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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/8559-8.txt b/8559-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a6cd03e --- /dev/null +++ b/8559-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4711 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement No. 360, +November 25, 1882, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement No. 360, November 25, 1882 + +Author: Various + +Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8559] +Release Date: July, 2005 +First Posted: July 23, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 360 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles +Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 360 + + + + +NEW YORK, NOVEMBER 25, 1882 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIV, No. 360. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + + TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Soaking Pits for Steel Ingots. + --On the successful rolling of steel ingots with their own + initial heat by means of the soaking pit process. By JOHN GJERS. + 6 figures.--Gjers' soaking pits for steel ingots. + + Tempering by compression.--L. Clemandot's process. + + Economical Steam Power. By WILLIAM BARNET LE VAN. + + Mississippi River Improvements near St. Louis, Mo. + + Bunte's Burette for the Analysis of Furnace Gases. 2 figures. + + The "Universal" Gas Engine. 8 figures.--Improved gas engine. + + Gas Furnace for Baking Refractory Products. 1 figure. + + The Efficiency of Fans. 5 figures. + + Machine for Compressing Coal Refuse into Fuel. 1 figure.-- + Bilan's machine. + + Hank Sizing and Wringing Machine. 1 figure. + + Improved Coke Breaker. 2 figures. + + Improvements in Printing Machinery. 2 figures. + +II. TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.--Apparatus for Obtaining + Pure Water for Photographic Use. 3 figures. + + Black Phosphorus.--By P THENARD. + + Composition of Steep Water + + Schreiber's Apparatus for Revivifying Bone Black. 5 figures.-- + Plant: elevation and plan.--Views of elevation.--Continuous + furnace. + + Soap and its Manufacture from a Consumer's Point of View. + (Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 330). + + Cotton seed Oil.--By S. S. BRADFORD. + + On some Apparatus that Permit of Entering Flames.--Chevalier + Aldini's wire gauze and asbestos protectors.--Brewster's account + of test experiments. + +III. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT. ETC.--On a New Arc Electric Lamp. + By W. H. PREECE. 6 figures--The Abdank system.--The lamp.-- + The Electro-magnet.--The Cut-off.--The electrical arrangement. + + Utilization of Solar Heat. + +IV. NATURAL HISTORY.--The Ocellated Pheasant. 1 figure. + + The Maidenhair Tree in the Gardens at Broadlands, Hants, + England. 1 figure. + + The Woods of America.--The Jessup collection in the American + Museum of Natural History, Central Park, and the characteristics + of the specimens. + +V. AGRICULTURE, ETC.--An Industrial Revolution.--Increase in + the number of farms. + + A Farmer's Lime Kiln. 3 figures. + + The Manufacture of Apple Jelly. + + Improved Grape Bags. 4 figures. + +VI. ARCHITECTURE, ETC.--The Building Stone Supply.--Granite + and its sources.--Sandstone.--Blue and gray limestone.--Marble.-- + Slate.--Other stones.--A valuable summary of the sources and uses + of quarry products. + +VII. ASTRONOMY. ETC.--How to Establish a True Meridian. By + Prof. L. M. HAUPT.--Introduction.--Definitions.--To find the + azemuth of Polaris.--Applications, etc. + +VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.--A Characteristic Mining "Rush."--The + Prospective Mining Center of Southern New Mexico. + + The Food and Energy of Man. By Prof. DE CHAUMONT.--Original + food of man.--Function of food.--Classes of alimentary + substances.--Quantity of food.--Importance of varied diet. + + Rattlesnake Poison.--Its Antidotes. By H. H. CROFT. + + The Chinese Sign Manual.--The ethnic bearing of skin furrows + on the hand. + + Lucidity.--Matthew Arnold's remarks at the reopening of the + Liverpool University College and School of Medicine. + + * * * * * + + + + +SOAKING PITS FOR STEEL INGOTS. + +ON THE SUCCESSFUL ROLLING OF STEEL INGOTS WITH THEIR OWN INITIAL HEAT BY +MEANS OF THE SOAKING PIT PROCESS. + +By Mr. JOHN GJERS, Middlesbrough. + +[Footnote: Paper read before the Iron and Steel Institute at Vienna.] + + +When Sir Henry Bessemer, in 1856, made public his great invention, and +announced to the world that he was able to produce malleable steel from +cast iron without the expenditure of any fuel except that which already +existed in the fluid metal imparted to it in the blast furnace, his +statement was received with doubt and surprise. If he at that time had +been able to add that it was also possible to roll such steel into a +finished bar with no further expenditure of fuel, then undoubtedly the +surprise would have been much greater. + +Even this, however, has come to pass; and the author of this paper +is now pleased to be able to inform this meeting that it is not only +possible, but that it is extremely easy and practical, by the means to +be described, to roll a steel ingot into, say, a bloom, a rail, or other +finished article with its own initial heat, without the aid of the +hitherto universally adopted heating furnace. + +It is well understood that in the fluid steel poured into the mould +there is a larger store of heat than is required for the purpose +of rolling or hammering. Not only is there the mere apparent high +temperature of fluid steel, but there is the store of latent heat in +this fluid metal which is given out when solidification takes place. + +It has, no doubt, suggested itself to many that this heat of the ingot +ought to be utilized, and as a matter of fact, there have been, at +various times and in different places, attempts made to do so; but +hitherto all such attempts have proved failures, and a kind of settled +conviction has been established in the steel trade that the theory could +not possibly be carried out in practice. + +The difficulty arose from the fact that a steel ingot when newly +stripped is far too hot in the interior for the purpose of rolling, and +if it be kept long enough for the interior to become in a fit state, +then the exterior gets far too cold to enable it to be rolled +successfully. It has been attempted to overcome this difficulty +by putting the hot ingots under shields or hoods, lined with +non-heat-conducting material, and to bury them in non-heat-conducting +material in a pulverized state, for the purpose of retaining and +equalizing the heat; but all these attempts have proved futile in +practice, and the fact remains, that the universal practice in steel +works at the present day all over the world is to employ a heating +furnace of some description requiring fuel. + +The author introduced his new mode of treating ingots at the Darlington +Steel and Iron Company's Works, in Darlington, early in June this year, +and they are now blooming the whole of their make, about 125 tons a +shift, or about 300 ingots every twelve hours, by such means. + +The machinery at Darlington is not adapted for rolling off in one heat; +nevertheless they have rolled off direct from the ingot treated in the +"soaking pits" a considerable number of double-head rails; and the +experience so gained proves conclusively that with proper machinery +there will be no difficulty in doing so regularly. The quality of the +rails so rolled off has been everything that could be desired; and as +many of the defects in rails originate in the heating furnace, the +author ventures to predict that even in this respect the new process +will stand the test. + +Many eminently practical men have witnessed the operation at Darlington, +and they one and all have expressed their great surprise at the result, +and at the simple and original means by which it is accomplished. + +The process is in course of adoption in several works, both in England +and abroad, and the author hopes that by the time this paper is being +read, there may be some who will from personal experience be able to +testify to the practicability and economy of the process, which is +carried out in the manner now to be described. + +A number of upright pits (the number, say, of the ingots in a cast) are +built in a mass of brickwork sunk in the ground below the level of the +floor, such pits in cross-section being made slightly larger than that +of the ingot, just enough to allow for any fins at the bottom, and +somewhat deeper than the longest ingot likely to be used. In practice +the cross section of the pit is made about 3 in. larger than the large +end of the ingot, and the top of the ingot may be anything from 6 in. to +18 in. below the top of the pit. These pits are commanded by an ingot +crane, by preference so placed in relation to the blooming mill that the +crane also commands the live rollers of the mill. + +Each pit is covered with a separate lid at the floor level, and after +having been well dried and brought to a red heat by the insertion of hot +ingots, they are ready for operation. + +As soon as the ingots are stripped (and they should be stripped as early +as practicable), they are transferred one by one, and placed separately +by means of the crane into these previously heated pits (which the +author calls "soaking pits") and forthwith covered over with the lid, +which practically excludes the air. In these pits, thus covered, the +ingots are allowed to stand and soak; that is, the excessive molten +heat of the interior, and any additional heat rendered sensible during +complete solidification, but which was latent at the time of placing +the ingots into the pit, becomes uniformly distributed, or nearly so, +throughout the metallic mass. No, or comparatively little, heat being +able to escape, as the ingot is surrounded by brick walls as hot as +itself, it follows that the surface heat of the ingot is greatly +increased; and after the space of from twenty to thirty minutes, +according to circumstances, the ingot is lifted out of the pit +apparently much hotter than it went in, and is now swung round to the +rolls, by means of the crane, in a perfect state of heat for rolling, +with this additional advantage to the mill over an ingot heated in an +ordinary furnace from a comparatively cold, that it is always certain to +be at least as hot in the center as it is on the surface. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +Every ingot, when cast, contains within itself a considerably larger +store of heat than is necessary for the rolling operation. Some of this +heat is, of course, lost by passing into the mould, some is lost by +radiation before the ingot enters into the soaking pit, and some is lost +after it enters, by being conducted away by the brickwork; but in the +ordinary course of working, when there is no undue loss of time in +transferring the ingots, after allowing for this loss, there remains a +surplus, which goes into the brickwork of the soaking pits, so that this +surplus of heat from successive ingots tends continually to keep the +pits at the intense heat of the ingot itself. Thus, occasionally it +happens that inadvertently an ingot is delayed so long on its way to the +pit as to arrive there somewhat short of heat, its temperature will be +raised by heat from the walls of the pit itself; the refractory mass +wherein the pit is formed, in fact, acting as an accumulator of heat, +giving and taking heat as required to carry on the operation in a +continuous and practical manner. + +[Illustration: GJERS' SOAKING PITS FOR STEEL INGOTS.] + +During the soaking operation a quantity of gas exudes from the ingot and +fills the pit, thus entirely excluding atmospheric air from entering; +this is seen escaping round the lid, and when the lid is removed +combustion takes place. + +It will be seen by analyses given hereinafter that this gas is entirely +composed of hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbonic oxide, so that the ingots +soak in a perfectly non-oxidizing medium. Hence loss of steel by +oxidation does not take place, and consequently the great loss of +yield which always occurs in the ordinary heating furnace is entirely +obviated. + +The author does not think it necessary to dilate upon the economical +advantages of his process, as they are apparent to every practical man +connected with the manufacture of steel. + +The operation of steel making on a large scale will by this process be +very much simplified. It will help to dispense with a large number of +men, some of them highly paid, directly and indirectly connected with +the heating department; it will do away with costly heating furnaces and +gas generators, and their costly maintenance; it will save all the coal +used in heating; and what is perhaps of still more importance, it will +save the loss in yield of steel; and there will be no more steel spoiled +by overheating in the furnaces. + +The process has been in operation too short a time to give precise +and reliable figures, but it is hoped that by the next meeting of the +Institute these will be forthcoming from various quarters. + +Referring to the illustrations annexed, Fig. 1 shows sectional +elevation, and Fig. 2 plan of a set of eight soaking pits (marked +A). These pits are built in a mass of brickwork, B, on a concrete +foundation, C; the ingots, D, standing upright in the pits. The pits are +lined with firebrick lumps, 6 in. thick, forming an independent lining, +E, which at any time can be readily renewed. F is a cast iron plate, +made to take in four pits, and dropped loosely within the large plate, +G, which surrounds the pits. H is the cover, with a firebrick lining; +and I is a false cover of firebrick, 1 in. smaller than the cross +section of the pit, put in to rest on the top of the ingot. This false +cover need not necessarily be used, but is useful to keep the extreme +top of the ingot extra hot. J is the bottom of the pit, composed of +broken brick and silver sand, forming a good hard bottom at any desired +level. + +Figs. 4 and 5 show outline plan of two sets of soaking pits, K K, eight +each, placed under a 25 ft. sweep crane, L. This crane, if a good one, +could handle any ordinary make--up to 2,000 tons per week, and ought to +have hydraulic racking out and swinging round gear. This crane places +the ingots into the pits, and, when they are ready, picks them out and +swings them round to blooming mill, M. With such a crane, four men and a +boy at the handles are able to pass the whole of that make through the +pits. The author recommends two sets of pits as shown, although one set +of eight pits is quite able to deal with any ordinary output from one +Bessemer pit. + +In case of an extraordinarily large output, the author recommends a +second crane, F, for the purpose of placing the ingots in the pits +only, the crane, L, being entirely used for picking the ingots out +and swinging them round to the live rollers of the mill. The relative +position of the cranes, soaking pits, and blooming mill may of course be +variously arranged according to circumstances, and the soaking pits may +be arranged in single or more rows, or concentrically with the crane at +pleasure. + +Figs. 4 and 5 also show outline plan and elevation of a Bessemer plant, +conveniently arranged for working on the soaking pit system. A A are +the converters, with a transfer crane, B. C is the casting pit with +its crane, D. E E are the two ingot cranes. F is a leading crane which +transfers the ingots from the ingot cranes to the soaking pits, K K, +commanded by the crane, L, which transfers the prepared ingots to the +mill, M. as before described. + + * * * * * + + + + +TEMPERING BY COMPRESSION. + + +L. Clemandot has devised a new method of treating metals, especially +steel, which consists in heating to a cherry red, compressing strongly +and keeping up the pressure until the metal is completely cooled. The +results are so much like those of tempering that he calls his process +tempering by compression. The compressed metal becomes exceedingly hard, +acquiring a molecular contraction and a fineness of grain such that +polishing gives it the appearance of polished nickel. Compressed steel, +like tempered steel, acquires the coercitive force which enables it to +absorb magnetism. This property should be studied in connection with +its durability; experiments have already shown that there is no loss of +magnetism at the expiration of three months. This compression has no +analogue but tempering. Hammering and hardening modify the molecular +state of metals, especially when they are practiced upon metal that is +nearly cold, but the effect of hydraulic pressure is much greater. +The phenomena which are produced in both methods of tempering may be +interpreted in different ways, but it seems likely that there is a +molecular approximation, an amorphism from which results the homogeneity +that is due to the absence of crystallization. Being an operation which +can be measured, it may be graduated and kept within limits which are +prescribed in advance; directions may be given to temper at a +specified pressure, as readily as to work under a given pressure of +steam.--_Chron. Industr_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ECONOMICAL STEAM POWER. + +[Footnote: A paper read by title at a recent stated meeting of the +Franklin Institute] + +By WILLIAM BARNET LE VAN. + + +The most economical application of steam power can be realized only by +a judicious arrangement of the plant: namely, the engines, boilers, and +their accessories for transmission. + +This may appear a somewhat broad assertion; but it is nevertheless one +which is amply justified by facts open to the consideration of all those +who choose to seek for them. + +While it is true that occasionally a factory, mill, or a water-works +may be found in which the whole arrangements have been planned by a +competent engineer, yet such is the exception and not the rule, and such +examples form but a very small percentage of the whole. + +The fact is that but few users of steam power are aware of the numerous +items which compose the cost of economical steam power, while a yet +smaller number give sufficient consideration to the relations which +these items bear to each other, or the manner in which the economy of +any given boiler or engine is affected by the circumstances under which +it is run. + +A large number of persons--and they are those who should know better, +too--take for granted that a boiler or engine which is good for one +situation is good for all; a greater error than such an assumption can +scarcely be imagined. + +It is true that there are certain classes of engines and boilers which +may be relied upon to give moderately good results in almost any +situation--and the best results should _always_ be desired in +arrangement of a mill--there are a considerable number of details which +must be taken into consideration in making a choice of boilers and +engines. + +Take the case of a mill in which it has been supposed that the motive +power could be best exerted by a single engine. The question now is +whether or not it would be best to divide the total power required among +a number of engines. + +_First_.--A division of the motive power presents the following +advantages, namely, a saving of expense on lines of shafting of large +diameter. + +_Second_.--Dispensing with the large driving belt or gearing, the first +named of which, in one instance under the writer's observation, absorbed +_sixty horse-power_ out of about 480, or about _seven per cent_. + +_Third_.--The general convenience of subdividing the work to be done, +so that in case of a stoppage of one portion of the work by reason of +a loose coupling or the changing of a pulley, etc., that portion only +would need to be stopped. + +This last is of itself a most important point, and demands careful +consideration. + +For example, I was at a mill a short time ago when the governor belt +broke. The result was a stoppage of the whole mill. Had the motive power +of this mill been subdivided into a number of small engines only one +department would have been stopped. During the stoppage in this case +the windows of the mill were a sea of heads of men and women (the +operatives), and considerable excitement was caused by the violent +blowing off of steam from the safety-valves, due to the stoppage of the +steam supply to the engine; and this excitement continued until the +cause of the stoppage was understood. Had the power in this mill been +subdivided the stoppage of one of a number of engines would scarcely +have been noticed, and the blowing off of surplus steam would not have +occurred. + +In building a mill the first item to be considered is the interest on +the first cost of the engine, boilers, etc. This item can be subdivided +with advantage into the amounts of interest on the respective costs of, + +_First_. The engine or engines; + +_Second_ The boiler or boilers; + +_Third_. The engine and boiler house. + +In the same connection the _form_ of engine to be used must be +considered. In some few cases--as, for instance, where engines have to +be placed in confined situations--the form is practically fixed by the +space available, it being perhaps possible only to erect a vertical or a +horizontal engine, as the case may be. These, however, are exceptional +instances, and in most cases--at all events where large powers are +required--the engineer may have a free choice in the matter. Under +these circumstances the best form, in the vast majority of cases where +machinery must be driven, is undoubtedly the horizontal engine, and the +worst the beam engine. When properly constructed, the horizontal engine +is more durable than the beam engine, while, its first cost being less, +it can be driven at a higher speed, and it involves a much smaller +outlay for engine house and foundations than the latter. In many +respects the horizontal engine is undoubtedly closely approached in +advantages by the best forms of vertical engines; but on the whole we +consider that where machinery is to be driven the balance of advantages +is decidedly in favor of the former class, and particularly so in the +case of large powers. + +The next point to be decided is, whether a condensing or non-condensing +engine should be employed. In settling this question not only the +respective first costs of the two classes of engines must be taken into +consideration, but also the cost of water and fuel. Excepting, perhaps, +in cases of very small powers, and in those instances where the exhaust +steam from a non-condensing engine can be turned to good account for +heating or drying purpose, it may safely be asserted that in all +instances where a sufficient supply of condensing water is available +at a moderate cost, the extra economy of a well-constructed condensing +engine will fully warrant the additional outlay involved in its +purchase. In these days of high steam pressures, a well constructed +non-condensing engine can, no doubt, be made to approximate closely to +the economy of a condensing engine, but in such a case the extra cost of +the stronger boiler required will go far to balance the additional cost +of the condensing engine. + +Having decided on the form, the next question is, what "class" of engine +shall it be; and by the term class I mean the relative excellence of the +engine as a power-producing machine. An automatic engine costs more than +a plain slide-valve engine, but it will depend upon the cost of fuel at +the location where the engine is to be placed, and the number of hours +per day it is kept running, to decide which class of machine can be +adopted with the greatest economy to the proprietor. The cost of +lubricating materials, fuel, repairs, and percentage of cost to be put +aside for depreciation, will be less in case of the high-class than in +the low-class engine, while the former will also require less boiler +power. + +Against these advantages are to be set the greater first cost of the +automatic engine, and the consequent annual charge due to capital sunk. +These several items should all be fairly estimated when an engine is +to be bought, and the kind chosen accordingly. Let us take the item of +fuel, for instance, and let us suppose this fuel to cost four dollars +per ton at the place where the engine is run. Suppose the engine to be +capable of developing one hundred horse-power, and that it consumes five +pounds of coal per hour per horse-power, and runs ten hours per day: +this would necessitate the supply of two and one-half tons per day at +a cost of ten dollars per day. To be really economical, therefore, any +improvement which would effect a saving of one pound of coal per hour +per horse-power must not cost a greater sum per horse-power than that on +which the cost of the difference of the coal saved (one pound of coal +per hour per horse-power, which would be 1,000 pounds per day) for, say, +three hundred days, three hundred thousand (300,000) pounds, or one +hundred and fifty tons (or six hundred dollars), would pay a fair +interest. + +Assuming that the mill owner estimates his capital as worth to him ten +per cent, per annum, then the improvement which would effect the above +mentioned saving must not cost more than six thousand dollars, and so +on. If, instead of being run only ten hours per day, the engine is run +night and day, then the outlay which it would be justifiable to make to +effect a certain saving per hour would be doubled; while, on the other +hand, if an engine is run less than the usual time per day a given +saving per hour would justify a correspondingly less outlay. + +It has been found that for grain and other elevators, which are not run +constantly, gas engines, although costing more for the same power, +are cheaper than steam engines for elevating purposes where only +occasionally used. + +For this reason it is impossible without considerable investigation to +say what is really the most economical engine to adopt in any particular +case; and as comparatively few users of steam power care to make this +investigation a vast amount of wasteful expenditure results. Although, +however, no absolute rule can be given, we may state that the number +of instances in which an engine which is wasteful of fuel can be used +profitably is exceedingly small. As a rule, in fact, it may generally be +assumed that an engine employed for driving a manufactory of any kind +cannot be of too high a class, the saving effected by the economical +working of such engines in the vast majority of cases enormously +outweighing the interest on their extra first cost. So few people appear +to have a clear idea of the vast importance of economy of fuel in mills +and factories that I perhaps cannot better conclude than by giving an +example showing the saving to be effected in a large establishment by an +economical engine. + +I will take the case of a flouring mill in this city which employed two +engines that required forty pounds of water to be converted into steam +per hour per indicated horse-power. This, at the time, was considered a +moderate amount and the engines were considered "good." + +These engines indicated seventy horse power each, and ran twenty-four +hours per day on an average of three hundred days each year, requiring +as per indicator diagrams forty million three hundred and twenty +thousand pounds (40 x 70 x 24 x 300 x 2 = 40,320,000) of feed water to +be evaporated per annum, which, in Philadelphia, costs three dollars +per horse-power per annum, amounting to (70 x 2 x 300 = $420.00) four +hundred and twenty dollars. + +The coal consumed averaged five and one-half pounds per hour per +horse-power, which, at four dollars per ton, costs + +((70 x 2 x 5.5 x 24 x 300) / 2,000) x 4.00= $11,088 + +Eleven thousand and eighty-eight dollars. + + Cost of coal for 300 days. $11,088 + Cost of water for 300 days. 420 + ------- + Total cost of coal and water. $11,503 + +These engines were replaced by one first-class automatic engine, +which developed one hundred and forty-two horse-power per hour with a +consumption of _three pounds_ of coal per hour per horse-power, and the +indicator diagrams showed a consumption of _thirty_ pounds of water per +hour per horse-power. Coal cost + +((142 x 3 x 24 x 300) / 2,000) x 4.00 = $6,134 + +Six thousand one hundred and thirty-four dollars. Water cost (142 x +3.00= $426.00) four hundred and twenty-six dollars. + + Cost of coal for 300 days. $6,134 + Cost of water for 300 days. 426 + ------ + Total cost of coal and water. $6,560 + +The water evaporated in the latter case to perform the same work was +(142 x 30 x 24 x 300 = 30,672,000) thirty million six hundred and +seventy-two thousand pounds of feed water against (40,320,000) forty +million three hundred and twenty thousand pounds in the former, a saving +of (9,648,000) nine million six hundred and forty-eight thousand pounds +per annum; or, + +(40,320,000 - 30,672,000) / 9,648,000 = 31.4 per cent. + +--_thirty-one and four-tenths per cent_. + +And a saving in coal consumption of + +(11,088 - 6,134) / 4,954 = 87.5 per cent. + +--_eighty-seven and one-half per cent_., or a saving in dollars and +cents of four thousand nine hundred and fifty-four dollars ($4,954). + +In this city, Philadelphia, no allowance for the consumption of water is +made in the case of first class engines, such engines being charged the +same rate per annum per horse-power as an inferior engine, while, +as shown by the above example, a saving in water of _thirty-one and +four-tenths per cent_. has been attained by the employment of a +first-class engine. The builders of such engines will always give a +guarantee of their consumption of water, so that the purchaser can be +able in advance to estimate this as accurately as he can the amount of +fuel he will use. + + * * * * * + + + + +RIVER IMPROVEMENTS NEAR ST. LOUIS. + + +The improvement of the Mississippi River near St. Louis progresses +satisfactorily. The efficacy of the jetty system is illustrated in the +lines of mattresses which showed accumulations of sand deposits ranging +from the surface of the river to nearly sixteen feet in height. At Twin +Hollow, thirteen miles from St. Louis and six miles from Horse-Tail Bar, +there was found a sand bar extending over the widest portion of the +river on which the engineering forces were engaged. Hurdles are built +out from the shore to concentrate the stream on the obstruction, and +then to protect the river from widening willows are interwoven between +the piles. At Carroll's Island mattresses 125 feet wide have been +placed, and the banks revetted with stone from ordinary low water to a +16 foot stage. There is plenty of water over the bar, and at the most +shallow points the lead showed a depth of twelve feet. Beard's Island, a +short distance further, is also being improved, the largest force of men +at any one place being here engaged. Four thousand feet of mattresses +have been begun, and in placing them work will be vigorously prosecuted +until operations are suspended by floating ice. The different sections +are under the direction of W. F. Fries, resident engineer, and E. M. +Currie, superintending engineer. There are now employed about 1,200 men, +thirty barges and scows, two steam launches, and the stern-wheel steamer +A. A. Humphreys. The improvements have cost, in actual money expended, +about $200,000, and as the appropriation for the ensuing year +approximates $600,000, the prospect of a clear channel is gratifying to +those interested in the river. + + * * * * * + + + + +BUNTE'S BURETTE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF FURNACE GASES. + + +For analyzing the gases of blast-furnaces the various apparatus of Orsat +have long been employed; but, by reason of its simplicity, the burette +devised by Dr. Bünte, and shown in the accompanying figures, is much +easier to use. Besides, it permits of a much better and more rapid +absorption of the oxide of carbon; and yet, for the lost fractions of +the latter, it is necessary to replace a part of the absorbing liquid +three or four times. The absorbing liquid is prepared by making a +saturated solution of chloride of copper in hydrochloric acid, and +adding thereto a small quantity of dissolved chloride of tin. Afterward, +there are added to the decanted mixture a few spirals of red copper, and +the mixture is then carefully kept from contact with the air. + +To fill the burette with gas, the three-way cock, _a_, is so placed that +the axial aperture shall be in communication with the graduated part, A, +of the burette. After this, water is poured into the funnel, t, and the +burette is put in communication with the gas reservoir by means of a +rubber tube. The lower point of the burette is put in communication with +a rubber pump, V (Fig. 2), on an aspirator (the cock, _b_, being left +open), and the gas is sucked in until all the air that was in the +apparatus has been expelled from it. The cocks, _a_ and _b_, are turned +90 degrees. The water in the funnel prevents the gases communicating +with the top. The point of the three-way cock is afterward closed with a +rubber tube and glass rod. + +If the gas happens to be in the reservoir of an aspirator, it is made +to pass into the apparatus in the following manner: The burette is +completely filled with water, and the point of the three-way cock is +put in communication with a reservoir. If the gas is under pressure, a +portion of it is allowed to escape through the capillary tube into the +water in the funnel, by turning the cock, _a_, properly, and thus all +the water in the conduit is entirely expelled. Afterward _a_ is turned +180°, and the lower cock, _b_, is opened. While the water is flowing +through _b_, the burette becomes filled with gas. + +_Mode of Measuring the Gases and Absorption_.--The tube that +communicates with the vessel, F, is put in communication, after the +latter has been completely filled with water, with the point of the +cock, _b_ (Fig. 2). Then the latter is opened, as is also the pinch cock +on the rubber tubing, and water is allowed to enter the burette through +the bottom until the level is at the zero of the graduation. There are +then 100 cubic centimeters in the burette. The superfluous gas has +escaped through the cock, _a_, and passed through the water in the +funnel. The cock, _a_, is afterward closed by turning it 90°. To +cause the absorbing liquid to pass into the burette, the water in the +graduated cylinder is made to flow by connecting the rubber tube, s, of +the bottle, S, with the point of the burette. The cock is opened, and +suction is effected with the mouth of the tube, r. When the water has +flowed out to nearly the last drop, _b_ is closed and the suction bottle +is removed. The absorbing liquid (caustic potassa or pyrogallate of +potassa) is poured into a porcelain capsule, P, and the point of the +burette is dipped into the liquid. If the cock, _b_, be opened, the +absorbing liquid will be sucked into the burette. In order to hasten +the absorption, the cock, _b_, is closed, and the burette is shaken +horizontally, the aperture of the funnel being closed by the hand during +the operation. + +If not enough absorbing liquid has entered, there may be sucked into the +burette, by the process described above, a new quantity of liquid. The +reaction finished, the graduated cylinder is put in communication with +the funnel by turning the cock, _a_. The water is allowed to run from +the funnel, and the latter is filled again with water up to the mark. +The gas is then again under the same pressure as at the beginning. + +After the level has become constant, the quantity of gas remaining is +measured. The contraction that has taken place gives, in hundredths of +the total volume, the volume of the gas absorbed. + +When it is desired to make an analysis of smoke due to combustion, +caustic potassa is first sucked into the burette. After complete +absorption, and after putting the gas at the same pressure, the +diminution gives the volume of carbonic acid. + +To determine the oxygen in the remaining gas, a portion of the caustic +potash is allowed to flow out, and an aqueous solution of pyrogallic +acid and potash is allowed to enter. The presence of oxygen is revealed +by the color of the liquid, which becomes darker. + +The gas is then agitated with the absorbing liquid until, upon opening +the cock, _a_, the liquid remains in the capillary tube, that is to say, +until no more water runs from the funnel into the burette. To make a +quantitative analysis of the carbon contained in gas, the pyrogallate of +potash must be entirely removed from the burette. To do this, the liquid +is sucked out by means of the flask, S, until there remain only a few +drops; then the cock, _a_, is opened and water is allowed to flow from +the funnel along the sides of the burette. Then _a_ is closed, and +the washing water is sucked in the same manner. By repeating this +manipulation several times, the absorbing liquid is completely removed. +The acid solution of chloride of copper is then allowed to enter. + +As the absorbing liquids adhere to the glass, it is better, before +noting the level, to replace these liquids by water. The cocks, _a_ and +_b_, are opened, and water is allowed to enter from the funnel, the +absorbing liquid being made to flow at the same time through the cock, +_b_. + +When an acid solution of chloride of copper is employed, dilute +hydrochloric acid is used instead of water. + +Fig. 2 shows the arrangement of the apparatus for the quantitative +analysis of oxide of carbon and hydrogen by combustion. The gas in the +burette is first mixed with atmospheric air, by allowing the liquid to +flow through _b_, and causing air to enter through the axial aperture of +the three way cock, _a_, after cutting off communication at v. Then, as +shown in the figure, the burette is connected with the tube, B, which is +filled with water up to the narrow curved part, and the interior of the +burette is made to communicate with the combustion tube, v, by turning +the cock, a. The combustion tube is heated by means of a Bunsen burner +or alcohol lamp, L. It is necessary to proceed, so that all the water +shall be driven from the cock and the capillary tube, and that it shall +be sent into the burette. The combustion is effected by causing the +mixture of gas to pass from the burette into the tube, B, through the +tube, v, heated to redness, into which there passes a palladium wire. +Water is allowed to flow through the point of the tube, B, while from +the flask, F, it enters through the bottom into the burette, so as to +drive out the gas. The water is allowed to rise into the burette as far +as the cock, and the cocks, _b_ and _b¹_, are afterward closed. + +[Illustration: DR. BÜNTE'S GAS BURETTE] + +By a contrary operation, the gas is made to pass from B into the +burette. It is then allowed to cool, and, after the pressure has been +established again, the contraction is measured. If the gas burned is +hydrogen, the contraction multiplied by two-thirds gives the original +volume of the hydrogen gas burned. If the gas burned is oxide of carbon, +there forms an equal volume of carbonic acid, and the contraction is the +half of CO. Thus, to analyze CO, a portion of the liquid is removed from +the burette, then caustic potash is allowed to enter, and the process +goes on as explained above. + +The total contraction resulting from combustion and absorption, +multiplied by two-thirds, gives the volume of the oxide of carbon. + +The hydrogen and oxide carbon may thus be quantitatively analyzed +together or separately.--_Revue Industrielle_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE "UNIVERSAL" GAS ENGINE. + + +The accompanying engravings illustrate a new and very simple form of gas +engine, the invention of J. A. Ewins and H. Newman, and made by Mr. T. +B. Barker, of Scholefield-street, Bloomsbury, Birmingham. It is known as +the "Universal" engine, and is at present constructed in sizes varying +from one-eighth horse-power--one man power--to one horse-power, though +larger sizes are being made. The essentially new feature of the engine +is, says the _Engineer_, the simple rotary ignition valve consisting of +a ratchet plate or flat disk with a number of small radial slots which +successively pass a small slot in the end of the cylinder, and through +which the flame is drawn to ignite the charge. In our illustrations Fig. +1 is a side elevation; Fig. 2 an end view of same; Fig. 3 a plan; Fig. 4 +is a sectional view of the chamber in which the gas and air are mixed, +with the valves appertaining thereto; Fig. 5 is a detail view of the +ratchet plate, with pawl and levers and valve gear shaft; Fig. 6 is +a sectional view of a pump employed in some cases to circulate water +through the jacket; Fig. 7 is a sectional view of arrangement for +lighting, and ratchet plate, j, with central spindle and igniting +apertures, and the spiral spring, k, and fly nut, showing the attachment +to the end of the working cylinder, f1; b5, b5, bevel wheels driving +the valve gear shaft; e, the valve gear driving shaft; e2, eccentric to +drive pump; e³, eccentric or cam to drive exhaust valve; e4, crank to +drive ratchet plate; e5, connecting rod to ratchet pawl; f, cylinder +jacket; f1, internal or working cylinder; f2, back cylinder cover; g, +igniting chamber; h, mixing chamber; h1, flap valve; h2, gas inlet +valve, the motion of which is regulated by a governor; h3, gas inlet +valve seat; h4, cover, also forming stop for gas inlet valve; h5, gas +inlet pipe; h6, an inlet valve; h8, cover, also forming stop for air +inlet valve; h9, inlet pipe for air with grating; i, exhaust chamber; +i2, exhaust valve spindle; i7, exhaust pipe; j6, lighting aperture +through cylinder end; l, igniting gas jet; m, regulating and stop valve +for gas. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED GAS ENGINE] + +The engine, it will be seen, is single-acting, and no compression of the +explosive charge is employed. An explosive mixture of combustible gas +and air is drawn through the valves, h2 and h6, and exploded behind +the piston once in a revolution; but by a duplication of the valve and +igniting apparatus, placed also at the front end of the cylinder, the +engine may be constructed double-acting. At the proper time, when the +piston has proceeded far enough to draw in through the mixing chamber, +h, into the igniting chamber, g, the requisite amount of gas and air, +the ratchet plate, j, is pushed into such a position by the pawl, j3, +that the flame from the igniting jet, l, passes through one of the slots +or holes, j1, and explodes the charge when opposite j6, which is the +only aperture in the end of the working cylinder (see Fig. 7 and Fig. +2), thus driving the piston on to the end of its forward stroke. The +exhaust valve, Fig. 9, though not exactly of the form shown, is kept +open during the whole of this return stroke by means of the eccentric, +e3, on the shaft working the ratchet, and thus allowing the products of +combustion to escape through the exhaust pipe, i7, in the direction of +the arrow. Between the ratchet disk and the igniting flame a small plate +not shown is affixed to the pipe, its edge being just above the burner +top. The flame is thus not blown out by the inrushing air when the slots +in ratchet plate and valve face are opposite. This ratchet plate or +ignition valve, the most important in any engine, has so very small a +range of motion per revolution of the engine that it cannot get out of +order, and it appears to require no lubrication or attention whatever. +The engines are working very successfully, and their simplicity enables +them to be made at low cost. They cost for gas from œd. to 1œd. per hour +for the sizes mentioned. + +[Illustration: Fig.9.] + + * * * * * + + + + +GAS FURNACE FOR BAKING REFRACTORY PRODUCTS. + + +In order that small establishments may put to profit the advantages +derived from the use of annular furnaces heated with gas, smaller +dimensions have been given the baking chambers of such furnaces. The +accompanying figure gives a section of a furnace of this kind, set into +the ground, and the height of whose baking chamber is only one and a +half meters. The chamber is not vaulted, but is covered by slabs of +refractory clay, D, that may be displaced by the aid of a small car +running on a movable track. This car is drawn over the compartment that +is to be emptied, and the slab or cover, D, is taken off and carried +over the newly filled compartment and deposited thereon. + +The gas passes from the channel through the pipe, a, into the vertical +conduits, b, and is afterward disengaged through the tuyeres into the +chamber. In order that the gas may be equally applied for preliminary +heating or smoking, a small smoking furnace, S, has been added to +the apparatus. The upper part of this consists of a wide cylinder +of refractory clay, in the center of whose cover there is placed an +internal tube of refractory clay, which communicates with the channel, +G, through a pipe, d. This latter leads the gas into the tube, t, of the +smoking furnace, which is perforated with a large number of small holes. +The air requisite for combustion enters through the apertures, o, in the +cover of the furnace, and brings about in the latter a high temperature. +The very hot gases descend into the lower iron portion of this small +furnace and pass through a tube, e, into the smoking chamber by the aid +of vertical conduits, b', which serve at the same time as gas tuyeres +for the extremity of the furnace that is exposed to the fire. + +[Illustration: GAS FURNACE FOR BAKING REFRACTORY PRODUCTS.] + +In the lower part of the smoking furnace, which is made of boiler plate +and can be put in communication with the tube, e, there are large +apertures that may be wholly or partially closed by means of registers +so as to carry to the hot gas derived from combustion any quantity +whatever of cold and dry air, and thus cause a variation at will of the +temperature of the gases which are disengaged from the tube, e. + +The use of these smoking apparatus heated by gas does away also with the +inconveniences of the ordinary system, in which the products are soiled +by cinders or dust, and which render the gradual heating of objects to +be baked difficult. At the beginning, there is allowed to enter the +lower part of the small furnace, S, through the apertures, a very +considerable quantity of cold air, so as to lower the temperature of the +smoke gas that escapes from the tube, e, to 30 or 50 degrees. Afterward, +these secondary air entrances are gradually closed so as to increase the +temperature of the gases at will. