than
+one side of the papyrus prepared in this manner. The result is that
+discarded books are often used for schoolboys’ exercises or for mere
+scribbling “paper”; although, if the papyrus is very firm, often the
+writing can be sponged out and a whole new work can be written over the
+vanished sentences. Books being of this character, it is impossible
+really to prepare the “ponderous tomes” of a later day. “Volumes” are
+very short. The Iliad of Homer is ordinarily in twenty-four separate
+rolls, one for each of its “books”, and the same arrangement obtains
+for other standard works. Very many “books” in the Roman libraries,
+therefore, are really little more than pamphlets.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_211" style="max-width: 250px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_211.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Pen and Scroll.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>For writing on parchment, of course, one cannot use the stylus. Reed
+pens skilfully cut may suffice, with a thick ink made of lampblack and
+gum for ordinary purposes and also a red ink, rich and permanent, for
+ornamental lines. In Calvus’s library, as in almost every other, are
+two large beautifully wrought ink wells, made of bronze with silver
+chasings, and attached together—one for the black ink and one for the
+red.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>187. Mounting and Rolling of Books.</b> The mounting of the papyrus
+long roll is a great art, especially if the book is intended for a fine
+library. First, the whole long strip of papyrus is dressed with cedar
+oil to repel worms—thus giving the pages a pleasing yellow tinge.
+Then the last leaf is fastened to a thin cylinder of wood or of rolled
+papyrus called the <i>umbilicus</i>. The ends of the roll itself are
+carefully cut and smoothed with pumice stone, and the ends of the
+umbilicus are often gilded. Next a strip of solid parchment<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span> bearing
+the title of the book in handsome red letters is attached by a string
+at one end, where it will hang down when the volume is rolled.</p>
+
+<p>After the book itself is ready a neat cylindrical cover or case must
+be made of parchment, colored red or yellow, and also marked with the
+title. For really fine volumes additional elegancies are possible; for
+example, a handsome portrait of the author can be painted or pasted
+upon the first page, and the edges of the entire scroll can be colored.
+Handsomely illustrated works grace every good library.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_212" style="max-width: 302px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_212.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Book Scroll.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>To read these books will seem to persons familiar only with
+<i>codexes</i> (flat opening books) extremely cumbersome.<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> You have
+to take the volume in both hands, unrolling with the right while you
+roll up with the left. It seems nigh impossible to “run through” such a
+volume, and hard to trace down a passage; and there are apparently no
+indices. However, practice can make almost perfect. Calvus can roll and
+unroll his books with remarkable dexterity and by a kind of instinct
+hit promptly upon almost any allusion. It will be a real gain for the
+world, nevertheless, when the roll is supplanted by the many-leaved
+book.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>188. Copying Books: the Publishing Business. Horace’s and Martial’s
+Publishers.</b>—Books abound, although of course all are multiplied
+by painful human effort. This is because slave copyists are relatively
+cheap. Atticus, Cicero’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span> friend, seems to have made a real fortune in
+the publishing business—that is, he owned a great corps of skilful
+slaves incessantly busy transcribing manuscripts. The finest copies
+must be made deliberately one by one, but ordinary volumes can be
+multiplied more summarily. As you go about Rome you will perhaps come
+on large rooms where a great number of scribes are seated in a kind
+of lecture hall desperately following word for word some reader who,
+in a smooth, monotonous voice, is giving out the text either of an
+established classic or the newest essays or epigrams of the successors
+of Pliny the Younger or Martial. In this way what is really an
+“edition” of say a hundred or even two hundred copies can be produced
+in a remarkably short time, without the aid of the printing press.<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p>
+
+<p>The publisher, and even more the authors who try to live by their
+literary genius, are, however, under a grave handicap. There is no
+copyright. What you “publish” to-day, may be flagrantly recopied
+and sold under your very nose to-morrow—possibly with errors and
+interpolations calculated to drive an author frantic. The average
+aspirant for literary fame unless he has personal means is therefore
+constrained, as were Horace and Martial, to hunt up a rich patron who
+for the joy of being “immortalized” will keep him from starving.</p>
+
+<p>However, every aspiring author tries to find some bookseller, who will
+turn his works over to a corps of competent slaves, and then vend the
+products. There is a regular booksellers’ quarter in Rome down by the
+Forum of Cæsar in the heart of the commercial district. Here Horace’s
+old publishers, the Sosii, had their stalls; and Martial’s publishers,
+the firm headed by the clever freedman Allectus, are still there in the
+business.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span></p>
+
+<p>At Allectus’s shop they will tell you how the epigramist used to drop
+in with pardonable vanity to see how from “the first or second shelf
+they would hand down a ‘Martial,’ well smoothed with pumice stone and
+adorned with purple—all for five denarii (80 cents).” On the columns
+by the entrance to this and the rival shops are plastered up long lists
+of new publications—often with sample extracts to prove their wit or
+learning; or announcement of new or old copies of standard works from
+Homer down to that clever Greek litterateur Plutarch, who has recently
+died in Bœotia; or in Latin from old Nævius and Ennius to the recent
+biographies of the Cæsars by the imperial secretary Suetonius.</p>
+
+<p>Considering the labor of copying, the price of books is moderate; a
+small volume of poems by a popular writer can be had for as little as
+two denarii (32 cents), although such a scroll would probably be only
+equivalent to a thin pamphlet of later-day printing, and the works of
+a really voluminous author like Pliny the Elder might appear ruinously
+expensive.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>189. Passion for Literary “Fame.”</b>—Expensive or cheap, by men
+of education a certain number of books must be had. Perhaps the Age
+of Hadrian will fail to leave a great mark in the history of either
+Greek or Latin letters, but that will not be because <i>literary
+fame</i> is not passionately sought after. Everybody is anxious
+to dabble in authorship. Everybody (in the upper circles) seems
+incessantly compounding formal “epistles,” memoirs, essays, rhetorical
+and sentimental histories, and last but not least great quantities of
+verses which pass as “poetry.” Pliny the Younger (not long dead) was
+incessantly urging his correspondents to write: “to mould something,
+hammer out something, that shall be known as yours for all time.”
+The same pathetic desire for immortality which leads to ostentatious
+funeral monuments and to endowed funeral feasts, perhaps puts a premium
+upon this mania.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span></p>
+
+<p>The fine gentlemen and ladies who share these tastes boast that nothing
+can interrupt their furious pursuit of “letters.” Senators like to
+inform their friends that even while hunting boars in the Apennines
+they keep their writing tablets and stylus near them when watching for
+the beaters to drive the game into the nets—what precious sentences
+might escape them otherwise! They like also to have freedman or
+slave “readers” always at their elbows to keep up a flow of poetry
+or philosophy apparently all the time when they are not eating,
+exercising, or conversing.<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is also a kind of etiquette for all members of the gilded literary
+circle to keep sending their unpublished effusions around among their
+friends with demands for “entirely frank and severe criticism”;
+the response always being a long letter of praise even for very
+mediocre efforts. “Terse, lucid, brilliant, stately,” or even “keen,
+impassioned, graceful”—these are grievously overworked adjectives,
+although perhaps at the end of the answers there are a few polite hints
+suggesting a slight improvement.</p>
+
+<p>The Latin-speaking provinces are said to follow Roman literary
+celebrities intently. Nothing delights the latter more than to learn
+that their fame has spread to distant parts. Tacitus was certainly
+a great historian, but he was a man of his time and also a very
+warm friend of Pliny the Younger. Oft repeated is the story of a
+conversation he had in the circus, where on the front benches for
+notables he met a “certain learned provincial.” The twain, without
+introduction, fell into a delightful literary conversation, until the
+stranger who manifestly was very up-to-date asked: “Are you from Italy
+or the provinces?” “Ah,” said Tacitus,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span> “you know me very well from
+my books that you’ve read.” “Then,” cried the other, “you are either
+Tacitus or Pliny!”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_216" style="max-width: 650px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_216.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Old Forum</span>: looking towards northern side, with
+the Curia shown behind the high columns in foreground; restoration by
+Spandoni.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>190. Zeal for Poetry: Multiplication of Verses.</b>—Prose
+compositions in smooth and fastidious Latin, or in very passable
+Greek are common enough, but even the authors of genuinely superior
+histories or literary essays, often desire to become something more
+magnificent—they wish to be poets. Very famous Romans have put forth
+their energies over iambics, elegiacs, or hexameters; Sulla, Cicero,
+Hortensius the Orator, Julius Cæsar, Brutus, Augustus, Tiberius,
+Seneca, Nerva—the list of such celebrities could be made much longer.
+Of course, every loyal subject knows that the reigning Hadrian is
+the author of clever epigrams, which would really deserve a certain
+fame even if their author had lived in the Subura and not upon the
+Palatine.<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span></p>
+
+<p>Probably if there could be physical measuring rods wherewith to
+determine it, the sheer quantity of Latin, and also of Greek verses,
+being thrust upon the world every year would seem prodigious. At
+Allectus and Company they will tell you that Romanus has just brought
+out some very acceptable “Old Comedies” in the style of Aristophanes,
+and some other “New Comedies” in iambics worthy to be classed with
+Plautus and Terence. The noble Caninius, too, has at last completed
+and published a remarkable Greek epic: “The Dacian War”—celebrating
+Trajan’s victories in a manner quite worthy, let us say, of Homer and
+Hesiod. True, the uncouth names of Dacian barbarians do not fit well
+into the hexameters, and especially that of their king, “Decebalus,”
+is metrically almost impossible, but ingenious poetical license has
+overcome the difficulty. Who can doubt that Caninius’s “long poem” will
+live across the ages?<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a></p>
+
+<p>Such a practical man of affairs as Calvus does not take all the
+smooth compliments proffered his efforts over-seriously; but even our
+friendly senator can feel a thrill of pleasure when he dashes off a
+dozen elegiacs in praise of his mountain villa, and hears the “<i>Euge!
+Euge!</i>” (he hopes not <i>too</i> insincere) of his guests as he
+reads them at a dinner party.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>191. Size of Libraries.</b>—With such an affectation for books
+and literary fame there are inevitably great libraries. Long ago
+the old Hebrew gloomily recorded, “Of making of many books there is
+no end,” and his sighs would have increased could he have seen the
+collections in Rome. The small size of the volumes indeed makes it
+hard to compare these libraries with those of other ages. The largest
+library in the world is that at Alexandria with some 400,000 rolls,
+but there are public collections in Rome not very much smaller. As for
+private libraries, a certain rich and learned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span> senator has about 60,000
+rolls.<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> Calvus and his friends make no such boast, and he contents
+himself with some 4000 volumes. This is respectable, but nowise an
+unusual collection for a man of refined tastes, and it has plenty of
+counterparts all over the city.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>192. A Private Library.</b>—The library in the house of Calvus
+is small but sumptuously furnished. Around a large part of the walls
+extend great tiers of large pigeonholes made of finely carved wood,
+and in each hole is a group of rolls, either the complete works of
+a voluminous author, or a collection of smaller books on a single
+subject. The bright red lettering on the dangling labels, the gilt ends
+of the rolling rods, the pleasing soft yellow of the end of the papyri
+(if these are not also colored red) give a luxurious appearance to the
+collection.</p>
+
+<p>Set above the tiers of books in such a room is a long array of fine
+busts in bronze and marble of nearly all the distinguished literary
+figures of Greece or Italy. Calvus has just added a handsome bronze of
+the comedian Menander. The careful frescos on the exposed walls have to
+do with learned mythological subjects; there is also a fine life-sized
+statue of Minerva the patroness of letters, and on a long shelf stand
+really beautiful silver statuettes of all the Nine Muses. Along one
+side of the library there are also tables where Harpocration, Calvus’s
+truly learned and capable freedman librarian (<i>librarius</i>), who
+assists in all his patron’s studies, can spread out rolls for patching,
+rewinding, or even for recopying; also a convenient writing couch for
+the senator himself when he wishes to take his tablets and compile
+those fine “extracts” which the literary world delights to cull from
+every possible author, or to try his own hand at original composition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span></p>
+
+<p>Calvus is not a virtuoso, however, and does not imitate such wealthy
+enthusiasts as the poet Silius Italicus who collected all kinds of rare
+editions, crammed his house with every imaginable writer, and “kept
+Virgil’s birthday more carefully than he did his own.” For all that
+Harpocration has been commended for hanging a small wreath around the
+bust of Sophocles, this day being the reputed anniversary of the death
+of the great tragedian.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>193. The Great Public Libraries of Rome.</b>—Into the Public
+Libraries of Rome we cannot enter. They exist nevertheless as great
+and beneficent institutions although probably only a favored few are
+permitted to read their treasures except inside their ample halls.<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a>
+The oldest public library is that founded by Asinius Pollio (an officer
+of Julius Cæsar) and is located on the rather distant Aventine. Cæsar
+himself projected two very grand Greek and Latin Libraries but did not
+live to create them; Augustus founded a very fine library in the Temple
+of Apollo on the Palatine (making it virtually the imperial palace
+library), and his sister Octavia created another. There is still a
+fourth good library in the Temple of Peace founded by Vespasian; but
+all these are now overshadowed by the relatively new “Ulpian Libraries”
+established by Trajan at his new Forum. These enormous collections
+of Greek and Latin rolls make Rome by far the greatest repository of
+literary treasures in the entire world, barring always the famous
+collection in Alexandria.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XII<br>
+<span class="subhed">ECONOMIC LIFE OF ROME: I. BANKING, SHOPS, AND INNS</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>194. Passion for Gain in Rome.</b>—Much has been said about Roman
+trade and riches, but this is no place for an economic survey of the
+realm of the Cæsars. It is impossible, however, to ignore the outward
+side of that commercial activity which is everywhere in evidence around
+the imperial capital.</p>
+
+<p>The desire for gold, doubtless, had its potence in old Egypt and
+Babylonia, and most certainly in old Tyre and Carthage, but never has
+the fierce passion burned much keener than along the Seven Hills. Go
+into many a pretentious vestibule; in the mosaic pavement are set
+as mottoes, “<i>Salve Lucrum!</i>” (“Hail, Profit!”) or “<i>Lucrum
+Gaudium!</i>” “Profit is pure joy!”). Hearken also to the cynical poets
+of society, for example, to Juvenal: “No deity among us is held in such
+reverence as <i>Riches</i>; though as yet, O baneful Money, thou hast
+no temple of thine own! Not yet have we reared fanes to Money in like
+manner we have to Peace and Honor, Virtue, Victory, and Concord.” And
+he speaks again: “No human passion has mingled more poison bowls, none
+has more often plied the murderer’s dagger than the violent craving for
+unbounded wealth.”</p>
+
+<p>His less sedate but not less cynical contemporary, Martial, echoes
+his words. He recommends that an honest friend should leave Rome; he
+cannot succeed for he is neither a rake nor a parasite; he cannot tell
+lies like an auctioneer, wheedle old ladies out of their property,
+sell “smoke”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span> (“empty rumors,” in other words political, gaming, or
+commercial tips), nor otherwise earn a corrupt living. Martial tells
+us too of despicable misers who, as their vast fortunes increase, let
+their togas become even more dirty, their tunics still worse, their
+wine mere dregs, and their main diet one of half-cooked peas.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps such sordid creatures, however, are no worse than the others
+who struggle for riches simply to enjoy gross material vanities;
+who desire “that their Tuscan estates may clink with the fetters of
+innumerable toiling slaves in order that they may own a hundred tables
+of Moorish marble supported pedestals, that gold ornaments may jingle
+from their couches, that they may never drink anything but Falernian
+cooled with snow from large crystal goblets, and that a crowd of
+clients may follow their litters; etc., etc.” And long before Martial,
+Horace has asserted, “All the arches of Janus [the typical Latin deity]
+from end to end teach one lesson to young and old ‘Oh, fellow citizens,
+fellow citizens, <i>money is the first thing to seek—virtue after
+money</i>!’”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>195. Life in Rome Expensive. Premiums upon Extravagance and
+Pretence.</b>—With every deduction from such charges Rome is
+undoubtedly an extremely expensive city to dwell in, probably the most
+expensive in the whole Empire, and in all but very limited circles
+the pressure for wealth is inconceivable. A typical man-of-affairs
+is represented as boasting to his cronies, “Coranus owes me 100,000
+sesterces ($4,000); Mancinus 200,000; Titius 300,000; Albinus 600,000;
+Salinus a million; Soranus another million; from the rent of my insulæ
+I get three million ($120,000); from the flocks on my pasture lands
+600,000.” On any night at half the triclinia, the mighty equites
+and senators can be heard talking about investments, real estate
+transactions, government contracts, and foreign trade prospects, far
+more vigorously than concerning either the wisdom of the Emperor’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span>
+policy in building the wall across Britain, or the philosopher’s
+doctrine of the immortality of the soul.</p>
+
+<p>The very life of the city puts a premium in fact on getting and
+spending. A youth inheriting a modest fortune in the provinces comes to
+Rome. In a few months his patrimony has drifted away on fish-mongers,
+bakers, luxurious baths, ointments, and garlands, not to mention fine
+clothes, gamesters, and dancing girls. In many circles an outlay
+of 40,000 sesterces ($1600) is “a mere pinch of poppy seed for an
+ant-hill.” You must at least <i>seem</i> rich or you amount to nothing.</p>
+
+<p>Half the young men of fashion are therefore, good authorities aver,
+up to their ears in debt; but anybody with a little ready money can
+put on a bold countenance to make an impression. Many is the apparent
+aristocrat who is swung along in a fine litter, his violet robes
+trailing, and with a long train apparently of clients and slaves
+following him, who has actually hired litter and attendants, nay, the
+gown which he wears from a ready contractor—in order perhaps to carry
+his part in some business conference at the Forum. And if you are to
+plead a case as advocate but are unluckily a poor man, nevertheless be
+sure to hire a fine toga and a couple of handsome rings to wear through
+the morning, or the jurors will assume you are a nobody and promptly
+vote against you.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>196. Rome a City of Investors and Buyers of Luxuries.</b>—Everybody
+declaims against this scramble for wealth and yet joins in it. Even
+Martial and Juvenal, it is peevishly averred, would have held back
+their jibes if their financial hopes had prospered. Be it said also
+that this struggle in Rome is probably not much more sordid than it
+can become in other capitals in other ages. The standards of business
+honesty are relatively high. Most bargains are faithfully kept. A great
+credit system has been built up—itself a witness to the fact that most
+traders are honorable.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span></p>
+
+<p>The business life of Rome flows in many channels, but in general the
+Eternal City does not compete with Alexandria, or even with certain
+smaller Græco-Levantine cities, as an industrial or distributing
+center. Rome <i>receives</i> much. The great incomes from investments
+in the provinces and from the expenditure in the city of the imperial
+revenues, make it possible to pay for enormous quantities of luxuries
+for which no corresponding articles are exported in return. There are
+many petty industries but they exist mainly for local needs. Rome
+exports legions and law-givers, so her inhabitants assert proudly,—is
+it not right, therefore, that she should wax fat upon the tributes
+of the world, when she can repay them with the blessed <i>pax
+Romana</i>?<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>197. Multiplicity of Shops. The Great Shopping Districts.</b>—But
+if the industrial life of the city is relatively weak, never before
+has there been such a “wilderness of shops” as spreads itself along
+the streets of Rome. A certain type of shops can be found everywhere;
+hardly a street but has grocers’ stalls; the terra cotta plaque with a
+goat, the sign of a milk dealer; the stone relief of two men tugging a
+great jar slung up on a pole, the sign of a wine shop, and the like.</p>
+
+<p>There are nevertheless certain great retail quarters to visit if you
+are seeking for articles of <i>vertu</i> and price. The fashionable
+fish-mongers have their odoriferous stalls under the great porticoes
+and basilicas by the fora; the fruit sellers are along the ascent
+from the Old Forum to the top of the Velia (a spur of the Palatine
+flung out toward the Esquiline); while the jewelers, goldsmiths, and
+makers of musical instruments as well as the great bankers have their
+headquarters directly along the Sacred Way itself. The perfumers’
+shops in turn are well concentrated under the south-east brow of the
+Capitoline.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span></p>
+
+<p>In addition to these, however, there exist two grand shopping districts
+for Rome outside the Fora themselves: for the cheap trade, where
+elbowing plebeians struggle for bargains, we find that the little shops
+are wedged all along the swarming Tuscan Street (<i>Vicus Tuscus</i>)
+going south from the Old Forum toward the Circus Maximus and the
+adjacent cross streets; but for the more select purchases high-born
+ladies and gentlemen order their litters to take them northward along
+“Broadway” (<i>Via Lata</i>), where by the Sæpta Julia and the vast
+series of porticoes adjoining or opposite are the finest retail shops
+in the entire world.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_224" style="max-width: 196px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_224.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Tradesmen’s Scales and Balances.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>198. Arrangement of Shops. Streets Blocked by Hucksters.</b>—What
+the inferior shops were like has been already seen in the local survey
+of Mercury Street. They are almost countless in number but are very
+small, the bulk of their wares being on sale upon the open counters
+facing the street, and often you can make all your purchases without
+going inside. The proprietor and his wife with a slave or two manage
+the entire business, unless, indeed, they manufacture, let us say, the
+shoes which they retail; in which case a workroom directly in the rear
+keeps busy a few more slaves or free wage-workers.</p>
+
+<p>The shop fronts are protected at night and on holidays by heavy wooden
+shutters which, when raised, project into the street serving as a kind
+of awnings. They are the more necessary to guard against thieves and
+also against a riot. Shop-keepers are proverbially timid folk, and to
+say “all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span> the shutters are being closed down” is practically to say
+that a brawl or a tumult seems possible. The small size of these shops
+makes their owners encroach upon the streets whenever they can. The
+counters thrust out over the scanty sidewalk, while pedestrians trip
+over the boards with placards set in front of the shops advertising the
+wares inside.</p>
+
+<p>In such narrow streets a little knot of bargain hunters can readily
+halt all traffic. Every now and then, indeed, the City Præfect orders
+his deputies, “Enforce the shop edicts!” A few offending hucksters are
+hailed into court and the rest draw back their counters. “Now the city
+is Rome again and not one vast bazaar,” rejoice the poets of the hour.
+Then, after a little, official zeal abates, and the streets are as
+badly cumbered as before.</p>
+
+<p>A great deal of the trading, however, goes on without any permanent
+shops at all. In almost any cross-street or little square one can
+get a license to locate a table and to set thereon a small stock of
+such articles as copper or iron pots, the cheaper grades of women’s
+and men’s shoes, or pieces of cloth, probably woven by the huckster
+himself, not to mention all kinds of edibles, also the stands of
+menders of old pots, and others of public letter-writers for the
+illiterate. Through the midst of all these, beggars glide whining for
+alms, and children dash about playing hide-and-go-seek.<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>199. Barber Shops and Auction Sales.</b>—An institution almost as
+familiar in Rome as in Athens<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> is the barber shop. Not that a shop
+is really needful. Many a dirty tonsor will put down a low stool in
+the middle of the crowd in the very street and ply his shears or razor
+upon any poor wight who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span> can find a <i>quadrans</i> (small copper).
+The finer barber shops, however, are really elegant establishments,
+fitted to please the fastidious. Here men of parts and fashion can
+meet to hear the latest gossip, and perhaps to read a copy of the
+“Daily Gazette” (see p. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>). A complete manicure service is afforded;
+superfluous hairs are removed with tweezers or depilatories, and nails
+polished and faces massaged very skilfully; although some inferior
+barbers are railed at bitterly, and it is charged that their patrons
+“may count the scars on their chins like those on an aged boxer, or
+those marks produced by the nails of enraged wives.”</p>
+
+<p>Another institution much frequented is the auctioneer’s room. Auction
+seems at Rome an ideal method for realizing quickly upon property, and
+bidding is often keen. The auctioneers are past-masters in stimulating
+the bidders, and in praising-up worthless articles. An auction sale is
+the normal end for the career of a spendthrift when his creditors seize
+his plate and furniture. A dozen times around the city one can see
+placards like the following, tactfully worded to save the pride of the
+unfortunate debtor:<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a></p>
+
+
+<div class="border">
+<p class="p-left sm">GAIUS JULIUS PROCULUS<br>
+WILL OFFER FOR SALE<br>
+CERTAIN ARTICLES<br>
+HERE-UNDER NAMED<br>
+FOR WHICH HE HAS NO FURTHER REQUIREMENT</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p2"><b>200. Superior Retail Stores.</b>—However, besides the petty shops
+and street traders there are the really magnificent stores, especially
+toward the Campus Martius where articles of <i>vertu</i> attract the
+wealthy. If you have wealth, you can delight yourself in splendid
+establishments offering citrus-wood<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span> tables, veneered with ivory and
+gold, with other articles of furniture to match, or candelabra that are
+massy works of art, or vases and mirrors of every possible style and
+elegance, and where all kinds of fine pottery, plate, and bric-a-brac,
+as well as gorgeous upholsteries, tapestries, and carpets, can be had
+for a price.</p>
+
+<p>To thrust into these places that welcome only the most aristocratic
+clientele is the delight of those professional shoppers, which abound
+in Rome as in many another city. Martial’s Mamurra will have many
+survivors in the next generation. This worthy fellow put in his days
+at the richest bazaars along the Sæpta Julia. He would force his way
+to inner rooms where the handsomest and most expensive slaves were
+on private exhibition. He made obsequious clerks uncover fine tables
+“square and round, and next asked to see some rich ivory ornaments
+displayed on the upper shelves.” He measured a tortoise-shell veneered
+dinner couch five times, then sighed, “It’s not long enough for my
+citrus table.” He smelled of rare bronzes “to see if they were real
+Corinthian”; criticized a statue by Polycleitus, had ten porcelain cups
+“set aside” to be taken by him later, examined some splendid antique
+goblets, made a jeweler let him inspect some emeralds in a splendid
+gold setting, also some valuable pearl ear pendants, and complained
+aloud that he was seeking “<i>real</i> sardonyxes.” At last, just as
+the shops closed for the day, utterly wearied, “he bought two earthen
+cups for one small coin and bore them home himself.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>201. Numerous Banks and Bankers.</b>—All this trade implies the
+handling of great sums of money, and for its care banks and bankers are
+everywhere in evidence. The Romans naturally run to finance. It appeals
+to their keen sense of the practical. Even before Cæsar’s conquest
+it was boasted that rarely a large sum changed hands in Gaul without
+its being entered in an Italian account book; while in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span> Nero’s day a
+serious revolt in Britain was said to have been precipitated by the
+act of the millionaire philosopher, Seneca, in calling in his British
+loans, thereby reducing certain tribes to beggary.</p>
+
+<p>Stocks, bonds, and long-time government securities do not indeed exist,
+and there is no regular stock exchange, but in many respects about
+all the other financial conveniences of a later age can be found by
+the Tiber. There are two kinds of money handlers—mere coin-changers,
+dealing in foreign mintages and often no doubt accepting sums merely
+for safe keeping in their strong boxes; and above them are the real
+bankers acting under a kind of state license and doing business on the
+largest scale.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>202. A Great Banker and His Business.</b>—The highest classes of
+these <i>argentarii</i> are men whom the Emperor will gladly consult if
+the Parthians break loose in an expensive war, or great public works
+have to be undertaken in Africa. They are strictly under government
+supervision, their business honor is high and bankruptcy is a great
+disgrace.</p>
+
+<p>On this day in question Calvus must needs visit his own personal
+banker, Sextus Herrenius Probus, head of the firm of the Probi, one
+of the oldest houses on the Via Sacra. Probus is an eques, though
+his wealth surpasses that of most senators. His father helped such
+personages as the philosopher Seneca to make and to manage their huge
+fortunes, but the real origin of the firm went back to Augustus’s
+settlement of Egypt, when the successful liquidation of the royal
+estates of Cleopatra provided enormous and lawful commissions. Probus
+now is practically the Custodian of many of the noblest patrimonies in
+Rome. He is all the time consulted concerning investments, and Calvus
+has particularly desired to-day to ask whether his own freedmen are
+wise in urging their patron (acting, of course, through themselves
+as middlemen) to put 300,000 sesterces into a transaction in Arabian
+frankincense.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[229]</span></p>
+
+<p>Probus, of course, runs a regular banking business. Besides several
+junior partners he has a great corps of clerks, some freedmen, and
+some slaves. His office has all the signs of a well-ordered commercial
+establishment. Every item of his business is entered in an elaborate
+system of ledgers, which are regularly brought into court as the most
+reliable kind of evidence.</p>
+
+<p>Such a banker issues bills of exchange on correspondents in such places
+as Athens, Alexandria, Antioch, Lugdunum, Gades, and even on distant
+Londinium in Britain. Money is deposited with him, then withdrawn by
+personal checks (<i>perscriptio</i>) in a manner very familiar to
+another age. On long-time deposits he pays interest; and, of course,
+he is always loaning money for long or short terms on what seems good
+security.</p>
+
+<p>On the day that Calvus comes to him Probus has just loaned 200,000
+sesterces on a mortgage on a well-rented insula, at the standard
+rate of 12 per cent; and also a sum to a merchant planning a trading
+voyage to Spain at the heavier rate of 24 per cent until the ships are
+safe in harbor.<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> Probus, too, exchanges foreign moneys at a fair
+commission, although by the reign of Hadrian the coinage of all the
+Mediterranean world has become decidedly Romanized; one seldom now
+has to change drachmas and shekels into sesterces and <i>aurei</i>
+(gold pieces), although the old Græco-Oriental coins have not quite
+disappeared.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>203. Trust Business: Savings Banks.</b>—Besides its strictly
+banking business Probus’s firm also does much that could at another
+time be referred to a “Trust Company.” It makes sales or purchases
+for its clients, undertakes to close<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[230]</span> up estates, attends to legal
+business, collects debts, and above all conducts auctions of large
+quantities of goods in the most responsible manner possible. Somewhat
+on the side the firm also maintains several small savings banks to
+attract the sesterces of the humble.</p>
+
+<p>These modest savings institutions, paying the depositors a fair
+interest, are numerous all over the city; and such concerns also
+make loans for small sums on chattel mortgages—in short, doing a
+business that is sometimes highly legitimate, sometimes griping and
+usurious. Probus’s savings banks, like many others, are intrusted to
+slave managers (<i>institutores</i>) who are expected to invest their
+own <i>peculium</i> in the business to insure their watchfulness and
+honesty. The management of such small establishments is naturally held
+in little social esteem, and the heads of Probus and Company affect to
+ignore their savings banks just as much as possible, although the gains
+from them are, perhaps, almost as great as from the dealings with the
+lofty <i>Clarissimi</i> of the Senate.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>204. Places of Safe Deposit: The Temple of Vesta.</b>—At all the
+banks there are very strong brass-bound treasure boxes carefully
+guarded and protected by elaborate locks. These boxes if not actually
+“safe deposit vaults” can defy any ordinary burglars. However, objects
+of great value, caskets of jewels, large sums of bullion, and the like,
+can be deposited in the Temple of Castor at the Old Forum, where (under
+the double sanctions of law and religion) the government undertakes
+their storage for a moderate fee. There is also a second government
+deposit vault at the Temple of Mars Ultor on the Augustan Forum, but
+this unfortunately “lost its helmet” (<i>i.e.</i> its reputation for
+inviolability) when it was successfully entered by burglars some years
+ago.</p>
+
+<p>There exists, however, a still safer place than the Temple of Castor,
+although obviously it can only give room to protect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span> very small packets
+and highly precious documents. The Vestal Virgins in their House of
+Vesta, sacrosanct and absolutely guarded, have now in their keeping
+the wills of half of the Senators and of many other distinguished men.
+There they are safe from tampering not merely by common criminals, but
+by designing heirs and even by greedy Emperors; but this service, of
+course, is only at the disposal of the aristocracy.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_231" style="max-width: 327px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_231.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Monument of a Hostler.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>205. Inns: Usually Mean and Sordid.</b>—The very nature of a city
+like Rome presupposes an enormous floating population. The metropolis
+is always full of strangers. The more distinguished of these almost
+inevitably find hospitality at least as “paying guests” in some private
+quarters, so that large hotels for the gentry are almost nonexistent;
+and as stated (p. 112) the universal custom of either dining at home or
+being a dinner guest of friends largely obviates the need of luxurious
+restaurants. But all visitors cannot command noble hospitality; and
+many a plebeian, freedman, or slave cannot go home from his work either
+to the noon-time prandium or to the regular evening dinner. Besides
+there are plenty of loose fellows who desire congenial places for
+tippling and carousing. The result is that Rome is provided with inns
+and with eating houses; although nearly all of both types are sordid
+and held in little aristocratic favor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span></p>
+
+<p>The inns (<i>tabernæ</i>) usually combine the reception of travelers
+with the providing of meals for chance visitors. Since driving in the
+city is seldom permitted, nearly all wagons have to unload near the
+gates, and around these there is a perfect sprinkling of inns primarily
+for the accommodation of teamsters.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_232" style="max-width: 597px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_232.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Gateway at Pompeii</span>: present state. Note the
+small entrance for foot passengers, available after the main gate for
+beasts and wagons has been closed.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>A few of these establishments are very large but the most are decidedly
+small. Take for example the “Inn of Hercules,” just outside the Porta
+Capena, where the Appian Way commences. It is kept by one Proxenus, a
+sly-eyed, strong-limbed fellow, who pretends he is an Athenian Greek,
+but who probably comes from somewhere much nearer the Orient. His inn
+stands side by side with a number of competitors, all much alike. There
+is a broad entrance through<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[233]</span> which wagons can drive; and on either side
+of this passage are rooms, one for the proprietor’s personal use, the
+others for serving meals, drinking, and idling. On the walls are coarse
+frescos, showing besides the Lares (the serpent Genius of the place,
+and the god Hercules) views of the wine trade, perhaps of a man pouring
+wine from a large jar into a still larger earthen hogshead. In the rear
+of these rooms there is a fairly large court for wagons, a stable, and
+a watering trough. Near these are three small chambers for teamsters
+who have to sleep near their beasts; but most of the guests are
+accommodated in small, dirty cubicles in the story above the wine-rooms.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>206. Reckonings and Guests at a Cheap Inn.</b>—Proxenus is not more
+filthy or extortionate than the majority of his kind. He takes it as
+part of his perquisites to hear his tavern cursed as “dirty,” “smoky,”
+“vermin infested”—or things much worse, and laughs heartily when
+he finds that a departing guest has scratched upon the walls of his
+sleeping chamber such doggerel verses as</p>
+
+  <div class="poetry-container">
+   <div class="poetry">
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <div class="ileft">“Landlord, may your lies malign</div>
+        <div class="i1">Bring destruction on your head!</div>
+        <div>You, yourself drink unmixed wine</div>
+        <div class="i1">Water sell your guests instead!”<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a></div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+<p>He can at least claim that his ordinary charges are moderate. His
+regular bill to a driver is likely to be:</p>
+
+<table class="smaller">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">“Bread and a pint of wine</td>
+    <td class="cht">1 as;</td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Meat dish</td>
+    <td class="cht">2 asses;</td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Mule provender</td>
+    <td class="cht">2 asses;</td>
+  </tr>
+
+  <tr>
+    <td class="cht">Night accommodation</td>
+    <td class="cht">2 asses.”</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The bronze <i>as</i> is hardly more than 2 cents; and the whole charge,
+including the mule, is thus about 14 cents later-day reckoning. The
+real profit, however, comes when for example<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[234]</span> a burly soldier off duty
+tramps in with his hob-nailed boots, swings back his military cloak,
+and orders, “Come, mine host (<i>copus</i>), some really good wine with
+a little water!” If congenial spirits, male and female, are now ready,
+such may be the beginning of a long sousing evening, when the dice will
+clatter furiously and the soldier will awake in the morning with not
+one sesterce in his pouch.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>207. Noble Frequenters of Taverns.</b>—Sometimes Proxenus rejoices
+in still more exalted company. Certain fast young nobles enjoy “doing
+the rounds” of low taverns; and the Inn of Hercules has fairly regular
+visitors of this very profitable type. When Proxenus sees Gnæus
+Lollius, Gratia’s black sheep of a cousin, entering, he makes haste to
+anoint his own locks with pungent musk, and runs to greet his visitor
+as ‘Dominus’ and ‘Rex,’—while the young profligate, boasting that he
+has come to enjoy a perfect “Liberty Hall” (<i>æqua libertas</i>),
+commands the host at once to call in all the loose rascals in the
+neighborhood and insists that they drink with him from the same goblet.
+At last they are all sprawling about the tavern, the noble Lollius
+“cheek by jowl with cut-throats, bargees, thieves, runaway slaves,
+hangmen, and coffin makers.”<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a></p>
+
+<p>All Rome has been laughing in loyal glee at the retort in verse which
+the clever Hadrian has just made to a certain Florus, who wrote some
+lines saying “he would rather not be Cæsar” because the latter was
+always gadding off to outlandish places. Florus is notoriously a
+frequenter of all-night taverns, and the Emperor instead of imitating
+Nero and sending him a centurion with a death message, has hit back
+roundly:</p>
+
+  <div class="poetry-container">
+   <div class="poetry">
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <div class="ileft">“Florus would I never be,</div>
+        <div>Now a-tramp to taverns he,</div>
+        <div>Sulking now in cook-shops see,</div>
+        <div>Victim of the wicked flea!”</div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[235]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_235" style="max-width: 530px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_235.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Cheap Grocery and Cook-Shop.</span> <i>After Von
+Falke.</i></p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>208. Respectable Eating-Houses.</b>—But not all people are
+teamsters seeking a lodging, or rascals seeking a carouse. Honest
+hard-working men and women must buy their meals every day. The simplest
+method, if you care nothing for appearances, is to halt before one
+of the cooks who station themselves in the open street with caldrons
+over small charcoal fires. At the end of copper sticks they attach
+little cups with which they bring up boiled peas, or some form of
+stew to be eaten on the spot. Of better grade are the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span> <i>cauponæ</i>
+(eating-houses); these are ordinarily arranged with a long counter open
+to the street whereon is arrayed a tempting display of dainties, and
+above this are marble shelves set with cups and glasses. We see also a
+place for heating liquids over a charcoal fire.</p>
+
+<p>On going inside a typical restaurant, one comes to a long room filled
+with small tables and backless stools for the use of the guests. The
+walls are covered with tolerable frescos showing scenes of eating
+and drinking, while from the ceiling dangle strings of sausages,
+hams, and other eatables. Really good meals can be ordered here, also
+good wine at reasonable prices. Most of the guests are honest, quiet
+tradesmen who go about their business, and every sign of a brawl is
+promptly repressed. When two youths in servile dress begin to exchange
+blows over a cast of dice, the strong-armed proprietor promptly gives
+them a push toward the door with the firm injunction, “Please fight
+outside.”<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>209. Thermopolia—“Hot-Drink Establishments.”</b>—Such places
+are genuine restaurants where more attention is given to the food
+than to the beverages. Hardly any eating-house, however, can really
+be popular unless it does business also as a <i>thermopolium</i>, a
+“hot-drink establishment.” Coffee and tea are unknown; but hard-working
+folk around the city find <i>calda</i> very refreshing especially
+after the toil of the morning. Calda is a kind of diluted wine mixed
+with spices and aromatic herbs, and heated up into a sort of negus.
+It is in constant demand. In fact a cup of calda and a little bread
+and peas make up the average poor laborer’s luncheon; therefore the
+samovar (<i>authepsa</i>) is continually steaming in all the Roman
+eating-houses.</p>
+
+<p>Needless to say most inns and even the better restaurants enjoy such
+an evil reputation among the high and mighty that the latter never
+frequent them save, as does Lollius, for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[237]</span> the naughty “experience.”
+Even when traveling through Italy, so general is the custom of
+extending hospitality, that only rarely will a great man like Calvus
+have to lodge with his retinue at an inn. The result is that country
+inns are hardly more select than those in the city, with sometimes the
+additional reputation of being the holds of unabashed robbers. Ladies
+and gentlemen, and even their more fastidious slaves, groan when they
+have to put up at country taverns, and what Cicero, Horace, Propertius,
+and other writers have thought of inns and inn-keepers has passed into
+literary history.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[238]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XIII<br>
+<span class="subhed">ECONOMIC LIFE OF ROME: II. THE INDUSTRIAL QUARTERS. THE GRAIN TRADE.
+OSTIA. THE TRADE GUILDS</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>210. Industrial Quarters by the Tiber.</b>—We have said that Rome
+was not primarily an industrial or commercial city. A million and
+a half people cannot, however, exist without a great deal of local
+manufacturing and an elaborate organization for importing staples and
+luxuries. If we go down the Vicus Tuscus or some other streets leading
+near the Tiber and toward the southern part of the city, the fine
+mansions grow fewer, the insulæ become more squalid, and even these
+last are interspersed with dingy structures of concrete which by the
+noise and smells proceeding thence are obviously factories.</p>
+
+<p>These industrial plants are for the most part small according to the
+standards of another age; there is also a marked absence of complicated
+machinery and a conspicuous dependence simply on patient man-power; but
+some establishments are really on a great scale. The noble House of
+Afer, for example, has a practical monopoly of the brick industry.<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a>
+Its products are used all over the city, as may be proved by the name
+stamped on almost every brick, and in the Afer yards and kilns are
+employed several thousands of slaves and free workers.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>211. Conditions of Industrial Labor.</b>—Slave labor has crowded
+free labor hard but has not actually destroyed it. You can never get
+quite the same efficiency from a “speaking<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[239]</span> tool” as from a man to
+whom life affords honest prospects. Furthermore, the supply of slaves
+is unsteady. While the legions were overrunning helpless kingdoms, it
+was easy enough to buy a hundred more hands for your pottery works or
+metal factory; but now the campaigns of Trajan (the last period, it
+will prove, of the great conquests) are over. There are barely enough
+prisoners in the slave market at present to provide a fair supply of
+servants.</p>
+
+<p>There are other drawbacks to servile labor: though a slave worker
+cannot “strike” against terms of employment, his employer cannot cease
+to feed and clothe him during slack times, when he will gladly lay
+off free labor. As a result the average industry employs slaves and
+free men side by side; the latter are a little more self-sufficient,
+but seemingly they do not object to having slaves as fellow workmen.
+In any case the hours of labor are long and the conditions hard. A
+denarius (16 cents) is apparently wages enough to provide an artisan
+with a few rooms in a dingy insula and to keep his wife and children
+from starvation—especially if they can get the government grain doles;
+greater reward he dares seldom to demand.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>212. Great Trade through Ostia and the Campanian Ports.</b>—But
+Rome, as stated, imports more articles than she manufactures. The
+commerce from the interior of Italy, down the Tiber and along the
+main roads from the north, the Via Cassia and the Via Flaminia, is
+not of first importance—mostly garden produce, stone, and timber.
+Not so that from Ostia, the harbor town, or that coming by the famous
+southern highways, the Via Appia and the Via Latina. Navigation along
+the Italian coast to Ostia has its dangerous features, and a great
+many merchants try to unlade at such south-Latin ports as Antium or
+preferably at the busy harbor of Puteoli in Campania. The result is
+that the southern roads are often black with great trains of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[240]</span> heavy
+wagons bumping over the hard pavement all the hundred and fifty odd
+miles from Puteoli to Rome. However, a very large fraction of the
+entire commerce of Rome passes up the Tiber from Ostia, and is set down
+on those long arrays of wharves southwest of the Aventine, known as the
+Emporium.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>213. The Emporium and Its Wharves: the Tiber Barges.</b>—The
+Emporium is not the most beautiful section of Rome, but it is one
+of the most important. From its murk and bustle many a lordly eques
+is swung away every night in his litter for the quiet, aristocratic
+Quirinal or Esquiline; but it is the Emporium trade which makes
+possible his great mansion with its hierarchy of soft-footed slaves. To
+reach the Emporium we go down the Vicus Tuscus past the upper end of
+the tall gray masses of the far-stretching Circus Maximus, then turn
+down narrow lanes where the Aventine crowds closely toward the Tiber.
+Immediately the river opens before us with a scene of teeming life.</p>
+
+<p>We are now below all the regular bridges and at the head of deep-sea
+navigation. In truth the Tiber is too shallow and uncertain a river
+to be very practical for large ships, even of the Græco-Roman type.
+Only small vessels, mostly of the coasting variety, come up to Rome on
+direct voyages. But the regular procedure is to unload the deep-sea
+craft at Ostia and then bring up their lading along the twenty odd
+miles of the crooked river, in light-draft barges. These barges—some
+worked by long oars, some towed by their crews walking along the
+shore—are constantly coming and going. To-day as every day the river
+is alive with them, and many others are moored closely, prow following
+stern, all along the magnificent stone embankments which serve as quays.</p>
+
+<p>Approaching one of these ungainly flat-bottomed craft, we see it has a
+little cabin on the poop, and its name, the “Isis<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span> of Geminus,”<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a>
+is marked in large red letters upon the black hull. The captain is
+now standing by the mooring cable passed through a sculptured lion’s
+mouth, directing a great gang of porters carrying sacks of grain
+down a bank to the wharf, where Geminus, the owner himself, assisted
+by a government clerk carefully checks off every sack upon their
+bills of lading. A little scrutiny reveals that while all kinds of
+commodities abound on the Emporium two take wide precedence over
+all others—<i>grain</i>, from Egypt and provincial Africa; and
+<i>marble</i>, from Numidia, Greece, and Asia Minor.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_241" style="max-width: 650px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_241.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">River Boat loaded with Hogsheads of Wine.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>214. The Marble and Grain Trades.</b>—The marble trade, indeed,
+demands a special section of the wharves. For the government buildings
+the imperial procurators in the marble-producing provinces are
+constantly sending in valuable cargoes, and for monolithic columns and
+extra large blocks specially constructed barges are used to bring them
+from Ostia. Even now a great labor gang is painfully<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[242]</span> disembarking a
+splendid column of Egyptian porphyry for the new Temple of Venus and
+Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Behind the Emporium stretches an ugly complex of offices, warehouses,
+porters’ barracks, and the like, but most conspicuous and ugly of all
+are the public <i>horrea</i>. These are tall gaunt storehouses for the
+keeping of grain, enormous fabrics of dull gray concrete, “elevators”
+in fact, carefully maintained by the government for the victualing of
+the capital. There are said to be more than three hundred horrea, and
+the largest are named for the emperors who built them—the Horreum of
+Augustus, of Domitian, and the like. Thousands of men are employed
+around them, and the state of their contents can give anxious nights to
+the Imperial Council. Unlovely as they seem, they are vital to the life
+of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>It is no small task to provide grain for so huge a city, and that, too,
+without the aid of railways or steamships. Even a top-lofty Emperor
+like Domitian can fear the howls of the crowds in the circus if the
+price of wheat becomes high and the customary free distributions are
+not forthcoming. Hence these horrea must be large enough to supply
+a large margin against possible delay in the annual arrival of the
+“Alexandrian” or “African” fleets on which the provisioning of the
+capital depends.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>215. The Public Grain Doles.</b>—All the world knows that one of
+the most precious prerogatives of a plebeian in Rome is the right to
+receive about 5 <i>modii</i> (about 10 gallons dry measure) of grain
+every month at government charges. Is it not only right that the
+wearers of the toga should live on the bounty of the subject world?</p>
+
+<p>In the past there have been, indeed, efforts to make the populace pay
+<i>part</i> of the price of their grain, with the government simply
+discharging the balance. This half measure has broken down because of
+unpopularity. All that the authorities<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[243]</span> can do now is to see that the
+list of recipients is limited to genuine citizens, and that the alien
+riffraff of the great city is strictly excluded.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_243" style="max-width: 449px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_243.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Distributing Bread.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>There are now, as since the time of Augustus, about 200,000 citizens
+upon the precious “Frumentary Lists.” The recipients are not paupers,
+but include very many “small citizens” of the worthier kind. It is an
+honor in many circles to win the precious <i>tessera</i> (metal or
+bone ticket) entitling<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[244]</span> one to stand in line at the numerous grain
+dispensaries all over the city and get the monthly allowance.<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a>
+Every adult male Roman in the city receives this privilege, but under
+some circumstances the tessera can be alienated. You hear of persons
+selling theirs or even bequeathing them by will; and some of the
+holders are thus not merely freedmen but even ex-criminals.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>216. Distribution of the Free Bread: Extraordinary Bonuses
+(<i>Congiaria</i> and <i>Donativa</i>).</b>—For a long time this food
+has simply been portioned out unbaked at the numerous grain stations
+all over the city; after which it has to be made into bread at home, or
+to be handed over to private bakers who will return so many loaves per
+measure, deducting a commission in kind. There is a growing tendency,
+however, towards government bakeshops as a new means of pampering the
+“Sovereign People” and towards passing out the food in the form of
+handsomely baked bread.</p>
+
+<p>The custom nevertheless is not yet universal.<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> The private bakeries
+continue to flourish, and since each baker must grind his own flour,
+no sound is more common all over the city than the rasping of the
+millstones worked either by long-suffering donkeys, blindfolded to
+keep them from eating, or by the most recalcitrant and sodden class of
+slaves.</p>
+
+<p>These distributions of free grain are part of the normal life of Rome.
+Inevitably they multiply the number of parasites, busybodies, and sheer
+beggars. Ever since Gaius Gracchus started the evil system, thoughtful
+men have groaned over its consequences, but all have been helpless, and
+the demoralization increases when an Emperor, to insure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[245]</span> popularity at
+the beginning of his reign, or to confirm it later, orders a special
+<i>congiarium</i> to all the citizens.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_245" style="max-width: 596px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_245.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Oven and Grist Mill in a Bakery.</span> <i>After Von
+Falke.</i>]</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>This gift can take the form of special distributions of oil, wine, and
+meat to all the lucky holders of the tesseræ; but presents even more
+lavish are possible. When Trajan died in 118 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> and Hadrian
+was proclaimed, the latter, not quite certain of public favor, put all
+the insulæ to roaring in his praise by proclaiming a gift of three
+aurei (gold pieces of $4.00 each) to every “frumentary citizen” in
+Rome. What wonder that later <i>donativa</i> (bonuses) become necessary
+at dangerously frequent intervals to prevent even the most loyal
+plebeians from praying for a new reign!<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>217. The Trade in Sculptures and Portrait Statues.</b>—But it
+is time to return to the region about the Emporium. Near the marble
+wharves are naturally the huge establishments where all the day long
+the chip, chip of many mallets and chisels indicates that great masses
+of sculptured stone are being turned out—magnificent capitals,
+pediment groups, bas-reliefs that are splendid works of art, for all
+the needs of the government buildings and the mansions of the wealthy.</p>
+
+<p>Many large concerns devote themselves to manufacturing single statues,
+life-size or miniature. Standing around in their courtyards are rows
+of sculptured deities, mostly copies of good Greek masterpieces,
+representing the whole host of Olympus from Jupiter down to the
+inferior demigods; there are also numerous statues displaying orators
+posing in their togas, magistrates in their official robes, and
+generals in their armor, but with the features left in the rough—to be
+finished up on order at short notice to adorn some atrium or small-town
+forum.</p>
+
+<p>A great array of statues of the Emperor are also kept in stock. These
+are needed in every government building, and the demand is constant;
+but it must be admitted that Hadrian’s handsome bearded features are
+often outrageously distorted by the careless journeymen, so that loyal
+folk protest even as does the governor of Pontus, Arrianus, who has
+just written his master, “Your statue at Trapezus [on the Euxine] is
+beautifully placed, but it is not the least like you. Please send on
+another at once from Rome!”</p>
+
+<p>Special markets and warehouses also exist for almost every other
+major commodity. Near the Circus Maximus there is the noisy, fetid
+cattle market where horses, kine, and asses change hands amid coarse
+chaffering very much as in the trade for slaves. There are likewise
+great repositories for oil, flax, lumber, wool, spices, etc.—some
+private, some under government supervision; the clang from all kinds
+of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[247]</span> smithies and metal workshops is incessant, and the factories for
+manufacturing bronze statues are almost as large as those for the stone
+sculptures.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_247" style="max-width: 672px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_247.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 sm center">ENVIRONS OF ROME</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>218. The Tiber Trip to Ostia: the Merchant Shipping.</b>—If,
+however, one would learn the real sum of Roman industry and commerce,
+it is needful to charter a slim swiftly-pulling wherry and to glide
+down the yellow Tiber to Ostia. All the way the craft has to dodge the
+enormous barges, but the shores are covered with delightful villas,
+small villages, or with prosperous farms raising poultry, flowers,
+vegetables, and the like for the city trade. In the distance across the
+level campagna can be seen the impressive array of the solemn arches of
+the great aqueducts, reaching back into the hills and bringing their
+supply of pure water to Rome. Ostia itself, however, is strictly a
+harbor town, with an elaborate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[248]</span> series of breakwaters, dredged basins,
+naval docks, mercantile docks, and a perfect jumble of shipping.</p>
+
+<p>The vessels have come from all parts of the Mediterranean, and there
+is even a battered trader that has coasted all the way from Britain
+with a cargo of tin ore. The smaller craft can trust sometimes to their
+oars in a calm, but all the larger must depend on their unwieldy lateen
+sails which swing from two or three long yards crossing as many masts.</p>
+
+<p>By far the largest merchantmen are the Egyptian corn ships, and one
+of these, that is just being moved to the quay by a gang of shouting
+half-naked stevedores, is of somewhat unusual size. We are informed she
+is fully 180 feet long and 45 feet in beam.<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> She is provided with
+elaborate and decidedly comfortable cabins for many passengers, so that
+it is easy to believe the story that when the Jew Paullus (previously
+mentioned) on his compulsory trip to Rome was wrecked off Malta, 276
+persons were rescued from the Alexandrian merchantman whereon he and
+his guards had embarked.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>219. Imperial Naval Vessels.</b>—At Ostia, too, can be seen a few
+triremes of the Imperial Navy. Enemies to the Roman dominion have
+practically disappeared from the seas, but there is still a certain
+danger of pirates or local insurrection; therefore, although the clumsy
+four- and five-bankers of the Punic War periods disappeared soon after
+the battle of Actium, small patrol squadrons of swift triremes, pulling
+about 170 oars, or of smaller craft are maintained by the government.
+These ships are extremely like the Athenian triremes of the golden age
+of Greece and call for no special description here.<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> The Romans are
+not naturally a seafaring people. Nearly all the larger merchant ships
+are manned if not owned by Greeks or Levantines; and it has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span> been with
+real satisfaction that the Emperors have felt that they could allow
+their navy to dwindle down to insignificance. With the army, as will be
+seen, things are very different.<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>220. The Harbor Town of Ostia.</b>—Ostia has all the accompaniments
+of a busy port: a great mass of squalid lodging-houses for sailors,
+innumerable taverns overrun with dirty loiterers of both sexes, a
+great many uncouth faces along the quays, ear-ringed Syrians, and even
+quaintly jabbering negroes. There are, however, some good houses for
+the rich merchants and directors of the shipping, and a forum flanked
+with handsome temples and government buildings befitting the harbor
+town of the Mistress of the World.</p>
+
+<p>In the outskirts of Ostia one can quickly get out into delightful
+country stretching all along the seashore. The villas of city magnates
+look forth upon the blue Tyrrhenian Sea, or are bowered in lush
+groves surrounded by rich gardens and fruitful orchards. The melons
+raised around Ostia are in demand by every epicure in the capital.