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE EFFICIENCY OF FANS. + + +Air, like every other gas or combination of gases, possesses weight; +some persons who have been taught that the air exerts a pressure of 14.7 +lb. per square inch, cannot, however, be got to realize the fact that a +cubit foot of air at the same pressure and at a temperature of 62 deg. +weighs the thirteenth part of a pound, or over one ounce; 13.141 cubic +feet of air weigh one pound. In round numbers 30,000 cubic feet of air +weigh one ton; this is a useful figure to remember, and it is easily +carried in the mind. A hall 61 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 17 feet high +will contain one ton of air. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +The work to be done by a fan consists in putting a weight--that of the +air--in motion. The resistances incurred are due to the inertia of the +air and various frictional influences; the nature and amount of these +last vary with the construction of the fan. As the air enters at the +center of the fan and escapes at the circumference, it will be seen that +its motion is changed while in the fan through a right angle. It may +also be taken for granted that within certain limits the air has no +motion in a radial direction when it first comes in contact with a fan +blade. It is well understood that, unless power is to be wasted, motion +should be gradually imparted to any body to be moved. Consequently, the +shape of the blades ought to be such as will impart motion at first +slowly and afterward in a rapidly increasing ratio to the air. It is +also clear that the change of motion should be effected as gradually as +possible. Fig. 1 shows how a fan should not be constructed; Fig. 2 will +serve to give an idea of how it should be made. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +In Fig. 1 it will be seen that the air, as indicated by the bent arrows, +is violently deflected on entering the fan. In Fig. 2 it will be seen +that it follows gentle curves, and so is put gradually in motion. The +curved form of the blades shown in Fig. 2 does not appear to add much to +the efficiency of a fan; but it adds something and keeps down noise. The +idea is that the fan blades when of this form push the air radially from +the center to the circumference. The fact is, however, that the air +flies outward under the influence of centrifugal force, and always tends +to move at a tangent to the fan blades, as in Fig. 3, where the circle +is the path of the tips of the fan blades, and the arrow is a tangent to +that path; and to impart this notion a radial blade, as at C, is perhaps +as good as any other, as far as efficiency is concerned. Concerning the +shape to be imparted to the blades, looked at back or front, opinions +widely differ; but it is certain that if a fan is to be silent the +blades must be narrower at the tips than at the center. Various forms +are adopted by different makers, the straight side and the curved sides, +as shown in Fig. 4, being most commonly used. The proportions as regards +length to breadth are also varied continually. In fact, no two makers of +fans use the same shapes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +As the work done by a fan consists in imparting motion at a stated +velocity to a given weight of air, it is very easy to calculate the +power which must be expended to do a certain amount of work. The +velocity at which the air leaves the fan cannot be greater than that of +the fan tips. In a good fan it may be about two-thirds of that speed. +The resistance to be overcome will be found by multiplying the area of +the fan blades by the pressure of the air and by the velocity of the +center of effort, which must be determined for every fan according to +the shape of its blades. The velocity imparted to the air by the fan +will be just the same as though the air fell in a mass from a given +height. This height can be found by the formula h = v² / 64; that is to +say, if the velocity be multiplied by itself and divided by 64 we have +the height. Thus, let the velocity be 88 per second, then 88 x 88 = +7,744, and 7,744 / 64 = 121. A stone or other body falling from a height +of 121 feet would have a velocity of 88 per second at the earth. The +pressure against the fan blades will be equal to that of a column of air +of the height due to the velocity, or, in this case, 121 feet. We +have seen that in round numbers 13 cubic feet of air weigh one pound, +consequently a column of air one square foot in section and 121 feet +high, will weigh as many pounds as 13 will go times into 121. Now, 121 +/ 13 = 9.3, and this will be the resistance in pounds per _square foot_ +overcome by the fan. Let the aggregate area of all the blades be 2 +square feet, and the velocity of the center of effort 90 feet per +second, then the power expended will bve (90 x 60 x 2 x 9.3) / 33,000 += 3.04 horse power. The quantity of air delivered ought to be equal in +volume to that of a column with a sectional area equal that of one fan +blade moving at 88 feet per second, or a mile a minute. The blade having +an area of 1 square foot, the delivery ought to be 5,280 feet per +minute, weighing 5,280 / 13 = 406.1 lb. In practice we need hardly say +that such an efficiency is never attained. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +The number of recorded experiments with fans is very small, and a great +deal of ignorance exists as to their true efficiency. Mr. Buckle is one +of the very few authorities on the subject. He gives the accompanying +table of proportions as the best for pressures of from 3 to 6 ounces per +square inch: + +-------------------------------------------------------------- + | Vanes. | Diameter of inlet +Diameter of fans. |------------------------| openings. + | Width. | Length. | +-------------------------------------------------------------- + ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. + 3 0 | 0 9 | 0 9 | 1 6 + 3 6 | 0 10œ | 0 10œ | 1 9 + 4 0 | 1 0 | 1 0 | 2 0 + 4 6 | 1 1œ | 1 1œ | 2 3 + 5 0 | 1 3 | 1 3 | 2 6 + 6 0 | 1 6 | 1 6 | 3 0 + | | | +-------------------------------------------------------------- + +For higher pressures the blades should be longer and narrower, and +the inlet openings smaller. The case is to be made in the form of an +arithmetical spiral widening, the space between the case and the blades +radially from the origin to the opening for discharge, and the upper +edge of the opening should be level with the lower side of the sweep of +the fan blade, somewhat as shown in Fig. 5. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +A considerable number of patents has been taken out for improvements +in the construction of fans, but they all, or nearly all, relate to +modifications in the form of the case and of the blades. So far, +however, as is known, it appears that, while these things do exert a +marked influence on the noise made by a fan, and modify in some degree +the efficiency of the machine, that this last depends very much more on +the proportions adopted than on the shapes--so long as easy curves +are used and sharp angles avoided. In the case of fans running at low +speeds, it matters very little whether the curves are present or not; +but at high speeds the case is different.--_The Engineer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +MACHINE FOR COMPRESSING COAL REFUSE INTO FUEL. + + +The problem as to how the refuse of coal shall be utilized has been +solved in the manufacture from it of an agglomerated artificial +fuel, which is coming more and more into general use on railways and +steamboats, in the industries, and even in domestic heating. + +The qualities that a good agglomerating machine should present are as +follows: + +1. Very great simplicity, inasmuch as it is called upon to operate in +an atmosphere charged with coal dust, pitch, and steam; and, under such +conditions, it is important that it may be easily got at for cleaning, +and that the changing of its parts (which wear rapidly) may be effected +without, so to speak, interrupting its running. + +2. The compression must be powerful, and, that the product may be +homogeneous, must operate progressively and not by shocks. It must +especially act as much as possible upon the entire surface of the +conglomerate, and this is something that most machines fail to do. + +3. The removal from the mould must be effected easily, and not depend +upon a play of pistons or springs, which soon become foul, and the +operation of which is very irregular. + +The operations embraced in the manufacture of this kind of fuel are as +follows: + +The refuse is sifted in order to separate the dust from the grains of +coal. The dust is not submitted to a washing. The grains are classed +into two sizes, after removing the nut size, which is sold separately. +The grains of each size are washed separately. The washed grains are +either drained or dried by a hydro-extractor in order to free them from +the greater part of the water, the presence of this being an obstacle to +their perfect agglomeration. The water, however, should not be entirely +extracted because the combustibles being poor conductors of heat, a +certain amount of dampness must be preserved to obtain an equal division +of heat in the paste when the mixture is warmed. + +After being dried the grains are mixed with the coal dust, and broken +coal pitch is added in the proportion of eight to ten per cent. of the +coal. The mixture is then thrown into a crushing machine, where it is +reduced to powder and intimately mixed. It then passes into a pug-mill +into which superheated steam is admitted, and by this means is converted +into a plastic paste. This paste is then led into an agitator for the +double purpose of freeing it from the steam that it contains, and of +distributing it in the moulds of the compressing machine. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED MACHINE FOR COMPRESSING REFUSE COAL INTO FUEL.] + +Bilan's machine, shown in the accompanying cut, is designed for +manufacturing spherical conglomerates for domestic purposes. It consists +of a cast iron frame supporting four vertical moulding wheels placed at +right angles to each other and tangent to the line of the centers. These +wheels carry on their periphery cavities that have the form of a quarter +of a sphere. They thus form at the point of contact a complete sphere +in which the material is inclosed. The paste is thrown by shovel, or +emptied by buckets and chain, into the hopper fixed at the upper part +of the frame. From here it is taken up by two helices, mounted on a +vertical shaft traversing the hopper, and forced toward the point where +the four moulding wheels meet. The driving pulley of the machine is +keyed upon a horizontal shaft which is provided with two endless screws +that actuate two gear-wheels, and these latter set in motion the four +moulding wheels by means of beveled pinions. The four moulding wheels +being accurately adjusted so that their cavities meet each other at +every revolution, carry along the paste furnished them by the hopper, +compress it powerfully on the four quarters, and, separating by a +further revolution, allow the finished ball to drop out. + +The external crown of the wheels carrying the moulds consists of four +segments, which may be taken apart at will to be replaced by others when +worn. + +This machine produces about 40 tons per day of this globular artificial +fuel.--_Annales Industrielles_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HANK SIZING AND WRINGING MACHINE. + + +We give a view of a hank sizing machine by Messrs. Heywood & Spencer, +of Radcliffe, near Manchester. The machine is also suitable for fancy +dyeing. It is well known, says the _Textile Manufacturer_, that when +hanks are wrung by hand, not only is the labor very severe, but in +dyeing it is scarcely possible to obtain even colors, and, furthermore, +the production is limited by the capabilities of the man. The machine +we illustrate is intended to perform the heavy part of the work with +greater expedition and with more certainty than could be relied upon +with hand labor. The illustration represents the machine that we +inspected. Its construction seems of the simplest character. It consists +of two vats, between which is placed the gearing for driving the hooks. +The large wheel in this gear, although it always runs in one direction, +contains internal segments, which fall into gear alternately with +pinions on the shanks of the hooks. The motion is a simple one, and it +appeared to us to be perfectly reliable, and not liable to get out of +order. The action is as follows: The attendant lifts the hank out of the +vat and places it on the hooks. The hook connected to the gearing then +commences to turn; it puts in two, two and a half, three, or more twists +into the hank and remains stationary for a few seconds to allow an +interval for the sizer to "wipe off" the excess of size, that is, to +run his hand along the twisted hank. This done, the hook commences to +revolve the reverse way, until the twists are taken out of the hank. +It is then removed, either by lifting off by hand or by the apparatus +shown, attached to the right hand side. This arrangement consists of a +lattice, carrying two arms that, at the proper moment, lift the hank off +the hooks on to the lattice proper, by which it is carried away, and +dropped upon a barrow to be taken to the drying stove. In sizing, a +double operation is customary; the first is called running, and the +second, finishing. In the machine shown, running is carried on one side +simultaneously with finishing in the other, or, if required, running +may be carried on on both sides. If desired, the lifting off motion is +attached to both running and finishing sides, and also the roller partly +seen on the left hand for running the hanks through the size. The +machine we saw was doing about 600 bundles per day at running and at +finishing, but the makers claim the production with a double machine to +be at the rate of about 36 10 lb. bundles per hour (at finishing), wrung +in 1œ lb. wringers (or Iœ lb. of yarn at a time), or at running at the +rate of 45 bundles in 2 lb. wringers. The distance between the hooks +is easily adjusted to the length or size of hanks, and altogether the +machine seems one that is worth the attention of the trade. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED HANK SIZING MACHINE.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED COKE BREAKER. + + +The working parts of the breaker now in use by the South Metropolitan +Gas Company consist essentially of a drum provided with cutting edges +projecting from it, which break up the coke against a fixed grid. The +drum is cast in rings, to facilitate repairs when necessary, and the +capacity of the machine can therefore be increased or diminished by +varying the number of these rings. The degree of fineness of the coke +when broken is determined by the regulated distance of the grid from the +drum. Thus there is only one revolving member, no toothed gearing being +required. Consequently the machine works with little power; the one at +the Old Kent Road, which is of the full size for large works, being +actually driven by a one horse power "Otto" gas-engine. Under these +conditions, at a recent trial, two tons of coke were broken in half an +hour, and the material delivered screened into the three classes of +coke, clean breeze (worth as much as the larger coke), and dust, which +at these works is used to mix with lime in the purifiers. The special +advantage of the machine, besides the low power required to drive it and +its simple action, lies in the small quantity of waste. On the occasion +of the trial in question, the dust obtained from two tons of coke +measured only 3œ bushels, or just over a half hundredweight per ton. +The following statement, prepared from the actual working of the first +machine constructed, shows the practical results of its use. It should +be premised that the machine is assumed to be regularly employed and +driven by the full power for which it is designed, when it will easily +break 8 tons of coke per hour, or 80 tons per working day: + + 500 feet of gas consumed by a 2 horse power + gas-engine, at cost price of gas delivered s. d. + in holder. 0 9 + Oil and cotton waste. 0 6 + Two men supplying machine with large + coke, and shoveling up broken, at 4s. + 6d. 9 0 + Interest and wear and tear (say). 0 3 + ----- + Total per day. 10 6 + ----- + For 80 tons per day, broken at the rate + of. 0 1œ + Add for loss by dust and waste, 1 cwt., + with price of coke at (say) 13s. 4d. per + ton. 0 8 + ----- + Cost of breaking, per ton. 0 9œ + +As coke, when broken, will usually fetch from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per ton +more than large, the result of using these machines is a net gain of +from 1s. 3d. to 1s. 9d. per ton of coke. It is not so much the actual +gain, however, that operates in favor of providing a supply of broken +coke, as the certainty that by so doing a market is obtained that would +not otherwise be available. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED COKE BREAKER.] + +It will not be overstating the case to say that this coke breaker is by +far the simplest, strongest, and most economical appliance of its kind +now manufactured. That it does its work well is proved by experience; +and the advantages of its construction are immediately apparent upon +comparison of its simple drum and single spindle with the flying hammers +or rocking jaws, or double drums with toothed gearing which characterize +some other patterns of the same class of plant. It should be remarked, +as already indicated, lest exception should be taken to the size of the +machine chosen here for illustration, that it can be made of any size +down to hand power. On the whole, however, as a few tons of broken coke +might be required at short notice even in a moderate sized works, it +would scarcely be advisable to depend upon too small a machine; since +the regular supply of the fuel thus improved may be trusted in a short +time to increase the demand. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED COKE BREAKER.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENT IN PRINTING MACHINERY. + + +This is the design of Alfred Godfrey, of Clapton. According to this +improvement, as represented at Figs. 1 and 2, a rack, A, is employed +vibrating on the pivot a, and a pinion, a1, so arranged that instead of +the pinion moving on a universal joint, or the rack moving in a parallel +line from side to side of the pinion at the time the motion of the table +is reversed, there is employed, for example, the radial arm, a2, mounted +on the shaft, a3, supporting the driving wheel, a4. The opposite or +vibrating end of the radial arm, a2, supports in suitable bearings the +pinion, a1, and wheel, a5, driving the rack through the medium of the +driving wheel, a4, the effect of which is that through the mechanical +action of the vibrating arm, a2, and pinion, a1 in conjunction with the +vibrating movement of the rack, A, an easy, uniform, and silent motion +is transmitted to the rack and table. + +[Illustration: IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 1] + +[Illustration: IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 2.] + + * * * * * + + + + +A CHARACTERISTIC MINING "RUSH."--THE PROSPECTIVE MINING CENTER OF +SOUTHERN NEW MEXICO. + + +A correspondent of the _Tribune_ describes at length the mining camps +about Lake Valley, New Mexico, hitherto thought likely to be the central +camp of that region, and then graphically tells the story of the recent +"rush" to the Perche district. Within a month of the first strike of +silver ore the country was swarming with prospectors, and a thousand or +more prospects had been located. + +The Perche district is on the eastern flanks of the Mimbres Mountains, +a range which is a part of the Rocky Mountain range, and runs north and +south generally parallel with the Rio Grande, from which it lies about +forty miles to the westward. The northern half of these mountains is +known as the Black Range, and was the center of considerable mining +excitement a year and a half ago. It is there that the Ivanhoe is +located, of which Colonel Gillette was manager, and in which Robert +Ingersoll and Senator Plumb, of Kansas, were interested, much to the +disadvantage of the former. A new company has been organized, however, +with Colonel Ingersoll as president, and the reopening of work on the +Ivanhoe will probably prove a stimulus to the whole Black Range. From +this region the Perche district is from forty to sixty miles south. It +is about twenty-five miles northwest of Lake Valley, and ten miles west +of Hillsboro, a promising little mining town, with some mills and about +300 people. The Perche River has three forks coming down from the +mountains and uniting at Hillsboro, and it is in the region between +these forks that the recent strikes have been made. + +On August 15 "Jack" Shedd, the original discoverer of the Robinson mine +in Colorado, was prospecting on the south branch of the north fork of +the Perche River, when he made the first great strike in the district. +On the summit of a heavily timbered ridge he found some small pieces of +native silver, and then a lump of ore containing very pure silver in the +form of sulphides, weighing 150 pounds, and afterward proved to be worth +on the average $11 a pound. All this was mere float, simply lying on the +surface of the ground. Afterward another block was found, weighing 87 +pounds, of horn silver, with specimens nearly 75 per cent. silver. The +strike was kept a secret for a few days. Said a mining man: "I went up +to help bring the big lump down. We took it by a camp of prospectors who +were lying about entirely ignorant of any find. When they saw it they +instantly saddled their horses, galloped off, and I believe they +prospected all night." A like excitement was created when the news of +this and one or two similar finds reached Lake Valley. Next morning +every waiter was gone from the little hotel, and a dozen men had left +the Sierra mines, to try their fortunes at prospecting. + +As the news spread men poured into the Perche district from no one knows +where, some armed with only a piece of salt pork, a little meal, and a +prospecting pick; some mounted on mules, others on foot; old men and men +half-crippled were among the number, but all bitten by the monomania +which possesses every prospector. Now there are probably 2,000 men in +the Perche district, and the number of prospects located must far exceed +1,000. Three miners from there with whom I was talking recently owned +forty-seven mines among them, and while one acknowledged that hardly one +prospect in a hundred turns out a prize, the other millionaire in embryo +remarked that he wouldn't take $50,000 for one of his mines. So it goes, +and the victims of the mining fever here seem as deaf to reason as the +buyers of mining stock in New York. Fuel was added to the flame by +the report that Shedd had sold his location, named the Solitaire, to +ex-Governor Tabor and Mr. Wurtzbach on August 25 for $100,000. This was +not true. I met Governor Tabor's representative, who came down recently +to examine the properties, and learned that the Governor had not up to +that date bought the mine. He undoubtedly bonded it, however, and his +representative's opinion of the properties seemed highly favorable. +The Solitaire showed what appeared to be a contact vein, with walls of +porphyry and limestone in a ledge thirty feet wide in places, containing +a high assay of horned silver. The vein was composed of quartz, bearing +sulphides, with horn silver plainly visible, giving an average assay of +from $350 to $500. This was free milling. These were the results shown +simply by surface explorations, which were certainly exceedingly +promising. Recently it has been stated that a little development shows +the vein to be only a blind lead, but the statement lacks confirmation. +In any case the effect of so sensational a discovery is the same in +creating an intense excitement and attracting swarms of prospectors. + +But the Perche district does not rest on the Solitaire, for there has +been abundance of mineral wealth discovered throughout its extent. Four +miles south of this prospect, on the middle fork of the Perche, is an +actual mine--the Bullion--which was purchased by four or five Western +mining men for $10,000, and yielded $11,000 in twenty days. The ore +contains horn and native silver. On the same fork are the Iron King and +Andy Johnson, both recently discovered and promising properties, and +there is a valuable mine now in litigation on the south fork of the +Perche, with scores of prospects over the entire district. Now that one +or two sensational strikes have attracted attention, and capital is +developing paying mines, the future of the Perche District seems +assured. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SOY BEAN. + + +The _British Medical Journal_ says that Prof. E. Kinch, writing in the +_Agricultural Students' Gazette_, says that the Soy bean approaches more +nearly to animal food than any other known vegetable production, being +singularly rich in fat and in albuminoids. It is largely used as +an article of food in China and Japan. Efforts have been made to +acclimatize it in various parts of the continent of Europe, and fair +success has been achieved in Italy and France; many foods are made from +it and its straw is a useful fodder. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON A NEW ARC ELECTRIC LAMP. + +[Footnote: Paper read at the British Association, Southampton. Revised +by the Author.--_Nature_.] + +By W.H. PREECE. + + +Electric lamps on the arc principle are almost as numerous as the trees +in the forest, and it is somewhat fresh to come upon something that is +novel. In these lamps the carbons are consumed as the current flows, and +it is the variation in their consumption which occasions the flickering +and irregularity of the light that is so irritating to the eyes. Special +mechanical contrivances or regulators have to be used to compensate for +this destruction of the carbons, as in the Siemens and Brush type, or +else refractory materials have to be combined with the carbons, as in +the Jablochkoff candle and in the lamp Soleil. The steadiness of the +light depends upon the regularity with which the carbons are moved +toward each other as they are consumed, so as to maintain the electric +resistance between them a constant quantity. Each lamp must have a +certain elasticity of regulation of its own, to prevent irregularities +from the variable material of carbon used, and from variations in the +current itself and in the machinery. + +In all electric lamps, except the Brockie, the regulator is in the lamp +itself. In the Brockie system the regulation is automatic, and is made +at certain rapid intervals by the motor engine. This causes a periodic +blinking that is detrimental to this lamp for internal illumination. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2.] + +M. Abdank, the inventor of the system which I have the pleasure of +bringing before the Section, separates his regulator from his lamp. +The regulator may be fixed anywhere, within easy inspection and +manipulation, and away from any disturbing influence in the lamp. The +lamp can be fixed in any inaccessible place. + +_The Lamp_ (Figs. 1, 2, and 3.)--The bottom or negative carbon is fixed, +but the top or positive carbon is movable, in a vertical line. It is +screwed at the point, C, to a brass rod, T (Fig. 2), which moves freely +inside the tubular iron core of an electromagnet, K. This rod is +clutched and lifted by the soft iron armature, A B, when a current +passes through the coil, M M. The mass of the iron in the armature is +distributed so that the greater portion is at one end, B, much nearer +the pole than the other end. Hence this portion is attracted first, the +armature assumes an inclined position, maintained by a brass button, t, +which prevents any adhesion between the armature and the core of the +electromagnet. The electric connection between the carbon and the coil +of the electromagnet is maintained by the flexible wire, S. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +The electromagnet, A (Fig. 1), is fixed to a long and heavy rack, C, +which falls by its own weight and by the weight of the electromagnet and +the carbon fixed to it. The length of the rack is equal to the length of +the two carbons. The fall of the rack is controlled by a friction break, +B (Fig. 3), which acts upon the last of a train of three wheels put +in motion by the above weight. The break, B, is fixed at one end of +a lever, B A, the other end carrying a soft iron armature, F, +easily adjusted by three screws. This armature is attracted by the +electromagnet, E E (whose resistance is 1,200 ohms), whenever a current +circulates through it. The length of the play is regulated by the screw, +V. The spring, L, applies tension to the break. + +_The Regulator_.--This consists of a balance and a cut-off. + +_The Balance_ (Figs. 4 and 5) is made with two solenoids. S and S', +whose relative resistances is adjustable. S conveys the main current, +and is wound with thick wire having practically no resistance, and S' +is traversed by a shunt current, and is wound with fine wire having a +resistance of 600 ohms. In the axes of these two coils a small and light +iron tube (2 mm. diameter and 60 mm. length) freely moves in a vertical +line between two guides. When magnetized it has one pole in the middle +and the other at each end. The upward motion is controlled by the +spring, N T. The spring rests upon the screw, H, with which it makes +contact by platinum electrodes. This contact is broken whenever the +little iron rod strikes the spring, N T. + +The positive lead from the dynamo is attached to the terminal, B, then +passes through the coil, S, to the terminal, B', whence it proceeds to +the lamp. The negative lead is attached to terminal, A, passing directly +to the other terminal, A', and thence to the lamp. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +The shunt which passes through the fine coil, S', commences at the +point, P. The other end is fixed to the screw, H, whence it has two +paths, the one offering no resistance through the spring, T N, to the +upper negative terminal, A'; the other through the terminal, J, to the +electromagnet of the break, M, and thence to the negative terminal of +the lamp, L'. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +_The Cut-off_.--The last part of the apparatus (Fig. 4) to be described +is the cut-off, which is used when there are several lamps in series. It +is brought into play by the switch, C D, which can be placed at E or D. +When it is at E, the negative terminal, A, is in communication with +the positive terminal, B, through the resistance, R, which equals the +resistance of the lamp, which is, therefore, out of circuit. When it is +at D the cut-off acts automatically to do the same thing when required. +This is done by a solenoid, V, which has two coils, the one of thick +wire offering no resistance, and the other of 2,000 ohms resistance. The +fine wire connects the terminals, A' and B. The solenoid has a movable +soft iron core suspended by the spring, U. It has a cross-piece of iron +which can dip into two mercury cups, G and K, when the core is sucked +into the solenoid. When this is the case, which happens when any +accident occurs to the lamp, the terminal, A, is placed in connection +with the terminal, B, through the thick wire of V and the resistance, R, +in the same way as it was done by the switch, C D. + +_Electrical Arrangement_.--The mode in which several lamps are connected +up in series is shown by Fig. 6. M is the dynamo machine. The + lead is +connected to B1 of the balance it then passes to the lamp, L, returning +to the balance, and then proceeds to each other lamp, returning finally +to the negative pole of the machine. When the current enters the balance +it passes through the coil, S, magnetizing the iron core and drawing +it downward (Fig. 4). It then passes to the lamp, L L', through the +carbons, then returns to the balance, and proceeds back to the negative +terminal of the machine. A small portion of the current is shunted off +at the point, P, passing through the coil, S', through the contact +spring, T N, to the terminal, A', and drawing the iron core in +opposition to S. The carbons are in contact, but in passing through +the lamp the current magnetizes the electromagnet, M (Fig. 2), which +attracts the armature, A B, that bites and lifts up the rod, T, with the +upper carbon, a definite and fixed distance that is easily regulated +by the screws, Y Y. The arc then is formed, and will continue to burn +steadily as long as the current remains constant. But the moment the +current falls, due to the increased resistance of the arc, a greater +proportion passes through the shunt, S' (Fig. 4), increasing its +magnetic moment on the iron core, while that of S is diminishing. The +result is that a moment arrives when equilibrium is destroyed, the iron +rod strikes smartly and sharply upon the spring, N T. Contact between T +and H is broken, and the current passes through the electromagnet of the +break in the lamp. The break is released for an instant, the carbons +approach each other. But the same rupture of contact introduces in the +shunt a new resistance of considerable magnitude (viz., 1,200 ohms), +that of the electromagnets of the break. Then the strength of the shunt +current diminishes considerably, and the solenoid, S, recovers briskly +its drawing power upon the rod, and contact is restored. The carbons +approach during these periods only about 0.01 to 0.02 millimeter. +If this is not sufficient to restore equilibrium it is repeated +continually, until equilibrium is obtained. The result is that the +carbon is continually falling by a motion invisible to the eye, but +sufficient to provide for the consumption of the carbons. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +The contact between N T and H is never completely broken, the sparks are +very feeble, and the contacts do not oxidize. The resistances inserted +are so considerable that heating cannot occur, while the portion of the +current abstracted for the control is so small that it may be neglected. + +The balance acts precisely like the key of a Morse machine, and the +break precisely like the sounder-receiver so well known in telegraphy. +It emits the same kind of sounds, and acts automatically like a skilled +and faithful telegraphist. + +This regulation, by very small and short successive steps, offers +several advantages: (1) it is imperceptible to the eye; (2) it does not +affect the main current; (3) any sudden instantaneous variation of the +main current does not allow a too near approach of the carbon points. +Let, now, an accident occur; for instance, a carbon is broken. At once +the automatic cut-off acts, the current passes through the resistance, +R, instead of passing through the lamp. The current through the fine +coil is suddenly increased, the rod is drawn in, contact is made at G +and K, and the current is sent through the coil, R. As soon as contact +is again made by the carbons, the current in the coil, S, is increased, +that of the thick wire in V diminished, and the antagonistic spring, +U, breaks the contact at G and K. The rupture of the light is almost +invisible, because the relighting is so brisk and sharp. + +I have seen this lamp in action, and its constant steadiness leaves +nothing to be desired. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR OBTAINING PURE WATER FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC USE. + + +Our readers are well aware that water as found naturally is never +absolutely free from dissolved impurities; and in ordinary cases it +contains solid impurities derived both from the inorganic and organic +kingdoms, together with gaseous substances; these latter being generally +derived from the atmosphere. + +By far the purest water which occurs in nature is rain-water, and if +this be collected in a secluded district, and after the air has been +well washed by previous rain, its purity is remarkable; the extraneous +matter consisting of little else than a trace of carbonic acid and other +gases dissolved from the air. In fact, such water is far purer than any +distilled water to be obtained in commerce. The case is very different +when the rain-water is collected in a town or densely populated +district, more especially if the water has been allowed to flow over +dirty roofs. The black and foully-smelling liquid popularly known as +soft water is so rich in carbonaceous and organic constituents as to be +of very limited use to the photographer; but by taking the precaution of +fitting up a simple automatic shunt for diverting the stream until the +roofs have been thoroughly washed, it becomes possible to insure a good +supply of clean and serviceable soft water, even in London. Several +forms of shunt have been devised, some of these being so complex as +to offer every prospect of speedy disorganization; but a simple and +efficient apparatus is figured in _Engineering_ by a correspondent who +signs himself "Millwright," and as we have thoroughly proved the value +of an apparatus which is practically identical, we reproduce the +substance of his communication. + +A gentleman of Newcastle, a retired banker, having tried various filters +to purify the rain-water collected on the roof of his house, at length +had the idea to allow no water to run into the cistern until the roof +had been well washed. After first putting up a hard-worked valve, the +arrangement as sketched below has been hit upon. Now Newcastle is a very +smoky place, and yet my friend gets water as pure as gin, and almost +absolutely free from any smack of soot. + +[Illustration] + +The sketch explains itself. The weight, W, and the angle of the lever, +L, are such, that when the valve, V, is once opened it goes full open. A +small hole in the can C, acts like a cataract, and brings matters to a +normal state very soon after the rain ceases. + +The proper action of the apparatus can only be insured by a careful +adjustment of the weight, W, the angle through which the valve opens, +and the magnitude of the vessel, C. It is an advantage to make +the vessel, C, somewhat broader in proportion to its height than +represented, and to provide it with a movable strainer placed about half +way down. This tends to protect the cataract hole, and any accumulation +of leaves and dirt can be removed once in six months or so. Clean soft +water is valuable to the photographer in very many cases. Iron developer +(wet plate) free from chlorides will ordinarily remain effective on the +plate much longer than when chlorides are present, and the pyrogallic +solution for dry-plate work will keep good for along time if made with +soft water, while the lime which is present in hard water causes the +pyrogallic acid to oxidize with considerable rapidity. Negatives that +have been developed with oxalate developer often become covered with a +very unsightly veil of calcium oxalate when rinsed with hard water, and +something of a similar character occasionally occurs in the case of +silver prints which are transferred directly from the exposure frame to +impure water. + +To the carbon printer clean rain-water is of considerable value, as he +can develop much more rapidly with soft water than with hard water; +or, what comes to the same thing, he can dissolve away his superfluous +gelatine at a lower temperature than would otherwise be necessary. + +The cleanest rain-water which can ordinarily be collected in a town is +not sufficiently pure to be used with advantage in the preparation of +the nitrate bath, it being advisable to use the purest distilled water +for this purpose; and in many cases it is well to carefully distill +water for the bath in a glass apparatus of the kind figured below. + +[Illustration] + +A, thin glass flask serving as a retort. The tube, T, is fitted +air-tight to the flask by a cork, C. + +B, receiver into which the tube, T, fits quite loosely. + +D, water vessel intended to keep the spiral of lamp wick, which is shown +as surrounding T, in a moist condition. This wick acts as a siphon, and +water is gradually drawn over into the lower receptacle, E. + +L, spirit lamp, which may, in many cases, be advantageously replaced by +a Bunsen burner. + +A small metal still, provided with a tin condensing worm, is, however, a +more generally serviceable arrangement, and if ordinary precautions are +taken to make sure that the worm tube is clean, the resulting distilled +water will be nearly as pure as that distilled in glass vessels. + +Such a still as that figured below can be heated conveniently over an +ordinary kitchen fire, and should find a place among the appliances +of every photographer. Distilled water should always be used in the +preparation of emulsion, as the impurities of ordinary water may often +introduce disturbing conditions.--_Photographic News_. + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + + + + +BLACK PHOSPHORUS. + +By P. THENARD. + + +The author refers to the customary view that black phosphorus is +merely a mixture of the ordinary phosphorus with traces of a metallic +phosphide, and contends that this explanation is not in all cases +admissible. A specimen of black or rather dark gray phosphorus, which +the author submitted to the Academy, became white if melted and remained +white if suddenly cooled, but if allowed to enter into a state of +superfusion it became again black on contact with either white or black +phosphorus. A portion of the black specimen being dissolved in carbon +disulphide there remained undissolved merely a trace of a very pale +yellow matter which seemed to be amorphous phosphorus.--_Comptes +Rendus_. + + * * * * * + + + + +COMPOSITION OF STEEP WATER. + + +According to M. C. Leeuw, water in which malt has been steeped has the +following composition: + + Organic matter. 0.56 per cent. + Mineral matter. 0.52 " + ---- + Total dry matter. 1.08 " + ---- + Nitrogen. 0.033 " + +The mineral matter consists of-- + + Potash. 0.193 " + Phosphoric acid. 0.031 " + Lime. 0.012 " + Soda. 0.047 " + Magnesia. 0.016 " + Sulphuric acid. 0.007 " + Oxide of iron. traces. + Chlorine and silica. 0.212 " + + * * * * * + + + + +SCHREIBER'S APPARATUS FOR REVIVIFYING BONE-BLACK. + + +We give opposite illustrations of Schreiber's apparatus for revivifying +bone-black or animal charcoal. The object of revivification is to render +the black fit to be used again after it has lost its decolorizing +properties through service--that is to say, to free its pores from the +absorbed salts and insoluble compounds that have formed therein +during the operation of sugar refining. There are two methods +employed--fermentation and washing. At present the tendency is to +abandon the former in order to proceed with as small a stock of black as +possible, and to adopt the method of washing with water and acid in a +rotary washer. + +Figs. 1 and 2 represent a plan and elevation of a bone-black room, +containing light filters, A, arranged in a circle around wells, B. These +latter have the form of a prism with trapezoidal base, whose small sides +end at the same point, d, and the large ones at the filter. The funnel, +E, of the washer, F, is placed in the space left by the small ends of +the wells, so that the black may be taken from these latter and thrown +directly into the washer. The washer is arranged so that the black may +flow out near the steam fitter, G, beneath the floor. The discharge of +this filter is toward the side of the elevator, H, which takes in the +wet black below, and carries it up and pours it into the drier situated +at the upper part of the furnace. This elevator, Figs. 3 and 4, is +formed of two vertical wooden uprights, A, ten centimeters in thickness, +to which are fixed two round-iron bars the same as guides. The lift, +properly so-called, consists of an iron frame, C, provided at the four +angles with rollers, D, and supporting a swinging bucket, E, which, on +its arrival at the upper part of the furnace, allows the black to fall +to an inclined plane that leads it to the upper part of the drier. The +left is raised and lowered by means of a pitch-chain, F, fixed to the +middle of the frame, C, and passing over two pulleys, G, at the upper +part of the frame and descending to the mechanism that actuates it. +This latter comprises a nut, I, acting directly on the chain; a toothed +wheel, K, and a pinion, J, gearing with the latter and keyed upon the +shaft of the pulleys, L and M. The diameter of the toothed wheel, K, is +0.295 of a meter, and it makes 53.4 revolutions per minute. The diameter +of the pinion is 0.197 of a meter, and it makes 80 revolutions per +minute. The pulleys, M and L, are 0.31 of a meter in diameter, and +make 80 revolutions per minute. Motion is transmitted to them by other +pulleys, N, keyed upon a shaft placed at the lower part, which receives +its motion from the engine of the establishment through the intermedium +of the pulley, O. The diameter of the latter is 0.385 of a meter, and +that of N is 0.58. They each make 43 revolutions per minute. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ELEVATION OF BONE-BLACK REVIVIFYING PLANT +(SCHREIBER'S SYSTEM.) + +FIG. 2.--PLAN VIEW. + +FIG. 3.--LATERAL VIEW OF ELEVATOR. + +FIG. 4.--FRONT VIEW OF ELEVATOR. + +FIG. 5.--CONTINUOUS FURNACE FOR REVIVIFYING BONE-BLACK.] + +The elevator is set in motion by the simple maneuver of the gearing +lever, P, and when this has been done all the other motions are effected +automatically. + +_The Animal Black Furnace_.--This consists of a masonry casing of +rectangular form, in which are arranged on each side of the same +fire-place two rows of cast-iron retorts, D, of undulating form, each +composed of three parts, set one within the other. These retorts, which +serve for the revivification of the black, are incased in superposed +blocks of refractory clay, P, Q, S, designed to regularize the +transmission of heat and to prevent burning. These pieces are kept in +their respective places by crosspieces, R. The space between the retorts +occupied by the fire-place, Y, is covered with a cylindrical dome, O, of +refractory tiles, forming a fire-chamber with the inner surface of the +blocks, P, Q, and S. The front of the surface consists of a cast-iron +plate, containing the doors to the fire-place and ash pan, and a larger +one to allow of entrance to the interior to make repairs. + +One of the principal disadvantages of furnaces for revivifying animal +charcoal has been that they possessed no automatic drier for drying the +black on its exit from the washer. It was for the purpose of remedying +this that Mr. Schreiber was led to invent the automatic system of drying +shown at the upper part of the furnace, and which is formed of two +pipes, B, of undulating form, like the retorts, with openings throughout +their length for the escape of steam. Between these pipes there is a +closed space into which enters the waste heat and products of combustion +from the furnace. These latter afterward escape through the chimney at +the upper part. + +In order that the black may be put in bags on issuing from the furnace, +it must be cooled as much as possible. For this purpose there are +arranged on each side of the furnace two pieces of cast iron tubes, F, +of rectangular section, forming a prolongation of the retorts and making +with them an angle of about 45 degrees. The extremities of these tubes +terminate in hollow rotary cylinders, G, which permit of regulating the +flow of the black into a car, J (Fig. 1), running on rails. + +From what precedes, it will be readily understood how a furnace is run +on this plan. + +The bone-black in the hopper, A, descends into the drier, B, enters the +retorts, D, and, after revivification, passes into the cooling pipes, F, +from whence it issues cold and ready to be bagged. A coke fire having +been built in the fire-place, Y, the flames spread throughout the fire +chamber, direct themselves toward the bottom, divide into two parts to +the right and left, and heat the back of the retorts in passing. Then +the two currents mount through the lateral flues, V, and unite so as to +form but one in the drier. Within the latter there are arranged plates +designed to break the current from the flames, and allow it to heat all +the inner parts of the pipes, while the apertures in the drier allow of +the escape of the steam. + +By turning one of the cylinders, G, so as to present its aperture +opposite that of the cooler, it instantly fills up with black. At this +moment the whole column, from top to bottom, is set in motion. The +bone-black, in passing through the undulations, is thrown alternately to +the right and left until it finally reaches the coolers. This operation +is repeated as many times as the cylinder is filled during the descent +of one whole column, that is to say, about forty times. + +With an apparatus of the dimensions here described, 120 hectoliters +of bone-black may be revivified in twenty four hours, with 360 to 400 +kilogrammes of coke.--_Annales Industrielles_. + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 330, page 5264.] + + + + +SOAP AND ITS MANUFACTURE, FROM A CONSUMER'S POINT OF VIEW. + + +In our last article, under the above heading, the advantages to be +gained by the use of potash soap as compared with soda soap were pointed +out, and the reasons of this superiority, especially in the case of +washing wool or woolen fabrics, were pretty fully gone into. It was also +further explained why the potash soaps generally sold to the public were +unfit for general use, owing to their not being neutral--that is to say, +containing a considerable excess of free or unsaponified alkali, which +acts injuriously on the fiber of any textile material, and causes sore +hands if used for household or laundry purposes. It was shown that the +cause of this defect was owing to the old-fashioned method of making +potash or soft soap, by boiling with wood ashes or other impure form of +potash; but that a perfectly pure and neutral potash soap could readily +be made with pure caustic potash, which within the last few years has +become a commercial article, manufactured on a large scale; just in +the same manner as the powdered 98 per cent. caustic soda, which was +recommended in our previous articles on making hard soap without +boiling. + +The process of making pure neutral potash soap is very simple, and +almost identical with that for making hard soap with pure powdered +caustic soda. The following directions, if carefully and exactly +followed, will produce a first-class potash soap, suitable either for +the woolen manufacturer for washing his wool, and the cloth afterward +made from it, or for household and laundry purposes, for which uses it +will be found far superior to any soda soap, no matter how pure or well +made it may be. + +Dissolve twenty pounds of pure caustic potash in two gallons of water. +Pure caustic potash is very soluble, and dissolves almost immediately, +heating the water. Let the lye thus made cool until warm to the +hand--say about 90 F. Melt eighty pounds of tallow or grease, which must +be free from salt, and let it cool until fairly hot to the hand--say +130 F.; or eighty pounds of any vegetable or animal oil may be taken +instead. Now pour the caustic potash lye into the melted tallow or oil, +stirring with a flat wooden stirrer about three inches broad, until both +are thoroughly mixed and smooth in appearance. This mixing may be done +in the boiler used to melt the tallow, or in a tub, or half an oil +barrel makes a good mixing vessel. Wrap the tub or barrel well up in +blankets or sheepskins, and put away for a week in some warm dry place, +during which the mixture slowly turns into soap, giving a produce of +about 120 pounds of excellent potash soap. If this soap is made with +tallow or grease it will be nearly as hard as soda soap. When made by +farmers or householders tallow or grease will generally be taken, as it +is the cheapest, and ready to hand on the spot. For manufacturers, or +for making laundry soap, nothing could be better than cotton seed oil. A +magnificent soap can be made with this article, lathering very freely. +When made with oil it is better to remelt in a kettle the potash soap, +made according to the above directions, with half its weight of water, +using very little heat, stirring constantly, and removing the fire as +soon as the water is mixed with and taken up by the soap. A beautifully +bright soap is obtained in this way, and curiously the soap is actually +made much harder and stiffer by this addition of water than when it is +in a more concentrated state previously to the water being added. + +With reference to the caustic potash for making the soap, it can be +obtained in all sizes of drums, but small packages just sufficient for +a batch of soap are generally more economical than larger packages, as +pure caustic potash melts and deteriorates very quickly when exposed +to the air. The Greenbank Alkali Co., of St. Helens, seems to have +appreciated this, and put upon the market pure caustic potash in twenty +pound canisters, which are very convenient for potash soft soap making +by consumers for their own use. + +While on this subject of caustic potash, it cannot be too often repeated +that _caustic potash_ is a totally different article to _caustic soda_, +though just like it in appearance, and therefore often sold as such. +One of the most barefaced instances of this is the so-called "crystal +potash," "ball potash," or "rock potash," of the lye packers, sold in +one pound packages, which absolutely, without exception, do not contain +a single grain of potash, but simply consist of caustic soda more or +less adulterated--as a rule very much "more" than "less!" It is much +to be regretted that this fraud on the public has been so extensively +practiced, as potash has been greatly discredited by this procedure. + +The subject of fleece scouring or washing the wool while growing on +the sheep, with a potash soap made on the spot with the waste tallow +generally to be had on every sheep farm, seems recently to have been +attracting attention in some quarters, and certainly would be a source +of profit to sheep owners by putting their wool on the market in the +best condition, and at the same time cleaning the skin of the sheep. It +therefore appears to be a move in the right direction. + +In concluding this series of articles on practical soap making from a +consumer's point of view, the writer hopes that, although the subject +has been somewhat imperfectly handled, owing to necessarily limited +space and with many unavoidable interruptions, yet that they may have +been found of some interest and assistance to consumers of soap who +desire easily and readily to make a pure and unadulterated article for +their own use. + + * * * * * + + + + +COTTON SEED OIL. + +By S.S. BRADFORD, Ph.G. + + +Having had occasion during the last six years to manufacture lead +plaster in considerable quantities, it occurred to me that cotton seed +oil might be used instead of olive oil, at less expense, and with as +good results. The making of this plaster with cotton seed oil has been +questioned, as, according to some authorities, the product is not of +good consistence, and is apt to be soft, sticky, and dark colored; +but in my experience such is not the case. If the U. S. P. process is +followed in making this plaster, substituting for the olive oil cotton +seed oil, and instead of one half-pint of boiling water one and one-half +pint are added, the product obtained will be equally as good as that +from olive oil. My results with this oil in making lead plaster led me +to try it in making the different liniments of the Pharmacopoeia, with +the following results: + +_Linimentum Ammoniæ_.--This liniment, made with cotton seed oil, is of +much better consistency than when made with olive oil. It is not so +thick, will pour easily out of the bottle, and if the ammonia used is of +proper strength, will make a perfect liniment. + +_Linimentum Calcis_.--Cotton seed oil is not at all adapted to making +this liniment. It does not readily saponify, separates quickly, and it +is almost impossible to unite when separated. + +_Linimentum Camphoræ_.--Cotton seed oil is far superior to olive oil in +making this liniment, it being a much better solvent of camphor. It has +not that disagreeable odor so commonly found in the liniment. + +_Linimentum Chloroformi_.--Cotton seed oil being very soluble in +chloroform, the liniment made with it leaves nothing to be desired. + +_Linimentum Plumbi Subacetatis_.--When liq. plumbi subacet. is mixed +with cotton seed oil and allowed to stand for some time the oil assumes +a reddish color similar to that of freshly made tincture of myrrh. When +the liquor is mixed with olive oil, if the oil be pure, no such change +takes place. Noticing this change, it occurred to me that this would be +a simple and easy way to detect cotton seed oil when mixed with olive +oil. This change usually takes place after standing from twelve to +twenty-four hours. It is easily detected in mixtures containing five +per cent., or even less, of the oils, and I am convinced, after making +numerous experiments with different oils, that it is peculiar to cotton +seed oil.--_American Journal of Pharmacy_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE FOOD AND ENERGY OF MAN. + +[Footnote: From a lecture delivered at the Sanitary Congress, at +Newcastle-on-Tyne, September 28, 1882.] + +By PROF. DE CHAUMONT, F.R.S. + + +Although eating cannot be said to be in any way a new fashion, it has +nevertheless been reserved for modern times, and indeed we may say the +present generation, to get a fairly clear idea of the way in which +food is really utilized for the work of our bodily frame. We must not, +however, plume ourselves too much upon our superior knowledge, for +inklings of the truth, more or less dim, have been had through all ages, +and we are now stepping into the inheritance of times gone by, using the +long and painful experience of our predecessors as the stepping-stone +to our more accurate knowledge of the present time. In this, as in many +other things, we are to some extent in the position of a dwarf on the +shoulders of a giant; the dwarf may, indeed, see further than the giant; +but he remains a dwarf, and the giant a giant. + +The question has been much discussed as to what the original food of man +was, and some people have made it a subject of excited contention. The +most reasonable conclusion is that man is naturally a frugivorous or +fruit-eating animal, like his cousins the monkeys, whom he still so +much resembles. This forms a further argument in favor of his being +originated in warm regions, where fruits of all kinds were plentiful. It +is pretty clear that the resort to animal food, whether the result of +the pressure of want from failure of vegetable products, or a mere taste +and a desire for change and more appetizing food, is one that took place +many ages ago, probably in the earliest anthropoid, if not in the latest +pithecoid stage. No doubt some advantage was recognized in the more +rapid digestion and the comparative ease with which the hunter or fisher +could obtain food, instead of waiting for the ripening of fruits in +countries which had more or less prolonged periods of cold and inclement +weather. Some anatomical changes have doubtless resulted from the +practice, but they are not of sufficiently marked character to found +much argument upon; all that we can say being that the digestive +apparatus in man seems well adapted for digesting any food that is +capable of yielding nutriment, and that even when an entire change is +made in the mode of feeding, the adaptability of the human system +shows itself in a more or less rapid accommodation to the altered +circumstances. + +Food, then, is any substance which can be taken into the body and +applied to use, either in building up or repairing the tissues and +framework of the body itself, or in providing energy and producing +animal heat, or any substance which, without performing those functions +directly, controls, directs, or assists their performance. With this +wide definition it is evident that we include all the ordinary articles +recognized commonly as food, and that we reject all substances +recognized commonly as poisons. But it will also include such substances +as water and air, both of which are essential for nutrition, but are not +usually recognized as belonging to the list of food substances in the +ordinary sense. When we carry our investigation further, we find that +the organic substances may be again divided into two distinct classes, +namely, that which contains nitrogen (the casein), and those that do not +(the butter and sugar). + +On ascertaining this, we are immediately struck with the remarkable fact +that all the tissues and fluids of the body, muscles (or flesh), +bone, blood--all, in short, except the fat--contain nitrogen, and, +consequently, for their building up in the young, and for their repair +and renewal in the adult, nitrogen is absolutely required. We therefore +reasonably infer that the nitrogenous substance is necessary for this +purpose. Experiment has borne this out, for men who have been compelled +to live without nitrogenous food by dire necessity, and criminals on +whom the experiment has been tried, have all perished sooner or later in +consequence. When nitrogenous substances are used in the body, they +are, of course, broken up and oxidized, or perhaps we ought to say more +accurately, they take the place of the tissues of the body which wear +away and are carried off by oxidation and other chemical changes. + +Now, modern science tell us that such changes are accompanied with +manifestations of energy in some form or other, most frequently in +that of heat, and we must look, therefore, upon nitrogenous food +as contributing to the energy of the body in addition to its other +functions. + +What are the substances which we may class as nitrogenous. In the first +place, we have the typical example of the purest form in _albumin_, +or white of egg; and from this the name is now given to the class of +_albuminates_. The animal albuminates are: Albumin from eggs, fibrin +from muscles, or flesh, myosin, or synronin, also from animals, casein +(or cheesy matter) from milk, and the nitrogenous substances from blood. +In the vegetable kingdom, we have glutin, or vegetable fibrin, which is +the nourishing constituent of wheat, barley, oats, etc.; and legumin, +or vegetable casein, which is the peculiar substance found in peas and +beans. The other organic constituents--viz., the fats and the starches +and sugars--contain no nitrogen, and were at one time thought to be +concerned in producing animal heat. + +We now know--thanks to the labors of Joule, Lyon Playfair, Clausius, +Tyndall, Helmholtz, etc.--that heat itself is a mode of motion, a form +of convertible energy, which can be made to do useful or productive +work, and be expressed in terms of actual work done. Modern experiment +shows that all our energy is derived from that of food, and, in +particular from the non-nitrogenous part of it, that is, the fat, +starch, and sugar. The nutrition of man is best maintained when he is +provided with a due admixture of all the four classes of aliment which +we have mentioned, and not only that, but he is also better off if he +has a variety of each class. Thus he may and ought to have albumen, +fibrine, gluten, and casein among the albuminates, or at least two of +them; butter and lard, or suet, or oil among the fats; starch of wheat, +potato, rice, peas, etc., and cane-sugar, and milk-sugar among the +carbo-hydrates. The salts cannot be replaced, so far as we know. Life +may be maintained in fair vigor for some time on albuminates only, but +this is done at the expense of the tissues, especially the fat of the +body, and the end must soon come; with fat and carbo hydrates alone +vigor may also be maintained for some time, at the expense of the +tissues also, but the limit is a near one, In either of these cases we +suppose sufficient water and salts to be provided. + +We must now inquire into the quantities of food necessary; and this +necessitates a little consideration of the way in which the work of +the body is carried on. We must look upon the human body exactly as a +machine; like an engine with which we are all so familiar. A certain +amount of work requires to be done, say, a certain number of miles of +distance to be traversed; we know that to do this a certain number of +pounds, or hundredweights, or tons of coal must be put into the fire of +the boiler in order to furnish the requisite amount of energy through +the medium of steam. This amount of fuel must bear a certain proportion +to the work, and also to the velocity with which it is done, so both +quantity and time have to be accounted for. + +No lecture on diet would be complete without a reference to the vexed +question of alcohol. I am no teetotal advocate, and I repudiate the +rubbish too often spouted from teetotal platforms, talk that is, +perhaps, inseparable from the advocacy of a cause that imports a good +deal of enthusiasm. I am at one, however, in recognizing the evils of +excess, and would gladly hail their diminution. But I believe that +alcohol properly used may be a comfort and a blessing, just as I know +that improperly used it becomes a bane and a curse. But we are now +concerned with it as an article of diet in relation to useful work, and +it may be well to call attention markedly to the fact that its use in +this way is very limited. The experiments of the late Dr. Parkes, made +in our laboratory, at Netley, were conclusive on the point, that beyond +an amount that would be represented by about one and a half to two pints +of beer, alcohol no longer provided any convertible energy, and that, +therefore, to take it in the belief that it did do so is an error. +It may give a momentary stimulus in considerable doses, but this is +invariably followed by a corresponding depression, and it is a maxim now +generally followed, especially on service, never to give it before or +during work. There are, of course, some persons who are better without +it altogether, and so all moderation ought to be commended, if not +enjoyed. + +There are other beverages which are more useful than the alcoholic, +as restoratives, and for support in fatigue. Tea and coffee are +particularly good. Another excellent restorative is a weak solution +of Liebig's extract of meat, which has a remarkable power of removing +fatigue. Perhaps one of the most useful and most easily obtainable is +weak oatmeal gruel, either hot or cold. With regard to tobacco, it also +has some value in lessening fatigue in those who are able to take it, +but it may easily be carried to excess. Of it we may say, as of alcohol, +that in moderation it seems harmless, and even useful to some extent, +but, in excess, it is rank poison. + +There is one other point which I must refer to, and which is especially +interesting to a great seaport like this. This is the question of +scurvy--a question of vital importance to a maritime nation. A paper +lately issued by Mr. Thomas Gray, of the Board of Trade, discloses the +regrettable fact that since 1873 there has been a serious falling off, +the outbreaks of scurvy having again increased until they reached +ninety-nine in 1881. This, Mr. Gray seems to think, is due to a neglect +of varied food scales; but it may also very probably have arisen from +the neglect of the regulation about lime-juice, either as to issue or +quality, or both. But it is also a fact of very great importance that +mere monotony of diet has a most serious effect upon health; variety +of food is not merely a pandering to gourmandism or greed, but a real +sanitary benefit, aiding digestion and assimilation. Our Board of Trade +has nothing to do with the food scales of ships, but Mr. Gray hints that +the Legislature will have to interfere unless shipowners look to it +themselves. The ease with which preserved foods of all kinds can be +obtained and carried now removes the last shadow of an excuse for +backwardness in this matter, and in particular the provision of a large +supply of potatoes, both fresh and dried, ought to be an unceasing care; +this is done on board American ships, and to this is doubtless owing in +a great part the healthiness of their crews. Scurvy in the present +day is a disgrace to shipowners and masters; and if public opinion is +insufficient to protect the seamen, the legislature will undoubtedly +step in and do so. + +And now let me close by pointing out that the study of this commonplace +matter of eating and drinking opens out to us the conception of the +grand unity of nature; since we see that the body of man differs in no +way essentially from other natural combinations, but is subject to +the same universal physical laws, in which there is no blindness, no +variableness, no mere chance, and disobedience of which is followed as +surely by retribution as even the keenest eschatologist might desire. + + * * * * * + + + + +RATTLESNAKE POISON. + +By HENRY H. CROFT. + + +Some time since, in a paper to which I am unfortunately unable to refer, +a French chemist affirmed that the poisonous principle in snakes, or +eliminated by snakes, was of the nature of an alkaloid, and gave a name +to this class of bodies. + +Mr. Pedler has shown that snake poison is destroyed or neutralized +by means of platinic chloride, owing probably to the formation of an +insoluble double platinic chloride, such as is formed with almost if not +all alkaloids. + +In this country (Texas) where rattlesnakes are very common, and persons +camping out much exposed to their bites, a very favorite anecdote, or +_remedia_ as the Mexicans cull it, is a strong solution of iodine in +potassium iodide.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The solution is applied as soon as possible to the wound, +preferably enlarged, and a few drops taken internally. The common +Mexican _remedia_ is the root of the _Agave virginica_ mashed or chewed +and applied to the wound, while part is swallowed. + +Great faith is placed in this root by all residents here, who are seldom +I without it, but, I have had no experience of it myself; and the +internal administration is no doubt useless. + +Even the wild birds know of this root; the queer paisano (? ground +woodpecker) which eats snakes, when wounded by a _vibora de cascabel_, +runs into woods, digs up and eats a root of the agave, just like the +mongoose; but more than that, goes back, polishes off his enemy, and +eats him. This has been told me by Mexicans who, it may be remarked, are +not _always_ reliable.] + +I have had occasion to prove the efficacy of this mixture in two cases +of _cascabel_ bites, one on a buck, the other on a dog; and it occurred +to me that the same explanation of its action might be given as above +for the platinum salt, viz., the formation of an insoluble iodo compound +as with ordinary alkaloids if the snake poison really belongs to this +class. + +Having last evening killed a moderate sized rattlesnake--_Crotalus +horridus_--which had not bitten anything, I found the gland fully +charged with the white opaque poison; on adding iodine solution to a +drop of this a dense light-brown precipitate was immediately formed, +quite similar to that obtained with most alkaloids, exhibiting under the +microscope no crystalline structure. + +In the absence of iodine a good extemporaneous solution for testing +alkaloids, and perhaps a snake poison antidote, may be made by adding a +few drops of ferric chloride to solution of potassium of iodide; this +is a very convenient test agent which I used in my laboratory for many +years. + +Although rattlesnake poison could be obtained here in very considerable +quantity, it is out of my power to make such experiments as I could +desire, being without any chemical appliances and living a hundred miles +or more from any laboratory. The same may be said with regard to books, +and possibly the above iodine reaction has been already described. + +Dr. Richards states that the cobra poison is destroyed by potassium +permanganate; but this is no argument in favor of that salt as an +antidote. Mr. Pedler also refers to it, but allows that it would not be +probably of any use after the poison had been absorbed. Of this I +think there can be no doubt, remembering the easy decomposition of +permanganate by most organic substances, and I cannot but think that the +medicinal or therapeutic advantages of that salt, taken internally, are +equally problematical, unless the action is supposed to take place in +the stomach. + +In the bladder of the same rattlesnake I found a considerable +quantity of light-brown amorphous ammonium urate, the urine pale +yellow.--_Chemical News_. + +Hermanitas Ranch, Texas. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CHINESE SIGN MANUAL. + +[Footnote: Dr. D. J. Macgowan, in Medical Reports of China. 1881.] + + +Two writers in _Nature_, both having for their theme "Skin-furrows on +the Hand," solicit information on the subject from China.[1] As the +subject is considered to have a bearing on medical jurisprudence and +ethnology as well, this report is a suitable vehicle for responding to +the demand. + +[Footnote 1: Henry Faulds, Tzukiyi Hospital, Tokio, Japan. W. J. +Herschel, Oxford, England.--_Nature_, 28th October and 25th November, +1880.] + +Dr. Faulds' observations on the finger-tips of the Japanese have an +ethnic bearing and relate to the subject of heredity. Mr. Herschel +considers the subject as an agent of Government, he having charge for +twenty years of registration offices in India, where he employed finger +marks as sign manuals, the object being to prevent personation and +repudiation. Doolittle, in his "Social Life of the Chinese," describes +the custom. I cannot now refer to native works where the practice of +employing digital rugæ as a sign manual is alluded to. I doubt if its +employment in the courts is of ancient date. Well-informed natives think +that it came into vogue subsequent to the Han period; if so, it is in +Egypt that earliest evidence of the practice is to be found. Just as the +Chinese courts now require criminals to sign confessions by impressing +thereto the whorls of their thumb-tips--the right thumb in the case of +women, the left in the case of men--so the ancient Egyptians, it +is represented, required confessions to be sealed with their +thumbnails--most likely the tip of the digit, as in China. Great +importance is attached in the courts to this digital form of signature, +"finger form." Without a confession no criminal can be legally executed, +and the confession to be valid must be attested by the thumb-print +of the prisoner. No direct coercion is employed to secure this; a +contumacious culprit may, however, be tortured until he performs the +act which is a prerequisite to his execution. Digital signatures are +sometimes required in the army to prevent personation; the general +in command at Wenchow enforces it on all his troops. A document thus +attested can no more be forged or repudiated than a photograph--not so +easily, for while the period of half a lifetime effects great changes +in the physiognomy, the rugæ of the fingers present the same appearance +from the cradle to the grave; time writes no wrinkles there. In the +army everywhere, when the description of a person is written down, the +relative number of volutes and coniferous finger-tips is noted. It +is called taking the "whelk striæ," the fusiform being called "rice +baskets," and the volutes "peck measures." A person unable to write, the +form of signature which defies personation or repudiation is required in +certain domestic cases, as in the sale of children or women. Often when +a child is sold the parents affix their finger marks to the bill of +sale; when a husband puts away his wife, giving her a bill of divorce, +he marks the document with his entire palm; and when a wife is sold, the +purchaser requires the seller to stamp the paper with hands and feet, +the four organs duly smeared with ink. Professional fortune tellers in +China take into account almost the entire system of the person whose +future they attempt to forecast, and of course they include palmistry, +but the rugæ of the finger-ends do not receive much attention. Amateur +fortune-tellers, however, discourse as glibly on them as phrenologists +do of "bumps"--it is so easy. In children the relative number of volute +and conical striæ indicate their future. "If there are nine volutes," +says a proverb, "to one conical, the boy will attain distinction without +toil." + +Regarded from an ethnological point of view, I can discover merely that +the rugæ of Chinamen's fingers differ from Europeans', but there is so +little uniformity observable that they form no basis for distinction, +and while the striæ may be noteworthy points in certain medico-legal +questions, heredity is not one of them. + + * * * * * + + + + +LUCIDITY. + + +At the close of an interesting address lately delivered at the reopening +of the Liverpool University College and School of Medicine, Mr. Matthew +Arnold said if there was one word which he should like to plant in the +memories of his audience, and to leave sticking there after he had gone, +it was the word _lucidity_. If he had to fix upon the three great wants +at this moment of the three principal nations of Europe, he should say +that the great want of the French was morality, that the great want of +the Germans was civil courage, and that our own great want was lucidity. +Our own want was, of course, what concerned us the most. People were apt +to remark the defects which accompanied certain qualities, and to think +that the qualities could not be desirable because of the defects which +they saw accompanying them. There was no greater and salutary lesson for +men to learn than that a quality may be accompanied, naturally perhaps, +by grave dangers; that it may actually present itself accompanied by +terrible defects, and yet that it might itself be indispensable. Let him +illustrate what he meant by an example, the force of which they would +all readily feel. Seriousness was a quality of our nation. Perhaps +seriousness was always accompanied by certain dangers. But, at any rate, +many of our French neighbors would say that they found our seriousness +accompanied by so many false ideas, so much prejudice, so much that was +disagreeable, that it could not have the value which we attributed to +it. And yet we knew that it was invaluable. Let them follow the same +mode of reasoning as to the quality of lucidity. The French had a +national turn for lucidity as we had a national turn for seriousness. +Perhaps a national turn for lucidity carried with it always certain +dangers. Be this as it might, it was certain that we saw in the French, +along with their lucidity, a want of seriousness, a want of reverence, +and other faults, which greatly displeased us. Many of us were inclined +in consequence to undervalue their lucidity, or to deny that they +had it. We were wrong: it existed as our seriousness existed; it was +valuable as our seriousness was valuable. Both the one and the other +were valuable, and in the end indispensable. + +What was lucidity? It was negatively that the French have it, and he +would therefore deal with its negative character merely. Negatively, +lucidity was the perception of the want of truth and validness in +notions long current, the perception that they are no longer possible, +that their time is finished, and they can serve us no more. All through +the last century a prodigious travail for lucidity was going forward +in France. Its principal agent was a man whose name excited generally +repulsion in England, Voltaire. Voltaire did a great deal of harm in +France. But it was not by his lucidity that he did harm; he did it by +his want of seriousness, his want of reverence, his want of sense for +much that is deepest in human nature. But by his lucidity he did good. + +All admired Luther. Conduct was three-fourths of life, and a man who +worked for conduct, therefore, worked for more than a man who worked for +intelligence. But having promised this, it might be said that the Luther +of the eighteenth century and of the cultivated classes was Voltaire. +As Luther had an antipathy to what was immoral, so Voltaire had an +antipathy to what was absurd, and both of them made war upon the object +of their antipathy with such masterly power, with so much conviction, +so much energy, so much genius, that they carried their world with +them--Luther his Protestant world, and Voltaire his French world--and +the cultivated classes throughout the continent of Europe generally. + +Voltaire had more than negative lucidity; he had the large and true +conception that a number and equilibrium of activities were necessary +for man. "_Il faut douner à notre áme toutes les formes possibles_" +was a maxim which Voltaire really and truly applied in practice, +"advancing," as Michelet finely said of him, in every direction with +a marvelous vigor and with that conquering ambition which Vico called +_mens heroica_. Nevertheless. Voltaire's signal characteristic was his +lucidity, his negative lucidity. + +There was a great and free intellectual movement in England in the +eighteenth century--indeed, it was from England that it passed into +France; but the English had not that strong natural bent for lucidity +which the French had. Its bent was toward other things in preference. +Our leading thinkers had not the genius and passion for lucidity which +distinguished Voltaire. In their free inquiry they soon found themselves +coming into collision with a number of established facts, beliefs, +conventions. Thereupon all sorts of practical considerations began to +sway them. The danger signal went up, they often stopped short, turned +their eyes another way, or drew down a curtain between themselves and +the light. "It seems highly probable," said Voltaire, "that nature has +made thinking a portion of the brain, as vegetation is a function of +trees; that we think by the brain just as we walk by the feet." So our +reason, at least, would lead us to conclude, if the theologians did not +assure us of the contrary; such, too, was the opinion of Locke, but he +did not venture to announce it. The French Revolution came, England grew +to abhor France, and was cut off from the Continent, did great things, +gained much, but not in lucidity. The Continent was reopened, the +century advanced, time and experience brought their lessons, lovers of +free and clear thought, such as the late John Stuart Mill, arose among +us. But we could not say that they had by any means founded among us the +reign of lucidity. + +Let them consider that movement of which we were hearing so much just +now: let them look at the Salvation Army and its operations. They would +see numbers, funds, energy, devotedness, excitement, conversions, and +a total absence of lucidity. A little lucidity would make the whole +movement impossible. That movement took for granted as its basis what +was no longer possible or receivable; its adherents proceeded in all +they did on the assumption that that basis was perfectly solid, and +neither saw that it was not solid, nor ever even thought of asking +themselves whether it was solid or not. + +Taking a very different movement, and one of far higher dignity and +import, they had all had before their minds lately the long-devoted, +laborious, influential, pure, pathetic life of Dr. Pusey, which had just +ended. Many of them had also been reading in the lively volumes of that +acute, but not always good-natured rattle, Mr. Mozley, an account of +that great movement which took from Dr. Pusey its earlier name. Of its +later stage of Ritualism they had had in this country a now celebrated +experience. This movement was full of interest. It had produced men to +be respected, men to be admired, men to be beloved, men of learning, +goodness, genius, and charm. But could they resist the truth that +lucidity would have been fatal to it? The movers of all those questions +about apostolical succession, church patristic authority, primitive +usage, postures, vestments--questions so passionately debated, and on +which he would not seek to cast ridicule--did not they all begin by +taking for granted something no longer possible or receivable, build on +this basis as if it were indubitably solid, and fail to see that their +basis not being solid, all they built upon it was fantastic? + +He would not say that negative lucidity was in itself a satisfactory +possession, but he said that it was inevitable and indispensable, and +that it was the condition of all serious construction for the future. +Without it at present a man or a nation was intellectually and +spiritually all abroad. If they saw it accompanied in France by much +that they shrank from, they should reflect that in England it would +have influences joined with it which it had not in France--the natural +seriousness of the people, their sense of reverence and respect, their +love for the past. Come it must; and here where it had been so late in +coming, it would probably be for the first time seen to come without +danger. + +Capitals were natural centers of mental movement, and it was natural for +the classes with most leisure, most freedom, most means of cultivation, +and most conversance with the wide world to have lucidity though often +they had it not. To generate a spirit of lucidity in provincial towns, +and among the middle classes bound to a life of much routine and plunged +in business, was more difficult. Schools and universities, with serious +and disinterested studies, and connecting those studies the one with the +other and continuing them into years of manhood, were in this case the +best agency they could use. It might be slow, but it was sure. Such +an agency they were now going to employ. Might it fulfill all their +expectations! Might their students, in the words quoted just now, +advance in every direction with a marvelous vigor, and with that +conquering ambition which Vico called _mens heroica_! And among the many +good results of this, might one result be the acquisition in their midst +of that indispensable spirit--the spirit of lucidity! + + * * * * * + + + + +ON SOME APPARATUS THAT PERMIT OF ENTERING FLAMES. + +[Footnote: A. de Rochas in the _Revue Scientifique_.] + + +In the following notes I shall recall a few experiments that indicate +under what conditions the human organism is permitted to remain unharmed +amid flames. These experiments were published in England in 1882, in the +twelfth letter from Brewster to Walter Scott on natural magic. They are, +I believe, not much known in France, and possess a practical interest +for those who are engaged in the art of combating fires. + +At the end of the last century Humphry Davy observed that, on placing a +very fine wire gauze over a flame, the latter was cooled to such a +point that it could not traverse the meshes. This phenomenon, which he +attributed to the conductivity and radiating power of the metal, he soon +utilized in the construction of a lamp for miners. + +Some years afterward Chevalier Aldini, of Milan, conceived the idea of +making a new application of Davy's discovery in the manufacture of an +envelope that should permit a man to enter into the midst of flames. +This envelope, which was made of metallic gauze with 1-25th of an inch +meshes, was composed of five pieces, as follows: (1) a helmet, with +mask, large enough, to allow a certain space between it and the internal +bonnet of which I shall speak; (2) a cuirass with armlets; (3) a skirt +for the lower part of the belly and the thighs; (4) a pair of boots +formed of a double wire gauze; and (5) a shield five feet long by one +and a half wide, formed of metallic gauze stretched over a light iron +frame. Beneath this armor the experimenter was clad in breeches and a +close coat of coarse cloth that had previously been soaked in a solution +of alum. The head, hands, and feet were covered by envelopes of asbestos +cloth whose fibers were about a half