+Who can believe a prophecy that this active bustling port, with its
+enormous shipping, and all these villas, groves, and gardens will
+some day vanish like a dream, and that Ostia will lie in a desolate
+fever-stricken country,—with hardly a house in sight along the
+deserted shores, and with the harbor town of the Eternal City reduced
+itself to a few miserable cabins?</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>221. The Roman Guilds (<i>Collegia</i>).</b>—Ere turning one’s
+glance from the economic life of Rome it is needful to regard the
+organization of industry. Nearly all free workmen are members of
+“guilds” (<i>collegia</i>) which nominally exist for the purpose
+of worshiping some patron deity; thus the bakeries are the special
+votaries of Vesta the hearth goddess, the fullers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[250]</span> of Minerva the
+protectress of wool-working, the smiths of Vulcan, and so with others.</p>
+
+<p>These “colleges” are not labor unions for the protection of the
+wage-earners against exploitation; they are more like the guilds that
+are to be developed in the Middle Ages. The chief members are the
+employing “masters,” and paid journeymen and apprentices have little
+share in the control of the organization. However, most industries in
+Rome are on so small a scale and the situation is so complicated by the
+competition of slave labor that the friction between wage-earners and
+their employers seldom becomes dangerously acute.</p>
+
+<p>The trade guilds are carefully watched by the government lest they
+become the hotbeds of sedition and disturbing intrigue,<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> on the
+other hand their existence is often useful in helping to mobilize
+industry in behalf of the army and to keep up the public works in
+general.</p>
+
+<p>They have a fairly tight organization, with their own officials,
+“prætors” and “presidents,” and the like, and the election to such
+a post by one’s fellow craftsmen is no slight honor. The guilds,
+too, have their special corporate property; and many of them possess
+elaborate guild halls for their feasts and meetings.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>222. Very Ancient Guilds: the Flute-Blowers.</b>—Some of the
+colleges are of decidedly recent origin, but eight of them boast that
+their history goes back to the very early days of Rome. These are
+the fullers, cobblers, carpenters, goldsmiths, coppersmiths, dyers,
+potters, and last but not least, the flute-blowers, so important at
+funerals and all public festivals.</p>
+
+<p>From the “good old times” come many quaint stories about these
+guilds, and everybody remembers especially the tale concerning the
+flute-blowers. About 314 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> the censors<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[251]</span> saw fit to forbid
+these somewhat riotous and irregular gentry from joining in the sacred
+banquets to Jupiter in which they had formerly participated. In anger
+the whole college struck and retired in dudgeon to the friendly city
+of Tibur. Soon the Senate found it difficult to conduct the religious
+rites properly without the aid of the flute-players, and endeavored to
+cajole them home, but the strikers had found their fare and quarters
+in Tibur very pleasant and refused any reasonable terms. The people of
+Tibur, however, wearied of their guests and to get rid of them gave
+the whole corporation a generous banquet, during which all the members
+became so drunk that they could be loaded into wagons, trundled back
+to Rome and then laid down in a helpless stupor in the very Forum. The
+next morning the entire guild awoke, rubbed its collective eyes and
+found a vast crowd of jeering friends pressing around. The result was
+an honorable compromise. The censors relented, and the flute-players,
+in return for giving solemn attention to their religious duties, were
+awarded the right to three days of high carnival, with songs, dances,
+and every kind of coarse gayety.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>223. Importance of the Guilds.</b>—The complete list of the guilds
+is very long. Besides those mentioned, among the more prominent are the
+barbers, perfumers, fruit sellers, garment cutters, pack carriers, mule
+drivers, gig drivers, and fishermen, not to mention the great guild
+of the bakers. There is as yet no formal compulsion upon a craftsman
+to join a college, but in fact any “non-union” workman is subject
+to discrimination and sabotage which make his life unhappy. Cases
+are known of funerals being halted amid an unseemly scuffle when a
+non-member of the guild of bier-carriers has been discovered helping to
+carry the litter for the dead.</p>
+
+<p>Certain crafts have perforce to be distributed all over the city but
+inevitably fellow guildsmen like to flock together.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[252]</span> In the industrial
+quarters each craft tries to concentrate upon a certain street which is
+then called by its name. Well known is the case of how Catiline’s gang
+had its rendezvous at Marcus Læcas’s house on Scythemaker’s Street.
+There is no annual “labor day” when all the guild members of the city
+hold festival together. On the contrary each college has its own
+separate festival, when the united craft is entitled to parade through
+Rome with horns, pipes, cymbals, and gaudy banners; its officers
+appearing in the guise of magistrates. The whole company with their
+families ordinarily head for the outskirts, where, beside convenient
+temples and hospitable taverns, the good people can spread themselves
+for picnics under the trees, join in vulgar dances, and very often
+spend the night under improvised tents of leaves—everybody sleeping
+the sounder because of much strong wine.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>224. Multitude of Beggars.</b>—To these honest plebeians must be
+added another less noble multitude. Rome literally swarms with beggars.
+The parasitical habits taught by slavery and by the grain doles go
+far to make begging somewhat respectable. At every turn you can run
+on whining wretches often repulsively mutilated in order to excite
+sympathy. They have their regular stand, however, upon the bridges,
+where they crouch on dirty mats shouting their “<i>da! da!</i>” “Give!
+Give!” and at the gates where travelers take or leave their carriages
+they are thicker than the flies. Near Ostia and along the Emporium
+may also be seen real or pretended sailors escaped from shipwreck,
+identifiable by their heads, which are shaven because of vows made in
+peril, and who hold out their caps for coppers while “delighting in
+garrulous ease to tell the story of their perils.”</p>
+
+<p>Downright thieves, professional robbers, and petty pilferers are held
+in reasonable restraint by the active police, but the absence of street
+lights makes it risky business to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span> go about after dark without torches
+and a good escort. Serious burglaries are often reported, and every
+now and then the body is found of some wayfarer who was stabbed while
+resisting a hold-up. As for certain districts going down the river
+toward Ostia, or along the Via Appia toward the Pomptine Marshes, their
+reputation is so bad that even in daylight a company of armed slaves is
+desirable.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XIV<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE FORA, THEIR LIFE AND BUILDINGS. THE DAILY JOURNAL</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>225. The Fora, the Centers of Roman Life.</b>—Hitherto in our
+prolonged “day” in Rome we have carefully avoided visiting those famous
+quarters or buildings which are the glory of the imperial city. These
+can only take on true significance when we have first seen the ordinary
+life of rich and poor. It is now time, however, to visit the “Heart of
+Rome”—the splendid system of fora in that great hollow where five of
+the “Seven Hills” almost come together just north of the Palatine, and
+then to visit the Palatine itself with its abodes of official majesty.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_254" style="max-width: 750px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_254.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">General View of Old Forum and Capitol</span>: a
+simplified restoration.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>The renowned and original “Forum” is known technically<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[256]</span> as the
+<i>Forum Romanum</i>, or the Old Forum, and down to Julius Cæsar’s time
+it was the only great plaza inside the official limits of the city.
+Under the emperors it is still revered and famous, but the needs of an
+enormous metropolis have caused first Cæsar, then Augustus, Vespasian,
+Nerva, and finally Trajan to add other wide public squares surrounded
+by buildings far more magnificent than most of those around the ancient
+rallying spot of the men of the Republic.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_255" style="max-width: 750px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_255.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Old Forum</span>: present state, looking towards the
+Capitol.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>All these fora are closely connected together, sometimes by no
+very sharp lines of demarkation. You can start in near the Flavian
+Amphitheater and follow down the Sacred Way across the Old Forum, with
+one soaring edifice, triumphal arch, or memorial column succeeding
+another until at the Temple of Trajan you find yourself on “Broadway”
+(<i>Via Lata</i>), upon the great avenue leading through the select
+shopping districts, and then past the Campus Martius, and onward to the
+northern suburbs. “Going to the Forum” means visiting any place in this
+crowded, swarming district, where every public and private interest
+seems to have its stronghold, and where the litters of Senators go past
+so frequently that nobody stops to count them.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>226. Incessant Crowds at the Forum. The Centers of Gossip.</b>—If
+driving is impossible in the ordinary Roman streets by day, it is
+doubly impossible in this congested region where only those who delight
+in crowds should endeavor to force their way from one building to
+another. Nevertheless, with that informality so characteristic of
+Mediterranean countries, all the fora are allowed to be overrun with
+idlers. Ragged boys are scampering between the columns fronting the
+most sacred temples, and on the steps of the same adult idlers from
+morn till eve are playing “Robbers” on boards scratched upon the
+stonework,<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> or rattling dice<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span> (nominally forbidden) if the police
+are not too near. The foul and the elegant therefore are often in
+amazing juxtaposition.</p>
+
+<p>For the average senator or eques a morning visit to the Forum, after
+he has received his own callers or clients, is almost a required act
+of the day. All his associates are doing the same thing; he can easily
+meet almost any friend without making an appointment, he can read that
+“Daily Journal” presently to be described (see p. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>), hear the latest
+tittle-tattle from the palace and get all the trade reports—all this
+even if he has no real business at the Senate House, the government
+bureaus on the Palatine, or the Record Office on the slopes of the
+Capitol.</p>
+
+<p>If the great men do this, all the lesser fry and above all the genteel
+idlers must do the same. The women frequent the fora almost as much
+as do the men. If there is nothing else to busy one, one can always
+wedge into the crowds listening to the distinguished advocates in the
+Basilicas (Court Houses). It is quite a proper thing to imitate Horace
+who put in many days simply wandering around the business quarters. “I
+go on foot (said he) and go alone. I ask the price of kitchen-stuff
+and grain. I often stroll down toward the cheating [gambling] Circus
+and around the Forum; then perhaps I stop toward evening at the
+fortune tellers. Presently I go home to my supper of leeks, pulse, and
+macaroni.”</p>
+
+<p>Across the fora will parade all personages who wish to put men’s
+tongues to wagging. People laugh at a certain pretentious senator who
+likes to pass for a great hunter and who is incessantly sending his
+slaves around the plazas at the crowded morning hour, bearing nets and
+spears and driving a mule apparently bearing home a wild boar “which
+we all know,” whisper the cunning, “he has just bought in the game
+market.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span></p>
+
+<p>Here in the fora also the magistrates with their lictoral fasces pass
+so often that it is really inconvenient the number of times you have
+to bow your head to them, or, if in a litter, to dismount and stand at
+polite attention: and in such frequented places the kissing nuisance
+takes on its greatest bane. The merest chance acquaintance, if only
+he is a citizen, will thrust his damp salute upon you, little heeding
+whether you have a vile cold or his own lips be ulcered and his breath
+foul.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>227. Grandiose Architecture: Vast Quantities of Ornaments and
+Statues.</b>—In viewing these great public squares and buildings
+instantly one is impressed by a single fact—the grandiose character of
+the ornaments and the architecture. All the enormous public buildings
+are literally overladen with adornments. The architects seemed to have
+abhorred the idea of blank spaces. There are no reposeful vistas.
+Everything seems striving to be magnificent and ornate. Statues, singly
+or in groups, occupy all the gables, roofs, niches, intervals of
+columns, and even the stairways. The Triumphal Arches are surmounted
+by equestrian figures or by prancing four-horse chariots. Reliefs and
+medallions cover all the friezes. If there is any space that cannot be
+seized for the mounting of sculptures or at least for bas-reliefs, it
+can be used for painting designs in stucco or colored mosaics. Every
+detail down to the gutters is highly decorated.</p>
+
+<p>Very different, therefore, are these fora from the chaste elegance of
+the public places in Athens. On the other hand much of the effect is
+splendid as well as startling. The utilization of concrete permits the
+erection of vast soaring domes, often covered with gilded tiles. The
+elaborate Corinthian pillars before many of the buildings are often
+simply superb polished monoliths of colored marbles. The use of the
+arch (practically unknown in Greece) permits new effects often graceful
+and pleasing.</p>
+
+<p>The sculptures permitted in such public places are, of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span> course, always
+of the highest order. Sometimes they are original Greek masterpieces
+carried as spoils to Italy. Often they are excellent copies of those
+masterpieces but with small variations, not inelegant, which give the
+reproductions a real character of their own. At every turn one sees
+these triumphs of bronze and marble, Apollos, Minervas, Victories,
+Winged Mercuries, Centaurs, Homeric Heroes, and all the legendary host
+of Græco-Roman mythology—now singly, now in groups. Interspersed with
+these gods mounted on pedestals or on the entablatures of the buildings
+are the honorary statues of the worthies of Rome. Hardly a great leader
+is absent from Romulus to the reigning Hadrian.</p>
+
+<p>A mere walk about the fora with an explanation of their portrait
+statues becomes therefore a detailed lesson in Roman history. Besides
+the images of the truly great and good, there are so many others of
+sheer mediocrities or worse that one is left wondering whether the
+honor of a “statue in the Forum” is so important after all. Even in
+old Cato’s day the abuse was such that he remarked sarcastically that
+“he would rather that men asked why he had <i>not</i> a statue in the
+Public Square, than whisper questioning why he had one.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>228. Use of Color on Sculptures and Architecture.</b>—Needless to
+say, in Rome as in Athens very many of these buildings are brilliantly
+painted.<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> The great columns of colored or of snow-white Carrara or
+Græcian marbles are usually left in their natural aspect, but nearly
+all the backgrounds, architectural members, and details are colored
+in brilliant greens, reds, and blues. The nude statues are nearly all
+tinted in flesh color, and the hair darkened, and there is perhaps an
+overplus of gilding.</p>
+
+<p>Under a bright Italian sky these color combinations make the vast
+succession of enormous buildings stand out with indescribable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[260]</span>
+grandeur; and to this spectacle must be added the huge crowds
+incessantly moving about the fora, great masses of soft white togas
+giving to the wide areas all the exuberance of teeming life. There can
+be many other great plazas in the future capitals of the world; there
+will never be any more clearly marked out as the veritable center of an
+enormous Empire than the succession of fora in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>We are not concerned with archæological descriptions. The arrangement
+of the fora in this reign of Hadrian must be sketched over lightly
+or explained completely, otherwise the result is not knowledge but
+confusion; here a very brief survey will suffice. If we are following
+Publius Calvus’s litter as it traces the Esquiline on routine business
+of a senator, a series of convenient side streets probably will bring
+it past the great baths of Trajan and then down the slope to the
+spot where the vast bulk of the Flavian Amphitheater rears itself
+arrogantly. The baths and the Amphitheater both will be visited later
+(see p. <a href="#Page_361">361</a> and p. <a href="#Page_394">394</a>), and we can, therefore, ignore them. Then the
+litter bearers swing west and slightly north—and before us lies the
+veritable Heart of Rome.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>229. Entering the Series of Fora: the Temple of Venus and
+Rome.</b>—To avoid being overwhelmed by details only the most
+conspicuous objects and buildings will be mentioned. Some structures
+are obvious at the very first. To the left, lifting vauntingly above
+the visitors’ heads, rise tier upon tier the domes, balconies, and
+pinnacles of the Imperial Palace upon the Palatine, sustained at their
+base by an enormous mass of arches and buttresses of masonry and
+concrete. The lords of the palace at any moment can look down from
+a gilded balcony upon the Old Forum and its bustling life, and they
+need only descend an inclined plane in order to mingle with the mob,
+or cross the Plaza to visit the Senate House. Directly ahead—at the
+end of the vista, rises the Capitol, crowned by the rebuilt Temple of
+Jupiter Best and Greatest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[261]</span> (<i>Jupiter Optimus Maximus</i>), its roof
+flashing with the gold tiles; its enormous pillars proclaiming it the
+most splendid fane in Rome.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_261" style="max-width: 552px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_261.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center">MAP OF<br>THE HEART OF ROME</p>
+     <p class="p0 smaller center">The Fora, the Palatine, the Capitoline etc. as in Period of Hadrian:
+about 135 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>At the head of the Via Sacra (for this famous route of the great
+Triumphators now opens before us), upon our right, is the new and
+indescribably splendid Temple of Venus and Rome, a building just
+completed by Hadrian. This edifice has been reared by demolishing the
+last of the ruins of the impossibly extravagant “Golden House,” the
+architectural monstrosity of Nero.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span></p>
+
+<p>In order to get sufficient room for his new structure Hadrian also was
+compelled to move the colossal statue of Nero (99 feet high) located
+near the site and to set it nearer the Flavian Amphitheater. This had
+been a great task, executed by the clever architect Decrianus, with
+the aid of twenty-four elephants—performed to the delight of all the
+idling crowds in Rome. The statue now towers upon its new pedestal,
+with Nero’s unworthy head sagaciously lifted from its shoulders and one
+of the Sun God substituted. The new Temple of Venus and Rome is a truly
+magnificent object; rising as it does upon a terrace 26 feet high,
+500 feet long, and 300 broad, and surrounded by an enormous portico
+of 400 columns each 40 feet high. The versatile Emperor boasts that
+he has been the architect himself, and whatever are the real facts no
+vestibule to the fora could well be more impressive.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>230. The Arch of Titus: Continuation of the Sacred Way.</b>—With
+the Temple of Venus and Rome to our right and the substructures of
+the Palatine to the left we go straight ahead to the Arch of Titus.
+Everybody recognizes the shape of that impressive but relatively simple
+structure. Its bas-reliefs showing the spoils of Jerusalem—the “Golden
+Table” and more particularly the “Seven Branched Candlestick”—are
+destined to be reproduced countless times.</p>
+
+<p>Old men in Hadrian’s day can still recall the Triumphal Procession
+when the son of Vespasian returned in glory; how the great throng of
+cheering soldiers and citizens swept up toward the Temple of Jupiter
+Capitolinus, then halted at the portal of the Temple while Simon
+Bar-Giora, the captive Jewish leader who had been dragged in the
+procession, could be taken to a high place overlooking the Forum and
+deliberately scourged to death. At the news that he had perished all
+the vast company made the crags and columns quake with their brutal
+“acclamation,” and Titus entered the shrine to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span> sacrifice and to bear
+witness how much mightier was Latin Jove than Palestinian Jehovah.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_263" style="max-width: 656px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_263.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Spoils from Jerusalem</span>: Arch of Titus.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>And now the Via Sacra turns at right angles, or, to be more accurate,
+its thronging ways divide. Go to the left and you will come upon a high
+street passing under the brow of the Palatine. It runs a considerable
+distance toward the Capitol, receiving several sloping avenues or
+broad staircases leading down from the Palatine. This is “New Street”
+(<i>Nova Via</i>), the most convenient route to certain buildings on
+the southern side of the Forum.</p>
+
+<p>It is better, however, to follow the denser crowds which are swerving
+somewhat to the right, and then by a second turn go straight onward
+again between magnificent structures, with the gilded roofs of the
+Capitol ever looming ahead more clearly. We are now on the Via Sacra
+proper; and caught<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span> in the eddying throngs of litters, litter bearers,
+running footmen, following clients, elbowing plebeians with now and
+then a masterful squad of Prætorians in gilded armor, we find it
+perhaps impossible to get more than the names of the structures in
+passing.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_264" style="max-width: 451px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_264.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">View through the Arch of Titus, showing the Flavian
+Amphitheater in Distance.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>231. House and Temple of Vesta: the Regia: the Temple of the Divine
+Julius.</b>—The venerable temple near which the ways divide is that
+of Jupiter Stator where Cicero convened the anxious Senate when he
+delivered his great assault on Catiline. Next comes to view a long
+high wall broken only by narrow doorways until you see a stately
+portal at the western end, nearest the Old Forum. From above the wall
+can be glimpsed the tiles and marble of an elegant mansion inside,
+also the foliage trees of a really fine garden. This is the House of
+the Vestals, the abode of the six sacrosanct virgins who are the most
+revered personages in all Rome, hardly barring the Emperor.</p>
+
+<p>As we advance there come next to view two buildings—one a small round
+temple of antique and simple structure; the other a handsome arched
+building of no great size. The first is the Fane of Vesta itself, where
+burns the eternal hearthfire of Rome, guarded by the Vestals, and the
+most sacred structure in the entire city. The second is the Regia, the
+official home of the Pontifex Maximus, the head of the Roman religion,
+and actually occupied (since that official is now the reigning Emperor)
+by various clerks and administrative bureaus relating to the upkeep
+of the State cultus. To the right of these buildings are government
+warehouses and offices;<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> and then, closing off the Old Forum proper
+from these structures just named, stands another extraordinarily
+magnificent Temple, that of the deified Julius Cæsar.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>232. The Old Forum (<i>Forum Romanum</i>).</b>—We are now close
+upon the actual Forum. It can be entered by two methods: you can go
+between the Temple of Vesta and that of Cæsar, very likely walking
+through the triumphal arch of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[266]</span> Augustus, in which case you will see
+the pillared façade of the stately Temple of Castor and Pollux (the
+divine helpers of Rome at the half legendary battle of Lake Regillus),
+and then across that busy shopping street, the Vicus Tuscus, before
+reaching the quieter portico of the great Basilica Julia; or you can
+take a better way by keeping on past the northern side of the Temple of
+Cæsar and coming out pretty directly upon the Forum. In so doing you
+will have the second great court house, the old but capacious Basilica
+Æmilia to the north on your right. Let tribunals and litigants,
+however, wait—before the visitor at last is opening one of the most
+famous areas in the entire world—the <i>Forum Romanum</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_266" style="max-width: 750px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_266.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Old Forum</span>: looking west towards the Capitol.
+Restoration by Nispi-Landi.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Of the Old Forum well may one say what Cicero declared of Athens, “On
+whatever spot we tread we awake a memory.” There is hardly an event
+connected with the long reaches of Roman history which is not also
+connected in one manner or another with this public square. The first
+impression, to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[267]</span> be sure, may be one of disappointment: the whole open
+plaza barely measures 300 by 150 feet. It seems the more confined
+because a large part of the southern side is hemmed in by the huge
+Basilica Julia, while directly above the square rise the two hills of
+the Capitoline and the Palatine, their summits crowned with lofty and
+noble buildings looking down upon the Forum as a kind of common center.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_267" style="max-width: 750px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_267.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Old Forum, looking towards Capitol from before the
+Temple of Castor</span>: the building on the left, with statues beneath
+its upper arches, is the Basilica Julia. Restoration after Von Falke.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>As one advances, however, the impression deepens as to how earnestly
+the Romans have tried to concentrate their whole life around this
+beloved square. If statues abound elsewhere in the city, they seem here
+more numerous than even the surging throngs around their pedestals.
+Every kind of human activity is apparently going on simultaneously.
+Along the north side, as we have seen, are the offices of those<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[268]</span> great
+bankers who hold the nations in fee from the Euphrates to Hibernia, yet
+pedlers are now wandering about, almost under the feet of the consul’s
+lictors, hawking hot sausages, strings of garlic, and pots of eye
+salve, while a snake charmer has obtained the license to exhibit two
+stupid serpents on the actual steps to the Temple of Janus just beyond
+the Basilica Æmilia.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>233. The Forum Area: the Posting of Public Notices.</b>—Walking
+out into the area itself, we find it solidly paved with rectangular
+blocks of travertine. The days are gone when closely packed throngs of
+quirites stood for hours upon this pavement listening to the orators
+bidding them vote upon peace or war, or for or against some proposed
+law, as lay in their right as free citizens. Gone, too, is the day of
+that great funeral pyre of garments, ornaments, trinkets, tables and
+benches, which the frenzied mob heaped around the corpse of Cæsar after
+Marcus Antonius had thundered his invective against Cassius and Marcus
+Brutus. But not gone is the Senate House (the <i>Curia</i>), looking
+out across the plaza from the northern side of the square, just beyond
+the Temple of Janus. And around the orator’s stands, the Rostra, at the
+western end of the area there is still another elaborate funeral in
+progress; the wearers of the imagines sitting in their curule chairs,
+and the orator pompously lauding “the noble departed.”</p>
+
+<p>Truth to tell the Forum is frequented every morning largely to get
+the news. Not merely can you meet the bearers of all sorts of public
+or confidential information; you can spend an hour merely reading the
+great “white boards” (<i>albums</i>) bearing official and private
+notices which stand around everywhere. The “Daily Gazette” is here
+posted, and we shall consider its contents presently; but apart from
+that, whether you wish to know the price of grain or the day set for
+a lawsuit; whether Syphax the Moor will race his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[269]</span> four in the next
+circus, or Epaphroditus the Athenian will lecture to-morrow on the
+nature of the soul, the Forum placards will tell you everything. Gossip
+incalculable, often of a kind which no man dare put in writing, you may
+also pick up, as well as accost half of your acquaintance. A visit to
+the Forum, therefore, is almost as important to a Roman of parts and
+activity as in another age will be the perusal of the paper.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>234. Western End of Forum: the Rostra: the Golden Milestone: the
+Tullianum Prison.</b>—At the extreme western end of the area, more
+temples are seen rising on the slopes of the lofty Capitol. Here is the
+Temple of Saturn; and higher still the Temple of the deified Vespasian,
+the Temple of Concord, and the great “Public Record Office,” the
+Tabularium, and the Rostra are reached just before you quit the level
+area and take the winding ascents towards the Capitol.</p>
+
+<p>These famous stands for the orators constitute an elaborate platform,
+with a fine marble balustrade which is adorned with exceptionally good
+bronze statues of notables such as Sulla and Pompeius; although all
+these ornaments were added by Julius Cæsar and know not the days of
+the Old Republic. Some of the original “beaks” (<i>rostra</i>) from
+captured warships which gave the famous pulpit its name are still in
+position, however, with others from such battles as Actium added.<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a>
+Even if the Republic is dead, the place remains of decided utility not
+merely for funerals, but also for formal speeches on state occasions;
+and sometimes an emperor will still condescend to harangue the loyal
+quirites from its platform.</p>
+
+<p>Close by the Rostra and near its southern end rises a tall stone pillar
+coated with gilded bronze. This is the “Golden<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span> Milestone” whereon
+Augustus inscribed the names of the great roads leading out of Rome,
+and the distances to the chief towns along their course. “<i>All roads
+lead to Rome</i>,” and leading to Rome find their convergence in the
+“Golden Milestone.” It comes close, therefore, to being the “Hub” of
+the entire Roman Empire.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_270" style="max-width: 650px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_270.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Old Forum</span>: present condition, western end
+looking east. In foreground pillars of Temple of Saturn.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Near the other, the northern end of the Rostra, when one goes a little
+of the way up to the Capitol, there is quite a different landmark, far
+more venerable—the old prison of the city, the Tullianum, prepared,
+according to the story, by King Ancus Martius. It was originally
+nothing but a kind of well let into the damp rock, with an upper and a
+lower compartment; this second chamber is only accessible by means of
+a hole in its vaulted roof through which prisoners were lowered by a
+rope.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Tullianum has long since been discarded as the public jail, but
+state prisoners are sometimes confined or executed there. Familiar
+is the story of how Jugurtha, the luckless Numidian, was starved to
+death in the lower dungeon; and how Lentulus and the other Castilinian
+conspirators were strangled in the upper. Since then, if one accepts
+the story told by those very despised creatures, the Christians, their
+great leader, Peter, one of the associates of Christus, was kept there
+in chains before he was taken out to be executed by Nero’s orders. It
+is assuredly a gloomy and fearsome enough place to strike terror even
+into such “Haters of all Mankind,” as official documents assure us
+these Christians must be.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>235. The Basilica Æmilia: the Temple of Janus: the Senate House
+(<i>Curia</i>).</b>—But to return to the great buildings lining the
+Forum. The Basilica Æmilia on the north side was erected as early as
+179 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and, though often repaired, it is a substantial
+monument of the great days of the Republic. It is so like the greater
+Basilica Julia, however, that one description will do later for both.
+Directly by this court house stands the venerated Temple of Janus, a
+structure with many arches and sacred to the most characteristic if not
+the greatest of all the gods of Rome.<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> The gates of the shrine,
+one notices, are standing carefully open, as a token that some petty
+frontier wars are still raging. When absolute peace prevails these
+doors, however, will be carefully shut. The Romans are thrifty and
+practical people. Why waste good sacrificial victims and incense on
+the god when his help against the foe is not needed? It would be like
+paying a doctor when one is feeling entirely well.</p>
+
+<p>Leading away from the Forum and this Temple is a series of vaulted
+passages also called <i>janus</i>, which form a large<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[272]</span> part of the
+banking district. Here, because the Sacred Way is too limited, many
+great financiers have their offices; here countless clerks are
+busy with their account books; here great loans are negotiated or
+investments are placed hourly. It is almost a regular exchange and the
+scene of many speculations. Regularly one hears of fortunes made or
+lost “between the janus,” <i>i.e.</i> by the workings of high finance.</p>
+
+<p>Beside the Temple of Janus rises the magnificent porch of the
+<i>Curia</i> (Senate House). The Conscript Fathers are not yet in
+session, and a visit to the interior can wait. The structure is very
+splendid, but it is not the grand old Curia Hostilia, built according
+to legend by King Tullus Hostilius, and the scene of nearly all those
+famous Senatorial debates across the long annals of the Republic.
+That ancient building was burned in 52 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> during the riots
+following the murder of the idol of the populace, the demagogue
+Clodius. Julius Cæsar, therefore, had a good excuse for building a
+stately new Senate House. This in turn was damaged in Nero’s great
+fire, but Domitian carefully repaired it—and with its fine pillars,
+bronze doors, and galaxy of statues, it forms a worthy meeting place
+for what is still a venerable and powerful body.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>236. The Basilica Julia, the Greatest Court House in Rome; the
+<i>Lacus Curtius</i>.</b>—The Basilica Julia on the southern side of
+the Forum is a building into which it is best to enter. The structure
+was begun by Julius Cæsar to meet the imperative need for a larger
+court house. More important business is transacted under its roof and
+ample porticoes, perhaps, than in any other building in Rome; and in
+bad weather nearly all the Forum loungers take refuge beneath its ample
+shelter. Its size is worthy of its important functions; it is 270 feet
+long and in addition to the regular exterior colonnade has a fine inner
+colonnade.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_273" style="max-width: 750px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_273.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Interior of a Basilica</span>: restored.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>These double porticoes are the special lounging spots of fashionable
+idlers of both sexes. Young men of fashion seeking to meet congenial
+ladies of easy habits have only to loiter around and stroll about a
+little—their hopes are gratified. Assuredly Venus can hardly reckon up
+the love affairs that here have ripened. The pavements are even more
+marked up for gaming boards than elsewhere and some of the players, we
+note, actually wear the equestrian stripes, while there are senatorial
+laticlaves in the interested throngs standing around them. Along the
+sides of the building are roomy offices, where a large corps of city
+officials and clerks conduct the various municipal boards and bureaus.</p>
+
+<p>The glory of the Basilica Julia, however, is its great hall, used
+for the chief courts of justice, barring always those of the Emperor
+and the Senate. The hall is paved with colored marbles of price; the
+pillars running down either side are splendid monoliths of still rarer
+marbles, and the ceiling is heavy with gilt fretting and painting.
+In every possible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span> niche rise statues of famous jurisconsults and
+advocates. The light streams down abundantly through the windows in
+the upper clerestory, and in this second story at the present moment
+there are standing or sitting groups of very respectable men and women
+listening to the orator pleading before one of the tribunals below. Any
+guide will tell how the mad Emperor Caligula used to delight to stand
+in these upper balconies, fling down money, and roar with delight when
+the crowds trampled one another struggling to get the coins.</p>
+
+<p>So large is this hall that not one but <i>four</i> tribunals have
+been set up in different quarters of the building, and litigation
+often proceeds before all four of them simultaneously, although in
+the absence of partitions strong-lunged advocates sometimes interfere
+with their neighbors; they tell of a certain stentorian Trachalus who
+once while speaking before one tribunal not merely was heard by but
+drew applause from the audiences in the other three. Here Quintilian,
+Pliny the Younger, Tacitus, and other orators of the generation just
+departed, won their fame, and at present every windy amateur in the
+rhetoric schools dreams of the day when he can wave out his toga in the
+Basilica Julia before a crowded and cheering balcony.</p>
+
+<p>These are some of the more famous monuments in and around the Forum
+Romanum. Were one to descend to particulars the task were endless.
+Perhaps there should be mentioned a certain modest altar in the
+very center of the open plaza. This marks the so-called <i>Lacus
+Curtius</i>. Antiquarians give one several stories concerning it, but
+the accepted version is this.—Once in the good old days a yawning
+gulf opened at this very spot, the portent, perhaps, of the devouring
+of the entire city—when lo! the brave youth, Marcus Curtius “devoted”
+himself for his country and plunged unflinchingly into the abyss. The
+earth closed over<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[275]</span> him, he was seen no more, but Rome held his name in
+eternal remembrance. Doubtless he had thus taken upon himself the anger
+of the infernal gods and had saved the state!<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_275" style="max-width: 616px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_275.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">The Tarpeian Rock</span>: on slopes of the Capitol.
+(From this traitors were hurled in the time of the Republic.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p class="p2"><b>237. The New Fora of the Emperors: the Temple of Peace.</b>—After
+surveying the Forum Romanum we are told that five other fora—the
+creations of high-minded Emperors—still await inspection. Truth to
+tell, however, these great plazas—not marking the growth and events
+of centuries, but the mandates of wealthy despots—give one a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[276]</span> sense
+of anticlimax. Of them it will be properly written: “The fora of the
+Empire were as much superior in magnificence to the Forum Romanum as
+they were inferior in historical interest and association.”</p>
+
+<p>They are the work of master architects mobilizing armies of laboring
+slaves, stone cutters, and artists. The eye becomes weary with the
+incessant sheen of costly marble; the equestrian statues, the forests
+of ornate Corinthian pillars, the great reaches of tessellated
+pavements, the quantities of colored paint, enamel, and heavy gilding.
+At first these imperial fora appear to the visitor as a hopeless
+complex of pretentious splendor; but after a little, a clever method
+appears in their arrangement by which one great plaza or system of
+public buildings joins itself to another.</p>
+
+<p>Four of these public squares join closely together, but the fifth
+stands a little apart. This last is located near the northeast end of
+the Old Forum, verging toward the Subura and the Esquiline, and is the
+“Forum of Peace,” constructed by Vespasian about 75 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> The
+open area, however, is relatively small, for its center is occupied by
+the imposing “Temple of Peace.” This temple is adorned with a perfect
+gallery of sculptures and paintings, nearly all of them masterpieces
+by the Greeks. These works of art had formerly occupied Nero’s Golden
+House until that grandiose structure was destroyed by the thrifty
+Vespasian. In this Temple of Peace likewise are kept those precious
+Jewish spoils shown on the Arch of Titus, and there is not merely a
+fine library but a hall for the savants and scientists when they meet
+for their learned conventicles.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>238. The Fora of Julius, Augustus, and Nerva.</b>—In dealing
+with the four connected fora it profits little to multiply detailed
+descriptions; one glittering marble edifice succeeds another around
+each square. Nearest to the Old Forum lies the Forum Julium. Julius
+Cæsar paid out<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[277]</span> 100,000,000 sesterces ($4,000,000) merely for the land
+which it occupies, and its buildings are worthy of the costly soil
+whereon they stand. In its center rises the great Temple of Venus
+Genetrix, “mother” of the Julian line. Here at times the Senate can
+convene, while the shops under the porticoes around are among the
+finest in Rome.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_277" style="max-width: 650px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_277.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Forum of Augustus and Temple of Mars the
+Avenger</span>: restored.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Directly north of this Forum Julium is the Forum Augustum. When young
+Octavius went forth to avenge his adopted father against Brutus and
+Cassius he vowed a temple to Mars Ultor (“Mars the Avenger”). Later
+as the Emperor Augustus, most splendidly he fulfilled this vow. The
+porticoes around the plaza are of Numidian marble, and variegated
+marbles compose the pavements; the open area is covered with bronze
+<i>quadrigæ</i> (four-horse chariots), triumphal arches, and, of
+course, numerous statues, some of precious metals, while the Temple of
+Mars Ultor itself matches all its rivals in magnificence.</p>
+
+<p>To the south-east of the Forum of Augustus and joining it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[278]</span> to the Forum
+of Peace is the smaller Forum of Nerva. This plaza was really begun by
+Domitian, but when that tyrant perished ere completing the task, it was
+finished and named by the eirenic Nerva. It is really a kind of broad
+thoroughfare leading down from the Subura district, although upon it
+fronts a fine Temple of Minerva. One of the features of this square is
+a stately avenue of statues of the deified Emperors.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>239. The Forum, Column, and Libraries of Trajan.</b>—By far the
+finest of the imperial fora, however, is that of Trajan—and all the
+buildings, when we visit them, are still relatively new. It opens to
+the northwest of the Forum of Augustus, and is not really a single
+square but a genuine series of squares.</p>
+
+<p>To get the level space for their great areas, it was needful to cut
+away a whole spur of the Quirinal, excavating to a depth equal to the
+height of Trajan’s Column (128 feet). On entering this precinct, if one
+has been marveling before, it is right to be astounded now. First there
+comes the <i>Forum Trajani</i> proper, a square of most imposing size,
+with lofty porticoes, semi-circular at the ends; and in the center
+stands a remarkable equestrian statue of the imperial founder himself.
+Then there is the vast <i>Basilica Ulpia</i>, the third great court
+house of the city, which spreads lengthwise across the northwestern
+boundary of this forum. It is 300 feet long, 185 feet broad, and five
+lines of pillars divide it into four separate halls for different kinds
+of business; in fact it is really a finer building than the older
+Basilica Julia.</p>
+
+<p>Going through this enormous but very open structure, we come to a
+second smaller plaza, and here rises one of the noblest sights of
+Rome—a monument that will draw the admiration of all ensuing ages—the
+<i>Column of Trajan</i> itself. The bas-reliefs telling in picturesque
+detail the whole story of the Dacian Wars, the 2500 human figures
+executed with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[280]</span> infinite fidelity and care, wind spirally from the top
+of the 18 foot pedestal clear to the summit. This last is crowned by a
+colossal bronze-gilt statue of Trajan looking down upon the sculptured
+record of his military glory.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_279" style="max-width: 417px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_279.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">An Imperial Forum, near the Column of Trajan</span>:
+restoration after Von Falke.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>This column is, perhaps, the worthiest monument of the whole imperial
+age.<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> The marvels of Trajan’s forum-system, however, are not
+exhausted. North and south of the Column are two fine buildings of
+moderate size; these are the <i>Bibliothecæ</i>, the two public
+“Libraries of Trajan,” one Latin, one Greek—containing on the whole
+the finest collections of books in Rome; and directly facing the Column
+and the Libraries across another open area of considerable extent
+is the <i>Temple of Trajan</i>, where the priests daily offer their
+sacrifice to the deified manes of the terror of Dacia and of Parthia.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>240. The Park System of the Campus Martius: the Pantheon.</b>—These
+exhaust for the moment the structures we can survey around the fora:
+and it were well to stop lest sheer confusion may follow. With time,
+however, we could wander after the throngs again northwestward along
+“Broadway” past the great porticoes and fine shops of the Sæpta Julia,
+and saunter about the great park system of Campus Martius.</p>
+
+<p>The public baths there located and such structures as the Theater of
+Pompey and the Flaminian Circus can, perhaps, be explained later; but
+a word must be spoken for the one great temple which is here situated
+away from the center of Rome. The <i>Pantheon</i>, dedicated to
+Mars, Venus, the deified Cæsar, and to all the other deities of the
+Julian line was the erection of Marcus Agrippa, the mighty coadjutor
+of Augustus. It has just been rebuilt from its very foundations
+by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[282]</span> Hadrian.<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> Its noble dome shines with the golden tiles. The
+soaring rotunda inside is encircled with stately altars to the gods
+the building honors. Already one can stand and look upward 143 feet
+to that patch of blue 18 feet in diameter through which sun and
+stars will shine down across at least eighteen centuries of changing
+history—making the Pantheon the one great building, not a ruin, which
+shall link the Rome of the Cæsars with the Rome of another day.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_281" style="max-width: 344px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_281.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Interior of the Pantheon</span>: restoration according
+to Von Falke.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>241. The Daily Gazette (<i>Acta Diurna</i>). How Rome Gets Its
+News.</b>—One thing, to avoid complexity, we omitted while crossing
+the old Forum Romanum. It behooves us to return and to explain it.
+Before a series of tall white boards set up against certain pillars is
+gathered an elbowing, gesticulating throng. Many of the company have
+tablets and seem copying vigorously. The crowd is always receiving
+additions, while others are departing. The white boards (“albums”) when
+we get near enough are seen to be covered with somewhat fine writing.
+There is a special rush and flutter in the crowd when a petty official
+sets up still another white board, and a hundred styli instantly become
+busy. It is easy to learn the excitement caused by these notices: they
+constitute the publication of the new <i>Acta Diurna</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Even without the Acta Diurna (“Daily Doings”) a city like Rome
+would have its supply of news. There are professional gad-abouts
+who make themselves desirable guests at dinner-parties merely
+because they are “very well informed.” They have picked up all the
+stories about the Parthian king, the new chiefs of the Germans,
+the number of legionaries mobilized on the Rhine, and the corn
+prospects in Africa and Egypt, as well as every kind of commercial
+information.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[283]</span> Other wiseacres of a less reliable cast are known as
+“<i>subrostrani</i>,”—“Rostra-haunters,”—for at the Rostra all
+gossipers have their tryst. These people specialize in rumors of
+calamity, reports of great military disasters, of the sudden death of
+magistrates, etc., and take a peculiar glee in circulating vile stories
+about the Emperors—the danger of repeating such rumors only adding
+spice to their game. Usually, however, they are too insignificant fry
+for the government to consider worth prosecuting.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>242. Contents of the Acta Diurna.</b>—The Acta Diurna, however,
+is issued by a government bureau, and a certain degree of official
+responsibility is attached to the more formal statements. The editors,
+nevertheless, are allowed to add racy anecdotes of a personal nature,
+especially concerning the higher aristocracy. The relations between
+the senatorial nobility and the freedmen and equites in the imperial
+government bureaus are none the best; and Hadrian himself is not on
+perfect terms with the Conscript Fathers.<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a></p>
+
+<p>Official circles, therefore, are never careful to suppress spicy bits
+about the aristocrats. The public record offices and dispatches from
+the provinces supply most of the items, but some of the material can
+only have come from direct reportorial activity. In any case the
+interest in this Daily Gazette is enormous. Its single copy will be
+multiplied many times, copies being made of the copies, and the same
+sent to wealthy people in all parts of the Empire. A month from now
+groups will probably be gathering in Spanish Corduba and Syrian Antioch
+to read the items published to-day in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the limitations of space, despite the use of many “white
+boards,” the Acta Diurna has to maintain a very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[284]</span> dry journalistic style
+indeed. The lively Italian imagination, however, can provide most of
+the details, even if they are not at once eked out by quantities of
+that “smoke,” oral rumor, which is passed about amid the copyists the
+moment the new gazette is posted. This is a very commonplace issue, and
+the albums read something like this:<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></p>
+
+<p>“Records for the tenth day of June. Yesterday —— boys and —— girls
+were born in the city of Rome. —— bushels of grain were landed at
+the Emporium. —— head of cattle [and other commodities specified]
+were also brought into the city. On this same day the palace slave
+Mithridates was ordered crucified for blaspheming the guardian genius
+of his master the Emperor. At the imperial treasury —— million
+sesterces, which it proved impossible to loan out at interest, were
+ordered returned to the public funds. A fire broke out in the insula of
+Nasta in the Viminal district but was extinguished.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>243. Miscellaneous Entries and Gossip in the Gazette.</b>—The
+entries go on to give the doings in the petty police courts, the copies
+of important wills with especial mention of any bequests that were left
+the Emperor, the statement that a certain eques had caught his wife
+in gross misconduct and divorced her; that a procurator for a large
+trading house was being prosecuted for embezzlement, and a summary of
+the evidence in a great violation of contract case between two marble
+importers now on trial in the Basilica Æmilia. Then follow magisterial
+edicts, lists of judicial appointments, and careful entries about
+all the doings of the Emperor and of his progress back toward Rome.
+Next is given a rather elaborate summary (evidently made by shorthand
+reporters) of the latest debate in the Senate, with careful entry of
+the applause and interruptions which the orators received.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[285]</span></p>
+
+<p>All this is more or less “official”; but the newsmongers are really
+more interested in “human interest stories” added by the publishers’
+private authority. Thus it makes good reading to tell how a frantic
+admirer of a certain “Red” charioteer who was killed in the last races,
+cast himself on the funeral pyre of the beloved jockey, in order not to
+survive his idol; or to relate how a citizen of Fæsule has just visited
+Rome and sacrificed to Jupiter along with “eight children, thirty-six
+grandchildren, and nineteen great grandchildren.”<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> Furthermore, the
+report of love affairs among the noble and mighty is never omitted—how
+a senator’s wife has eloped with a gladiator, and how a certain
+oft-mentioned lady is about to wed an eighth husband. Finally (perhaps
+the most copied of all) there are, of course, the announcements for the
+coming exhibitions in the theater, amphitheater, and circus, with lists
+of the actors, gladiators, and charioteers, and other data, which can
+enable all Rome to arrange its wagers and its holidays.</p>
+
+<p>The Acta Diurna therefore goes about as far as is possible to create a
+real newspaper in the days of mere penmanship. Its vogue is immense.
+Many a fine lady sends her slave or freedman to the Forum every day to
+bring home a special copy. Its items will focus the conversation at a
+thousand dinner tables.</p>
+
+<p>Finally this publication will enjoy a certain degree of historic
+importance. After each issue has served its daily purpose, fair copies
+are deposited in the Public Record Office, and here they can be
+consulted many years later by the learned. It is from the files of the
+Acta Diurna that Tacitus and Suetonius have apparently drawn a great
+many of their anecdotes about the days of the early Emperors.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[286]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XV<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE PALATINE AND THE PALACE OF THE CÆSARS. THE GOVERNMENT OFFICES, AND
+THE POLICE AND CITY GOVERNMENT OF ROME</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>244. History of the Palatine: its Purchase by Augustus.</b>—There
+is one other great quarter of Rome, from the political standpoint the
+most important of all, the Palatine.</p>
+
+<p>The Palatine originally was a hill of modest height, in shape fairly
+rectangular, some 1400 feet on the side. Here according to firm
+tradition was that first settlement by the Alban shepherds led out
+by Romulus. The hill seems to have been encompassed by its own crude
+wall, and presently it figured as the earliest “Rome,” often called
+from its squarish configuration <i>Roma Quadrata</i>. Time fails to
+count the various memorials such as the “House of Romulus,” alleged to
+have survived since this primitive time. Note should be made, however,
+of certain small but very old temples such as those of Victoria,
+Viriplaca, and Orbona,<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> which are now carefully preserved amid
+surroundings of artificial magnificence.</p>
+
+<p>After the growth of the Republic the Palatine became one of the most
+fashionable residence sections of the city. Public leaders liked to
+mount the roofs of their mansions and see the whole Forum with the
+familiar Senate House spread out at their feet. Here were erected
+the earliest of those sumptuous mansions wherein the aristocracy
+invested their spoils from the great conquests. Marcus Scaurus had
+his pretentious dwelling on the Palatine, and so did Catiline,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[287]</span> and
+Marcus Antonius, and Cicero. Last but not least, Hortensius the Orator,
+Cicero’s professional rival, erected an extremely fine dwelling here
+shortly before his death in 50 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, which mansion was later
+purchased by Augustus when he had assumed the government and desired
+a suitable residence; and thus it was that the Palatine became the
+“Palace” of the Emperors.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_287" style="max-width: 714px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_287.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Arch of Titus</span>: part of Palatine visible to the
+left.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>245. Extension of the Imperial Buildings: Central Position of the
+Palatine.</b>—Augustus, posing merely as the “First Citizen” among his
+fellow Quirites, and with a studious abhorrence of the outward forms of
+monarchy, had avoided establishing anything like an Imperial court; but
+he was, of course, entitled to a large senatorial mansion. In addition
+to his private residence elaborate offices had also to be provided for
+the great corps of secretaries and clerks through<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[288]</span> whom he governed
+half the provinces and controlled the army. This corps of bureaucrats
+has grown with every new accretion to imperial power; furthermore,
+Augustus’s pretence of democratic simplicity has been utterly discarded
+following the extravagances of Caligula and Nero.</p>
+
+<p>One enormous building has, therefore, been added to another. The last
+private dwellings upon the hill have been condemned, and the Cæsars now
+control every inch of the Palatine, making it so completely the abode
+of majesty that “palace” will remain across the centuries as the name
+for any seat of princely authority.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>246. Commanding View from the Palatine Hill.</b>—This is the
+smallest of the Seven Hills, but it is the real focus of the other six,
+which “seem to surround it with their homage, as being their king.” It
+is so close to the Capitol that the crazy Caligula erected a bridge
+(now long demolished) leading from his mansion clear over to the Temple
+of Capitoline Jove, in order that he might frequently “go and visit
+his friend Jupiter.” The view from the crest of the palace structures
+is superb: northward across the Forum, and all the thickly clustered
+roofs on the slopes of the Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline, westward
+to the Capitol where the magnificent temples seem within a stone’s
+toss, southward across the great hollow of the Circus Maximus and then
+across to the densely covered Aventine. Whether the Emperor desires to
+harangue the Senate, to sacrifice to the greater gods, or to grace the
+chariot races—Curia, temples, or circus are all close at hand; with
+the Flavian Amphitheater to the northeast, almost equally near.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>247. Magnificence of the Palatine Structures.</b>—But the Palatine
+itself is perhaps the most glorious sight of all. It rises above the
+city two and three hundred feet to its upper parapets, lifting itself
+on several tiers of arches and pillared stories which gleam with
+marble below and present a perfect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[289]</span> treasure house of gilded tiling
+above. Under the morning light with the sun flashing the gold of the
+multitudinous domes back into the clear azure the whole effect is
+incomparable. The natural foundations of the hill are covered with
+enormous substructures of masonry and concrete, and these are continued
+by long tiers of many-arched buildings which house the great government
+bureaus and ministries. Crowning these can be seen equally long forests
+of columns, upbearing a whole complex of gabled roofs covered not
+merely with the gilded tiles, but with a whole legion of gilded or
+richly toned bronze statues. Here and there show forth bits of greenery
+and foliage betraying the gardens and the parks reserved for the Lords
+of the World.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_289" style="max-width: 750px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_289.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Palatine and Palace of the Caesars</span>: restoration
+by Spandoni.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>The effect of this entire mass is overpowering. The eye wearies of
+counting the sweeping porticoes, tall monoliths, colossal statues, and
+quadrigas. The result is also enhanced by the use of great numbers of
+huge awnings, hung over nearly every opening and window, usually made
+in brilliant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[290]</span> colors, with the imperial purple very conspicuous. There
+will never be another Palatine in the history of the world.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>248. The More Famous Buildings on the Palatine: Enormous Display of
+Art Objects.</b>—This vast residence compound—it cannot be called
+a single building—can be reached by a number of inclined planes
+or stairways upon all four sides. Access is easy enough and crowds
+of slaves, plebeians, and nobles are incessantly coming and going,
+although a couple of Prætorians loll carelessly on their spear-shafts
+beside each ingress. Possibly the easiest entrance is by the <i>Clivus
+Victoriæ</i> (“Ascent of Victory”) which starts upward from the edge of
+the Old Forum very near to the Shrine of Vesta.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_290" style="max-width: 288px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_290.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Roman Urn</span>: typical art object.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>To find one’s way about the Palatine is, however, far more difficult
+than about the fora. It is not, of course, an area but a jumble of
+buildings, all splendid, but often thrust upon one another without
+any real system. Augustus added extensively to the old house of
+Hortensius, and particularly he built a very pretentious Temple to
+Apollo. Tiberius, the next Emperor, added a new wing, the <i>Domus
+Tiberiana</i>, almost doubling the bulk of the former structures.
+Caligula thrust on more buildings still. Across the ages will be
+pointed out that <i>Cryptoporticus</i>, the twisting underground
+gallery connecting parts of the palaces, where the stout tribune Cherea
+struck down and slew the insane despot, January 24th, 41 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>,
+to the great profit of the entire world. Nero<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[291]</span> added other wings and
+structures, some of which had to be rebuilt after his great fire.
+Finally, Domitian added a whole series of enormous halls, baths,
+banqueting rooms, and government offices. The Palatine is now virtually
+complete: Trajan and Hadrian have erected their monuments elsewhere,
+and so will most of the later Emperors.<a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></p>
+
+<p>We do not propose to explore all these buildings in so vast a complex.
+It is enough that one superb court or façade follows another; that
+almost every hall and ante-room is of sumptuous splendor; that veined
+marbles, porphyry, elaborate bas-reliefs, and profuse gilding seem
+multiplied until they become commonplace. All the artificiality and
+over-elaborate art of the age seems concentrated around the Palatine.
+Within the great substructures and the arched terraces which bear up
+the more important buildings, even in the cells for the slaves and the
+offices for the toiling clerks there are fine frescos and handsome
+stucco reliefs.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>249. The Triclinium and Throne Room of Domitian.</b>—As for some of
+the special areas and chambers, they justify the praises of the servile
+court poets: “Olympian” is the mildest word which they can use. Take,
+for example, the porticoes of Domitian. On the inner side of their
+vast length, they are lined throughout with marble so highly polished
+that it shines like mirrors. What matter if the original cause for
+their use was the desire of the suspicious tyrant to have a promenade
+wherein nobody could glide upon him without warning from behind. The
+result is indescribably brilliant. But let us go rather into the
+“House of Domitian” itself, and inspect the great banqueting hall, the
+Triclinium. “The gods themselves might quaff their nectar there!” cried
+the enraptured Martial.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[292]</span></p>
+
+<p>This magnificent apartment leads off from a marvelous peristyle-court
+of more than 10,000 square feet in area. The chamber itself is not
+huge, but is arranged so that three tables (each for nine guests) can
+be placed laterally along the walls, with the third, opposite the
+door of entry, for the Emperor and his chief guests. Twenty-seven
+dignitaries thus can dine together. On each side of the hall five large
+windows are separated by massive columns of red granite.</p>
+
+<p>As the guests of majesty repose on their silken cushions they can see
+between the columns still another court where water is softly gushing
+from a fountain, and purling in a small cascade over steps of marble,
+verdure, and flowers. The ornamentation may be grievously overdone; the
+taste of some of the reliefs and wall pictures is questionable, but the
+effect of the sheen from the many colored marbles, the gilding, and
+the heavy fretwork around the lofty dome undeniably justifies all the
+enthusiasm of the verse-mongers.</p>
+
+<p>Equally striking is the Throne Room built by Domitian. It is called the
+tablinum as in humbler dwellings, but it is actually used for great
+state audiences. It is a hall of imposing size. You enter past the
+guards, and directly across the broad area is a niche where sits “Cæsar
+Augustus” upon a gilded dais and curule-chair, every whit as truly a
+throne as that of the Great King of Parthia. The walls of the room are
+covered with extraordinarily costly marbles, and around the circuit
+rise twenty-eight Corinthian columns of intricate workmanship. Eight
+large niches contain as many colossal statues wrought of adamantine
+basalt, and a Hercules and a Bacchus are particularly noteworthy.
+The entrance door is flanked by two enormous columns of <i>giallo
+antico</i>, deep yellow marble flushed with pink, imported from
+Numidia. The threshold is a single immense slab of a whiter marble
+brought from Greece.</p>
+
+<p>Words thus exhaust themselves describing these grandiose,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[293]</span>
+overpowering, magnificent courts, halls, and apartments. We can
+perforce ignore such features as the separate hippodrome and the
+luxurious gardens reserved for imperial amusement or recreation. Better
+it is to concentrate attention upon the human life wherewith the
+Palatine ordinarily abounds.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>250. Swarms of Civil Officials Always on the Palatine.</b>—All the
+Palatine revolves around the Emperor. Rome is not yet governed by an
+unabashed despotism, yet it would be hard to name a deed that a king of
+old Babylon could perform which a <i>Princeps et Imperator</i> could
+not perpetrate if his heart really desired, although certain restraints
+and decencies make this absolutism endurable save under a Nero or a
+Domitian.</p>
+
+<p>The thousands of persons who dwell upon or are employed upon the
+Palatine are all employed with one of two things, the imperial court or
+the imperial public service. Since Hadrian (despite the grumblings of
+his Italian subjects) is still absent from Rome the court ceremonial
+has practically ceased. A few of the Emperor’s relatives dwell in
+gilded ease in certain wings of the palace, but except for the
+caretakers the great army of self-sufficient slaves and still more
+self-sufficient freedmen who act as valets, cooks, waiters, musicians,
+chamberlains, and in every other menial capacity, can eat, play dice,
+and discuss the races in idleness.</p>
+
+<p>Now as always, however, the imperial public service which sends
+its impulse to the remotest borders of Dacia, Syria, or Britain is
+functioning actively, and most of the vast bureaus and ministries have
+huge offices upon the Palatine. The Prætorian Præfect, as high judge
+for the Emperor’s half of the provinces, daily mounts his supreme
+tribunal. The four Imperial Secretaries for Finance, for Petitions,
+and for Official Correspondence (one for the Greek provinces and one
+for the Latin) direct their great corps of subordinates. The chief
+Procurators (Superintendents) of the enormous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[294]</span> Imperial Estates all
+over the Empire are receiving reports and protecting their masters’
+interests; and so with a great body of other high officials.</p>
+
+<p>The huge administrative machine perfected by the practical Roman genius
+is running steadily—so steadily that even under a very bad Emperor,
+even a Nero, it will function for years with no great harm to the
+governed millions. The only condition is that the tyrant will reserve
+his cruelties for the nobility and refrain from tactless interference
+with the secretaries instead of indulging merely in vicious personal
+pleasures.<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>251. The Emperor Center of High Social Life.</b>—Into these high
+political concerns we dare not enter, but the social life of the Palace
+cannot be so well ignored. Already the imperial freedmen are busy
+planning the great receptions and state banquets which Hadrian must
+give soon after his return. In half the atria of Rome men and women
+are discussing vigorously, “When ‘Cæsar’ returns will he have any new
+‘Friends,’ and will he have discontinued any old ones?”</p>
+
+<p>Already it is rumored that certain freedmen (supposedly in their
+lord’s confidence) have received a great bribe to get them to induce
+the “Dominus” (so loyal etiquette calls the monarch) to summon back
+to favor a certain Jallius, an indiscreet senator whom, on his last
+sojourn in Rome, Hadrian had ordered excluded from his personal
+receptions. Rome is a city of rumors, but nowhere do these abound more
+than about the Palatine, always centering on the doings, words, and
+even the health of the Emperor. “Smoke” from the valets, barbers, and
+table-servitors of the Augustus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[295]</span> can often be sold for precious aurei.
+Self-respecting monarchs punish the tale-bearers pitilessly, but the
+latter can seldom be caught in the act.<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> Every Emperor knows that
+he is the constant victim of outrageous tattling.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>252. Friends of Cæsar (<i>Amici Cæsaris</i>).</b>—But an Emperor’s
+company is not confined to menials; neither does he spend all his time
+at council with his ministers. Being a Roman among Romans he is forced
+to spend a good deal of his day receiving the social attentions of
+those who proudly list themselves as his “Friends.”</p>
+
+<p>To be an <i>Amicus Cæsaris</i>, to be entitled to greet as a kind
+of social equal the personage who is worshiped as a god in all the
+Oriental provinces, who is (by adoption in Hadrian’s case) the son of a
+Divinity, the “Deified Trajan,” and whose own “divine genius” (guardian
+spirit) receives prayer and incense in every government building—this
+honor seems almost dazzling. Every Emperor ranks his “Friends” in two
+classes—“<i>First Class Friends</i>,” great secretaries, ministers,
+and generals who must have constant access to his cabinet, certain very
+distinguished members of the Senate, certain near relatives, and also
+a few congenial personal companions—poets, and philosophers, with
+great Emperors, or jockeys, gamesters, and debauchees with the bad;
+and “<i>Second Class Friends</i>,” which great catalogue includes all
+the rest of the Senate, many of the more distinguished equites, and a
+select sprinkling of such plebeians as Cæsar delights to honor.</p>
+
+<p>The First Class Friends, it is true, pay for their glory by a heavy
+obligation—to appear at the Palace every morning usually before
+daylight, and greet the Lord of the World<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[296]</span> while he sits up in bed and
+is dressed by his valets.<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> Very much of state business is then
+transacted, but the obligation to appear merely to say an “<i>Ave</i>”
+is imperative provided the Emperor is in his residence. Sometimes
+merely to avoid giving gouty ministers great inconvenience Hadrian has
+been known considerately to pass the night away from the Palace in
+order to dispense with the ceremonial in the morning.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>253. The Imperial Audiences.</b>—After the Emperor has been clad
+with due ceremony, has conversed with his intimates, and perhaps has
+sealed some urgent rescripts, he is ready for the morning audience. A
+full cohort (1000 men) of the Prætorian Guard is always on service at
+the Palace and a platoon of these without armor, but in magnificent
+cloaks, stands by the entrance to the hall of state. Only men as a
+rule are admitted.<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> Under certain evil or very suspicious Emperors
+such as Claudius there has been the humiliating custom of searching
+every visitor (whatever his rank) for weapons, ere admission; but that
+abomination has ceased at last, beginning with Nerva.</p>
+
+<p>In the broad courts before the audience chamber some dozens of senators
+dismount from their litters every morning when the monarch is in Rome,
+and sometimes the delay ere the doors are opened is so long that much
+personal business can be transacted and philosophical disquisitions
+indulged in. Second Class Friends do not have to appear every morning,
+but it is a serious error to fail to use your entrée fairly often.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>254. Social Ruin through Imperial Disfavor.</b>—The process
+resembles that with the clients in the noble lords’ own<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[297]</span> houses
+a little earlier in the day, although with greater solemnity and
+formality.<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> A group of gorgeously dressed “admissioners”
+(<i>admissionales</i>) keep the doors, and scan every applicant
+closely, but besides the regular Friends they frequently admit certain
+distinguished visitors from the provinces, especially members of those
+provincial delegations that are always junketing to Rome to proffer the
+homage of their district to the Emperor, or to present some kind of a
+public petition.</p>
+
+<p>The last day that Hadrian gave audience ere leaving Rome, when our
+friend Calvus waited upon him, there was an awkward happening. A very
+roistering and immoral young nobleman, Calvisius, presented himself
+when the doors were opened, whereupon an imperial freedman took him
+by the arm, announcing: “You are no longer admitted to the palace.”
+Calvisius instantly slunk away, overwhelmed by his calamity. He would
+have suffered less if he had forfeited half his fortune.</p>
+
+<p>Even worse was in store for the aforementioned Jallius, who was said
+to have mocked at Hadrian’s pretentions as an art critic (a tender
+point) while over-drunk at a dinner party. He was suffered indeed
+to enter and to approach the imperial seat: “<i>Ave, Cæsar!</i>” he
+called out boldly, hoping that his indiscretion had been unnoticed.
+“<i>Vale, Jallie!</i>”<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> (“Good-by, Jallius”) answered the monarch,
+turning his face from him. The insult was offered in the presence of at
+least<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[298]</span> fifty tale-bearers and that night it was over Rome. Under a bad
+Emperor, Jallius’s life would have been in sore jeopardy, and as it was
+he was socially ruined; every time-serving nobleman closed his house to
+him and his innocent wife and children shared his ostracism. His only
+hope now is that when Hadrian returns he can be induced to let Jallius
+call again, and will answer affably “<i>Ave!</i>” to the visitor’s
+greeting. Then the poor senator can hold up his head in the world.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_298" style="max-width: 288px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_298.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Cæsar Augustus</span>: showing costume of a Roman
+general.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>255. Enormous Value of Imperial Favor.</b>—On the other hand Calvus
+returned walking on air from this particular audience. The Emperor
+answered his greeting by calling him “My very dear Calvus”; then asked,
+“And how are your Gratia and the boys?” and actually added, “Do you
+think Gallinas, the Thracian, is going to be a good match for Syrus
+in the arena?”—finally, throwing in the sage advice, “These morning
+frosts now are sharp if you don’t dress warmly.”<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a></p>
+
+<p>When Calvus quitted the hall all his friends swarmed around
+congratulating him on “the remarkable favor of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[299]</span> Emperor,” and
+intimating that he was surely destined to be Consul within a few
+years and then the imperial legate of a great province. He can hardly
+persuade them that he has received no private information about the
+boundary settlement with Parthia and the terms being offered the chiefs
+of the Quadi. In fact the imperial looks and moods are studied as
+carefully as is the weather. “Did <i>he</i> frown or look pleased when
+so and so was mentioned?” “Did he offer his cheek graciously to be
+kissed by that ex-consul?” “Did he invite the chiefs of the delegation
+from Provincial Asia to dinner?” “Did he cast down his eyes gloomily
+when they said N—— was about to be tried to-morrow in the Senate?”
+No marvel if bad Emperors are easily persuaded that they are gods on
+earth, and even good Emperors have to strive hard not to allow their
+heads to be turned!</p>
+
+<p>Hadrian is still away from Rome, and both First Class Friends and
+Second Class Friends are probably a little relieved not to have to play
+the client to him. If the days of bloody tyranny seem past, the fate of
+poor Jallius can still overtake almost any of them.<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> But though the
+vast hall of audience stands vacant save for gaping sightseers, there
+are plenty of distinguished visitors upon the Palatine come to transact
+business at the imperial ministries, or very likely at the great
+offices of the City Præfect (<i>Præfectus Urbi</i>), who is essentially
+the Mayor of Rome.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>256. City Government of Rome: the City Præfect (<i>Præfectus
+Urbi</i>).</b>—It was one of the greatest sins of the defunct Republic
+that it permitted Rome to grow until it became an enormous metropolis
+without providing any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[300]</span> respectable police force, fire department, or
+other efficient means of securing law, order, and public safety. The
+old <i>ædiles</i> (commissioners of public works) were overburdened
+men, with imperfect authority, few constables, and great political
+interests. In the days of Cicero great fires, great riots, and serious
+crimes occurred almost daily. In self-protection many prominent men
+had actually to arm their slaves in regular companies and even to hire
+the assistance of armed bands of gladiators. Augustus ended all this.
+Thanks to him, Rome has become one of the best policed and protected
+cities in the world.</p>
+
+<p>The old ædiles<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> are now supplemented and largely superseded by a
+corps of officials all named by the Emperor, for indefinite terms and
+removable by him at pleasure. At their head is that high “Clarissimus,”
+the City Præfect. He is always a senator who has held the consulship,
+and who often has governed great provinces. To be named City Præfect
+is almost the highest civil honor in the gift of the Cæsars, and it
+ordinarily comes to a veteran nobleman of approved experience and
+integrity. He is really in part a military officer because at his
+command stand the “City Cohorts,” the regular armed garrison of Rome,
+four Cohorts of reliable troops, one thousand men in each, ready to
+assist the ordinary police in repressing rioting.</p>
+
+<p>The City Præfect is responsible for the general good order of the
+metropolis; it is his business not merely to punish evil, but to
+take measures to prevent it, <i>e.g.</i> by breaking up illicit
+societies and assemblies, such as those of the “debased” Christians.
+In conjunction with the other magistrates he also takes measures to
+keep down the price of provisions. In addition he is the high judge in
+most cases arising around Rome, which are not especially reserved to
+other tribunals.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[301]</span> Particularly he and his deputies have jurisdiction
+over cases involving outrageous usury, betrayal of trust by guardians,
+unfilial conduct of children, and disrespect shown to patrons by
+freedmen. And to his court go all the charges of serious crimes sure
+to arise in a great city, barring, however, lesser police court
+cases—these last falling to his colleague, the Præfect of the Watch.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>257. The Municipal Superintendents and Commissioners
+(<i>Curatores</i>).</b>—Aiding the City Præfect are several high
+superintendents or commissioners usually of at least prætorian rank
+among the senators. The two “Curators of the Public Works” obviously
+have to look after the municipal buildings and especially the temples
+and the considerable endowments often attached to them. The Præfect of
+the Grain Supply (<i>Præfectus Annonæ</i>) is a magistrate who—in view
+of the importance of his function (see p. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>)—will often be chosen
+with almost as great an eye to his efficiency as the City Præfect.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the corps of agents collecting grain in the provinces, the
+special deputy at Ostia, the “Official Grain Measurers,” the “Grain
+Magazine-Keepers” (<i>horrearii</i>), and the staff of clerks and
+porters, all the bakers of the city also are under the Præfect of the
+Grain Supply, and he can sit as high judge in all cases, criminal and
+civil, where the provisioning of the city is affected. As for the
+Tiber, it is so often bursting its levees and flooding the lower city
+that a special board of five senators, “Commissioners for the Tiber,
+River-Banks, and the Sewers,” attends alike to the care of the dikes
+and also to the great sewer system which drains the capital.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>258. Excellent Water Supply of Rome.</b>—An official board with
+duties of the first order is that of the “Curators of the Water
+Supply.” There is a chief curator and two assistants, and since the
+task calls for expert professional knowledge,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[302]</span> these are not senators
+but imperial freedmen, or at the highest only equites. No sinecure,
+however, is their task. Justly are the Romans proud of the excellent
+water supply of the imperial city. As early as Augustus’s time Strabo
+the geographer warned his fellow Greeks that while they could boast
+that their cities excelled the Roman in artistic adornments, Rome
+rejoiced in a far better water system, in better pavements, and in
+better sewers. Certain of the latter, he declared in admiration, were
+“arched over with hewn stone and were so large that in some parts hay
+wagons can drive straight through them!”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_302" style="max-width: 650px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_302.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Ruined Aqueduct in the Roman Campagna.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>By Hadrian’s day the aqueducts supplying the city have become wholly
+admirable. Time fails us to go out into the Campagna or to the distant
+hills and see how, by gravity alone, and without the aid of pumping
+engines, “copious streams are conducted great distances despite the
+obstacles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">[303]</span> presented by mountains, valleys, or low-lying level plains,
+sometimes rushing along in vast subterranean tunnels, at other times
+supported on long ranges of lofty arches, the remains of which [in
+after ages] will still be seen spanning the waste of the Campagna.”
+[Lanciani.]</p>
+
+<p>There is difficulty in making very large iron pipes capable of standing
+high pressure over long distances; and as a result the Roman engineers
+prefer to carry the water in channels lined with solid cement and borne
+across the open ground on a vast series of arches. Besides, most of the
+good water near Rome leaves a calcareous deposit; and it is much easier
+to clean out large channels than an underground piping system.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>259. The Great Aqueducts.</b>—When we try to understand the
+water system of Rome we come upon astonishing figures for the great
+aqueducts. There are nine of these huge conduits in constant use.
+The oldest is the <i>Aqua Appia</i>, built in 312 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> by
+that tough old censor, Appius Claudius, and it starts only about
+eleven miles from the city, with nearly its entire bed underground;
+but when this supply proved inadequate the engineers had to reach
+much farther back into the hills to find powerful jets. An increasing
+proportion of the channels of the newer aqueducts has also to be on
+arches; for example, the <i>Aqua Julia</i>, built by Agrippa in 33
+<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, has to go back fifteen and a half miles, and six and
+a half of these are on arches; while the <i>Aqua Claudia</i>, built
+about 40 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, is no less than forty-six miles long with nine
+and a half on elevated arches. There are two others, the older <i>Aqua
+Marcia</i> and the slightly newer <i>Aqua Anio Novus</i> (taking water
+from the river Anio), that are not much shorter either upon the ground
+or in their elevated sections.</p>
+
+<p>Once inside the city this enormous volume of water is distributed
+in a most scientific manner according to a scheme worked out by the
+mighty Agrippa. There are 700 public<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">[304]</span> pools and basins and 500 public
+fountains drawing their supply from 130 collecting heads or reservoirs.
+Only the poorest or tallest tenement houses, consequently, are bereft
+of a water supply, clear, sanitary, and abundant, such as most later
+cities can desire in vain until close upon the twentieth century.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>260. The Police System Instituted by Augustus.</b>—Almost as
+important, however, as the excellent water supply came the blessing of
+the firm police system instituted by Augustus. There was an end at last
+to the fearful riots and even private wars of the later Republic, as
+when those cheerful desperadoes Clodius and Milo played at being the
+“Hector and Achilles of the Streets,” and ordinary crime soon became
+comparatively rare.</p>
+
+<p>The city has also been divided into 14 “regions” (<i>regiones</i>)
+and these into 262 “precincts” (<i>vici</i>) distributed among the
+“regions.” Each vicus is in theory a religious unit. It has its own
+little <i>ædicula</i> (petty temple) containing the images of the two
+guardian Lares of the neighborhood plus inevitably a statue of the
+Genius of the Emperor. Each vicus also has its two special curators,
+worthy tradesmen usually, elected by their fellow wardsmen and clothed
+with enough importance to make the office desirable. Their chief
+official duty is to keep up the sacred rites at the central shrine and
+to help to compile the census lists, but they are also a kind of local
+arbitrators or justices of the peace who assist the police and look
+after the general weal of the precinct.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>261. The Police-Firemen of the Watch (<i>vigiles</i>): the
+<i>Præfectus Vigilum</i>.</b>—However, the actual security of Rome is
+not intrusted to any such unprofessional guardians. Augustus understood
+clearly the need of an effective police force apart from a mere armed
+garrison; besides he had to protect the capital against the fearful
+and incessant fires;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[305]</span> as a result his new <i>vigiles</i> (“watchmen”)
+were a combination of policemen and firemen. The fourteen regions of
+Rome have now been coupled together into seven police districts, each
+possessing a regular police station (<i>excubitorium</i>) and two
+subordinate watch houses.</p>
+
+<p>Each district is intrusted to a separate cohort of vigiles about 1000
+men strong, thus giving Rome a total force of some 7000. The vigiles
+are not actually soldiers, and not being honorable legionaries they are
+recruited almost entirely from the freedmen. However, after faithful
+service they can be transferred to the army. They are under a rigid
+discipline, nevertheless, and are divided into “centuries,” each
+under a centurion, with a tribune over the entire cohort. They have
+various weapons for an emergency, but the crowd usually mocks them
+for the fire-fighting apparatus with which they often hurry down the
+streets—hooks, ladders, axes, simple hand-pumps, and above all, many
+buckets made of rope rendered water-proof with pitch.</p>
+
+<p>By their promptitude, discipline, and daring, even with such
+inadequate apparatus, these patrolmen can often stop very dangerous
+fires, and their familiar equipment gives them their nickname. “The
+‘<i>Bucketmen</i>’ are coming!” is the yell that frequently disperses a
+knot of thieves or of turbulent bullies.</p>
+
+<p>At their different police stations the vigiles when off duty scribble
+many things upon the walls,<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> which give a vivid idea that life “on
+the force” is much the same in every age. At night these “Bucketmen” go
+out in little groups bearing tallow lanterns and patrol the pitch-black
+streets, rounding up evil-doers and detecting incipient fires.</p>
+
+<p>At each station there is a good-sized lock-up which never wants its
+unhappy occupants, also, it must be added, a professional<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[306]</span> torturer
+(<i>quæstionarius</i>) to wring confessions out of slaves and other
+non-privileged prisoners without any tedious “third degree” process.
+Petty offenses are tried summarily before the Præfect of the Watch or
+his deputies in police court at these stations; and for great crimes
+the alleged offenders can be conveyed to a central jail, or admitted to
+bail, prior to a formal trial before the City Præfect.</p>
+
+<p>The Præfect of the Watch (<i>Præfectus Vigilum</i>), the head of this
+very important organization, is really the most important municipal
+official in Rome except the City Præfect. Since he has to do with
+much sordid detail, he is not a top-lofty senator, but only an eques;
+nevertheless, his honor and dignity are great. The subpræfect under him
+is also a highly respected officer. The entire force of the vigiles,
+although, of course, incessantly criticized and jeered at, is a very
+capable body of men, whose faithfulness and energy go far to make life
+and property better protected in Rome than in most great cities at any
+age.</p>
+
+<p>So with this glance at the municipal government of a metropolitan
+community of 1,500,000 we quit the Palatine. A new opportunity has
+presented itself: we can visit the Prætorian Camp.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[307]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XVI<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE PRÆTORIAN CAMP. THE IMPERIAL WAR MACHINE</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>262. The Army the Real Master of the Roman Empire.</b>—The Romans
+beyond all else have been a military people. Their great abilities
+as law givers, administrators, disseminators of civilization through
+Western Europe apparently would have been almost in vain if the
+legions had failed against Hannibal, against Mithridates, against
+Vercingetorix. Furthermore, the power of the Cæsars is primarily
+that of war chiefs. Let the army revolt, and Senate, plebeians,
+and provincials can protest their loyalty ever so frantically—the
+Princeps, the “First Citizen,” nevertheless is a lost man.</p>
+
+<p>Every Emperor knows this fact. His memory goes back to those two
+fearful years 68 and 69 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> when first a revolt in Gaul and
+a mutiny by the Prætorians in Rome overthrew Nero and set up Galba,
+then a second mutiny of the Prætorians set up Otho, then a revolt of
+the Rhine legions set up Vitellius, then a counter-revolt by the Danube
+and Syrian legions set up Vespasian; with the civilian population
+looking on helplessly, and being almost as helplessly plundered, while
+decidedly small bodies of professional swordsmen settled the fate of
+the Empire. Still later they remember how after Domitian’s murder, the
+Prætorians (whom that despot had caressed and corrupted) forced his
+successor Nerva to punish the very conspirators to whom Nerva himself
+owed the throne.</p>
+
+<p>Hadrian, in turn, who passes for a very “constitutional” ruler, when
+his kinsman Trajan died (117 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>), allowed himself<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[308]</span> to be
+“proclaimed” immediately by the soldiers in the East where he then was.
+Next he wrote with studious modesty to the Senate begging the Conscript
+Fathers to “excuse” the zeal of the army and to ratify its action in
+choosing him Imperator. Every senator knew the blade might soon be
+at his own neck if he openly opposed confirming the mandate of the
+legionaries. The army, in short, is the final authority in the Roman
+Empire. Presently there may even be an Emperor [Septimus Severus about
+210 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>] who will give his sons direfully blunt and effective
+counsel: “Enrich the army and then you can do anything.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>263. Army Held under Stiff Discipline and Concentrated on
+Frontiers.</b>—Nevertheless at present the army is under a tight rein.
+Trajan and Hadrian by a mixture of donatives and severity have restored
+firm discipline. The Roman world functions freely and normally behind
+the frontier barriers held by the legions, with the great chaos of
+barbarism tossing harmlessly outside. Furthermore, this army, if very
+formidable, is, we shall see, decidedly small. It is distributed mainly
+along the northern and eastern frontiers, with a sizable garrison and
+guard-corps at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>In the arrangement of the army, most of the provinces seem absolutely
+divested of regular soldiers save those in transit, and their governors
+only require a good constabulary to arrest brigands and rioters. The
+collapse of the Jewish insurrection has practically ended the last
+serious attempt to cast off Roman authority, and the provinces submit
+not simply because of fear, but because they are now bound to the
+imperial régime by great cultural and economic interests.<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">[309]</span> In
+Rome itself, thanks to the presence of the imperial guard, soldiers
+are frequent sights upon the streets, but in many other great cities
+of the Empire they are comparative rarities. Their duties are in the
+frontiers, and their officers know well the demoralization wrought by
+keeping their men in city garrisons.</p>
+
+<p>When Augustus found the world at his feet he also found himself with
+armies which were very expensive and somewhat ready to mutiny against
+him. Very promptly, therefore, he reduced his 45 legions to only about
+18. This number proved too few, and by the end of his reign they had
+risen to 25; these in turn have been gradually increased to 30; and
+this will be the ordinary number for a good while longer.<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> The
+legionaries are the regular troops of the line, on whose disciplined
+fighting the safety of civilization may well depend. There are,
+however, no ordinary legionaries stationed in Rome, although we can, of
+course, obtain full information in the capital about them. Their place
+is taken by a magnificent and arrogant guard-corps—the Prætorians.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>264. The Prætorian Guard of the Emperors.</b>—The Prætorian guards
+are the successors of the old <i>Prætoriani</i>, picked men, who
+guarded the Prætorium (general’s residence or tent) in the armies of
+the old Republic. But the new Imperators were entitled to a much larger
+and more permanent guard, and they also desired to have a reliable
+body of troops always in or near Rome to protect against an uprising.
+Augustus, therefore, organized nine “prætorian cohorts,” although
+keeping only three directly in Rome; his successor, Tiberius, however,
+boldly concentrated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">[310]</span> them all in the imperial city, and built for them
+an enormous camp behind the Viminal hill, on the northeast side of the
+metropolis.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_310" style="max-width: 612px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_310.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Prætorian Guardsmen.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Here they have remained as the dreaded engine of the Caesars. Disguise
+the fact as he may, every senator knows in his heart: “If the Senate
+defies the Emperor, the Prætorians can and will sack the Curia.” So
+long as the Prætorians are obedient no Emperor need tremble overmuch
+at stories of a provincial uprising. When the Prætorians desert he had
+better, as did Nero, slink away to commit suicide.</p>
+
+<p>The guard-corps is jealously regarded by the frontier legions who
+sometimes turn against it, but thanks to its position at the capital
+its power is tremendous. Even the privates walk down the streets with a
+confident swagger—can they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">[311]</span> not make and unmake Emperors? If the army
+really controls the Empire, the Prætorians go far to control the will
+of the army.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>265. The Prætorian Præfect and the Prætorian Camp.</b>—Such being
+the case, there is one high official whom the Cæsars will always select
+with greater care than any other—the <i>Prætorian Præfect</i>. On this
+general rests responsibility for the military efficiency and loyalty
+of the corps. If he is a scheming bloody man, he can, like Tiberius’s
+præfect Sejanus, almost place himself upon the throne; and if he is
+simply a faithful competent officer, his public services excel that of
+any civil functionary.</p>
+
+<p>Since curiously enough the Emperor usually intrusts to the Prætorian
+Præfect the task of hearing legal “appeals to Cæsar” from the imperial
+half of the provinces, it is not unusual to name two præfects,
+nominally of equal authority but with one of them often a trained
+jurist, and the other more concerned with the military management of
+the corps. This has the additional advantage of making it harder to
+start an insurrection,—each Præfect will keep watch upon his colleague.</p>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as the Emperor is now absent from Rome a detachment of the
+guard is away with him, but the world being in general peace there
+is no need (as in a major war) for the entire corps to go forth to
+reinforce the frontier legions. The Prætorians are therefore on duty
+as usual; one cohort at the Palatine, the remainder barracked at their
+great camp.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Castra Prætoria</i><a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> is more than a mere cantonment; it
+is a real fortress, only to be stormed after desperate fighting. We
+enter it from the central gateway (<i>Porta Prætoria</i>) which looks
+straight westward upon the city. A lofty wall of masonry,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[312]</span> brick, and
+concrete, crowned by suitable battlements, surrounds a vast rectangular
+area about 1400 feet wide, and 1100 feet deep. The greater and lesser
+gates are crowned with fine marble sculptures almost worthy of the
+Palatine. In the center of the area rises a mass of office buildings, a
+residence for the Præfect and a small temple to the military gods such
+as Mars, and especially to the deified emperors. The side walls of the
+inclosure are extended on the inside by an enormous system of arches
+and vaulting, making many deep chambers where thousands of men are
+easily barracked.</p>
+
+<p>In the open area fountains are playing, and the sun is sending a flying
+glory from the burnished armor of a cohort standing at rest, while
+certain officers affix medals of honor, or bestow spears and banners of
+honor upon various men who have lately distinguished themselves during
+some detached duty in Mauretania. Everything about the place betrays a
+perfect “police”; all commands are executed with extreme promptness;
+and every individual seems absolutely to know his part, as being one
+cog in an enormous war machine, into the making of which has entered an
+almost inconceivable amount of skill and energy.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>266. Organization and Discipline of the Prætorians.</b>—The
+Prætorians are organized much as the ordinary legionary troops with
+certain proud modifications. The regular legions can be recruited
+from all over the Empire; the Prætorians are still drawn only from
+Italy. They receive twice the pay of the legionaries, and their term
+of service is only sixteen years as against twenty with the regulars.
+Besides these advantages, and the joy of living near to the pleasures
+of Rome, their discipline is said to be much easier.</p>
+
+<p>The emperors, who fear the mutterings of the guard-corps much more than
+they do those of the Senate, often shower special bonuses upon the
+Prætorians. Their centurions and still more their tribunes are welcome
+guests in the most aristocratic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">[313]</span> houses in Rome. Their weapons are the
+same as the legionaries’, but, of course, their armor is of the finest;
+and on gala occasions when the whole corps is ordered out with gilded
+or silvered helmets and cuirasses over purple military cloaks, the
+sight of these thousands of tall powerful warriors marching in perfect
+rhythm is astonishing beyond words.</p>
+
+<p>In one important respect the organization of the Prætorians differs
+from that of the regular legionaries: their nine cohorts number 1000
+instead of 600 men each and the whole guard-corps therefore amounts
+to about 9000 men. Considering that these troops are chosen for their
+splendid physiques, and are trained for years in every military
+accomplishment, remarkable will be the foe of like numbers that can
+withstand them. As for the city of Rome, its whole raging populace is
+like mere chaff and straw if the trumpets sound through the camp, and
+the centurions thunder down their files, “Open the gates and clear the
+streets!”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>267. The City Cohorts (<i>Cohortes Urbanæ</i>).</b>—The
+Prætorians, however, have some humbler comrades in Rome, in addition
+to police-firemen, the vigiles. Sometimes the guard-corps must follow
+the Emperor on campaign, but nevertheless the capital needs a fixed
+garrison. The City Præfect (see p. <a href="#Page_300">300</a>), therefore, commands four
+additional cohorts (<i>cohortes urbanæ</i>) also of 1000 each, in
+a special camp in the northern part of the metropolis. These “City
+Cohorts” are organized much like the Prætorians, and in a grave
+emergency would act with them; but they have longer terms of service,
+lesser pay, severer discipline.</p>
+
+<p>It is far less of an honor to belong to this force than to the
+Prætorians, and there is little “fraternizing” between its members and
+the haughty guard-corps. However, they make 4000 more armed men always
+available for the defense and control of the city. Added to these
+can, of course, be the vigiles (7000 strong), easily changeable into
+genuine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[314]</span> soldiers in a crisis. This makes the total garrison of Rome,
+while the Prætorians are in the city, around 20,000 men, plus usually
+some marines detached from the squadrons at Ostia and Misenum.</p>
+
+<p>The frontiers are far away, but the central direction of the great
+imperial war machine is inevitably at Rome. From the Prætorian barracks
+issue those orders which can set the legions marching against the
+Caledonians of North Britain or the Arabs of the Syrian deserts. There
+can be no better place, therefore, for inquiry about the organization
+and discipline of that grim efficient engine which maintains the
+Pax Romana and makes possible the splendid, artificial Græco-Roman
+civilization.</p>
+
+<p>High officers are constantly passing through Rome. Some of these men
+have had long and distinguished careers, and among them is a certain
+Aulus Quadratus, a gray and grizzled veteran, now in the capital for
+honorable retirement, after an unusual term of service. By tracing his
+experience, a good insight can be gained into the organization and
+duties of the legionaries.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>268. A Private in the Legions: the Legionary
+Organization.</b>—Quadratus was born in South Gaul (<i>Gallia
+Narbonensis</i>), a country that has already been well Romanized, and
+from which the government draws many excellent legionaries.<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> He
+was a poor free laborer on a great estate, but when he was only about
+eighteen an enrolling officer appeared and demanded a certain number of
+recruits of his master. The latter naturally suggested taking several
+of the youngest and least valuable of the hands. Quadratus was strong,
+courageous, and adventuresome, and he did not object to this informal
+type of “selective draft.” Thus he soon found himself a private in the
+camp of the “Second Augustan Legion”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[315]</span> (<i>legio secunda augusta</i>)
+stationed in a great fortified camp guarding the Rhine somewhere near
+later Mayence or Strassbourg in “Upper Germany” (Alsace and the Rhenish
+Palatinate).</p>
+
+<p>Once enlisted, Quadratus realized that at least twenty years of
+unremitting service lay ahead of him. Home life and marriage were
+forbidden the soldiery, and their whole lives revolved around the army.
+The Roman discipline caught each man, and each became a valuable and
+contented soldier only so far as he submitted to this discipline and
+merged his personality in the vast organization.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_315" style="max-width: 335px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_315.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">A Slinger.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Quadratus was, therefore, promptly “put under the vinestock,”
+the stout cudgel of twisted vine twigs with which the centurions
+vigorously corrected their tyros. At first he was a very ignorant and
+unimportant part of the “Second Augustan,” but soon he understood its
+organization and became proud of its history. Every legion consisted
+of ten <i>cohorts</i>, each in turn divided into six centuries.<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a>
+Each century contained in theory a hundred infantry, making 6000 for
+the entire legion. Besides these, there was a small cavalry force for
+scouting attached to each legion, four <i>turmæ</i> (squadrons) of 30
+horsemen each. The various contingents,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">[316]</span> however, were seldom quite
+full. When the Second Augustan went to battle it reckoned, therefore,
+somewhere under 6000 men.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_316" style="max-width: 700px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_316.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Roman Siege Works</span>: restoration of Caesar’s
+siege works at Alesia.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>269. Training of the Legionaries: the <i>Pilum</i> and the
+<i>Gladius</i>.</b>—Quadratus, under very severe drill masters,
+learned the use of weapons. Nothing could take the place, so he was
+taught, of cool proficiency with sword and javelin. It was the trained
+valor of the average Roman legionary, not the skill often of his
+commanders, that had given to the Cæsars the mastery of the world, and
+while the discipline was strict, and the training incessant, pains were
+taken not to destroy the young man’s self-respect, or those powers of
+initiative which were the glory of his profession.</p>
+
+<p>He was taught furthermore to despise those enemies, who, like the
+old Macedonians, were so lacking in personal resources that they had
+to go into battle wedged together shield to shield with long spears
+bristling in front—the rigid “phalanx” formation. This is excellent on
+level ground when the foe is all ahead, but often becomes a source of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[317]</span>
+danger to itself because the closely packed soldiers are deprived of
+any chance to display personal valor, and are almost helpless to change
+position if attacked on flank or rear. Quadratus in his training was
+taught to stand five feet from his comrades on either side with plenty
+of room to swing his shield and javelin.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_317" style="max-width: 707px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_317.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center"><span class="smcap">Storming a City with the</span> <i>Testudo</i>.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Long exercise made him a master of his two weapons. The heavy javelin
+(<i>pilum</i>) is a devilish missile, as every foe of Rome has learned
+to his cost. It is about six and a half feet long with a heavy wooden
+butt and a long blade-like head, usually barbed and razor keen. Flung
+by a practiced soldier at short range it can knock down any adversary
+who is not firmly braced, even if it does not pierce his shield. Once
+lodged in the shield it is no light thing to draw it out and not expose
+oneself to a second deadlier blow.</p>
+
+<p>The pilum, they told Quadratus, was what had really made the Roman
+Empire possible; but it is duly supplemented by the Spanish short sword
+(<i>gladius</i>). This is a weapon borrowed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[318]</span> perhaps, from Spain but
+thoroughly Italianized. The blade is about thirty-three inches long,
+two-edged, sharp-pointed, and always used for thrusting. The instant a
+legionary has flung his pilum, and while his foe if not wounded is at
+least utterly demoralized from the shock, he whips his gladius from his
+thigh and leaps upon him. A single good thrust will disembowel a man,
+and he who is thus assailed by a trained Roman swordsman should pray to
+his native gods—he will need all aid possible.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_318" style="max-width: 364px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_318.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Catapult.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>270. Defensive Weapons.</b>—These two very simple weapons Quadratus
+was taught to handle to perfection, until across the years their use
+became simply mechanical to him. Meantime he was learning to march,
+leap, and fight in his heavy defensive armor. He wore a stout metallic
+cuirass of fish-scale plates, and a solid helmet of brass upon which in
+parades and in actual battle he set a nodding plume of horse-hair. This
+helmet had brow- and cheek-pieces giving very perfect protection, but
+was so heavy that while marching he was allowed to carry it swung from
+a strap upon his breast.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, however, his chief defensive weapon was his shield. This
+capital piece of armor is a rectangle of solid leather about four by
+two and one half feet, rimmed with iron and with handles for carrying
+on the left arm. A trained legionary knows how to fend and lunge with
+his shield with marvelous agility, and by means of the solid metal
+base in the center he can strike a tremendous blow. Almost no weapon
+can penetrate the shield, and thanks to it and his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">[319]</span> cuirass and his
+helmet, a soldier can march unscathed amid a perfect shower of arrows.
+Every technical point about his armor has, of course, been worked out
+scientifically. Simple as it appears, it represents a triumph of human
+skill.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_319" style="max-width: 270px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_319.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Cuirass.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>271. Rewards and Punishments for Soldiers.</b>—Thus accoutered
+Quadratus gained his first experience when the Second Augusta was
+ordered over the Rhine to punish a tribe of Germanic raiders in
+later-day Hessen. In the fighting that ensued he so proved his skill
+and courage that he received his first decoration, the right to wear
+a small banderole upon his pilum when his cohort appeared on parade
+ground. Discipline was severe, but rewards for faithfulness and valor
+were prompt and conspicuous. He had long seen his older comrades
+marching about with “spears of honor,” banderoles, and above all with
+huge medals and medallions, which, upon gala occasions, they wore upon
+their breasts.</p>
+
+<p>Long before Quadratus’s career was ended, he, like many others, had
+a perfect collection of these medals, which hung jangling over his
+cuirass almost like a second coat of armor. Everybody knew the honors
+awarded his comrades, and there was constant emulation to deserve like
+decorations as well as more substantial rewards. No system could be
+better<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">[320]</span> devised to call out the valorous service of simple-hearted and
+often very uncultivated men.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_320a" style="max-width: 200px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_320a.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Javelin</span>: <i>pilum</i> of the legionary.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>While Quadratus, without too many blows from his centurions’ vinestock,
+was thus on his way to promotion, he could witness the punishment of
+less fortunate comrades. Stripes, docking of pay, and extra duty were
+the standard penalties; but sometimes there were worse inflictions.
+Once a whole century acted in a cowardly manner. It was sentenced for
+one month to bivouac outside the camp and to eat bread of barley,—not
+of wheat, the food of brave and obedient troops.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, of course, capital penalties were demanded. Once a private
+was guilty of gross insubordination; he had to “run the gantlet”
+(<i>fustuarium</i>) between two long files of soldiers who beat him
+with cudgels while he dashed vainly down the line, perishing ere he
+could reach the end. Once a detachment of half-drilled auxiliaries fled
+in an outrageous manner before the enemy. To teach a stern lesson these
+irregulars were “decimated”; being forced to stand disarmed before the
+whole legion, while lots were cast selecting every tenth man, who was
+forthwith dragged from the ranks and beheaded.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_320b">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_320b.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Sword.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>272. Pay and Rations in the Army: Soldiers’ Savings
+Banks.</b>—While a private Quadratus, of course, drew the private’s
+pay, 1200 sesterces ($48) a year,<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> out of which, however, was
+deducted a certain part of his upkeep and equipment. Even as it was,
+however, this gave fairly ample spending money, and every soldier was
+required to deposit a part of his wages<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">[321]</span> in the legionary savings bank,
+accumulating against the day of his happy discharge, and protected from
+barrack-room gambling and squandering. Besides this, brave service
+often won an increase of stipend, more valuable than many medals; and
+Quadratus was presently a <i>duplarius</i>, a “double-pay man,” to the
+great envy of certain comrades.</p>
+
+<p>Army rations would have seemed to another age extremely monotonous, a
+mere succession of huge portions of coarse bread or of wheat porridge.
+There were also distributions of salt pork, vegetables, etc., but the
+legionaries did not care greatly for meat. There were even cases when
+they protested against “too much beef and too little wheat.” As for
+drink, everybody in camp enjoyed plenty of <i>posca</i>—the dilution
+of cheap wine and vinegar.<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_321">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_321.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Helmet.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>273. The Training of Soldiers: Non-Military Labors.</b>—Drilling
+went on incessantly. Even soldiers versed in their spear play seemed
+forever under arms merely to keep up the camp routine and morale. Every
+man was trained to be a good swimmer, to run, jump, and indulge in
+acrobatic feats like the <i>testudo</i> (when one group of men climbed
+upon their comrades’ heads) so useful in storming walls. Thrice a month
+the whole legion went on a forced practice march, going at least twenty
+miles at four miles (or more) per hour, each man bearing, besides his
+heavy armor, an elaborate baggage kit, half a bushel of grain, one or
+two tall intrenching stakes, a spade, axe, rope, and other tools—a
+weight of sixty pounds.</p>
+
+<p>If strictly military work failed, there were endless civilian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">[322]</span> labors.
+Quadratus learned to use his spade almost as well as he could his
+pilum. He assisted in making and in repairing the great network of
+magnificent military roads leading to the frontiers. He worked in the
+legionary brick kilns, making bricks for the camps and the numerous
+small <i>castella</i> used to hold back the onthrusting Germans.
+He helped also to rebuild a temple of Jupiter at the garrison town
+of Mogontiacum (Mayence), and later to tug up the stones for a new
+amphitheater in that city. If he had been attached to a Syrian legion,
+he and his comrades might even have been ordered out to repel an
+invasion not of Parthians but of the more devastating locusts.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_322" style="max-width: 248px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_322.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Shield of the Legionary.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>274. Petty Officers in the Legions.</b>—All this experience came
+to him while he was earning his first promotions. Everybody in the
+legion—except those lowest and highest—had somebody, indeed, whom he
+could command while some one else could command him, and there was a
+very ingenious division and interlocking of power and responsibility.</p>
+
+<p>Petty officers abounded, and having approved himself, Quadratus became
+one of the <i>principales</i> (high privates,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">[323]</span> and corporals)—first
+he became a <i>tesserarius</i>, “bearer of the watchword” for his
+century; then the “horn blower,” responsible often for important
+signals, then the <i>signifer</i>, the bearer of the small red flag
+(<i>vexillium</i>), surmounted with a small image of Victory, which was
+the standard of the cohort; then he was named <i>optio</i> (“chosen”
+man by a centurion), a centurion’s deputy and assistant, entitled to
+rank as a real officer and responsible for the control of a large squad
+of men.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_323" style="max-width: 371px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_323.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Military Trumpet.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>At last came one of the most important days of his life. At a general
+parade of the legion the commanding general (<i>legatus legionis</i>)
+announced that Quadratus was appointed centurion and solemnly intrusted
+him with the terrible vinestock. There was no danger he would show
+mercy to the raw recruits!</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>275. The Centurions: their Importance and Order of
+Promotion.</b>—Quadratus was now a member of that group of officers to
+which the Roman army owed the greater part of its entire discipline,
+morale, and efficiency. There were sixty centurions in every legion.
+They were usually self-made men, sturdy peasants’ sons like himself,
+who had risen from the ranks and then been selected by the general on
+account of merit.</p>
+
+<p>The six military tribunes of each legion were, indeed, of higher rank,
+but they were often untested young noblemen, obliged to get a certain
+“military experience” before returning to Rome to sue for seats in the
+Senate and the favor of the Emperor. The centurions, however, were
+a permanent body. They had enlisted in the legion, and their whole
+life was tied up with it. If their methods were harsh, they prided
+themselves on showing an example of daring yet scientific valor in
+every battle. They were intensely devoted to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">[324]</span> their corps, its honor,
+and the honor of their comrades. With good centurions a motley host of
+raw recruits soon became formidable legionaries; without them the most
+skilful general might strive in vain to organize an army.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_324" style="max-width: 318px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_324.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Legionaries (Regular Troops-of-the-Line)</span>: one soldier
+is carrying his equipment upon a “Marius’s Mule,” a staff
+arranged to serve as a knapsack, invented by Marius about 110
+<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>As centurion Quadratus found a straight line of promotion before him.
+He was obliged to begin as the sixth centurion of the tenth cohort,
+and by process of seniority he was entitled to rise to first centurion
+of the first cohort. He was making fair progress but advancement was
+discouragingly slow, and he might have ended (as did most of his fellow
+officers) only part way up the ladder before he reached the retiring
+age, when a great good fortune came to him.</p>
+
+<p>While only a private he had won the “civic crown” (<i>corona
+civica</i>) of oak leaves for saving the life of a comrade in battle;
+he had also gained the golden “mural crown” (<i>corona muralis</i>)
+for being the first in a desperate storming party over the parapet of
+a crude fortress held by the Germans. But now, while acting as senior
+centurion of a large detachment, with the commanding tribune absent,
+he learned that a Roman garrison somewhere in the heart of the Black
+Forest region was hard pressed by a horde of Chatti. He led up his men
+suddenly and skilfully, broke through and dispersed the Barbarians and
+saved the garrison when it was at last gasp. For this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">[325]</span> he was awarded
+the “siege crown” (<i>corona obsidionalis</i>), a remarkable honor
+given by the rescued garrison, and plaited out of grass and weeds
+plucked on the spot of battle,<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> to the leader who had saved them.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>276. The <i>Primipilus</i>: the Great Eagle of the Legion.</b>—This
+distinction made it inevitable that when the post of first centurion
+in the legion fell vacant, Quadratus should be jumped over the heads
+of many others and made <i>primipilus</i> (“first javelin”)—the head
+of the whole corps of centurions, entitled to participate with the
+tribunes in a council of war, and—being, of course, now a man of great
+practical experience—allowed to speak very openly to the Legate of the
+Legion himself. Quadratus was now in some respects the most important
+man in the Second Augustan. His war pay was considerable, and he added
+to it by the permitted usage of taking fees from the men for certain
+exemptions from duty.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_325" style="max-width: 305px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_325.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Roman Officer.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>As primipilus he had the weighty responsibility of taking charge of the
+great golden eagle of the legion. In battle he would sometimes pluck it
+from the ordinary bearer (<i>aquilifer</i>), and electrify his comrades
+by dashing ahead with the full-sized golden eagle with outspread wings,
+surrounded by brilliant streamers, now borne on its pole high above his
+shoulders. Where the eagle went, there honor and devotion made every
+legionary follow with the fury of a man possessed. In a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">[326]</span> certain shrewd
+tussle with the Hermunduri, the valor of the whole phalanx of those
+Barbarians was snuffed out when they saw the glistening <i>aquila</i>
+bearing down on them heading a six-thousand-man wedge, with all the ten
+cohort flags like obedient retainers thrusting on behind, and when next
+came the pitiless beat of the pila succeeded instantly by the rush of
+the expert swordsmen.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>277. Locations and Names of Legions.</b>—Having become primipilus
+while still a fairly young man, Quadratus was not at the end of his
+promotion. He had carefully saved his money, and presently he gained
+official nobility as an eques. Now he was appointed to an independent
+command not in the legionary regulars, but in the “auxiliary cohorts.”</p>
+
+<p>Only about one half of the imperial forces are in the legions. These
+are for the heavy fighting; they are kept in large garrisons and are
+used for secondary work as little as possible, nor are they moved from
+province to province except in serious emergencies.<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> The Second
+Augustan has always been in Upper Germany and there presumably it will
+stay for generations more. The same is true of the Third Augustan in
+North Africa, of the Fourth Scythians on the Danube, of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">[327]</span> the Twelfth
+Thunderers in Syria, and of a good many others. The result is that
+each legion, largely recruited in the nearby provinces, has small
+desire for distant service; and there is little love between, say, the
+“Twenty-first Ravagers” in Upper Germany and the “Sixth Ironclads”
+stationed along the Euphrates.<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_327" style="max-width: 230px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_327.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Light-armed Soldier.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>278. The Auxiliary Cohorts: the Second Grand Division of the
+Army.</b>—But it is absolutely necessary to have a mobile force,
+composed of troops of many kinds, especially cavalry, archers,
+slingers, and light spearmen for scouting. These men are often enlisted
+in the un-Romanized provinces, and are allowed to keep their native
+arms and discipline. As a rule they are organized in unattached
+cohorts, either in “large” cohorts of 1000 men with ten centuries, or
+“small” cohorts of 480 with six so-called centuries. Their commander
+is regularly a “Præfect,” commonly an officer who, like Quadratus, has
+graduated from the stern school of the centurion in a legion.</p>
+
+<p>Auxiliary cohorts are often embodied and disbanded, they have no
+such glorious history and traditions as the legions, but they have a
+distinctive name and a number. Quadratus was assigned to the command
+of a new “large” cohort made up of tall blonde Germans who were glad
+to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">[328]</span> forget their feuds with the Romans, cross the Rhine, and take the
+Emperor’s pay, swearing to him the great oath of implicit military
+allegiance (<i>the sacramentum</i>). The government is far too wise,
+however, to leave such aliens too near their homes. Quadratus was,
+therefore, promptly ordered to march his “Sixth Nervan” (so named in
+honor of the then Emperor Nerva)<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> to the Danube.</p>
+
+<p>The day the new Præfect quitted his old comrades of the Second Augustan
+he drew from the legionary chest all the savings from his pay, plus
+the sums deposited there after each bonus or donation wherewith the
+Emperors were always conciliating the army. He had also long since
+joined a self-help organization among the officers whereby he was to
+receive a fixed sum for his outfit whenever he received promotion.<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a>
+He thus started upon his career as an upper officer a tolerably rich
+man.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>279. The Præfect of the Camps and the Legate of the Legion.</b>—As
+Præfect of the Sixth Nervan he won the good opinion of Trajan in both
+of the desperate Dacian Wars and then in the campaign against Parthia.
+As the next step, he was appointed by imperial patent “Præfect of the
+Camps”—the second in command of a legion, not responsible, indeed,
+for its conduct in battle, but with almost complete authority over
+its management and discipline while in its great permanent garrisons,
+subject only (in extreme cases) to the final authority of the
+commanding legate.</p>
+
+<p>This was as high ordinarily as even a very fortunate soldier, who
+had enlisted as a mere private, could advance. Even<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">[329]</span> as Præfect of
+the Camp Quadratus was looked down upon socially by the six young
+military tribunes, scions of senatorial families, who hung around
+the headquarters (<i>prætorium</i>), wrote verses, patronized the
+centurions, and boasted of how “they commanded the legion.” But
+Quadratus was, we repeat, an extraordinarily lucky officer. Grizzled
+now and battle-scarred, he impressed Hadrian as absolutely to be
+trusted. The Emperor, therefore, raised him to the rank of “Legate of
+the Legion,” which carried with it a seat in the Senate, and for the
+past few years accordingly Quadratus has been on the Rhine in chief
+command of that same Second Augustan where once he had “submitted to
+the vinestock” as a raw recruit.</p>
+
+<p>He has now returned to Rome to be honorably retired and to end his
+days in a luxurious villa in the hills, having enjoyed every honor
+possible in the Roman army save that of being Imperial Legatus over an
+entire province, a post ordinarily combined with the command of several
+legions. It is men like Quadratus, hard and fit soldiers of absolute
+faithfulness, coolness, courage, and efficiency; steeped in the
+traditions of the army, and obeying automatically the call of military
+duty, that have been the soul of the Roman war-machine. Perhaps some
+day there will be degeneracy in the camps, even as in the luxurious
+city. Then the perils of the Empire will draw nigh—but not in the
+reign of Hadrian.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>280. Care for Veterans: Retiring Bonuses and Land Grants.</b>—Few
+enough of Quadratus’s messmates kept near to him in his upward career.
+To the average recruit, the most to be hoped for is that, before the
+end of his twenty years’ enlistment, he can be somewhere near the rank
+of centurion. But many men learn to enjoy the military life even as
+privates, and when the time for honorable discharge comes, will often
+be glad to reënlist in picked corps of <i>veterani</i>, bronzed and
+hardened warriors who make invaluable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[330]</span> scouts and bodyguards for the
+upper officers, and who have quite forgotten the modes of civilian life.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, they elect to be mustered out, not merely are there
+accumulations of pay and donations given them from the legion’s savings
+bank, but along with the <i>honesta missio</i> (honorable discharge)
+they receive either a grant of land for a modest farm, or a lump sum
+(some 3000 sesterces—$120) to start them on a peaceful career. If they
+become sick or disabled while in service, reasonably good care is taken
+of them. In any case the constant award of honorary spears, pennons,
+and medals appeals to the soldier’s vanity, and helps to reconcile him
+to a very long enlistment and an equally stiff discipline.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>281. Barrier Fortresses; System of Encampments; Flexible Battle
+Tactics; Siege Warfare.</b>—Into the details of the Roman war
+machine we cannot enter. We cannot discuss the wonderful system of
+barrier fortresses along the junction of the Rhine and Danube upon
+which the northern tribes beat in vain, nor the newly completed “Wall
+of Hadrian” sundering peaceful and guarded Britain from the stark
+savagery of Caledonia. We cannot explain the scientific system of
+temporary encampments, whereby every night—when a legion is on the
+march,—it occupies a square of ground fortified by solid palisades and
+with every tent in precisely the same spot as in the old camp of the
+preceding night—a method insuring that every camp becomes practically
+a fortress, almost impregnable in case of a defeat in the field. We
+cannot visit the permanent garrison towns, such as Colonia Agrippina
+(Cologne) on the Rhine, or Vindobona (Vienna) on the Danube, where
+extensive cities, with all the paraphernalia of civilization, have
+grown up around the cantonments on the very edge of raw barbarism.</p>
+
+<p>It is still less possible to offer here a discussion of the flexible
+legionary battle tactics, whereby each particular foe is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[331]</span> met with
+the formations most formidable to his special arms and weaknesses;
+and of the carefully adjusted order of march whereby an army can move
+with all its baggage train through a hostile country defiant of any
+ordinary harassment and flank attack. We must pass over also the system
+of siege warfare, and the use of long-range casting engines—a genuine
+artillery; and finally the wonderfully scientific engineering service,
+building high-roads through deserts, and throwing strong bridges even
+across such mighty streams as the Rhine, and—on Trajan’s Dacian
+campaigns—the Danube.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_331" style="max-width: 750px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_331.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Storming a Besieged City</span>: casting engines in
+foreground.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>282. Limited Size of the Imperial Army: its Great
+Efficiency.</b>—Two or three things about the army, however, call for
+particular comment. The size of these forces seems decidedly small,
+considering the vast extent of the Empire, the slow communications,
+the careful demilitarizing of the provincials, and the absence of any
+reserve corps or efficient militia. The thirty legions (5000 to 6000
+men each) reckon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[332]</span> perhaps 175,000 troops of the line. The Prætorians
+at Rome, the heterogeneous and scattered auxiliary cohorts, the small
+naval force, and other armed groups at the command of the government,
+in all reckon, perhaps, as many more; 350,000 men, however, is a very
+limited number when spread out from Britain to the confines of Arabia
+and the Nile cataracts, although only along the Rhine, the Danube, and
+the Euphrates are there now enemies creating serious military problems.</p>
+
+<p>Except at Rome, we have seen that the bulk of these troops is held
+in the frontier garrisons, with all their corps kept on edge in full
+battle efficiency. Let a frontier be in real peril, however, and there
+is no means of reënforcing the local legions save by calling off other
+legions from posts at great distance. Governmental policy has not
+merely disarmed the provincials, it has systematically discouraged
+maintaining the military virtues.<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> If the frontiers are forced
+and the legions fail, the civilian population of the Empire (possibly
+some 80 to 100 millions) will be nigh helpless before a Parthian raid
+or Germanic invader; they can only call on the gods and the distant
+Emperor for aid.<a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">[333]</span></p>
+
+<p>However, as yet, the legions have not failed. The Roman armies, never
+large, but unsurpassed in quality and composed of highly expert
+soldiers steeped in martial tradition, and organized, and commanded
+with scientific skill, lie as a solid barrier around the Mediterranean
+world, and in Hadrian’s day they are holding back possible invaders
+by the mere terror of their name. When one looks, marveling, upon the
+huge, luxurious, sophisticated capital, let it not be forgotten that
+Rome is imperial Rome because far away on the frontiers thirty brigades
+of iron-handed men night and day keep watch and ward.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">[334]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XVII<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE SENATE: A SESSION AND A DEBATE</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>283. Apparent Authority and Importance of the Senate.</b>—Powerful
+is the army and powerful its Emperor, yet there is a body to which
+they both pay lip-service, and which still enjoys a prestige and moral
+authority that stamps itself upon the imagination of every man in the
+Roman Empire—the “venerable Senate.”</p>
+
+<p>Theoretically the Senate shares the government with the Emperor,
+controls the state when there is a vacancy in the palace, selects
+the new ruler and bestows on him the “proconsular” and “tribunician
+power,”—the legal bases of his authority. It must be consulted by
+him in every important act, and when he dies it decides whether he
+is to be deified as a god, or suffer the awful “damnation of memory”
+(<i>damnatio memoriæ</i>) branding him for all time as a tyrant. It
+can also declare him suspended or deposed from office, set a price
+on his head and order the armies to refuse him obedience. Its formal
+decrees (<i>senatus consulta</i>) constitute, now that the old public
+assemblies have been abandoned, the most binding kind of law.</p>
+
+<p>The Senate also governs directly all of those provinces (about half of
+the whole Empire) which do not require any army for defense or control.