millimeter in diameter. The bonnet +contained apertures for the eyes, nose, and ears, and consisted of a +single thickness of fabric, as did the stockings, but the gloves were of +double thickness, so that the wearer could seize burning objects with +the hands. + +Aldini, convinced of the services that his apparatus might render to +humanity, traveled over Europe and gave gratuitous representations with +it. The exercises generally took place in the following order: Aldini +began by first wrapping his finger in asbestos and then with a double +layer of wire gauze. He then held it for some instants in the flame of +a candle or alcohol lamp. One of his assistants afterward put on the +asbestos glove of which I have spoken, and, protecting the palm of his +hand with another piece of asbestos cloth, seized a piece of red-hot +iron from a furnace and slowly carried it to a distance of forty or +fifty meters, lighted some straw with it, and then carried it back to +the furnace. On other occasions, the experimenters, holding firebrands +in their hands, walked for five minutes over a large grating under which +fagots were burning. + +In order to show how the head, eyes, and lungs were protected by the +wire gauze apparatus, one of the experimenters put on the asbestos +bonnet, helmet, and cuirass, and fixed the shield in front of his +breast. Then, in a chafing dish placed on a level with his shoulder, a +great fire of shavings was lighted, and care was taken to keep it up. +Into the midst of these flames the experimenter then plunged his head +and remained thus five or six minutes with his face turned toward them. +In an exhibition given at Paris before a committee from the Academic +des Sciences, there were set up two parallel fences formed of straw, +connected by iron wire to light wicker work, and arranged so as to leave +between them a passage 3 feet wide by 30 long. The heat was so intense, +when the fences were set on fire, that no one could approach nearer than +20 or 25 feet; and the flames seemed to fill the whole space between +them, and rose to a height of 9 or 10 feet. Six men clad in the Aldini +suit went in, one behind the other, between the blazing fences, and +walked slowly backward and forward in the narrow passage, while the fire +was being fed with fresh combustibles from the exterior. One of these +men carried on his back, in an ozier basket covered with wire gauze, a +child eight years of age, who had on no other clothing than an asbestos +bonnet. This same man, having the child with him, entered on another +occasion a clear fire whose flames reached a height of 18 feet, and +whose intensity was such that it could not be looked at. He remained +therein so long that the spectators began to fear that he had succumbed; +but he finally came out safe and sound. + +One of the conclusions to be drawn from the facts just stated is that +man can breathe in the midst of flames. This marvelous property cannot +be attributed exclusively to the cooling of the air by its passage +through the gauze before reaching the lungs; it shows also a very great +resistance of our organs to the action of heat. The following, moreover, +are direct proofs of such resistance. In England, in their first +experiment, Messrs. Joseph Banks, Charles Blagden, and Dr. Solander +remained for ten minutes in a hot-house whose temperature was 211° +Fahr., and their bodies preserved therein very nearly the usual heat. On +breathing against a thermometer they caused the mercury to fall several +degrees. Each expiration, especially when it was somewhat strong, +produced in their nostrils an agreeable impression of coolness, and the +same impression was also produced on their fingers when breathed upon. +When they touched themselves their skin seemed to be as cold as that of +a corpse; but contact with their watch chains caused them to experience +a sensation like that of a burn. A thermometer placed under the tongue +of one of the experimenters marked 98° Fahr., which is the normal +temperature of the human species. + +Emboldened by these first results, Blagden entered a hot-house in which +the thermometer in certain parts reached 262° Fahr. He remained therein +eight minutes, walked about in all directions, and stopped in the +coolest part, which was at 240° Fahr. During all this time he +experienced no painful sensations; but, at the end of seven minutes, he +felt an oppression of the lungs that inquieted him and caused him to +leave the place. His pulse at that moment showed 144 beats to the +minute, that is to say, double what it usually did. To ascertain whether +there was any error in the indications of the thermometer, and to find +out what effect would take place on inert substances exposed to the hot +air that he had breathed, Blogden placed some eggs in a zinc plate in +the hot-house, alongside the thermometer, and found that in twenty +minutes they were baked hard. + +A case is reported where workmen entered a furnace for drying moulds, in +England, the temperature of which was 177°, and whose iron sole plate +was so hot that it carbonized their wooden shoes. In the immediate +vicinity of this furnace the temperature rose to 160°. Persons not of +the trade who approached anywhere near the furnace experienced pain in +the eyes, nose, and ears. + +A baker is cited in Angoumois, France, who spent ten minutes in a +furnace at 132° C. + +The resistance of the human organism to so high temperatures can be +attributed to several causes. First, it has been found that the quantity +of carbonic acid exhaled by the lungs, and consequently the chemical +phenomena of internal combustion that are a source of animal heat, +diminish in measure as the external temperature rises. Hence, a conflict +which has for result the retardation of the moment at which a living +being will tend, without obstacle, to take the temperature of the +surrounding medium. On another hand, it has been observed that man +resists heat so much the less in proportion as the air is saturated +with vapors. Dr. Berger, who supported for seven minutes a temperature +varying from 109° to 110° C. in dry air, could remain only twelve +minutes in a bagnio whose temperature rose from 41° to 51.75°. At the +Hammam of Paris the highest temperature obtained is 87°, and Dr. E. +Martin has not been able to remain therein more than five minutes. This +physician reports that in 1743, the thermometer having exceeded 40° at +Pekin, 14,000 persons perished. These facts are explained by the cooling +that the evaporation of perspiration produces on the surface of the +body. Edwards has calculated that such evaporation is ten times greater +in dry air in motion than in calm and humid air. The observations become +still more striking when the skin is put in contact with a liquid or a +solid which suppresses perspiration. Lemoine endured a bath of Bareges +water of 37° for half an hour; but at 45° he could not remain in it more +than seven minutes, and the perspiration began to flow at the end of six +minutes. According to Brewster, persons who experience no malaise near +a fire which communicates a temperature of 100° C. to them, can hardly +bear contact with alcohol and oil at 55° and mercury at 48°. + +The facts adduced permit us to understand how it was possible to bear +one of the proofs to which it is said those were submitted who wished +to be initiated into the Egyptian mysteries. In a vast vaulted chamber +nearly a hundred feet long, there were erected two fences formed of +posts, around which were wound branches of Arabian balm, Egyptian thorn, +and tamarind--all very flexible and inflammable woods. When this was set +on fire the flames arose as far as the vault, licked it, and gave the +chamber the appearance of a hot furnace, the smoke escaping through +pipes made for the purpose. Then the door was suddenly opened before the +neophyte, and he was ordered to traverse this burning place, whose floor +was composed of an incandescent grating. + +The Abbé Terrason recounts all these details in his historic romance +"Sethos," printed at the end of last century. Unfortunately literary +frauds were in fashion then, and the book, published as a translation of +an old Greek manuscript, gives no indication of sources. I have sought +in special works for the data which the abbé must have had as a basis, +but I have not been able to find them. I suppose, however, that +this description, which is so precise, is not merely a work of the +imagination. The author goes so far as to give the dimensions of the +grating (30 feet by 8), and, greatly embarrassed to explain how his hero +was enabled to traverse it without being burned, is obliged to suppose +it to have been formed of very thick bars, between which Sethos had care +to place his feet. But this explanation is inadmissible. He who had the +courage to rush, head bowed, into the midst of the flames, certainly +would not have amused himself by choosing the place to put his feet. +Braving the fire that surrounded his entire body, he must have had no +other thought than that of reaching the end of his dangerous voyage as +soon as possible. We cannot see very well, moreover, how this immense +grate, lying on the ground, was raised to a red heat and kept at such a +temperature. It is infinitely more simple to suppose that between the +two fences there was a ditch sufficiently deep in which a fire had +also been lighted, and which was covered by a grating as in the Aldini +experiments. It is even probable that this grating was of copper, +which, illuminated by the fireplace, must have presented a terrifying +brilliancy, while in reality it served only to prevent the flames from +the fireplace reaching him who dared to brave them. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BUILDING STONE SUPPLY. + + +The use of stone as a building material was not resorted to, except to +a trifling extent, in this country until long after the need of such a +solid substance was felt. The early settler contented himself with the +log cabin, the corduroy road, and the wooden bridge, and loose stone +enough for foundation purposes could readily be gathered from the +surface of the earth. Even after the desirability of more handsome and +durable building material for public edifices in the colonial cities +than wood became apparent, the ample resources which nature had afforded +in this country were overlooked, and brick and stone were imported by +the Dutch and English settlers from the Old World. Thus we find the +colonists of the New Netherlands putting yellow brick on their list +of non-dutiable imports in 1648; and such buildings in Boston as are +described as being "fairly set forth with brick, tile, slate, and +stone," were thus provided only with foreign products. Isolated +instances of quarrying stone are known to have occurred in the last +century; but they are rare. The edifice known as "King's Chapel," +Boston, erected in 1752, is the first one on record as being built from +American stone; this was granite, brought from Braintree, Mass. + +Granite is a rock particularly abundant in New England, though also +found in lesser quantities elsewhere in this country. The first granite +quarries that were extensively developed were those at Quincy, Mass., +and work began at that point early in the present century. The fame of +the stone became widespread, and it was sent to distant markets--even to +New Orleans. The old Merchants' Exchange in New York (afterward used as +a custom house) the Astor House in that city, and the Custom House in +New Orleans, all nearly or quite fifty years old, were constructed of +Quincy granite, as were many other fine buildings along the Atlantic +coast. In later years, not only isolated public edifices, but also whole +blocks of stores, have been constructed of this material. It was from +the Quincy quarries that the first railroad in this country was built; +this was a horse-railroad, three miles long, extending to Neponset +River, built in 1827. + +Other points in Massachusetts have been famed for their excellent +granite. After Maine was set off as a distinct State, Fox Island +acquired repute for its granite, and built up an extensive traffic +therein. Westerly, R.I., has also been engaged in quarrying this +valuable rock for many years, most of its choicer specimens having been +wrought for monumental purposes. Statues and other elaborate monumental +designs are now extensively made therefrom. Smaller pieces and a coarser +quality of the stone are here and elsewhere along the coast obtained in +large quantities for the construction of massive breakwaters to protect +harbors. Another point famous for its granite is Staten Island, New +York. This stone weighs 180 pounds to the cubic foot, while the Quincy +granite weighs but 165. The Staten Island product is used not only for +building purposes, but is also especially esteemed for paving after both +the Russ and Belgian patents. New York and other cities derive large +supplies from this source. The granite of Weehawken, N.J., is of the +same character, and greatly in demand. Port Deposit, Md., and Richmond, +Va, are also centers of granite production. Near Abbeville, S.C., and +in Georgia, granite is found quite like that of Quincy. Much southern +granite, however, decomposes readily, and is almost as soft as clay. +This variety of stone is found in great abundance in the Rocky +Mountains; but, except to a slight extent in California, it is not yet +quarried there. + +Granite, having little grain, can be cut into blocks of almost any size +and shape. Specimens as much as eighty feet long have been taken out and +transported great distances. The quarrying is done by drilling a series +of small holes, six inches or more deep and almost the same distance +apart, inserting steel wedges along the whole line and then tapping each +gently with a hammer in succession, in order that the strain may be +evenly distributed. + +A building material that came into use earlier than granite is known as +freestone or sandstone; although its first employment does not date back +further than the erection of King's Chapel, Boston, already referred to +as the earliest well-known occasion where granite was used in building. +Altogether the most famous American sandstone quarries are those at +Portland, on the Connecticut River, opposite Middletown. These were +worked before the Revolution; and their product has been shipped to many +distant points in the country. The long rows of "brownstone fronts" in +New York city are mostly of Portland stone, though in many cases the +walls are chiefly of brick covered with thin layers of the stone. The +old red sandstone of the Connecticut valley is distinguished in geology +for the discovery of gigantic fossil footprints of birds, first noticed +in the Portland quarries in 1802. Some of these footprints measured +ten to sixteen inches, and they were from four to six feet apart. The +sandstone of Belleville, N.J., has also extensive use and reputation. +Trinity Church in New York city and the Boston Atheneum are built of the +product of these quarries; St. Lawrence County, New York, is noted also +for a fine bed of sandstone. At Potsdam it is exposed to a depth of +seventy feet. There are places though, in New England, New York, and +Eastern Pennsylvania, where a depth of three hundred feet has been +reached. The Potsdam sandstone is often split to the thinness of an +inch. It hardens by exposure, and is often used for smelting furnace +hearth-stones. Shawangunk Mountain, in Ulster County, yields a sandstone +of inferior quality, which has been unsuccessfully tried for paving; +as it wears very unevenly. From Ulster, Greene, and Albany Counties +sandstone slabs for sidewalks are extensively quarried for city use; +the principal outlets of these sections being Kingston, Saugerties, +Coxsackie, Bristol, and New Baltimore, on the Hudson. In this region +quantities amounting to millions of square feet are taken out in large +sheets, which are often sawed into the sizes desired. The vicinity of +Medina, in Western New York, yields a sandstone extensively used in that +section for paving and curbing, and a little for building. A rather poor +quality of this stone has been found along the Potomac, and some of it +was used in the erection of the old Capitol building at Washington. +Ohio yields a sandstone that is of a light gray color; Berea, Amherst, +Vermilion, and Massillon are the chief points of production. St. +Genevieve, Mo., yields a stone of fine grain of a light straw color, +which is quite equal to the famous Caen stone of France. The Lake +Superior sandstones are dark and coarse grained, but strong. + +In some parts of the country, where neither granite nor sandstone +is easily procured, blue and gray limestone are sometimes used for +building, and, when hammer dressed, often look like granite. A serious +objection to their use, however, is the occasional presence of iron, +which rusts on exposure, and defaces the building. In Western New York +they are widely used. Topeka stone, like the coquine of Florida and +Bermuda, is soft like wood when first quarried, and easily wrought, +but it hardens on exposure. The limestones of Canton, Mo., Joliet and +Athens, Ill., Dayton, Sandusky, Marblehead, and other points in Ohio, +Ellittsville, Ind., and Louisville and Bowling Green, Ky., are great +favorites west. In many of these regions limestone is extensively used +for macadamizing roads, for which it is excellently adapted. It also +yields excellent slabs or flags for sidewalks. + +One of the principal uses of this variety of stone is its conversion, by +burning, into lime for building purposes. All limestones are by no +means equally excellent in this regard. Thomaston lime, burned with +Pennsylvania coal, near the Penobscot River, has had a wide reputation +for nearly half a century. It has been shipped thence to all points +along the Atlantic coast, invading Virginia as far as Lynchburg, and +going even to New Orleans, Smithfield, R.I., and Westchester County, +N.Y., near the lower end of the Highlands, also make a particularly +excellent quality of lime. Kingston, in Ulster County, makes an inferior +sort for agricultural purposes. The Ohio and other western stones yield +a poor lime, and that section is almost entirely dependent on the east +for supplies. + +Marbles, like limestones, with which they are closely related, are very +abundant in this country, and are also to be found in a great variety of +colors. As early as 1804 American marble was used for statuary purposes. +Early in the century it also obtained extensive employment for +gravestones. Its use for building purposes has been more recent than +granite and sandstone in this country; and it is coming to supersede the +latter to a great degree. For mantels, fire-places, porch pillars, and +like ornamental purposes, however, our variegated, rich colored and +veined or brecciated marbles were in use some time before exterior walls +were made from them. Among the earliest marble buildings were Girard +College in Philadelphia and the old City Hall in New York, and the +Custom House in the latter city, afterward used for a sub-treasury. The +new Capitol building at Washington is among the more recent structures +composed of this material. Our exports of marble to Cuba and elsewhere +amount to over $300,000 annually, although we import nearly the same +amount from Italy. And yet an article can be found in the United States +fully as fine as the famous Carrara marble. We refer to that which comes +from Rutland, Vt. This state yields the largest variety and choicest +specimens. The marble belt runs both ways from Rutland County, where +the only quality fit for statuary is obtained. Toward the north it +deteriorates by growing less sound, though finer in grain; while to +the south it becomes coarser. A beautiful black marble is obtained at +Shoreham, Vt. There are also handsome brecciated marbles in the same +state; and in the extreme northern part, near Lake Champlain, they +become more variegated and rich in hue. Such other marble as is found +in New England is of an inferior quality. The pillars of Girard +College came from Berkshire, Mass., which ranks next after Vermont in +reputation. + +The marble belt extends from New England through New York, Pennsylvania, +Maryland, the District of Columbia, and Virginia, Tennessee, and the +Carolinas, to Georgia and Alabama. Some of the variegated and high +colored varieties obtained near Knoxville, Tenn., nearly equal that of +Vermont. The Rocky Mountains contain a vast abundance and variety. + +Slate was known to exist in this country to a slight extent in colonial +days. It was then used for gravestones, and to some extent for roofing +and school purposes. But most of our supplies came from Wales. It is +stated that a slate quarry was operated in Northampton County, Pa., as +early as 1805. In 1826 James M. Porter and Samuel Taylor engaged in the +business, obtaining their supplies from the Kittanninny Mountains. From +this time the business developed rapidly, the village of Slateford being +an outgrowth of it, and large rafts being employed to float the product +down the Schuylkill to Philadelphia. By 1860 the industry had reached +the capacity of 20,000 cases of slate, valued at $10 a case, annually. +In 1839 quarries were opened in the Piscataquis River, forty miles +north of Bangor, Me., but poor transportation facilities retarded the +business. Vermont began to yield in 1852. New York's quarries are +confined to Washington County, near the Vermont line. Maryland has +a limited supply from Harford County. The Huron Mountains, north of +Marquette, Mich., contain slate, which is also said to exist in Pike +County, Ga. + +Grindstones, millstones, and whetstones are quarried in New York, Ohio, +Michigan, Pennsylvania, and other States. Mica is found at Acworth and +Grafton, N. H., and near Salt Lake, but our chief supply comes from +Haywood, Yancey, Mitchell, and Macon counties, in North Carolina, and +our product is so large that we can afford to export it. Other stones, +such as silex, for making glass, etc., are found in profusion in various +parts of the country, but we have no space to enter into a detailed +account of them at present.--_Pottery and Glassware Reporter_. + + * * * * * + + + + +AN INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. + + +The most interesting change of which the Census gives account is the +increase in the number of farms. The number has virtually doubled within +twenty years. The population of the country has not increased in like +proportion. A large part of the increase in number of farms has been due +to the division of great estates. Nor has this occurred, as some may +imagine, exclusively in the Southern States and the States to which +immigration and migration have recently been directed. It is an +important fact that the multiplication of farms has continued even in +the older Northern States, though the change has not been as great in +these as in States of the far West or the South. In New York there has +been an increase of 25,000, or 11.5 per cent, in the number of farms +since 1870; in New Jersey the increase has been 12.2 per cent., and in +Pennsylvania 22.7 per cent., though the increase in population, and +doubtless in the number of persons engaged in farming, has been much +smaller. Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois also, have been considered fully +settled States for years, at least in an agricultural point of view, and +yet the number of farms has increased 26.1 per cent, in ten years in +Ohio, 20.3 percent, in Indiana, and 26.1 per cent, in Illinois. The +obvious explanation is that the growth of many cities and towns has +created a market for a far greater supply of those products which may be +most advantageously grown upon farms of moderate size; but even if this +fully accounts for the phenomenon, the change must be recognized as one +of the highest importance industrially, socially, and politically. The +man who owns or rents and cultivates a farm stands on a very different +footing from the laborer who works for wages. It is not a small matter +that, in these six States alone, there are 205,000 more owners or +managers of farms than there were only a decade ago. + +As we go further toward the border, west or north, the influence of the +settlement of new land is more distinctly felt. Even in Michigan, where +new railroads have opened new regions to settlement, the increase in +number of farms has been over 55 per cent. In Wisconsin, though the +increase in railroad mileage has been about the same as in Michigan, the +reported increase in number of farms has been only 28 per cent., but in +Iowa it rises to 60 per cent., and in Minnesota to nearly 100 per cent. +In Kansas the number of farms is 138,561, against 38,202 in 1870; in +Nebraska 63,387, against 12,301; and in Dakota 17,435, against 1,720. In +these regions the process is one of creation of new States rather than a +change in the social and industrial condition of the population. + +Some Southern States have gained largely, but the increase in these, +though very great, is less surprising than the new States of the +Northwest. The prevailing tendency of Southern agriculture to large +farms and the employment of many hands is especially felt in States +where land is still abundant. The greatest increase is in Texas, where +174,184 farms are reported, against 61,125 in 1870; in Florida, with +23,438 farms, against 10,241 in 1870; and in Arkansas, with 94,433 +farms, against 49,424 in 1870. In Missouri 215,575 farms are reported, +against 148,228 in 1870. In these States, though social changes have +been great, the increase in number of farms has been largely due to new +settlements, as in the States of the far Northwest. But the change in +the older Southern States is of a different character. + +Virginia, for example, has long been settled, and had 77,000 farms +thirty years ago. But the increase in number within the past ten years +has been 44,668, or 60.5 per cent. Contrasting this with the increase in +New York, a remarkable difference appears. West Virginia had few more +farms ten years ago than New Jersey; now it has nearly twice as many, +and has gained in number nearly 60 per cent. North Carolina, too, has +increased 78 per cent. in number of farms since 1870, and South Carolina +80 per cent. In Georgia the increase has been still greater--from 69,956 +to 138,626, or nearly 100 per cent. In Alabama there are 135,864 +farms, against 67,382 in 1870, an increase of over 100 per cent. These +proportions, contrasted with those for the older Northern States, reveal +a change that is nothing less than an industrial revolution. But the +force of this tendency to division of estates has been greatest in the +States named. Whereas the ratio of increase in number of farms becomes +greater in Northern States as we go from the East toward the Mississippi +River, at the South it is much smaller in Kentucky, Tennessee, +Mississippi, and Louisiana than in the older States on the Atlantic +coast. Thus in Louisiana the increase has been from 28,481 to 48,292 +farms, or 70 per cent., and in Mississippi from 68,023 to 101,772 farms, +or less than 50 per cent., against 100 in Alabama and Georgia. In +Kentucky the increase has been from 118,422 to 166,453 farms, or 40 per +cent., and in Tennessee from 118,141 to 165,650 farms, or 40 per cent., +against 60 in Virginia and West Virginia, and 78 in North Carolina. +Thus, while the tendency to division is far greater than in the Northern +States of corresponding age, it is found in full force only in six of +the older Southern States, Alabama, West Virginia, and four on the +Atlantic coast. In these, the revolution already effected foreshadows +and will almost certainly bring about important political changes within +a few years. In these six States there 310,795 more farm owners or +occupants than there were ten years ago.--_N.Y. Tribune_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A FARMER'S LIME KILN. + + +For information about burning lime we republish the following article +furnished by a correspondent of the _Country Gentleman_ several years +ago: + +[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. A (Fig. 1), Railway Track--B B B, +Iron Rods running through Kiln--C, Capstone over Arch--D, Arch--E, Well +without brick or ash lining.] + +I send you a description and sketch of a lime-kiln put up on my premises +about five years ago. The dimensions of this kiln are 13 feet square by +25 feet high from foundation, and its capacity 100 bushels in 24 hours. +It was constructed of the limestone quarried on the spot. It has round +iron rods (shown in sketch) passing through, with iron plates fastened +to the ends as clamps to make it more firm; the pair nearest the top +should be not less than 2 feet from that point, the others interspersed +about 2 feet apart--the greatest strain being near the top. The arch +should be 7 feet high by 5œ wide in front, with a gather on the top +and sides of about 1 foot, with plank floor; and if this has a little +incline it will facilitate shoveling the lime when drawn. The arch +should have a strong capstone; also one immediately under the well of +the kiln, with a hole 2 feet in diameter to draw the lime through; or +two may be used with semicircle cut in each. Iron bars 2 inches wide by +1/8 inch thick are used in this kiln for closing it, working in slots +fastened to capstone. These slots must be put in before the caps +are laid. When it is desired to draw lime, these bars may be +pushed laterally in the slots, or drawn out entirely, according to +circumstances; 3 bars will be enough. The slots are made of iron bars +1œ inches wide, with ends rounded and turned up, and inserted in holes +drilled through capstone and keyed above. + +The well of the kiln is lined with fire-brick one course thick, with a +stratum of coal ashes three inches thick tamped in between the brick +and wall, which proves a great protection to the wall. About 2,000 +fire-bricks were used. The proprietors of this kiln say about one-half +the lower part of the well might have been lined with a first quality of +common brick and saved some expense and been just as good. The form of +the well shown in Fig. 3 is 7 feet in diameter in the bilge, exclusive +of the lining of brick and ashes. Experiments in this vicinity have +proved this to be the best, this contraction toward the top being +absolutely necessary, the expansion of the stone by the heat is so +great that the lime cannot be drawn from perpendicular walls, as was +demonstrated in one instance near here, where a kiln was built on that +principle. The kiln, of course, is for coal, and our stone requires +about three-quarters of a ton per 100 bushels of lime, but this, I am +told, varies according to quality, some requiring more than others; the +quantity can best be determined by experimenting; also the regulation of +the heat--if too great it will cause the stones to melt or run together +as it were, or, if too little, they will not be properly burned. The +business requires skill and judgment to run it successfully. + +This kiln is located at the foot of a steep bluff, the top about level +with the top of the kiln, with railway track built of wooden sleepers, +with light iron bars, running from the bluff to the top of the kiln, and +a hand-car makes it very convenient filling the kiln. Such a location +should be had if possible. Your inquirer may perhaps get some ideas +of the principles of a kiln for using _coal_. The dimensions may be +reduced, if desired. If for _wood_, the arch would have to be formed for +that, and the height of kiln reduced. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF APPLE JELLY. + +[Footnote: From the report of the New York Agricultural Society.] + + +Within the county of Oswego, New York, Dewitt C. Peck reports there are +five apple jelly factories in operation. The failure of the apple crop, +for some singular and unexplained reason, does not extend in great +degree to the natural or ungrafted fruit. Though not so many as common, +even of these apples, there are yet enough to keep these five mills and +the numerous cider mills pretty well employed. The largest jelly factory +is located near the village of Mexico, and as there are some features in +regard to this manufacture peculiar to this establishment which may be +new and interesting, we will undertake a brief description. The factory +is located on the Salmon Creek, which affords the necessary power. A +portion of the main floor, first story, is occupied as a saw mill, +the slabs furnishing fuel for the boiler furnace connected with the +evaporating department. Just above the mill, along the bank of the pond, +and with one end projecting over the water, are arranged eight large +bins, holding from five hundred to one thousand bushels each, into which +the apples are delivered from the teams. The floor in each of these has +a sharp pitch or inclination toward the water and at the lower end is a +grate through which the fruit is discharged, when wanted, into a trough +half submerged in the pond. + +The preparation of the fruit and extraction of the juice proceeds +as follows: Upon hoisting a gate in the lower end of this trough, +considerable current is caused, and the water carries the fruit a +distance of from thirty to one hundred feet, and passes into the +basement of the mill, where, tumbling down a four-foot perpendicular +fall, into a tank, tight in its lower half and slatted so as to permit +the escape of water and impurities in the upper half, the apples are +thoroughly cleansed from all earthy or extraneous matter. Such is the +friction caused by the concussion of the fall, the rolling and rubbing +of the apples together, and the pouring of the water, that decayed +sections of the fruit are ground off and the rotten pulp passes away +with other impurities. From this tank the apples are hoisted upon an +endless chain elevator, with buckets in the form of a rake-head with +iron teeth, permitting drainage and escape of water, to an upper story +of the mill, whence by gravity they descend to the grater. The press +is wholly of iron, all its motions, even to the turning of the screws, +being actuated by the water power. The cheese is built up with layers +inclosed in strong cotton cloth, which displaces the straw used in olden +time, and serves also to strain the cider. As it is expressed from +the press tank, the cider passes to a storage tank, and thence to the +defecator. + +This defecator is a copper pan, eleven feet long and about three feet +wide. At each end of this pan is placed a copper tube three inches in +diameter and closed at both ends. Lying between and connecting +these two, are twelve tubes, also of copper, 1œ inches in diameter, +penetrating the larger tubes at equal distances from their upper and +under surfaces, the smaller being parallel with each other, and 1œ +inches apart. When placed in position, the larger tubes, which act as +manifolds, supplying the smaller with steam, rest upon the bottom of the +pan, and thus the smaller pipes have a space of three-fourths of an inch +underneath their outer surfaces. + +The cider comes from the storage tank in a continuous stream about +three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Steam is introduced to the large +or manifold tubes, and from them distributed through the smaller ones at +a pressure of from twenty-five to thirty pounds per inch. Trap valves +are provided for the escape of water formed by condensation within the +pipes. The primary object of the defecator is to remove all impurities +and perfectly clarify the liquid passing through it. All portions of +pomace and other minute particles of foreign matter, when heated, +expand and float in the form of scum upon the surface of the cider. An +ingeniously contrived floating rake drags off this scum and delivers it +over the side of the pan. To facilitate this removal, one side of the +pan, commencing at a point just below the surface of the cider, is +curved gently outward and upward, terminating in a slightly inclined +plane, over the edge of which the scum is pushed by the rake into a +trough and carried away. A secondary purpose served by the defecator +is that of reducing the cider by evaporation to a partial sirup of the +specific gravity of about 20° Baume. When of this consistency the liquid +is drawn from the bottom and less agitated portion of the defecator by a +siphon, and thence carried to the evaporator, which is located upon the +same framework and just below the defecator. + +The evaporator consists of a separate system of six copper tubes, each +twelve feet long and three inches in diameter. These are each jacketed +or inclosed in an iron pipe of four inches internal diameter, fitted +with steam-tight collars so as to leave half an inch steam space +surrounding the copper tubes. The latter are open at both ends +permitting the admission and egress of the sirup and the escape of the +steam caused by evaporation therefrom, and are arranged upon the frame +so as to have a very slight inclination downward in the direction of +the current, and each nearly underneath its predecessor in regular +succession. Each is connected by an iron supply pipe, having a steam +gauge or indicator attached, with a large manifold, and that by other +pipes with a steam boiler of thirty horse power capacity. Steam being +let on at from twenty five to thirty pounds pressure, the stream of +sirup is received from the defecator through a strainer, which removes +any impurities possibly remaining into the upper evaporator tube; +passing in a gentle flow through that, it is delivered into a funnel +connected with the next tube below, and so, back and forth, through the +whole system. The sirup enters the evaporator at a consistency of from +20° to 23° Baume, and emerges from the last tube some three minutes +later at a consistency of from 30° to 32° Baume, which is found on +cooling to be the proper point for perfect jelly. This point is found to +vary one or two degrees, according to the fermentation consequent upon +bruises in handling the fruit, decay of the same, or any little delay in +expressing the juice from the cheese. The least fermentation occasions +the necessity for a lower reduction. To guard against this, no cheese +is allowed to stand over night, no pomace left in the grater or vat, no +cider in the tank; and further to provide against fermentation, a large +water tank is located upon the roof and filled by a force pump, and by +means of hose connected with this, each grater, press, vat, tank, pipe, +trough, or other article of machinery used, can be thoroughly washed and +cleansed. Hot water, instead of cider, is sometimes sent through the +defecator, evaporator, etc., until all are thoroughly scalded and +purified. If the saccharometer shows too great or too little reduction, +the matter is easily regulated by varying the steam pressure in the +evaporator by means of a valve in the supply pipe. If boiled cider +instead of jelly is wanted for making pies, sauces, etc., it is drawn +off from one of the upper evaporator tubes according to the consistency +desired; or can be produced at the end of the process by simply reducing +the steam pressure. + +As the jelly emerges from the evaporator it is transferred to a tub +holding some fifty gallons, and by mixing a little therein, any little +variations in reduction or in the sweetness or sourness of the fruit +used are equalized. From this it is drawn through faucets, while hot, +into the various packages in which it is shipped to market. A favorite +form of package for family use is a nicely turned little wooden +bucket with cover and bail, two sizes, holding five and ten pounds +respectively. The smaller packages are shipped in cases for convenience +in handling. The present product of this manufactory is from 1,500 to +1,800 pounds of jelly each day of ten hours. It is calculated that +improvements now in progress will increase this to something more than a +ton per day. Each bushel of fruit will produce from four to five pounds +of jelly, fruit ripening late in the season being more productive than +earlier varieties. Crab apples produce the finest jelly; sour, crabbed, +natural fruit makes the best looking article, and a mixture of all +varieties gives most satisfactory results as to flavor and general +quality. + +As the pomace is shoveled from the finished cheese, it is again ground +under a toothed cylinder, and thence drops into large troughs, through a +succession of which a considerable stream of water is flowing. Here it +is occasionally agitated by raking from the lower to the upper end of +the trough as the current carries it downward, and the apple seeds +becoming disengaged drop to the bottom into still water, while the pulp +floats away upon the stream. A succession of troughs serves to remove +nearly all the seeds. The value of the apple seeds thus saved is +sufficient to pay the daily wages of all the hands employed in the whole +establishment. The apples are measured in the wagon box, one and a half +cubic feet being accounted a bushel. + +This mill ordinarily employs about six men: One general superintendent, +who buys and measures the apples, keeps time books, attends to all the +accounts and the working details of the mill, and acts as cashier; one +sawyer, who manufactures lumber for the local market and saws the slabs +into short lengths suitable for the furnace; one cider maker, who grinds +the apples and attends the presses; one jelly maker, who attends the +defecator, evaporator, and mixing tub, besides acting as his own fireman +and engineer; one who attends the apple seed troughs and acts as general +helper, and one man-of-all-work to pack, ship and assist whenever +needed. The establishment was erected late in the season of 1880, +and manufactured that year about forty-five tons of jelly, besides +considerable cider exchanged to the farmers for apples, and some boiled +cider. + +The price paid for apples in 1880, when the crop was superabundant, was +six to eight cents per bushel; in 1881, fifteen cents. The proprietor +hopes next year to consume 100,000 bushels. These institutions are +important to the farmer in that they use much fruit not otherwise +valuable and very perishable. Fruit so crabbed and gnarled as to have no +market value, and even frozen apples, if delivered while yet solid, can +be used. (Such apples are placed in the water while frozen, the water +draws the frost sufficiently to be grated, and passing through the press +and evaporator before there is time for chemical change, they are found +to make very good jelly. They are valuable to the consumer by converting +the perishable, cheap, almost worthless crop of the bearing and abundant +years into such enduring form that its consumption may be carried over +to years of scarcity and furnish healthful food in cheap and pleasant +form to many who would otherwise be deprived; and lastly, they are of +great interest to society, in that they give to cider twice the value +for purposes of food that it has or can have, even to the manufacturer, +for use as a beverage and intoxicant. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED GRAPE BAGS. + + +It stands to reason that were our summers warmer we should be able to +grow grapes successfully on open walls; it is therefore probable that +a new grape bag, the invention of M. Pelletier, 20 Rue de la Banque, +Paris, intended to serve a double purpose, viz., protecting the fruit +and hastening its maturity, will, when it becomes known, be welcomed in +this country. It consists of a square of curved glass so fixed to +the bag that the sun's rays are concentrated upon the fruit, thereby +rendering its ripening more certain in addition to improving its quality +generally. The glass is affixed to the bag by means of a light iron wire +support. It covers that portion of it next the sun, so that it increases +the amount of light and warms the grapes without scorching them, a +result due to the convexity of the glass and the layer of air between it +and the bag. M. Pelletier had the idea of rendering these bags cheaper +by employing plain squares instead of curved ones, but the advantage +thus obtained was more than counterbalanced by their comparative +inefficacy. In practice it was found that the curved squares gave an +average of 7° more than the straight ones, while there was a difference +of 10° when the bags alone were used, thus plainly demonstrating the +practical value of the invention. + +Whether these glass-fronted bags would have much value in the case of +grapes grown under glass in the ordinary way is a question that can only +be determined by actual experiment; but where the vines are on walls, +either under glass screens or in the open air, so that the bunches feel +the full force of the sun's rays, there can be no doubt as to their +utility, and it is probable that by their aid many of the continental +varieties which we do not now attempt to grow in the open, and which are +scarcely worthy of a place under glass, might be well ripened. At +any rate we ought to give anything a fair trial which may serve to +neutralize, if only in a slight degree, the uncertainty of our summers. +As it is, we have only about two varieties of grapes, and these not the +best of the hardy kinds, as regards flavor and appearance, that ripen +out of doors, and even these do not always succeed. We know next to +nothing of the many really well-flavored kinds which are so much +appreciated in many parts of the Continent. The fact is, our outdoor +culture of grapes offers a striking contrast to that practiced under +glass, and although our comparatively sunless and moist climate affords +some excuse for our shortcomings in this respect, there is no valid +reason for the utter want of good culture which is to be observed in a +general way. + +[Illustration: GRAPE BAG.