+It has its own treasury, and it can strike copper money, although
+gold and silver are reserved to the Emperor, making a considerable
+profit on the seignorage. It acts as supreme court of appeal on all
+cases which rise in the provinces under its government. By the vote of
+its members are elected all those “old Republican” magistrates<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">[335]</span> from
+consul down to <i>quæstor</i> (treasury supervisor) which carry along
+with the temporary glories of office the right to a life seat in the
+Senate itself—making the latter practically a self-perpetuating body.
+A good Emperor swears at the beginning of his reign, “I will never put
+any senator to death”—<i>i.e.</i> the Senate shall judge all capital
+charges against its members, even those involving treason.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these prerogatives senators alone are eligible for the highest
+military commands and the governorships of all the larger imperial
+provinces. As already stated (see p. <a href="#Page_156">156</a>), the senators in addition
+constitute the highest aristocracy; they must each possess at least
+1,000,000 sesterces ($40,000) taxable property, and they enjoy all
+the influence that comes to vested prestige and wealth in an age that
+cringes to titles and fortunes. On this showing, the 600 senators
+apparently constitute the most powerful organ in the government.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>284. Actual Weakness of the Senate.</b>—Unfortunately much of
+this brave showing is only a glittering mask. The Senate has not one
+swordsman in Rome or in any of its provinces to obey the summons,
+“Resist the Emperor and his Prætorians.” It ordinarily has to stand
+helpless while the army decides who is to be the next Cæsar in case of
+a contested succession.</p>
+
+<p>After Caligula’s murder in 41 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> the Conscript Fathers
+debated earnestly: “Shall we restore the Republic? If not that, which
+aspiring nobleman can we elect as Emperor?” Meantime, the Prætorians,
+pillaging the palace, found the terrified and demoralized Claudius
+hiding in a closet; they dragged him forth and discovered a survivor
+of the Cæsars whose dynasty they greatly wished to perpetuate. “<i>Ave
+Imperator!</i>” rang their shout. Soon the senators were informed
+that their debates were unnecessary—Claudius was being proclaimed in
+the Prætorian Camp. The Fathers made haste to bestow on Claudius full
+imperial powers and to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">[336]</span> congratulate him on his succession. Nobody
+doubted after that where the real power lay.</p>
+
+<p>Besides all this, without mentioning the army, the Emperor has every
+senator personally within his grasp. He can strike any member from the
+<i>album</i> (Senate List) by use of his irresponsible Censorial Power.
+Through that same power he can appoint any favorite to the order by his
+mere fiat. In the elections held within the Senate, he can control the
+choice for any office by announcing that he favors the aspirations of
+such and such a friend; the “Candidates of Cæsar” are always elected.
+In the debates it is a bold senator who dares to face the unpopularity
+of opposing the Emperor’s suggestions;<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> and once let the monarch
+indicate the slightest wish, a whole pack of servile favor-seekers
+will instantly champion the proposition with fervent loyalty. Finally
+by his “tribunician authority” the Emperor can veto any senatorial
+proposal which he dislikes. The power of the “venerable Senate” seems,
+therefore, to have vanished in thin air.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>285. Amount of Power Left to the Senate.</b>—This last is not quite
+true, however. The Cæsars do not, as yet, represent an unvarnished
+despotism; they need a cover for their autocracy,<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> and they have to
+leave to the Senate a certain show of power. No new Emperor’s throne
+furthermore is secure against pretenders until, after the army has
+proclaimed him, the Senate has confirmed him, and no Emperor likes to
+feel that his sole refuge is with the irresponsible swordsmen.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">[337]</span></p>
+
+<p>Besides all this, the moral prestige of the Senate is still so great
+that even a Nero or a Domitian hesitates to flout that famous body
+too openly. Finally, be it said, the task of governing the enormous
+Empire is a tremendous burden. A reasonable monarch is glad enough to
+throw upon the Senate a great many problems over which the “Fathers”
+can exhaust their eloquence and which they probably can settle quite
+as wisely as he. If they fail and the case is then dutifully referred
+back to “Cæsar,” his own importance becomes all the greater. If they
+succeed, he gains a reputation for moderation and liberality. The
+senators, on their part, have long since ceased to dream of restoring
+the old Republic. Since the accession of Nerva, 96 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, an
+era of good feeling and equilibrium on the whole has existed. The
+Senate therefore still vaunts itself as a coördinate branch of the
+Roman government.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>286. Organization and Procedure of the Senate.</b>—The Senate of
+the Empire exists in form and procedure very like its predecessor under
+the Republic. Its debates are the talk of the capital and are duly
+reported in the Acta Diurna; and at present, with Hadrian out of the
+city, its supreme presiding officers, the two consuls, affect to be the
+most powerful personages in Rome, although some of the great permanent
+ministers on the Palatine, and especially the Prætorian Præfect, have
+firm doubts on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>When Publius Junius Calvus is compelled to attend sessions of the
+Senate, he has ordinarily been informed a couple of days in advance
+by a <i>viator</i> of one of the consuls bringing a personal notice
+to his home, although urgent meetings can be summoned on much shorter
+notice merely by sending forth a crier. There is no fixed quorum for
+the Senate; although there are 600 lawful members, many of these are
+high government officials absent in the provinces, others are retired,
+elderly dignitaries very loath to quit their luxurious ease in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">[338]</span> their
+Etruscan or Campanian villas. Since the post of senator is ordinarily
+for life, the body contains an undue proportion of superannuated,
+doddering old men who will only appear on great occasions.</p>
+
+<p>Sessions can thus be held with only a very thin number, say fifty,<a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a>
+although if the gathering is disgracefully small, those attending
+can shout to the presiding officer, “<i>Numera! Numera!</i>” (“Take
+the number!”) and insist on adjournment until the consul’s tipstaffs
+and bailiffs have rounded up a respectable fraction. On this day in
+question, however, there is no danger of a slim attendance. Every
+member in Rome is sure to be present, including certain invalids who
+have to be helped out of their litters and led inside by their freedmen.</p>
+
+<p>Sextus Annius Pedius, ex-proconsul of Asia has been impeached by
+Publius Calvus and a fellow senator, Titus Volusius Atilius, for gross
+extortion and malfeasance in his government. The case has been referred
+to the Senate by Hadrian as lying within its special competence. Pedius
+is of the highest aristocracy, but like most great men has made plenty
+of enemies. Every possible social influence has been mobilized for and
+against him. A great state trial, with an abundance of soaring oratory
+is consequently in prospect. Every senator is in his element.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>287. The Curia (Senate House) and Its Arrangement of
+Benches.</b>—On days when the Senate convenes, the clients can stream
+into the empty atria of their noble patrons, collect their money doles
+and depart—the patrons themselves have set off at first dawn for
+the council, accompanied very probably (if it is not summertime) by
+link-boys to guide them through the still darkened streets. They gather
+thus at <i>prima luce</i> in the rebuilt Curia at the Forum, although
+sessions can be held in almost any other duly consecrated spot, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[339]</span>
+Pompey built a special Curia near his own mansion in the Campus Martius
+for use when he wished to deliberate with the Fathers.<a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Curia Julia has a magnificent hall with tiers of comfortable and
+highly carved benches (<i>subsellia</i>) curving in a semi-circle
+not unlike the legislative chambers of other times. The six hundred
+senators sit fairly close together, so that the debates can be in easy
+voice. At the entrance the consuls’ viatores and lictors check off the
+Fathers entering to exclude interlopers, but there is no real secrecy.
+The doors are numerous and stand wide, and a curious crowd is permitted
+to linger around them; especially are the young sons of a good many
+senators seen there, eagerly following all the proceedings wherein they
+hope soon to have a part. (See p. 190.)</p>
+
+<p>Facing the benches rises a low dais whereon is a line of curule chairs
+for the consuls and prætors, also a long solid settee whereon ten
+of the younger senators sit down solemnly together. These ten are
+the tribunes of the Plebs,—shorn now of nearly all their ancient
+authority, but still maintaining the “shadow of a great name,” a name
+surviving from the time when, as in the days of such personages as
+Gaius Gracchus, a tribune could be mightier than a consul.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>288. The Gathering of the Senators.</b>—The Fathers drop into their
+seats. No law adjusts their precedence, but etiquette gives the front
+row to the ex-consuls, the next banks to the ex-prætors, behind them
+the former ædiles, tribunes, and quæstors with the <i>pedani</i><a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a>
+(senators who have never held elective office) modestly in the rear.
+The defendant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">[340]</span> Pedius attended by several distinguished senators, his
+relatives, all clad in the gray togas of distress and mourning, and
+also by his two advocates both in conventional white, take seats in the
+front benches. As they do this it is noted as of ominous significance
+that several ex-consuls, who had come in first, promptly shift to the
+other side of the hall.</p>
+
+<p>At the center of the platform is observed a majestic, gilded statue of
+Victory, with expanded wings, flowing robes, standing upon a globe, and
+stretching forth a laurel crown.<a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> Before it, upon a little altar,
+a few coals are smoking. Presently a door at the side of the platform
+opens, and a lictor signs with his fasces. The chatter across the now
+crowded hall ceases instantly; all the toga-clad figures rise together,
+while the presiding consul, Gaius Juventius Varus,<a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> leads in the
+array of magistrates, each in the ornate toga prætexta.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>289. Opening the Session: Taking the Auspices.</b>—Gravely this
+official company seats itself in the curule chairs; gravely Varus casts
+a handful of incense upon the altar before the Victory, and a cloud of
+fragrance fills the hall. Then Varus, a tall and very majestic figure,
+signs to the senators; they also are seated, next his voice sounds
+clearly: “Bring forth the chickens!”</p>
+
+<p>Not a lip twitches in all that sedate audience as two attendants appear
+upon the platform setting down a small coop containing a few barnyard
+fowls. The consul rises and stands beside them; next to him takes
+station an elderly senator also wearing the prætexta and holding a
+staff with a peculiarly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">[341]</span> shaped spiral head, a <i>lituus</i>—the badge
+of office of an <i>augur</i>, lawfully entitled to proclaim the will
+of the gods. In a dead hush the servitors pass a small dish of grain
+to the consul who carefully scatters the grain within easy reach of
+the chickens. The latter, carefully starved since yesterday, snap up
+the grains eagerly. They even devour so fast that the wheat drops from
+their bills, a most excellent sign. The augur bends forward intently,
+watching their action, then motions with his staff: “<i>There is no
+evil sight nor sound!</i>” he announces in solemn formula.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_341" style="max-width: 375px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_341.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Coop of Sacred Chickens used in Divination.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>A mutter of relaxation passes around the Senate. The servitors carry
+out the chicken coop. The consul shakes his great draperies around
+him with studied dignity and turns to the waiting assembly. “Affairs
+divine” have been attended to; “affairs human” can now begin.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>290. Presentation of Routine Business: Taking a Formal
+Vote.</b>—Even under the Empire it is a glorious thing to be consul,
+with the twelve lictors, the temporary colleagueship with the Emperor,
+and the right to preside over the most magnificent council in the
+world. Varus carries himself with the dignity of a nobleman who has
+enjoyed a long career in the Senate and now is at the summit of his
+aspirations. Every tradition of the ancient body has been cherished;
+and the solemn forms still differ little from those in the great
+conclave that piloted the overthrow of Carthage.</p>
+
+<p>The chief business of the day is the trial of Pedius, but a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">[342]</span> certain
+lesser matter demands prior disposition. The consul has received a
+dispatch from the proprætor of Sicily (a “senatorial” province) asking
+if he can be empowered to remit the taxes of certain peasants near
+Agrigentum, whose crops have suffered from the blight. Varus begins
+with the time-honored formula, “That it may be well and fortunate to
+the Roman people, the Quirites, we refer this thing to you, <i>patres
+conscripti</i>.” Then in well-chosen words he gives the substance of
+the governor’s request, and reads certain correspondence explaining the
+plight of the peasants; having thus finished his <i>relatio</i>—the
+“presentation of the problem”—he ends with another formula, “What is
+it your pleasure to do concerning this matter?”</p>
+
+<p>If the business be contentious, now might begin a vigorous debate; but
+the governor’s request, based on wise policy, is not worth questioning
+and almost everybody wants to proceed to the trial. The consul,
+therefore, after a pause, demands, “Is it your will to grant this
+thing? Let then all the Conscript Fathers favoring pass to the right!”</p>
+
+<p>One garrulous old senator anxious for a chance to speak, indeed begins
+shouting “<i>Consule! Consule!</i>” (“Take counsel!”—<i>i.e.</i> start
+a debate.) If many others join him, Varus can be forced to permit a
+long-winded discussion; but the troublemaker is without a second. The
+senators with one accord seem rising and passing to the right side of
+the Curia. Nobody ventures to go to the left. The motion thus carries
+unanimously. The company resume their seats; then all eyes are again
+upon the consul when with clear voice he commands: “Let the accusers of
+Sextus Annius Pedius stand forth.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>291. Presenting an Impeachment at a Senate Trial.</b>—Publius
+Calvus rises from the front benches opposite the defendant, allows the
+many folds of his toga to fall magnificently around him, thrusting
+them back just enough to reveal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">[343]</span> the purple laticlave running down
+his tunic, and carefully adjusts a ring so its great emerald will
+give precisely the correct flash as he gestures. Directly behind him,
+inconspicuously garbed stands a favorite freedman, avowedly to pass
+him papyri and tablets which he will read, but really quite as much to
+whisper, “Drop your tones!” “Speak louder!” or “Not so shrill!” and
+like promptings as the oration progresses.<a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Senate, of course, cannot be expected to put in weary days
+listening to intricate and sordid testimony. All this has been taken
+before a special board of judges, and on their report there is no real
+doubt of Pedius’s guilt. He has taken a bribe of 300,000 sesterces
+($12,000) to banish a Roman eques from his province and has put seven
+less-protected provincials, friends of this eques, to death; worse
+still, he has taken still another bribe of 700,000 sesterces ($28,000)
+for committing the unspeakable outrage of causing yet a second eques
+to be first beaten with rods, next hustled off to the mines, then
+actually strangled in prison. The prominent provincials from Asia have,
+therefore, presented an absolute case against their evil ex-governor.
+The lesser culprits have mostly confessed and received appropriate
+penalties—and the only question really before the Senate is fixing the
+punishment of Pedius.</p>
+
+<p>He is a great noble with great connections. Ought a senator who has
+held the consulship be banished and ruined even if he <i>has</i>
+misgoverned his province, taken bribes and done to death an eques—one
+of those upstart half-nobles whom every true senator should scorn?
+Pedius does not lack friends who have told him to brazen it out, and
+that no severe<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">[344]</span> penalty can befall him; and he glares defiantly across
+to Calvus as the latter begins his argument.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>292. The Water Clocks; Methods of a Prosecutor; Applause in the
+Senate.</b>—Just as the chief prosecutor commences, the servitors
+reappear and set close beside him a large glass vessel upon a wooden
+stand, perforated to empty slowly into a second vessel beneath, and
+when thus emptied the upper container is promptly refilled. Calvus
+has been informed he can have “only four water clocks” (about two
+hours)—an outrageously insufficient number in his opinion, when many
+an advocate can get twelve—but time must be given the other orators
+and after that the Senate must discuss and vote.</p>
+
+<p>Speedily Calvus warms to his task, and in long periods of sonorous
+Latin his voice resounds through the Curia. He delights to expand upon
+the enormity of the crime of putting to death not a mere provincial,
+not a simple Roman plebeian, but a Roman eques. His speech abounds with
+elegant and apparently impromptu allusions, metaphors and similes—duly
+practiced half a month before. He goes out of his way to pay an
+extended and fulsome compliment to the benignity and liberality of the
+Emperor in condescending to let the Senate settle the issue. Words at
+length almost fail him when he calls on the Fathers in the name of
+Justice, Virtue, Heavenly Vengeance, and all the other guardian deities
+of the state to punish the hideous misdeeds of such a criminal as
+Pedius.</p>
+
+<p>As he proceeds the Senate kindles at his eloquence. First his
+personal friends who are sitting directly behind him begin to shout
+“<i>Euge!</i>” and “<i>Sophos!</i>” Then the applause re-echoes from
+all over the hall. Presently the occupants of the curule chairs on
+the platform begin to clap, the consul half rises from his seat as if
+transported by the oratory, and even Pedius’s own advocates politely
+join in that applause which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">[345]</span> Calvus is professionally bound to return
+with interest as soon as they begin to speak in turn.</p>
+
+<p>Soon, all too soon, for the orator, and for those senators who love
+“the good old times,” when an advocate could thunder all day long, the
+four water clocks are exhausted. Calvus subsides, to be immediately
+surrounded by his friends who compare his efforts to those of Cato,
+Hortensius, Cicero, and such later masters as Cornelius Tacitus; while
+the freedman immediately speeds off to inform Gratia of the “wonderful
+triumph” of her husband—a triumph of oratory, whatever be the actual
+verdict.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>293. Speech for the Defendant: Methods of a Professional
+Advocate.</b>—After order is restored a grave old senator—Quintus
+Saturius—arises to answer the prosecutor. He is a professional
+advocate of fame, but evil report has it that in his youth under
+Domitian he was a <i>delator</i> (professional accuser), and won a
+fortune by prosecuting the innocent victims of that bad Emperor’s
+disfavor. Since then he has never been squeamish in accepting doubtful
+causes. The law only allows him 10,000 sesterces ($400) as the fee
+from each legal client, but the latter has plenty of indirect means of
+showing his “gratitude,” and Saturius’s wealth now is enormous. This
+morning he has carefully smeared eye-salve above his left eye—a token
+that he is to speak for the defendant, not over the right as if for the
+plaintiff. His toga also floats in billowy folds, his hands flash with
+costly rings, and his powerful voice soon booms through the Curia.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_346" style="max-width: 750px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_346.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Cicero denouncing Catiline before the Senate</span>:
+painting in modern Senate House in Rome.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">[347]</span></p>
+
+<p>Saturius does not waste time denying that many of Pedius’s misdeeds
+have been proved, but he praises at great length his client’s
+“glorious ancestry” and distinguished social connections. As for
+the accusations,—what if he did abuse his office? Was a member of
+the great house of the Annii to be held down to the sordid rules
+befitting mere plebeians and freedmen? What if an eques <i>had</i> been
+wrongfully done to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">[346]</span> death? Was not the fellow by birth a Phrygian who
+had gained first citizenship and then the “narrow-stripe” merely by the
+use of his wits? How could so great a man as the Proconsul of Asia be
+expected to live on a beggarly salary of 1,000,000 sesterces ($40,000)?</p>
+
+<p>At this point Saturius’s voice begins in fact to tremble with pathos.
+How can the Conscript Fathers bring themselves to disgrace all the
+defendant’s distinguished relatives who just now are sitting behind
+him in the gray togas of public mourning? Think of his distressed wife
+whose father and all three uncles were at least prætors! Think of his
+brother who had been killed bravely fighting the Parthians! Think of
+his two sons whose public careers would be blighted by the disgrace of
+their father! Think finally of the Senate itself—what contempt upon
+the “Venerable Order” if one of its most prominent members should be
+ruined on the testimony of mere provincials and upstarts! etc., etc.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>294. Concluding Speeches; Interrupting Shouts; Personal
+Invectives.</b>—Saturius, ere concluding, works himself into a fine
+passion. He also gets sallies of applause—mostly from the self-same
+men who have just cheered Calvus. But at some of his assertions there
+are murmurs of dissent, and even open shouts such as “Drop that
+argument!” “Don’t insult our intelligence!” Finally, however, he
+sits down, having exhausted his four water clocks. More cheers, more
+congratulations, everybody swears to his neighbor the day is proving an
+intellectual feast.</p>
+
+<p>The consul proclaims an interim; and the Conscript Fathers adjourn
+to stretch their limbs, snatch a hasty collation provided by their
+attendants and discuss the arguments. Then all resume when Marcus
+Petreius, Pedius’s junior advocate, continues for the defense. The
+hostile attitude of the Senate has impressed the defendant’s counsel,
+and Petreius enters into an elaborate appeal for mercy, with many fine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">[348]</span>
+invocations of the “Divine Clemency,” and reminders of how any senator
+might some day find himself in Pedius’s horrid predicament. Petreius
+is allowed “less water” than Saturius; he gets considerable applause,
+however, when he finishes, but knowing members shake their heads: “They
+cheer his oratory and not his cause.”</p>
+
+<p>In fine mettle therefore Titus Atilius, Calvus’s associate, next sums
+up for the prosecution. Atilius is a relatively young man, as yet only
+an ex-quæstor; and to-day is his glorious opportunity. Carried away
+on a flood of invective, he allows himself, as is permitted by usage,
+to cover not merely Pedius but even Pedius’s advocate with a storm of
+bitter personalities. When he thunders against Saturius’s sycophantic
+career there are wild shouts of applause from all over the Curia; and
+more applause follows when he ridicules certain physical infirmities of
+the miserable defendant.<a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> Pedius rises with supplicatory gestures
+and appeals loudly to the ten tribunes, “Oh, very noble tribunes
+protect me!”—but the ten sit stolid and silent upon their bench and
+he subsides with blenching cheeks. His advocates, exchanging knowing
+glances, are seen to be gathering up their tablets.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>295. Taking the Opinion of the Senate.</b>—At last Atilius’s
+“water” has likewise ended. Amid another whirlwind of applause and
+rush of congratulating friends he takes his seat. The consul Varus
+rises with extreme dignity, and beckons with his hand. Every senator
+instantly is tense and silent.</p>
+
+<p>“We do now,” proclaims Varus, “take the opinions (<i>sententiæ</i>)
+of the Conscript Fathers concerning that which it befits should be
+done in the case of Sextus Annius Pedius this day arraigned and tried.
+You have heard his accusers and his advocates. I shall call the album
+of the Senate.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">[349]</span> He holds up tablets whereon are listed the senators
+in order of official rank and precedence; then turns to the members
+seated directly before him, the magistrates-elect for the ensuing year,
+summoning first the senior consul designate, Appius Lupercus:</p>
+
+<p>“<i>Dic, Appie Luperce!</i>”</p>
+
+<p>Appius Lupercus, an elderly aristocrat, the head of an ancient family,
+rises amid a portentous hush. The “right to speak first,” possessed by
+the Emperor when present, is invaluable. All the orators for either
+side have really aimed their best arguments toward Lupercus, knowing
+his prerogative, but his “cold looks” toward Pedius have already fallen
+as ice upon the friends of the defendant. His voice now carries through
+the expectant Curia.</p>
+
+<p>“Conscript Fathers:—It is true that Sextus Pedius is a man of exalted
+birth; the more shame, therefore, that he has disgraced the name of
+a <i>clarissimus</i> of the Venerable Senate. It is true his victims
+were either provincials or citizens of provincial origin:—the law is
+impartial, the Roman Empire has been established upon the inflexible
+rule of ‘piety’ giving alike to gods and to men that which is lawfully
+their due. If he has outraged provincials the case is clear; long ago
+the Emperor Tiberius expressed the ruling policy when he said, ‘A good
+shepherd shears his sheep but does not flay them.’ If Pedius has also
+outraged citizens, much more equites, wherein lies the boast ‘<i>Civis
+Romanus sum!</i>’, if these men, whatever their original birth, cannot
+demand lawful vengeance at our hands?</p>
+
+<p>“My opinion, therefore, is this: let the defendant’s ill-gotten bribes
+be confiscated to the treasury, and let Pedius himself be banished from
+Rome, and Italy; let his lesser confederates be banished from Rome,
+from Italy, and also from the Province of Asia. Since also Publius
+Calvus and Titus Atilius have pleaded the cause of the provincials
+with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">[350]</span> diligence and fearlessness, let them receive the thanks of the
+Senate. Such is my opinion!”</p>
+
+<p>A great murmur rises—applause with some shouts of dissent. “Hangman!”
+“Butcher!” rise from the little knot of Pedius’s relatives. Then Varus
+calls on the second consul designate, Atticus, who, rising stiffly,
+says with clear voice, “I agree with the most noble Lupercus,” and
+promptly takes his seat.</p>
+
+<p>One by one the ex-consuls, each summoned by turn, announce that they
+also agree with Lupercus, until one cynical old aristocrat, the
+ex-consul Gavius, notorious for his own sensual life and the manner
+whereby he enriched himself in Africa, yet powerful through his vast
+wealth and influential connections, announces that he is confident
+the Senate should show mercy. “Let Pedius disgorge the money and
+forfeit the priesthood of Mars which he holds—that will be punishment
+enough. A good lesson has been taught and the unfortunate man has been
+disgraced enough already.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>296. An Uproar in the Senate: an “Altercation.”</b>—Instantly
+the Senate is in an uproar. The shorthand reporters<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> can hardly
+take down all the interrupting shouts that are tossed back and forth:
+“How now, Marcus Æmilius Gavius, will you let such a scoundrel go?”
+“What are those provincials but scum anyway!” etc., etc. A violent
+“altercation” follows, several senators rising and demanding that
+Gavius explain himself. The old reprobate however cleverly stands his
+ground, and is vigorously cheered by many who will not actually support
+his proposal.</p>
+
+<p>At last the house cools down. The taking of the opinion now proceeds
+among the prætors-designate and the ex-prætors.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">[351]</span> No senator can
+speak twice, but each man, when on his feet, has great liberty of
+action—several of the younger men half ironically support Gavius, and
+one senator earns unpopularity by insisting on his right of the floor
+and calling attention to the embezzlements reported in the African
+municipality of Utica—a matter quite beside the question. Two or three
+long and eloquent speeches are delivered in favor of Lupercus’s stern
+proposal. It is growing late and nobody wants to call on the ex-ædiles
+and other junior senators,<a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> and cries are rising, “<i>Divide!
+Divide!</i>”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>297. Taking a Vote of the Senate. A Sentence of
+Banishment.</b>—Varus again rises, “Conscript Fathers: you have heard
+the opinions of these very noble men of consular and prætorian rank.
+Two propositions are before you. Those who favor the penalties for
+Sextus Pedius proposed by Appius Lupercus let them walk to the right!
+Those the lesser penalty proposed by Marcus Gavius to the left.”</p>
+
+<p>The hundreds of togas rise together. Gavius is not without a certain
+minority of supporters who start with him to the left, but most of
+these, seeing how many ex-consuls of birth and character are following
+Lupercus, desert Gavius, who is left with only a trifling band around
+him. There is no need for Varus to count the result. Even while the
+Senate is dividing the luckless Pedius, with his kinsmen and advocates,
+is seen gliding through a side exit. It is the defendant’s right thus
+to anticipate sentence and to slip away with as little ignominy as
+possible into exile.</p>
+
+<p>At a word from the consul the senators return to their seats. The long
+shadows of evening are stretching through the doors of the Curia, as
+Varus announces that Sextus Pedius having been convicted of high crimes
+is banished from Rome and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">[352]</span> from Italy. He must quit the city to-morrow.
+He must quit Italy in twenty days. Should he tarry or return he will
+be “cut off from fire and water,” and dealt with “after the ancient
+custom”—<i>i.e.</i> he will be scourged with his head in a forked
+stake, then sewed in a bag with a cock, a dog, and a viper, and flung
+into the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Everybody is anxious to be gone. In the great mansions six hundred
+expensive cooks are fuming over the delay to six hundred expensive
+dinners. The terrible fate of Pedius will make talk for all Rome
+through ten days. Varus raises his hand and at length pronounces
+the sonorous ancient formula, “<i>Nihil vos moramur, patres
+conscripti</i>”—“We detain you no longer, Conscript Fathers.”</p>
+
+<p>Publius Calvus and Titus Atilius are escorted homeward by groups of
+fellow senators as if they were triumphant generals. Their skill,
+eloquence, pathos, and legal learning are praised to the skies. Each
+is assured that “he has rendered himself and his friends immortal!”
+Each to-morrow will begin rewriting his speech, introducing many
+fine arguments which he has had no time to utter.<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> These will be
+embalmed in his published works which will be presumably carried some
+day, tied to poles, in a conspicuous place in his funeral procession.</p>
+
+<p>So ends a typical meeting of the Senate under the Empire; noble forms,
+much dignity, a perfect river of eloquence, a judicial decision in
+this case conforming with justice, but handling no great issues of
+diplomacy, high finance, or peace or war. Already Pedius’s friends are
+consoling him, as he drearily prepares to retire to Macedonia: “In a
+few years at worst we can get your pardon from the Emperor.”</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">[353]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XVIII<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE COURTS AND THE ORATORS. THE GREAT BATHS. THE PUBLIC PARKS AND
+ENVIRONS OF ROME</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>298. Roman Court Procedure Highly Scientific.</b>—If Publius Calvus
+does not have to attend the Senate, two places will assuredly devour
+a great part of his normal day—the court-house and the public baths.
+Even if he is not plaintiff, defendant, or witness, like every man of
+his class he delights in listening to oratory, and etiquette requires
+that, whenever one of his numerous friends argues a case, he, with as
+many other senators and equites as possible should sit in the front
+of the audience, to “lend their distinguished influence,” to lead the
+salvos of applause, and even to stand up conspicuously behind the
+orator at critical points in his argument.</p>
+
+<p>Roman courts are not like the Athenian dicasteries, huge juries of
+many hundreds,<a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> with tumultuous appeals from the letter of the
+law to the emotions of the members. Personal influence has its part,
+but everything is regulated, orderly, scientific. Cases which do not
+involve the safety of the state or the fate of distinguished personages
+are usually argued coldly, and with a nice attention to technicalities.
+Your Roman jurisconsult (expert in the law) is as much superior to
+an Athenian in developing the science of formal justice, as another
+Athenian might be to a Roman, in breathing life into chiseled marble.
+The administration of law is intricate. There are courts behind courts,
+with final appeal either to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">[354]</span> the Senate (as we have just seen) or to
+the Emperor.<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> The “law’s delays” are perfectly well understood by
+adroit advocates; and Martial records a case that took twenty years
+while dragging through three successive courts—to the ruin of both
+sets of litigants.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>299. The Great Tribunals in the Basilicas.</b>—If we visit the
+great basilicas, we find two kinds of tribunals steadily functioning.
+For much civil business there is the great “Court of the Centumviri,”
+a board not of “One Hundred” but actually of one hundred and eighty
+distinguished citizens, who sit sometimes all together, sometimes
+divided into four groups for conducting trials simultaneously. Their
+stronghold is the Basilica Julia. It is a great honor to argue before
+the Centumviri, and every advocate exhausts his wiles to induce the
+grave judges to pay him the highest compliment (as they did to Pliny
+the Younger) by “suddenly leaping to their feet and applauding him as
+if they could not help themselves.”</p>
+
+<p>The most of the higher litigation, however, goes before
+<i>judices</i>. A <i>judex</i> may be one of the great panel of 4000
+citizens,—senators, equites, and plebeians of substance who can
+be called upon to serve as a kind of jury for ordinary trials of
+importance. The size of such a jury depends on the nature of the case
+as provided by statute,—you can have from 32 members up to a full
+100. There is a high judge over the entire body, either the prætor,
+or a professional expert in the law, the <i>judex quæstionis</i>, who
+controls the presentation of evidence and the strictly technical parts
+of the trial.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">[355]</span></p>
+
+<p>After the evidence has been submitted, orally or in writing, and the
+orators have exhausted themselves, the jurors take small wax-covered
+tablets and vote, each man marking simply letters: A = <i>absolvo</i>,
+“Not guilty,” C = <i>Condemno</i>, “Guilty,” N.L. = <i>Non Liquet</i>,
+“No verdict.” A bare majority can either acquit or condemn, but, of
+course, no man is condemned on a plurality, and a tie means acquittal.
+If “No verdict” is the decision, the case can still go to another
+trial. Roman juries, therefore, do not have to be locked up for days to
+compel them to agree.</p>
+
+<p>However, this jury system is often inconvenient and does not adapt
+itself to that very technical justice in which the Roman jurisconsults
+increasingly delight. More and more cases are being tried by a single
+<i>judex</i>, or a small bench of <i>judices</i>, men highly trained
+in the law, and especially appointed by the prætor or other high
+official, to investigate a given case and report their findings. Under
+the later Empire the large juries will disappear altogether, and a
+few professional judges will become arbiters alike of the law and
+the evidence—an excellent system from the standpoint of scientific
+jurisprudence, but not so excellent if these judges become corrupt,
+pliable, or subject to class prejudices.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>300. Great Stress on Advocacy.</b>—Whatever the tribunal may be,
+great is the stress laid on the arts of the advocate. Calvus has served
+a long probation arguing in the basilicas before his day of glory
+came in the Senate. All the young Ciceros in the rhetoric schools
+dream of the hour when they can stand in flowing togas before the
+high raised platform of the judices, wave their arms, throw out their
+voices, and plead the cause of some widow, or arraign some embezzler
+or extortioner. The mere fact that senatorial speeches have to be
+extremely careful, lest they trench upon imperial prerogative, puts
+a greater premium upon private argument in the courts where usually
+“Cæsar” has no interests.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">[356]</span></p>
+
+<p>The rewards of successful eloquence are great;<a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> and if the legal
+fees are small, rich clients, at least, never fail with big New Year’s
+presents, and with legacies in their wills. Besides there are no
+governmental prosecuting attorneys. Criminal actions can be started by
+any citizen against any possible offender. To reward such zeal, a good
+part of the fines or confiscated property of convicted criminals goes
+to the self-appointed prosecutor. It is thus easy to see how, under
+Tiberius, Nero, and Domitian, the delators (“professional accusers”)
+grew fat prosecuting wealthy senators for “treason.” These good days
+for the profession seem over, but the incomes of certain of the
+leading advocates are princely, some almost vying with those of the
+earlier Vibius Crispus and Epirius Marcellus, who had over 200,000,000
+sesterces ($8,000,000) apiece.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>301. Cheap Pettifogging Lawyers.</b>—On the other hand Rome is
+infested with starving pettifoggers, pretentious wretches, sleeping in
+dirty tenements, and with hardly a decent toga to wear when they argue
+on petty cases in the præfect’s court. Sometimes they get a better
+class of client, hire a good robe and ring to wear at the trial, and
+win the case in the Basilica. Their client will very likely decorate
+the stairs to their tenement with palm leaves, but as the only fee<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a>
+send them a quantity of uncertain edibles—“a dried-up ham, a jar of
+sprats, some veteran onions, or five flagons<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">[357]</span> of [very cheap] wine that
+has just sailed down the Tiber!” If any money is actually paid, lucky
+the advocate who does not have to split his fee with some agent who has
+secured the case for him!</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>302. Character Witnesses; Torture of Slave Witnesses.</b>—One thing
+more concerning these trials must be noted: the testimony of Roman
+citizens carries much greater weight than that of aliens, and the
+unreliability of Græco-Levantines is notorious. Freeborn men, Roman or
+provincial, testify under oath. Only accusers have the right to compel
+the attendance of unwilling witnesses, but the defense can bring not
+merely voluntary witnesses to the facts, but can present as many as ten
+<i>laudatores</i>, character witnesses, and if men of high standing are
+vigorous in their friends’ praises, their opinions will offset very
+many ugly facts in the testimony.</p>
+
+<p>Frequently enough, however, the statements of slaves have to be taken.
+These wretches, having little better status before the law than
+animals, can only testify under torture. No master, nevertheless,
+except in cases of treason, can ordinarily be compelled to let his
+slaves testify <i>against</i> him, but it is assumed that torture is
+necessary if a master voluntarily offers his slave as witness,—for
+what slave would dare uncompelled to say anything unwelcome to his
+master in view of the terrific flogging waiting after he gets home?
+The situation in short as to slave testimony is substantially as in
+Athens.<a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> This use of the rack and flogging post is one of the worst
+blots upon the highly scientific and usually reasonable and humane
+judicial system of Rome.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>303. Written Evidence; High Development of the Advocate’s
+Art.</b>—On the other hand much weight is given to reliable written
+evidence. Public documents from the record office, and the careful
+entries on bankers’ ledgers are continually<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">[358]</span> being introduced as
+testimony. Much of the forensic oratory also is of a high order. The
+rhetoric schools have not taught their better pupils in vain; despite
+much silly display, “appeals to the emotions,” and artificiality, the
+art of advocacy has never completely lost touch with the promotion
+of justice; and usually the verdict goes still to him who best meets
+Cato the Elder’s pungent definition of the true orator, <i>vir bonus,
+dicendi peritus</i> (“the good man versed in the art of speech”),
+and who recalls that great republican’s classic injunction for all
+advocates—<i>rem tene, verba sequentur</i> (“Grasp the subject and the
+words will follow”).<a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a></p>
+
+<p>In all matters not touching certain high interests the Roman courts are
+perhaps as disinterested and clean as human tribunals can well be, and
+the average <i>judex</i> is charged with a passionate desire to do that
+which is formally right. In the courts the spirit of Rome is often to
+be seen at its best.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>304. Popularity and Necessity of the Baths.</b>—As the afternoon
+advances, however, unless the case is extremely urgent, or the
+advocates unwontedly skilful, the impassive toga-clad figures upon
+the high seats of the tribunals begin to show signs of uneasiness.
+The pleaders themselves reach in turn a suitable climax, as the
+last filling of the water clocks runs out;—if necessary they can
+finish their castigations or their excuses to-morrow. The courts are
+adjourned, and judges, litigants, advocates, spectators, all hasten
+from the Basilicas possessed with the thought which is common to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">[359]</span> nigh
+every man in Rome not of the most unfortunate class—“To the Baths!”</p>
+
+<p>The warm Italian climate makes frequent ablutions not merely
+comfortable but necessary, but in the stern old days of the
+earlier Republic Seneca specifically assures us that the fathers
+of Rome were not wont to wash all over oftener than once a week
+(<i>nundinæ</i>).<a id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> Long before the age of Hadrian, however, a daily
+bath became a personal necessity. No dinner can be enjoyed without it.
+No respectable man can feel comfortable deprived of it.</p>
+
+<p>As the bathing habit grows, its luxury and elaboration grow
+correspondingly. The daily bath becomes a social ceremony, and the
+bathing place becomes almost as indispensable as the forum, or the
+triclinium. Other peoples and ages may equal or surpass the Romans in
+actual cleanliness; none can develop institutions really corresponding
+to the enormous public <i>thermæ</i> scattered over the capital.<a id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>305. Luxurious Private Baths.</b>—Probably every senator and all
+the more pretentious equites have sumptuous private baths in their
+own mansions. Here they can go when visits to the public thermæ are
+inconvenient, or to refresh themselves between the long courses of
+their great dinner parties.</p>
+
+<p>The luxury of these private baths can be so prodigious as to afford
+constant texts for the Stoical philosophers. Seneca has waxed almost
+frantic telling how an aristocrat feels somewhat poverty-stricken
+unless “the walls [of his bath] shine with great costly slabs, and
+marbles of Alexandria<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">[360]</span> tricked out with reliefs in stone from Numidia,
+and with the whole ceiling elaborately covered with all varieties
+of paintings, and unless Thasian marbles inclose the swimming pool,
+and the water gushes out of silver taps”; likewise “how many a rich
+freedman adorns his baths with fine collections of statues and a
+multitude of pillars supporting nothing but serving only as ornaments.”
+Essential, too, are such private baths for those so devoted to the
+enjoyment that they insist on bathing several times a day.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>306. Government and Privately Owned Public Baths: Both Very
+Popular.</b>—Even great nobles, however, enjoy the society and
+recreations afforded by the public establishments; and there is often
+no better way for a rich senator to display pomp and circumstance than
+to enter one of the huge thermæ followed by a long train of slaves,
+freedmen, and clients. Men of business, and, of course, mere toilers
+must visit the baths when their duties give temporary leisure, but for
+everybody who can control his time there is one preferable period—the
+eighth or ninth hour, two or three <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span> It is around this time
+that the bath attendants heat all their huge tanks to boiling and make
+ready with an endless supply of anointing oils and “strigils” (metal
+scrapers) to care for the onrush of the multitudes.</p>
+
+<p>There are about sixteen enormous public baths in Rome owned by the
+government, although often their care is leased to contractors. Small
+baths, privately owned, opened to anybody at a tolerable fee and
+managed solely for profit, exist in addition all over the city, and
+nearly nine hundred stand licensed on the City Præfect’s books. Some of
+these privately owned baths are elegant establishments, offering great
+luxuries at corresponding prices.</p>
+
+<p>The keepers of a bath-house (<i>balneatores</i>) rank low in social
+estimation, for many of their places are the scenes of gross reveling
+and debauchery; but there is excellent money in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">[361]</span> the business. Their
+baths have names something like inns, and going about the metropolis,
+we have noticed the “Baths of Daphne,” “The Æolian,” “The Diana,” “The
+Mercury,” or they are simply called from the names of the owners, as
+“Faustinian Baths” or “The Crassian.” On a signboard one can read
+that the “Thermæ of Marcus Crassus” offer both salt- and fresh-water
+baths.<a id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>307. The Great Baths of Trajan: Baths, Club-House, and
+Café.</b>—However, if one would see and meet the world, a visit to the
+great public baths is absolutely necessary. Some of these are located
+on the outskirts of the capital; for example, the magnificent Baths
+of Agrippa stand near the Pantheon in the Campus Martius; but only a
+short distance from Publius Calvus’s mansion on the Esquiline rise what
+are, perhaps, the finest public thermæ as yet existing in Rome, those
+of Trajan, which were rebuilt on the site of a similar establishment
+earlier erected by Titus.<a id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Baths of Trajan constitute more than a vast establishment where
+perhaps a thousand persons can bathe in the various tanks and pools
+simultaneously. They supply many of the needs which another age
+will meet partly by the club-house and partly by the café. They are
+frequented by women as well as men, although the former are expected
+to make their visits particularly during the morning hours and certain
+special rooms are set aside for their use. These rules, however, are
+often violated, and scenes can take place at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">[362]</span> Baths of Trajan which
+from the standpoint of a later time are simply indescribable.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>308. Heterogeneous Crowds in the Great Baths.</b>—One of the
+glories of the great thermæ is their apparent democracy. Any freedman
+is entitled to make use of them, although there are doubtless special
+recreation and reposing rooms reserved for the rich elect. In theory
+the public baths are free, but except on gala occasions when the
+Emperor wishes to win popularity, there is usually a standard charge
+for admission of a <i>quadrans</i>, a small copper coin (about ¼ cent).
+This simply covers the expense of the attendants who look after one’s
+clothes, and provides the oil for anointing—the use of the magnificent
+building goes for nothing.</p>
+
+<p>In such a place persons of every station can be seen mingling
+together, social barriers partially break down, and a delightful
+informality prevails. It is recorded of Hadrian that when he is in
+the city, he proves his “liberal” habits by frequenting the public
+baths and bathing in the great pools along with the meanest of his
+subjects. Every afternoon, therefore, the thermæ are the scenes of
+intensely bustling life. The noise rising from their great halls is
+terrific—the shouting, laughing, splashing, running, exercising, going
+on continuously.<a id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Romans are preëminently a sociable people. They delight in the free
+and easy contacts of the baths. What place has witnessed more financial
+bargains struck, quarrels started or abated, lawsuits arranged,
+marriage treaties negotiated, philosophical theories spun, artistic
+points discussed, or even matters of imperial policy promoted than the
+thermæ of Trajan? At the thermæ are continued all those matters you
+talked over in the Forum this morning and which you<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">[363]</span> will finish on the
+supper couches to-night. The place, however, to a stranger is utterly
+bewildering in its hugeness, its noise and the hurrying of its crowds
+and its complexity, and few scenes in Rome could be more novel to a
+visitor from another civilization.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_363" style="max-width: 535px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_363.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Plan of Roman Public Baths</span>: partly conjectural.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>309. Entering the Thermæ.</b>—We can follow Calvus as he approaches
+by the great southern portal which looks down from the slopes of the
+Esquiline upon the great gray cylinder of the Flavian Amphitheater.
+Before us stretches an enormous portico, fronting a high masonry
+wall, of course crowned at many points with statues. The entrance
+is relatively<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">[364]</span> narrow in order to control the thousands of persons
+streaming inside, each passing his copper to the attendants at the
+gate. But once past the barrier, we see before us the vista, apparently
+not of a bathing establishment, but of an ample, inclosed park, girded
+on every side with handsome porticoes, scattered with trees, bright
+shrubbery, and groups of sculpture, but with the domes seemingly of a
+magnificent palace rising from the middle of the area.</p>
+
+<p>This park is teeming with life; young men in the scantiest of costume
+are running races on a long sandy track, others are tossing ball,
+others engaged in a wrestling contest, Greek fashion, before a crowd
+of spectators wedged upon seats along a kind of stadium. In a kind
+of kiosk, or small temple, in a remote corner behind the shrubbery a
+venerable man with the long beard of a philosopher is expounding the
+theory of atoms to a small but select audience. We are told that there
+are also <i>aulæ</i> for learned conventicles, likewise excellent
+libraries within the central building.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>310. Interior of the Baths: the Cold Room
+(<i>Frigidarium</i>).</b>—This building itself is an enormous mass
+of brick and concrete, formed into correspondingly enormous vaulted
+apartments and domes, their entire surface covered with polished
+marbles or at least with brilliantly colored stucco. At every point
+there are statues, singly and in groups, historical and mythological,
+in the round or in high reliefs, in stone and in bronze. Particularly
+to be noted is a marvelous if overrealistic Laocoön group destined to
+be celebrated through the coming ages.<a id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a></p>
+
+<p>It boots little to describe all the special chambers and features of
+the Baths of Trajan; we can only notice those prime features common
+to all public thermæ even in the provincial cities. The great mass of
+visitors makes for the hall of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">[365]</span> <i>frigidarium</i> (“cold room”),
+a vast unheated space, albeit comfortable enough on a warm Italian
+afternoon. Here they toss off their garments, to their own personal
+slaves if they are visitors of consequence, although there is a great
+force of regular attendants (<i>capsarii</i>) whose prime business it
+is to take charge of togas and tunics. For all their pains, thefts of
+clothes in the baths are very common and give rise to frequent uproars.</p>
+
+<p>Once stripped, even the gravest and oldest visitors are likely to
+indulge in all kinds of gymnastics and horseplay. If they do not go
+outside to limber themselves with tossing ball at trigon (see p. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>)
+or with amateur races in the stadium, there are plenty of diversions
+in the frigidarium itself. One can behold the “Very Noble” Varus, the
+presiding consul, forgetful of all official dignity, competing with an
+imperial legatus, both with their hands tied behind them and trying
+by leaning backward to touch their heads against the tips of their
+toes; while a prætor, an hour earlier an austere judge in the Basilica
+Æmilia, is leaping up and down “murdering a good song by trying to sing
+it.”<a id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>311. The Great Swimming Pool and the <i>Tepidarium</i>.</b>—All
+this is usually preliminary to a splashing plunge into the clear cool
+<i>natatio</i>, the great swimming pool of unheated water, which is
+nearly 200 feet long by 100 broad, and in which scores of Rome’s
+noblest dignitaries now are to be seen splashing, swimming, and
+cavorting, with perfect self-respect beside a much greater number of
+the plebeians. For the many who do not prefer a warm bath, this is
+sufficient refreshment on a summer day, and presently they will call
+their attendants to bring towels, strigils, and ointments and hasten
+home. But your true <i>habitué</i> makes almost as much of his baths
+as of his dinners. He delights in hot baths and all the refreshments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">[366]</span>
+that go with them. “People want to be parboiled,” once declared Seneca
+disgustedly.</p>
+
+<p>A hot bath involves an elaborate process. Often one will omit the
+frigidarium with its cold shock, or take it later. In any case one
+goes on to a second enormous chamber, perhaps the finest in the whole
+building. A majestic dome soars over broad pavement. The pillars and
+the fretwork on the ceiling and vaulting groan with heavy gilding. The
+groups of statues flanking each of the huge marble-incrusted piers are
+themselves of heroic size. The light streams down over the polished
+marbles of the walls and pendentives, upon hundreds of persons lolling
+about on stone benches, conversing, or lazily meditating. A warm mist
+is rising; one feels as if in a plant house of tropical exotics, while
+the elaborate mosaic designs are pleasantly warm under one’s bare feet.</p>
+
+<p>Such luxury of course is enjoyed in the <i>tepidarium</i> where
+the bathers are gently warmed before the actual hot bath. It is an
+oblong hall, nearly as large as the great cold swimming tank,<a id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a>
+and, as stated, the decorations are almost overpowering in their
+richness. Anybody will explain that the floors are composed largely of
+hollow tiles through which warm air of just the right temperature is
+being continually forced from the great system of charcoal furnaces
+(“hypocausts”) located in the substructures of the thermæ.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>312. The Hot Baths (<i>Caldaria</i>): Their Sensuous Luxury.</b>—At
+intervals some person rises from the couches and hastens away to one
+of the smaller chambers located at the four corners of the tepidarium.
+These are the actual <i>caldaria</i> (hot baths), wherein a perpetual
+fine steam is rising. The water here is so hot that only experienced
+bathers can find a plunge in the large porphyry tanks enjoyable. If
+one can<span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">[367]</span> endure the heat, however, soon it becomes a kind of stupid
+bliss to lie back motionless in the heated water, gazing upward to the
+vaulted ceiling which is skilfully painted in a deep blue interspersed
+with trees, foliage, birds, and gilt stars, as if one were dropping off
+to slumber in the forest some summer evening! If the acme of life is
+merely sensuous enjoyment, what can existence offer greatly surpassing
+this!</p>
+
+<p>After you have lain quiescent in the caldarium until its pleasure
+has begun to pall, the proper thing next is to pass to the
+<i>laconicum</i>. Here the hypocausts have heated the floor and walls
+with an intense dry heat. The bathers loll again upon marble slabs, and
+first are dried off and then burst into a profuse perspiration. The
+ceremony of the bath is at last over.</p>
+
+<p>Your slaves or the regular attendant now will scrape you down with
+the thin flexible bronze strigils, rub you thoroughly with towels,
+and anoint you with unguents, the more costly and highly perfumed the
+better. In the numerous small chambers around the great laconicum, open
+for special fees, there is a greater luxury still;—here such elderly
+magnates as Varus, or even young noblemen of the more effeminate type,
+will be elaborately massaged and finally rubbed down with very soft
+woolen blankets, by at least three expert masseurs working together.
+After such an experience surely body and mind ought to be prepared for
+the pleasures of the dinner party.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>313. Restaurants, Small Shops, and Sports in or around the
+Baths.</b>—Very much more might be added about the Great Baths. For
+those people who wish to linger until the edge of meal time, there is
+no need to go hungry. Close by the entrance are numerous restaurants
+(<i>popinæ</i>) of more than ordinary elegance. Here you can send your
+slave for sweet cakes, slices of toasted honey bread, sausages, eggs,
+and like viands; and in the great frigidarium and tepidarium the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">[368]</span>
+peddlers from these restaurants are always going about with trays of
+such food, crying their wares and making the ordinary bedlam so much
+the greater. Directly in the thermæ themselves are small shops for
+the sale of fine perfumes and unguents; and often in the corridors
+and antechambers you can find crowds gazing at special displays of
+paintings, or of new statuary—for the public baths are practically the
+art galleries of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>As for the frequenters of the baths, here even more than in the fora
+are the trysting spots for parasites. Let an approachable nobleman be
+seen lolling at ease in the tepidarium and he is instantly spotted by
+some dinner hunter. Innumerable are the attentions that can then be
+paid him. Does he wish to play handball?—The parasite retrieves for
+him. Does he lay aside a fine garment?—At once “his remarkable taste”
+is praised to the skies. Does he lie perspiring in the laconicum?
+His “friend” tries to anticipate the slaves in wiping the sweat from
+his brow. No act is too obsequious—all in hopes of hearing those
+delightful words, “Come home and dine!” In the halls of the women
+similar scenes are enacted, but we cannot pursue them.</p>
+
+<p>At last the sun dials that stand in every open spot around the thermæ
+indicate that the afternoon is well spent. From the laconicum the
+refreshed bathers return to the milder tepidarium, to recover from the
+shock of the intense heat and to resume their garments. Then the crowds
+all hasten out again. Some of the privately owned bathing-places may
+remain open all night, but the great thermæ, lately the scene of such
+boisterous life, stand vast, dark, and empty.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>314. The Great Porticoes along the Campus Martius. The Park System
+towards the Tiber.</b>—The public baths are not the only places for
+daily enjoyment which a solicitous government has provided for the
+quirites. The fora are limited and the city proper is very closely
+built, but around its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">[369]</span> outskirts and especially to the north and west
+there is a genuinely magnificent park system. The beginnings of this
+are reached after you go through the Forum of Trajan and follow along
+“Broadway.” Here are the great porticoes and promenades of the Sæpta
+Julia. The famous stores (see p. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>) are mostly on the east side of
+the avenue verging off towards the slopes of the Quirinal, but the west
+side, going clear across the broad Campus Martius to the Tiber, is more
+strictly public property.</p>
+
+<p>This wide level area formed by the great bend in the river has
+long since ceased to be a mere parade ground for the army. There
+are broad masses of greenery, grateful shade trees, spreading over
+neatly graveled walks, as well as literally miles of lofty porticoes
+stretching in every direction and giving comfortable places for
+strolling in bad weather. The greatest of these porticoes is, of
+course, the long Sæpta Julia, but there is a succession of others, so
+that you can almost wander from the Column of Trajan across the Campus
+clear to the Ælian Bridge completely defiant of any rain.</p>
+
+<p>In the open pleasure grounds there are always people exercising without
+the restraints inevitable at the thermæ, playing ball, wrestling,
+exhibiting horses and chariots, as well as very many children chasing
+about with hoops. If legionaries are passing through the city, their
+leathern tents probably stand here, and here, too, can be held all the
+vast open-air pageants which cannot accommodate themselves inside any
+building.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>315. Public Buildings upon the Campus Martius.</b>—Out of the lofty
+trees, however, there rise still loftier structures. Two of the great
+public thermæ, those of Nero and Agrippa, are here upon the Campus
+Martius. In this region, also, are three of the principal theaters,
+that of Pompeius, accommodating some 25,000 people, and two others
+(Theaters of Marcellus and Balbus) only slightly smaller. Here is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">[370]</span> the
+Flaminian Circus and the Amphitheater of Taurus for those horse races
+and gladiator fights which do not demand the huge Circus Maximus or
+Flavian. Here again is the golden-roofed Pantheon and a great number
+of other temples to such ill-assorted gods as the Egyptian Serapis
+and Isis, Neptune, Minerva of the Campus, and the old Latin goddess
+Juturna. Notable, too, are the triumphal arches raised across several
+of the broad avenues.</p>
+
+<p>You can in fact wander on across this region from one marvelous
+structure to another until the eye and brain become weary trying to
+enumerate, much more to comprehend the succession of buildings every
+one of which is a triumph of marble and of sculpture. Pressing on to
+the marge of the Tiber itself, the river above the commercial bridges
+is seen covered with gay pleasure skiffs plying about under bright
+flags. The shores are lined with handsome little houses, usually
+decorated in the doors with potted shrubs or boughs of foliage.
+Innocent they look in the day time but at night when their windows
+blaze with lamps they will be veritable traps of iniquity for the
+enjoyment and then the ruin of the unwary.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>316. The Tombs of Hadrian and Augustus.</b>—Across the river near
+its main bend, can be noticed the green slopes of the hill of the
+Vatican uncrowned as yet by any temple of fame, but with the suburban
+Circus of Nero stretching along its slopes. Directly across the
+current, also, is rising the enormous circular mass of the Mausoleum
+of Hadrian, with the derricks and staging still above it swinging to
+place the last of that galaxy of statues which will look down upon the
+Tiber.<a id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_371" style="max-width: 398px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_371.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Castle of St. Angelo</span>: Tomb of Hadrian in its
+present state.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>We do not cross over to the new structure, but proceeding along the
+bank to the point where the Via Flaminia<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">[372]</span> continuing “Broadway” bears
+down beside the river, we see before us the older but very majestic
+Mausoleum of Augustus. It lifts itself fully 220 feet in the air, its
+base composed of a vast cylinder coated with sculptured marbles, above
+which there is heaped a conical mound of earth, planted with evergreen
+trees, while on the summit stands a colossal statue of its mighty
+builder himself. Within repose the urns not merely of Augustus, but of
+nearly all the worthier members of the imperial families.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_372" style="max-width: 679px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_372.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Tomb of Hadrian.</span> <i>Restored after Von
+Falke.</i></p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>These are only some of the features of the Campus Martius which foreign
+visitors such as Strabo acclaim as the most remarkable section of
+Rome, if not the one most charged with her past history. Time fails
+to visit the other great public pleasure-grounds upon the slopes of
+the Pincian—the “Gardens of Lucullus” and the “Gardens of Sallust,”
+or that other wide park northeast of the Esquiline, the “Gardens<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">[373]</span> of
+Mæcenas,” presenting yet other vistas of shrubbery, groves, promenades,
+and green lawns, interspersed with pleasure pavilions. It behooves us
+now to return to Rome and to visit some of the most important centers
+of its life—the theater, the amphitheater, and the circus.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">[374]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XIX<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE PUBLIC GAMES: THE THEATER, THE CIRCUS, AND THE AMPHITHEATER</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>317. Roman Festivals: Their Great Number.</b>—One thing only,
+besides a long session of the Senate, ordinarily will keep men of the
+class of Publius Calvus away from the great thermæ—the celebration of
+one of the greater Public Games.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Ludi Publici</i>, around which so large a part of Roman life
+revolves, like the Pan-Hellenic games and similar Greek festivals,
+always have religious origin; they are in honor of some god or group of
+deities. But the secular has long intruded into their routine. Nobody
+worries greatly about the fact that the <i>Ludi Apollinares</i> are
+for the glory of Apollo, save perhaps as one adds an extra fervent
+invocation of the Delphian god during the placing of wagers. The time
+consumed by the Public Games represents a period of recreation and
+festival, which other ages will find in Sundays and Saints’ Days.</p>
+
+<p>Altogether there are some 76 days per year normally set aside for these
+great <i>Ludi Sollemnes</i>, including such prolonged periods as those
+of the <i>Ludi Romani</i> or <i>Magni</i> which extend from September
+4th to 18th, on a stretch, with several others for six days and more.
+When to these periods are added various extra or very special holidays,
+during which the ordinary life of the city is broken up, the courts are
+closed, and only the most necessary labors of commerce and industry
+are conducted, it is plain that the plebeians and even the slaves get
+pretty ample respite in their year of toil. Without<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">[375]</span> attempting a
+close study of the official lists of holidays it is safe to say that
+the average Roman gains many more periods of lawful vacation than the
+laboring classes can enjoy in other ages,—another factor which tends
+to make the metropolis abound with idlers and parasites.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>318. Passion for Public Spectacles: Mania for Gambling.</b>—Besides
+the great public theaters, amphitheaters, and race courses (circuses)
+there are many smaller private establishments. Good money can be made
+from gladiator fights and chariot races, and they are often given by
+speculators, although more frequently in a provincial town than in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The passion for such spectacles and contests is incredible;—no
+“baseball” or “football” of another era can so monopolize the popular
+mind. The wagering on all kinds of contests is incessant in every
+insula, shop, or mansion, and, of course, ordinarily it is entirely
+lawful. Only the few select spirits cry out vainly against the passion,
+although Juvenal’s famous protest will echo across the centuries, “The
+Roman people who once gave commands, consulships, legions, and all
+else now yearn simply for two things—<i>free bread and the Public
+Games</i>!”</p>
+
+<p>The government doubtless encourages this tendency. If the multitude
+is engrossed with the merits of two charioteers, so much less is the
+scrutiny upon strange doings at the Palatine; yet even excellent
+emperors give very elaborate spectacles as a kind of lawful tribute
+to the multitudes of that city which affords them their right to the
+purple. After the conquest of Dacia, Trajan celebrated his victory by
+giving contests which lasted 123 days, during which 10,000 wild and
+domestic animals were said to have been killed and 10,000 gladiators
+fought, although probably most of the latter were allowed to survive.
+So incessant in fact are the contests of some variety, that rare is the
+day when a thunderous roar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">[376]</span> does not reverberate over the city telling
+that the “Blue” or “Green” jockeys have won, or a favorite gladiator
+has plunged home his trident.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_376" style="max-width: 699px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_376.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center"><span class="smcap">At the Theater Entrance.</span> <i>After Von
+Falke.</i></p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>319. Expenses of Public Spectacles to Great
+Officials.</b>—Naturally the cost of these contests is enormous.
+The presidency and supervision of them is distributed around among
+the magistrates, with the chief glories and burdens falling usually
+upon the consuls and prætors.<a id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> The State gives each official a
+respectable sum to pay for the spectacles, but this falls far short
+of the actual cost. The glory of presiding in the central box at the
+Flavian Amphitheater or Circus Maximus is so great that a magistrate is
+bound to sacrifice a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">[377]</span> good share of his entire patrimony in order to
+make a fine display, to win the “Ave!” of the populace, and to hold up
+his head among his noble rivals. When Hadrian was prætor, his kinsman,
+Trajan the Emperor, gave him personally 4,000,000 sesterces ($160,000)
+towards the cost of those games which the prætorship demanded.</p>
+
+<p>Our Publius Calvus, with no imperial connection, deliberately saved
+and economized for years prior to his elevation to the prætorship,
+and during his term of office he spent almost as much energy in
+corresponding with a friend who was legatus of Numidia to get African
+leopards, and negotiating with certain racing interests to secure a
+very desirable jockey, as he did in settling a certain great lawsuit
+before his tribunal. One good set of chariot races can cost 400,000
+sesterces ($16,000), and some of Calvus’s richer colleagues have found
+the prætors’ games coming to a dozen times as much. He congratulated
+himself, therefore, on getting out of office for about half their
+outlay; as it was he had to live very sparingly for the next two years,
+and sell off a villa.<a id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>320. Indescribable Popularity of the Games.</b>—Everybody in Rome
+attends the games. Once slaves were forbidden to be present, but that
+law had broken down several generations ago. Few are the masters that
+risk the unpopularity of refusing to let their familia frequent at
+least the more famous contests. The waiting litter bearers, the idling
+foot-boys, all the parasitical menials about the great mansions discuss
+every coming event most frantically and wager all the coppers which
+their masters give them upon the outcome, and their zeal is matched by
+the ragged plebeians who infest the fetid insulæ, or sleep under the
+porticoes.</p>
+
+<p>Seemingly half of Rome exists only from one chariot or gladiator
+exhibition to another. Every contest is a display<span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">[378]</span> of social
+importance. The front seats are assigned to the magistrates, who occupy
+curule chairs in the order of their rank; there are other seats of
+honor for the senators, others directly behind them for the equites. If
+the Emperor is present, he sits in a special box (<i>cubiculum</i>),
+which Trajan with democratic condescension caused to be thrown wide
+open that all the spectators might see him.</p>
+
+<p>These seats of honor are free, but the great multitude of well-to-do
+spectators are expected to purchase tickets for all the better ranges
+behind the tiers of the equites.<a id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> The prices ordinarily are low,
+but concerning these tickets there is a complaint not unknown in
+another age: that the box-officers (<i>locarii</i>) in charge buy up
+many reserved seats for the more popular games, then sell them over
+again at an outrageous advance. However, behind these reserved seats
+there are still a certain number of others thrown open free to the
+first comers, and behind these is a wide space where plebeians and
+slaves can stand as a gesticulating, shouting, steaming mass, gazing
+down on the spectacles below.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>321. The Theater Less Popular than the Circus or
+Amphitheater.</b>—The public exhibitions are three general kinds,—the
+theatrical performances, the circus races, and the gladiatorial combats.</p>
+
+<p>For the great masses, the theater can never have the same vulgar appeal
+possessed by its two rivals; on the other hand some men of intelligence
+and rank do not hesitate to dismiss the latter as “for the mob” and
+affect a great contempt for charioteers and “Thracians.” Even the most
+sophisticated Romans, however, never are true Athenians. Tragedies
+dealing with profound human problems, such as won trophies for Æschylus
+and Sophocles, would fall absolutely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">[379]</span> flat beside the Tiber.<a id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a>
+There is even a growing distaste for the better kind of comedies.
+What delights the Roman audience in the theater most is some kind of
+elaborate horseplay.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_379" style="max-width: 671px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_379.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Theater at Pompeii.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>The stage as a rule is long and narrow, some 120 by 24 feet, and is
+raised only about three feet above the orchestra where a chorus can
+dance and parade.<a id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> The rear of the stage has a fixed background
+painted to represent the front of a palace; it is pierced by three
+doors, and is adorned with columns and niches for the inevitable
+statues of the Muses, of Apollo, and of like deities. A large curtain,
+not dropped from above<span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">[380]</span> but rolled up from the bottom, can uncover the
+most amazing spectacles upon this stage. Long ago Horace complained
+of how a Roman audience would depart discontented if the play did not
+require in its middle “either a bear or a boxing match.” For four hours
+and more the curtain is “kept down” while “squadrons of horse and
+bodies of foot are seen flying, while luckless kings with hands tied
+behind their backs and chariots of all kinds and even ships go hurrying
+along, and while spoils of ivory and Corinthian brass are borne by in
+state.”</p>
+
+<p>There are, however, two kinds of performances more certain to crowd the
+theater than these very cheap spectacular plays—they are the mimes and
+pantomimes.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>322. The Mimes: Character Plays.</b>—The mimes are a native Latin
+product, although they have a certain kinship with the Greek “New
+Comedy.” They are character plays of everyday life without the actors’
+masks and buskins; and they are always coarse, vulgar, and in the
+nature of roaring farces. The language is often exceedingly gross and
+the situations frequently match the language. The actors wear a kind
+of harlequin costume, extremely grotesque, and along with the chief
+<i>mimus</i>, who takes the leading part, there is usually a second
+actor who draws thunderous applause from the upper benches. He is the
+<i>strepidus</i> or <i>parasitus</i>, a kind of pantaloon, a clown
+with puffed cheeks and shaven head, who has to stand a great amount of
+boisterous slapping from the chief actor.</p>
+
+<p>Other parts can be taken by women, who are forbidden to appear on the
+stage in “legitimate” tragedy and comedy. Often the dances and postures
+of these actresses are indescribably vulgar, and their reputation for
+easy conduct is too well established. For all that, their presence
+brings unsteady youths to the theaters like flies, and affairs with
+actresses are quite normal things with a type of young bloods. Once<span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">[381]</span>
+Cicero was defending a free and easy client, a certain Plancus. “He’s
+accused of having run off with an actress?” declared the advocate. “Why
+<i>that’s</i> just an amusement excellently sanctioned by custom!”</p>
+
+<p>The stories portrayed by the mimes correspond with their general
+character:—a robber chief befooling the clumsy constables sent to
+take him, a lover surprised by the return of a jealous husband and
+forced to hide in a large box, a beggar who suddenly stumbles into a
+fortune, a descent into the world of ghosts, episodes revolving around
+the introduction of a very clever trained dog, etc. Some of the acting
+is of high order, but there are few mimes which do not abound in lines
+and situations extremely gross,—for all that the open-air theaters are
+packed from morn until sunset.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>323. The Pantomimes: Their Real Art.</b>—All considered, the
+pantomimes represent a higher degree of art. Here we have only one
+actor, who, with the aid of a chorus and a great orchestra of lutes
+and lyres, undertakes to tell a whole story merely by his dancing and
+rhythmic motions. A really great <i>pantomimus</i> wins and deserves
+the favor of highly cultivated aristocrats. Pylades and Bathyllus in
+Augustus’s day had the fashionable world practically at their feet, and
+Paris was one of the prime intimates of Nero.</p>
+
+<p>The greater the skill the fewer the words that need to be spoken; the
+chanting of the chorus while the pantomimus is changing his costumes
+giving hint enough of the characters he is portraying. The music,
+florid and descriptive, keeps the audience in mood for the dancing.
+All sorts of subjects can thus be portrayed, including those of old
+Greek tragedies, the actor slipping from one character to another with
+consummate art:—now he is Agamemnon, now Clytemnestra, now Orestes.
+He can take male or female parts alternately, delineate the deepest
+passions, and tell a whole story with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">[382]</span> what his admirers call his
+“speaking hands,” and his “eloquence of dancing.”</p>
+
+<p>To see a great pantomimus, clad perhaps in fleshings of soft light
+red Canunian wool, setting off perfectly his graceful figure, dance
+through the story of how Achilles disguised as a maiden was discovered
+by Ulysses and summoned away to the Trojan War, is a joy to the most
+sophisticated and intellectual. The dancer can take many parts—the
+fair youth concealed in the palace of Lycomedes, the embassy of Ulysses
+and Diomedes, the young warrior betraying himself by his interest in
+the helmet and cuirass concealed in the mass of gifts intended for
+women;—the whole impersonation in short may be wonderful.</p>
+
+<p>Not all the dances, however, are so innocent. Many of the coarsest
+stories in Græco-Roman mythology are acted out on the stage, and the
+grosser they are often the louder the applause of the groundlings.
+Nevertheless, the leading pantomimi rightly have the entrée to lordly
+houses, enjoy great incomes, and are among the most admired personages
+in Rome. They are outdistanced, however, by two sets of more vulgar
+rivals—the charioteers and the gladiators.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>324. Extreme Popularity of the Circus.</b>—When a series of
+superior contests is announced for the Circus all Rome seems to become
+racing mad. Words fail to describe the excitement, the tense discussion
+of the charioteers and their fours, the wave of betting from the inner
+Palatine to the most sordid insula, and then the exuberant joy or
+immoderate grief over the results.</p>
+
+<p>Superior folk try in vain to appear disdainful of these contests.
+Thus Pliny the Younger has recorded his deep disgust that “so many
+thousands of men should be eager, like a pack of children, to see
+horses running time after time with the charioteers bending over their
+cars.” “The multitude,” he asserted, “were not interested in the
+speed of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">[383]</span> teams or the skill of the drivers, but solely in the
+‘<i>racing colors</i>.’” “If in the middle of the race (he added) the
+colors were changed, the enthusiasm of the spectators would change with
+them, and they would suddenly desert the drivers and horses whom they
+now recognized afar and whose names they shouted aloud. Such is the
+influence and authority vested in one cheap tunic!”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>325. Popular Charioteers (<i>Aurigæ</i>): the Great Racing
+Factions.</b>—It is all very well to write this, but neither Pliny
+nor anybody else can prevent the greatest charioteers from enjoying
+temporary incomes surpassing those of a majority of the senators.
+Many of these lucky <i>aurigæ</i> are Moors, dark-skinned, hawk-eyed
+rascals, with sharp white teeth and sinews of iron; but a considerable
+sprinkling of them are Spaniards, as was that Diocles, whose heirs
+proudly recorded on his tombstone that in a professional career of
+twenty-four years he drove in 4257 races, and conquered 1462 times,
+with total winnings of nearly 36 million sesterces (say $1,440,000).
+He, however, was not the most fortunate—there are drivers on record
+who boast of at least 3500 victories, though, of course, many of these
+were probably won in the provinces.</p>
+
+<p>No sport will ever be more thoroughly standardized and professionalized
+than that of the chariot races in Rome. When a magistrate or other
+seeker for applause decides to give a series of contests he appeals to
+the great circus syndicates (“factions”). There were originally only
+the Red and the White; then the Blue and the Green have been added, and
+finally the Purple and the Gold. Each faction maintains huge racing
+stables with expert drivers, grooms, trainers, and veterinaries, as
+well as many superb “fours” of horses.</p>
+
+<p>The donor of the games has to arrange with these organizations how
+many contests he will require, each “faction” entering a chariot in
+each race. Ten races a day is the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">[384]</span> minimum; twenty-four the ordinary
+maximum. After the contracts have been signed and the programs posted
+all over the city, anxious days follow for all concerned to insure an
+honest race. The wagering is always so general and so reckless, that
+infinite precautions are needful to keep the horses from being drugged,
+the drivers from being bribed to throw the contests, or (if they prove
+incorruptible) the charioteers from being poisoned enough to make them
+lose. The tricks of the race-track will simply endure across the ages.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>326. The Circus Maximus.</b>—After such preparations and excitement
+no wonder that people complain that the Circus Maximus is sometimes too
+small. This long narrow depression between the Palatine and Aventine
+has provided an excellent natural race course since the days of the
+Tarquins. At first the slopes of the hills were simply lined with crude
+wooden benches. By Julius Cæsar’s time many of these benches were made
+of stone, and in all could seat at least 150,000 spectators. After a
+great fire in 36 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> Claudius presently rebuilt the whole
+structure so there are now seats, partly of marble and partly of wood;
+and Trajan added still more tiers and more marble ornaments. At present
+the Circus Maximus covers the enormous area of 600 by 2000 feet, and
+it is declared that there is at least standing room, if not seats, for
+385,000 spectators—a good fraction of the entire adult population of
+Rome.<a id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>327. The Race-Track: Procession before the Races.</b>—Inasmuch
+as horse races are not peculiar to the Imperial Age let a brief
+description of the Great Circus and its contests suffice. The long
+reaches of seats are, of course, portioned off to give the senators
+and equites the coigns of vantage. There is a lofty imperial box
+(<i>pulvinar</i>) on the northern side<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">[385]</span> leading directly down from the
+Palatine. Here the Emperor and his suite can refresh themselves, and
+from a wide terrace command a marvelous view over the long area of the
+immense hippodrome.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_385" style="max-width: 750px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_385.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Circus Maximus.</span> <i>Restoration by Spandoni.</i></p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Down the center of this area runs its central “backbone”
+(<i>spina</i>), forming a long low wall separating the outward and
+inward tracks, adorned with an unusually elaborate set of statues,
+columns upholding trophies, and even with one or two tapering obelisks
+imported from Egypt. In a kind of open pavilion at either end of the
+spina can be seen seven huge marble eggs and as many marble dolphins.
+One of each of these will be removed as each lap is finished, there
+being seven laps normally in every race.</p>
+
+<p>The great yellow race-track on gala occasions can be sprinkled with
+some powerful perfumes, and with glittering particles of mica or with
+red lead. When at last the multitudes have gathered, the contestants
+enter in solemn procession by the Triumphal Gate at the extreme eastern
+end of the Circus, and ahead of the array of chariots first of all
+there goes the magistrate giving the games, himself in a magnificent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">[386]</span>
+car and surrounded by a brilliant hedge of attendants on horse and
+foot. Very likely he is then followed by certain priestly colleges in
+pontifical vestments, by statues of deities piously borne on gilded
+litters, by bands of trumpeters and harpists raising their clangor, and
+then last, but not least, come the racing cars themselves.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>328. Beginning a Race in the Circus.</b>—The master of the games
+takes his seat in the <i>podium</i>, the center of the reserved
+benches near the end of the track. The chariots disappear in the
+great line of <i>carceres</i>, “prison houses,” the carefully closed
+stalls at the western end of the Circus. After due waiting, fidgeting,
+chattering, wagering along the mountainous slopes of the benches, all
+the trumpets blow together. Silence for an instant grips the tens of
+thousands, while the president rises in his lodge and waves out a broad
+<i>mappa</i>, a white cloth visible far up and down the entire circus.</p>
+
+<p>Instantly the doors of the carceres fly open; the six chariots<a id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a>
+dash forth at full bound. The aurigæ, in tight-fitting tunics of
+the colors of their factions, stand erect in the light cars, the
+reins looped around their waists, snapping the loose ends over the
+flying horses. Instantly they have dashed to the three tall pillars
+of the nearer goal (<i>meta</i>), and only by miraculous chance is
+a disastrous collision avoided at the outset. Then the whole circus
+rises and shouts together. The familiar figure of Scorpus the Moor, a
+brown giant in the tunic of the Greens, shoots ahead. His magnificent
+<i>quadriga</i> of bays have taken the wall at one leap. The flying
+dust cloud, as the other five cars dash after him, almost dims the
+sight of the race. The noise from the benches is deafening. The backers
+of the trailing cars are in an agony.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>329. Perils of the Races; Proclaiming the Victors.</b>—Scorpus’s
+chariot whirls around the lower goal like lightning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">[387]</span> and comes tearing
+back on the opposite track, while each one of the balls and dolphins
+is removed to indicate the progress of the race. The other cars press
+hard; and as the teams gather speed it is a marvel how the drivers keep
+their stand with the cars leaping hither and thither under them, their
+wheels barely touching the flying track.<a id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a></p>
+
+<p>Five times around they go, with Scorpus gallantly maintaining his lead.
+Then at the sixth turn the “Gold” driver reins too sharply. His chariot
+crashes over in a complete somersault, but, by a desperate maneuver
+just as he is thrown, he whips out the knife held ready in his belt and
+cuts the reins about his waist. By a miracle he is flung out sprawling
+upon the yielding sands, yet escapes death under the car racing just
+behind. The spectators, therefore, escape the brutal and familiar sight
+of an auriga trampled or crushed to death by the rushing chariots and
+horses. Meantime Scorpus losing not an instant has hurried again past
+the upper goal; a frantic attempt by Cresconius, the “Red” driver just
+behind, fails to head his steeds, and amid a deafening tumult he sweeps
+past the president of the games to victory.</p>
+
+<p>The official <i>jubilatores</i> immediately stride out into the track
+crying with loud voice the name of the winner, and the news is soon
+flying all over the city. Nay, some of the outlying towns are speedily
+informed of the general results, for a certain sports-loving senator
+has come with a cage of homing pigeons, each colored to match one of
+the factions. The instant Scorpus is acclaimed, green pigeons are
+released to tell all the gamblers in Ostia and Præneste that the
+“Green” cars have won the first round.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">[388]</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_388" style="max-width: 750px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_388.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Race in the Circus Maximus.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">[389]</span></p>
+
+<p>After the noise has subsided, the trumpets blow again, another set of
+chariots is ready and the whole excitement is repeated. So the contests
+keep up through the day. If there is a long interval between the
+races, rope-dancers, acrobats, and trick-riders are ready to amuse the
+populace. Probably at the end there will be the crowning and decisive
+race between the winners of the preceding contests. If Scorpus can
+triumph in this also, he will carouse with his companions, doubtless
+more praised and fêted for one glad night than even the Emperor.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>330. Gladiatorial Contests Even More Popular than the
+Circus.</b>—Yet Scorpus with all his adulation and ephemeral wealth
+turns green with jealousy toward a rival for fame—the victorious
+gladiator in the last combats in the Flavian. The sports of the arena
+perhaps excite greater favor with the mob, betting more reckless,
+passions more frantic than do even the contests of the Circus.</p>
+
+<p>The gladiatorial games are peculiar to Roman civilization; nothing
+exactly like them will follow in later ages.<a id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> They illustrate
+completely the pitiless spirit and carelessness of human life lurking
+behind the pomp, glitter, and cultural pretensions of the great
+imperial age. True it is that persons of intellectual tastes sometimes
+affect greater contempt for these contests than they do for the Circus.
+“No doubt the gladiators,” such men as Seneca write to one another,
+“are criminals deserving their fate, but what have <i>you</i> done to
+deserve being compelled to witness their last agonies?” No matter;
+nothing will gain “popularity” for a ruler or for a magnate sooner than
+announcing a fight in the arena.</p>
+
+<p>The very best Emperors arrange elaborate series of combats—perhaps
+with a sigh in their hearts, as colossal and bloody bribes which must
+be thrown constantly to the mob; and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">[390]</span> Imperator, great officials,
+senators, priests, nay, the Vestal Virgins themselves, will all be
+on hand in the reserved front benches. There is even given out a
+philosophical justification for the butcheries, namely, that the
+spectators become hardened to the sight of death and are, therefore,
+the more courageous when their own hour comes. The reigning Hadrian
+considers the arena combats to be useful also for keeping up the
+military spirit; in short the whole Latin half of the Empire delights
+in them, although they never have become very popular in the Greek
+portion.<a id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>331. Gladiator Fights at Funerals.</b>—Gladiatorial fights claim an
+Etruscan origin, and in Rome they were first exhibited at funerals of
+the great, possibly with the idea that the spirits of the slain would
+serve the dead lord in the underworld. It is still very fashionable
+to give a sizable gladiator fight as the aftermath of any pretentious
+funeral, but this is perhaps more common in the provincial towns than
+in Rome, where the government likes to control such martial spectacles.</p>
+
+<p>We actually hear of the populace of one small city that would not
+let the funeral procession of a distinguished lady proceed through
+the gates until her husband had promised them some public combats.
+Pliny the Younger’s friend Maximus presented a gladiator fight to the
+citizens of Verona “in honor of his most estimable wife,” a native
+of the place, but the exhibition was not quite a success because “on
+account of bad weather the numerous African panthers he had bought
+failed to arrive on the expected day.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>332. Gladiator “Schools” (<i>Ludi</i>): Inmates Usually
+Criminals.</b>—There are four great imperial “schools” (<i>ludi</i>)
+of gladiators in Rome maintained as public institutions. These<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">[391]</span> can
+be drawn upon for the regular public games; but there are plenty of
+private “schools” maintained by speculators who can often supply quite
+as good fighters.</p>
+
+<p>If, as a magistrate, or as a bereaved kinsman or widower, you decide
+to give some combats, and if your purse is full, the rest is easy.
+You merely contract with the <i>lanista</i> (keeper and trainer of a
+school) for so many contests upon specified terms; although, in really
+pretentious affairs, gladiators from several rival schools can be
+pitted together—this adds to the excitement. When the fight is over
+the free gladiators are paid off, the slave fighters are returned to
+their owners and indemnification is given the owners of the slain—all
+on set business terms. There is great expense in training good
+gladiators and slain champions cannot fight again; and this solid fact
+often prevents combats from being <i>too</i> destructive, while wounded
+survivors may be carefully nursed just as a sick race horse may be
+cared for.</p>
+
+<p>Anybody will tell us that no pity need be wasted on gladiators. Many a
+low-born criminal is dragged from the præfect’s court with a relieved
+grin on his felonious countenance; the magistrate has not ordered “To
+the cross with him!” but merely “Train him for the amphitheater.” Many
+an incorrigible slave has been sold to a lanista by his master instead
+of being promptly whipped to death.</p>
+
+<p>Not a few unfortunate prisoners of war and kidnapped persons, however,
+if they have stout physiques, find their way also to the lanistæ
+instead of to the ordinary slave markets, and brutal masters will
+sometimes sell perfectly innocent slaves if the latter appear likely
+to make good swordsmen. On the other hand many plebeians of the baser
+sort are caught by the glitter and glory of the arena, and submit
+voluntarily to the discipline of the “schools,” while under the
+tyrannous emperors even men claiming noble rank have fought upon the
+sands to truckle to the whims of an evil Cæsar.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">[392]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>333. Severe Training of Gladiators; Their Ephemeral Glory.</b>—The
+lanistæ’s discipline is terribly severe, as is perhaps needful
+considering the wretches placed under it. The gladiators are kept in
+prison-like barracks. Nothing is omitted to brutalize them and to make
+their whole life center around mere skill with their weapons. They are
+fed upon great quantities of meat. Cruel floggings follow the least
+breach of discipline, and in every <i>ludus</i> is a lock-up, with a
+long line of stocks and shackles, which never wants its many occupants.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand many a stupid wretch is made to forget the doom
+probably awaiting him in the next combats, by dreaming of the glories
+promised a truly successful gladiator. If he can emerge victorious from
+a series of combats, he is more talked of than even the most daring
+charioteer; great nobles will visit his quarters to watch his training
+and feel of his muscles; his owners will do everything to pamper
+such a valuable piece of property; innumerable women, even among the
+silken-robed <i>clarissimæ</i>, will dote upon him; and perhaps he can
+actually elope with a senator’s wife.</p>
+
+<p>Not merely the youths but all the girls in Rome will sing the
+champion’s praises and dream of his valor. He will be named in
+countless wall-scribblings as “The Maiden’s Sigh,” “The Glory of the
+Girls,” “The Lord of the Lasses,” or “The Doctor (<i>medicus</i>) of
+the Little Darlings.”<a id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> If he has lost an ear, if his face is one
+mass of disfiguring scars, the women run after him all the more. “Never
+mind <i>that</i>,” scolds Juvenal, “he is a gladiator.”</p>
+
+<p>The end of this glory ordinarily comes speedily and tragically, but
+sometimes the very fortunate and skilful fighter will win such favor
+that, at the popular demand, the giver of the games will present him
+with a wooden sword—the token<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">[393]</span> of honorable discharge. If he is not a
+slave-criminal, he can now quit the <i>ludus</i> with plenty of money
+and a merry life before him, but the taint of his “profession” will
+always stick to him. He can never become a Roman citizen, much less can
+he be enrolled as an eques whatever the extent of his wealth.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>334. Normal Arrangements for an Arena Contest.</b>—Strictly
+speaking the amphitheater is used for two kinds of entertainments—wild
+beast hunts (<i>venationes</i>) and direct combats between men. Each
+form is extremely popular, although human gore appears a little cheap
+and ordinary compared with that of an expensive tiger, panther, or
+lion. It always makes a hit with the crowd to turn, for example, a
+tigress and a fierce bull-elephant loose on the sands and watch the two
+brutes rend one another.</p>
+
+<p>It is true nevertheless that nothing can really take the place of
+a sustained combat between two thoroughly trained pupils of the
+“schools.” Ordinarily the management will have the hunts in the morning
+at the amphitheater and the human contests in the afternoon. That will
+send the myriads away happily satiated after a day spent amid the
+perpetual sniff of gore.</p>
+
+<p>No scene visited in our prolonged “day” in Rome can be more repellent
+to non-Roman tastes than that of the amphitheater, but to complete the
+picture it must not be omitted, although horrid deeds will be dismissed
+with few words and still less of moralizing. Publius Calvus’s friend,
+Decimus Cluentius, this year is Prætor. He is a wealthy senator and has
+been saving money carefully for “his games.” He has already made a good
+public impression by his program of races in the Circus; now he will
+“add to the luster of his fame” by a day of contests in the Flavian.
+Already the notice writers have distributed the list of the gladiators
+that he has engaged, in every eating-house and wine-room in the city.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">[394]</span></p>
+
+<p>The impression thus made has been excellent: “Cluentius is living up
+to his riches. Many of his gladiators are freemen—the finest blades,
+no running away, the kind of fellows that will stand right up and be
+butchered in mid-arena. Besides, he’s been lucky enough to get from the
+præfect a farm steward who was caught insulting his master’s wife—a
+good dinner for the lions. These fights won’t be as when that miserly
+Norbanus exhibited—his gladiators were such a cowardly, feeble lot
+they’d have fallen flat if you breathed on ’em.”<a id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>335. The Flavian Amphitheater (Later “Colosseum”).</b>—Such an
+exhibition can only be held in the Flavian Amphitheater, the vast
+structure known to later ages as the “Colosseum.” In Republican days
+gladiator fights were held in the open Forum or in the Circus, but
+these were ill-adapted for the purpose. To see the fine points of the
+combats the audience must be concentrated around the contestants as
+closely as possible; hence the “amphitheater”—an immense oval of seats
+looking down upon a central arena.</p>
+
+<p>The building of such a quantity of seats out of permanent materials
+is very expensive and wooden structures were largely used until about
+70 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, when Vespasian and Titus began their vast “Flavian”
+(dedicated in 80 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> by an enormous beast hunt), now among
+the chief wonders of Rome. Common report has it that thousands of
+Titus’s Jewish captives had to toil first on the masonry and then for
+the most part to lose their lives fighting one another in the opening
+games.</p>
+
+<p>To avoid prolixity any description of this vast structure must be very
+brief: it stands an oval cylinder, its outer major diameter 620 feet;
+and the greatest diameter of its inner arena 287. Its innumerable
+blocks of travertine are bound together by metal clamps; the exterior
+is faced with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">[395]</span> marble and adorned with hundreds more of those statues
+which populate Rome. The structure rises 157 feet in four stories. The
+lower three of these tiers are composed each of a series of eighty
+arches backed by piers. In the first story the flanking columns are
+Doric, the second Ionic, the third Corinthian. The fourth story has
+no arches but merely windows and pilasters of the “composite” order.
+Between these upper pilasters project stone brackets which hold lofty
+wooden masts for the great awnings that stretch over the arena. These
+masts and awnings (red, blue, and yellow) when spread out under a
+brilliant sky, make the Flavian look somewhat like an enormous galley
+under a cloud of sail—the effect, of course, being heightened by the
+sheen of the marbles of the exterior and the garish paint and gilding
+covering the statues.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_395" style="max-width: 655px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_395.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum)</span>: exterior,
+present state.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">[396]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>336. Exterior and Ticket Entrances to the Flavian
+Amphitheater.</b>—Outside of the Amphitheater is a wide circular area
+whereon converge many thoroughfares. This open space is scattered
+with huckster’s booths and with small ticket stands much like those
+around many amusement places in another age.<a id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> Here one can place
+wagers, purchase programs for the day, obtain food to consume between
+the events, and very probably buy or hire cushions in case the stone
+benches prove too hard.</p>
+
+<p>Also on the outside and close to the foot of the main structure runs
+a high wooden palisade. This is to aid in controlling the crowds. You
+go in at one or two entrances, showing your tickets, then circle the
+masonry until you reach one of the staircases, located under every
+fourth arch, and next you can promptly mount to your reserved seat in
+one of the seventy-six sub-sections (<i>cunei</i>).</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>337. Interior Arrangements of the Flavian.</b>—Once inside, the
+admirable arrangements of the structure impress the visitor no less
+than its enormous mass. Everything converges upon the central arena;
+even from the topmost seats one can see all the details of the contests
+below. The seats are divided into three great terraces, so easily
+accessible by the stairways and corridors that the fifty thousand
+spectators can pass in and out with the minimum of confusion. The
+lowest tiers, made of marble and comfortably cushioned, are reserved
+here as elsewhere for the senators; and for the <i>editor</i> (the
+giver of the contests), his fellow magistrates, the chief priests,
+and the Vestal Virgins, there are seats of peculiar honor directly
+upon the <i>podium</i>, the crest of the twelve-foot wall girding the
+arena;—seats which are protected alike from chance missiles and from
+the leap of desperate beasts by a heavy trellis-work of gilded metal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">[397]</span></p>
+
+<p>Above this podium like the billows of a frozen ocean rise the enormous
+tiers of masonry seats; first those for the equites, then the great
+mass for the paying spectators, then the space crowded with wooden
+benches for the slaves and least select plebeians. An open gallery
+runs around the entire summit of the benches and here alone, by a
+restriction doubtless often lamented, women are allowed to watch the
+contests from afar, unless they are Vestal Virgins or ladies of the
+Imperial family, with the special privilege of the podium.</p>
+
+<p>All the arches, stairways, sections, and tiers are numbered. If you
+have a ticket, it may read “VIth section (<i>cuneus</i>), lowest row,
+seat No. 18,” marked upon a round or flat piece of bone. The attendants
+are lynx-eyed for impostors, but legitimate visitors are quickly
+seated. A detachment of sailors from the fleet of Misenum shifts the
+enormous awnings so that the thousands<a id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> can sit comfortably in the
+shade while a full blaze of sunlight falls on the arena.</p>
+
+<p>By the middle of the morning the multitudes are in place; Cluentius
+the Prætor, with full official magnificence, is in the central box of
+the podium; and strong detachments of Prætorians have been quietly
+distributed in certain half-concealed guard inclosures near the lower
+railing—for gladiators <i>have</i> been known to mutiny and desperate
+lions can leap very high.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>338. Procession of Gladiators.</b>—Presently now trumpets and
+cymbals announce the procession which files through one of the four
+gates leading directly into the arena. The gladiators, some forty in
+number, march two and two, nearly naked save for their glistening
+armor; knitted foreheads, white teeth, wolfish scowls, magnificent
+physiques are displayed by all of them. From far up the applauding
+benches they can<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">[398]</span> be recognized, and many favorite <i>retiarii</i> and
+<i>Thraces</i> are met with a storm of cheering.</p>
+
+<p>The company marches solemnly down the arena led by an enormous lanista,
+one of their trainers, the scarred hero of all the youth of Rome.
+Before Cluentius on the podium they halt and flourish their weapons
+defiantly. Everybody knows that they have just taken their fearful oath
+“to be bound, to be burned, to be scourged, to be slain, and to endure
+all else required of them as proper gladiators, giving up alike their
+souls and their bodies.”<a id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>339. Throwing a Criminal to the Beasts. The Animal
+Hunt.</b>—However, the contests do not begin immediately; there
+is a preliminary spectacle in store. The Prætor’s friend, the City
+Præfect, most luckily has handed over to him a vicious freedman
+caught maltreating his patron’s lady. The wretch, of course, deserves
+death:—how proper, therefore, that he can be made to amuse more
+honest folk by his very exit! Into the middle of the arena they lead
+him, a pitiful gibbering object, half-dead already with fright. The
+guards strike off his fetters, thrust a cheap sword into his hands,
+and themselves hastily retire into one of the numerous caged chambers
+lining the arena. A tense stillness for an instant holds the Flavian.</p>
+
+<p>Suddenly the rattle of chains is heard. In the very center of the sands
+(part of which are over wooden substructures) the arena opens; a cage
+appears lifted by pulleys, and then is opened by some mechanism. Forth
+bounds a tawny lion, lashing his tail and growling with hunger and
+rage. The unskilled victim has been given a sword with the vain promise
+that if he can actually kill the lion his own life will be spared. His
+chances are infinitesimal, but a few desperadoes have thus actually
+saved themselves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">[399]</span></p>
+
+<p>Will the prisoner fight? To the infinite disgust of the thousands he
+collapses upon the sands in sheer terror before the lion can so much as
+strike him. The beast finishes his life almost instantly. The multitude
+hoot and curse—they have been cheated of their passionate desire to
+see a human victim struggling in desperate combat with the great beast.
+Fortunately, they remind themselves, this is only the beginning of the
+performance.</p>
+
+<p>If one need not moralize, one need not linger. After the sacrifice
+of the criminal there are more beasts turned loose in the arena. Of
+course, no Prætor can be expected to show the hundreds of animals which
+an Emperor will exhibit in his greater games, but Cluentius has done
+the thing very respectably. He has in all ten bears, eighteen panthers,
+five lions, and six tigers.</p>
+
+<p>First the animals are goaded on to fight one with another. A bear is
+torn to death by a lion, but kills the lion in a last mortal hug.
+Then the trumpet sounds—some of the gladiators rush into the arena.
+The arena is now covered with frightened, snarling, reckless beasts.
+Even with keen weapons and skill, it is desperate work to slay them.
+One fine young German slips as a tiger bounds on him. His life is
+crushed out at the very foot of the editor’s stand. One panther, driven
+frantic, with a terrific leap almost clears the trellis directly before
+a Vestal Virgin; there is a general scream and recoil from the podium
+as the luckless beast drops back upon the spear of a hunter.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>340. Interval in the Contests: Scattering of Lottery
+Tickets.</b>—At last the <i>venatio</i> is over. All the beasts have
+been killed with reasonable skill, and barring only the German, with no
+accidents. It is now noon and a comfortable intermission follows. Food
+has been brought by many, or is passed about by hawkers. Cluentius,
+with great condescension, remains in the editor’s seat, and dines in
+public so that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">[400]</span> everybody present can go home boasting merrily, “We
+have been to prandium with the Prætor!”<a id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a></p>
+
+<p>After hunger has been appeased the spectators begin to grow restive.
+It is the immemorial privilege of the crowds to shout out whatever
+they wish in the Circus or Amphitheater. An unpopular Commissioner of
+the Grain Supply is seen rising in the podium; instantly the great
+awning quakes with the hootings. There is even a volley of date and
+olive stones; when, luckily for the Commissioner, the Prætor orders the
+attendants to begin scattering lottery tickets along the benches.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_400" style="max-width: 650px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_400.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Boxers.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Instantly all else is forgotten; dignified men scramble over one
+another. In the free benches there are several genuine fights and many
+a torn toga or lacerna. The winning tickets to-morrow will draw jars of
+wine, packages of edibles, or even quite a few denarii in cash; but if
+the editor had been the Emperor the prizes could well have been fine
+jewelry, pictures,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">[401]</span> beasts of burden, tidy sums of money, or even—as
+the grand prize—a small villa.</p>
+
+<p>This distribution silences all the discordant howlings; and the people
+are further amused by a kind of theatrical pageant, some popular
+pantomimes giving the Judgment of Paris in a clever and not inelegant
+manner, without scenery in the broad arena. After that two ostriches
+are unloosed and the crowd is put in an excellent humor while four
+Moorish riders on shining desert steeds chase down the speeding,
+doubling birds and finally lasso them. All is at last ready for the
+real business of the day—the gladiators.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>341. Beginning the Regular Gladiatorial Combats.</b>—The hunters
+of the beasts, duly reënforced by many others, reënter the arena
+again in grim procession. Approaching the editor’s seat on the podium
+they can be seen passing up their weapons for Cluentius, to let him
+satisfy himself that every edge is sharpened beyond the possibility of
+shamming. He hands back each spear or sword with a nod, then the long
+file straightens and every combatant lifts his right arm: “<i>Ave,
+prætor!</i>” sounds the deep chant, “<i>morituri te salutamus!</i>”
+“<i>Ave!</i>” answers Cluentius gesturing haughtily. “Low-browed
+scoundrels,” mutters Calvus to a fellow senator; “Most of them are
+lucky to end up this way and to escape the cross.—Ah! they begin.”</p>
+
+<p>First, however, to get well limbered, wooden swords are handed about,
+and the troop fence with one another skilfully yet harmlessly; but
+the people are waxing impatient—“Steel! Steel!” rings the shout from
+the whole amphitheater, and the dense array of women in the upper
+gallery is calling it as fiercely as the men on the ocean of benches.
+A terrific blast of trumpets sounds from mid-arena, and a gigantic
+lanista acting as a kind of umpire motions with his spear. Soon every
+heart in the myriads is thrilled by the clash of weapons.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_402">[402]</span></p>
+
+<p>Cluentius (an unoriginal though free-spending magistrate) has arranged
+a very conventional series of combats. First two Britons dash about in
+chariots pelting each other with javelins. Their armor turns the darts
+for long, then one of the horses is wounded and while his driver is
+struggling to control him another missile strikes through a joint in
+the warrior’s armor. He totters in the car while all the amphitheater
+rises and yells together “<i>Habet!</i>” “He’s got it!”—and then as
+the poor wight tumbles back into the sands, “<i>Peractum est!</i>”
+“He’s done for!”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_402" style="max-width: 698px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_402.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Gladiators Saluting the Editor before Joining in
+Mortal Combat.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Immediately there appears a grotesque figure, arrayed as Charon,
+the dead man’s ferryman. He bears a hammer wherewith he strikes the
+body of the victim to see if he is counterfeiting death. The fallen
+chariot warrior stirs not—and “Charon” with a long hook drags away
+the corpse into one of the dens under the podium. The benches are now
+leaping, gesticulating, and yelling—the noise is indescribable,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">[403]</span> and
+Cluentius’s friends hasten to tell him that the combats have started
+admirably.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>342. Mounted Combats: the Signals for Ruthlessness and
+Mercy.</b>—The surviving charioteer disappears amid plaudits. In his
+place ride out four horsemen; and two mounted duels can thus take place
+at either side of the arena. One pair contend evenly and stoutly, but
+the other contest soon ends—the less skilful rider is dashed from his
+seat by his opponent’s sword, and is so hurt he can barely lift himself
+upon the sands. The victor leaps down and stands over him waving his
+reddened blade, while his disarmed victim in sheer helplessness raises
+the right hand, the fist clinched except for one upraised finger—the
+demand for “Mercy!”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_403" style="max-width: 710px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_403.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Defeated Gladiator Appealing for Mercy</span>:
+spectators, with Vestal Virgins in front seats, turning “thumbs down.”</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>The conqueror obsequiously looks toward his employer Cluentius upon
+the podium, and the Prætor, bound to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">[404]</span> gracious to the populace,
+motions somewhat inquiringly toward the spectators—let them decide! If
+the defeated gladiator had fought more gamely and had striven to rise
+and renew the fight, possibly enough white handkerchiefs—the token
+of mercy—would have been waved to warrant the editor in flourishing
+his own also;—but the fellow had collapsed too easily and the mood
+of the crowd demanded blood. “<i>Occide! Occide!</i>” “Kill! Kill!”
+is the yell; and thousands of thumbs are ruthlessly pointed downward.
+Cluentius’s own thumb is pointed down likewise. The victor raises his
+weapon and without scruple plunges it in the breast of the vanquished,
+who sustains the honor of his profession by receiving the mortal blow
+without flinching.</p>
+
+<p>Again the Charon enters with his hook and clears the arena. In the
+interval the other mounted duelists, cool and experienced warriors,
+have partly suspended their combat and now they profit through their
+comrade’s death by the umpiring lanista’s declaration of a draw. The
+people are sated for an instant and Cluentius nods approval as the two
+ride out; he is inwardly glad to spare them, because the owners of dead
+gladiators have to be indemnified.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>343. Combats between Netters (<i>Retiarii</i>) and Heavy-Armed
+Warriors (Thracians).</b>—So combat follows combat, while the sands
+grow red and one warrior falls simply by slipping upon the gore. The
+suffocating fumes of blood rise through the bars of sunlight under
+the great awning. The people grow more and more excited. There will
+be hundreds of beggars to-night in Rome on account of the reckless
+wagering.</p>
+
+<p>At last the trumpets sound for what is always the crowning feature of
+the exhibition—the chief thing which the multitudes have really waited
+all day to see—ten <i>retiarii</i> are to fight ten “Thracians.” The
+retiarii (“netters”) wear not the least armor. They carry nothing but
+three-pronged<span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">[405]</span> lances and thick nets, which last they endeavor to
+fling over their adversaries, entangle them, and then stab with their
+tridents ere they can cut loose. The “Thracians” have heavy suits of
+armor and formidable swords.<a id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> If a netter misses his cast, there
+is nothing for him to do but to fly for dear life. The sight of a
+powerful, armed Thracian toiling after the leaping, dodging retiarius
+is a source of universal joy to the amphitheaters. The people rise
+on the benches and join in a kind of intoxication and blood orgy.
+“<i>Verbera! Verbera! Occide! Occide!</i>” “Lay on! Kill!”—rises as a
+thunder to heaven.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>344. End of the Combats: Rewarding the Victors.</b>—It profits not
+to dwell on the half hour which follows. Plenty of skill, valor, and
+swiftness are shown alike by netters and by heavy-armed warriors. One
+by one part of the twenty drop, and for a while the passions of the
+people permit no mercy. The Charon appears several times; but there is
+a young Spanish netter whose nimbleness and reckless courage win great
+favor, and many are muttering, “We want to see him again.” There is
+also a very experienced Thracian whose owner will demand from Cluentius
+a round indemnity, if the fight is pushed to a finish and his precious
+chattel is slain.</p>
+
+<p>As a result when four wounded men together drop their weapons and
+signal for mercy, white handkerchiefs begin waving all over the
+amphitheater and Cluentius is glad to shake out his also. The combats
+are over. The victorious gladiators, if they are unhurt enough to
+stand, are led before the podium and to each are handed palms of
+victory.</p>
+
+<p>There is furthermore a crowning ceremony. One Certus,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">[406]</span> a very famous
+netter, has by previous understanding taken only a formal part in
+the combats. Now, while the whole multitude leaps up to acclaim him,
+Cluentius himself rises and gives him the wooden sword—the sign that
+he need fight and risk his life no more. Henceforth Certus will become
+himself no doubt a <i>lanista</i>, and train hundreds of other brawny
+youths to yield up their lives for the amusement of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The amphitheater empties from all its numerous <i>vomitoria</i>. The
+crowd goes home well contented, praising Cluentius and hoping he will
+be assigned a fine province to govern. True it has not been as if the
+Emperor were present—then there might have been two hundred or more
+gladiators, an enormous slaughter of beasts; fountains could have
+played in the arena to refresh the air, and perfumes could have been
+scattered from the awnings; or the arena might easily have been flooded
+for a sea fight between two squadrons of small galleys.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, Cluentius has done very well for a mere Prætor; and he
+will have to pay indemnity for about fourteen of his forty gladiators,
+a very fair average to get butchered. “It has been a pleasant enough
+holiday (say many) in a toiling and busy world, and the rumor goes that
+for the next Ides at the Consul’s games they have rounded up a whole
+gang of robbers who will all be fed to the lions!”</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">[407]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XX<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE ROMAN RELIGION: THE PRIESTHOODS, THE VESTAL VIRGINS</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>345. Religious Symbols Everywhere in Rome.</b>—The circus races
+and the amphitheater butcheries are nominally in honor of some god. It
+is perhaps Vulcan in whose name Cluentius has hired the gladiators to
+slaughter one another. Everywhere about Rome are imposing temples and
+lesser shrines, and there are almost more statues of gods and demigods
+than there are people in the swarming streets. The symbolic snakes
+for the Lares of the locality or of the household, are painted upon
+thousands of walls. All this would indicate that the Romans of the
+Empire are extraordinarily religious. How far does this outward seeming
+correspond to the actual facts?</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>346. Epicureanism and Agnosticism among the Upper Classes.</b>—If
+we penetrate the life of men like Publius Calvus and others of the
+upper circle, apparently we are dealing with persons who are almost, if
+not complete, agnostics. Some are cheerful Epicureans who formally deny
+that there are any deities that concern themselves with mortal affairs,
+and who for their own part look upon the world as a chance aggregation
+of atoms, and upon life as one physical sensation after another with
+nothing later awaiting a man but eternal slumber in the grave. Moral
+“laws” merely exist to adjust human relationships, so that you can win
+the maximum enjoyment from day to day.</p>
+
+<p>Theories like this can be justified in sonorous, noble language,
+as in the great poems of Lucretius, but the underlying<span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">[408]</span> philosophy
+remains the same. Cluentius, the Prætor, whose library is crammed with
+Epicurean writings, has, in fact, just been ordering chiseled on his
+ostentatious funeral monument, “<i>Eat, drink, enjoy yourself—the rest
+is nothing.</i>”<a id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_408" style="max-width: 659px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_408.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Maison Carrée, Nîmes, France</span>: the best
+preserved temple of the Roman type in existence.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>347. Stoicism: Revival of Religion under the Empire.</b>—Calvus
+himself, a decidedly practical man not too fond of nice speculations,
+takes greater pleasure in the theories of the Stoics. The stern
+teaching that “duty” is the be-all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">[409]</span> and end-all of life, and that
+true freedom and happiness come only by a scrupulous discharge of
+every obligation, appeals strongly to many hard-headed Romans. It
+fits in well with their old native religion, and they accept it
+without much abstract philosophizing. But the “God” discussed by Zeno,
+Cleanthes, and the later Stoics is only a hard, impersonal, resistless
+force,—“Eternal Law” under another name. He is in nowise a merciful
+Heavenly Father, any more than he is a youthful, beauteous, and very
+human Apollo. Calvus, in short, is hardly more convinced than his
+friend Cluentius, the Epicurean, that there really exists any personal
+deity.<a id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a></p>
+
+<p>However, religion as an outward institution, has been steadily gaining
+under the Roman Empire. Probably never were there ever more unabashed
+atheists than such personages as Sulla and Julius Cæsar in the last
+decades of the Republic,—men not without pet superstitions perhaps
+and a belief in their “stars,” but who were almost cynical in their
+expressions of disbelief in any ruling Providence, and to whom temples
+and worship were only convenient political engines for befooling the
+mob.</p>
+
+<p>Augustus nevertheless was probably somewhat more of a believing man
+himself, and he grasped the enormous value of reinvigorating the old
+cults, rebuilding the crumbling shrines, and finally of rekindling
+the conviction that there existed a stabilizing and avenging host of
+deities as a means for getting moral sanction and support for his new
+imperial régime. Since the battle of Actium, temples have multiplied,
+priesthoods have been carefully maintained, and solemn religious
+ceremonies and sacrifices have been promoted by the government;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">[410]</span> in
+short, a great and partially successful effort has been put forth to
+galvanize into a kind of life that early “Religion of Numa,” which once
+molded the ideals of the little city by the Tiber.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>348. Foreign Cults Intruded upon the “Religion of
+Numa.”</b>—Religious beliefs and institutions at Rome, however, are
+only in part derived from the cults and forms of old Italy, whether
+Etruscan or Latin. The Greek mythology has been so taken over by the
+poets that often it is hard to sift out the indigenous Italian stories
+from the great mass of imported legends in which Jupiter and Juno
+manifestly are merely the Latin names for Hellenic Zeus and Hera.
+Furthermore, there has come a perfect influx of oriental gods: Egyptian
+Isis, Syrian Baal, Phrygian Cybele, Persian Mithras—these are merely
+some of the more important.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman attitude toward foreign deities is tolerant; provided one
+keeps up the outward forms of reverence for the old native deities,
+it does no serious harm if people feel happier because they burn
+incense to the dog-headed Anubis, or to the uncouth gods of Phœnicia.
+Of course these alien rites must not be too gross; such as were the
+outrageous old Bacchanals who were broken up in 186 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, or
+the Gallic Druids who permitted human sacrifice. Otherwise a “foreign
+superstition” is a matter merely for a contemptuous shrug or sneer.</p>
+
+<p>The result is that the cults seen in Rome under the Empire often appear
+as a vast jumble of things Greek, Levantine, Oriental, and even Celtic.