--OPEN.] + +Given intelligent training, constant care in stopping the laterals, and +checking mildew as well as thinning the berries, allowing each bunch to +get the full benefit of sun and air, and I believe good eatable grapes +would often be obtained even in summers marked by a low average +temperature. + +[Illustration: GRAPE BAG.--CLOSED.] + +If, moreover, to a good system of culture we add some such mechanical +contrivance as that under notice whereby the bunches enjoy an average +warmth some 10° higher than they otherwise would do, we not only insure +the grapes coming to perfection in favored districts, but outdoor +culture might probably be practiced in higher latitudes than is now +practicable. + +[Illustration: CURVED GLASS FOR FRONT OF BAG.] + +The improved grape bag would also offer great facilities for destroying +mildew or guarantee the grapes against its attacks, as a light dusting +administered as soon as the berries were fairly formed would suffice for +the season, as owing to the glass protecting the berries from driving +rains, which often accompany south or south-west winds in summer and +autumn, the sulphur would not be washed off. + +[Illustration: CURVED GLASS FIXED ON BAG.] + +The inventor claims, and we should say with just reason, that these +glass fronted bags would be found equally serviceable for the ripening +of pears and other choice fruits, and with a view to their being +employed for such a purpose, he has had them made of varying sizes and +shapes. In conclusion, it may be observed that, in addition to advancing +the maturity of the fruits to which they are applied, they also serve to +preserve them from falling to the ground when ripe.--J. COBNHILL, _in +the Garden_. + + * * * * * + + + + +UTILIZATION OF SOLAR HEAT. + + +At a popular fête in the Tuileries Gardens I was struck with an +experiment which seems deserving of the immediate attention of the +English public and military authorities. + +Among the attractions of the fête was an apparatus for the concentration +and utilization of solar heat, and, though the sun was not very +brilliant, I saw this apparatus set in motion a printing machine which +printed several thousand copies of a specimen newspaper entitled the +_Soleil Journal_. + +The sun's rays are concentrated in a reflector, which moves at the +same rate as the sun and heats a vertical boiler, setting the motive +steam-engine at work. As may be supposed, the only object was to +demonstrate the possibility of utilizing the concentrated heat of the +solar rays; but I closely examined it, because the apparatus seems +capable of great utility in existing circumstances. Here in France, +indeed, there is a radical drawback--the sun is often overclouded. + +Thousands of years ago the idea of utilizing the solar rays must have +suggested itself, and there are still savage tribes who know no other +mode of combustion; but the scientific application has hitherto been +lacking. This void this apparatus will fill up. About fifteen years ago +Professor Mouchon, of Tours, began constructing such an apparatus, and +his experiments have been continued by M. Pifre, who has devoted much +labor and expense to realizing M. Mouchou's idea. A company has now come +to his aid, and has constructed a number of apparatus of different sizes +at a factory which might speedily turn out a large number of them. It is +evident that in a country of uninterrupted sunshine the boiler might be +heated in thirty or forty minutes. A portable apparatus could boil two +and one-half quarts an hour, or, say, four gallons a day, thus supplying +by distillation or ebullition six or eight men. The apparatus can be +easily carried on a man's back, and on condition of water, even of the +worst quality, being obtainable, good drinking and cooking water is +insured. M. De Rougaumond, a young scientific writer, has just published +an interesting volume on the invention. I was able yesterday to verify +his statements, for I saw cider made, a pump set in motion, and coffee +made--in short, the calorific action of the sun superseding that of +fuel. The apparatus, no doubt, has not yet reached perfection, but as it +is it would enable the soldier in India or Egypt to procure in the field +good water and to cook his food rapidly. The invention is of especial +importance to England just now, but even when the Egyptian question is +settled the Indian troops might find it of inestimable value. + +Red tape should for once be disregarded, and a competent commission +forthwith sent to 30 Rue d'Assas, with instructions to report +immediately, for every minute saved may avoid suffering for Englishmen +fighting abroad for their country. I may, of course, be mistaken, but +a commission would decide, and if the apparatus is good the slightest +delay in its adoption would be deplorable.--_Paris Correspondence London +Times_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO ESTABLISH A TRUE MERIDIAN. + +[Footnote: A paper read before the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia.] + +By PROFESSOR L. M. HAUPT. + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +The discovery of the magnetic needle was a boon to mankind, and has been +of inestimable service in guiding the mariner through trackless waters, +and the explorer over desert wastes. In these, its legitimate uses, the +needle has not a rival, but all efforts to apply it to the accurate +determination of permanent boundary lines have proven very +unsatisfactory, and have given rise to much litigation, acerbity, and +even death. + +For these and other cogent reasons, strenuous efforts are being made to +dispense, so far as practicable, with the use of the magnetic needle +in surveying, and to substitute therefor the more accurate method of +traversing from a true meridian. This method, however, involves a +greater degree of preparation and higher qualifications than are +generally possessed, and unless the matter can be so simplified as to be +readily understood, it is unreasonable to expect its general application +in practice. + +Much has been written upon the various methods of determining, the +true meridian, but it is so intimately related to the determination of +latitude and time, and these latter in turn upon the fixing of a true +meridian, that the novice can find neither beginning nor end. When to +these difficulties are added the corrections for parallax, refraction, +instrumental errors, personal equation, and the determination of the +probable error, he is hopelessly confused, and when he learns that time +may be sidereal, mean solar, local, Greenwich, or Washington, and he is +referred to an ephemeris and table of logarithms for data, he becomes +lost in "confusion worse confounded," and gives up in despair, settling +down to the conviction that the simple method of compass surveying is +the best after all, even if not the most accurate. + +Having received numerous requests for information upon the subject, I +have thought it expedient to endeavor to prepare a description of the +method of determining the true meridian which should be sufficiently +clear and practical to be generally understood by those desiring to make +use of such information. + +This will involve an elementary treatment of the subject, beginning with +the + + +DEFINITIONS. + +The _celestial sphere_ is that imaginary surface upon which all +celestial objects are projected. Its radius is infinite. + +The _earth's axis_ is the imaginary line about which it revolves. + +The _poles_ are the points in which the axis pierces the surface of the +earth, or of the celestial sphere. + +A _meridian_ is a great circle of the earth cut out by a plane passing +through the axis. All meridians are therefore north and south lines +passing through the poles. + +From these definitions it follows that if there were a star exactly at +the pole it would only be necessary to set up an instrument and take a +bearing to it for the meridian. Such not being the case, however, we are +obliged to take some one of the near circumpolar stars as our object, +and correct the observation according to its angular distance from the +meridian at the time of observation. + +For convenience, the bright star known as Ursæ Minoris or Polaris, is +generally selected. This star apparently revolves about the north pole, +in an orbit whose mean radius is 1° 19' 13",[1] making the revolution in +23 hours 56 minutes. + +[Footnote 1: This is the codeclination as given in the Nautical Almanac. +The mean value decreases by about 20 seconds each year.] + +During this time it must therefore cross the meridian twice, once above +the pole and once below; the former is called the _upper_, and the +latter the _lower meridian transit or culmination_. It must also pass +through the points farthest east and west from the meridian. The former +is called the _eastern elongation_, the latter the _western_. + +An observation may he made upon Polaris at any of these four points, +or at any other point of its orbit, but this latter case becomes too +complicated for ordinary practice, and is therefore not considered. + +If the observation were made upon the star at the time of its upper or +lower culmination, it would give the true meridian at once, but this +involves a knowledge of the true local time of transit, or the longitude +of the place of observation, which is generally an unknown quantity; and +moreover, as the star is then moving east or west, or at right angles to +the place of the meridian, at the rate of 15° of arc in about one hour, +an error of so slight a quantity as only four seconds of time would +introduce an error of one minute of arc. If the observation be made, +however, upon either elongation, when the star is moving up or down, +that is, in the direction of the vertical wire of the instrument, the +error of observation in the angle between it and the pole will be +inappreciable. This is, therefore, the best position upon which to make +the observation, as the precise time of the elongation need not be +given. It can be determined with sufficient accuracy by a glance at the +relative positions of the star Alioth, in the handle of the Dipper, +and Polaris (see Fig. 1). When the line joining these two stars is +horizontal or nearly so, and Alioth is to the _west_ of Polaris, the +latter is at its _eastern_ elongation, and _vice versa_, thus: + +[Illustration] + +But since the star at either elongation is off the meridian, it will +be necessary to determine the angle at the place of observation to be +turned off on the instrument to bring it into the meridian. This angle, +called the azimuth of the pole star, varies with the latitude of the +observer, as will appear from Fig 2, and hence its value must be +computed for different latitudes, and the surveyor must know his +_latitude_ before he can apply it. Let N be the north pole of the +celestial sphere; S, the position of Polaris at its eastern elongation; +then N S=1° 19' 13", a constant quantity. The azimuth of Polaris at the +latitude 40° north is represented by the angle N O S, and that at 60° +north, by the angle N O' S, which is greater, being an exterior angle +of the triangle, O S O. From this we see that the azimuth varies at the +latitude. + +We have first, then, to _find the latitude of the place of observation_. + +Of the several methods for doing this, we shall select the simplest, +preceding it by a few definitions. + +A _normal_ line is the one joining the point directly overhead, called +the _zenith_, with the one under foot called the _nadir_. + +The _celestial horizon_ is the intersection of the celestial sphere by a +plane passing through the center of the earth and perpendicular to the +normal. + +A _vertical circle_ is one whose plane is perpendicular to the horizon, +hence all such circles must pass through the normal and have the zenith +and nadir points for their poles. The _altitude_ of a celestial object +is its distance above the horizon measured on the arc of a vertical +circle. As the distance from the horizon to the zenith is 90°, the +difference, or _complement_ of the altitude, is called the _zenith +distance_, or _co-altitude_. + +The _azimuth_ of an object is the angle between the vertical plane +through the object and the plane of the meridian, measured on the +horizon, and usually read from the south point, as 0°, through west, at +90, north 180°, etc., closing on south at 0° or 360°. + +These two co-ordinates, the altitude and azimuth, will determine the +position of any object with reference to the observer's place. The +latter's position is usually given by his latitude and longitude +referred to the equator and some standard meridian as co-ordinates. + +The _latitude_ being the angular distance north or south of the equator, +and the _longitude_ east or west of the assumed meridian. + +We are now prepared to prove that _the altitude of the pole is equal to +the latitude of the place of observation_. + +Let H P Z Q¹, etc., Fig. 2, represent a meridian section of the sphere, +in which P is the north pole and Z the place of observation, then H H¹ +will be the horizon, Q Q¹ the equator, H P will be the altitude of P, +and Q¹ Z the latitude of Z. These two arcs are equal, for H C Z = P C +Q¹ = 90°, and if from these equal quadrants the common angle P C Z be +subtracted, the remainders H C P and Z C Q¹, will be equal. + +To _determine the altitude of the pole_, or, in other words, _the +latitude of the place_. + +Observe the altitude of the pole star _when on the meridian_, either +above or below the pole, and from this observed altitude corrected for +refraction, subtract the distance of the star from the pole, or its +_polar distance_, if it was an upper transit, or add it if a lower. +The result will be the required latitude with sufficient accuracy for +ordinary purposes. + +The time of the star's being on the meridian can be determined with +sufficient accuracy by a mere inspection of the heavens. The refraction +is _always negative_, and may be taken from the table appended by +looking up the amount set opposite the observed altitude. Thus, if the +observer's altitude should be 40° 39' the nearest refraction 01' 07", +should be subtracted from 40° 37' 00", leaving 40° 37' 53" for the +latitude. + + +TO FIND THE AZIMUTH OF POLARIS. + +As we have shown the azimuth of Polaris to be a function of the +latitude, and as the latitude is now known, we may proceed to find the +required azimuth. For this purpose we have a right-angled spherical +triangle, Z S P, Fig. 4, in which Z is the place of observation, P the +north pole, and S is Polaris. In this triangle we have given the polar +distance, P S = 10° 19' 13"; the angle at S = 90°; and the distance Z +P, being the complement of the latitude as found above, or 90°--L. +Substituting these in the formula for the azimuth, we will have sin. Z = +sin. P S / sin P Z or sin. of Polar distance / sin. of co-latitude, from +which, by assuming different values for the co-latitude, we compute the +following table: + + AZIMUTH TABLE FOR POINTS BETWEEN 26° and 50° N. LAT. + + LATTITUDES + ___________________________________________________________________ +| | | | | | | | +| Year | 26° | 28° | 30° | 32° | 34° | 36° | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | +| 1882 | 1 28 05 | 1 29 40 | 1 31 25 | 1 33 22 | 1 35 30 | 1 37 52 | +| 1883 | 1 27 45 | 1 29 20 | 1 31 04 | 1 33 00 | 1 35 08 | 1 37 30 | +| 1884 | 1 27 23 | 1 28 57 | 1 30 41 | 1 32 37 | 1 34 45 | 1 37 05 | +| 1885 | 1 27 01 | 1 28 35œ | 1 30 19 | 1 32 14 | 1 34 22 | 1 36 41 | +| 1886 | 1 26 39 | 1 28 13 | 1 29 56 | 1 31 51 | 1 33 57 | 1 36 17 | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| Year | 38° | 40° | 42° | 44° | 46° | 48° | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | +| 1882 | 1 40 29 | 1 43 21 | 1 46 33 | 1 50 05 | 1 53 59 | 1 58 20 | +| 1883 | 1 40 07 | 1 42 58 | 1 46 08 | 1 49 39 | 1 53 34 | 1 57 53 | +| 1884 | 1 39 40 | 1 42 31 | 1 45 41 | 1 49 11 | 1 53 05 | 1 57 23 | +| 1885 | 1 39 16 | 1 42 07 | 1 45 16 | 1 48 45 | 1 52 37 | 1 56 54 | +| 1886 | 1 38 51 | 1 41 41 | 1 44 49 | 1 48 17 | 1 52 09 | 1 56 24 | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | +| Year | 50° | +|______|_________| +| | | +| | ° ' " | +| 1882 | 2 03 11 | +| 1883 | 2 02 42 | +| 1884 | 2 02 11 | +| 1885 | 2 01 42 | +| 1886 | 2 01 11 | +|______|_________| + +An analysis of this table shows that the azimuth this year (1882) +increases with the latitude from 1° 28' 05" at 26° north, to 2° 3' 11" +at 50° north, or 35' 06". It also shows that the azimuth of Polaris at +any one point of observation decreases slightly from year to year. This +is due to the increase in declination, or decrease in the star's polar +distance. At 26° north latitude, this annual decrease in the azimuth +is about 22", while at 50° north, it is about 30". As the variation in +azimuth for each degree of latitude is small, the table is only computed +for the even numbered degrees; the intermediate values being readily +obtained by interpolation. We see also that an error of a few minutes of +latitude will not affect the result in finding the meridian, e.g., the +azimuth at 40° north latitude is 1° 43' 21", that at 41° would be 1° 44' +56", the difference (01' 35") being the correction for one degree of +latitude between 40° and 41°. Or, in other words, an error of one degree +in finding one's latitude would only introduce an error in the azimuth +of one and a half minutes. With ordinary care the probable error of the +latitude as determined from the method already described need not exceed +a few minutes, making the error in azimuth as laid off on the arc of an +ordinary transit graduated to single minutes, practically zero. + +REFRACTION TABLE FOR ANY ALTITUDE WITHIN THE LATITUDE OF THE UNITED +STATES. + + _____________________________________________________ +| | | | | +| Apparent | Refraction | Apparent | Refraction | +| Altitude. | _minus_. | Altitude. | _minus_. | +|___________|______________|___________|______________| +| | | | | +| 25° | 0° 2' 4.2" | 38° | 0° 1' 14.4" | +| 26 | 1 58.8 | 39 | 1 11.8 | +| 27 | 1 53.8 | 40 | 1 9.3 | +| 28 | 1 49.1 | 41 | 1 6.9 | +| 29 | 1 44.7 | 42 | 1 4.6 | +| 30 | 1 40.5 | 43 | 1 2.4 | +| 31 | 1 36.6 | 44 | 0 0.3 | +| 32 | 1 33.0 | 45 | 0 58.1 | +| 33 | 1 29.5 | 46 | 0 56.1 | +| 34 | 1 26.1 | 47 | 0 54.2 | +| 35 | 1 23.0 | 48 | 0 52.3 | +| 36 | 1 20.0 | 49 | 0 50.5 | +| 37 | 1 17.1 | 50 | 0 48.8 | +|___________|______________|___________|______________| + + +APPLICATIONS. + +In practice to find the true meridian, two observations must be made at +intervals of six hours, or they may be made upon different nights. The +first is for latitude, the second for azimuth at elongation. + +To make either, the surveyor should provide himself with a good transit +with vertical arc, a bull's eye, or hand lantern, plumb bobs, stakes, +etc.[1] Having "set up" over the point through which it is proposed to +establish the meridian, at a time when the line joining Polaris and +Alioth is nearly vertical, level the telescope by means of the attached +level, which should be in adjustment, set the vernier of the vertical +arc at zero, and take the reading. If the pole star is about making its +_upper_ transit, it will rise gradually until reaching the meridian as +it moves westward, and then as gradually descend. When near the highest +part of its orbit point the telescope at the star, having an assistant +to hold the "bull's eye" so as to reflect enough light down the tube +from the object end to illumine the cross wires but not to obscure the +star, or better, use a perforated silvered reflector, clamp the tube in +this position, and as the star continues to rise keep the _horizontal_ +wire upon it by means of the tangent screw until it "rides" along this +wire and finally begins to fall below it. Take the reading of the +vertical arc and the result will be the observed altitude. + +[Footnote 1: A sextant and artificial horizon may be used to find the +_altitude_ of a star. In this case the observed angle must be divided by +2.] + + +ANOTHER METHOD. + +It is a little more accurate to find the altitude by taking the +complement of the observed zenith distance, if the vertical arc has +sufficient range. This is done by pointing first to Polaris when at +its highest (or lowest) point, reading the vertical arc, turning the +horizontal limb half way around, and the telescope over to get another +reading on the star, when the difference of the two readings will be the +_double_ zenith distance, and _half_ of this subtracted from 90° will be +the required altitude. The less the time intervening between these two +pointings, the more accurate the result will be. + +Having now found the altitude, correct it for refraction by subtracting +from it the amount opposite the observed altitude, as given in the +refraction table, and the result will be the latitude. The observer must +now wait about six hours until the star is at its western elongation, +or may postpone further operations for some subsequent night. In the +meantime he will take from the azimuth table the amount given for his +date and latitude, now determined, and if his observation is to be made +on the western elongation, he may turn it off on his instrument, so +that when moved to zero, _after_ the observation, the telescope will be +brought into the meridian or turned to the right, and a stake set by +means of a lantern or plummet lamp. + +[Illustration] + +It is, of course, unnecessary to make this correction at the time of +observation, for the angle between any terrestrial object and the star +may be read and the correction for the azimuth of the star applied at +the surveyor's convenience. It is always well to check the accuracy of +the work by an observation upon the other elongation before putting in +permanent meridian marks, and care should be taken that they are not +placed near any local attractions. The meridian having been established, +the magnetic variation or declination may readily be found by setting +an instrument on the meridian and noting its bearing as given by the +needle. If, for example, it should be north 5° _east_, the variation is +west, because the north end of the needle is _west_ of the meridian, and +_vice versa_. + +_Local time_ may also be readily found by observing the instant when the +sun's center[1] crosses the line, and correcting it for the equation of +time as given above--the result is the true or mean solar time. This, +compared with the clock, will show the error of the latter, and by +taking the difference between the local lime of this and any other +place, the difference of longitude is determined in hours, which can +readily be reduced to degrees by multiplying by fifteen, as 1 h. = 15°. + +[Footnote 1: To obtain this time by observation, note the instant of +first contact of the sun's limb, and also of last contact of same, and +take the mean.] + +APPROXIMATE EQUATION OF TIME. + + _______________________ + | | | + | Date. | Minutes. | + |__________|____________| + | | | + | Jan. 1 | 4 | + | 3 | 5 | + | 5 | 6 | + | 7 | 7 | + | 9 | 8 | + | 12 | 9 | + | 15 | 10 | + | 18 | 11 | + | 21 | 12 | + | 25 | 13 | + | 31 | 14 | + | Feb. 10 | 15 | + | 21 | 14 | Clock + | 27 | 13 | faster + | M'ch 4 | 12 | than + | 8 | 11 | sun. + | 12 | 10 | + | 15 | 9 | + | 19 | 8 | + | 22 | 7 | + | 25 | 6 | + | 28 | 5 | + | April 1 | 4 | + | 4 | 3 | + | 7 | 2 | + | 11 | 1 | + | 15 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 19 | 1 | + | 24 | 2 | + | 30 | 3 | + | May 13 | 4 | Clock + | 29 | 3 | slower. + | June 5 | 2 | + | 10 | 1 | + | 15 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 20 | 1 | + | 25 | 2 | + | 29 | 3 | + | July 5 | 4 | + | 11 | 5 | + | 28 | 6 | Clock + | Aug. 9 | 5 | faster. + | 15 | 4 | + | 20 | 3 | + | 24 | 2 | + | 28 | 1 | + | 31 | 0 | + | |------------| + | Sept. 3 | 1 | + | 6 | 2 | + | 9 | 3 | + | 12 | 4 | + | 15 | 5 | + | 18 | 6 | + | 21 | 7 | + | 24 | 8 | + | 27 | 9 | + | 30 | 10 | + | Oct. 3 | 11 | + | 6 | 12 | + | 10 | 13 | + | 14 | 14 | + | 19 | 15 | + | 27 | 16 | Clock + | Nov. 15 | 15 | slower. + | 20 | 14 | + | 24 | 13 | + | 27 | 12 | + | 30 | 11 | + | Dec. 2 | 10 | + | 5 | 9 | + | 7 | 8 | + | 9 | 7 | + | 11 | 6 | + | 13 | 5 | + | 16 | 4 | + | 18 | 3 | + | 20 | 2 | + | 22 | 1 | + | 24 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 26 | 1 | + | 28 | 2 | Clock + | 30 | 3 | faster. + |__________|____________| + + * * * * * + + + + +THE OCELLATED PHEASANT. + + +The collections of the Museum of Natural History of Paris have just been +enriched with a magnificent, perfectly adult specimen of a species of +bird that all the scientific establishments had put down among their +desiderata, and which, for twenty years past, has excited the curiosity +of naturalists. This species, in fact, was known only by a few caudal +feathers, of which even the origin was unknown, and which figured in the +galleries of the Jardin des Plantes under the name of _Argus ocellatus_. +This name was given by J. Verreaux, who was then assistant naturalist at +the museum. It was inscribed by Prince Ch. L. Bonaparte, in his Tableaux +Paralléliques de l'Ordre des Gallinaces, as _Argus giganteus_, and a +few years later it was reproduced by Slater in his Catalogue of the +Phasianidæ, and by Gray is his List of the Gallinaceæ. But it was not +till 1871 and 1872 that Elliot, in the Annals and Magazine of Natural +History, and in a splendid monograph of the Phasianidæ, pointed out +the peculiarities that were presented by the feathers preserved at the +Museum of Paris, and published a figure of them of the natural size. + +The discovery of an individual whose state of preservation leaves +nothing to be desired now comes to demonstrate the correctness of +Verreaux's, Bonaparte's, and Elliot's suppositions. This bird, whose +tail is furnished with feathers absolutely identical with those that +the museum possessed, is not a peacock, as some have asserted, nor an +ordinary Argus of Malacca, nor an argus of the race that Elliot named +_Argus grayi_, and which inhabits Borneo, but the type of a new genus of +the family Phasianidæ. This Gallinacean, in fact, which Mr. Maingonnat +has given up to the Museum of Natural History, has not, like the common +Argus of Borneo, excessively elongated secondaries; and its tail is not +formed of normal rectrices, from the middle of which spring two very +long feathers, a little curved and arranged like a roof; but it consists +of twelve wide plane feathers, regularly tapering, and ornamented with +ocellated spots, arranged along the shaft. Its head is not bare, but is +adorned behind with a tuft of thread-like feathers; and, finally, its +system of coloration and the proportions of the different parts of its +body are not the same as in the common argus of Borneo. There is reason, +then, for placing the bird, under the name of _Rheinardius ocellatus_, +in the family Phasianidæ, after the genus _Argus_ which it connects, +after a manner, with the pheasants properly so-called. The specific name +_ocellatus_ has belonged to it since 1871, and must be substituted for +that of _Rheinardi_. + +The bird measures more than two meters in length, three-fourths of which +belong to the tail. The head, which is relatively small, appears to be +larger than it really is, owing to the development of the piliform tuft +on the occiput, this being capable of erection so as to form a crest +0.05 to 0.06 of a meter in height. The feathers of this crest are +brown and white. The back and sides of the head are covered with downy +feathers of a silky brown and silvery gray, and the front of the neck +with piliform feathers of a ruddy brown. The upper part of the body is +of a blackish tint and the under part of a reddish brown, the whole +dotted with small white or _café-au-lait_ spots. Analogous spots are +found on the wings and tail, but on the secondaries these become +elongated, and tear-like in form. On the remiges the markings are quite +regularly hexagonal in shape; and on the upper coverts of the tail +and on the rectrices they are accompanied with numerous ferruginous +blotches, some of which are irregularly scattered over the whole surface +of the vane, while others, marked in the center with a blackish spot, +are disposed in series along the shaft and resemble ocelli. This +similitude of marking between the rectrices and subcaudals renders the +distinction between these two kinds of feathers less sharp than in many +other Gallinaceans, and the more so in that two median rectrices are +considerably elongated and assume exactly the aspect of tail feathers. + +[Illustration: THE OCELLATED PHEASANT (_Rheinardius ocellatus_).] + +The true rectrices are twelve in number. They are all absolutely plane, +all spread out horizontally, and they go on increasing in length +from the exterior to the middle. They are quite wide at the point of +insertion, increase in diameter at the middle, and afterward taper to +a sharp point. Altogether they form a tail of extraordinary length and +width which the bird holds slightly elevated, so as to cause it to +describe a graceful curve, and the point of which touches the soil. The +beak, whose upper mandible is less arched than that of the pheasants, +exactly resembles that of the arguses. It is slightly inflated at the +base, above the nostrils, and these latter are of an elongated-oval +form. In the bird that I have before me the beak, as well as the feet +and legs, is of a dark rose-color. The legs are quite long and are +destitute of spurs. They terminate in front in three quite delicate +toes, connected at the base by membranes, and behind in a thumb that is +inserted so high that it scarcely touches the ground in walking. This +magnificent bird was captured in a portion of Tonkin as yet unexplored +by Europeans, in a locality named Buih-Dinh, 400 kilometers to the south +of Hué.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MAIDENHAIR TREE. + + +The Maidenhair tree--Gingkgo biloba--of which we give an illustration, +is not only one of our most ornamental deciduous trees, but one of the +most interesting. Few persons would at first sight take it to be a +Conifer, more especially as it is destitute of resin; nevertheless, +to that group it belongs, being closely allied to the Yew, but +distinguishable by its long-stalked, fan-shaped leaves, with numerous +radiating veins, as in an Adiantum. These leaves, like those of the +larch but unlike most Conifers, are deciduous, turning of a pale yellow +color before they fall. The tree is found in Japan and in China, but +generally in the neighborhood of temples or other buildings, and is, we +believe, unknown in a truly wild state. As in the case of several other +trees planted in like situations, such as Cupressus funebris, Abies +fortunei, A. kæmpferi, Cryptomeria japonica, Sciadopitys verticillata, +it is probable that the trees have been introduced from Thibet, or +other unexplored districts, into China and Japan. Though now a solitary +representative of its genus, the Gingkgo was well represented in the +coal period, and also existed through the secondary and tertiary epochs, +Professor Heer having identified kindred specimens belonging to sixty +species and eight genera in fossil remains generally distributed through +the northern hemisphere. Whatever inference we may draw, it is at least +certain that the tree was well represented in former times, if now it +be the last of its race. It was first known to Kæmpfer in 1690, and +described by him in 1712, and was introduced into this country in the +middle of the eighteenth century. Loudon relates a curious tale as +to the manner in which a French amateur became possessed of it. The +Frenchman, it appears, came to England, and paid a visit to an English +nurseryman, who was the possessor of five plants, raised from Japanese +seeds. The hospitable Englishman entertained the Frenchman only too +well. He allowed his commercial instincts to be blunted by wine, and +sold to his guest the five plants for the sum of 25 guineas. Next +morning, when time for reflection came, the Englishman attempted to +regain one only of the plants for the same sum that the Frenchman had +given for all five, but without avail. The plants were conveyed to +France, where as each plant had cost about 40 crowns, _ecus_, the tree +got the name of _arbre a quarante ecus_. This is the story as given by +Loudon, who tells us that Andre Thouin used to relate the fact in his +lectures at the Jardin des Plantes, whether as an illustration of the +perfidy of Albion is not stated. + +The tree is dioecious, bearing male catkins on one plant, female on +another. All the female trees in Europe are believed to have originated +from a tree near Geneva, of which Auguste Pyramus de Candolle secured +grafts, and distributed them throughout the Continent. Nevertheless, the +female tree is rarely met with, as compared with the male; but it is +quite possible that a tree which generally produces male flowers only +may sometimes bear female flowers only. We have no certain evidence of +this in the case of the Gingkgo, but it is a common enough occurrence in +other dioecious plants, and the occurrence of a fruiting specimen near +Philadelphia, as recently recorded by Mr. Meehan, may possibly be +attributed to this cause. + +The tree of which we give a figure is growing at Broadlands, Hants, and +is about 40 feet in height, with a trunk that measures 7 feet in girth +at 3 feet from the ground, with a spread of branches measuring 45 feet. +These dimensions have been considerably exceeded in other cases. In 1837 +a tree at Purser's Cross measured 60 feet and more in height. Loudon +himself had a small tree in his garden at Bayswater on which a female +branch was grafted. It is to be feared that this specimen has long since +perished. + +We have already alluded to its deciduous character, in which it is +allied to the larch. It presents another point of resemblance both to +the larch and the cedar in the short spurs upon which both leaves and +male catkins are borne, but these contracted branches are mingled with +long extension shoots; there seems, however, no regular alternation +between the short and the long shoots, at any rate the _rationale_ of +their production is not understood, though in all probability a little +observation of the growing plant would soon clear the matter up. + +The fruit is drupaceous, with a soft outer coat and a hard woody shell, +greatly resembling that of a Cycad, both externally and internally. +Whether the albumen contains the peculiar "corpuscles" common to Cycads +and Conifers, we do not for certain know, though from the presence of 2 +to 3 embryos in one seed, as noted by Endlicher, we presume this is the +case. The interest of these corpuscles, it may be added, lies in the +proof of affinity they offer between Conifers and the higher Cryptogams, +such as ferns and lycopods--an affinity shown also in the peculiar +venation of the Gingkgo. Conifers are in some degree links between +ordinary flowering plants and the higher Cryptogams, and serve to +connect in genealogical sequence groups once considered quite distinct. +In germination the two fleshy cotyledons of the Gingkgo remain within +the shell, leaving the three-sided plumule to pass upward; the young +stem bears its leaves in threes. + +We have no desire to enter further upon the botanical peculiarities of +this tree; enough if we have indicated in what its peculiar interest +consists. We have only to add that in gardens varieties exist some with +leaves more deeply cut than usual, others with leaves nearly entire, and +others with leaves of a golden-yellow color.--_Gardeners' Chronicle_. + +[Illustration: THE MAIDENHAIR TREE IN THE GARDENS AT BROADLANDS.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE WOODS OF AMERICA. + + +A collection of woods without a parallel in the world is now being +prepared for exhibition by the Directors of the American Museum of +Natural History. Scattered about the third floor of the Arsenal, in +Central Park, lie 394 logs, some carefully wrapped in bagging, +some inclosed in rough wooden cases, and others partially sawn +longitudinally, horizontally, and diagonally. These logs represent all +but 26 of the varieties of trees indigenous to this country, and +nearly all have a greater or less economic or commercial value. The 26 +varieties needed to complete the collection will arrive before winter +sets in, a number of specimens being now on their way to this city from +the groves of California. Mr. S. D. Dill and a number of assistants are +engaged in preparing the specimens for exhibition. The logs as they +reach the workroom are wrapped in bagging and inclosed in cases, this +method being used so that the bark, with its growth of lichens and +delicate exfoliations, shall not be injured while the logs are in +process of transportation from various parts of the country to this +city. The logs are each 6 feet in length, and each is the most perfect +specimen of its class that could be found by the experts employed in +making the collection. With the specimens of the trees come to the +museum also specimens of the foliage and the fruits and flowers of the +tree. These come from all parts of the Union--from Alaska on the north +to Texas on the south, from Maine on the east to California on the +west--and there is not a State or Territory in the Union which has not a +representative in this collection of logs. On arrival here the logs are +green, and the first thing in the way of treatment after their arrival +is to season them, a work requiring great care to prevent them from +"checking," as it is technically called, or "season cracking," as the +unscientific term the splitting of the wood in radiating lines during +the seasoning process. As is well known, the sap-wood of a tree seasons +much more quickly than does the heart of the wood. The prevention of +this splitting is very necessary in preparing these specimens for +exhibition, for when once the wood has split its value for dressing for +exhibition is gone. A new plan to prevent this destruction of specimens +is now being tried with some success under the direction of Prof. +Bickmore, superintendent of the museum. Into the base of the log and +alongside the heart a deep hole is bored with an auger. As the wood +seasons this hole permits of a pressure inward and so has in many +instances doubtless saved valuable specimens. One of the finest in the +collection, a specimen of the persimmon tree, some two feet in diameter, +has been ruined by the seasoning process. On one side there is a huge +crack, extending from the top to the bottom of the log, which looks as +though some amateur woodman had attempted to split it with an ax and +had made a poor job of it. The great shrinking of the sap-wood of the +persimmon tree makes the wood of but trifling value commercially. +It also has a discouraging effect upon collectors, as it is next to +impossible to cure a specimen, so that all but this one characteristic +of the wood can be shown to the public in a perfect form. + +Before the logs become thoroughly seasoned, or their lines of growth at +all obliterated, a diagram of each is made, showing in accordance with +a regular scale the thickness of the bark, the sap-wood, and the heart. +There is also in this diagram a scale showing the growth of the tree +during each year of its life, these yearly growths being regularly +marked about the heart of the tree by move or less regular concentric +circles, the width of which grows smaller and smaller as the tree grows +older. In this connection attention may be called to a specimen in the +collection which is considered one of the most remarkable in the world. +It is not a native wood, but an importation, and the tree from which +this wonderful slab is cut is commonly known as the "Pride of India." +The heart of this particular tree was on the port side, and between it +and the bark there is very little sap-wood, not more than an inch. +On the starbord side, so to speak, the sap-wood has grown out in an +abnormal manner, and one of the lines indicative of a year's growth is +one and seven-eighths inches in width, the widest growth, many experts +who have seen the specimen say, that was ever recorded. The diagrams +referred to are to be kept for scientific uses, and the scheme of +exhibition includes these diagrams as a part of the whole. + +After a log has become seasoned it is carefully sawed through the center +down about one-third of its length. A transverse cut is then made and +the semi-cylindrical section thus severed from the log is removed. The +upper end is then beveled. When a log is thus treated the inspector can +see the lower two-thirds presenting exactly the same appearance it did +when growing in the forest. The horizontal cut, through the sap-wood +and to the center of the heart, shows the life lines of the tree, and +carefully planed as are this portion, the perpendicular and the beveled +sections, the grain of the wood can thus be plainly seen. That these may +be made even more valuable to the architect and artisan, the right half +of this planed surface will be carefully polished, and the left half +left in the natural state. This portion of the scheme of treatment is +entirely in the interests of architects and artisans, and it is expected +by Prof. Bickmore that it will be the means of securing for some kinds +of trees, essentially of American growth, and which have been virtually +neglected, an important place in architecture and in ornamental +wood-work, and so give a commercial value to woods that are now of +comparatively little value. + +Among the many curious specimens in the collection now being prepared +for exhibition, one which will excite the greatest curiosity is a +specimen of the honey locust, which was brought here from Missouri. +The bark is covered with a growth of thorns from one to four inches +in length, sharp as needles, and growing at irregular intervals. The +specimen arrived here in perfect condition, but, in order that it might +be transported without injury, it had to be suspended from the roof of +a box car, and thus make its trip from Southern Missouri to this city +without change. Another strange specimen in the novel collection is a +portion of the Yucca tree, an abnormal growth of the lily family. The +trunk, about 2 feet in diameter, is a spongy mass, not susceptible of +treatment to which the other specimens are subjected. Its bark is an +irregular stringy, knotted mass, with porcupine-quill-like leaves +springing out in place of the limbs that grow from all well-regulated +trees. One specimen of the yucca was sent to the museum two years ago, +and though the roots and top of the tree were sawn off, shoots sprang +out, and a number of the handsome flowers appeared. The tree was +supposed to be dead and thoroughly seasoned by this Fall, but now, when +the workmen are ready to prepare it for exhibition, it has shown new +life, new shoots have appeared, and two tufts of green now decorate the +otherwise dry and withered log, and the yucca promises to bloom again +before the winter is over. One of the most perfect specimens of the +Douglass spruce ever seen is in the collection, and is a decided +curiosity. It is a recent arrival from the Rocky Mountains. Its bark, +two inches or more in thickness, is perforated with holes reaching to +the-sap-wood. Many of these contain acorns, or the remains of acorns, +which have been stored there by provident woodpeckers, who dug the holes +in the bark and there stored their winter supply of food. The oldest +specimen in the collection is a section of the _Picea engelmanni_, a +species of spruce growing in the Rocky Mountains at a considerable +elevation above the sea. The specimen is 24 inches in diameter, and the +concentric circles show its age to be 410 years. The wood much resembles +the black spruce, and is the most valuable of the Rocky Mountain +growths. A specimen of the nut pine, whose nuts are used for food by the +Indians, is only 15 inches in diameter, and yet its life lines show its +age to be 369 years. The largest specimen yet received is a section of +the white ash, which is 46 inches in diameter and 182 years old. The +next largest specimen is a section of the _Platanus occidentalis_, +variously known in commerce as the sycamore, button-wood, or plane tree, +which is 42 inches in diameter and only 171 years of age. Specimens of +the redwood tree of California are now on their way to this city from +the Yosemite Valley. One specimen, though a small one, measures 5 feet +in diameter and shows the character of the wood. A specimen of +the enormous growths of this tree was not secured because of the +impossibility of transportation and the fact that there would be no room +in the museum for the storage of such a specimen, for the diameter of +the largest tree of the class is 45 feet and 8 inches, which represents +a circumference of about 110 feet. Then, too, the Californians object to +have the giant trees cut down for commercial, scientific, or any other +purposes. + +To accompany these specimens of the woods of America, Mr. Morris K. +Jesup, who has paid all the expense incurred in the collection of +specimens, is having prepared as an accompanying portion of the +exhibition water color drawings representing the actual size, color, +and appearance of the fruit, foliage, and flowers of the various trees. +Their commercial products, as far as they can be obtained, will also be +exhibited, as, for instance, in the case of the long-leaved pine, the +tar, resin, and pitch, for which it is especially valued. Then, too, in +an herbarium the fruits, leaves, and flowers are preserved as nearly as +possible in their natural state. When the collection is ready for public +view next spring it will be not only the largest, but the only complete +one of its kind in the country. There is nothing like it in the world, +as far as is known; certainly not in the royal museums of England, +France, or Germany. + +Aside from the value of the collection, in a scientific way, it is +proposed to make it an adjunct to our educational system, which requires +that teachers shall instruct pupils as to the materials used for food +and clothing. The completeness of the exhibition will be of great +assistance also to landscape gardeners, as it will enable them to lay +out private and public parks so that the most striking effects of +foliage may be secured. The beauty of these effects can best be seen in +this country in our own Central Park, where there are more different +varieties and more combinations for foliage effects than in any other +area in the United States. To ascertain how these effects are obtained +one now has to go to much trouble to learn the names of the trees. With +this exhibition such information can be had merely by observation, for +the botanical and common names of each specimen will be attached to +it. It will also be of practical use in teaching the forester how to +cultivate trees as he would other crops. The rapid disappearance of +many valuable forest trees, with the increase in demand and decrease in +supply, will tend to make the collection valuable as a curiosity in +the not far distant future as representing the extinct trees of the +country.--_N.Y. Times_. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. 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Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/8559-8.zip b/8559-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..59c5cd4 --- /dev/null +++ b/8559-8.zip diff --git a/8559-h.zip b/8559-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6969f75 --- /dev/null +++ b/8559-h.zip diff --git a/8559-h/8559-h.htm b/8559-h/8559-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5b93e85 --- /dev/null +++ b/8559-h/8559-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5138 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American +Supplement, November 25, 1882</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} +img {border: 0;} +h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;} +.ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} +hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} +.ctr {text-align: center;} +--> +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement No. 360, +November 25, 1882, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement No. 360, November 25, 1882 + +Author: Various + +Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8559] +Release Date: July, 2005 +First Posted: July 23, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 360 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles +Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1a.png"><img src= +"images/1a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 360</h1> + +<h2>NEW YORK, NOVEMBER 25, 1882</h2> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIV, No. 360.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> + +<hr> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#1">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Soaking Pits for Steel +Ingots. --On the successful rolling of steel ingots with their own +initial heat by means of the soaking pit process. By JOHN GJERS. 6 +figures.--Gjers' soaking pits for steel ingots.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#2">Tempering by compression.--L. Clemandot's +process.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#3">Economical Steam Power. By WILLIAM BARNET LE +VAN.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#4">Mississippi River Improvements near St. Louis, +Mo.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#5">Bunte's Burette for the Analysis of Furnace Gases. +2 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#6">The "Universal" Gas Engine. 8 figures.--Improved +gas engine.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#7">Gas Furnace for Baking Refractory Products. 1 +figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#8">The Efficiency of Fans. 5 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#9">Machine for Compressing Coal Refuse into Fuel. 1 +figure.-- Bilan's machine.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#10">Hank Sizing and Wringing Machine. 1 +figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#11">Improved Coke Breaker. 2 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#12">Improvements in Printing Machinery. 2 +figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#13">TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.--Apparatus for +Obtaining Pure Water for Photographic Use. 3 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#14">Black Phosphorus.--By P THENARD.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#15">Composition of Steep Water</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#16">Schreiber's Apparatus for Revivifying Bone Black. +5 figures.-- Plant: elevation and plan.--Views of +elevation.--Continuous furnace.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#17">Soap and its Manufacture from a Consumer's Point +of View. (Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 330).</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#18">Cotton seed Oil.--By S. S. BRADFORD.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#19">On some Apparatus that Permit of Entering +Flames.--Chevalier Aldini's wire gauze and asbestos +protectors.--Brewster's account of test experiments.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#20">ELECTRICITY, LIGHT. ETC.--On a New Arc Electric +Lamp. By W. H. PREECE. 6 figures--The Abdank system.--The lamp.-- +The Electro-magnet.--The Cut-off.--The electrical +arrangement.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#21">Utilization of Solar Heat.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#22">NATURAL HISTORY.--The Ocellated Pheasant. 1 +figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#23">The Maidenhair Tree in the Gardens at Broadlands, +Hants, England. 1 figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#24">The Woods of America.--The Jessup collection in +the American Museum of Natural History, Central Park, and the +characteristics of the specimens.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#25">AGRICULTURE, ETC.--An Industrial +Revolution.--Increase in the number of farms.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#26">A Farmer's Lime Kiln. 3 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#27">The Manufacture of Apple Jelly.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#28">Improved Grape Bags. 4 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#29">ARCHITECTURE, ETC.--The Building Stone +Supply.--Granite and its sources.--Sandstone.--Blue and gray +limestone.--Marble.-- Slate.--Other stones.--A valuable summary of +the sources and uses of quarry products.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VII.</td> +<td><a href="#30">ASTRONOMY. ETC.--How to Establish a True +Meridian. By Prof. L. M. HAUPT.--Introduction.--Definitions.--To +find the azemuth of Polaris.--Applications, etc.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VIII.</td> +<td><a href="#31">MISCELLANEOUS.--A Characteristic Mining +"Rush."--The Prospective Mining Center of Southern New +Mexico.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#32">The Food and Energy of Man. By Prof. DE +CHAUMONT.--Original food of man.--Function of food.--Classes of +alimentary substances.--Quantity of food.--Importance of varied +diet.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#33">Rattlesnake Poison.--Its Antidotes. By H. H. +CROFT.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#34">The Chinese Sign Manual.--The ethnic bearing of +skin furrows on the hand.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#35">Lucidity.--Matthew Arnold's remarks at the +reopening of the Liverpool University College and School of +Medicine.</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr> +<p><a name="1"></a></p> + +<h2>SOAKING PITS FOR STEEL INGOTS.</h2> + +<h3>ON THE SUCCESSFUL ROLLING OF STEEL INGOTS WITH THEIR OWN +INITIAL HEAT BY MEANS OF THE SOAKING PIT PROCESS.</h3> + +<h3>By Mr. JOHN GJERS, Middlesbrough.</h3> + +<p>[Footnote: Paper read before the Iron and Steel Institute at +Vienna.]</p> + +<p>When Sir Henry Bessemer, in 1856, made public his great +invention, and announced to the world that he was able to produce +malleable steel from cast iron without the expenditure of any fuel +except that which already existed in the fluid metal imparted to it +in the blast furnace, his statement was received with doubt and +surprise. If he at that time had been able to add that it was also +possible to roll such steel into a finished bar with no further +expenditure of fuel, then undoubtedly the surprise would have been +much greater.</p> + +<p>Even this, however, has come to pass; and the author of this +paper is now pleased to be able to inform this meeting that it is +not only possible, but that it is extremely easy and practical, by +the means to be described, to roll a steel ingot into, say, a +bloom, a rail, or other finished article with its own initial heat, +without the aid of the hitherto universally adopted heating +furnace.</p> + +<p>It is well understood that in the fluid steel poured into the +mould there is a larger store of heat than is required for the +purpose of rolling or hammering. Not only is there the mere +apparent high temperature of fluid steel, but there is the store of +latent heat in this fluid metal which is given out when +solidification takes place.</p> + +<p>It has, no doubt, suggested itself to many that this heat of the +ingot ought to be utilized, and as a matter of fact, there have +been, at various times and in different places, attempts made to do +so; but hitherto all such attempts have proved failures, and a kind +of settled conviction has been established in the steel trade that +the theory could not possibly be carried out in practice.</p> + +<p>The difficulty arose from the fact that a steel ingot when newly +stripped is far too hot in the interior for the purpose of rolling, +and if it be kept long enough for the interior to become in a fit +state, then the exterior gets far too cold to enable it to be +rolled successfully. It has been attempted to overcome this +difficulty by putting the hot ingots under shields or hoods, lined +with non-heat-conducting material, and to bury them in +non-heat-conducting material in a pulverized state, for the purpose +of retaining and equalizing the heat; but all these attempts have +proved futile in practice, and the fact remains, that the universal +practice in steel works at the present day all over the world is to +employ a heating furnace of some description requiring fuel.</p> + +<p>The author introduced his new mode of treating ingots at the +Darlington Steel and Iron Company's Works, in Darlington, early in +June this year, and they are now blooming the whole of their make, +about 125 tons a shift, or about 300 ingots every twelve hours, by +such means.</p> + +<p>The machinery at Darlington is not adapted for rolling off in +one heat; nevertheless they have rolled off direct from the ingot +treated in the "soaking pits" a considerable number of double-head +rails; and the experience so gained proves conclusively that with +proper machinery there will be no difficulty in doing so regularly. +The quality of the rails so rolled off has been everything that +could be desired; and as many of the defects in rails originate in +the heating furnace, the author ventures to predict that even in +this respect the new process will stand the test.</p> + +<p>Many eminently practical men have witnessed the operation at +Darlington, and they one and all have expressed their great +surprise at the result, and at the simple and original means by +which it is accomplished.</p> + +<p>The process is in course of adoption in several works, both in +England and abroad, and the author hopes that by the time this +paper is being read, there may be some who will from personal +experience be able to testify to the practicability and economy of +the process, which is carried out in the manner now to be +described.</p> + +<p>A number of upright pits (the number, say, of the ingots in a +cast) are built in a mass of brickwork sunk in the ground below the +level of the floor, such pits in cross-section being made slightly +larger than that of the ingot, just enough to allow for any fins at +the bottom, and somewhat deeper than the longest ingot likely to be +used. In practice the cross section of the pit is made about 3 in. +larger than the large end of the ingot, and the top of the ingot +may be anything from 6 in. to 18 in. below the top of the pit. +These pits are commanded by an ingot crane, by preference so placed +in relation to the blooming mill that the crane also commands the +live rollers of the mill.</p> + +<p>Each pit is covered with a separate lid at the floor level, and +after having been well dried and brought to a red heat by the +insertion of hot ingots, they are ready for operation.</p> + +<p>As soon as the ingots are stripped (and they should be stripped +as early as practicable), they are transferred one by one, and +placed separately by means of the crane into these previously +heated pits (which the author calls "soaking pits") and forthwith +covered over with the lid, which practically excludes the air. In +these pits, thus covered, the ingots are allowed to stand and soak; +that is, the excessive molten heat of the interior, and any +additional heat rendered sensible during complete solidification, +but which was latent at the time of placing the ingots into the +pit, becomes uniformly distributed, or nearly so, throughout the +metallic mass. No, or comparatively little, heat being able to +escape, as the ingot is surrounded by brick walls as hot as itself, +it follows that the surface heat of the ingot is greatly increased; +and after the space of from twenty to thirty minutes, according to +circumstances, the ingot is lifted out of the pit apparently much +hotter than it went in, and is now swung round to the rolls, by +means of the crane, in a perfect state of heat for rolling, with +this additional advantage to the mill over an ingot heated in an +ordinary furnace from a comparatively cold, that it is always +certain to be at least as hot in the center as it is on the +surface.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/1b.png" alt="Fig. 2"></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 2</p> + +<p>Every ingot, when cast, contains within itself a considerably +larger store of heat than is necessary for the rolling operation. +Some of this heat is, of course, lost by passing into the mould, +some is lost by radiation before the ingot enters into the soaking +pit, and some is lost after it enters, by being conducted away by +the brickwork; but in the ordinary course of working, when there is +no undue loss of time in transferring the ingots, after allowing +for this loss, there remains a surplus, which goes into the +brickwork of the soaking pits, so that this surplus of heat from +successive ingots tends continually to keep the pits at the intense +heat of the ingot itself. Thus, occasionally it happens that +inadvertently an ingot is delayed so long on its way to the pit as +to arrive there somewhat short of heat, its temperature will be +raised by heat from the walls of the pit itself; the refractory +mass wherein the pit is formed, in fact, acting as an accumulator +of heat, giving and taking heat as required to carry on the +operation in a continuous and practical manner.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1c.png"><img src= +"images/1c_th.jpg" alt= +"GJERS' SOAKING PITS FOR STEEL INGOTS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">GJERS' SOAKING PITS FOR STEEL INGOTS.</p> + +<p>During the soaking operation a quantity of gas exudes from the +ingot and fills the pit, thus entirely excluding atmospheric air +from entering; this is seen escaping round the lid, and when the +lid is removed combustion takes place.</p> + +<p>It will be seen by analyses given hereinafter that this gas is +entirely composed of hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbonic oxide, so +that the ingots soak in a perfectly non-oxidizing medium. Hence +loss of steel by oxidation does not take place, and consequently +the great loss of yield which always occurs in the ordinary heating +furnace is entirely obviated.</p> + +<p>The author does not think it necessary to dilate upon the +economical advantages of his process, as they are apparent to every +practical man connected with the manufacture of steel.</p> + +<p>The operation of steel making on a large scale will by this +process be very much simplified. It will help to dispense with a +large number of men, some of them highly paid, directly and +indirectly connected with the heating department; it will do away +with costly heating furnaces and gas generators, and their costly +maintenance; it will save all the coal used in heating; and what is +perhaps of still more importance, it will save the loss in yield of +steel; and there will be no more steel spoiled by overheating in +the furnaces.</p> + +<p>The process has been in operation too short a time to give +precise and reliable figures, but it is hoped that by the next +meeting of the Institute these will be forthcoming from various +quarters.</p> + +<p>Referring to the illustrations annexed, Fig. 1 shows sectional +elevation, and Fig. 2 plan of a set of eight soaking pits (marked +A). These pits are built in a mass of brickwork, B, on a concrete +foundation, C; the ingots, D, standing upright in the pits. The +pits are lined with firebrick lumps, 6 in. thick, forming an +independent lining, E, which at any time can be readily renewed. F +is a cast iron plate, made to take in four pits, and dropped +loosely within the large plate, G, which surrounds the pits. H is +the cover, with a firebrick lining; and I is a false cover of +firebrick, 1 in. smaller than the cross section of the pit, put in +to rest on the top of the ingot. This false cover need not +necessarily be used, but is useful to keep the extreme top of the +ingot extra hot. J is the bottom of the pit, composed of broken +brick and silver sand, forming a good hard bottom at any desired +level.</p> + +<p>Figs. 4 and 5 show outline plan of two sets of soaking pits, K +K, eight each, placed under a 25 ft. sweep crane, L. This crane, if +a good one, could handle any ordinary make--up to 2,000 tons per +week, and ought to have hydraulic racking out and swinging round +gear. This crane places the ingots into the pits, and, when they +are ready, picks them out and swings them round to blooming mill, +M. With such a crane, four men and a boy at the handles are able to +pass the whole of that make through the pits. The author recommends +two sets of pits as shown, although one set of eight pits is quite +able to deal with any ordinary output from one Bessemer pit.</p> + +<p>In case of an extraordinarily large output, the author +recommends a second crane, F, for the purpose of placing the ingots +in the pits only, the crane, L, being entirely used for picking the +ingots out and swinging them round to the live rollers of the mill. +The relative position of the cranes, soaking pits, and blooming +mill may of course be variously arranged according to +circumstances, and the soaking pits may be arranged in single or +more rows, or concentrically with the crane at pleasure.</p> + +<p>Figs. 4 and 5 also show outline plan and elevation of a Bessemer +plant, conveniently arranged for working on the soaking pit system. +A A are the converters, with a transfer crane, B. C is the casting +pit with its crane, D. E E are the two ingot cranes. F is a leading +crane which transfers the ingots from the ingot cranes to the +soaking pits, K K, commanded by the crane, L, which transfers the +prepared ingots to the mill, M. as before described.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="2"></a></p> + +<h2>TEMPERING BY COMPRESSION.</h2> + +<p>L. Clemandot has devised a new method of treating metals, +especially steel, which consists in heating to a cherry red, +compressing strongly and keeping up the pressure until the metal is +completely cooled. The results are so much like those of tempering +that he calls his process tempering by compression. The compressed +metal becomes exceedingly hard, acquiring a molecular contraction +and a fineness of grain such that polishing gives it the appearance +of polished nickel. Compressed steel, like tempered steel, acquires +the coercitive force which enables it to absorb magnetism. This +property should be studied in connection with its durability; +experiments have already shown that there is no loss of magnetism +at the expiration of three months. This compression has no analogue +but tempering. Hammering and hardening modify the molecular state +of metals, especially when they are practiced upon metal that is +nearly cold, but the effect of hydraulic pressure is much greater. +The phenomena which are produced in both methods of tempering may +be interpreted in different ways, but it seems likely that there is +a molecular approximation, an amorphism from which results the +homogeneity that is due to the absence of crystallization. Being an +operation which can be measured, it may be graduated and kept +within limits which are prescribed in advance; directions may be +given to temper at a specified pressure, as readily as to work +under a given pressure of steam.--<i>Chron. Industr</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="3"></a></p> + +<h2>ECONOMICAL STEAM POWER.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: A paper read by title at a recent stated meeting of +the Franklin Institute]</p> + +<h3>By WILLIAM BARNET LE VAN.</h3> + +<p>The most economical application of steam power can be realized +only by a judicious arrangement of the plant: namely, the engines, +boilers, and their accessories for transmission.</p> + +<p>This may appear a somewhat broad assertion; but it is +nevertheless one which is amply justified by facts open to the +consideration of all those who choose to seek for them.</p> + +<p>While it is true that occasionally a factory, mill, or a +water-works may be found in which the whole arrangements have been +planned by a competent engineer, yet such is the exception and not +the rule, and such examples form but a very small percentage of the +whole.</p> + +<p>The fact is that but few users of steam power are aware of the +numerous items which compose the cost of economical steam power, +while a yet smaller number give sufficient consideration to the +relations which these items bear to each other, or the manner in +which the economy of any given boiler or engine is affected by the +circumstances under which it is run.</p> + +<p>A large number of persons--and they are those who should know +better, too--take for granted that a boiler or engine which is good +for one situation is good for all; a greater error than such an +assumption can scarcely be imagined.</p> + +<p>It is true that there are certain classes of engines and boilers +which may be relied upon to give moderately good results in almost +any situation--and the best results should <i>always</i> be desired +in arrangement of a mill--there are a considerable number of +details which must be taken into consideration in making a choice +of boilers and engines.</p> + +<p>Take the case of a mill in which it has been supposed that the +motive power could be best exerted by a single engine. The question +now is whether or not it would be best to divide the total power +required among a number of engines.</p> + +<p><i>First</i>.--A division of the motive power presents the +following advantages, namely, a saving of expense on lines of +shafting of large diameter.</p> + +<p><i>Second</i>.--Dispensing with the large driving belt or +gearing, the first named of which, in one instance under the +writer's observation, absorbed <i>sixty horse-power</i> out of +about 480, or about <i>seven per cent</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>.--The general convenience of subdividing the work +to be done, so that in case of a stoppage of one portion of the +work by reason of a loose coupling or the changing of a pulley, +etc., that portion only would need to be stopped.</p> + +<p>This last is of itself a most important point, and demands +careful consideration.</p> + +<p>For example, I was at a mill a short time ago when the governor +belt broke. The result was a stoppage of the whole mill. Had the +motive power of this mill been subdivided into a number of small +engines only one department would have been stopped. During the +stoppage in this case the windows of the mill were a sea of heads +of men and women (the operatives), and considerable excitement was +caused by the violent blowing off of steam from the safety-valves, +due to the stoppage of the steam supply to the engine; and this +excitement continued until the cause of the stoppage was +understood. Had the power in this mill been subdivided the stoppage +of one of a number of engines would scarcely have been noticed, and +the blowing off of surplus steam would not have occurred.</p> + +<p>In building a mill the first item to be considered is the +interest on the first cost of the engine, boilers, etc. This item +can be subdivided with advantage into the amounts of interest on +the respective costs of,</p> + +<p><i>First</i>. The engine or engines;</p> + +<p><i>Second</i> The boiler or boilers;</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>. The engine and boiler house.</p> + +<p>In the same connection the <i>form</i> of engine to be used must +be considered. In some few cases--as, for instance, where engines +have to be placed in confined situations--the form is practically +fixed by the space available, it being perhaps possible only to +erect a vertical or a horizontal engine, as the case may be. These, +however, are exceptional instances, and in most cases--at all +events where large powers are required--the engineer may have a +free choice in the matter. Under these circumstances the best form, +in the vast majority of cases where machinery must be driven, is +undoubtedly the horizontal engine, and the worst the beam engine. +When properly constructed, the horizontal engine is more durable +than the beam engine, while, its first cost being less, it can be +driven at a higher speed, and it involves a much smaller outlay for +engine house and foundations than the latter. In many respects the +horizontal engine is undoubtedly closely approached in advantages +by the best forms of vertical engines; but on the whole we consider +that where machinery is to be driven the balance of advantages is +decidedly in favor of the former class, and particularly so in the +case of large powers.</p> + +<p>The next point to be decided is, whether a condensing or +non-condensing engine should be employed. In settling this question +not only the respective first costs of the two classes of engines +must be taken into consideration, but also the cost of water and +fuel. Excepting, perhaps, in cases of very small powers, and in +those instances where the exhaust steam from a non-condensing +engine can be turned to good account for heating or drying purpose, +it may safely be asserted that in all instances where a sufficient +supply of condensing water is available at a moderate cost, the +extra economy of a well-constructed condensing engine will fully +warrant the additional outlay involved in its purchase. In these +days of high steam pressures, a well constructed non-condensing +engine can, no doubt, be made to approximate closely to the economy +of a condensing engine, but in such a case the extra cost of the +stronger boiler required will go far to balance the additional cost +of the condensing engine.</p> + +<p>Having decided on the form, the next question is, what "class" +of engine shall it be; and by the term class I mean the relative +excellence of the engine as a power-producing machine. An automatic +engine costs more than a plain slide-valve engine, but it will +depend upon the cost of fuel at the location where the engine is to +be placed, and the number of hours per day it is kept running, to +decide which class of machine can be adopted with the greatest +economy to the proprietor. The cost of lubricating materials, fuel, +repairs, and percentage of cost to be put aside for depreciation, +will be less in case of the high-class than in the low-class +engine, while the former will also require less boiler power.</p> + +<p>Against these advantages are to be set the greater first cost of +the automatic engine, and the consequent annual charge due to +capital sunk. These several items should all be fairly estimated +when an engine is to be bought, and the kind chosen accordingly. +Let us take the item of fuel, for instance, and let us suppose this +fuel to cost four dollars per ton at the place where the engine is +run. Suppose the engine to be capable of developing one hundred +horse-power, and that it consumes five pounds of coal per hour per +horse-power, and runs ten hours per day: this would necessitate the +supply of two and one-half tons per day at a cost of ten dollars +per day. To be really economical, therefore, any improvement which +would effect a saving of one pound of coal per hour per horse-power +must not cost a greater sum per horse-power than that on which the +cost of the difference of the coal saved (one pound of coal per +hour per horse-power, which would be 1,000 pounds per day) for, +say, three hundred days, three hundred thousand (300,000) pounds, +or one hundred and fifty tons (or six hundred dollars), would pay a +fair interest.</p> + +<p>Assuming that the mill owner estimates his capital as worth to +him ten per cent, per annum, then the improvement which would +effect the above mentioned saving must not cost more than six +thousand dollars, and so on. If, instead of being run only ten +hours per day, the engine is run night and day, then the outlay +which it would be justifiable to make to effect a certain saving +per hour would be doubled; while, on the other hand, if an engine +is run less than the usual time per day a given saving per hour +would justify a correspondingly less outlay.</p> + +<p>It has been found that for grain and other elevators, which are +not run constantly, gas engines, although costing more for the same +power, are cheaper than steam engines for elevating purposes where +only occasionally used.</p> + +<p>For this reason it is impossible without considerable +investigation to say what is really the most economical engine to +adopt in any particular case; and as comparatively few users of +steam power care to make this investigation a vast amount of +wasteful expenditure results. Although, however, no absolute rule +can be given, we may state that the number of instances in which an +engine which is wasteful of fuel can be used profitably is +exceedingly small. As a rule, in fact, it may generally be assumed +that an engine employed for driving a manufactory of any kind +cannot be of too high a class, the saving effected by the +economical working of such engines in the vast majority of cases +enormously outweighing the interest on their extra first cost. So +few people appear to have a clear idea of the vast importance of +economy of fuel in mills and factories that I perhaps cannot better +conclude than by giving an example showing the saving to be +effected in a large establishment by an economical engine.</p> + +<p>I will take the case of a flouring mill in this city which +employed two engines that required forty pounds of water to be +converted into steam per hour per indicated horse-power. This, at +the time, was considered a moderate amount and the engines were +considered "good."</p> + +<p>These engines indicated seventy horse power each, and ran +twenty-four hours per day on an average of three hundred days each +year, requiring as per indicator diagrams forty million three +hundred and twenty thousand pounds (40 x 70 x 24 x 300 x 2 = +40,320,000) of feed water to be evaporated per annum, which, in +Philadelphia, costs three dollars per horse-power per annum, +amounting to (70 x 2 x 300 = $420.00) four hundred and twenty +dollars.</p> + +<p>The coal consumed averaged five and one-half pounds per hour per +horse-power, which, at four dollars per ton, costs</p> + +<p>((70 x 2 x 5.5 x 24 x 300) / 2,000) x 4.00= $11,088</p> + +<p>Eleven thousand and eighty-eight dollars.</p> + +<pre> + Cost of coal for 300 days. $11,088 + Cost of water for 300 days. 420 + ------- + Total cost of coal and water. $11,503 +</pre> + +<p>These engines were replaced by one first-class automatic engine, +which developed one hundred and forty-two horse-power per hour with +a consumption of <i>three pounds</i> of coal per hour per +horse-power, and the indicator diagrams showed a consumption of +<i>thirty</i> pounds of water per hour per horse-power. Coal +cost</p> + +<p>((142 x 3 x 24 x 300) / 2,000) x 4.00 = $6,134</p> + +<p>Six thousand one hundred and thirty-four dollars. Water cost +(142 x 3.00= $426.00) four hundred and twenty-six dollars.</p> + +<pre> + Cost of coal for 300 days. $6,134 + Cost of water for 300 days. 426 + ------ + Total cost of coal and water. $6,560 +</pre> + +<p>The water evaporated in the latter case to perform the same work +was (142 x 30 x 24 x 300 = 30,672,000) thirty million six hundred +and seventy-two thousand pounds of feed water against (40,320,000) +forty million three hundred and twenty thousand pounds in the +former, a saving of (9,648,000) nine million six hundred and +forty-eight thousand pounds per annum; or,</p> + +<p>(40,320,000 - 30,672,000) / 9,648,000 = 31.4 per cent.</p> + +<p>--<i>thirty-one and four-tenths per cent</i>.</p> + +<p>And a saving in coal consumption of</p> + +<p>(11,088 - 6,134) / 4,954 = 87.5 per cent.</p> + +<p>--<i>eighty-seven and one-half per cent</i>., or a saving in +dollars and cents of four thousand nine hundred and fifty-four +dollars ($4,954).</p> + +<p>In this city, Philadelphia, no allowance for the consumption of +water is made in the case of first class engines, such engines +being charged the same rate per annum per horse-power as an +inferior engine, while, as shown by the above example, a saving in +water of <i>thirty-one and four-tenths per cent</i>. has been +attained by the employment of a first-class engine. The builders of +such engines will always give a guarantee of their consumption of +water, so that the purchaser can be able in advance to estimate +this as accurately as he can the amount of fuel he will use.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="4"></a></p> + +<h2>RIVER IMPROVEMENTS NEAR ST. LOUIS.</h2> + +<p>The improvement of the Mississippi River near St. Louis +progresses satisfactorily. The efficacy of the jetty system is +illustrated in the lines of mattresses which showed accumulations +of sand deposits ranging from the surface of the river to nearly +sixteen feet in height. At Twin Hollow, thirteen miles from St. +Louis and six miles from Horse-Tail Bar, there was found a sand bar +extending over the widest portion of the river on which the +engineering forces were engaged. Hurdles are built out from the +shore to concentrate the stream on the obstruction, and then to +protect the river from widening willows are interwoven between the +piles. At Carroll's Island mattresses 125 feet wide have been +placed, and the banks revetted with stone from ordinary low water +to a 16 foot stage. There is plenty of water over the bar, and at +the most shallow points the lead showed a depth of twelve feet. +Beard's Island, a short distance further, is also being improved, +the largest force of men at any one place being here engaged. Four +thousand feet of mattresses have been begun, and in placing them +work will be vigorously prosecuted until operations are suspended +by floating ice. The different sections are under the direction of +W. F. Fries, resident engineer, and E. M. Currie, superintending +engineer. There are now employed about 1,200 men, thirty barges and +scows, two steam launches, and the stern-wheel steamer A. A. +Humphreys. The improvements have cost, in actual money expended, +about $200,000, and as the appropriation for the ensuing year +approximates $600,000, the prospect of a clear channel is +gratifying to those interested in the river.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="5"></a></p> + +<h2>BUNTE'S BURETTE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF FURNACE GASES.</h2> + +<p>For analyzing the gases of blast-furnaces the various apparatus +of Orsat have long been employed; but, by reason of its simplicity, +the burette devised by Dr. Bünte, and shown in the +accompanying figures, is much easier to use. Besides, it permits of +a much better and more rapid absorption of the oxide of carbon; and +yet, for the lost fractions of the latter, it is necessary to +replace a part of the absorbing liquid three or four times. The +absorbing liquid is prepared by making a saturated solution of +chloride of copper in hydrochloric acid, and adding thereto a small +quantity of dissolved chloride of tin. Afterward, there are added +to the decanted mixture a few spirals of red copper, and the +mixture is then carefully kept from contact with the air.</p> + +<p>To fill the burette with gas, the three-way cock, <i>a</i>, is +so placed that the axial aperture shall be in communication with +the graduated part, A, of the burette. After this, water is poured +into the funnel, t, and the burette is put in communication with +the gas reservoir by means of a rubber tube. The lower point of the +burette is put in communication with a rubber pump, V (Fig. 2), on +an aspirator (the cock, <i>b</i>, being left open), and the gas is +sucked in until all the air that was in the apparatus has been +expelled from it. The cocks, <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, are turned 90 +degrees. The water in the funnel prevents the gases communicating +with the top. The point of the three-way cock is afterward closed +with a rubber tube and glass rod.</p> + +<p>If the gas happens to be in the reservoir of an aspirator, it is +made to pass into the apparatus in the following manner: The +burette is completely filled with water, and the point of the +three-way cock is put in communication with a reservoir. If the gas +is under pressure, a portion of it is allowed to escape through the +capillary tube into the water in the funnel, by turning the cock, +<i>a</i>, properly, and thus all the water in the conduit is +entirely expelled. Afterward <i>a</i> is turned 180°, and the +lower cock, <i>b</i>, is opened. While the water is flowing through +<i>b</i>, the burette becomes filled with gas.</p> + +<p><i>Mode of Measuring the Gases and Absorption</i>.--The tube +that communicates with the vessel, F, is put in communication, +after the latter has been completely filled with water, with the +point of the cock, <i>b</i> (Fig. 2). Then the latter is opened, as +is also the pinch cock on the rubber tubing, and water is allowed +to enter the burette through the bottom until the level is at the +zero of the graduation. There are then 100 cubic centimeters in the +burette. The superfluous gas has escaped through the cock, +<i>a</i>, and passed through the water in the funnel. The cock, +<i>a</i>, is afterward closed by turning it 90°. To cause the +absorbing liquid to pass into the burette, the water in the +graduated cylinder is made to flow by connecting the rubber tube, +s, of the bottle, S, with the point of the burette. The cock is +opened, and suction is effected with the mouth of the tube, r. When +the water has flowed out to nearly the last drop, <i>b</i> is +closed and the suction bottle is removed. The absorbing liquid +(caustic potassa or pyrogallate of potassa) is poured into a +porcelain capsule, P, and the point of the burette is dipped into +the liquid. If the cock, <i>b</i>, be opened, the absorbing liquid +will be sucked into the burette. In order to hasten the absorption, +the cock, <i>b</i>, is closed, and the burette is shaken +horizontally, the aperture of the funnel being closed by the hand +during the operation.</p> + +<p>If not enough absorbing liquid has entered, there may be sucked +into the burette, by the process described above, a new quantity of +liquid. The reaction finished, the graduated cylinder is put in +communication with the funnel by turning the cock, <i>a</i>. The +water is allowed to run from the funnel, and the latter is filled +again with water up to the mark. The gas is then again under the +same pressure as at the beginning.</p> + +<p>After the level has become constant, the quantity of gas +remaining is measured. The contraction that has taken place gives, +in hundredths of the total volume, the volume of the gas +absorbed.</p> + +<p>When it is desired to make an analysis of smoke due to +combustion, caustic potassa is first sucked into the burette. After +complete absorption, and after putting the gas at the same +pressure, the diminution gives the volume of carbonic acid.</p> + +<p>To determine the oxygen in the remaining gas, a portion of the +caustic potash is allowed to flow out, and an aqueous solution of +pyrogallic acid and potash is allowed to enter. The presence of +oxygen is revealed by the color of the liquid, which becomes +darker.</p> + +<p>The gas is then agitated with the absorbing liquid until, upon +opening the cock, <i>a</i>, the liquid remains in the capillary +tube, that is to say, until no more water runs from the funnel into +the burette. To make a quantitative analysis of the carbon +contained in gas, the pyrogallate of potash must be entirely +removed from the burette. To do this, the liquid is sucked out by +means of the flask, S, until there remain only a few drops; then +the cock, <i>a</i>, is opened and water is allowed to flow from the +funnel along the sides of the burette. Then <i>a</i> is closed, and +the washing water is sucked in the same manner. By repeating this +manipulation several times, the absorbing liquid is completely +removed. The acid solution of chloride of copper is then allowed to +enter.</p> + +<p>As the absorbing liquids adhere to the glass, it is better, +before noting the level, to replace these liquids by water. The +cocks, <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, are opened, and water is allowed to +enter from the funnel, the absorbing liquid being made to flow at +the same time through the cock, <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p>When an acid solution of chloride of copper is employed, dilute +hydrochloric acid is used instead of water.</p> + +<p>Fig. 2 shows the arrangement of the apparatus for the +quantitative analysis of oxide of carbon and hydrogen by +combustion. The gas in the burette is first mixed with atmospheric +air, by allowing the liquid to flow through <i>b</i>, and causing +air to enter through the axial aperture of the three way cock, +<i>a</i>, after cutting off communication at v. Then, as shown in +the figure, the burette is connected with the tube, B, which is +filled with water up to the narrow curved part, and the interior of +the burette is made to communicate with the combustion tube, v, by +turning the cock, a. The combustion tube is heated by means of a +Bunsen burner or alcohol lamp, L. It is necessary to proceed, so +that all the water shall be driven from the cock and the capillary +tube, and that it shall be sent into the burette. The combustion is +effected by causing the mixture of gas to pass from the burette +into the tube, B, through the tube, v, heated to redness, into +which there passes a palladium wire. Water is allowed to flow +through the point of the tube, B, while from the flask, F, it +enters through the bottom into the burette, so as to drive out the +gas. The water is allowed to rise into the burette as far as the +cock, and the cocks, <i>b</i> and <i>b¹</i>, are afterward +closed.