+The Emperor and Senate seldom bother themselves about matters of inward
+belief; Rome has its gladiators but it has no Inquisition.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the old Italian religion is still the official cultus of
+the state. Its forms are carefully cherished; it is insensibly modified
+but it is never repudiated. There are almost the same priesthoods, the
+same sacred formulas and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">[411]</span> machinery of religion as in the days of the
+Punic Wars.<a id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> They are kept up partly out of patriotic pride in all
+survivals of the heroic past, partly because they help the government
+to control the “mob” and the highly superstitious soldiery, partly (it
+must in fairness be added) because very intelligent persons believe
+that the ancient Italian religion somehow contributes to the safety
+and stability of the Empire,—that when Jupiter Capitolinus falls the
+dominion of Rome will actually fall with him.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>349. Superstitious Piety of the City Plebeians.</b>—As for the
+multitude, the enormous population in the insulæ, if it has little
+intelligent faith, it has abundant ignorant credulity. The outward
+service of the gods brings good luck.</p>
+
+<p>If the public rites fail and if blasphemers (like the execrable
+Christians) arise, the corn ships will not get through from Alexandria,
+the Tiber will overflow, the pestilence will sweep off thousands
+and—almost equal calamity—the favorite aurigæ and gladiators on the
+gamblers’ tablets will lose in the games. If a private man neglects the
+gods, his shop or business ventures can go bankrupt, his children die,
+his wife decamps with a freedman, disease can rack him, premature death
+smite him, and his tomb be demolished to the complete obliteration
+of his memory. Possibly even his ghost will drift about unhappily in
+desert places. Every possible motive, therefore, requires governors and
+governed to stand in well with the gods.</p>
+
+<p>Let us, therefore, examine this “Religion of Numa” which is living yet,
+as the official cultus of Rome; then a few words can be said about its
+alien competitors.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>350. Roman Religion Originally Developed by Italian
+Farmers.</b>—The old Italian farmers who shaped this religion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">[412]</span> were
+singularly lacking in imagination. Very few are the myths for which
+the poets can claim a non-Greek origin. The world is conceived of
+as being full of deities which often are so little personified that
+one cannot be sure of their actual sex: “Be propitious, O Divine One
+(<i>numen</i>), be thou male or be thou female!” is the proper formula
+for beginning many ancient prayers.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these divinities, to be sure, are well-defined and powerful
+gods such as Jupiter the Sky-God, Mars the War-God, and Juno the potent
+and matronly spouse of Jupiter. Such deities came with the ancestors of
+the Italians when they wandered down from the North into that southern
+peninsula which they occupied many centuries ago.</p>
+
+<p>Other divinities are ancient adoptions from the Etruscans or from the
+Greeks. Minerva, the protectress of such female arts as weaving and
+spinning and later of the more masculine arts, sciences, and learning,
+is pretty clearly the Minerva of the Etruscans, and has caught many
+attributes from the Pallas Athena of the Greeks. Apollo came, perhaps,
+via Etruria, where they called him Aplu, and not directly from Hellas,
+but no temple was built to him until after Greek as well as Etruscan
+influence in Rome had become very strong. Diana or Luna (“Madame Moon”)
+was an old moon goddess, possibly the same as the Etruscan Losna, and
+only by a late and very unfortunate identification has she become
+confounded with Apollo’s Greek sister Artemis, the virgin huntress on
+the Arcadian hills.</p>
+
+<p>One great goddess, however, Venus, is probably a good old Italian
+deity of substantial homely virtues: she is still invoked as Venus
+Cloacina (“Venus the Purifier”), when it is necessary to cleanse the
+great sewers; a function seldom remembered when giddy youths confound
+her with the Greek Aphrodite, and beg her to help their illicit love
+affairs!</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_413">[413]</span></p>
+
+
+<p>351. <b>Native Italian Gods: Janus, Saturn, Flora. The Lares and
+Penates.</b>—All these gods and certain other familiar deities such
+as Mercury patron of trade and gain, Neptune lord of the sea, Vulcan
+the clever smith, and finally, but in nowise least, Vesta the hearth
+goddess, and Ceres the Mistress of the Corn, make up the official
+“Great Gods” in whose honor the public games are held, and to whom
+Emperors and Consuls proffer vows and sacrifice.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_413" style="max-width: 308px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_413.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Farmer’s Calendar</span>: showing festivals each
+month.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Highly important also is the strictly native Italian Janus, the
+two-faced lord of beginnings and endings, probably an ancient Sun-God;
+whom one should invoke at the opening of every fresh day, and in
+whose honor (quite appropriately) the month of January is named with
+New Year’s Day especially designated to his festival.<a id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a> There is
+furthermore Saturn, a rural deity, who has been identified with the
+Greek Cronos (“Father Time”); there is Orchus who rules the underworld;
+there is Liber the masculine field god, consort of Ceres and sometimes
+confounded with the Greek Bacchus; there is Bona Dea (“Good Goddess”) a
+mistress of agriculture, possibly only another aspect of Ceres; there
+is Flora,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_414">[414]</span> the kindly patroness not merely of the flowers but of all
+the prosaic vegetable gardens; and there also is Robigus, a malevolent
+garden deity who must be propitiated with frequent offerings or he will
+mildew the crops.</p>
+
+<p>All these gods (except the evil Robigus) are near and dear to the
+average plebeian, and especially to the farmers. In addition there
+are the Lares and Penates. We have seen how they are guardian spirits
+of the households—never forgotten in any mansion or upon any social
+occasion.</p>
+
+<p>The state has its own “Public Lares and Penates” as well as private
+households; the former are the spirits of the gallant patriots of old
+like the first Brutus, Cincinnatus, Camillus, and Scipio Major. The
+second are the immortal “Twin Brethren”—Castor and Pollux, who have
+ridden to rescue Roman armies on many a hard-fought field. No public
+sacrifice can avail unless at least formal reference is made to the
+public Lares and Penates along with the special god receiving honor.</p>
+
+<p>Reënforcing these divinities is a whole host of special rural deities,
+who, in a country still very dependent on agriculture, receive special
+honor in all the profitable villas and farms crowding up to the gates
+of Rome; Faunus and Lupercus are herdsmen’s gods well matching the
+Hellenic Pan; Silvanus presides over the woodlands and timber-lots,
+Pales is a much beloved shepherd’s god, Pomona cares for the orchards,
+Vertumnus for the normal change of the seasons; Anna Perena is the
+goddess of the circling year; and Terminus takes care that the boundary
+stones (so important to farmers) are not disturbed.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>352. Personified Virtues as Gods: Cold and Legalistic Character of
+the Roman Religion.</b>—However, these deities are increased by a
+great host of personified moral and civic qualities. Nothing is easier
+in Rome than to assume that every desirable virtue must have some kind
+of a numen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_415">[415]</span> (divine potence) behind it. Around the city one can find
+temples, <i>e.g.</i> to Honor, Hope, Good Faith, Modesty, Concord,
+Peace, Victory, Liberty, Public Safety, Youth, and Fame. This is only a
+minor part of the list.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_415" style="max-width: 480px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_415.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Circular Temple, probably of Old Italian Goddess
+Matuta</span>: now Church of Sancta Maria del Sole, Rome.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>It is assumed in fact that every act or process of human life has its
+special numen who can be invoked to make that act successful. Thus
+after young Sextus, Calvus’s son, was born, his very pious nurses first
+invoked Vaticanus who opened his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">[416]</span> mouth for his first cry, then Cucina
+who guarded his cradle, then Edulia and Potina who taught him to eat
+and drink, Stabilius who aided him first to stand up, and Abeona and
+Adeona who watched over his first footsteps “going” and “returning.”
+His sophisticated parents doubtless smiled at this scrupulous piety,
+but they did nothing to discourage it.</p>
+
+<p>These cold impersonal divinities stand to man in a legal rather than
+a theological relationship. Men and the numina have made a kind of
+contract—so much prayer and ceremonial sacrifice must be offered in
+return for so much good favor, prosperity, and protection. <i>Do ut
+des</i> (“I give that you may give”) sums up the whole spirit of the
+Roman religion.</p>
+
+<p>Numa the alleged founder of so many cults was not a prophet or an
+inspired poet but a king and lawgiver. A wise man is always pious;
+that is, he always gives to the gods their precise due according to
+carefully set forms, otherwise the divinities may evade their part of
+the contract, just as a merchant is not bound to execute a bargain in
+which the other party has failed to do precisely as was stipulated.</p>
+
+<p>If prayers and sacrifice fail in their purpose, it is reasonable to
+suppose that the fault lies in the formula and the victims employed.
+The pig, sheep, or other victim must then be sacrificed over again with
+greater scrupulosity. On the other hand, willful neglect of worship is
+as surely punished by the gods as willful neglect of paying one’s debts
+is punished by the Prætor. The fate of the impious will be somewhat
+like that of the absconding debtor, only much more dreadful.</p>
+
+<p>Needless to say this “Religion of Numa” contains no more spirituality
+than the hard stones which pave the Forum. It does, however, put
+a genuine premium upon the rigid performance of duty, and thereby
+sometimes reacts favorably upon human conduct.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>353. Priestly Offices: Little Sacrosanct about Them.</b>—For
+these necessary ceremonies mankind requires priests,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">[417]</span> but they are
+not revered interpreters of the divine will, nor are they mysterious
+mediators between Providence and men; they are rather attorneys
+employed by men to represent them competently in their dealings with
+the divinities.</p>
+
+<p>Small religious matters, the minor private sacrifices, etc., can be
+attended to without a priest, just as you do not need a jurisconsult to
+assist in petty purchases. Greater religious matters, private and still
+more if public, however, require experts to see that the right formulæ
+are spoken and sacrifices proffered. Any Roman of flawless birth and of
+good character is eligible for most of the priesthoods, although there
+are a few reserved for the narrow circle of the old patrician families.
+Holding these religious offices does not ordinarily imply dropping
+one’s secular interests or having the least philosophical belief in
+the ceremonies so carefully performed. Julius Cæsar was Pontifex
+Maximus while he was Proconsul of the Gauls, and while he was a firm
+disbeliever in the existence of any gods at all.</p>
+
+<p>Of course every small temple has to have its proper custodians whom
+we may call “priests,” to attend to the private sacrifices; and there
+are besides plenty of unofficial diviners and soothsayers who can
+answer your question, “Is this a lucky day for the wedding of my
+daughter?” or “Do the omens warn against buying this farm?” The great
+public ministers of religion, however, are really officers of state,
+appointed by the Emperor,<a id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> and usually they are grouped in famous
+“Sacred Colleges” wherein the members hold office for life. Ordinarily
+the persons thus honored are distinguished senators selected after an
+honorable civil and military career.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>354. The Pontifices.</b>—On the whole the greatest official glory
+comes to the fifteen <i>pontifices</i>. Not merely do they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_418">[418]</span> possess the
+general oversight of everything concerning cultus, but they have as
+their chief colleague the Emperor himself, who always holds the post of
+<i>Pontifex Maximus</i>—head of the Roman religion.</p>
+
+<p>Before Julius Cæsar reformed the calendar the pontifices had the
+important task of settling each year what days were to be <i>dies
+fasti</i>, whereon alone legal business could be lawfully conducted,
+and they have still the power to interfere in almost any doings
+concerning sacrifice, ritual, temple properties, etc. Their head, the
+Pontifex Maximus, has particularly to watch over and control the Vestal
+Virgins; and the college at large still has the custody of the famous
+<i>Libri Pontificales</i>, the “Pontifical Books,” famous and ancient
+volumes containing instructions for all kinds of unfamiliar religious
+rites and procedure in strange religious emergencies.<a id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>355. The Augurs.</b>—The pontiffs, however, are really
+“Commissioners for Religious Affairs” rather than actual priests, and
+along with them goes another important group of “sacred” personages
+who seem almost equally unpriestly. These are the <i>augurs</i>, the
+official interpreters of the will of heaven; and almost every senator
+cherishes the hope of being appointed to this college, notwithstanding
+the fact that long ago Cicero remarked that “two augurs ought never
+to meet without winking!” There are sixteen augurs, who are entitled
+to wear the embroidered toga prætexta and to carry the sacred crooked
+staff, the lituus. The science of augury, whereof they are supposedly
+the supreme custodians, is something whereon the men of old, especially
+the Etruscans, expended an enormous amount of energy.</p>
+
+<p>The Italians in general put relatively little trust in astrology
+and not much more in dreams as revealing the divine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">[419]</span> intentions.
+What greatly matters is the flight of birds, the strange actions of
+animals, monstrous births, thunder, meteors, and like prodigies. Even
+in Hadrian’s day plenty of intelligent men will shudder with dread if
+they behold a crow cawing on their funeral monument; or will give up a
+journey if a black viper shoots across the road just as their carriage
+is starting.</p>
+
+<p>Sneezing or stumbling furthermore can mean much, and before many an
+atrium the janitor is constantly shouting “<i>Dextro pede!</i>” “Right
+foot first!” to every guest entering the vestibule. Certain signs are
+very dreadful; <i>e.g.</i> any gathering at which somebody is seized
+with epilepsy (a manifest token of divine anger) must be instantly
+dissolved.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, the gods do not speak thus openly, no public act should
+be performed without at least asking the formal question, “Is heaven
+favorable?” This may be done by watching the consecrated chickens
+while they devour the grain as at the opening of the Senate (see p.
+<a href="#Page_340">340</a>),<a id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> but more elaborate and reliable is a careful watching of
+the heavens for signs. If an augur sees ravens on the right-hand side
+of the sky, the sign is lucky; but a crow in order not to forbode evil
+must appear on the left. The actions of eagles, owls, woodpeckers, and
+certain other birds are more complicated. Their cries, the manner of
+their flight, as well as the direction whence they come all have to be
+considered.</p>
+
+<p>Time fails to describe the careful ritual necessary for the augurs,
+when, at the request of some high magistrate, they interrogate the gods
+to see if heaven is pleased at some proposed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_420">[420]</span> official action. It is
+not necessary, however, to get a positively favorable sign; often it is
+enough that during a suitable interval the augur should <i>fail</i> to
+observe any unhappy bird, any meteor, thunder claps, or the like. This
+propitious interval constitutes a formal “silence” (<i>silentium</i>);
+and many an augur has shown himself conveniently deaf or blind to
+noises or sights that might prohibit some desired deed. Nevertheless
+the solemn farce is always maintained, for when do Romans ever discard
+any time-honored custom?</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>356. The Flamines.</b>—The augurs rank with the pontiffs high in
+public honors, but the most important actual priests in Rome are the
+<i>flamines</i>. There are fifteen flamines distributed among the
+services of the various gods, but three rank above all others—the
+flamens of Jupiter, Mars, and of Quirinus (deified Romulus), with the
+first named, called more particularly the <i>Flamen Dialis</i>, at
+their head.</p>
+
+<p>It is an extraordinary honor to be named Flamen Dialis, and Gratia
+reckons it among the chief of her family glories that she has an uncle
+now enjoying for life this high priesthood. The Flamen of Jupiter
+is entitled to a curule chair as if he were a magistrate, and takes
+social precedence above nearly everybody save the Emperor and the
+consuls; he also wears the toga prætexta like other exalted personages,
+although it must be of thick wool woven by the hands of his wife. In
+addition he has to appear always crowned with a special high pointed
+cap, not unlike the “fool’s-cap” of other times, and tipped with the
+<i>apex</i>, a pointed spike of olive wood wound with a lock of wool.</p>
+
+<p>Old Papirius is among the most envied men in Rome, yet he complains
+bitterly of the price he has to pay for his glory. He cannot mount a
+horse, or even look upon an army in battle array. He cannot swear an
+oath, or spend a single night away from the city, however comfortable
+may be his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">[421]</span> family villas in the hot season. The cuttings of his hair
+and nails must be carefully preserved and buried beneath an <i>arbor
+felix</i> (lucky tree). He must never eat of or even mention a goat,
+beans, or several other forbidden objects.</p>
+
+<p>Above all Papirius’s wife, the <i>flaminica</i>, whom he had to marry
+with special ceremonies, is indispensable to him in many acts of
+religion and he is forbidden to divorce her, although his life with
+the noble Claudia is none too happy. Worse still if she should die, he
+must immediately resign his office. The other fourteen flamines enjoy
+somewhat lesser glories, offset by slightly lesser taboos. They are,
+however, the fifteen most sacred male individuals in all Rome.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>357. The <i>Salii</i> (“Holy Leapers”).</b>—Of less glory than the
+flamines, but nevertheless of venerable sanctity are the twelve other
+priests of Mars, the college of the <i>Salii</i> (“Holy Leapers”). To
+them are committed the twelve holy shields, the <i>Anciliæ</i>, one
+whereof is affirmed to have fallen from heaven.</p>
+
+<p>Calvus has an elderly cousin, Donatus, who lately was appointed by
+Hadrian to the Salii. During the last Kalends of March nobody cracked
+a smile when these twelve sedate and aristocratic gentlemen, wearing
+their apex-crowned caps, long embroidered tunics, and brazen cuirasses,
+with spear in one hand and the holy shields on the other, went through
+the city stopping in many of the squares and before the larger temples
+and executing violent dances, leaping, cavorting, and chanting with
+loud voice “Salian Hymns”—verses in such ancient Latin that they
+hardly understood their own shrill jargon. When the round of the city
+was ended and they had danced and sung for the last time, the holy men
+were quite exhausted.</p>
+
+<p>The consolation for these holy men followed quickly, however. That
+evening they held a grand corporation dinner. The augurs are famous
+for their elaborate banquets<span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">[422]</span> worthy of an Apicius, but the Salii on
+the whole surpass the augurs. A <i>Saliares daps</i>—“Holy Leaper’s
+dinner”—has become the synonym for the triumph of good eating.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>358. The <i>Fetiales</i> (“Sacred Heralds”): Ceremony of Declaring
+War.</b>—Calvus himself belongs to a religious college of rather
+waning consequence, but of great antiquity. He is a fetial.</p>
+
+<p>Anciently at least no treaty was binding unless it had been ratified
+with most solemn religious ceremonies. To deal with the gods in
+international affairs Numa is said, therefore, to have established a
+college of twenty <i>fetiales</i>—the holy heralds. Their president,
+the <i>Pater Patratus</i>, represented the whole Roman people when it
+came to swearing the oaths and offering the sacrifices for concluding
+a treaty, and even in Hadrian’s day some of the ancient usages are
+maintained. A peace has lately been made with the King of Parthia, and
+in the presence of his envoy at Rome the venerable ex-consul, the Pater
+Patratus, took his sacred flints, laid a special wreath of the holy
+“verbena” plant on the altar, and kindled the fire for the sacrifice
+that confirmed the peace.<a id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a></p>
+
+<p>More important once was the chief herald’s duty in declaring a war;
+for it seemed useless to hope for victory unless first by legalistic
+formula the enemy was put in the wrong before the gods. The Pater
+Patratus with at least three of his colleagues was expected to march
+solemnly to the hostile frontier, next with due ceremony to recite the
+wrongs of Rome and demand redress and to hurl a spear dipped in blood
+across the boundary; then and not till then could the legions march
+forth in any offensive war.</p>
+
+<p>It is a great distance now, however, to the frontier of the Empire and
+the white-headed Pater Patratus keenly dislikes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_423">[423]</span> to quit for months
+his luxurious residence on the Quirinal; but legal ingenuity has long
+since enabled him to preserve at once his bodily comfort and the good
+old custom. Before the Temple of Bellona in the Campus Martius is a
+bit of ground whereon stands a certain column. When recently it seemed
+desirable to declare war on an unneighborly German tribe, a captive
+from these barbarians was duly hunted up in the slave market at Rome,
+and a legal deed was solemnly made out transferring this land to the
+prisoner. The spot was now technically “hostile ground,” and the
+Pater Patratus and his fellow fetials all ordered their litters and
+were peacefully taken out to the Temple of Bellona. The Germans were
+carefully summoned to “do the Romans right,” and no answer coming, the
+head fetial with all the ancient formulas and curses flung the spear
+into the column.</p>
+
+<p>The war could now proceed with the gods’ full blessing—a thoroughly
+Roman proceeding, and very typical of many other survivals, religious
+or secular.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>359. The Arval Brethren (<i>Fratres Arvales</i>).</b>—There is
+another “ancient and honorable” religious brotherhood—the <i>Fratres
+Arvales</i>. There are twelve Arval brethren, always including
+the Emperor. In May they hold a three-day festival to the <i>Dea
+Dia</i>.<a id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> Besides regaling themselves then with an extraordinarily
+luxurious feast, they assemble in the grove of the Dea Dia and offer to
+her two pigs, a white heifer, and a lamb. Next they clear her temple of
+all but the necessary priests and attendants, and dividing themselves
+into two bodies of six, tuck up their long tunics and execute a solemn
+dance around the holy house, singing meantime a kind of hymn for the
+blessing of the fields, a hymn preserved in such an uncouth antique
+Latin that the meaning of many words is doubtful.<a id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_424">[424]</span></p>
+
+<p>It is a most desirable thing to be one of these “Brothers of the
+Fields.” The records of the college are kept with the greatest care and
+their dinners compete with those of the Salii.</p>
+
+<p>These are <i>some</i> only of the holy colleges, membership wherein
+carries marked social prestige. The fifteen “Keepers of the Sibylline
+Books,” the <i>Epulones</i> who arrange many of the banquets in
+honor of the gods, and the <i>Haruspices</i> who assist the augurs
+particularly in interpreting the omens from the entrails of slaughtered
+victims, are all distinguished personages. How many of them have one
+scintilla of belief in the deities they address and the rites they
+execute it were most unbecoming to inquire closely!</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>360. Rustic Ceremonies; Soothsaying, Astrologers, and
+Witches.</b>—This religion, then, is one purely of outward ritual
+coupled with not a little superstition. In the country the farmers at
+the festival to the Lemures (malevolent ghosts of the dead) still may
+rise at midnight, walk barefoot through the house, fill their mouths
+with black beans which they spit forth nine times without looking
+around, saying each time, “With these beans I redeem me and mine.” Then
+they clank two brazen vessels together and nine times shout out, “Manes
+depart!” This is a sample of many similar ceremonies.</p>
+
+<p>Soothsayers, who are often sheer charlatans, are very naturally in
+constant demand among the unlearned to resolve such queries as, “Will
+my mother-in-law recover from jaundice?” or “How long will my husband
+live and keep me from my lover?” Such rascals usually tell the future
+by examining the lungs of a dove. The entrails of a dog, however, are
+better although much more expensive.</p>
+
+<p>Among the rich, however, “Chaldæan astrologers” are somewhat
+fashionable, slippery Orientals who know how to wheedle the gold out
+of credulous parvenus, even if the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_425">[425]</span> official religion sets no great
+store upon star-gazing.<a id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> The women are inevitably the best patrons
+of these pretenders, but their husbands and brothers often refuse to
+start on a journey or to begin anything else important until assured
+“the horoscope is favorable.” Time fails us to tell of the employment
+of Etruscan witches, or of the belief in ghosts and goblins. The latter
+are dreaded by many hard-headed epicureans who will argue convincingly
+that there can be no such thing as a god or immortality.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_425" style="max-width: 321px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_425.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Roman Altar.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>361. A Private Sacrifice.</b>—Nevertheless, with all its faults
+this Roman religion has few truly <i>debasing</i> superstitions. There
+are practically no human sacrifices, no constant and outrageous use
+of sordid ceremonies, no acts or beliefs which actually degrade one’s
+manhood or womanhood.<a id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> All is deliberate, ordered, and, within
+certain pagan limitations, tolerably reasonable.</p>
+
+<p>A typical Roman sacrifice is a dignified and well standardized
+procedure. Only recently Publius Calvus enjoyed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_426">[426]</span> a birthday, and custom
+required that all his kinsmen should come to congratulate him while he
+offered to the gods a snow-white lamb, in gratitude for another year
+of life and prosperity. The ceremony took place at a small temple of
+Juno near the senator’s mansion on the Esquiline, Juno being accounted
+the special patron deity of the Junii Calvi. The victim was carefully
+selected by Calvus himself, who paid an extra price for a creature
+newly weaned and with horns just sprouting. Ostentatious freedmen
+sometimes offered a fat bull on their birthdays, and poorer folk
+merely a small pig,<a id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> but a white lamb was a very fitting private
+sacrifice, not too mean, not too pretentious, and fell in perfectly
+with the Roman idea of dealing with the gods on honorable business
+principles.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>362. Ceremony at the Temple.</b>—On the day of the ceremony Calvus
+presented himself at the temple, with his toga girded tightly around
+his body in the special “Gabinian Cincture” required in sacrifices. The
+groups of kinsmen, friends, freedmen, etc., all followed decorously.
+The special Flamen of Juno, a friendly senator, appeared with his
+vestments and apex, to direct Calvus in the technical details of the
+ceremony, but, be it noticed, the actual priest was Calvus himself.</p>
+
+<p>After all the company had gathered near the altar and put on chaplets
+of ivy, a public crier (<i>præco</i>) commanded in loud voice, “Let
+there be silence!” and a tense interval followed, every person holding
+his breath lest an unlucky cough or sneeze should vitiate the whole
+proceeding. Nothing ill-omened following, the elder of Calvus’s small
+sons acting as camillus (acolyte) extended to his father a silver basin
+of purifying water wherein the latter carefully washed his hands, dried
+them upon a towel borne by his younger<span class="pagenum" id="Page_427">[427]</span> boy, then drew the great folds
+of his toga over his head, almost but not quite concealing his face.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_427" style="max-width: 624px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_427.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">A Military Sacrifice; Trajan’s Army on the
+Danube</span>: from Trajan’s Column.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>At this juncture a flute player standing near promptly struck up
+with a piercing blast, which he continued much of the time until the
+ceremony was nearly over, not to supply music but simply to prevent any
+ill-omened sound from being heard. Thereupon other youths led up the
+lamb. Its little horns had been gilded and a heavy garland of flowers
+twined about its neck. It was needful for the creature to <i>seem</i>
+to approach willingly, therefore the halter had to be quite slack, but
+a little fodder spread under the altar made the brute only too ready
+for its fate.</p>
+
+<p>Calvus approached the victim, and with the flamen at his elbow to
+dictate every detail, took wine, incense, and a mixture<span class="pagenum" id="Page_428">[428]</span> of meal
+and salt, and sprinkled a trifle of each upon the hungry creature’s
+forehead. A professional attendant cut a few hairs from between the
+horns and cast them on the burning altar. Then again prompted by the
+flamen, Calvus prayed aloud:</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>363. A Formal Prayer; the Actual Sacrifice.</b>—“O Mother Juno, I
+pray and beseech thee that thou mayest be gracious and favorable to me
+and my home and my household, for which course I have ordained that
+the offering of this lamb should be made in accordance with my vows;
+that thou mayest avert, ward off, and keep afar all disease visible
+and invisible, all barrenness, waste, misfortune and ill-weather;
+that thou mayest cause my family, affairs, and business to come to
+prosperity; and that thou grant health and strength to me, my home and
+my household!”<a id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_428" style="max-width: 320px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_428.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Roman Altar with Design showing a Sacrifice.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>It was all very like the formulas used by the lawyers before the
+Prætor. No waste of fine words, but very comprehensive and no
+contingency unprovided for.</p>
+
+<p>When Calvus finished, the temple attendant (<i>popa</i>) standing near
+by asked in set form, “Shall I strike?” “Strike him!” ordered Calvus.
+Instantly the attendant smote the lamb a single merciful blow on the
+skull with a heavy mallet. The creature dropped dead, and his slayer
+immediately<span class="pagenum" id="Page_429">[429]</span> knelt and stabbed him with a knife. As the blood ran out,
+it was caught in a basin and sprinkled upon the altar, along with some
+wine, incense, and a consecrated cake.</p>
+
+<p>The lamb was now promptly cut up, and a crafty-looking haruspex
+inspected the color and form of the still palpitating entrails. If
+these had been declared “unfavorable” in form, color, or otherwise, a
+second lamb must have been procured and the whole ceremony perforce
+repeated until the results were fortunate, but the haruspex, certain
+of his fee, after a decent studying of the gall, intestines, and
+liver, lifted his head and said solemnly, “<i>Exta bona!</i>” “The
+entrails are good!” Thereupon the flamen, hitherto passive or muttering
+formulas, stepped forward, threw wine, meal, and incense upon the
+entrails; then cast the whole mass of them upon the brightly kindled
+altar-fire. Meantime the actual flesh of the lamb was being gathered up
+by Calvus’s servants to take home for private consumption.</p>
+
+<p>Calvus himself now drew the toga up over his head the second time,
+and then called on Juno with loud voice, “since thou hast accepted
+this lamb, duly proffered,” to continue her favor on him and his house
+during the coming year, “in which case I vow unto thee another lamb,
+white and without blemish even as is this.” He was again, it would
+seem, the lawyer reminding the other party to the contract that by the
+acceptance of the payment proffered, he or she was strictly obligated
+to continue friendly for the next twelve months.</p>
+
+<p>The ceremony was therewith ended. The flamen raised his hand and spoke
+the solemn word of dismissal, “<i>Ilicet</i>,” “It is permitted to go.”
+Sacrificer, flamen, spectators, and attendants all now hurried away
+with shout and laughter to Calvus’s residence, there to join in a fine
+feast wherein everybody received a portion of the slaughtered lamb.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>364. The Vestal Virgins: Their Sanctity and Importance.</b>—Great
+are the pontiffs, the augurs, the flamens, and the members<span class="pagenum" id="Page_430">[430]</span> of the
+other sacred colleges. But they are all too pragmatic and secular to be
+taken quite seriously when they demand religious veneration. There is
+one Roman college, however, which is beyond words holy, at whose claims
+the most godless never scoff, and whose members will keep alive the
+best traditions of the religion of Numa until old Rome is tottering to
+its fall—the Sisterhood of the Vestal Virgins.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_430" style="max-width: 278px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_430.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Vestal Virgin.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>Numa himself, hoary tradition affirms, instituted this body of six
+holy maidens, although no doubt similar companies could have been
+discovered in many other primitive Italian communities. Their origin
+is clear enough. To early man, fire was a thing very mysterious and
+very necessary. Before the discovery of flint and steel it was no
+trifling matter to kindle a new blaze by rubbing together a hard stick
+and a soft; every village, therefore, maintained a central hearth
+(<i>focus</i>) where some brands were ever smoldering and whither a boy
+could be sent running for a spark to replenish the kitchen fires.</p>
+
+<p>But beyond all other peoples the old Latins made of this homely need
+a sacrosanct institution and a ritual. The Temple of the Fire Goddess
+was perhaps at first only the hearth of the king, and her priestesses
+were the king’s own daughters. Then the king disappeared: the Pontifex
+Maximus took his place; and quite naturally just as the high<span class="pagenum" id="Page_431">[431]</span> pontiff’s
+official residence, the Regia, stood on the verge of the Forum, the
+Shrine of Vesta and the home of her maiden ministers stood close beside
+it.</p>
+
+<p>All across the ages this fire of Vesta has burned, tended with
+inconceivable care; and for this humble shrine of Vesta and the six
+Vestal Virgins all Romans from Emperor to lowest plebeian still retain
+more genuine reverence than for anything else in the world, not
+excluding the gilded Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus crowning the
+Capitol and its pompous Flamen Dialis.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>365. The Temple of Vesta and the House of the Vestals.</b>—The
+Temple of Vesta, directly on the verge of the roaring Forum and under
+the shadow of the Imperial Palatine, is an ostentatiously small, simple
+building, with a circular portico of pillars and surmounted with a low
+cupola covered with sheets of metal. Often repaired, great pains have
+been taken (so Ovid tells us) to preserve the original “style of Numa.”
+Directly behind it, as you go east from the Forum, is the <i>Atrium
+Vestæ</i>, the House of the Vestals, noticed when we traversed the
+Heart of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Very simple externally, once inside those privileged to enter the House
+discover not merely a fine comfortable dwelling, suitable for ladies of
+rank and their numerous female attendants, but a very beautiful garden
+some 200 feet long by 65 wide. There are spreading trees, winding
+paths, marble seats, fountains and even a tiny grove—all within easy
+stone’s throw of the very center of the metropolis.</p>
+
+<p>The need for this garden, however, is obvious. The Vestals are women
+of the very highest rank, yet they cannot leave Rome in the hot
+season when nearly all other noble ladies flee to their cool villas.
+The garden is their breathing spot and their recompense. Around the
+garden runs a line of statues of the <i>Maximæ</i> (Senior Vestals),
+an imposing array of dignified elderly women of the grave Roman type.
+Here<span class="pagenum" id="Page_432">[432]</span> too in the Atrium Vestæ, in a little room, is a small hand-mill
+where the sacred virgins themselves can be seen each day laboriously
+grinding the consecrated meal required in the cult of the Hearth
+Goddess.</p>
+
+<p>Within this house also the six Sisters spend their lives in a routine
+of holy duties, and although the building is not an officially
+consecrated “temple” it is really the most revered and sacrosanct spot
+in Rome. In the Atrium Vestæ, therefore, are deposited the wills and
+other precious documents of half the nobility, and the gods pity the
+wretch who may do the place violence,—his fate at human hands will be
+awful!</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>366. Appointment of Vestals.</b>—This little sisterhood is divided
+always into three categories—the novices, the active members, the
+senior Vestals, of two members each. When there is a vacancy the
+Pontifex Maximus makes choice among the girls of between six and ten
+years in the patrician families,<a id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> who have both of their parents
+living and happily married. A girl has to be physically perfect and
+intellectually acute, certain, in short, to do honor to the greatest
+position open to women in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The present Maxima is Salvia, a distant kinswoman of the late Emperor
+Nerva. She was appointed many years ago in the reign of Titus. There
+was such competition for the vacancy then that several noble families
+offered their daughters, but Salvia was chosen because her parents were
+on the best of terms, whereas her nearest rival’s father and mother
+were known to have quarreled. The high pontiff (Titus) solemnly took
+her by the hand repeating the ritualistic words, “I take you to be
+‘Amata,’ that as Vestal Virgin you may perform the sacred rites lawful
+for vestal virgins.” The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_433">[433]</span> title of <i>Amata</i> was simply honorary. It
+implied the gentle and loving character of the service of Vesta.</p>
+
+<p>Salvia was immediately led over to the house of Vesta, her hair was cut
+off, and hung upon the sacred lotus-tree in the garden; she was clothed
+in long white garments with a special white band around her head, the
+holy <i>infula</i>; and next she took oath to abide in her office and
+to maintain her virginity not less than thirty years. She was now a
+lawful vestal, withdrawn from the power of her father, and subject only
+to the jurisdiction of the Pontifex Maximus.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>367. Duties of the Vestals: the Maxima.</b>—The six vestals enjoy
+no sinecure. From the fountain of Egeria by the Cœlian Hill they must
+bear all the water required for kneading their sacred cakes.<a id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> Daily
+they must carefully cleanse the actual Temple in front of their mansion
+with a mop, and deck it around with laurel. There are various great
+festivals in which they have to play an important part, especially in
+the very important Vestalia held June 9th, when all Rome unites to
+honor the beloved Hearth Mother; and on June 15th when there is the
+official cleansing of the Temple, and all the refuse of the year is
+collected and removed with scrupulous ceremonies just as a good farmer
+should cleanse his barns before the harvest.</p>
+
+<p>The chief duty is, however, the simple and gracious task of tending
+the sacred fire. For the first ten years of her sisterhood Salvia was
+learning her responsibilities in this all-important particular; for the
+next ten, she, or her associated second-class Vestal, had the actual
+watch-care of the holy flame on the maintenance whereof seemed to rest
+the prosperity of Rome; after that as one of the two senior Vestals she
+could turn over to her juniors the active duties, confining<span class="pagenum" id="Page_434">[434]</span> herself to
+the general oversight of the sisterhood. When the older senior Vestal
+died she herself became Maxima—the most important woman in Rome,
+enjoying a reverence and a certainty of tenure by no means shared by
+every Empress.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>368. Punishments of Erring Vestals.</b>—To allow the sacred fire to
+go out, by some fearful mischance, is an almost unheard-of calamity.
+The ancient books ordain that the responsible Vestal on duty shall
+first be stripped and scourged by the Pontifex Maximus, administering
+his blows in the dark, then two pieces of wood must be taken from a
+“lucky tree” and he must laboriously rekindle the fire with elaborate
+ceremonies. After that other prolonged rites are needful to save the
+state from the results of such a fearful “prodigy.”</p>
+
+<p>Such lapses in the service of Vesta almost never occur. Slightly more
+frequent have been charges of breaking the vow of chastity. In the few
+recorded cases the guilty sister after trial before the college of
+pontiffs has been buried alive with a kind of funeral ceremony in the
+“Accursed Field” (<i>Campus Sceleratus</i>) just within the Colline
+Gate. It is “bad luck” actually to put to death a consecrated Vestal,
+but a deep pit is dug and in it are placed a couch, a lamp, and a
+table bearing a little food. Then the guilty woman is lowered into the
+pit and earth heaped upon it. She has simply been dismissed from the
+presence of men:—what occurs out of all human sight is strictly the
+affair of gods! Meantime her paramour has been publicly scourged to
+death in the Forum with every form of ignominy.</p>
+
+<p>The vow of virginity, nevertheless, is not perpetual. After thirty
+years in the service, at an age still far below old womanhood, a Vestal
+can quit the Atrium, and marry; but Salvia and her sisters seldom dream
+of such a thing. Public opinion, though not the law, frowns upon the
+act, and it means<span class="pagenum" id="Page_435">[435]</span> resigning a position of incomparable importance,
+honor, and dignity.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>369. Remarkable Honors Granted the Vestals.</b>—If Salvia, for
+twenty years at least, has thus taken her duties very seriously, she
+has her great compensation. The Vestal Sisterhood is rich with a great
+corporate income. The members alone of all Romans give their testimony
+in court without the least oath. They have the seats of honor at all
+public games and festivals. A lictor precedes each of them everywhere,
+securing for his mistress the same public honors granted a magistrate,
+and a magistrate’s lictors lower their fasces in respectful homage when
+in a Vestal’s superior presence.</p>
+
+<p>The slightest molestation of these priestesses’ persons is of course
+punished capitally. They have the right to intercede even with the
+Emperor in matter of pardons, and they nominate to sundry public
+offices—<i>e.g.</i> the librarianship of the Imperial library, and
+certain military tribuneships. Finally if they chance accidentally
+to meet a criminal bound for execution, upon their demand he must be
+spared and released—not out of motives of mercy, but because it is a
+bad omen for the State for any holy Vestal to meet a person formally
+condemned to die.<a id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a></p>
+
+<p>One crowning honor also Salvia can anticipate: even Emperors
+must ordinarily be buried outside the consecrated city limits
+(<i>pomerium</i>), but the law specifically admits Vestals not merely
+to the glories of a public funeral, but to burial inside the Heart of
+Rome itself. What wonder that Salvia is loath to quit a post of such
+glory and power for the uncertain prospects of matrimony!</p>
+
+<p>Despite all the ceremonies, irrational and vain though they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_436">[436]</span> may seem
+to a later standpoint, the worship of Vesta, the goddess of the honest
+home, and the corporate life of her six maiden ministers remain among
+the fairest things of the Roman Empire. Matters cannot be hopelessly
+bad, when thus, in the center of the great, luxurious, sensual Imperial
+city, womanly purity and orderly virtue are preëminently honored.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_437">[437]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXI<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE FOREIGN CULTS: CYBELE, ISIS, MITHRAS. THE CHRISTIANS IN PAGAN EYES</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>370. Saturnalia: the Exchange of Presents on New Year’s
+Day.</b>—Could our visit to Rome be prolonged across the year we
+should dwell on such so-called religious festivals as the Saturnalia
+which lasts seven days, beginning the 17th of December, when the whole
+city abandons itself to carnival mirth, when slaves for a brief and
+happy interval put on the tall pileus, the liberty cap, are allowed to
+be very pert to their masters, and indulge in all kinds of pranks and
+liberties; and when people exchange with all their friends semi-comic
+gifts of wax tapers and amusing little terra-cotta images, or other
+gifts of real value such as napkins, writing tablets, and dishes of
+preserved sweetmeats.<a id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a></p>
+
+<p>More decorous is the ensuing holiday on the Kalends of January (New
+Year’s Day) when ceremonious official calls are paid on every magnate
+from the Emperor downward, and more gifts are exchanged, often of the
+highest value.<a id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> In these festivities and distributions of presents
+can perhaps be found the prototypes for the winter holidays of another
+religion and later age.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>371. Multiplication of Oriental Cults.</b>—One dare not quit the
+Rome of Hadrian, however, without a cursory inspection of something
+extremely evident since we began our<span class="pagenum" id="Page_438">[438]</span> explorations on plebeian Mercury
+Street—the foreign religions and their temples.</p>
+
+<p>Very reluctantly did the grave fathers of the old Republic admit
+Anatolian, Syrian, and Egyptian cults into their beloved city. Even
+unlicensed Greek ceremonies were frowned upon and the disorderly
+orgiastic rites of the Eastern gods for long were extremely repulsive
+to the dignified builders of the Commonwealth. But as the Republic
+declined the foreign cults thrust themselves in and with the coming of
+the Empire all attempts to prohibit them practically disappeared. The
+most the authorities can now do is to see that these strange private
+worships are conducted with a certain degree of decency. Rome has never
+countenanced the vile revelings of the groves of Syrian Astarte, much
+less the horrid child-burnings of the Phœnician Moloch.</p>
+
+<p>The votaries of these Eastern gods are not merely Orientals who
+have drifted to Rome. The new religions have a great appeal to many
+persons of good old Latin stock and especially to the women. The
+reason for this is fairly obvious: the Roman official religion is a
+legalistic religion devoid of the slightest spirituality. “Sin” except
+in the sense of reckless contract breaking, “communion with God,”
+“reconciliation with God,” “The Hereafter,” “Life Eternal,” and like
+phrases are utterly unknown to pontiff, augur, or flamen.</p>
+
+<p>For intelligent persons to whom neither the Stoic nor the Epicurean
+guesses at the riddle of existence prove satisfying, who are torn in
+conscience, bowed with bereavement, or crushed by disaster, there
+must be some outlet better than that of scrupulously offering a black
+pig to Mars. Atheism can never satisfy for long,—and the Oriental
+religions, appealing at once to the love for the mysterious, and to the
+passionate desire for some supernatural explanation of the problems
+of humanity, as a result draw in their votaries by thousands. Some
+of these worshipers are utterly ignorant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_439">[439]</span> and credulous. Others are
+men and women of wealth and deep learning, who can turn the Syrian or
+Egyptian jargon into elegant Platonic myths, and see, behind the coarse
+Levantine ritual, spiritual allegories which would have astonished old
+Memphis or Tyre.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>372. The Cult of the Deified Emperors.</b>—The Imperial Government
+itself has added to this tendency to multiply cults—it created a new
+and a very important one, that of the “Deified Emperors.” Augustus
+Cæsar was far too shrewd and matter-of-fact an Italian to permit
+himself to be worshiped as an actual deity within his native land;
+but he did not discourage Orientals (accustomed to adore almost any
+successful monarch as a “god”) from setting up altars to him, and he
+took a great satisfaction in having his adoptive father Julius Cæsar
+officially deified at Rome, and then in accepting for himself the
+glories coming to the <i>son</i> of the “Divine Julius.”</p>
+
+<p>Furthermore, even a living Emperor has his <i>genius</i>—his special
+guardian spirit, often to be half-confounded with his own personality.
+The worship of Augustus’s genius was soon an important part of the
+state religion. Oaths were taken by it; an insult to it became the
+vilest blasphemy. If Augustus did not become a god in his lifetime, the
+aura and effluence of divinity assuredly played all around him.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>373. The “Divine Augustus” and His Successors.</b>—The instant
+Augustus died a solemn decree of the Senate forthwith made him “Divus
+Augustus,” with temples, priests, and ritual—all the paraphernalia
+in short of a prominent member of the Pantheon. Since then in the
+provincial towns the priests of Augustus, <i>Augustales</i>, are
+ordinarily appointed from among the rich freedmen—men of short lineage
+but of great economic influence, who are delighted at the trappings and
+pompous honors awarded this holy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_440">[440]</span> office, and who become, therefore,
+the ardent supporters of the imperial régime.</p>
+
+<p>Since 14 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> there have been still other gods thus enrolled
+by vote of the Senate—notably the “Divine Claudius” (“dragged to
+heaven by a hook,” people sarcastically remark, remembering Agrippina’s
+poisoned mushrooms), and the equally “divine” Vespasian, Titus, Nerva,
+and Trajan. Their temples and cults are among the most splendid and
+prominent in Rome. In the basilicas and in the government houses
+(<i>prætoria</i>) and magistrates’ halls all over the Empire stand
+the arrays of statues of these Deified Augusti along with that of the
+“genius” of the reigning Hadrian himself. Every litigant and every
+witness must cast his pinch of incense into the brazier before them and
+swear by their godhead.</p>
+
+<p>Intelligent men, of course, understand that these Imperial “gods”
+somehow differ in nature from Jupiter, but the homage offered to them
+seems really an affirmation of loyalty to the great principles of law
+and order which bind the vast Empire together. Every good Emperor
+is entitled to expect this honor, after a worthy reign. “I think
+I’m becoming a god!” muttered the pragmatic Vespasian while on his
+death-bed. On the other hand the refusal of deification is a form of
+branding a tyrant’s memory; and Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, and Domitian
+receive no incense.<a id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a></p>
+
+<p>The state thus teaches all its subjects how easily new deities can be
+introduced—apparently by very human agencies. Of the host of Oriental
+gods that have thrust themselves into Rome there are three or four
+which have won peculiar prominence; notably the cults of Cybele, Isis
+and Serapis, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_441">[441]</span> Mithras. There is also the extremely despised sect of
+the Christians.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>374. The Cult of Cybele, the “Great Mother.”</b>—The cult of Cybele
+is the oldest and best recognized of this foreign group. Cybele is an
+Asiatic goddess with her most famous temple at Pessinus in Galatia. In
+the crisis of the Hannibalic War when public opinion was on edge, the
+Romans fetched an image of this “Great Mother of Pessinus” to Rome and
+set up a temple to her on the Palatine. The Roman matrons, henceforth,
+honored her with the festival of the Megalesia.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_441" style="max-width: 354px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_441.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Archi-Gallus, Priest of Cybele.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>The worship of Cybele, the Great Mother, despite this naturalization,
+retains something about it that is grossly orgiastic and un-Italian.
+Everywhere over the city can be met groups of her priestesses, the
+Corybantes, and especially of her smooth-cheeked, squeaky-voiced eunuch
+priests, the <i>Galli</i>, executing their wild, noisy dances with
+drums, cymbals, and trumpets, and leaping about in suits of armor which
+they clash violently, while uttering screams alleged to be inspired.</p>
+
+<p>In the country districts bands of these Galli are reported to drift
+frequently from village to village, exciting the rustics by displays
+of “mysteries” which are simply a gross hocus-pocus, and which often
+wind up in scenes of sheer depravity. Nevertheless, the cult has great
+attractions for the superstitious. The processions of these effeminate
+figures with redolent locks, painted faces, and soft womanish bearing
+are always able to wheedle the sesterces out of the crowd.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_442">[442]</span></p>
+
+<p>The coarse legends of the Great Mother are furthermore caught up by
+the philosophers and given a refined, metaphysical meaning, and among
+the priests at her temples about the city are enrolled many senators
+and equites, and among the priestesses a good many more of these
+noblemen’s wives. To be a chanter, drummer, or cymbal player at her
+great spectacular “orgies” has a morbid fascination—all the more
+because much of the cult of Cybele worship is so gross that words
+may not describe it. The Great Mother is, therefore, one of the most
+undesirable of all the gifts offered to Rome by the conquered East.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_442" style="max-width: 426px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_442.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Shrine of Cybele.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>375. Cult of Isis and Associated Egyptian Gods.</b>—Worthier and
+more popular with the better classes is the worship of Isis.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptian story of Isis and Osiris, of the temporary death of the
+latter and the sufferings of the former, a story that connected itself
+with the Greek myths about Demeter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_443">[443]</span> and Dionysus, and also those about
+Adonis, had become very old a thousand years before the founding of
+Rome. The cult was a late invader of Italy; not until the time of Sulla
+did it figure even as an important private superstition, and on account
+of the marked Oriental tendencies of the Isis worship the Senate for
+long discouraged it; nevertheless the stately ritual and the appeal of
+the mysterious made the cult extremely popular with the multitude.</p>
+
+<p>In vain in 50 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> the consul Lucius Æmilius himself (his
+superstitious lictors hesitating) struck the first blow with the ax
+to demolish a prohibited Isis temple. Augustus had to content himself
+merely with forbidding the erection of such buildings within the
+official pomerium of Rome, but these could multiply in the suburbs, and
+by the time of Vespasian practically all restraints disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>Everybody now frequents the shrines of Isis, and many of the noblest
+citizens and matrons are among her initiates. Her great temple in the
+Campus Martius is among the stateliest in Rome and every morning before
+its doors are arrayed a perfect host of votaries.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>376. Ceremonies at an Isis Temple.</b>—If we desire, it is easy
+to witness a large part of the ritual, although the meaning of
+the allegories is refused the unelect.<a id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> Before day-break the
+shaven-skulled priests, clothed in trailing robes of snow-white linen,
+enter the temple by a side entrance and throw back the great central
+doors, although a long white curtain still hangs across the interior.
+The multitude of the devout now stream into the temple. The curtains
+whisk aside, and a statue of the goddess, a majestic female sculptured
+somewhat in the Egyptian style, with her head crowned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_444">[444]</span> with a lotus
+flower and in her right hand a holy rattle (<i>sistrum</i>), is exposed
+to view. At her side stands her son Horus, a naked boy, holding his
+forefinger in his mouth, a lotus flower also upon his head, and a horn
+of plenty in his left hand.</p>
+
+<p>The worshipers now stand or sit on the stones for a long time in silent
+prayer and contemplation; while the new light of the rising sun streams
+athwart the silent columns and draperies of the great temple. Presently
+a priest appears bearing a golden vessel of holy water from the Nile,
+and he pours it over a sacrifice of fruits and flowers upon the altar
+standing before the images. The worshipers all prostrate themselves in
+awe, then rise. The ceremony is over.</p>
+
+<p>This is the ordinary side of the Isis worship but at times there
+lack not violent dances; processions of all manner of harlequin
+participants, men robed as soldiers, hunters, or gladiators, women
+leaping in white gauzy garments, and shaven priests bearing holy
+vessels—usually wrought with Egyptian hieroglyphics, and carrying
+especially as center of all the tumult a sacred snake, lifting its
+wrinkled and venomous head upon an ark of burnished gold.</p>
+
+<p>The Isis worship appeals often to men of high intelligence who grow
+weary and disgusted at the failure of secular philosophy to solve the
+great problems of existence. An elaborate explanation exists for all
+these symbols; one might even add a spiritual meaning. It is even
+claimed that Isis is simply “Nature,” and that her cult is merely the
+worthiest expression of “the One Sole Divinity whom the whole earth
+venerates under a manifold form.”</p>
+
+<p>To the initiates (into whose esoteric lore we cannot penetrate) is
+promised in this world a very fortunate life and that then “having
+accomplished the span of this existence, they shall descend to the
+realms below, and even there, dwelling<span class="pagenum" id="Page_445">[445]</span> as they shall in the Elysian
+fields, they shall frequently adore me—the goddess.”<a id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>377. Cult of Serapis and of Other Oriental Gods.</b>—The Isis
+worship thus has its nobler side. Not unworthy too is that of her
+Græco-Egyptian associate Serapis, the patron deity of Alexandria,
+who has a considerable following in Rome, acclaiming him as “lord of
+all the elements, dispenser of all good and master of human life.”
+Unfortunately, however, along with these deities there goes a whole
+swarm of lesser Oriental divinities who do nothing but provide fine
+chances for the scoffers and the charlatans.</p>
+
+<p>The priests of the dog-headed Nile-god Anubis are denounced by Juvenal
+as a “linen-clad and cheating crew,” who levy on silly women, and who
+will declare any infamy to be morally “pardoned” for the bribe of a fat
+goose or some thick slices of cake. Korybus, Sabazius, the bull Apis,
+and the Syrian Baal cannot pretend to be better. Many a decent Roman
+beholding their worship will reëcho Plutarch’s recent words, “Better
+not to believe in a god at all, than to cringe before a god who is
+worse than the worst of men.” Nevertheless there is <i>one</i> Oriental
+cult now penetrating Rome which seems to lay stress on moral purity and
+on noble living—the religion of Mithras.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>378. The Cult of Mithras: Its Relative Nobility.</b>—Mithras is
+by origin the Sun God of the Zoroastrian Persians.<a id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> He is the
+“fiend smiter”; the beneficent light which disperses mental as well as
+material darkness. <i>Sol Invictus</i>—“The All-Conquering Sun”—his
+votaries call him, but in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_446">[446]</span> statues and pictures he is commonly
+represented as a handsome youth, wearing the Phrygian cap and mantle,
+and kneeling upon a bull which has been thrown upon the ground, and
+whose throat the god is cutting. In the Mithras pictures there often
+appear also the mysterious figures of a dog, a serpent, and a scorpion,
+all somehow connected with the ritual of the god.</p>
+
+<p>This cultus first passed from the East to the hardy pirates of
+Cilicia, whom Pompey the Great subdued in the last years of the old
+Republic. Then gradually the Western world began to learn about the
+Mithras “chapels,” about the seven grades of initiates, about solemn
+purifications from sin, and about an esoteric teaching which laid great
+stress on personal righteousness, condemned vicious pretenses and
+claimed to reconcile man with god in a manner promising the former a
+joyous and noble hereafter.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_446">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_446.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Mithras the Bull-Slayer.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>The Mithras cult is now making its way very rapidly, especially in the
+imperial army. All up and down the great garrison towns and standing
+camps along the frontiers “Mithras chapels” are being erected, small
+chambers suitable for only a few dozen of initiates. The rites and
+teachings are very secret, and it is impossible to penetrate them as we
+can part of the worship of Isis.</p>
+
+<p>Mithras worship furthermore makes no pretense of being a cult for
+the masses—it is a blessing reserved strictly for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_447">[447]</span> the proved and
+purified. All we know about it, however, convinces us that its ethics
+are noble, that it repudiates all coarse sensuality, and that it
+leaves its votaries genuinely better men and women, summoning them to
+be coadjutors of the “Unconquerable Sun” in his glorious war against
+spiritual darkness.</p>
+
+<p>As yet the Mithras worship in the West is relatively young, but the
+time will approach when great Emperors, Aurelian and Diocletian,
+will proudly number themselves among its initiates, and in Mithraism
+ancient paganism will make its last real proffer for the allegiance of
+high-minded men.<a id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_447">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_447.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Mithraic Emblems.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>379. The <i>Taurobolium</i></b> (“<b>Bath in Bull’s
+Blood</b>”).—Connected with these Oriental cults, worthy and
+unworthy, there has come in a ceremony utterly strange to the religion
+of Numa, which, nevertheless, is gaining increasing vogue,—the
+<i>Taurobolium</i>. Originally it belonged to the votaries of Cybele,
+but the Mithras worshipers have adopted it likewise.</p>
+
+<p>The rite is supposed to give one a peculiar cleansing from sin, and
+being decidedly expensive appeals not a little to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_448">[448]</span> wealthy personages
+who do not mind showing how their riches can put them on better terms
+with heaven than is possible for the run of mortals. With increasing
+frequency can be seen tombstones of magnates inscribed “Reborn to
+Eternity through the Taurobolium,” and it is held by many that persons
+submitting to this ordeal are assured of a happy immortality—at least,
+if they should die within twenty years of the ceremony; after which it
+can be repeated.</p>
+
+<p>Old line Romans ordinarily have not as yet felt a great need for the
+Taurobolium,<a id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> but one of Calvus’s acquaintances, the senator
+Faventinus, has followed his initiation into Mithraism by celebrating
+the rite. It is indeed something which only deep religious convictions
+can induce persons of sensitive and luxurious tastes to undergo,
+although the special priests who conduct the proceeding know how to
+render it an impressive ceremony.</p>
+
+<p>Faventinus appeared at the appointed place before a concourse of
+Mithraic initiates, wearing a golden crown and with his toga tightly
+girded about him; then he descended into a deep pit over which was
+placed a platform of stout boards. With mystical words and songs
+a consecrated bull was led upon the platform and there directly
+slaughtered in a manner causing its blood to flow freely through the
+chinks in the timbers upon the worshiper below. As the blood descended
+Faventinus extended his arms and uplifted his face that as much might
+cover him as possible.</p>
+
+<p>When the initiate was taken out—his whole person and garments
+blood-soaked—other mysterious liturgies were recited over him. He
+was now a “Father” in the Mithraic order—of the highest class of
+initiates, purged of all human<span class="pagenum" id="Page_449">[449]</span> dross, and entitled to close communion
+with the deity. After all, the price of a fine bull and round fees to
+the priests seem little enough to pay for such an exalted privilege.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>380. The Christians: Pagan Account of Their Origin.</b>—There is
+still another cult in Rome, although cultivated men and women no less
+than the run of plebeians speak of it with utter aversion. Since the
+reign of Claudius there has existed a sect of degraded creatures, at
+first Jews<a id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> and Levantines, but later comprising also Greeks and
+Italians, known as <i>Christians</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Excluding the vulgar tattle of the mob, as good an authority as Tacitus
+writes thus: “Christus from whom the name of the sect is derived was
+put to death in the reign of Tiberius, by the procurator Pontius
+Pilatus. The deadly superstition having been checked for a while, began
+to break out again not only throughout Judea, where this mischief first
+arose but also at Rome, where from all sides all things scandalous and
+shameful meet and become fashionable.”<a id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a></p>
+
+<p>By Nero’s time the Christians were in such disfavor with the populace,
+being “misanthropes” and “enemies of the human race,” as well as
+blasphemers of the gods, that the evil Emperor tried to make them
+scapegoats for the burning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_450">[450]</span> of Rome—although the pretense was too
+thin. People said the Christians were wicked enough, but that they were
+not guilty at least of <i>that</i>!</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>381. The Persecution of Christians: Their “Insane
+Obstinacy.”</b>—Nowhere, in those respectable quarters in which our
+visit has moved, can we get any detailed information as to what these
+Christians really do and believe. Very few important persons have so
+far adhered to them, although there is a story that Flavius Clemens,
+a consul and a kinsman of Domitian (who put him to death along with
+so many other nobles), was actually caught by their supposedly crazy
+doctrines.</p>
+
+<p>The sect has been declared unlawful ever since Nero’s day, and from
+time to time its members have been arrested and their conventicles
+(usually held in half-concealed burial places or in sand pits in the
+suburbs) have been broken up. The magistrates, however, are slack; the
+vigiles are busy chasing down ordinary thieves and murderers; and the
+Christians most of the time are left alone. Hadrian, in fact, with
+his general tolerance, is said somewhat to have discouraged active
+persecution. The Christians, nevertheless, are still under the ban of
+the law; and being mostly slaves, freedmen, and resident foreigners,
+get very short shrift if actually brought before the Præfect.</p>
+
+<p>It is extremely easy to convict them: there is no need of elaborate
+testimony, you merely summon the defendants to burn incense to the
+image of the Genius of the Emperor and to curse the name of Christus.