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/3a.png"><img src= +"images/3a_th.jpg" alt="DR. BÜNTE'S GAS BURETTE"> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">DR. BÜNTE'S GAS BURETTE</p> + +<p>By a contrary operation, the gas is made to pass from B into the +burette. It is then allowed to cool, and, after the pressure has +been established again, the contraction is measured. If the gas +burned is hydrogen, the contraction multiplied by two-thirds gives +the original volume of the hydrogen gas burned. If the gas burned +is oxide of carbon, there forms an equal volume of carbonic acid, +and the contraction is the half of CO. Thus, to analyze CO, a +portion of the liquid is removed from the burette, then caustic +potash is allowed to enter, and the process goes on as explained +above.</p> + +<p>The total contraction resulting from combustion and absorption, +multiplied by two-thirds, gives the volume of the oxide of +carbon.</p> + +<p>The hydrogen and oxide carbon may thus be quantitatively +analyzed together or separately.--<i>Revue Industrielle</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="6"></a></p> + +<h2>THE "UNIVERSAL" GAS ENGINE.</h2> + +<p>The accompanying engravings illustrate a new and very simple +form of gas engine, the invention of J. A. Ewins and H. Newman, and +made by Mr. T. B. Barker, of Scholefield-street, Bloomsbury, +Birmingham. It is known as the "Universal" engine, and is at +present constructed in sizes varying from one-eighth +horse-power--one man power--to one horse-power, though larger sizes +are being made. The essentially new feature of the engine is, says +the <i>Engineer</i>, the simple rotary ignition valve consisting of +a ratchet plate or flat disk with a number of small radial slots +which successively pass a small slot in the end of the cylinder, +and through which the flame is drawn to ignite the charge. In our +illustrations Fig. 1 is a side elevation; Fig. 2 an end view of +same; Fig. 3 a plan; Fig. 4 is a sectional view of the chamber in +which the gas and air are mixed, with the valves appertaining +thereto; Fig. 5 is a detail view of the ratchet plate, with pawl +and levers and valve gear shaft; Fig. 6 is a sectional view of a +pump employed in some cases to circulate water through the jacket; +Fig. 7 is a sectional view of arrangement for lighting, and ratchet +plate, j, with central spindle and igniting apertures, and the +spiral spring, k, and fly nut, showing the attachment to the end of +the working cylinder, f<sup>1</sup>; b<sup>5</sup>, b<sup>5</sup>, +bevel wheels driving the valve gear shaft; e, the valve gear +driving shaft; e<sup>2</sup>, eccentric to drive pump; e³, +eccentric or cam to drive exhaust valve; e<sup>4</sup>, crank to +drive ratchet plate; e<sup>5</sup>, connecting rod to ratchet pawl; +f, cylinder jacket; f<sup>1</sup>, internal or working cylinder; +f<sup>2</sup>, back cylinder cover; g, igniting chamber; h, mixing +chamber; h<sup>1</sup>, flap valve; h<sup>2</sup>, gas inlet valve, +the motion of which is regulated by a governor; h<sup>3</sup>, gas +inlet valve seat; h<sup>4</sup>, cover, also forming stop for gas +inlet valve; h<sup>5</sup>, gas inlet pipe; h<sup>6</sup>, an inlet +valve; h<sup>8</sup>, cover, also forming stop for air inlet valve; +h<sup>9</sup>, inlet pipe for air with grating; i, exhaust chamber; +i<sup>2</sup>, exhaust valve spindle; i<sup>7</sup>, exhaust pipe; +j<sup>6</sup>, lighting aperture through cylinder end; l, igniting +gas jet; m, regulating and stop valve for gas.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/3b.png"><img src= +"images/3b_th.jpg" alt="IMPROVED GAS ENGINE"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED GAS ENGINE</p> + +<p>The engine, it will be seen, is single-acting, and no +compression of the explosive charge is employed. An explosive +mixture of combustible gas and air is drawn through the valves, +h<sup>2</sup> and h<sup>6</sup>, and exploded behind the piston +once in a revolution; but by a duplication of the valve and +igniting apparatus, placed also at the front end of the cylinder, +the engine may be constructed double-acting. At the proper time, +when the piston has proceeded far enough to draw in through the +mixing chamber, h, into the igniting chamber, g, the requisite +amount of gas and air, the ratchet plate, j, is pushed into such a +position by the pawl, j<sup>3</sup>, that the flame from the +igniting jet, l, passes through one of the slots or holes, +j<sup>1</sup>, and explodes the charge when opposite j<sup>6</sup>, +which is the only aperture in the end of the working cylinder (see +Fig. 7 and Fig. 2), thus driving the piston on to the end of its +forward stroke. The exhaust valve, Fig. 9, though not exactly of +the form shown, is kept open during the whole of this return stroke +by means of the eccentric, e<sup>3</sup>, on the shaft working the +ratchet, and thus allowing the products of combustion to escape +through the exhaust pipe, i<sup>7</sup>, in the direction of the +arrow. Between the ratchet disk and the igniting flame a small +plate not shown is affixed to the pipe, its edge being just above +the burner top. The flame is thus not blown out by the inrushing +air when the slots in ratchet plate and valve face are opposite. +This ratchet plate or ignition valve, the most important in any +engine, has so very small a range of motion per revolution of the +engine that it cannot get out of order, and it appears to require +no lubrication or attention whatever. The engines are working very +successfully, and their simplicity enables them to be made at low +cost. They cost for gas from ½d. to 1½d. per hour for +the sizes mentioned.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/3c.png" alt="Fig.9."></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig.9.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="7"></a></p> + +<h2>GAS FURNACE FOR BAKING REFRACTORY PRODUCTS.</h2> + +<p>In order that small establishments may put to profit the +advantages derived from the use of annular furnaces heated with +gas, smaller dimensions have been given the baking chambers of such +furnaces. The accompanying figure gives a section of a furnace of +this kind, set into the ground, and the height of whose baking +chamber is only one and a half meters. The chamber is not vaulted, +but is covered by slabs of refractory clay, D, that may be +displaced by the aid of a small car running on a movable track. +This car is drawn over the compartment that is to be emptied, and +the slab or cover, D, is taken off and carried over the newly +filled compartment and deposited thereon.</p> + +<p>The gas passes from the channel through the pipe, a, into the +vertical conduits, b, and is afterward disengaged through the +tuyeres into the chamber. In order that the gas may be equally +applied for preliminary heating or smoking, a small smoking +furnace, S, has been added to the apparatus. The upper part of this +consists of a wide cylinder of refractory clay, in the center of +whose cover there is placed an internal tube of refractory clay, +which communicates with the channel, G, through a pipe, d. This +latter leads the gas into the tube, t, of the smoking furnace, +which is perforated with a large number of small holes. The air +requisite for combustion enters through the apertures, o, in the +cover of the furnace, and brings about in the latter a high +temperature. The very hot gases descend into the lower iron portion +of this small furnace and pass through a tube, e, into the smoking +chamber by the aid of vertical conduits, b', which serve at the +same time as gas tuyeres for the extremity of the furnace that is +exposed to the fire.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/4a.png"><img src= +"images/4a_th.jpg" alt= +"GAS FURNACE FOR BAKING REFRACTORY PRODUCTS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">GAS FURNACE FOR BAKING REFRACTORY PRODUCTS.</p> + +<p>In the lower part of the smoking furnace, which is made of +boiler plate and can be put in communication with the tube, e, +there are large apertures that may be wholly or partially closed by +means of registers so as to carry to the hot gas derived from +combustion any quantity whatever of cold and dry air, and thus +cause a variation at will of the temperature of the gases which are +disengaged from the tube, e.</p> + +<p>The use of these smoking apparatus heated by gas does away also +with the inconveniences of the ordinary system, in which the +products are soiled by cinders or dust, and which render the +gradual heating of objects to be baked difficult. At the beginning, +there is allowed to enter the lower part of the small furnace, S, +through the apertures, a very considerable quantity of cold air, so +as to lower the temperature of the smoke gas that escapes from the +tube, e, to 30 or 50 degrees. Afterward, these secondary air +entrances are gradually closed so as to increase the temperature of +the gases at will.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="8"></a></p> + +<h2>THE EFFICIENCY OF FANS.</h2> + +<p>Air, like every other gas or combination of gases, possesses +weight; some persons who have been taught that the air exerts a +pressure of 14.7 lb. per square inch, cannot, however, be got to +realize the fact that a cubit foot of air at the same pressure and +at a temperature of 62 deg. weighs the thirteenth part of a pound, +or over one ounce; 13.141 cubic feet of air weigh one pound. In +round numbers 30,000 cubic feet of air weigh one ton; this is a +useful figure to remember, and it is easily carried in the mind. A +hall 61 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 17 feet high will contain one +ton of air.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4b.png" alt="FIG. 1"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1</p> + +<p>The work to be done by a fan consists in putting a weight--that +of the air--in motion. The resistances incurred are due to the +inertia of the air and various frictional influences; the nature +and amount of these last vary with the construction of the fan. As +the air enters at the center of the fan and escapes at the +circumference, it will be seen that its motion is changed while in +the fan through a right angle. It may also be taken for granted +that within certain limits the air has no motion in a radial +direction when it first comes in contact with a fan blade. It is +well understood that, unless power is to be wasted, motion should +be gradually imparted to any body to be moved. Consequently, the +shape of the blades ought to be such as will impart motion at first +slowly and afterward in a rapidly increasing ratio to the air. It +is also clear that the change of motion should be effected as +gradually as possible. Fig. 1 shows how a fan should not be +constructed; Fig. 2 will serve to give an idea of how it should be +made.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4c.png" alt="FIG. 2"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2</p> + +<p>In Fig. 1 it will be seen that the air, as indicated by the bent +arrows, is violently deflected on entering the fan. In Fig. 2 it +will be seen that it follows gentle curves, and so is put gradually +in motion. The curved form of the blades shown in Fig. 2 does not +appear to add much to the efficiency of a fan; but it adds +something and keeps down noise. The idea is that the fan blades +when of this form push the air radially from the center to the +circumference. The fact is, however, that the air flies outward +under the influence of centrifugal force, and always tends to move +at a tangent to the fan blades, as in Fig. 3, where the circle is +the path of the tips of the fan blades, and the arrow is a tangent +to that path; and to impart this notion a radial blade, as at C, is +perhaps as good as any other, as far as efficiency is concerned. +Concerning the shape to be imparted to the blades, looked at back +or front, opinions widely differ; but it is certain that if a fan +is to be silent the blades must be narrower at the tips than at the +center. Various forms are adopted by different makers, the straight +side and the curved sides, as shown in Fig. 4, being most commonly +used. The proportions as regards length to breadth are also varied +continually. In fact, no two makers of fans use the same +shapes.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4d.png" alt="FIG. 3"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3</p> + +<p>As the work done by a fan consists in imparting motion at a +stated velocity to a given weight of air, it is very easy to +calculate the power which must be expended to do a certain amount +of work. The velocity at which the air leaves the fan cannot be +greater than that of the fan tips. In a good fan it may be about +two-thirds of that speed. The resistance to be overcome will be +found by multiplying the area of the fan blades by the pressure of +the air and by the velocity of the center of effort, which must be +determined for every fan according to the shape of its blades. The +velocity imparted to the air by the fan will be just the same as +though the air fell in a mass from a given height. This height can +be found by the formula h = v² / 64; that is to say, if the +velocity be multiplied by itself and divided by 64 we have the +height. Thus, let the velocity be 88 per second, then 88 x 88 = +7,744, and 7,744 / 64 = 121. A stone or other body falling from a +height of 121 feet would have a velocity of 88 per second at the +earth. The pressure against the fan blades will be equal to that of +a column of air of the height due to the velocity, or, in this +case, 121 feet. We have seen that in round numbers 13 cubic feet of +air weigh one pound, consequently a column of air one square foot +in section and 121 feet high, will weigh as many pounds as 13 will +go times into 121. Now, 121 / 13 = 9.3, and this will be the +resistance in pounds per <i>square foot</i> overcome by the fan. +Let the aggregate area of all the blades be 2 square feet, and the +velocity of the center of effort 90 feet per second, then the power +expended will bve (90 x 60 x 2 x 9.3) / 33,000 = 3.04 horse power. +The quantity of air delivered ought to be equal in volume to that +of a column with a sectional area equal that of one fan blade +moving at 88 feet per second, or a mile a minute. The blade having +an area of 1 square foot, the delivery ought to be 5,280 feet per +minute, weighing 5,280 / 13 = 406.1 lb. In practice we need hardly +say that such an efficiency is never attained.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4e.png" alt="FIG. 4"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 4</p> + +<p>The number of recorded experiments with fans is very small, and +a great deal of ignorance exists as to their true efficiency. Mr. +Buckle is one of the very few authorities on the subject. He gives +the accompanying table of proportions as the best for pressures of +from 3 to 6 ounces per square inch:</p> + +<pre> +-------------------------------------------------------------- + | Vanes. | Diameter of inlet +Diameter of fans. |------------------------| openings. + | Width. | Length. | +-------------------------------------------------------------- + ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. + 3 0 | 0 9 | 0 9 | 1 6 + 3 6 | 0 10½ | 0 10½ | 1 9 + 4 0 | 1 0 | 1 0 | 2 0 + 4 6 | 1 1½ | 1 1½ | 2 3 + 5 0 | 1 3 | 1 3 | 2 6 + 6 0 | 1 6 | 1 6 | 3 0 + | | | +-------------------------------------------------------------- +</pre> + +<p>For higher pressures the blades should be longer and narrower, +and the inlet openings smaller. The case is to be made in the form +of an arithmetical spiral widening, the space between the case and +the blades radially from the origin to the opening for discharge, +and the upper edge of the opening should be level with the lower +side of the sweep of the fan blade, somewhat as shown in Fig. +5.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4f.png" alt="FIG. 5"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 5</p> + +<p>A considerable number of patents has been taken out for +improvements in the construction of fans, but they all, or nearly +all, relate to modifications in the form of the case and of the +blades. So far, however, as is known, it appears that, while these +things do exert a marked influence on the noise made by a fan, and +modify in some degree the efficiency of the machine, that this last +depends very much more on the proportions adopted than on the +shapes--so long as easy curves are used and sharp angles avoided. +In the case of fans running at low speeds, it matters very little +whether the curves are present or not; but at high speeds the case +is different.--<i>The Engineer</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="9"></a></p> + +<h2>MACHINE FOR COMPRESSING COAL REFUSE INTO FUEL.</h2> + +<p>The problem as to how the refuse of coal shall be utilized has +been solved in the manufacture from it of an agglomerated +artificial fuel, which is coming more and more into general use on +railways and steamboats, in the industries, and even in domestic +heating.</p> + +<p>The qualities that a good agglomerating machine should present +are as follows:</p> + +<p>1. Very great simplicity, inasmuch as it is called upon to +operate in an atmosphere charged with coal dust, pitch, and steam; +and, under such conditions, it is important that it may be easily +got at for cleaning, and that the changing of its parts (which wear +rapidly) may be effected without, so to speak, interrupting its +running.</p> + +<p>2. The compression must be powerful, and, that the product may +be homogeneous, must operate progressively and not by shocks. It +must especially act as much as possible upon the entire surface of +the conglomerate, and this is something that most machines fail to +do.</p> + +<p>3. The removal from the mould must be effected easily, and not +depend upon a play of pistons or springs, which soon become foul, +and the operation of which is very irregular.</p> + +<p>The operations embraced in the manufacture of this kind of fuel +are as follows:</p> + +<p>The refuse is sifted in order to separate the dust from the +grains of coal. The dust is not submitted to a washing. The grains +are classed into two sizes, after removing the nut size, which is +sold separately. The grains of each size are washed separately. The +washed grains are either drained or dried by a hydro-extractor in +order to free them from the greater part of the water, the presence +of this being an obstacle to their perfect agglomeration. The +water, however, should not be entirely extracted because the +combustibles being poor conductors of heat, a certain amount of +dampness must be preserved to obtain an equal division of heat in +the paste when the mixture is warmed.</p> + +<p>After being dried the grains are mixed with the coal dust, and +broken coal pitch is added in the proportion of eight to ten per +cent. of the coal. The mixture is then thrown into a crushing +machine, where it is reduced to powder and intimately mixed. It +then passes into a pug-mill into which superheated steam is +admitted, and by this means is converted into a plastic paste. This +paste is then led into an agitator for the double purpose of +freeing it from the steam that it contains, and of distributing it +in the moulds of the compressing machine.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/5a.png"><img src= +"images/5a_th.jpg" alt= +"IMPROVED MACHINE FOR COMPRESSING REFUSE COAL INTO FUEL."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED MACHINE FOR COMPRESSING REFUSE COAL INTO +FUEL.</p> + +<p>Bilan's machine, shown in the accompanying cut, is designed for +manufacturing spherical conglomerates for domestic purposes. It +consists of a cast iron frame supporting four vertical moulding +wheels placed at right angles to each other and tangent to the line +of the centers. These wheels carry on their periphery cavities that +have the form of a quarter of a sphere. They thus form at the point +of contact a complete sphere in which the material is inclosed. The +paste is thrown by shovel, or emptied by buckets and chain, into +the hopper fixed at the upper part of the frame. From here it is +taken up by two helices, mounted on a vertical shaft traversing the +hopper, and forced toward the point where the four moulding wheels +meet. The driving pulley of the machine is keyed upon a horizontal +shaft which is provided with two endless screws that actuate two +gear-wheels, and these latter set in motion the four moulding +wheels by means of beveled pinions. The four moulding wheels being +accurately adjusted so that their cavities meet each other at every +revolution, carry along the paste furnished them by the hopper, +compress it powerfully on the four quarters, and, separating by a +further revolution, allow the finished ball to drop out.</p> + +<p>The external crown of the wheels carrying the moulds consists of +four segments, which may be taken apart at will to be replaced by +others when worn.</p> + +<p>This machine produces about 40 tons per day of this globular +artificial fuel.--<i>Annales Industrielles</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="10"></a></p> + +<h2>HANK SIZING AND WRINGING MACHINE.</h2> + +<p>We give a view of a hank sizing machine by Messrs. Heywood & +Spencer, of Radcliffe, near Manchester. The machine is also +suitable for fancy dyeing. It is well known, says the <i>Textile +Manufacturer</i>, that when hanks are wrung by hand, not only is +the labor very severe, but in dyeing it is scarcely possible to +obtain even colors, and, furthermore, the production is limited by +the capabilities of the man. The machine we illustrate is intended +to perform the heavy part of the work with greater expedition and +with more certainty than could be relied upon with hand labor. The +illustration represents the machine that we inspected. Its +construction seems of the simplest character. It consists of two +vats, between which is placed the gearing for driving the hooks. +The large wheel in this gear, although it always runs in one +direction, contains internal segments, which fall into gear +alternately with pinions on the shanks of the hooks. The motion is +a simple one, and it appeared to us to be perfectly reliable, and +not liable to get out of order. The action is as follows: The +attendant lifts the hank out of the vat and places it on the hooks. +The hook connected to the gearing then commences to turn; it puts +in two, two and a half, three, or more twists into the hank and +remains stationary for a few seconds to allow an interval for the +sizer to "wipe off" the excess of size, that is, to run his hand +along the twisted hank. This done, the hook commences to revolve +the reverse way, until the twists are taken out of the hank. It is +then removed, either by lifting off by hand or by the apparatus +shown, attached to the right hand side. This arrangement consists +of a lattice, carrying two arms that, at the proper moment, lift +the hank off the hooks on to the lattice proper, by which it is +carried away, and dropped upon a barrow to be taken to the drying +stove. In sizing, a double operation is customary; the first is +called running, and the second, finishing. In the machine shown, +running is carried on one side simultaneously with finishing in the +other, or, if required, running may be carried on on both sides. If +desired, the lifting off motion is attached to both running and +finishing sides, and also the roller partly seen on the left hand +for running the hanks through the size. The machine we saw was +doing about 600 bundles per day at running and at finishing, but +the makers claim the production with a double machine to be at the +rate of about 36 10 lb. bundles per hour (at finishing), wrung in +1½ lb. wringers (or I½ lb. of yarn at a time), or at +running at the rate of 45 bundles in 2 lb. wringers. The distance +between the hooks is easily adjusted to the length or size of +hanks, and altogether the machine seems one that is worth the +attention of the trade.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/5b.png" alt= +"IMPROVED HANK SIZING MACHINE."></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED HANK SIZING MACHINE.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="11"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVED COKE BREAKER.</h2> + +<p>The working parts of the breaker now in use by the South +Metropolitan Gas Company consist essentially of a drum provided +with cutting edges projecting from it, which break up the coke +against a fixed grid. The drum is cast in rings, to facilitate +repairs when necessary, and the capacity of the machine can +therefore be increased or diminished by varying the number of these +rings. The degree of fineness of the coke when broken is determined +by the regulated distance of the grid from the drum. Thus there is +only one revolving member, no toothed gearing being required. +Consequently the machine works with little power; the one at the +Old Kent Road, which is of the full size for large works, being +actually driven by a one horse power "Otto" gas-engine. Under these +conditions, at a recent trial, two tons of coke were broken in half +an hour, and the material delivered screened into the three classes +of coke, clean breeze (worth as much as the larger coke), and dust, +which at these works is used to mix with lime in the purifiers. The +special advantage of the machine, besides the low power required to +drive it and its simple action, lies in the small quantity of +waste. On the occasion of the trial in question, the dust obtained +from two tons of coke measured only 3½ bushels, or just over +a half hundredweight per ton. The following statement, prepared +from the actual working of the first machine constructed, shows the +practical results of its use. It should be premised that the +machine is assumed to be regularly employed and driven by the full +power for which it is designed, when it will easily break 8 tons of +coke per hour, or 80 tons per working day:</p> + +<pre> + 500 feet of gas consumed by a 2 horse power + gas-engine, at cost price of gas delivered s. d. + in holder. 0 9 + Oil and cotton waste. 0 6 + Two men supplying machine with large + coke, and shoveling up broken, at 4s. + 6d. 9 0 + Interest and wear and tear (say). 0 3 + ----- + Total per day. 10 6 + ----- + For 80 tons per day, broken at the rate + of. 0 1½ + Add for loss by dust and waste, 1 cwt., + with price of coke at (say) 13s. 4d. per + ton. 0 8 + ----- + Cost of breaking, per ton. 0 9½ +</pre> + +<p>As coke, when broken, will usually fetch from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per +ton more than large, the result of using these machines is a net +gain of from 1s. 3d. to 1s. 9d. per ton of coke. It is not so much +the actual gain, however, that operates in favor of providing a +supply of broken coke, as the certainty that by so doing a market +is obtained that would not otherwise be available.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/5c.png" alt= +"IMPROVED COKE BREAKER."></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED COKE BREAKER.</p> + +<p>It will not be overstating the case to say that this coke +breaker is by far the simplest, strongest, and most economical +appliance of its kind now manufactured. That it does its work well +is proved by experience; and the advantages of its construction are +immediately apparent upon comparison of its simple drum and single +spindle with the flying hammers or rocking jaws, or double drums +with toothed gearing which characterize some other patterns of the +same class of plant. It should be remarked, as already indicated, +lest exception should be taken to the size of the machine chosen +here for illustration, that it can be made of any size down to hand +power. On the whole, however, as a few tons of broken coke might be +required at short notice even in a moderate sized works, it would +scarcely be advisable to depend upon too small a machine; since the +regular supply of the fuel thus improved may be trusted in a short +time to increase the demand.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/5d.png" alt= +"IMPROVED COKE BREAKER."></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED COKE BREAKER.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="12"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVEMENT IN PRINTING MACHINERY.</h2> + +<p>This is the design of Alfred Godfrey, of Clapton. According to +this improvement, as represented at Figs. 1 and 2, a rack, A, is +employed vibrating on the pivot a, and a pinion, a<sup>1</sup>, so +arranged that instead of the pinion moving on a universal joint, or +the rack moving in a parallel line from side to side of the pinion +at the time the motion of the table is reversed, there is employed, +for example, the radial arm, a<sup>2</sup>, mounted on the shaft, +a<sup>3</sup>, supporting the driving wheel, a<sup>4</sup>. The +opposite or vibrating end of the radial arm, a<sup>2</sup>, +supports in suitable bearings the pinion, a<sup>1</sup>, and wheel, +a<sup>5</sup>, driving the rack through the medium of the driving +wheel, a<sup>4</sup>, the effect of which is that through the +mechanical action of the vibrating arm, a<sup>2</sup>, and pinion, +a<sup>1</sup> in conjunction with the vibrating movement of the +rack, A, an easy, uniform, and silent motion is transmitted to the +rack and table.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/6a.png" alt= +"IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 1"></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 1</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/6b.png" alt= +"IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 2."></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 2.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="31"></a></p> + +<h2>A CHARACTERISTIC MINING "RUSH."--THE PROSPECTIVE MINING CENTER +OF SOUTHERN NEW MEXICO.</h2> + +<p>A correspondent of the <i>Tribune</i> describes at length the +mining camps about Lake Valley, New Mexico, hitherto thought likely +to be the central camp of that region, and then graphically tells +the story of the recent "rush" to the Perche district. Within a +month of the first strike of silver ore the country was swarming +with prospectors, and a thousand or more prospects had been +located.</p> + +<p>The Perche district is on the eastern flanks of the Mimbres +Mountains, a range which is a part of the Rocky Mountain range, and +runs north and south generally parallel with the Rio Grande, from +which it lies about forty miles to the westward. The northern half +of these mountains is known as the Black Range, and was the center +of considerable mining excitement a year and a half ago. It is +there that the Ivanhoe is located, of which Colonel Gillette was +manager, and in which Robert Ingersoll and Senator Plumb, of +Kansas, were interested, much to the disadvantage of the former. A +new company has been organized, however, with Colonel Ingersoll as +president, and the reopening of work on the Ivanhoe will probably +prove a stimulus to the whole Black Range. From this region the +Perche district is from forty to sixty miles south. It is about +twenty-five miles northwest of Lake Valley, and ten miles west of +Hillsboro, a promising little mining town, with some mills and +about 300 people. The Perche River has three forks coming down from +the mountains and uniting at Hillsboro, and it is in the region +between these forks that the recent strikes have been made.</p> + +<p>On August 15 "Jack" Shedd, the original discoverer of the +Robinson mine in Colorado, was prospecting on the south branch of +the north fork of the Perche River, when he made the first great +strike in the district. On the summit of a heavily timbered ridge +he found some small pieces of native silver, and then a lump of ore +containing very pure silver in the form of sulphides, weighing 150 +pounds, and afterward proved to be worth on the average $11 a +pound. All this was mere float, simply lying on the surface of the +ground. Afterward another block was found, weighing 87 pounds, of +horn silver, with specimens nearly 75 per cent. silver. The strike +was kept a secret for a few days. Said a mining man: "I went up to +help bring the big lump down. We took it by a camp of prospectors +who were lying about entirely ignorant of any find. When they saw +it they instantly saddled their horses, galloped off, and I believe +they prospected all night." A like excitement was created when the +news of this and one or two similar finds reached Lake Valley. Next +morning every waiter was gone from the little hotel, and a dozen +men had left the Sierra mines, to try their fortunes at +prospecting.</p> + +<p>As the news spread men poured into the Perche district from no +one knows where, some armed with only a piece of salt pork, a +little meal, and a prospecting pick; some mounted on mules, others +on foot; old men and men half-crippled were among the number, but +all bitten by the monomania which possesses every prospector. Now +there are probably 2,000 men in the Perche district, and the number +of prospects located must far exceed 1,000. Three miners from there +with whom I was talking recently owned forty-seven mines among +them, and while one acknowledged that hardly one prospect in a +hundred turns out a prize, the other millionaire in embryo remarked +that he wouldn't take $50,000 for one of his mines. So it goes, and +the victims of the mining fever here seem as deaf to reason as the +buyers of mining stock in New York. Fuel was added to the flame by +the report that Shedd had sold his location, named the Solitaire, +to ex-Governor Tabor and Mr. Wurtzbach on August 25 for $100,000. +This was not true. I met Governor Tabor's representative, who came +down recently to examine the properties, and learned that the +Governor had not up to that date bought the mine. He undoubtedly +bonded it, however, and his representative's opinion of the +properties seemed highly favorable. The Solitaire showed what +appeared to be a contact vein, with walls of porphyry and limestone +in a ledge thirty feet wide in places, containing a high assay of +horned silver. The vein was composed of quartz, bearing sulphides, +with horn silver plainly visible, giving an average assay of from +$350 to $500. This was free milling. These were the results shown +simply by surface explorations, which were certainly exceedingly +promising. Recently it has been stated that a little development +shows the vein to be only a blind lead, but the statement lacks +confirmation. In any case the effect of so sensational a discovery +is the same in creating an intense excitement and attracting swarms +of prospectors.</p> + +<p>But the Perche district does not rest on the Solitaire, for +there has been abundance of mineral wealth discovered throughout +its extent. Four miles south of this prospect, on the middle fork +of the Perche, is an actual mine--the Bullion--which was purchased +by four or five Western mining men for $10,000, and yielded $11,000 +in twenty days. The ore contains horn and native silver. On the +same fork are the Iron King and Andy Johnson, both recently +discovered and promising properties, and there is a valuable mine +now in litigation on the south fork of the Perche, with scores of +prospects over the entire district. Now that one or two sensational +strikes have attracted attention, and capital is developing paying +mines, the future of the Perche District seems assured.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE SOY BEAN.</h2> + +<p>The <i>British Medical Journal</i> says that Prof. E. Kinch, +writing in the <i>Agricultural Students' Gazette</i>, says that the +Soy bean approaches more nearly to animal food than any other known +vegetable production, being singularly rich in fat and in +albuminoids. It is largely used as an article of food in China and +Japan. Efforts have been made to acclimatize it in various parts of +the continent of Europe, and fair success has been achieved in +Italy and France; many foods are made from it and its straw is a +useful fodder.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="20"></a></p> + +<h2>ON A NEW ARC ELECTRIC LAMP.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Paper read at the British Association, Southampton. +Revised by the Author.--<i>Nature</i>.]</p> + +<h3>By W.H. PREECE.</h3> + +<p>Electric lamps on the arc principle are almost as numerous as +the trees in the forest, and it is somewhat fresh to come upon +something that is novel. In these lamps the carbons are consumed as +the current flows, and it is the variation in their consumption +which occasions the flickering and irregularity of the light that +is so irritating to the eyes. Special mechanical contrivances or +regulators have to be used to compensate for this destruction of +the carbons, as in the Siemens and Brush type, or else refractory +materials have to be combined with the carbons, as in the +Jablochkoff candle and in the lamp Soleil. The steadiness of the +light depends upon the regularity with which the carbons are moved +toward each other as they are consumed, so as to maintain the +electric resistance between them a constant quantity. Each lamp +must have a certain elasticity of regulation of its own, to prevent +irregularities from the variable material of carbon used, and from +variations in the current itself and in the machinery.</p> + +<p>In all electric lamps, except the Brockie, the regulator is in +the lamp itself. In the Brockie system the regulation is automatic, +and is made at certain rapid intervals by the motor engine. This +causes a periodic blinking that is detrimental to this lamp for +internal illumination.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/6c.png"><img src= +"images/6c_th.jpg" alt="FIG. 1. FIG. 2."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1. FIG. 2.</p> + +<p>M. Abdank, the inventor of the system which I have the pleasure +of bringing before the Section, separates his regulator from his +lamp. The regulator may be fixed anywhere, within easy inspection +and manipulation, and away from any disturbing influence in the +lamp. The lamp can be fixed in any inaccessible place.</p> + +<p><i>The Lamp</i> (Figs. 1, 2, and 3.)--The bottom or negative +carbon is fixed, but the top or positive carbon is movable, in a +vertical line. It is screwed at the point, C, to a brass rod, T +(Fig. 2), which moves freely inside the tubular iron core of an +electromagnet, K. This rod is clutched and lifted by the soft iron +armature, A B, when a current passes through the coil, M M. The +mass of the iron in the armature is distributed so that the greater +portion is at one end, B, much nearer the pole than the other end. +Hence this portion is attracted first, the armature assumes an +inclined position, maintained by a brass button, t, which prevents +any adhesion between the armature and the core of the +electromagnet. The electric connection between the carbon and the +coil of the electromagnet is maintained by the flexible wire, +S.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/6d.png" alt="FIG. 3."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.</p> + +<p>The electromagnet, A (Fig. 1), is fixed to a long and heavy +rack, C, which falls by its own weight and by the weight of the +electromagnet and the carbon fixed to it. The length of the rack is +equal to the length of the two carbons. The fall of the rack is +controlled by a friction break, B (Fig. 3), which acts upon the +last of a train of three wheels put in motion by the above weight. +The break, B, is fixed at one end of a lever, B A, the other end +carrying a soft iron armature, F, easily adjusted by three screws. +This armature is attracted by the electromagnet, E E (whose +resistance is 1,200 ohms), whenever a current circulates through +it. The length of the play is regulated by the screw, V. The +spring, L, applies tension to the break.</p> + +<p><i>The Regulator</i>.--This consists of a balance and a +cut-off.</p> + +<p><i>The Balance</i> (Figs. 4 and 5) is made with two solenoids. S +and S', whose relative resistances is adjustable. S conveys the +main current, and is wound with thick wire having practically no +resistance, and S' is traversed by a shunt current, and is wound +with fine wire having a resistance of 600 ohms. In the axes of +these two coils a small and light iron tube (2 mm. diameter and 60 +mm. length) freely moves in a vertical line between two guides. +When magnetized it has one pole in the middle and the other at each +end. The upward motion is controlled by the spring, N T. The spring +rests upon the screw, H, with which it makes contact by platinum +electrodes. This contact is broken whenever the little iron rod +strikes the spring, N T.</p> + +<p>The positive lead from the dynamo is attached to the terminal, +B, then passes through the coil, S, to the terminal, B', whence it +proceeds to the lamp. The negative lead is attached to terminal, A, +passing directly to the other terminal, A', and thence to the +lamp.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/7a.png"><img src= +"images/7a_th.jpg" alt="FIG. 4"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 4</p> + +<p>The shunt which passes through the fine coil, S', commences at +the point, P. The other end is fixed to the screw, H, whence it has +two paths, the one offering no resistance through the spring, T N, +to the upper negative terminal, A'; the other through the terminal, +J, to the electromagnet of the break, M, and thence to the negative +terminal of the lamp, L'.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/7b.png"><img src= +"images/7b_th.jpg" alt="FIG. 5."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 5.</p> + +<p><i>The Cut-off</i>.--The last part of the apparatus (Fig. 4) to +be described is the cut-off, which is used when there are several +lamps in series. It is brought into play by the switch, C D, which +can be placed at E or D. When it is at E, the negative terminal, A, +is in communication with the positive terminal, B, through the +resistance, R, which equals the resistance of the lamp, which is, +therefore, out of circuit. When it is at D the cut-off acts +automatically to do the same thing when required. This is done by a +solenoid, V, which has two coils, the one of thick wire offering no +resistance, and the other of 2,000 ohms resistance. The fine wire +connects the terminals, A' and B. The solenoid has a movable soft +iron core suspended by the spring, U. It has a cross-piece of iron +which can dip into two mercury cups, G and K, when the core is +sucked into the solenoid. When this is the case, which happens when +any accident occurs to the lamp, the terminal, A, is placed in +connection with the terminal, B, through the thick wire of V and +the resistance, R, in the same way as it was done by the switch, C +D.</p> + +<p><i>Electrical Arrangement</i>.--The mode in which several lamps +are connected up in series is shown by Fig. 6. M is the dynamo +machine. The + lead is connected to B<sub>1</sub> of the balance it +then passes to the lamp, L, returning to the balance, and then +proceeds to each other lamp, returning finally to the negative pole +of the machine. When the current enters the balance it passes +through the coil, S, magnetizing the iron core and drawing it +downward (Fig. 4). It then passes to the lamp, L L', through the +carbons, then returns to the balance, and proceeds back to the +negative terminal of the machine. A small portion of the current is +shunted off at the point, P, passing through the coil, S', through +the contact spring, T N, to the terminal, A', and drawing the iron +core in opposition to S. The carbons are in contact, but in passing +through the lamp the current magnetizes the electromagnet, M (Fig. +2), which attracts the armature, A B, that bites and lifts up the +rod, T, with the upper carbon, a definite and fixed distance that +is easily regulated by the screws, Y Y. The arc then is formed, and +will continue to burn steadily as long as the current remains +constant. But the moment the current falls, due to the increased +resistance of the arc, a greater proportion passes through the +shunt, S' (Fig. 4), increasing its magnetic moment on the iron +core, while that of S is diminishing. The result is that a moment +arrives when equilibrium is destroyed, the iron rod strikes smartly +and sharply upon the spring, N T. Contact between T and H is +broken, and the current passes through the electromagnet of the +break in the lamp. The break is released for an instant, the +carbons approach each other. But the same rupture of contact +introduces in the shunt a new resistance of considerable magnitude +(viz., 1,200 ohms), that of the electromagnets of the break. Then +the strength of the shunt current diminishes considerably, and the +solenoid, S, recovers briskly its drawing power upon the rod, and +contact is restored. The carbons approach during these periods only +about 0.01 to 0.02 millimeter. If this is not sufficient to restore +equilibrium it is repeated continually, until equilibrium is +obtained. The result is that the carbon is continually falling by a +motion invisible to the eye, but sufficient to provide for the +consumption of the carbons.