+No Christian will ever do this. The trials therefore are usually very
+brief, and soon after they occur the crowd at the Flavian is ordinarily
+gratified by the sight of one of the Christians’ “overseers” (bishops)
+or “assistants” (deacons) instead of an ordinary bandit, awaiting the
+spring of the lion.</p>
+
+<p>These sectaries are said to be very bold, professing not to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_451">[451]</span> fear death
+which will only give them a surer and a better immortality than that
+secured by the Taurobolium. Beyond a doubt (any cultivated man will
+tell us) such defiant persons ought to be executed, if merely for their
+“insane obstinacy,” although the edicts are only enforced spasmodically
+and the Christians are often allowed several years of peace.<a id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>382. Current Charges against the Christians.</b>—If popular gossip,
+however, means anything, these people should deserve the worst possible
+fate. At their nocturnal gatherings, where men and women assemble,
+it is alleged, for a wild orgy, the central rite is said to consist
+of killing a babe and drinking its blood, while celebrants pledge
+themselves to commit every kind of wickedness. Finally they tie a dog
+to the lamp standards and incite the brute to upset the lights; then in
+the ensuing darkness follow deeds of violence indescribable.</p>
+
+<p>It is also rumored that their Christus (who, of course, died the basest
+of possible deaths on the cross) actually had the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_452">[452]</span> head of an ass. You
+can see crude wall drawings deriding his votaries, as for example, one
+showing a youth kneeling before an ass-headed figure on a cross, with
+the scribbled legend, “Alexander is adoring <i>his</i> god.”<a id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a></p>
+
+<p>How far are these gross charges true? Such aristocrats as Calvus merely
+shrug their shoulders; they are not interested. However, about 112
+<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> Pliny the Younger, while governor of Bithynia, being
+compelled to enforce the Anti-Christian laws, seized two Christian
+women known as “deaconesses” and put them to torture in order to find
+out what <i>really</i> happened at their gatherings. He reported that
+he had discovered that nothing criminal went on but only “a perverse
+and excessive superstition.” Probably, senatorial circles will assure
+us, there is not much to be dreaded from such a movement which cannot
+possibly appeal to educated men well grounded in philosophy. Of
+course, Mithraism is very much more respectable, and according to all
+fashionable judgment has a far greater future before it!</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_453">[453]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXII<br>
+<span class="subhed">A ROMAN VILLA. THE LOVE OF THE COUNTRY</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>383. Appreciation of Country Life by the Romans.</b>—No study of
+Rome can be complete without recognition of one cardinal fact—the
+intense desire of all Romans to get away from their turbulent city
+for a large part of the year. The wealthier the citizen the longer is
+likely to be his absence, although no doubt many a senator or eques
+growing weary of his luxurious retreat begins to sigh again for the
+Curia or the counting room long ere the formal “season” has ended.</p>
+
+<p>During the parching summer months the city is really deserted by a
+great part of its inhabitants. Only the most needful business goes on;
+the public games are attended merely by the humblest type of plebeians;
+the rhetoric schools cease their floods of oratory; the great baths
+really seem empty; and the Forum crowd becomes thinned and spiritless.
+Every person blessed with a moderate income and leisure has sought the
+seashore or the mountains.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>384. Praises of the Country Towns and Villas.</b>—Never in after
+ages will the blessings of country as against city life be better
+appreciated than under the Roman Empire. The congestion, the noise, the
+hurly-burly of the world metropolis probably exceeds that of any future
+competitor.</p>
+
+<p>The poets all sing the praises of existence amid rural charms. Martial
+for example waxes enthusiastic over the chance to “get away” from the
+porticoes of cold, variegated marbles and from the need of running on
+morning greetings, so that he can empty his hunting nets before his own
+fire, lift the quivering fish from the line and draw the yellow honey<span class="pagenum" id="Page_454">[454]</span>
+from the “red-stained cask,” while his plump stewardess cooks his own
+eggs for him. Juvenal extols the cheapness and satisfaction of living
+in the country towns where for the rent of a dark garret in Rome you
+can afford to buy a small house with a neat little garden and a shallow
+well whence you can draw the water for your own plants. Wealthier folk
+share the same passion, and Pliny the Younger writes that he longs for
+the pleasures of his villas “as ardently as an invalid longs for wine,
+the baths, and the fountains.”</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_454">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_454.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Traveling Carriage</span> (<i>Reda</i>).</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>The sentiment, indeed, is so common that no further instances need
+be cited, save that of Similis, Trajan’s veteran prætorian præfect,
+who, having retired under Hadrian, has just died after seven years of
+honorable self-banishment in a quiet country retreat. On his tombstone
+he has ordered to be graven: “<i>Here lies Similis, an old man, who has
+<span class="allsmcap">LIVED</span> just seven years.</i>”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>385. Comfortable Modes of Travel: Luxurious Litters and
+Carriages.</b>—So then at least by the time of the “tyrannous reign
+of the Dog Star or the Lion” (mid-summer and September) all the roads
+leading from Rome are covered with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_455">[455]</span> great cortèges, if indeed, the
+magnates have not quitted the city much earlier.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_455" style="max-width: 750px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_455.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Roman Bridge</span>: typical of thousands which
+covered the Empire.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>This is no place to speak of the admirable Roman road system which
+spreads as a vast network all over the Empire, and which is, of course,
+at its best in Italy. Travel for the rich in Hadrian’s day is extremely
+luxurious if not correspondingly rapid. If you are in no hurry, you can
+ride in a comfortable litter borne by six or eight even-paced bearers
+and so outfitted that you can read, write, sleep, and even play at
+dice, while your retinue is winding its slow way over the Campagna, or
+up into the mountains. If you are in greater haste, there are speedy
+if somewhat less steady gigs and other open carriages which energetic
+people drive themselves, although great folk, of course, demand plenty
+of postilions and “well-girt running footmen.” In any case the journey
+from Rome is a matter of great display for anybody with claims to
+fortune. Fifty slaves and twenty baggage wagons are hardly enough to
+become a senator; and four times as many of each is not an excessive
+retinue.</p>
+
+<p>However, less distinguished people can drive about in their own light,
+open two-wheeled carriages (<i>cisia</i>), or can hire<span class="pagenum" id="Page_456">[456]</span> them at the
+posting stations just outside the gates, and time would fail to tell
+of all the kinds of <i>carpenta</i> (two-wheeled covered vehicles) or
+<i>redæ</i> (four-wheeled traveling carriages) which one can meet on
+the Via Appia or the Via Latina.</p>
+
+<p>Since Rome is a city without railroads and without first-class shipping
+facilities, necessity has developed this carriage service to a fine
+point. Some people indeed still bestride mules, like that of Horace,
+“short of tail and heavy of gait,” and government carriers ride
+horseback—but the wheeled vehicles are excellent. It will be a long
+time before they can be surpassed in comfort.<a id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>386. Multiplication of Villas: Seashore Estates at Baiæ,
+etc.</b>—Distant journeys we cannot consider, nor the service of
+imperial and private messengers to the provinces. Our concern is with
+the fact that over the whole of west-central Italy, well up into the
+Apennines, and all along the Etruscan, Latin, and Campanian coasts one
+luxurious estate follows upon another.</p>
+
+<p>Many of these vast establishments indeed combine profit with pleasure.
+Landed property is the most genteel form of wealth and close beside the
+sumptuous <i>villa urbana</i> which imitates the glories of the city
+mansion, there often spreads the humbler and more utilitarian <i>villa
+rustica</i> which houses the great gangs of slaves or hireling laborers
+who keep the broad acres under cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>One cannot turn aside to examine Italian agriculture, but the residence
+villas are so essential to every Roman of breeding and property that
+to ignore them is impossible. Persons of means seem always purchasing
+more villa property, indeed there are not a few magnates who can take a
+long journey up<span class="pagenum" id="Page_457">[457]</span> and down Italy, spending each night upon one of their
+own estates. If Publius Calvus contents himself with only <i>four</i>
+country residences, he shows that he is poorer and less pretentious
+than many fellow senators of prætorian rank.</p>
+
+<p>Inevitably certain places are preferred beyond others. Upon the Bay
+of Naples people of leisure, who do not mind a hundred and fifty
+mile journey from Rome, find a famous and delightful center at Baiæ;
+and indeed in the entire region of this bay, recovering now from
+the ravages of the outbreak of Mt. Vesuvius. Outward along the more
+southerly Bay of Pæstum [Bay of Salerno] the shore is lined with one
+lofty marble-crowned villa after another, often erected upon elaborate
+jetties thrusting far out into the sapphire sea.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, a whole series of handsome seaboard villas all the
+way southward from Ostia—and Antium, Circei, Tarracina (where the
+Via Appia strikes the coastline), and Formiæ are only a few of those
+luxurious colonies to which the wealth and fashion of Rome scatter
+during several months of the year. Many is the senator, eques, or great
+freedman who can boast also of his magnificent yacht, painted in gay
+colors, with purple sails, purple awnings on the poop, with rigging
+entwined on gala days with leaves and flowers, and with liveried rowers
+who are trained to swing together like automata.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>387. Villas in the Mountains; Small Farms near Rome.</b>—A great
+many Romans, however, disperse towards the hills; indeed there are
+many rich persons whose business will not permit them to go many miles
+from the city, and others who keep a suburban villa for casual visits
+from the town, reserving the seashore or the Apennines for the months
+when the law courts are closed and the Senate forgets to assemble.
+Calvus, we have seen, possesses a remote estate in the North by one of
+the Italian lakes which he can visit only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_458">[458]</span> on set occasions, another
+at Bauli close to Baiæ, also somewhat rarely visited, a third in the
+Etruscan hills which is his regular retreat in hot weather, and a
+fourth, a simpler affair, located a few miles up the Anio toward Tibur.</p>
+
+<p>This last near Rome, so the senator likes to boast, is of real Spartan
+simplicity. He affects to take great pleasure there in his hennery
+maintained so near to the metropolis, the great flocks of geese,
+Numidian (guinea) fowl, and Rhodian cocks and hens and the fields of
+vegetables very grateful when sent down by the <i>villicus</i> (farm
+steward) to the city mansion. One suspects, however, that there is
+greater satisfaction taken in the hot houses where, under the expensive
+but well-known luxury of glass, rare fruits are ripened in cold
+weather, and whence roses, violets, narcissus, hyacinths, and lilies
+are dispatched to Rome for the <i>clarissimus’s</i> banquets.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_458" style="max-width: 415px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_458.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap center smaller">Roman Spades.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>This establishment near the capital is, in fact, hardly the kind of
+retreat Calvus likes best, although a good many literary gentlemen,
+like Suetonius the biographer of the Cæsars, retire to modest suburban
+estates “large enough to engage their minds but not large enough to
+give them worry.” In such retreats they can pursue their learned
+labors, “get rid of their headaches and walk lazily around their
+boundary paths,” and yet keep in touch with their city friends.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>388. Great Estates in the Hills: Pliny’s Tuscan Villa.</b>—It
+is the great villa in the hills which is the normal retreat and joy
+of Calvus, his noble Gratia, and their equally noble children. Such
+places, be it noticed, the true Roman does not care to locate very near
+to grandiose mountain scenery. He is not fond of overpowering sublime
+views; what he prefers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_459">[459]</span> is a gentle aspect over smiling plains, lush
+meadows, and fertile corn-fields.</p>
+
+<p>Lucretius rejoiced in the happy intervals when he could “recline by a
+brook of running water beneath the leafage of a lofty tree,” and Virgil
+desired “that he might always love tilled fields and streams that flow
+among the valleys.” Hadrian is somewhat exceptional, among other ways,
+in that he enjoys toiling up high mountains like Ætna for the sake of
+the magnificent view. The average senator desires to ascend no further
+than he can comfortably drive in his cisium, or be swung along in his
+litter.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_459" style="max-width: 700px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_459.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Ruins of Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli</span>
+(<i>Tibur</i>): partial view.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>The Tuscan villa of Calvus is easily visited. It constitutes, in fact,
+an estate which the senator purchased some years ago from the heirs
+of the younger Pliny. Few changes beyond needful repairs have been
+made since its completion, and no<span class="pagenum" id="Page_460">[460]</span> words of ours can surpass those of
+its former owner in explaining why life seems very pleasant to those
+whom Jupiter or Destiny have made rich and fortunate in the imperial
+age.<a id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_460" style="max-width: 668px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_460.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Ruins of Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli</span>
+(<i>Tibur</i>): partial view.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>389. Charming Location of Pliny’s Villa.</b>—“This property (wrote
+Pliny) lies just under the Apennines, which are the healthiest of
+our mountain ranges. In winter the air is cold and frosty; myrtles,
+olives, and all other trees which require a constant warmth the climate
+spurns, although the laurel usually prospers. But in summer the heat
+is marvelously tempered; there is always a breath of air stirring,
+and mild breezes are more common than high winds. The contour of the
+district is most beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>“Picture an immense amphitheater, wrought by Nature,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_461">[461]</span> with a
+wide-spreading plain ringed with hills and the summits thereof covered
+with the tall and ancient forests. Here there is plenty of hunting,
+while down the mountain slopes there are stretches of underwoods, and
+among these are rich deep-soiled hillocks which bear excellent crops.
+Below these hillocks in turn, along the whole hillsides, stretch the
+vineyards which present an unbroken line far and wide, bordered with
+a fringe of trees. Then you can come down to the meadows and fields
+where the soil is so thick that only the most powerful oxen can tug the
+plows; but the meadows are jeweled with flowers, and produce trefoil,
+and other herbs, always tender and soft.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_461" style="max-width: 750px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_461.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">Villa of Pliny the Younger</span>: restored.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>“Through the middle of this plain flows the Tiber. Here it is navigable
+for boats which carry down grain to the city in winter and spring,
+although in summer the channel is only a dried-up bed. Gazing over the
+district from the heights you think you are not looking so much upon
+earth and fields but at a landscape picture of wonderful loveliness.</p>
+
+<p>“My villa, though, lies at the foot of the hill enjoying as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_462">[462]</span> fine a
+prospect as though it stood on the summit, the ascent is so gentle,
+easy and unnoticeable. Behind lie the Apennines, but at a considerable
+distance, yet even on a cloudless day the spot gets a gentle breeze
+duly tempered from the hills.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>390. Terraces of the Villa: the Porticoes: Summer-Houses and
+Bedrooms.</b>—“Most of the house faces southward inviting the sun as
+it were into the portico which is broad and long to correspond, and
+contains a number of apartments and an old-fashioned hall. In front
+there is a terrace bounded with an edging of box, then comes a sloping
+ridge of turf with figures of animals on both sides cut out of the box
+trees, while on the level ground stands an acanthus tree, with leaves
+so soft that I might almost call them liquid. Around about there is a
+walk bordered by evergreens pressed and trimmed into various shapes;
+then comes an exercise ground, round like a circus, which surrounds
+the box trees which are cut into different forms, and the dwarf shrubs
+that are kept well clipped.<a id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> Beyond these there stretches a meadow
+delightful for its natural charm as the things just described are for
+their artificial beauty.</p>
+
+<p>“At the head of the portico juts out the triclinium from the doors
+whereof can be seen this terrace, meadow, and the expanse of country
+beyond. Almost opposite the middle of the portico is a summer-house
+with a small open space in the middle shaded by four plane trees.
+Among them stands a marble fountain, from which the water plays upon
+and sprinkles slightly the roots of the plane trees and the grass plot
+around the four.</p>
+
+<p>“In this pavilion there is located a bed chamber which excludes all
+light, noise and sound, and adjoining it is another dining room
+especially for my friends, which commands also<span class="pagenum" id="Page_463">[463]</span> a delightful view.
+There is still another bed chamber, however, which is embowered and
+shaded by the nearest plane tree and built of marble up to the balcony;
+above [in the ceiling] is a picture of a tree with birds perched in
+the branches, equally as beautiful as the marble. Here, too, there is
+a small fountain with a basin around the latter, and into it the water
+flows from a number of little pipes which produce a most agreeable
+liquid sound.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_463">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_463.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Roman Garden Scene.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>“In the corner of the portico there is yet a third bed chamber leading
+out of the dining-room, some of its windows looking forth upon the
+terrace, others upon the meadow, while the windows in front face the
+fish-pond which lies just beneath them: right pleasant it is both to
+eye and to ear, as the water falls from a considerable height and
+glistens like snow as it is caught in the marble basin. This bed room
+is agreeably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_464">[464]</span> warm even in winter, for it is flooded with an abundance
+of sunshine.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>391. The Baths: the Rear Apartments: the Riding Course.</b>—“To the
+last named room adjoins the calidarium of the baths, and on a cloudy
+day we can turn in the steam heat to take the place of the warm sun.
+Next comes an ample and cheerful undressing room for the bath, from
+which you pass into the cool frigidarium containing a large and shady
+swimming pool. Adjoining this cold bath is the mild tepidarium, for
+the sun shines upon it lavishly, although not so much as upon the hot
+bath which is built further out. Above the adjacent dressing room is
+a ball court where various kinds of exercise can be taken and several
+games can go on at once; and close to this are more bed-chambers all
+commanding enchanting views over the gardens, meadows, vineyards and
+mountains.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_464" style="max-width: 239px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_464.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Marble Urn or Garden Ornament.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>“Such is the front part of the villa. In the rear and to the sides are
+still other dining rooms and bedrooms; especially there are certain
+that are so far underground as to be perfectly cool even in the hottest
+weather. There is also an elaborate set of quarters for the servants.</p>
+
+<p>“However, the most delightful part of the entire establishment is
+perhaps the riding course. Around its borders are plane trees covered
+with ivy, which creeps along the trunks<span class="pagenum" id="Page_465">[465]</span> and branches and spreading
+across to the neighboring trees joins the whole line together. Between
+the plane trees are set box-shrubs, and on the further side of the
+shrubs is a ring of laurels which mingle their shade with that of the
+plane.</p>
+
+<p>“At the farther end, the straight boundary of the riding course is
+curved into a semi-circular form which quite changes its appearance.
+It is inclosed with cypress-trees, casting in places a dark and gloomy
+shade, though spots are left quite open to the sunshine; in these last
+bloom roses, and the warmth of the sun gives a delightful change from
+the cool of the shadows. All around these avenues run paths lined with
+other box-shrubs; and here and there are more of the box trimmed into a
+great variety of patterns, some being cut into letters forming my name,
+as being the owner, or that of the gardener.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>392. The Fountains and Luxurious Pavilions in the Gardens.</b>—“At
+the upper end of this hippodrome is a couch of white marble covered
+with a vine. Jets of water gush from under the couch through small
+pipes, and look as if they were forced out by the weight of the
+persons reclining on the pillows, while the water rushes down into a
+graceful marble basin with an underground outlet so it fills but never
+overflows. When I dine at this spot the heavier dishes and plates are
+set by the side of the basin, but the lighter ones, made in the shape
+of little boats and birds, float on the surface and turn round and
+round.</p>
+
+<p>“Directly opposite this couch is a sleeping pavilion. It is formed of
+glistening marble, and through the projecting folding doors you can
+pass at once among the foliage, while from the windows you look upon
+the same green picture. Within is a bed, and the shade is so dense that
+little light can enter, while a wonderfully luxuriant vine has climbed
+upon the roof and covers the whole building. You can fancy you are in
+a grove as you lie here, only you do not feel the rain as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_466">[466]</span> you do amid
+the trees. Here, too, a fountain rises, then immediately loses itself
+underground. There are a number of marble chairs placed up and down,
+very restful if you do not wish the bed. Near these chairs, yet again,
+there are little fountains, and throughout the whole riding course you
+can hear the murmur of tiny streams carried through pipes which run
+wherever you please to direct them.”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>393. Life of Sensuous Luxury at Such a Villa. Contrast in Human
+Conditions under the Roman Régime.</b>—“Besides the beauties herein
+described one has perfect comfort, repose, and freedom from anxiety at
+such a villa. I need not don the heavy toga; no neighbor ever calls to
+drag me out; everything is placid and quiet; and this peace adds to the
+healthfulness of the place, giving it, so to speak, a purer sky and a
+more limpid air. Here I enjoy better health both in mind and body than
+anywhere else, for I exercise the former by study, and the latter by
+hunting. May the gods preserve to me this place in all its beauty!”</p>
+
+<p>If life can consist of nothing more than a series of delightful
+sensations, the eye to be pleased by entrancing vistas of marble,
+greenery, or wooded hills, the ear by the soft murmur of musical
+fountains, and every creature want ministered unto by scores of highly
+trained menials, whose sole object in life seems to be to anticipate
+their masters’ needs,—what greater fortune, one may ask, can any age
+provide than to be possessor of such a villa, with the wealth and rank
+such possession must imply? Happy its former, happy its present owner!
+Is it forbidden to regret that one’s lot is not cast for a lifetime in
+Italy in these prosperous days of the Empire?</p>
+
+<p>Yet tarry—even while as Calvus’s guests we take our seats upon his
+marble benches beside the musical fountain under the whispering
+cypresses, and before we can converse amiably with the senator,
+perhaps upon the Stoic theory of “The Highest Good” there are sounds
+discordant—the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_467">[467]</span> clink of fetters, the snap of whips, the curses of
+drivers, the groans of human cattle.</p>
+
+<p>Along the road concealed by the shrubbery, is passing the slave coffle,
+the gang of “speaking tools” on its way from the underground dungeon
+(ergastulum) upon the great farm attached to the villa, to the daily
+toil in the fields beneath a broiling sun. The refined luxury of the
+fortunate few is purchased by the squalor, the ignorance, and often by
+the lifelong misery of the brutalized many.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_468">[468]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XXIII<br>
+<span class="subhed">THE RETURN OF THE EMPEROR</span></h2></div>
+
+
+<p><b>394. Character of Hadrian: Prosperity and Good Government of His
+Reign.</b>—Purposely we had visited Rome in the absence of Hadrian;
+our interest had been in the city and its people, not in the versatile,
+ever-wandering Cæsar and the administration of the Empire. But before
+Publius Calvus could set forth for his Tuscan villa he and all other
+Senators had to attend a great state ceremony—the reception of the
+Emperor returning from his travels.</p>
+
+<p>More than any other Roman ruler Hadrian had been an insatiable
+traveler. The frontiers of Britain, Syria, and Africa, the garrison
+towns on the Rhine, and the Danube—he knew them all. The peaceful
+cities of Gaul, Spain, and Egypt reaped the benefits of his intelligent
+benevolence when he visited them. Twice he had sojourned in Athens, the
+city which perhaps he loved the best in all the world, finishing the
+great Temple of Olympian Zeus left uncompleted since the days of the
+Peisistratidæ and otherwise beautifying the now sleepy old university
+town, so that its grateful dwellers acclaimed him as a second founder
+like unto the original Theseus.</p>
+
+<p>Hadrian’s personal life had been indeed marred with certain acts of
+arbitrary caprice and even of cruelty; many senators grumbled at his
+long absences from Rome and they somewhat dreaded his sudden judgments,
+but the Empire at large had been incalculably happy under his sway.
+The legions were under firm discipline, wars there were not save petty
+rumblings on the frontiers and the embers of the last<span class="pagenum" id="Page_469">[469]</span> struggle of the
+unhappy Jews, while peaceful commerce whitened the Mediterranean, and
+merchants’ caravans wound confidently over the great road system with
+little fear of bandits.</p>
+
+<p>Under such an Emperor laws were scientifically administered without
+fear or favor. The provincial governors were, despite an occasional
+plunderer such as we saw haled before the Senate, men of genuine
+intelligence, probity, and zeal. If the Senate was becoming a venerable
+debating club, if the other forms of political liberty were either dead
+or dying, under Hadrian despotism was showing its fairest face—with
+a highly capable monarch earnestly devoting himself to his subjects’
+good. What man, surveying the august fabric and social and governmental
+machinery of the Empire, could have failed to echo the current
+notion—that the dominion of Rome was divinely ordained and find that
+her departed Cæsars were worthily ranked among the gods?<a id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_469">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_469.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smcap smaller center">Hadrian.</p>
+     </div>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>395. Return of Hadrian to Italy.</b>—But Hadrian had been growing
+old and a little weary of his philanthropic wanderings.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_470">[470]</span> And now at
+length a peaceful armada had borne him back from Greece to Puteoli.
+Hence with an enormous cortège he had traveled by easy stages along
+the “Queen of Roads,” the Via Appia, to the outskirts of the capital.
+And now to welcome him back to the Palatine the obsequious magistrates
+arranged the inevitable public spectacle.</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor is not returning as a conquering <i>triumphator</i>. No
+formal triumph can therefore be ordained in his honor. He cannot wear
+laurel as he rides in a gilded chariot, preceded by the long files of
+fettered captives and, followed by the cohorts of his acclaiming army,
+drive his car through the Porta Triumphalis near the Circus Flaminius,
+next take a long circuit through the Circus Maximus and then down the
+Via Sacra and across the Forum and finally mount upward to pay his vows
+to Jupiter Best and Greatest on the Capitol. A magnificent procession,
+nevertheless, is possible. At the third milestone from the city along
+the Via Appia all the senators and equites in gala robes meet the
+advancing Imperator. His Empress Sabina is greeted with equal ceremony
+by the wives of the entire aristocracy.</p>
+
+<p>In the city all the vast colonnades are hung with garlands of spring
+flowers, all business is suspended; all the fora and streets along the
+line of march are packed with throngs in brilliant costumes and equally
+brilliant chaplets. One grows weary counting the magnificent litters
+everywhere passing, followed by the gorgeously liveried retinues of the
+wealthy.</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>396. Imperial Procession Entering Rome.</b>—At last after duly
+impressive delays the imperial procession starts from the spot known
+as the Three Fountains.<a id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> The Prætorians are there in full force,
+the City Cohorts, and heavy drafts of the vigiles, all the tribunes,
+centurions, and privates parading<span class="pagenum" id="Page_471">[471]</span> in silvered or gilded armor with
+scarlet plumes and mantles. The magistrates and ex-magistrates all wear
+the colorful toga prætexta.</p>
+
+<p>The ruler himself, “Holder of the Tribunician and Proconsular Power,
+Pontifex Maximus, Cæsar Augustus, Father of his Country, First
+Citizen and Imperator”; that is to say Hadrian in person rides in the
+glittering chariot wherein Augustus rode in his triumph after the
+battle of Actium. Four snow-white horses draw the car, and beside the
+slim Greek charioteer stands the object of universal envy, the man
+who is all but a god even in Italy, who is the “Son of the Divinity,”
+Trajan, and who is actually worshiped as a deity before a thousand
+altars throughout the subjected East.</p>
+
+<p>Hadrian is a handsome bearded man of stature above the average. The
+gray of advancing age is streaking his hair, but he retains that
+graceful presence and piercing glance which would make him a notable
+figure had he never donned the purple. Before him, bound to the end of
+staves, are carried placards in large letters reciting the benefits he
+has conferred on hundreds of communities; there is also a large roll
+of papyrus symbolic of the “Perpetual Edict” which he has inspired
+the learned jurist Salvus Julianus to compile preparatory to the
+codification of the vast Civil Law.</p>
+
+<p>Directly before the Emperor there is borne upon an open car a gilded
+image of the beautiful youth Antinöos, Hadrian’s favorite companion,
+whose mysterious death in Egypt the monarch has never ceased to mourn;
+while behind the imperial chariot rides the marveling envoy of Chosröes
+the Parthian King who has received peace at the hands of the Cæsar.
+The hundreds of senators and thousands of equites marching in the
+procession, now and again, perhaps at some signal, raise shouts of
+applause to the master and sun of that glorious human universe wherein
+they rejoice as the fortunate stars.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_472">[472]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>397. Hailing the Emperor.</b>—So the procession enters Rome. At
+sight of the tall, majestic Imperator, whose purple mantle gleams with
+gold, all the streets and plazas burst into tumults of cheering. “<i>Io
+Triumphe! Io Triumphe! Ave Cæsar! Ave Hadriane!</i>” while not a few
+in ecstatic loyalty make haste even to salute him as “<i>Dominus et
+Deus!</i>”</p>
+
+<p>As the imperial car passes each crossing of the streets, victims are
+sacrificed, while loud prayers are raised for the monarch’s safety. The
+air grows heavy with the perfumes of the incense burning on hundreds
+of improvised altars. From the balconies matrons rain down masses of
+roses; and at many a turn great volumes of saffron are sprinkled over
+the marchers.</p>
+
+<p>Onward Hadrian rides, his handsome features curling perchance with
+pleasure but looking not to the right hand nor the left. Perhaps he
+recalls that were this a formal triumph, a slave would have been
+required to stand behind him whispering at intervals, “Remember, you
+are but a man!”</p>
+
+
+<p class="p2"><b>398. The Donatives, Fêtes, and Games.</b>—The procession thus
+sweeps along the Sacred Way, pauses for a moment that the Emperor
+may survey the latest touches upon his new Temple of Venus and Rome,
+passes the holy House of Vesta and then turning away from the Forum
+and the Capitol ascends into the Palatine. Here the gorgeously
+arrayed companies of the official bureaucracy swell again the “<i>Io
+Triumphe!</i>” and Hadrian dismounts from the car to offer his own
+special thanksgiving for safe return, and to burn his own incense
+within the Temple of Apollo of the Palatine.</p>
+
+<p>All that afternoon the fête continues. The great public baths stand
+open, absolutely free, not even the petty quadrans being exacted
+from the plebeian visitors. The grain and bread doles are doubled;
+the ticket holders receiving to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_473">[473]</span> boot measures of oil and wine. The
+Prætorians drink deeply the imperial health—for a special donative of
+1000 sesterces ($40) per man has been ordered for the entire corps.</p>
+
+<p>In the Flavian Amphitheater Hadrian himself presides in the podium
+while a lioness contends with an elephant, the most famous and skilful
+netters and Thracians slaughter one another, and a desperate robber is
+done to death by three panthers. Late into the evening the streets are
+illuminated; there is feasting, dancing, reveling all through the wide
+parks and the bosky groves stretching across the Campus Martius to the
+Tiber. Everybody is praising the greatness and glory alike of Emperor
+and Empire; and as for Rome, Imperial Rome, the center of all the
+earth, who doubts that her power is ordained to stand forever?</p>
+
+<p class="p2"><b>399. A Christian Gathering.</b>—Not all Rome this night is given
+over to roses, wine, and reveling under the torchlight. In one of those
+subterranean burial galleries near the Via Appia, which a later age
+will call “Catacombs,” in a spot where a chamber of some dimensions has
+been excavated, a group of soberly clad folk have gathered. They have
+met stealthily,—posting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_474">[474]</span> sentries to give the alarm, for the vigiles
+may not have become too drunk that night to be active.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" id="i_473" style="max-width: 342px">
+     <img
+    class="p1"   
+    src="images/i_473.jpg"
+     alt="">
+     <p class="p0 smaller center"><span class="smcap">View in the Christian Catacombs</span>: present state.</p>
+     </div>
+
+<p>The leader of their service is the Bishop Higinius whose name will
+stand as the eighth Pope following the Apostle Peter. During their
+simple liturgies some strains of boisterous music from the luxurious,
+sensual, pitiless metropolis outside interrupt their hymns, and the
+good bishop signs to one of the deacons. The latter opens the scroll
+of the Book of Apocalypse where under the cryptic name of “Babylon” is
+forewarned the fate even of imperial Rome; and thus he reads:</p>
+
+<p>“For her sins have reached unto heaven, and God hath remembered her
+iniquities; therefore shall her plagues come upon her in one day, death
+and mourning and famine; and the kings of the earth who have committed
+wickedness and lived deliciously with her shall bewail and lament her
+when they see the smoke of her burning.</p>
+
+<p>“And the merchants of the earth shall weep and mourn over her, for no
+man buyeth their merchandise any more;—the merchandise of gold and
+silver, and precious stones, and of pearls, and fine linen and purple
+and silk and scarlet and all rare woods and all manner of vessels
+of ivory, and all manner of vessels of most precious wood, and of
+brass, and iron, and marble, and cinnamon, and odors and ointments,
+and frankincense, and wine, and oil, and fine flour, and wheat, and
+beasts, and sheep, and horses, and chariots, and slaves, <i>and souls
+of men</i>.”</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_475">[475]</span></p>
+
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">[References are to pages.]</p>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><i><b>Acta Diurna</b></i>,
+    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Advocates"><b>Advocates</b>, methods of,
+    <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">great importance of,
+    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">cheap pettifoggers,
+    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">high abilities of some lawyers,
+    <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Agrippa</b>, Baths of,
+    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Aliens</b>, vast numbers of,
+    <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">colonies of, in Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Amphitheater"><b>Amphitheater</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_394">394</a>ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">(<i>see</i> <a href="#Gladiator_contests">Gladiator Contests</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Antiques</b>, often spurious,
+    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Apicius</b>, the gourmand,
+    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Aqueducts</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_303">303–304</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Arch</b>, use of,
+    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Architectural Forms</b>, usually Greek,
+    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">use of arch and vault in,
+    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Architecture</b>, very grandiose,
+    <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Arena</b>, arrangement of,
+    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">(<i>see</i> <a href="#Gladiator_contests">Gladiator Contests</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Armor</b>, of legionaries,
+    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Army</b>, real master of the Empire,
+    <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">held under stiff discipline,
+    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">stationed on frontiers,
+    <a href="#Page_308">308–309</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">legions in,
+    <a href="#Page_309">309</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">size of,
+    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">efficiency of,
+    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">no reserves to,
+    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">(<i>see</i> <a href="#Legionaries">Legionaries</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Arria</b> (wife of Cæcina Poetus),
+    <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Atrium</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Auctions</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Audiences</b> with emperors,
+    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Augurs</b> and augury,
+    <a href="#Page_418">418–419</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Augustus</b>, tomb of,
+    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">deified,
+    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Auspices</b>, taken in Senate,
+    <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Auxiliary cohorts</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_327">327–328</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b>Ball games</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Banks</b> and bankers,
+    <a href="#Page_227">227</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">a great banker,
+    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">forms of investment,
+    <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">trust business of,
+    <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">savings banks,
+    <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">safe deposits,
+    <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">deposits in Temple of Vesta,
+    <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Banquets</b> (<i>see</i> <a href="#Dinner">Dinners</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Barber shops</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_90">90</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Basilica Æmilia</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Basilica Julia</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_272">272–274</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Baths</b>, popularity of,
+    <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">luxurious private,
+    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">private-owned,
+    <a href="#Page_360">360–361</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">large government-owned,
+    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">great Baths of Trajan,
+    <a href="#Page_361">361</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">crowds at,
+    <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">often a kind of club house,
+    <a href="#Page_362">362–363</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">entrance to,
+    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">interior of,
+    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">cold room (<i>frigidarium</i>),
+    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">swimming pool,
+    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2"><i>tepidarium</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_365">365–366</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">hot baths (<i>caldaria</i>),
+    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">extreme luxury of,
+    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">restaurants and shops at,
+    <a href="#Page_367">367–368</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">parasites at,
+    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Beards</b>, revival of,
+    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Beast fights</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Beggars</b>, multitude of,
+    <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Bonuses</b> (<i>donativa</i>),
+    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Books</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_209">209</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">format of,
+    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">mounting and rolling of,
+    <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">copying of,
+    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">publication of,
+    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Bread</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Breakfast</b> (<i>jentaculum</i>),
+    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Building materials</b> used in Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Bulla</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Caldaria</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Camp</b> of prætorian guard,
+    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Camps</b>, military,
+    <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Campus Martius</b>, view from,
+    <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">general description of,
+    <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">great porticoes along,
+    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">public buildings upon,
+    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Carriages</b>, varieties of,
+    <a href="#Page_455">455–456</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Catacombs</b>, used by Christians,
+    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Cemeteries</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_179">179–180</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Cena</b> (<i>see</i> <a href="#Dinner">Dinner</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Centurions</b>, in legions,
+    <a href="#Page_323">323–325</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Chairs</b>, forms of,
+    <a href="#Page_55">55–56</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Charioteers</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">(<i>see</i> <a href="#Circus">Circus</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Chests</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Children</b>, legal status of,
+    <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">exposure of,
+    <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">very desirable,
+    <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">ceremonies after birth,
+    <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">names given,
+    <a href="#Page_186">186–189</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">care in educating,
+    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">toys and pets,
+    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">taught Greek,
+    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">schooling and education,
+    <a href="#Page_192">192</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Christianity</b>, pagan account of,
+    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">persecution of,
+    <a href="#Page_450">450–451</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">charges against,
+    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">attitude of educated men towards,
+    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Christians</b>, gathering of, in the Catacombs,
+    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Circus"><b>Circus</b>, popularity of,
+    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">charioteers in,
+    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">racing factions in,
+    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">wagering in,
+    <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2"><i>Circus Maximus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_384">384</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">race track,
+    <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">procession before races,
+    <a href="#Page_385">385–386</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">beginning of races,
+    <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">dangers in races,
+    <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">proclaiming victors,
+    <a href="#Page_387">387–389</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Circus</b>, Flaminian,
+    <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Circus Maximus</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_384">384</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Citizenship</b>, desirability of,
+    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">case of St. Paul,
+    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Claudius Etruscus</b>, powerful freedman,
+    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Clientage</b>, old type,
+    <a href="#Page_147">147–148</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">new type,
+    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Clients</b>, morning salutation by,
+    <a href="#Page_148">148–149</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">doles given,
+    <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">attend their patron,
+    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">undergo insults,
+    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Clothing</b> (<i>see</i> <a href="#Garments">Garments</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Cohorts</b>, city (<i>cohortes urbanae</i>),
+    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Collegia</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_249">249</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Color</b>, used upon sculpture,
+    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Column of Trajan</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_278">278–280</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Concrete</b>, great use of,
+    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Congiaria</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Cookery</b>, refinements in,
+    <a href="#Page_109">109</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Correspondence</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Couches</b>, general use of,
+    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Country</b>, around Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">view of,
+    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Country-life</b>, Roman love of,
+    <a href="#Page_453">453–454</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">(<i>see</i> <a href="#Villas">Villas</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Court</b>, imperial;</li>
+  <li class="i2">(<i>see</i> <a href="#Emperor">Emperor</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Courts</b>, law,
+    <a href="#Page_353">353</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">(<i>see</i> <a href="#Legal">Legal Procedure</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Crowds</b>, typical, upon a Roman street,
+    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Curia</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Curia Julia</b>, arrangement of,
+    <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Cybele</b>, worship of,
+    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b>Daily Gazette</b> (<i>Acta Diurna</i>),
+    <a href="#Page_282">282</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">entries and gossip in,
+    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Decurions</b>, provincial nobles,
+    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Deified Augustus</b> and later emperors,
+    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Dining room</b> (<i>triclinium</i>),
+    <a href="#Page_45">45</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Dinner"><b>Dinner</b> (<i>cena</i>),
+    <a href="#Page_111">111</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">time for,
+    <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">standard number for,
+    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">preparing for,
+    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">arranging couches,
+    <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">serving of,
+    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">courses at,
+    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">drinking bout after,
+    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">garlands and perfumes at,
+    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">very elaborate banquets,
+    <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">simple home meals,
+    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Dinner hunters</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">at baths,
+    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Discomforts</b> of life in Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Doles</b>, public, of grain,
+    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">distribution of,
+    <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Domus"><b><i>Domus</i></b> (mansions),
+    <a href="#Page_39">39</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">often several owned by one magnate,
+    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">plan of early,
+    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">plan of developed,
+    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">price of a handsome,
+    <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">entrance to,
+    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">atrium of,
+    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">decorations of,
+    <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2"><i>peristylium</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2"><i>triclinium</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_45">45</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">special rooms in,
+    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">garden behind,
+    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">slaves’ quarters,
+    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">floors and windows of,
+    <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">frescos in,
+    <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">statues in,
+    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">furniture in,
+    <a href="#Page_54">54</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Donativa</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Drinking bout</b> (<i>commissatio</i>),
+    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b>Eagle</b> of legion,
+    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Eating"><b>Eating-houses</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Education"><b>Education</b>, selection of school,
+    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">extent of literacy,
+    <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">instruction of girls,
+    <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">for lower classes,
+    <a href="#Page_193">193</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">low-grade schools,
+    <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">cruelty in schools,
+    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">superior types of schools,
+    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">methods of teaching,
+    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">reading and writing,
+    <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">arithmetic,
+    <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">grammarians’ high schools,
+    <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">passion for oratory,
+    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">rhetoric schools,
+    <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">mock debates,
+    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">popularity of rhetorical studies,
+    <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">philosophy, study of,
+    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Egypt</b>, worship of its gods,
+    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Emperor"><b>Emperor</b>, center of social life,
+    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">“friends of Cæsar,”
+    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">audiences with,
+    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">ruin through disfavor of,
+    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">favor most valuable,
+    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Emperors</b>, cult of the deified,
+    <a href="#Page_439">439–440</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Emporium</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Encampments</b>, military,
+    <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Entrance</b> to house,
+    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Epicureanism</b>, popular,
+    <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Equites</b>, second class nobles,
+    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">qualifications and honors of,
+    <a href="#Page_154">154</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">review of,
+    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Escorts</b>, of rich nobles,
+    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b>Factions</b>, in circus,
+    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Fame</b>, passion for, in letters,
+    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">in poetry,
+    <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Familia</i></b> of slaves,
+    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">organization of,
+    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Festivals</b>, great number of,
+    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">passion for spectacles,
+    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">(<i>see</i> <a href="#Games_public">Games, Public</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Fetiales</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Fire department</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_304">304</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Fish</b>, great demand for,
+    <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Flamens"><b>Flamens</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Flavian amphitheater</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_394">394–397</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Floors</b>, of houses,
+    <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Flowers</b>, varieties supplied from villa gardens,
+    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Flute-blowers</b>, guild of,
+    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Fora"><b>Fora</b>, centers of Roman life,
+    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">series of,
+    <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">crowds in,
+    <a href="#Page_256">256</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">centers for new,
+    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">grandiose architecture in,
+    <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">use of color on sculptures,
+    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">entrance upon the series,
+    <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Temple of Venus and Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_261">261</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">colossal statue of Nero,
+    <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Arch of Titus,
+    <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Temple of Vesta,
+    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Temple of the Divine Julius,
+    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Old Forum,
+    <a href="#Page_265">265</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of the Emperors,
+    <a href="#Page_275">275</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Foreign"><b>Foreign</b> cults, numerous in Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">why popular,
+    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">cult of Cybele or “Great Mother,”
+    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Isis worship,
+    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">ceremonies at Temple of Isis,
+    <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Serapis worship,
+    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Mithras worship,
+    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">nobility of Mithras cult,
+    <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2"><i>Taurobolium</i> ceremony,
+    <a href="#Page_448">448–449</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Christianity, pagan view of,
+    <a href="#Page_449">449</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Fortresses</b>, frontier,
+    <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Forum</b>, morning visit to,
+    <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of Julius,
+    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of Augustus,
+    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of Nerva,
+    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of Trajan,
+    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">(<i>see</i> <a href="#Old_Forum">Old Forum</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#Fora">Fora</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Forum Romanum</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_265">265</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">(<i>see</i> <a href="#Old_Forum">Old Forum</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Fountains</b>, public,
+    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Freedmen</b>, how created,
+    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">status of,
+    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">humble types of,
+    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">wealthy,
+    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">importance of,
+    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Frescos</b>, in a Roman house,
+    <a href="#Page_50">50</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">“<b>Friends</b>” of Emperor,
+    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Frigidarium</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Fruits</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Fullers</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Funeral monuments</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_179">179</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Funerals</b>, great interest in,
+    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">preliminaries to,
+    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">procession of “ancestors,”
+    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">exhibits in procession,
+    <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">orations at,
+    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">tombs,
+    <a href="#Page_177">177–180</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">funeral pyre,
+    <a href="#Page_180">180</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">for poorer classes,
+    <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b>Gain</b>, passion for,
+    <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Galli</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Gambling</b>, mania for,
+    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Games</b>, children’s,
+    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">played on boards,
+    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">out-door,
+    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Games_public"><b>Games</b>, public, passion for,
+    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">mania for gambling at,
+    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">vast scale of,
+    <a href="#Page_375">375–376</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">great expense of,
+    <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">popularity of,
+    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">seating at,
+    <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">(<i>see</i> <a href="#Theater">Theater</a>, <a href="#Circus">Circus</a>, <i>and</i> <a href="#Amphitheater">Amphitheater</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Gardens</b>, public, around Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Garlands</b>, at dinners,
+    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Garments"><b>Garments</b>, types of,
+    <a href="#Page_80">80</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">toga,
+    <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">tunica,
+    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">capes, cloaks, and gala garments,
+    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">women’s stola and palla,
+    <a href="#Page_86">86</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">materials of,
+    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">use of silk,
+    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">changing styles of,
+    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Gladiators</b>, notice of display of,
+    <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">popularity of,
+    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">(<i>see</i> <a href="#Gladiator_contests">Gladiator Contests</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Gladiator_contests"><b>Gladiator contests</b>, enormously popular,
+    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">at funerals,
+    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Gladiator schools</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">inmates usually criminals,
+    <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">severe training in,
+    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">typical arrangement of,
+    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Flavian Amphitheater,
+    <a href="#Page_394">394–395</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">its interior arrangements,
+    <a href="#Page_395">395–396</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">procession before contests,
+    <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">criminals thrown to beasts,
+    <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">fights with wild beasts,
+    <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">interval in sports,
+    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">distribution of lottery tickets at,
+    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">beginning of regular,
+    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">chariot warfare,
+    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">cavalry combats,
+    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">signals for ruthlessness and signals for mercy,
+    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">“Netters” and “Thracians,”
+    <a href="#Page_404">404–405</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">reward of victors,
+    <a href="#Page_405">405–406</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Glass</b>, used in windows,
+    <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Gluttony</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_100">100–102</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Golden Milestone</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Gourmandizing</b>, delight in,
+    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Government</b> of Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_299">299</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">city præfect,
+    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">curators and commissioners,
+    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">water supply of,
+    <a href="#Page_301">301–302</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">great aqueducts,
+    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">police and fire department,
+    <a href="#Page_304">304–305</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Grain</b>, trade in,
+    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">doles of,
+    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">distribution of,
+    <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Grammarians’ schools</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">“<b>Great Mother</b>,”
+    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Greek language</b>, constantly used in Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Guests</b> at dinner, proper number nine,
+    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">arrangement on couches,
+    <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Guilds</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">very ancient ones,
+    <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">importance of,
+    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">festivals of,
+    <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b>Hadrian</b>, prosperity of his reign,
+    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">tomb of,
+    <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">his return to Italy,
+    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">his procession entering Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">how saluted,
+    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">presides over fêtes,
+    <a href="#Page_472">472–473</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Hairdressing</b>, women’s,
+    <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">ornaments on hair,
+    <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Heating</b> of houses,
+    <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Hills</b>, Seven, of Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Hospitals</b>, almost nonexistent,
+    <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Hotels</b>, (<i>see</i> <a href="#Inns">Inns</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>House fronts</b>, on typical Roman streets,
+    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Houses</b> (see <a href="#Insulae"><i>Insulæ</i></a> and <a href="#Domus"><i>Domus</i></a>).</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b>Idlers</b>, vast number of,
+    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Imagines</i></b> (death masks),
+    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Impeachment trial</b>, before Senate,
+    <a href="#Page_343">343</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Industry</b>, quarters for,
+    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">conditions of labor in,
+    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">organization in guilds,
+    <a href="#Page_249">249</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Inns"><b>Inns</b>, usually sordid,
+    <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">type of,
+    <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">reckonings at,
+    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">frequenters of,
+    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">eating houses,
+    <a href="#Page_235">235</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Insulae"><b><i>Insulæ</i></b> (tenement houses),
+    <a href="#Page_34">34</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">typical <i>insula</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">flats in,
+    <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">cheap attics in,
+    <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">dangers of,
+    <a href="#Page_37">37</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Isis</b>, cult of,
+    <a href="#Page_442">442</a> ff.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b>Janus</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Jentaculum</i></b> (breakfast),
+    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Jesus</b>, legal status of,
+    <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Jewels</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_96">96</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Jews</b> in Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b>Kissing</b>, habit of, in public,
+    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Kitchens</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Lacerna</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Lacus</b>, Curtius,
+    <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Lares</b> and Penates,
+    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Latrunculi</i></b> (game),
+    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Lawyers</b> (<i>see</i> <a href="#Advocates">Advocates</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Legacies</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">hunting for,
+    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">public bequests,
+    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Legal"><b>Legal procedure</b>, highly scientific,
+    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">great tribunals for,
+    <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">forms of verdicts,
+    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">importance of advocates,
+    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">cheap pettifoggers,
+    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">character and slave witnesses,
+    <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">use of written evidence,
+    <a href="#Page_357">357–358</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Legate</b> of the legion,
+    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Legionaries"><b>Legionaries</b>, enlistment of,
+    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">organization of,
+    <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">training of,
+    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">weapons of,
+    <a href="#Page_317">317–318</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">armor of,
+    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">rewards and punishment of,
+    <a href="#Page_319">319–320</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">retiring bonuses for,
+    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">pay and rations of,
+    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">training of,
+    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">non-military labors of,
+    <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">petty officers of,
+    <a href="#Page_322">322–323</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">centurions of,
+    <a href="#Page_323">323–324</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2"><i>primipilus</i> of,
+    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">eagle of,
+    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Legions</b>, number of,
+    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">organization of,
+    <a href="#Page_315">315</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">location and names of,
+    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">commanders of,
+    <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">(<i>see also</i> <a href="#Legionaries">Legionaries</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Letters</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_207">207</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Libraries</b>, size of,
+    <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">private,
+    <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">public,
+    <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of Trajan,
+    <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Literary fame</b>, passion for,
+    <a href="#Page_214">214</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Luncheon</b> (<i>prandium</i>),
+    <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b>Magistrates</b>, public honors paid to,
+    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Mansions</b> (see <a href="#Domus"><i>Domus</i></a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Manumission</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_139">139</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Marble trade</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Marriage</b>, men often reluctant to marry,
+    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">usually arranged by girls’ parents,
+    <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">marriage treaties,
+    <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">betrothal before,
+    <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">dowries,
+    <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">dressing bride,
+    <a href="#Page_66">66</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">actual ceremonies of,
+    <a href="#Page_67">67</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">contract of,
+    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">wedding procession,
+    <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">ceremonies at bridegroom’s house,
+    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">often unhappy,
+    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">divorce, easy and frequent,
+    <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">happy marriages,
+    <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Masks</b>, death (<i>imagines</i>),
+    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Matrons</b>, honors paid to,
+    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">(<i>see</i> <a href="#Women">Women</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Meals</b> and meal times,
+    <a href="#Page_110">110</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Meat</b> and poultry,
+    <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Medicine</b> (<i>see</i> <a href="#Physicians">Physicians</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Mimes</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Mithras</b>, worship of,
+    <a href="#Page_445">445–446</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Morning</b>, how spent by gentlemen,
+    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Morra</b>, game of,
+    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Mosaics</b>, in Roman mansion,
+    <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b>Names</b>, intricacy of,
+    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">irregular,
+    <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of slaves,
+    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of women,
+    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">confusion of,
+    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Nero</b>, colossal statue of,
+    <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Notices</b>, public,
+    <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1" id="Old_Forum"><b>Old Forum</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_265">265</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">noble traditions of,
+    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">impression created by,
+    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">crowds in,
+    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">area of,
+    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">western end of,
+    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Rostra,
+    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Golden Milestone,
+    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Tullianum,
+    <a href="#Page_270">270</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Basilica Æmilia,
+    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Temple of Janus,
+    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Senate House,
+    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Basilica Julia,
+    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Lacus Curtius,
+    <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Olive oil</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Omens</b>, belief in,
+    <a href="#Page_419">419–420</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Oratory</b>, passion for,
+    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">training in,
+    <a href="#Page_201">201</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">in Senate,
+    <a href="#Page_343">343</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Ostia</b>, trade through,
+    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+  <li class="i2">shipping at,
+    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">naval shipping at,
+    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">harbor town at,
+    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Pænula</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Palace</b>, imperial,
+    <a href="#Page_288">288</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">magnificent aspect of,
+    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">famous buildings in,
+    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">triclinium and throne-room of Domitian,
+    <a href="#Page_291">291–292</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">enormous luxury of,
+    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">swarm of officials present in,
+    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Palatine</b>, view from,
+    <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">history of,
+    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">fine residences upon,
+    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Augustus settles upon,
+    <a href="#Page_287">287–288</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">commanding view from,
+    <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">imperial palace upon,
+    <a href="#Page_288">288</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Palla</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Pantheon</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_280">280–282</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Pantomimes</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">high art in,
+    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Papyrus</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Parasites</b>, swarm of, in Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">at dinners,
+    <a href="#Page_112">112</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">at baths,
+    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Park system</b> around Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">toward Tiber,
+    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Patria Potestas</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Paul</b>, legal status of,
+    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Pavements</b>, in Roman streets,
+    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Pax Romana</i></b>, blessings of,
+    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Pearls</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Perfumes</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">at dinners,
+    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Peristylium</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Pet animals</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of children,
+    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Philosophy</b>, study of,
+    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Physicians"><b>Physicians</b>, no training required,
+    <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">superior class of,
+    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">fashionable doctors,
+    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">instruments and books of,
+    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">famous remedies of,
+    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">absurd medicines,
+    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">theriac,
+    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">fear of poisons,
+    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">disciples of,
+    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">quack doctors,
+    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Placards</b>, public,
+    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Plebeians</b>, the “mob,”
+    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Pliny the Younger’s Tuscan villa</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_459">459</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">charming location of,
+    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">view from,
+    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">terraces and porticoes of,
+    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">bed-chambers of,
+    <a href="#Page_463">463–464</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">gardens of,
+    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Poetry</b>, passion for,
+    <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Police department</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_304">304–305</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Pontiffs</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Population</b> of Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Porticoes</b>, along Campus Martius,
+    <a href="#Page_368">368–369</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Portrait busts</b>, trade in,
+    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Præfect</b>, of city of Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of the police (<i>vigiles</i>),
+    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of the camps,
+    <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Prætorian guard</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_309">309–311</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">præfect of,
+    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">camp of,
+    <a href="#Page_311">311–312</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">organization of,
+    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Prætorian præfect</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Prayer</b>, formal, at sacrifice,
+    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Priests</b>, duties of,
+    <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">(<i>see</i> <a href="#Flamens">Flamens</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Primipilus</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Processions</b>, attending great nobles,
+    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Provincials</b>, status of,
+    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Public games</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_375">375</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Publishers of books</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Punishments</b>, of slaves,
+    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of soldiers,
+    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b>Regia</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Regions</b> of Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Religion</b>, signs of, everywhere,
+    <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">upper classes sceptical,
+    <a href="#Page_407">407–408</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Stoicism popular,
+    <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">revival of, under Empire,
+    <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">many foreign cults,
+    <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">plebeians very superstitious,
+    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">based on old Italian agriculture,
+    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">native Italian gods,
+    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Lares and Penates,
+    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">personified virtues as gods,
+    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">legalistic character of,
+    <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">priests not sacrosanct,
+    <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2"><i>Pontifices</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_417">417–418</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2"><i>Augurs</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Flamens,
+    <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2"><i>Salii</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2"><i>Fetiales</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Arval Brethren,
+    <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">rustic,
+    <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">soothsayers and astrologers,
+    <a href="#Page_424">424–425</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">sacrifices, private,
+    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">ceremony at temple,
+    <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">slaughtering the victim,
+    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">formal prayer,
+    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Vestal Virgins,
+    <a href="#Page_429">429</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">(<i>see</i> <a href="#Foreign">Foreign Cults</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Restaurants</b> (<i>see</i> <a href="#Eating">Eating-Houses</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Rhetoricians</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">schools of,
+    <a href="#Page_202">202</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Rings</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Robbers</b>, game of,
+    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Roman Empire</b> very prosperous under Hadrian,
+    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Rome</b>, beautified by Augustus and later Emperors,
+    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">reaches architectural perfection about 135 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>,
+    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">population of,
+    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">crowded condition of,
+    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">country around,
+    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">view from Campus Martius,
+    <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Seven Hills of,
+    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">regions and social quarters of,
+    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">typical street in,
+    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">discomforts of life in,
+    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">vast alien population in,
+    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">divisions of society in,
+    <a href="#Page_123">123</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">great Jewish colony in,
+    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">plebeians in,
+    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">life in, extravagant and expensive,
+    <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">a city of investors and buyers of luxuries,
+    <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">great shopping quarters in,
+    <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">industrial quarters in,
+    <a href="#Page_210">210</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">city government of,
+    <a href="#Page_299">299</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Rostra</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b>Sacrifices</b>, private description of,
+    <a href="#Page_425">425</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Salii</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Salutations</b>, form of, in public,
+    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Sandals</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Saturnalia</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Schools</b> (<i>see</i> <a href="#Education">Educators</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Scribblings</b>, upon every wall,
+    <a href="#Page_30">30</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Sculptures</b>, trade in,
+    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">often colored,
+    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Seat of honor</b>, at festivals,
+    <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Secretaries</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Senate</b>, outward glory of,
+    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">actual weakness of,
+    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">actual authority of,
+    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">organization and procedure of,
+    <a href="#Page_337">337–338</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2"><i>Curia</i> (Senate House) for,
+    <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">arrangement of seats,
+    <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">precedence in,
+    <a href="#Page_339">339–340</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">opening of session,
+    <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">auspices in,
+    <a href="#Page_340">340–341</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">routine business in,
+    <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">taking of vote,
+    <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">impeachment before,
+    <a href="#Page_342">342–343</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">use of water clocks,
+    <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">oratory in,
+    <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">advocates before,
+    <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">shouts and invectives during debates,
+    <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">taking the opinion of,
+    <a href="#Page_348">348</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">speeches from floor of,
+    <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">uproar in,
+    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">formal division in,
+    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">decree of banishment,
+    <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">end of session,
+    <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Senate House</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Senatorial order</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">includes relatives of senators,
+    <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Senators</b>, social glories of,
+    <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">form a high aristocracy,
+    <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">insignia and titles of,
+    <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">great importance of,
+    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Serapis</b>, worship of,
+    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1">“<b>Seven Hills</b>” of Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Shipping</b>, merchant,
+    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">naval,
+    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Shoes</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Shop fronts</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Shops</b>, vast number of,
+    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">shopping districts in Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_223">223</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">arrangement of shops,
+    <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of barbers,
+    <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">superior retail stores,
+    <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Shrines</b>, upon streets,
+    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Siege warfare</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Siesta</b>, custom of,
+    <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Silk</b>, use of,
+    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Slaves</b>, notice to,
+    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">vast numbers of,
+    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">power of master over,
+    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">city slaves and country slaves,
+    <a href="#Page_125">125–126</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">purchase of,
+    <a href="#Page_126">126</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">auction of,
+    <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">sale of superior,
+    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">size of household of,
+    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">workmen as,
+    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">duties of,
+    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">organization of,
+    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">discipline of,
+    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">frequently idle,
+    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">degradation of slave system,
+    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">evil results on masters,
+    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">punishment of,
+    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">branding of,
+    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">pursuit of runaways,
+    <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">torture of,
+    <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">manumission of,
+    <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Society</b>, divisions of,
+    <a href="#Page_123">123</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Soldiers</b> (<i>see</i> <a href="#Legionaries">Legionaries</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Soothsayers</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Statues</b>, vast multiplication of,
+    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">portrait busts,
+    <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Status</i></b>, in Roman society,
+    <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Stoicism</b>, popularity of,
+    <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Stola</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Streets</b>, typical in Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">very narrow,
+    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">paving of,
+    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">shops upon,
+    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">shrines and fountains upon,
+    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">crowds in,
+    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">noise and turmoil of,
+    <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">dark and dangerous at night,
+    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">extremely noisy towards dawn,
+    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Suicide</b>, not condemned,
+    <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b>Tables</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">costly, of citrus wood,
+    <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Tablets</b>, writing,
+    <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Tactics</b>, in battle,
+    <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Taurobolium</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Taverns</b> (<i>see</i> <a href="#Inns">Inns</a>).</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Temple</b>, of the Divine Julius,
+    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of Janus,
+    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of Mars Ultor,
+    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of Peace,
+    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of Venus and Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_261">261</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of Vesta,
+    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Tenement blocks</b> (<i>insulæ</i>),
+    <a href="#Page_34">34</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Tepidarium</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Theater"><b>Theater</b>, not extremely popular,
+    <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">stage in,
+    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">spectacles in,
+    <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">mimes,
+    <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">pantomimes,
+    <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">high art in latter,
+    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Theaters</b> upon Campus Martius,
+    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Thermopolia</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Tiber</b>, and valley of,
+    <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">barges upon,
+    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">trip down to Ostia,
+    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">shipping upon,
+    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Time</b>, measured by water clocks,
+    <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Titus</b>, arch of,
+    <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Toga</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_81">81–84</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Toilets</b>, very elaborate,
+    <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Tombs</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_177">177–180</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of Hadrian,
+    <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">of Augustus,
+    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Toys</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Trade</b>, through Ostia and Campania,
+    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Emporium and wharves,
+    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">upon Tiber,
+    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">in marble and grain,
+    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">in sculptures and portrait statues,
+    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Trajan</b>, forum and column of,
+    <a href="#Page_278">278–280</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">baths of,
+    <a href="#Page_361">361</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Travel</b>, modes of,
+    <a href="#Page_454">454–456</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Traveler’s escorts</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Triclinium</i></b> (dining room),
+    <a href="#Page_45">45</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Trigon</i></b> (ball game),
+    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Triumph</b>, ceremonies of a,
+    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Tullianum</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_270">270</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Tunica</i></b>,
+    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Turia</b>, story of,
+    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b>Vegetables</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Veterans</b>, care and rewards of,
+    <a href="#Page_329">329–330</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Vesta</b>, Temple of, as safe deposit,
+    <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Vestal Virgins</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_429">429</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">origin and sanctity,
+    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">temple and residence of,
+    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">how chosen,
+    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">duties of,
+    <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">senior vestal (<i>Maxima</i>),
+    <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">punishment of,
+    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">great honors of,
+    <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Via Sacra</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_261">261</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_263">263</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Victory</b>, statue of, in Senate,
+    <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b><i>Vigiles</i></b>, city police,
+    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">description of,
+    <a href="#Page_304">304</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Villas"><b>Villas</b>, several owned by one senator,
+    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">greatly enjoyed,
+    <a href="#Page_453">453</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">comfortable travel to,
+    <a href="#Page_454">454–456</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">multiplication of,
+    <a href="#Page_456">456</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">by the sea shore,
+    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">in the mountains,
+    <a href="#Page_457">457–458</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">near Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">great estates in the hills,
+    <a href="#Page_459">459</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">Pliny’s Tuscan villa,
+    <a href="#Page_459">459</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Vitellius</b>, imperial glutton,
+    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+  <li class="i1"><b>Wall scribblings</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>War</b>, ceremony of declaring,
+    <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Water clocks</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">in Senate,
+    <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Water supply of Rome</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_301">301</a> ff.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Wealth</b>, vast premium upon in Rome,
+    <a href="#Page_220">220</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Weapons</b>, of legionaries,
+    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Wills</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Windows</b> of houses,
+    <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Wines</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1"><b>Writing tablets</b>,
+    <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+  <li class="i1" id="Women"><b>Women</b>, honorable status of,
+    <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">rights and privileges when married,
+    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">have control of property,
+    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">selection of husbands for girls,
+    <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">marriage treaties,
+    <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">betrothal ceremonies,
+    <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">dowries of,
+    <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">marriage of,
+    <a href="#Page_66">66</a> ff.;</li>
+  <li class="i2">frivolous type of,
+    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">nobler types of,
+    <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">famous and devoted wives,
+    <a href="#Page_76">76</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+  <li class="i2">case of Turia,
+    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Outside of these limits were, of course, wide and populous
+suburbs whose inhabitants might be included in the estimated total of
+1,500,000.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> At present, of course, largely a treeless waste, very
+sparsely populated and afflicted with malaria.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> These are modern heights; since the days of the Empire
+there has been much leveling down. All the hills were then somewhat
+higher.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> He wrote his great “Geography” not long after 1
+<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> This and many other terms for Roman building materials are
+from the modern Italian.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> Very possibly the Etruscans were the actual inventors,
+although the principle of the arch was known in the Old Orient.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> He died about 110 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> A well-known avenue in Pompeii was called “Mercury
+Street.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> In describing Roman street life and its scenes let it be
+said once and for all that many very obvious things were so disgusting
+and revolting to modern notions that any description thereof is
+perforce omitted. Ancient life contained a great deal of social dross
+and filthy wickedness. There is no need to dwell on such matters, but
+their existence should not be forgotten.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> If a magistrate had met any persons on horseback, they
+also would have been bound to dismount on meeting him.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> If a praetor had been acting as governor, he would
+probably have had six lictors instead of merely two while he was a
+judge in Rome.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> The wall placards and inscriptions quoted in this and the
+following section are all substantially as found at Pompeii.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> For quotations of election notices at Pompeii see the
+author’s “Readings in Ancient History,” Vol. II, “Rome,” pp. 261–262.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> These figures seem to come from the fourth century, but
+there is no reason to think that housing conditions in Rome had changed
+very much since the second century.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> Rentals in Rome, for all classes of lodgings, were
+unreasonably high, as compared with the relative cost of other
+necessities: just as is now complained to be the case in New York,
+Paris, and other great cities.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> A familiar description of such a place by Juvenal.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> In small provincial cities like Pompeii the proportion of
+the people who could live in separate houses was much greater than in
+Rome; in fact separate residences were somewhat the rule. The Pompeiian
+houses were usually of two stories and nearly all were decidedly small.
+In Rome itself real estate was far too valuable to permit separate
+houses except for the wealthy.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> That was the price that Cicero paid for his town house,
+at a time when Roman real estate was worth probably much less than in
+the days of Hadrian.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> Petronius represents his rich upstart Trimalchio as
+having four ordinary dining rooms and also a special second story
+dining room.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> This heating by <i>hypocausts</i> was used much more in
+Roman villas in Gaul, the Rhinelands, and Britain, where winters were
+severe, than in Italy. In Rome itself people ordinarily managed to
+shiver through the relatively short cold spells by means of portable
+<i>charcoal braziers</i>, placed in the more important rooms, and by
+piling upon themselves extra tunics.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> One can make a long list of the marbles constantly used
+at Rome: <i>e.g.</i> white marbles from Carrara, Paros, and Pentelicos;
+crimson-streaked from Phrygia; orange-golden from Numidia; white and
+pale green from Carystos; serpentine from Laconia; porphyry from Egypt,
+etc.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> At this writing the number of wall paintings rescued from
+the excavations of Pompeii runs well up to 4000; and Pompeii was a city
+perhaps only a fortieth the size of Rome.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> Most of the finer scenes in Roman frescos seem to have
+been pretty good copies of famous paintings from Greek mythology
+originally produced by the masters of the Hellenistic age.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> It may be noted that the Romans seldom had built-in
+upholstery upon their couches and chairs. They depended upon removable
+cushions and apparently they had no metal springs.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> It had been suppressed for all practical purposes soon
+after 14 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> Witness, as most famous example, the case of Cornelia,
+mother of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. Very many other instances could
+be cited.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> Readers of Plutarch will recall the story of how Appius
+Claudius, then “Princeps Senatus,” proposed to Tiberius Gracchus at
+an evening banquet of the College of Augurs that he should marry
+Claudius’s daughter. Young Gracchus promptly accepted and the older
+nobleman rushed home in delight (Tiberius being a great “catch”). On
+entering his house Claudius called out with loud voice to his wife
+“Antistia, I’ve got a husband for Claudia!” “What’s all the hurry
+about,” answered she, “unless he’s Tiberius Gracchus?” Antistia
+evidently had to be informed first; the glad news could be broken to
+her daughter later.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> This anecdote and the quotations are all from the letter
+of Pliny the Younger to his friend Mauricius advising the latter (as
+per request for counsel) to seek the hand of Minucius Ancilianus for
+his niece.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> All silk was imported by extremely long caravan routes
+from China. If this veil was actually of pure silk and not mixed with
+cotton, it was of enormous value.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> Possibly meaning “Hurrah for Talassus, the marriage god!”
+but the exact significance of this time-honored shout had probably been
+long since lost.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> Both of these instances are from Pliny the Younger.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> For a complete quotation of this highly interesting
+tablet, see Fowler’s “Social Life at Rome,” pp. 159–167.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> The use of this garment gave his familiar nickname to
+the Emperor Bassianus, “Caracalla,” who reigned 212–217 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>
+The Gauls also had kind of trousers. This was counted against them as
+a token of sheer barbarism: <i>bracatæ nationes</i> (“trouser-wearing
+peoples”) was a term of extreme contempt in Italy.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> Probably there were simpler and more complicated forms of
+togas. The first were apparently shaped like an irregular semi-circle.
+We hear of extremely large togas (in bad taste) whereof the total
+length was four yards before draping. Experiments in certain American
+universities at making and then draping a toga corresponding in effect
+to many well-known statues have amply illustrated the great difficulty
+of putting on the garment gracefully, and the real art required of a
+Roman nobleman’s valet.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 44.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> There were various simpler garments, similar to the
+stola, permitted to common women and to young girls. The distinctive
+feature of the stola, forbidden to all save honorable matrons, seems to
+have been the lower flounce, reaching to the feet.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> About twenty years after the reign of Hadrian, Chinese
+annals record that certain “Roman” (Græco-Levantine?) traders actually
+reached China, and gave themselves out as envoys to the “Son of Heaven”
+from “Antun” (Antoninus Pius).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> Very like a modern copying press.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> Apuleius, writing probably a little later than this time,
+asserts that a lady, with no matter how fine clothes or jewels, cannot
+be considered really handsome unless an equal amount of attention has
+been bestowed upon her hair.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> Called the “luna” (crescent); but the origin is really
+unknown, although attempts were made to trace it back to some
+institution of Romulus.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> Diamonds were not unknown, but they were so hard to
+cut and so scarce that they figured rather seldom in Roman jewelry.
+They do not appear in the list of the twelve precious stones given in
+Revelation, XXI: 19–20.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> Stories about pearls are easily multiplied: <i>e.g.</i>
+how the son of Asopus, a famous actor, on coming into a vast patrimony,
+deliberately dissolved a large pearl in vinegar, then drank it down, in
+order to boast that he had “tossed off a million sesterces ($40,000) at
+one gulp!”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> Even less profitable, it would seem, is to try to list
+the cosmetics wherewith many Roman ladies, like their sisters of all
+times, covered their faces. Rouge was used in great quantities, and
+effeminate young men were known to have employed it. Eyebrows were
+blackened with antimony; lips were reddened, and of course hair dye
+was a familiar article. Propertius suggests that some women went so
+far as to trace over the veins in their temples with blue. Other women
+indulged in small black patches somewhat as did English ladies in the
+days of Queen Anne:—“There is nothing new under the sun.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> In Capua there was a whole great square of the city, the
+Seplasia, given over to perfumery shops and their wholesale trade.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> Vitellius was by no means alone in this disgusting
+practice. Seneca denounced the numerous gluttons who “Vomit that they
+may eat, and eat that they may vomit.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> The difficulty of preserving fresh meat, once butchered,
+would militate against its use as compared with poultry easily killed
+for each customer.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 20.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> <i>Posca</i> was probably the drink in which the sponge
+was steeped, that was extended to Jesus as He hung on the cross.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> A long and curious list of gourmand’s precepts are
+enumerated ironically by Horace in a familiar Satire (<i>Sat.</i>, bk.
+II. 4).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> The very imperfect means of illumination alone available
+with olive-oil lamps, would make many modern evening entertainments out
+of the question. The ancient lamps were beautiful in shape but utterly
+ineffective for lighting large halls, indoor theaters, etc.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> The love of “first-seats” at feasts, denounced in the New
+Testament, was anything but a strictly Jewish vice; Greeks and Romans
+were every whit as bad as Orientals.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> So given because here dispatches, etc., could be most
+readily handed to a consul or other great officer if he were among the
+guests.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> Sometimes a guest’s personal valet brought a special
+towel for his own master. Diners of an objectionable variety were
+occasionally charged with stealing the towels or napkins if the host
+supplied them.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> This, of course, was a very simple private dinner.
+For the menu of a really extensive banquet, see the citation from
+Macrobius, in the writer’s “Readings in Ancient History,” Vol. II
+(Rome), p. 253.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> Brought, of course, from the summits of the Apennines
+with infinite labor.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> They could not, of course, wear the toga, or, if female
+slaves, the matronly stola.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> The ancients had intense fear of epilepsy, supposedly
+a visitation of the gods. The questions given were the points on
+which slave-venders had to give assurance, or formally to waive all
+responsibility.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> This is almost precisely the slave auctioneer’s speech
+in Horace. (<i>Epodes</i>, bk. II, 1.)—If the dealer had failed to
+mention that the boy had once tried to run away, he would have been
+legally liable.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> Probably, however, it would be counted discreditable to
+sell a slave born in one’s house (a <i>verna</i>) unless the fellow was
+wholly reprobate, or the master was in great financial straits.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> Slave unions had no legal status, but only a harsh and
+tactless master would ordinarily break them up.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> Of course, in a large slave household frequently there
+were unruly elements who often had to be punished privately, when, if
+free men, their actions would have landed them in the police courts.
+The stripes might be inflicted as a mild correction with the cane, or
+leather strap, or more severely with the terrific <i>flagellum</i>
+(loaded whip), usually with three chains set with metal. A sound
+lashing with this could cause death (see below, p. 137). The prejudice
+against brutal whipping and the like was growing steadily, thanks
+to the advance of the Stoic philosophy, even before the triumph of
+Christianity. Juvenal denounces those who inflict outrageous floggings
+for slight faults. “Does a man set his son a good lesson by calling
+in the torturer and having a slave branded for stealing a couple of
+towels? Does such a man hold that the bodies and souls of slaves are of
+the same elements as our own?”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> “Three Letter Man” or “Man of Letters” became a common
+taunt among slaves.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> A slave might be lashed to a <i>furca</i> for some hours,
+as a minor penalty without desire to put him to death.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> An actual proclamation from Petronius.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> There would be just enough of negroes in Rome for them to
+cease to be great curiosities.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> It is impossible to estimate the proportion of the
+population “enfranchised” finally by the oft-discussed edict of
+Caracalla in 214 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> It must have been over one half of the
+entire total.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> Apparently it was quite possible for impecunious persons
+to sleep much of the year under the public arches and porticoes, and
+thus even dispense with the need of paying rent!</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> These hopes had practically died out by Hadrian’s day.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> That St. Paul was presently released after trial at Rome
+is the consensus among very many competent scholars.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> Women as well as men could sometimes be enrolled as
+clients. Comical stories abounded; how a husband appeared with a litter
+claiming that his “sick wife” was inside—“and would the steward please
+hurry with the fee”—when, on brushing aside the curtains, the litter
+was found to be empty.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> Especially in Gaul, Spain, and North Africa; in the
+Eastern provinces the city governments were not run so strictly in the
+Roman mold and often kept their native characteristics.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> Hence they were often called <i>Curiales</i> from their
+seat in the local Senate House (<i>Curia</i>).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> This name is not wisely translated as “Knights,” unless
+there is complete disassociation from the idea of the mediæval baron in
+armor.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> Apparently at this time two thirds of the jurors were
+equites and one third senators, but the point is not quite certain.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> The Republican censors could also give the order, “Sell
+your horse” without stigma to equites who appeared in the review when
+too old or too fat!</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> By the age of Hadrian we see signs of that rigid
+separation between upper-class citizens (<i>majores</i>) and
+lower-class (<i>minores</i>) which marked the Later Empire. The equites
+tended to be mingled with the senators in the <i>majores</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> Marcus Aurelius confirmed this legally about 170
+<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 77.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> Antoninus Pius, the ruler succeeding Hadrian, formally
+enjoined the remission of civic burdens for “community physicians” in
+the Province of Asia; five in small cities, seven in larger ones, and
+ten in the largest.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> Establishments selling ready prepared salves, plasters,
+and other standard remedies were not unknown, and must have supplied
+many doctors.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> Chemical analysis was, of course, unknown.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> These titles and much more of the data here given
+are from the writings of the great Galen—the master physician of
+the imperial age; who wrote his books under Commodus about 185
+<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> As in the case of the death of Cæsar Germanicus (19
+<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) whose death at Antioch was probably natural, but which
+all his friends attributed to poison given by his personal enemy, the
+Proconsul Piso.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> Probably there were such in the eastern provinces.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> Without clinical thermometers or second-watches, the
+taking of temperature, timing of pulse, etc., must have been a very
+tedious and disagreeable as well as uncertain process.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> Apparently the organization of <i>public hospitals</i>
+in the fourth century of our era, was among the earliest and worthiest
+of the distinctly Christian charities, after the toleration of
+Christianity by the Roman government.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> Two similar cases are recorded in Pliny the Younger; in
+one of them the person contemplating suicide, on being assured by the
+physicians that his case was not quite desperate, “agreed to fight on a
+little longer.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> The legal status of women made it needful to resort to
+various legal fictions when they drew wills, but they could execute
+effective testaments also.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> Still greater revenge could be taken by making insulting
+references in wills to old enemies, making them bequests of no value,
+or burdened with unwelcome conditions, or even explaining at length,
+without fear of a slander suit, why no bequest was left to them at all!</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> An actual tomb inscription.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> A hundred imagines of curule ancestors would be a very
+respectable but not an extraordinary showing. When young Marcellus
+(Augustus’s nephew) died, <i>six hundred</i> imagines of noble
+ancestors were borne in his procession.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> Under the Empire only the Emperor could actually ride in
+a triumph; but his lieutenants could enjoy the “triumphal ornaments.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> The granting of an actual funeral pyre inside of Rome was
+an extraordinary honor—reserved only for emperors and other unusually
+favored personages.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> This, of course, was the monument which Trimalchio,
+Petronius’s famous character, arranged for himself.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> Compare “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 57.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> The father might have “taken up” the child earlier to
+indicate his intentions not to expose it, but some later act of legal
+acknowledgment before witnesses was necessary.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> And hardly anybody outside the Claudian gens was ever
+named Appius.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> Literally “Number Ten”; but that meaning had disappeared.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> Very many such lengthy names are found under Hadrian.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">[100]</a> See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 63.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">[101]</a> These verses have been preserved to the present age by
+being inscribed upon the foot of the colossal statue of the “Speaking
+Memnon” in Egypt, during the visit there of Hadrian and Sabina.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">[102]</a> Of course, there would be many lower class Italians who,
+although fairly at ease with Latin, would be entirely unfamiliar with
+Greek.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">[103]</a> The writing end of the stylus (bone or metal) was sharp.
+The opposite end was blunt and flattened for erasing on the soft wax.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">[104]</a> See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 64.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">[105]</a> These are the words of Eumenius, a teacher of about 300
+<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, but they would have been equally proper in the age of
+Hadrian.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">[106]</a> Persons who could recite the whole of the Iliad and
+Odyssey from memory were not unknown, although they were usually
+learned slaves, not Romans of the higher class.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">[107]</a> A tombstone for a boy who died at the age of ten boasts
+that its subject “knew the dogmas of Pythagoras and the teaching of the
+books of the learned.” He was also alleged to have read all of Homer
+and to have studied Euclid “tablets in hand.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">[108]</a> Senators, degraded and banished for reasons good or bad,
+could earn a living in the provinces by opening rhetoric schools. Thus
+Lucinianus did so in Sicily in Trajan’s time. Pliny the Younger records
+that he began his first set oration by declaring: “O Fortune, what
+sport you make to amuse yourself! You make professors into senators,
+and senators into professors.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">[109]</a> An actual case for young orators as explained by the
+Elder Seneca. Less advanced pupils could be pitted in arguments as
+to “Whether country life is better than city life,” or “married life
+better than celibacy.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">[110]</a> The zeal for philosophy and rhetoric, or at least for
+the patronage thereof, is shown by the story of how Trajan, a very
+simple-minded soldier, used to invite the great rhetorician Dion
+Chrysostom to visit him and take long journeys with him. The Emperor,
+greatly impressed by the other’s learning, openly declared to him, “I
+don’t in the least understand what you keep talking about, but for all
+that I love you like my own soul!”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">[111]</a> It is impossible to recover the exact details of these
+two games. We know of “solitaire” forms of these games, with the board
+made of terebinth wood, and with crystal pieces, or with gold and
+silver coins in place of the common black and white counters.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">[112]</a> In very early Roman days public records seem to have
+been kept on books of <i>linen</i>; but these soon disappeared.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">[113]</a> We hear, however, of a single copy of Thucydides
+that required 578 pages, making a roll about 100 yards long—a most
+cumbersome volume.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">[114]</a> The use of flat opening books of the style later so
+familiar came in before the fall of the Roman Empire, but they were
+apparently used only for merchants’ ledgers, etc., in the time of
+Hadrian.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">[115]</a> This was the probable method of multiplying popular
+books, but we lack very precise knowledge.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">[116]</a> Pliny the Younger had a favorite reader Eucolpus. When
+he fell ill his master was sadly tormented: “Who will read my books
+and take such an interest in them? Where can I find another with so
+pleasant a reading voice?”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">[117]</a> Hadrian’s famous and pathetic poem “To his own soul”
+was not, of course, composed until he lay on his death bed (138
+<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">[118]</a> These men were well-known poets according again to Pliny
+the Younger. The world undoubtedly gained when their verses perished.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">[119]</a> The record for a private collection—62,000 rolls, owned
+by the senator Serenus, dates about 235 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, but there is no
+reason to suppose that there were not libraries equally large under
+Hadrian.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">[120]</a> Concerning the actual arrangement of these public
+libraries we know very little.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">[121]</a> Of course, by Hadrian’s time an increasingly large
+proportion of the privates of the army was being recruited in the
+provinces.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">[122]</a> All these hucksters’ stalls as well as the beggars and
+the playing children are depicted in certain very informing frescos in
+a house at Pompeii, showing life in the forum of that little city.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">[123]</a> See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 24.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">[124]</a> This form of advertisement is given in Petronius.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">[125]</a> 12 per cent (one per cent per month) was the lawful and
+normal rate of interest. Greater interest could be demanded on risky
+ventures, especially those by sea. Rates of 36 and 48 per cent, heard
+of under the Later Republic, were excessive, and usually unlawful.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">[126]</a> These verses are from the wall of an inn in Pompeii, and
+the foregoing description is that of an actual Pompeiian inn.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">[127]</a> This scene is a familiar one from Juvenal.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">[128]</a> Another scene taken from an actual bas-relief and
+inscription.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">[129]</a> Marcus Aurelius belonged to this rich family on his
+mother’s side.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">[130]</a> The real name of such a vessel.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">[131]</a> The expression “Sharer in the Public Grain Doles”
+appears on many tombstones of worthy burghers, to indicate that they
+enjoyed the full rights of citizenship.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">[132]</a> It became so under the Later Empire.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">[133]</a> When Commodus became Emperor in 180 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, the
+congiarium came to the ruinous sum of 725 denarii per citizen. This
+was $96.00 each, if the coins were of full weight and fineness, which
+probably at that period they were not.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">[134]</a> Figures given by Lucian for a craft of this type.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">[135]</a> See “A Day in Old Athens,” pp. 125–134.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">[136]</a> There was practically no naval warfare worth mentioning
+in the whole course of Roman history from the battle of Actium (31
+<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>) to 323 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, when considerable naval fighting
+took place at the time Constantine captured Byzantium from his rival
+Licinius.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">[137]</a> As at Ephesus where Demetrius used the guild of the
+silversmiths to start his riot against St. Paul. (Acts, 19:25.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">[138]</a> Such improvised gaming-boards have been discovered by
+the archæologists.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">[139]</a> See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 216.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">[140]</a> Later than the age of Hadrian this area was occupied by
+such famous structures as the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, the
+Basilica of Constantine, etc.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">[141]</a> A difficult archæological question is connected with the
+exact site of the Rostra <i>before</i> Julius Cæsar’s time. Probably
+its original position was nearer the other end of the Forum.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">[142]</a> Janus was about the only Latin deity for whom there
+could not be assigned a Greek counterpart.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">[143]</a> Later visitors to the Forum would, of course, be
+impressed with the fine, if ornate, <i>Arch of Septimius Severus</i>,
+erected about 211 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> at the northwest corner of the plaza.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">[144]</a> The column of Marcus Aurelius, erected about 180
+<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> in much the same style as that of Trajan, although a
+magnificent monument, is not equal in execution to the older column.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">[145]</a> He magnanimously allowed Agrippa’s name still to
+appear as the builder of the temple. The Pantheon apparently owed
+its preservation through the Middle Ages to the fact that it was
+early consecrated as a Christian church, and hence was exempt from
+profanation.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">[146]</a> At the end of his reign the Senate so disliked him that
+(although he had been in the main an excellent ruler) his successor
+Antoninus had much trouble in getting him voted a “<i>divus</i>,” as
+were all good Emperors.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">[147]</a> We have no copy of the Acta Diurna. We possess, however,
+what seems a pretty literal parody of its style and contents in
+Petronius, and can reconstruct part of an issue with some confidence.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">[148]</a> Both of these are actual cases from the reign of
+Augustus.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">[149]</a> Old Latin goddesses.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">[150]</a> The only important addition after Domitian was made by
+Septimius Severus, who, about 200 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, built the very lofty
+<i>Septizonium</i>, a new palace at the south-east corner of the hill.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">[151]</a> As is, of course, well known, such emperors as Tiberius,
+Nero, and Domitian were popular with the provinces, which were usually
+well governed under them. Their cruelties smote mainly upon the
+senatorial nobility.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">[152]</a> About 230 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> Alexander Severus caught a
+palace menial selling gossip, and had him executed by being burned in a
+fire of damp wood. “He is punished by smoke,” said the irate monarch,
+“who sold ‘smoke.’”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">[153]</a> The ceremony was not unlike that of the <i>levée</i> of
+French kings like Louis XIV, under the Old Régime before 1789.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">[154]</a> The Empresses would give a similar reception, however,
+to the wives of their husbands’ “Friends.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">[155]</a> Sometimes, with an affectation of democracy, almost
+any decently clad person would be admitted to present petitions or
+merely to pay respects. Servile prostrations before the Emperor were
+not encouraged under the Early Principate; once when a petitioner
+went through great bowings and scrapings while presenting a scroll to
+Augustus, the latter cried testily, “You act as if you were presenting
+some money to an elephant.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">[156]</a> This was the form used by Augustus in announcing to
+Fabius Maximus the withdrawal of imperial favor.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">[157]</a> Polite chatter, as reported by Horace, such as was
+vouchsafed by Augustus and his great associate Mæcenas, to their social
+favorites.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">[158]</a> Hadrian, although not a bloody man, was so averse to
+being opposed in argument that the philosopher Favorinus, with whom he
+took issue on a point in etymology, promptly announced that “Caesar was
+correct,” and so ended the discussion amiably. “But <i>you</i> were
+really correct,” protested Favorinus’s friends afterward. “Ah!” replied
+he with a laugh, “the master of thirty legions must be allowed to know
+better.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">[159]</a> These old “Republican” officers, now six in number,
+retained a certain control of the public markets, baths, taverns, etc.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">[160]</a> As discovered by modern archæologists.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">[161]</a> For the attitude of provincials under Roman rule the
+student can with interest read the speech put in the mouth of King
+Agrippa, the descendant of Herod, by Josephus (“Jewish War”: book II,
+ch. 16) in which he tells the Jews of Nero’s day, (1) that on the whole
+the Roman rule is so reasonable and tolerable they have no real cause
+to revolt against it; (2) that all nations, including the most warlike
+such as Sparta, Macedonia, the turbulent Gauls and Spain, have long
+since submitted; (3) that these have not merely submitted but keep
+obedient with only a trifling local display of armed force; (4) that
+resistance to Rome is so hopeless in any case that a revolt would be
+impious suicide.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">[162]</a> About 200 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> they were raised to 33.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">[163]</a> Its site to-day is occupied by the chief railroad
+station of Rome, by which most foreign visitors enter the city and
+depart.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">[164]</a> An ever larger proportion of legionary troops had to be
+enlisted in the provinces, although preferably in the parts somewhat
+Romanized.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">[165]</a> In Hadrian’s time a change was taking place whereby
+the first cohort in a legion contained about twice as many men as
+there were in any of the other nine; but this alteration became only
+gradually effective.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">[166]</a> In the earlier Empire it was only 900 sesterces ($36).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">[167]</a> It might be added that Roman legions appear to have
+had a medical department under a <i>medicus legionis</i>, which cared
+efficiently for the health of the troops. Camp sanitation was well
+understood, and epidemics in the army were rare.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">[168]</a> The only materials for a crown assumed to be available
+in a rescued fortress.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">[169]</a> The distribution of the legions varied somewhat from
+one period to another according to the probable dangers on the exposed
+frontiers, but the largest armies were always stationed along the
+Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates. In Hadrian’s time apparently the
+main forces lay thus:</p>
+
+<p>Britain, 3 legions.</p>
+
+<p>Germany (Rhinelands), 4 legions.</p>
+
+<p>Danubian lands and Dacia, 10 legions.</p>
+
+<p>Syria and Palestine, 5 legions.</p>
+
+<p>Cappadocia, 2 legions.</p>
+
+<p>In all the other provinces requiring legionary troops at all
+(<i>e.g.</i> Egypt, Spain, Numidia, etc.), only one legion.</p>
+
+<p>Apparently in the second Christian century the greatest danger point
+seemed near the Danube, and the second greatest along the Euphrates,
+with the Rhinelands relatively more secure than earlier, when more
+legions had been stationed near them.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">[170]</a> Some legions were named for their organizers: Augustus,
+Claudius, etc.; some for real or alleged martial qualities, “Ferrata,”
+“Fulminata,” “Victrix,” and the like; one, the “Alauda,” from the
+lark’s wings worn on the helmets; several which were made by dividing
+existing legions were known as “Gemina,” and some from their place of
+original recruiting, “Gallica,” “Italica,” etc.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">[171]</a> The centurion to whom St. Paul’s custody was intrusted
+(Acts XXVII, 1) was of the “Augustan band,” <i>i.e.</i> one of the
+somewhat numerous cohorts named for Augustus—the special number not
+being given.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">[172]</a> Also we know from the by-laws of these soldiers’ benefit
+clubs that every member was entitled to a fine funeral, to an allowance
+for travel money if obliged to go on a long journey, and finally to a
+fixed sum as consolation money in case he was demoted!</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">[173]</a> The process of demilitarizing the population went so
+far that Trajan even discouraged the organization of regular bands
+of firemen in cities of Bithynia “lest they become the prey of
+factions”—<i>i.e.</i> somehow start a movement against the government.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">[174]</a> The Roman Empire has been rightly called a “military
+monarchy,” but was such only because the disarming of the civilian
+population and the extreme efficiency of the professional army put the
+former at the mercy of the latter. The imperial army and navy hardly
+exceeded 350,000 men, and <i>may</i> have been as small as 300,000. At
+the time this book was written the United States, with a population
+not greatly exceeding that of the Roman Empire, had a total of some
+250,000 men in its standing forces (army, navy, and marine corps) not
+counting any organized militia. Almost nobody would have pretended that
+the addition of some 100,000 men to this force could have rendered
+a “military monarchy” possible in America except as very peculiar
+conditions favored it—as they did in the Roman Empire.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">[175]</a> Bad Emperors, <i>e.g.</i> Domitian, made it a practice
+to <i>speak first</i> in the Curia; any senator who later opposed their
+opinions was liable to charges of disloyalty. If, however, an Emperor
+spoke last he also left the groundlings miserable because they might
+unwittingly have opposed him.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="label">[176]</a> The last avowedly constitutional “Princeps” was
+Alexander Severus (murdered 235 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>); then followed the
+military monarchy. Aurelian (270–275 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) took on practically
+all the trappings of a despot, and with Diocletian (284 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>)
+the absolute monarchy existed without concealment.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="label">[177]</a> The law required, however, a minimum of certain
+specified numbers for the passing of various important kinds of
+decrees.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="label">[178]</a> He did this because as holder of the military power
+it was unlawful for him to come inside the consecrated city limits
+(<i>pomerium</i>); so he built a suburban Senate House outside of these
+confines.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="label">[179]</a> So called because, being last on the Senate list, and
+seldom called upon to speak, they could express themselves with their
+“feet” only—<i>i.e.</i> by voting when they walked out in divisions of
+the house.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="label">[180]</a> Under the later Empire this statue (originally set up
+by Augustus) came to be looked upon as the “Palladium” of Rome and its
+removal from the Senate House in 384 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> by Valentinian the
+Second, despite vigorous protests by the pagan party, was looked upon
+as an official announcement of the triumph of Christianity.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="label">[181]</a> The other consul in 134 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> was Gaius Julius
+Servianius. The consuls would settle as to their presidency from day to
+day either by mutual agreement, by taking turns in rotation, or by the
+casting of lots.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="label">[182]</a> This trial follows closely the account of the
+prosecution of Marius Priscus, proconsul of Africa, before the Senate
+by Pliny the Younger and Tacitus the historian; but in Priscus’s
+trial the mere oratory actually took three whole days! (See Pliny the
+Younger: Book II, 11.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="label">[183]</a> Any student interested in the coarse and violent
+personalities permissible in speeches before the Senate, should read
+Cicero’s speech “Against Piso.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="label">[184]</a> Short-hand reports of the Senate meetings were taken,
+and seemingly embodied everything said, including even the applause and
+the unfriendly interruptions. We do not know, however, whether they
+were taken by senators, or by reporters brought in for the purpose.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="label">[185]</a> Apparently men not of prætorian rank rather seldom got
+the floor, although in highly important cases the presiding officer had
+to call for <i>sententiæ</i> down through the ex-quæstors.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="label">[186]</a> As did, of course, Cicero in his “Orations against
+Verres,” and in other orations.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="label">[187]</a> See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 135.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="label">[188]</a> Very few civil cases involving merely private rights
+would be heard by the Emperor, although they might by his deputy,
+the Prætorian Præfect. Claudius sometimes seems to have sat on the
+tribunal, out of a pedantic sense of duty, but often falling asleep
+until the advocates bawled “O Cæsar!” loudly enough to wake him.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="label">[189]</a> “Eloquence” was looked upon as indispensable for
+everybody expecting any kind of a public career. Even in the army there
+was much speech-making prior to a pitched battle. Tacitus speaks of
+how an army was so utterly surprised that its general “could neither
+harangue his men nor draw them up in battle array”—two operations
+apparently equally necessary. (Tacitus, “History,” iv, 33.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="label">[190]</a> Litigants were required by law to take oath that before
+the trial they had not promised any sum to their advocates or entered
+into any bargain with them. After the trial they were “allowed” to
+“offer” their lawyers not over 10,000 sesterces if they wished.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="label">[191]</a> See “A Day in Old Athens,” p. 138.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="label">[192]</a> Space lacks for a discussion of the formal training of
+the Roman lawyer-orators, or concerning those public recitations which
+sometimes were the means of winning even greater reputation than any
+ordinary successes in the courts.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these recitations in hired halls, with the audience carefully
+sprinkled with a paid claque, were worse than pedantic and artificial.
+Pliny the Younger, although he denounced the use of a claque, repeated
+with pleasure how he gave a reading from his own works and plays which
+lasted two days, “necessitated by the applause of my audience”; and
+boasted how he “had not allowed himself to skip one word.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193" class="label">[193]</a> The Roman week, <i>nundinæ</i>, had eight days—seven
+working days, then a market day. The Jewish week of seven days
+(<i>hebdomas</i>) became known to the Romans by the time of Pompeius
+Magnus, but it was not generally adopted until Christianity became the
+state religion.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194" class="label">[194]</a> Undoubtedly along with this incessant bathing there
+often went the presence of much squalor, dirt, obnoxious insects,
+etc. which seem inescapable in Mediterranean countries. Probably many
+persons injured their health by excessive and debilitating bathing.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195" class="label">[195]</a> An actual inscription. From the small provincial towns
+we have other inscriptions, advertising bath-houses “in city style
+(<i>more urbico</i>) and fitted with every convenience.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196" class="label">[196]</a> The great Baths of Caracalla (built <i>circ.</i> 215
+<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>) and those of Diocletian (<i>circ.</i> 300 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>)
+were not in existence, of course, in the days of Hadrian. Their ruins
+are at present among the most imposing in Rome, and they were probably
+somewhat larger than the Baths of Trajan, which are to-day nearly
+demolished, but their aspect and general arrangement were hardly
+different.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197" class="label">[197]</a> Houses near private baths were counted undesirable for
+residence or investment purposes on account of the noise, which, in
+private baths, often kept up late into the night.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198" class="label">[198]</a> The famous group of Laocoön and his sons, now in the
+Vatican, was found in the ruins of these Baths of Titus and Trajan.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199" class="label">[199]</a> Petronius’s “Satyricon” gives a vivid and informing
+picture of the amusements and horseplay in the thermæ.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200" class="label">[200]</a> The tepidarium in the later Baths of Diocletian was
+about 300 feet long by 92 feet wide, but probably that in the Baths of
+Trajan was somewhat smaller.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201" class="label">[201]</a> The Tomb of Hadrian was not actually completed until 139
+<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>—after his death.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202" class="label">[202]</a> Under the Republic the ædiles had to preside over very
+expensive games. Augustus, however, turned the <i>Cura Ludorum</i>
+(“supervision of the games”) over to the prætors, and the ædiles only
+gave spectacles voluntarily.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203" class="label">[203]</a> In the later Empire we hear of the case of Symmachus, an
+office-holder whose games cost him 2000 pounds of gold, about $400,000.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204" class="label">[204]</a> Italian audiences stowed very close. According to the
+marking upon the stone seats in the theater at Pompeii, only 16 inches
+were allowed for each spectator.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205" class="label">[205]</a> High-flying tragedies were indeed ground out by Seneca
+and by many inferior literary dabblers, but these “dramas” were hardly
+intended to be genuine acting plays, but only to be read aloud.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206" class="label">[206]</a> The ancient orchestra was of course for the dances of
+the chorus never for seating the spectators.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207" class="label">[207]</a> This figure seems decidedly too high; but the present
+ruinous state of the Circus Maximus makes it very difficult to
+determine the number more exactly.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208" class="label">[208]</a> As many as ten cars could contend at once in the
+greatest games.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209" class="label">[209]</a> The description of the Roman-style chariot race in Lew
+Wallace’s famous novel “Ben Hur” is technically as well as rhetorically
+admirable and accurate. However, no high-rank Roman, such as Messala is
+represented to have been, would have driven a quadriga in the public
+circus. The drivers were nearly always low-born men of provincial if
+not of servile origin.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210" class="label">[210]</a> The Spanish bull fights at their very worst were a
+relatively harmless imitation.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211" class="label">[211]</a> The gladiatorial games were never introduced in Athens.
+Once when, in the local council, it was proposed to imitate Rome and
+build an amphitheater, a prominent philosopher quashed the whole
+project by moving “first to abolish the altar of Pity.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212" class="label">[212]</a> Actual epithets bestowed on gladiators in the Pompeiian
+wall inscriptions.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213" class="label">[213]</a> Taken from the “Gladiator Gossip” at Trimalchio’s Dinner
+in Petronius’s “Satyricon.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214" class="label">[214]</a> As we know from paintings showing the surroundings of
+the Amphitheater at Pompeii.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215" class="label">[215]</a> Ordinarily it is stated that there was room for about
+87,000 persons in the Flavian Amphitheater. There were seats, however,
+for only some 50,000, although possibly 20,000 more could find standing
+room in the great upper sections.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216" class="label">[216]</a> The regular gladiatorial oath.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217" class="label">[217]</a> Augustus once protested against the custom of eating
+in the amphitheater as being undignified and said he would prefer to
+go away and return. “That is all right for <i>you</i>,” answered his
+hearer, “but <i>your</i> seat is sure to be kept for you!”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218" class="label">[218]</a> There were at least two other types of heavy-armed
+gladiators who are often mentioned—the “Samnites” and the
+“Myrmillones”; but it hardly seems profitable to examine the small
+particulars in which their arms differed from those of the “Thracians.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219" class="label">[219]</a> An actual Roman epitaph. The Epicurean theory was
+capable of statement in much more pleasing language than is given
+above, but the effect of such a philosophy upon the ordinary human
+viewpoint and conduct was inevitable.</p>
+
+<p>At the Roman colony of Thamugade in Africa, a checkerboard was found
+scratched in the pavement of the Forum, and beside it this plebeian
+version of the Prætor’s inscription: “<i>To hunt, to bathe, to gamble,
+to laugh—that’s living!</i>”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220" class="label">[220]</a> In all the extensive correspondence of Pliny the Younger
+there is hardly a single reference indicating that he had any religious
+beliefs, or took the least interest in religious matters save as they
+involved outward ceremonies or official policies.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221" class="label">[221]</a> This apparently continued true until well into the
+fourth century, when the whole pagan system was swept away by
+Christianity.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222" class="label">[222]</a> Janus had no Greek counterpart. It was one of the
+absurdities of the late Græco-Latin mythology that his wife Diana
+(<i>Dia Jana</i> = “Madame Goddess Jana”) should have been confounded
+with Artemis.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223" class="label">[223]</a> Under the later Republic these sacred colleges were
+filled according to the majority vote of 17 tribes of the people,
+selected by lot from the entire 35 tribes into which the Comitia
+Tributa was divided.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224" class="label">[224]</a> In early times the Pontifex Maximus also kept a kind
+of dry annals of sacred and profane events (<i>Annales Maximi</i>),
+valuable for the preservation of many facts in early Roman history.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225" class="label">[225]</a> A general in the field had to “take the auspices” to
+get good omens for his army, but of course he could not always have
+an augur present. Once in the first Punic War, Publius Claudius, a
+consul about to engage in a naval battle, was disgusted to be told,
+“The chickens will not eat.” “Very well then,” he retorted, “let
+them drink!” and flung them into the sea. To his own ruin and to the
+vindication of the official religion he was thereupon completely
+defeated by the Carthaginians!</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226" class="label">[226]</a> These plants (<i>verbenæ</i>) seem to have been grown
+within one special inclosure on the Capitol hill. They were carried by
+one of the fetiales known as the <i>verbenarius</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227" class="label">[227]</a> A rustic goddess sometimes also called Ops.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228" class="label">[228]</a> For a translation of this “Song of the Arval Brethren,”
+see the author’s “Readings in Ancient History,” vol. II, p. 6.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229" class="label">[229]</a> As is well known Tiberius in his ignoble retirement on
+the Isle of Capri surrounded himself with “Chaldæans” and other types
+of stargazers and magicians.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230" class="label">[230]</a> There were a few isolated survivals in Italy of the
+practices of ancient savagery. For example at Aricia, in Latium about
+16 miles from Rome, there was a holy grove of Diana wherein the priest
+was always a runaway slave who obtained his position by killing his
+predecessor. He was then safe from pursuit as long as he remained in
+the grove, until another fugitive slave in turn killed him—and so on
+through a succession of tragedies!</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231" class="label">[231]</a> Pigs were very common Roman offerings and were the
+regular victims in most of the rustic sacrifices.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232" class="label">[232]</a> Slightly adapted from the form of prayer given in Cato
+the Elder’s “Handbook on Agriculture.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233" class="label">[233]</a> This qualification of patrician birth was sometimes
+waived under the Empire, when genuine old-line patricians had become
+extremely few, but great pains were taken as to all the other
+requirements.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234" class="label">[234]</a> Alone of all the important buildings in Rome, the Atrium
+Vestæ had no piped water-supply; everything had to be borne in by the
+vestals or (for non-religious purposes) by their numerous attendants.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235" class="label">[235]</a> This did not prevent Vestals from attending the arena
+spectacles. The gladiators and persons thrown to the beasts had in
+theory a chance for life.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236" class="label">[236]</a> It was quite proper to play “April Fool” jokes at the
+Saturnalia: <i>e.g.</i> to present what seemed a platter of delicious
+food when all the viands were actually of clay.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237" class="label">[237]</a> Substantially on the scale of “Christmas presents.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238" class="label">[238]</a> Owing to rough dealings with the Senate, Hadrian himself
+came near missing deification, but Antoninus won his title of “Pius”
+by his zeal for vindicating his adoptive father’s memory. Antoninus
+Pius himself and Marcus Aurelius after him were, of course, promptly
+deified.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239" class="label">[239]</a> Much of what we know of these cults of the pagan Orient
+comes from early Christian writers who have no hesitation in betraying
+the “Mysteries,” but whose statements naturally are often biased and
+very incomplete.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240" class="label">[240]</a> The quotations are from Apuleius, “The Golden Ass” (book
+XI, <i>passim</i>), and are given at greater length in the author’s
+“Readings from Ancient History,” vol. II (Rome), pp. 282–284.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241" class="label">[241]</a> Technically he was the highest archangel under the one
+actual god Ahura-Mazda, but the Persian “magi” soon attributed to him
+practical divinity.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242" class="label">[242]</a> Nearly all our evidence for Mithraism is archæological;
+we know little of either its doctrines or its ritual. Apparently it
+had a system of priests not unlike the Christian clergy and a ceremony
+resembling the Christian sacrament. It owed its success largely to
+the real nobility of its doctrines, but could not in the end maintain
+itself by appealing simply to a remote myth, while Christianity was
+able to appeal to a personal Founder.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243" class="label">[243]</a> Mithras worship was only beginning to be important in
+the Age of Hadrian, and the Taurobolium was then still comparatively
+rare; by 200 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> it had become decidedly common; by 300
+<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> it was very frequent indeed.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244" class="label">[244]</a> From the age of Augustus to that of Nero Judaism had a
+considerable popularity in Rome. Its austere monotheism coupled with
+the mysterious Mosaic law and ceremonies made a considerable appeal
+to public opinion, and many fashionable persons—including apparently
+Nero’s Empress, the notorious Poppæa Sabina—gave “Jewish doctrines”
+a superficial patronage. It was also somewhat the fad to treat the
+Hebrew Sabbath as a kind of “holy day.” All this favor collapsed after
+the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. The Jews became a scattered
+and persecuted sect, without influence. As for Christianity, after 70
+<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> it lost nearly all its Jewish element and became pretty
+strictly a Gentile religion.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245" class="label">[245]</a> Tacitus undoubtedly obtained his statement about Christ
+and Pilate from the official government reports in the Roman Record
+Office. There is no reason to suppose that he, any more than his friend
+Pliny, investigated Christian sources.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246" class="label">[246]</a> The following are <i>some</i> only of the reasons why
+the Roman government insisted on persecuting the Christians, despite
+its usual policy of religious tolerance:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>1. The Christians persistently refused to sacrifice to the
+deified Emperors and to the Genius of the reigning Emperor,
+an act practically amounting in common opinion to a denial
+of loyalty to the government, or at least capable of that
+construction.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Christians demanded the repudiation of the old gods,
+including, of course, the official gods of Rome; they were not
+content with simply worshiping “Christus” along with Jupiter,
+Apollo, etc. as were for example the devotees of Isis.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Christians maintained a tight interior organization,
+separate socially from the pagans, under the control of its
+bishops, presbyters, and deacons, and so far as possible judging
+the disputes of its members. This seemed meddling with political
+matters, a ticklish business with any Emperor.</p>
+
+<p>4. The private meetings of the Christians, and the
+misconstructions laid upon their ceremonies, gave rise to the
+vilest possible stories.</p>
+
+<p>5. The great proportion of slaves and of the lowest grade of
+plebeians in the early Church seemed to justify the belief that
+here was a subversive, degraded, and illicit movement.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247" class="label">[247]</a> An actual wall-picture. For the charges here given
+against Christian assemblies and for many gross details, see Minucius
+Felix (“Octavius” VIII, 9.), who quotes the stories in order to refute
+them.</p>
+
+<p>It seems needless in a book concerned strictly with pagan Rome, to
+discuss the actual tenets and liturgies of the Early Christians. The
+only point to be understood here is the vile character of the charges
+brought against them by the ignorant heathen.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248" class="label">[248]</a> Probably the Roman carriages were more convenient than
+anything known later in Europe prior to 1800; and travel facilities in
+general were as good, the inns possibly averaging worse but the roads
+decidedly better, than at the dawn of the Nineteenth Century.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249" class="label">[249]</a> The following is an abridgment of Pliny the Younger’s
+well-known description of his Tuscan villa.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250" class="label">[250]</a> The Romans delighted in formal and highly artificial
+gardens such as were in vogue in the Italian Renaissance and the France
+of Louis XIV.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251" class="label">[251]</a> Well known, of course, is the famous dictum of Gibbon
+(“Decline and Fall of Roman Empire”: vol. i, chap. 2. Bury edition,
+p. 78): “If a man were called to fix the period during which the
+condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous he would,
+without hesitation, name that which elapsed from the death of Domitian
+to the accession of Commodus.” From the standpoint of a believer in
+aristocracy or monarchy this opinion is largely justifiable.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252" class="label">[252]</a> Where according to firm Christian tradition St. Paul was
+beheaded in the days of Nero, having been rearrested after having once
+been set at liberty.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="transnote">Transcriber’s Notes:<br>
+<br>
+1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been
+corrected silently.<br>
+<br>
+2. Where hyphenation is in doubt, it has been retained as in the
+original.<br>
+<br>
+3. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have
+been retained as in the original.</p>
+
+
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76087 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
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diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
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+This book, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this book outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+book #76087 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/76087)