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/7c.png" alt="FIG. 6"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 6</p> + +<p>The contact between N T and H is never completely broken, the +sparks are very feeble, and the contacts do not oxidize. The +resistances inserted are so considerable that heating cannot occur, +while the portion of the current abstracted for the control is so +small that it may be neglected.</p> + +<p>The balance acts precisely like the key of a Morse machine, and +the break precisely like the sounder-receiver so well known in +telegraphy. It emits the same kind of sounds, and acts +automatically like a skilled and faithful telegraphist.</p> + +<p>This regulation, by very small and short successive steps, +offers several advantages: (1) it is imperceptible to the eye; (2) +it does not affect the main current; (3) any sudden instantaneous +variation of the main current does not allow a too near approach of +the carbon points. Let, now, an accident occur; for instance, a +carbon is broken. At once the automatic cut-off acts, the current +passes through the resistance, R, instead of passing through the +lamp. The current through the fine coil is suddenly increased, the +rod is drawn in, contact is made at G and K, and the current is +sent through the coil, R. As soon as contact is again made by the +carbons, the current in the coil, S, is increased, that of the +thick wire in V diminished, and the antagonistic spring, U, breaks +the contact at G and K. The rupture of the light is almost +invisible, because the relighting is so brisk and sharp.</p> + +<p>I have seen this lamp in action, and its constant steadiness +leaves nothing to be desired.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="13"></a></p> + +<h2>APPARATUS FOR OBTAINING PURE WATER FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC USE.</h2> + +<p>Our readers are well aware that water as found naturally is +never absolutely free from dissolved impurities; and in ordinary +cases it contains solid impurities derived both from the inorganic +and organic kingdoms, together with gaseous substances; these +latter being generally derived from the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>By far the purest water which occurs in nature is rain-water, +and if this be collected in a secluded district, and after the air +has been well washed by previous rain, its purity is remarkable; +the extraneous matter consisting of little else than a trace of +carbonic acid and other gases dissolved from the air. In fact, such +water is far purer than any distilled water to be obtained in +commerce. The case is very different when the rain-water is +collected in a town or densely populated district, more especially +if the water has been allowed to flow over dirty roofs. The black +and foully-smelling liquid popularly known as soft water is so rich +in carbonaceous and organic constituents as to be of very limited +use to the photographer; but by taking the precaution of fitting up +a simple automatic shunt for diverting the stream until the roofs +have been thoroughly washed, it becomes possible to insure a good +supply of clean and serviceable soft water, even in London. Several +forms of shunt have been devised, some of these being so complex as +to offer every prospect of speedy disorganization; but a simple and +efficient apparatus is figured in <i>Engineering</i> by a +correspondent who signs himself "Millwright," and as we have +thoroughly proved the value of an apparatus which is practically +identical, we reproduce the substance of his communication.</p> + +<p>A gentleman of Newcastle, a retired banker, having tried various +filters to purify the rain-water collected on the roof of his +house, at length had the idea to allow no water to run into the +cistern until the roof had been well washed. After first putting up +a hard-worked valve, the arrangement as sketched below has been hit +upon. Now Newcastle is a very smoky place, and yet my friend gets +water as pure as gin, and almost absolutely free from any smack of +soot.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/7d.png" alt=""></p> + +<p>The sketch explains itself. The weight, W, and the angle of the +lever, L, are such, that when the valve, V, is once opened it goes +full open. A small hole in the can C, acts like a cataract, and +brings matters to a normal state very soon after the rain +ceases.</p> + +<p>The proper action of the apparatus can only be insured by a +careful adjustment of the weight, W, the angle through which the +valve opens, and the magnitude of the vessel, C. It is an advantage +to make the vessel, C, somewhat broader in proportion to its height +than represented, and to provide it with a movable strainer placed +about half way down. This tends to protect the cataract hole, and +any accumulation of leaves and dirt can be removed once in six +months or so. Clean soft water is valuable to the photographer in +very many cases. Iron developer (wet plate) free from chlorides +will ordinarily remain effective on the plate much longer than when +chlorides are present, and the pyrogallic solution for dry-plate +work will keep good for along time if made with soft water, while +the lime which is present in hard water causes the pyrogallic acid +to oxidize with considerable rapidity. Negatives that have been +developed with oxalate developer often become covered with a very +unsightly veil of calcium oxalate when rinsed with hard water, and +something of a similar character occasionally occurs in the case of +silver prints which are transferred directly from the exposure +frame to impure water.</p> + +<p>To the carbon printer clean rain-water is of considerable value, +as he can develop much more rapidly with soft water than with hard +water; or, what comes to the same thing, he can dissolve away his +superfluous gelatine at a lower temperature than would otherwise be +necessary.</p> + +<p>The cleanest rain-water which can ordinarily be collected in a +town is not sufficiently pure to be used with advantage in the +preparation of the nitrate bath, it being advisable to use the +purest distilled water for this purpose; and in many cases it is +well to carefully distill water for the bath in a glass apparatus +of the kind figured below.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/7e.png" alt=""></p> + +<p>A, thin glass flask serving as a retort. The tube, T, is fitted +air-tight to the flask by a cork, C.</p> + +<p>B, receiver into which the tube, T, fits quite loosely.</p> + +<p>D, water vessel intended to keep the spiral of lamp wick, which +is shown as surrounding T, in a moist condition. This wick acts as +a siphon, and water is gradually drawn over into the lower +receptacle, E.</p> + +<p>L, spirit lamp, which may, in many cases, be advantageously +replaced by a Bunsen burner.</p> + +<p>A small metal still, provided with a tin condensing worm, is, +however, a more generally serviceable arrangement, and if ordinary +precautions are taken to make sure that the worm tube is clean, the +resulting distilled water will be nearly as pure as that distilled +in glass vessels.</p> + +<p>Such a still as that figured below can be heated conveniently +over an ordinary kitchen fire, and should find a place among the +appliances of every photographer. Distilled water should always be +used in the preparation of emulsion, as the impurities of ordinary +water may often introduce disturbing conditions.--<i>Photographic +News</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/7f.png" alt=""></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="14"></a></p> + +<h2>BLACK PHOSPHORUS.</h2> + +<h3>By P. THENARD.</h3> + +<p>The author refers to the customary view that black phosphorus is +merely a mixture of the ordinary phosphorus with traces of a +metallic phosphide, and contends that this explanation is not in +all cases admissible. A specimen of black or rather dark gray +phosphorus, which the author submitted to the Academy, became white +if melted and remained white if suddenly cooled, but if allowed to +enter into a state of superfusion it became again black on contact +with either white or black phosphorus. A portion of the black +specimen being dissolved in carbon disulphide there remained +undissolved merely a trace of a very pale yellow matter which +seemed to be amorphous phosphorus.--<i>Comptes Rendus</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="15"></a></p> + +<h2>COMPOSITION OF STEEP WATER.</h2> + +<p>According to M. C. Leeuw, water in which malt has been steeped +has the following composition:</p> + +<pre> + Organic matter. 0.56 per cent. + Mineral matter. 0.52 " + ---- + Total dry matter. 1.08 " + ---- + Nitrogen. 0.033 " +</pre> + +<p>The mineral matter consists of--</p> + +<pre> + Potash. 0.193 " + Phosphoric acid. 0.031 " + Lime. 0.012 " + Soda. 0.047 " + Magnesia. 0.016 " + Sulphuric acid. 0.007 " + Oxide of iron. traces. + Chlorine and silica. 0.212 " +</pre> + +<hr> +<p><a name="16"></a></p> + +<h2>SCHREIBER'S APPARATUS FOR REVIVIFYING BONE-BLACK.</h2> + +<p>We give opposite illustrations of Schreiber's apparatus for +revivifying bone-black or animal charcoal. The object of +revivification is to render the black fit to be used again after it +has lost its decolorizing properties through service--that is to +say, to free its pores from the absorbed salts and insoluble +compounds that have formed therein during the operation of sugar +refining. There are two methods employed--fermentation and washing. +At present the tendency is to abandon the former in order to +proceed with as small a stock of black as possible, and to adopt +the method of washing with water and acid in a rotary washer.</p> + +<p>Figs. 1 and 2 represent a plan and elevation of a bone-black +room, containing light filters, A, arranged in a circle around +wells, B. These latter have the form of a prism with trapezoidal +base, whose small sides end at the same point, d, and the large +ones at the filter. The funnel, E, of the washer, F, is placed in +the space left by the small ends of the wells, so that the black +may be taken from these latter and thrown directly into the washer. +The washer is arranged so that the black may flow out near the +steam fitter, G, beneath the floor. The discharge of this filter is +toward the side of the elevator, H, which takes in the wet black +below, and carries it up and pours it into the drier situated at +the upper part of the furnace. This elevator, Figs. 3 and 4, is +formed of two vertical wooden uprights, A, ten centimeters in +thickness, to which are fixed two round-iron bars the same as +guides. The lift, properly so-called, consists of an iron frame, C, +provided at the four angles with rollers, D, and supporting a +swinging bucket, E, which, on its arrival at the upper part of the +furnace, allows the black to fall to an inclined plane that leads +it to the upper part of the drier. The left is raised and lowered +by means of a pitch-chain, F, fixed to the middle of the frame, C, +and passing over two pulleys, G, at the upper part of the frame and +descending to the mechanism that actuates it. This latter comprises +a nut, I, acting directly on the chain; a toothed wheel, K, and a +pinion, J, gearing with the latter and keyed upon the shaft of the +pulleys, L and M. The diameter of the toothed wheel, K, is 0.295 of +a meter, and it makes 53.4 revolutions per minute. The diameter of +the pinion is 0.197 of a meter, and it makes 80 revolutions per +minute. The pulleys, M and L, are 0.31 of a meter in diameter, and +make 80 revolutions per minute. Motion is transmitted to them by +other pulleys, N, keyed upon a shaft placed at the lower part, +which receives its motion from the engine of the establishment +through the intermedium of the pulley, O. The diameter of the +latter is 0.385 of a meter, and that of N is 0.58. They each make +43 revolutions per minute.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/8a.png"><img src= +"images/8a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.--ELEVATION OF BONE-BLACK REVIVIFYING PLANT +(SCHREIBER'S SYSTEM.)<br> +<br> +FIG. 2.--PLAN VIEW.<br> +<br> +FIG. 3.--LATERAL VIEW OF ELEVATOR.<br> +<br> +FIG. 4.--FRONT VIEW OF ELEVATOR.<br> +<br> +FIG. 5.--CONTINUOUS FURNACE FOR REVIVIFYING BONE-BLACK.</p> + +<p>The elevator is set in motion by the simple maneuver of the +gearing lever, P, and when this has been done all the other motions +are effected automatically.</p> + +<p><i>The Animal Black Furnace</i>.--This consists of a masonry +casing of rectangular form, in which are arranged on each side of +the same fire-place two rows of cast-iron retorts, D, of undulating +form, each composed of three parts, set one within the other. These +retorts, which serve for the revivification of the black, are +incased in superposed blocks of refractory clay, P, Q, S, designed +to regularize the transmission of heat and to prevent burning. +These pieces are kept in their respective places by crosspieces, R. +The space between the retorts occupied by the fire-place, Y, is +covered with a cylindrical dome, O, of refractory tiles, forming a +fire-chamber with the inner surface of the blocks, P, Q, and S. The +front of the surface consists of a cast-iron plate, containing the +doors to the fire-place and ash pan, and a larger one to allow of +entrance to the interior to make repairs.</p> + +<p>One of the principal disadvantages of furnaces for revivifying +animal charcoal has been that they possessed no automatic drier for +drying the black on its exit from the washer. It was for the +purpose of remedying this that Mr. Schreiber was led to invent the +automatic system of drying shown at the upper part of the furnace, +and which is formed of two pipes, B, of undulating form, like the +retorts, with openings throughout their length for the escape of +steam. Between these pipes there is a closed space into which +enters the waste heat and products of combustion from the furnace. +These latter afterward escape through the chimney at the upper +part.</p> + +<p>In order that the black may be put in bags on issuing from the +furnace, it must be cooled as much as possible. For this purpose +there are arranged on each side of the furnace two pieces of cast +iron tubes, F, of rectangular section, forming a prolongation of +the retorts and making with them an angle of about 45 degrees. The +extremities of these tubes terminate in hollow rotary cylinders, G, +which permit of regulating the flow of the black into a car, J +(Fig. 1), running on rails.</p> + +<p>From what precedes, it will be readily understood how a furnace +is run on this plan.</p> + +<p>The bone-black in the hopper, A, descends into the drier, B, +enters the retorts, D, and, after revivification, passes into the +cooling pipes, F, from whence it issues cold and ready to be +bagged. A coke fire having been built in the fire-place, Y, the +flames spread throughout the fire chamber, direct themselves toward +the bottom, divide into two parts to the right and left, and heat +the back of the retorts in passing. Then the two currents mount +through the lateral flues, V, and unite so as to form but one in +the drier. Within the latter there are arranged plates designed to +break the current from the flames, and allow it to heat all the +inner parts of the pipes, while the apertures in the drier allow of +the escape of the steam.</p> + +<p>By turning one of the cylinders, G, so as to present its +aperture opposite that of the cooler, it instantly fills up with +black. At this moment the whole column, from top to bottom, is set +in motion. The bone-black, in passing through the undulations, is +thrown alternately to the right and left until it finally reaches +the coolers. This operation is repeated as many times as the +cylinder is filled during the descent of one whole column, that is +to say, about forty times.</p> + +<p>With an apparatus of the dimensions here described, 120 +hectoliters of bone-black may be revivified in twenty four hours, +with 360 to 400 kilogrammes of coke.--<i>Annales +Industrielles</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 330, page 5264.]</p> + +<p><a name="17"></a></p> + +<h2>SOAP AND ITS MANUFACTURE, FROM A CONSUMER'S POINT OF VIEW.</h2> + +<p>In our last article, under the above heading, the advantages to +be gained by the use of potash soap as compared with soda soap were +pointed out, and the reasons of this superiority, especially in the +case of washing wool or woolen fabrics, were pretty fully gone +into. It was also further explained why the potash soaps generally +sold to the public were unfit for general use, owing to their not +being neutral--that is to say, containing a considerable excess of +free or unsaponified alkali, which acts injuriously on the fiber of +any textile material, and causes sore hands if used for household +or laundry purposes. It was shown that the cause of this defect was +owing to the old-fashioned method of making potash or soft soap, by +boiling with wood ashes or other impure form of potash; but that a +perfectly pure and neutral potash soap could readily be made with +pure caustic potash, which within the last few years has become a +commercial article, manufactured on a large scale; just in the same +manner as the powdered 98 per cent. caustic soda, which was +recommended in our previous articles on making hard soap without +boiling.</p> + +<p>The process of making pure neutral potash soap is very simple, +and almost identical with that for making hard soap with pure +powdered caustic soda. The following directions, if carefully and +exactly followed, will produce a first-class potash soap, suitable +either for the woolen manufacturer for washing his wool, and the +cloth afterward made from it, or for household and laundry +purposes, for which uses it will be found far superior to any soda +soap, no matter how pure or well made it may be.</p> + +<p>Dissolve twenty pounds of pure caustic potash in two gallons of +water. Pure caustic potash is very soluble, and dissolves almost +immediately, heating the water. Let the lye thus made cool until +warm to the hand--say about 90 F. Melt eighty pounds of tallow or +grease, which must be free from salt, and let it cool until fairly +hot to the hand--say 130 F.; or eighty pounds of any vegetable or +animal oil may be taken instead. Now pour the caustic potash lye +into the melted tallow or oil, stirring with a flat wooden stirrer +about three inches broad, until both are thoroughly mixed and +smooth in appearance. This mixing may be done in the boiler used to +melt the tallow, or in a tub, or half an oil barrel makes a good +mixing vessel. Wrap the tub or barrel well up in blankets or +sheepskins, and put away for a week in some warm dry place, during +which the mixture slowly turns into soap, giving a produce of about +120 pounds of excellent potash soap. If this soap is made with +tallow or grease it will be nearly as hard as soda soap. When made +by farmers or householders tallow or grease will generally be +taken, as it is the cheapest, and ready to hand on the spot. For +manufacturers, or for making laundry soap, nothing could be better +than cotton seed oil. A magnificent soap can be made with this +article, lathering very freely. When made with oil it is better to +remelt in a kettle the potash soap, made according to the above +directions, with half its weight of water, using very little heat, +stirring constantly, and removing the fire as soon as the water is +mixed with and taken up by the soap. A beautifully bright soap is +obtained in this way, and curiously the soap is actually made much +harder and stiffer by this addition of water than when it is in a +more concentrated state previously to the water being added.</p> + +<p>With reference to the caustic potash for making the soap, it can +be obtained in all sizes of drums, but small packages just +sufficient for a batch of soap are generally more economical than +larger packages, as pure caustic potash melts and deteriorates very +quickly when exposed to the air. The Greenbank Alkali Co., of St. +Helens, seems to have appreciated this, and put upon the market +pure caustic potash in twenty pound canisters, which are very +convenient for potash soft soap making by consumers for their own +use.</p> + +<p>While on this subject of caustic potash, it cannot be too often +repeated that <i>caustic potash</i> is a totally different article +to <i>caustic soda</i>, though just like it in appearance, and +therefore often sold as such. One of the most barefaced instances +of this is the so-called "crystal potash," "ball potash," or "rock +potash," of the lye packers, sold in one pound packages, which +absolutely, without exception, do not contain a single grain of +potash, but simply consist of caustic soda more or less +adulterated--as a rule very much "more" than "less!" It is much to +be regretted that this fraud on the public has been so extensively +practiced, as potash has been greatly discredited by this +procedure.</p> + +<p>The subject of fleece scouring or washing the wool while growing +on the sheep, with a potash soap made on the spot with the waste +tallow generally to be had on every sheep farm, seems recently to +have been attracting attention in some quarters, and certainly +would be a source of profit to sheep owners by putting their wool +on the market in the best condition, and at the same time cleaning +the skin of the sheep. It therefore appears to be a move in the +right direction.</p> + +<p>In concluding this series of articles on practical soap making +from a consumer's point of view, the writer hopes that, although +the subject has been somewhat imperfectly handled, owing to +necessarily limited space and with many unavoidable interruptions, +yet that they may have been found of some interest and assistance +to consumers of soap who desire easily and readily to make a pure +and unadulterated article for their own use.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="18"></a></p> + +<h2>COTTON SEED OIL.</h2> + +<h3>By S.S. BRADFORD, Ph.G.</h3> + +<p>Having had occasion during the last six years to manufacture +lead plaster in considerable quantities, it occurred to me that +cotton seed oil might be used instead of olive oil, at less +expense, and with as good results. The making of this plaster with +cotton seed oil has been questioned, as, according to some +authorities, the product is not of good consistence, and is apt to +be soft, sticky, and dark colored; but in my experience such is not +the case. If the U. S. P. process is followed in making this +plaster, substituting for the olive oil cotton seed oil, and +instead of one half-pint of boiling water one and one-half pint are +added, the product obtained will be equally as good as that from +olive oil. My results with this oil in making lead plaster led me +to try it in making the different liniments of the Pharmacopoeia, +with the following results:</p> + +<p><i>Linimentum Ammoniæ</i>.--This liniment, made with +cotton seed oil, is of much better consistency than when made with +olive oil. It is not so thick, will pour easily out of the bottle, +and if the ammonia used is of proper strength, will make a perfect +liniment.</p> + +<p><i>Linimentum Calcis</i>.--Cotton seed oil is not at all adapted +to making this liniment. It does not readily saponify, separates +quickly, and it is almost impossible to unite when separated.</p> + +<p><i>Linimentum Camphoræ</i>.--Cotton seed oil is far +superior to olive oil in making this liniment, it being a much +better solvent of camphor. It has not that disagreeable odor so +commonly found in the liniment.</p> + +<p><i>Linimentum Chloroformi</i>.--Cotton seed oil being very +soluble in chloroform, the liniment made with it leaves nothing to +be desired.</p> + +<p><i>Linimentum Plumbi Subacetatis</i>.--When liq. plumbi subacet. +is mixed with cotton seed oil and allowed to stand for some time +the oil assumes a reddish color similar to that of freshly made +tincture of myrrh. When the liquor is mixed with olive oil, if the +oil be pure, no such change takes place. Noticing this change, it +occurred to me that this would be a simple and easy way to detect +cotton seed oil when mixed with olive oil. This change usually +takes place after standing from twelve to twenty-four hours. It is +easily detected in mixtures containing five per cent., or even +less, of the oils, and I am convinced, after making numerous +experiments with different oils, that it is peculiar to cotton seed +oil.--<i>American Journal of Pharmacy</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="32"></a></p> + +<h2>THE FOOD AND ENERGY OF MAN.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: From a lecture delivered at the Sanitary Congress, at +Newcastle-on-Tyne, September 28, 1882.]</p> + +<h3>By PROF. DE CHAUMONT, F.R.S.</h3> + +<p>Although eating cannot be said to be in any way a new fashion, +it has nevertheless been reserved for modern times, and indeed we +may say the present generation, to get a fairly clear idea of the +way in which food is really utilized for the work of our bodily +frame. We must not, however, plume ourselves too much upon our +superior knowledge, for inklings of the truth, more or less dim, +have been had through all ages, and we are now stepping into the +inheritance of times gone by, using the long and painful experience +of our predecessors as the stepping-stone to our more accurate +knowledge of the present time. In this, as in many other things, we +are to some extent in the position of a dwarf on the shoulders of a +giant; the dwarf may, indeed, see further than the giant; but he +remains a dwarf, and the giant a giant.</p> + +<p>The question has been much discussed as to what the original +food of man was, and some people have made it a subject of excited +contention. The most reasonable conclusion is that man is naturally +a frugivorous or fruit-eating animal, like his cousins the monkeys, +whom he still so much resembles. This forms a further argument in +favor of his being originated in warm regions, where fruits of all +kinds were plentiful. It is pretty clear that the resort to animal +food, whether the result of the pressure of want from failure of +vegetable products, or a mere taste and a desire for change and +more appetizing food, is one that took place many ages ago, +probably in the earliest anthropoid, if not in the latest pithecoid +stage. No doubt some advantage was recognized in the more rapid +digestion and the comparative ease with which the hunter or fisher +could obtain food, instead of waiting for the ripening of fruits in +countries which had more or less prolonged periods of cold and +inclement weather. Some anatomical changes have doubtless resulted +from the practice, but they are not of sufficiently marked +character to found much argument upon; all that we can say being +that the digestive apparatus in man seems well adapted for +digesting any food that is capable of yielding nutriment, and that +even when an entire change is made in the mode of feeding, the +adaptability of the human system shows itself in a more or less +rapid accommodation to the altered circumstances.</p> + +<p>Food, then, is any substance which can be taken into the body +and applied to use, either in building up or repairing the tissues +and framework of the body itself, or in providing energy and +producing animal heat, or any substance which, without performing +those functions directly, controls, directs, or assists their +performance. With this wide definition it is evident that we +include all the ordinary articles recognized commonly as food, and +that we reject all substances recognized commonly as poisons. But +it will also include such substances as water and air, both of +which are essential for nutrition, but are not usually recognized +as belonging to the list of food substances in the ordinary sense. +When we carry our investigation further, we find that the organic +substances may be again divided into two distinct classes, namely, +that which contains nitrogen (the casein), and those that do not +(the butter and sugar).</p> + +<p>On ascertaining this, we are immediately struck with the +remarkable fact that all the tissues and fluids of the body, +muscles (or flesh), bone, blood--all, in short, except the +fat--contain nitrogen, and, consequently, for their building up in +the young, and for their repair and renewal in the adult, nitrogen +is absolutely required. We therefore reasonably infer that the +nitrogenous substance is necessary for this purpose. Experiment has +borne this out, for men who have been compelled to live without +nitrogenous food by dire necessity, and criminals on whom the +experiment has been tried, have all perished sooner or later in +consequence. When nitrogenous substances are used in the body, they +are, of course, broken up and oxidized, or perhaps we ought to say +more accurately, they take the place of the tissues of the body +which wear away and are carried off by oxidation and other chemical +changes.</p> + +<p>Now, modern science tell us that such changes are accompanied +with manifestations of energy in some form or other, most +frequently in that of heat, and we must look, therefore, upon +nitrogenous food as contributing to the energy of the body in +addition to its other functions.</p> + +<p>What are the substances which we may class as nitrogenous. In +the first place, we have the typical example of the purest form in +<i>albumin</i>, or white of egg; and from this the name is now +given to the class of <i>albuminates</i>. The animal albuminates +are: Albumin from eggs, fibrin from muscles, or flesh, myosin, or +synronin, also from animals, casein (or cheesy matter) from milk, +and the nitrogenous substances from blood. In the vegetable +kingdom, we have glutin, or vegetable fibrin, which is the +nourishing constituent of wheat, barley, oats, etc.; and legumin, +or vegetable casein, which is the peculiar substance found in peas +and beans. The other organic constituents--viz., the fats and the +starches and sugars--contain no nitrogen, and were at one time +thought to be concerned in producing animal heat.</p> + +<p>We now know--thanks to the labors of Joule, Lyon Playfair, +Clausius, Tyndall, Helmholtz, etc.--that heat itself is a mode of +motion, a form of convertible energy, which can be made to do +useful or productive work, and be expressed in terms of actual work +done. Modern experiment shows that all our energy is derived from +that of food, and, in particular from the non-nitrogenous part of +it, that is, the fat, starch, and sugar. The nutrition of man is +best maintained when he is provided with a due admixture of all the +four classes of aliment which we have mentioned, and not only that, +but he is also better off if he has a variety of each class. Thus +he may and ought to have albumen, fibrine, gluten, and casein among +the albuminates, or at least two of them; butter and lard, or suet, +or oil among the fats; starch of wheat, potato, rice, peas, etc., +and cane-sugar, and milk-sugar among the carbo-hydrates. The salts +cannot be replaced, so far as we know. Life may be maintained in +fair vigor for some time on albuminates only, but this is done at +the expense of the tissues, especially the fat of the body, and the +end must soon come; with fat and carbo hydrates alone vigor may +also be maintained for some time, at the expense of the tissues +also, but the limit is a near one, In either of these cases we +suppose sufficient water and salts to be provided.</p> + +<p>We must now inquire into the quantities of food necessary; and +this necessitates a little consideration of the way in which the +work of the body is carried on. We must look upon the human body +exactly as a machine; like an engine with which we are all so +familiar. A certain amount of work requires to be done, say, a +certain number of miles of distance to be traversed; we know that +to do this a certain number of pounds, or hundredweights, or tons +of coal must be put into the fire of the boiler in order to furnish +the requisite amount of energy through the medium of steam. This +amount of fuel must bear a certain proportion to the work, and also +to the velocity with which it is done, so both quantity and time +have to be accounted for.</p> + +<p>No lecture on diet would be complete without a reference to the +vexed question of alcohol. I am no teetotal advocate, and I +repudiate the rubbish too often spouted from teetotal platforms, +talk that is, perhaps, inseparable from the advocacy of a cause +that imports a good deal of enthusiasm. I am at one, however, in +recognizing the evils of excess, and would gladly hail their +diminution. But I believe that alcohol properly used may be a +comfort and a blessing, just as I know that improperly used it +becomes a bane and a curse. But we are now concerned with it as an +article of diet in relation to useful work, and it may be well to +call attention markedly to the fact that its use in this way is +very limited. The experiments of the late Dr. Parkes, made in our +laboratory, at Netley, were conclusive on the point, that beyond an +amount that would be represented by about one and a half to two +pints of beer, alcohol no longer provided any convertible energy, +and that, therefore, to take it in the belief that it did do so is +an error. It may give a momentary stimulus in considerable doses, +but this is invariably followed by a corresponding depression, and +it is a maxim now generally followed, especially on service, never +to give it before or during work. There are, of course, some +persons who are better without it altogether, and so all moderation +ought to be commended, if not enjoyed.</p> + +<p>There are other beverages which are more useful than the +alcoholic, as restoratives, and for support in fatigue. Tea and +coffee are particularly good. Another excellent restorative is a +weak solution of Liebig's extract of meat, which has a remarkable +power of removing fatigue. Perhaps one of the most useful and most +easily obtainable is weak oatmeal gruel, either hot or cold. With +regard to tobacco, it also has some value in lessening fatigue in +those who are able to take it, but it may easily be carried to +excess. Of it we may say, as of alcohol, that in moderation it +seems harmless, and even useful to some extent, but, in excess, it +is rank poison.</p> + +<p>There is one other point which I must refer to, and which is +especially interesting to a great seaport like this. This is the +question of scurvy--a question of vital importance to a maritime +nation. A paper lately issued by Mr. Thomas Gray, of the Board of +Trade, discloses the regrettable fact that since 1873 there has +been a serious falling off, the outbreaks of scurvy having again +increased until they reached ninety-nine in 1881. This, Mr. Gray +seems to think, is due to a neglect of varied food scales; but it +may also very probably have arisen from the neglect of the +regulation about lime-juice, either as to issue or quality, or +both. But it is also a fact of very great importance that mere +monotony of diet has a most serious effect upon health; variety of +food is not merely a pandering to gourmandism or greed, but a real +sanitary benefit, aiding digestion and assimilation. Our Board of +Trade has nothing to do with the food scales of ships, but Mr. Gray +hints that the Legislature will have to interfere unless shipowners +look to it themselves. The ease with which preserved foods of all +kinds can be obtained and carried now removes the last shadow of an +excuse for backwardness in this matter, and in particular the +provision of a large supply of potatoes, both fresh and dried, +ought to be an unceasing care; this is done on board American +ships, and to this is doubtless owing in a great part the +healthiness of their crews. Scurvy in the present day is a disgrace +to shipowners and masters; and if public opinion is insufficient to +protect the seamen, the legislature will undoubtedly step in and do +so.</p> + +<p>And now let me close by pointing out that the study of this +commonplace matter of eating and drinking opens out to us the +conception of the grand unity of nature; since we see that the body +of man differs in no way essentially from other natural +combinations, but is subject to the same universal physical laws, +in which there is no blindness, no variableness, no mere chance, +and disobedience of which is followed as surely by retribution as +even the keenest eschatologist might desire.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="33"></a></p> + +<h2>RATTLESNAKE POISON.</h2> + +<h3>By HENRY H. CROFT.</h3> + +<p>Some time since, in a paper to which I am unfortunately unable +to refer, a French chemist affirmed that the poisonous principle in +snakes, or eliminated by snakes, was of the nature of an alkaloid, +and gave a name to this class of bodies.</p> + +<p>Mr. Pedler has shown that snake poison is destroyed or +neutralized by means of platinic chloride, owing probably to the +formation of an insoluble double platinic chloride, such as is +formed with almost if not all alkaloids.</p> + +<p>In this country (Texas) where rattlesnakes are very common, and +persons camping out much exposed to their bites, a very favorite +anecdote, or <i>remedia</i> as the Mexicans cull it, is a strong +solution of iodine in potassium iodide.[1]</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: The solution is applied as soon as possible to the +wound, preferably enlarged, and a few drops taken internally. The +common Mexican <i>remedia</i> is the root of the <i>Agave +virginica</i> mashed or chewed and applied to the wound, while part +is swallowed.</p> + +<p>Great faith is placed in this root by all residents here, who +are seldom I without it, but, I have had no experience of it +myself; and the internal administration is no doubt useless.</p> + +<p>Even the wild birds know of this root; the queer paisano (? +ground woodpecker) which eats snakes, when wounded by a <i>vibora +de cascabel</i>, runs into woods, digs up and eats a root of the +agave, just like the mongoose; but more than that, goes back, +polishes off his enemy, and eats him. This has been told me by +Mexicans who, it may be remarked, are not <i>always</i> +reliable.]</p> + +<p>I have had occasion to prove the efficacy of this mixture in two +cases of <i>cascabel</i> bites, one on a buck, the other on a dog; +and it occurred to me that the same explanation of its action might +be given as above for the platinum salt, viz., the formation of an +insoluble iodo compound as with ordinary alkaloids if the snake +poison really belongs to this class.</p> + +<p>Having last evening killed a moderate sized +rattlesnake--<i>Crotalus horridus</i>--which had not bitten +anything, I found the gland fully charged with the white opaque +poison; on adding iodine solution to a drop of this a dense +light-brown precipitate was immediately formed, quite similar to +that obtained with most alkaloids, exhibiting under the microscope +no crystalline structure.</p> + +<p>In the absence of iodine a good extemporaneous solution for +testing alkaloids, and perhaps a snake poison antidote, may be made +by adding a few drops of ferric chloride to solution of potassium +of iodide; this is a very convenient test agent which I used in my +laboratory for many years.</p> + +<p>Although rattlesnake poison could be obtained here in very +considerable quantity, it is out of my power to make such +experiments as I could desire, being without any chemical +appliances and living a hundred miles or more from any laboratory. +The same may be said with regard to books, and possibly the above +iodine reaction has been already described.</p> + +<p>Dr. Richards states that the cobra poison is destroyed by +potassium permanganate; but this is no argument in favor of that +salt as an antidote. Mr. Pedler also refers to it, but allows that +it would not be probably of any use after the poison had been +absorbed. Of this I think there can be no doubt, remembering the +easy decomposition of permanganate by most organic substances, and +I cannot but think that the medicinal or therapeutic advantages of +that salt, taken internally, are equally problematical, unless the +action is supposed to take place in the stomach.</p> + +<p>In the bladder of the same rattlesnake I found a considerable +quantity of light-brown amorphous ammonium urate, the urine pale +yellow.--<i>Chemical News</i>.</p> + +<p>Hermanitas Ranch, Texas.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="34"></a></p> + +<h2>THE CHINESE SIGN MANUAL.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Dr. D. J. Macgowan, in Medical Reports of China. +1881.]</p> + +<p>Two writers in <i>Nature</i>, both having for their theme +"Skin-furrows on the Hand," solicit information on the subject from +China.[1] As the subject is considered to have a bearing on medical +jurisprudence and ethnology as well, this report is a suitable +vehicle for responding to the demand.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: Henry Faulds, Tzukiyi Hospital, Tokio, Japan. W. J. +Herschel, Oxford, England.--<i>Nature</i>, 28th October and 25th +November, 1880.]</p> + +<p>Dr. Faulds' observations on the finger-tips of the Japanese have +an ethnic bearing and relate to the subject of heredity. Mr. +Herschel considers the subject as an agent of Government, he having +charge for twenty years of registration offices in India, where he +employed finger marks as sign manuals, the object being to prevent +personation and repudiation. Doolittle, in his "Social Life of the +Chinese," describes the custom. I cannot now refer to native works +where the practice of employing digital rugæ as a sign manual +is alluded to. I doubt if its employment in the courts is of +ancient date. Well-informed natives think that it came into vogue +subsequent to the Han period; if so, it is in Egypt that earliest +evidence of the practice is to be found. Just as the Chinese courts +now require criminals to sign confessions by impressing thereto the +whorls of their thumb-tips--the right thumb in the case of women, +the left in the case of men--so the ancient Egyptians, it is +represented, required confessions to be sealed with their +thumbnails--most likely the tip of the digit, as in China. Great +importance is attached in the courts to this digital form of +signature, "finger form." Without a confession no criminal can be +legally executed, and the confession to be valid must be attested +by the thumb-print of the prisoner. No direct coercion is employed +to secure this; a contumacious culprit may, however, be tortured +until he performs the act which is a prerequisite to his execution. +Digital signatures are sometimes required in the army to prevent +personation; the general in command at Wenchow enforces it on all +his troops. A document thus attested can no more be forged or +repudiated than a photograph--not so easily, for while the period +of half a lifetime effects great changes in the physiognomy, the +rugæ of the fingers present the same appearance from the +cradle to the grave; time writes no wrinkles there. In the army +everywhere, when the description of a person is written down, the +relative number of volutes and coniferous finger-tips is noted. It +is called taking the "whelk striæ," the fusiform being called +"rice baskets," and the volutes "peck measures." A person unable to +write, the form of signature which defies personation or +repudiation is required in certain domestic cases, as in the sale +of children or women. Often when a child is sold the parents affix +their finger marks to the bill of sale; when a husband puts away +his wife, giving her a bill of divorce, he marks the document with +his entire palm; and when a wife is sold, the purchaser requires +the seller to stamp the paper with hands and feet, the four organs +duly smeared with ink. Professional fortune tellers in China take +into account almost the entire system of the person whose future +they attempt to forecast, and of course they include palmistry, but +the rugæ of the finger-ends do not receive much attention. +Amateur fortune-tellers, however, discourse as glibly on them as +phrenologists do of "bumps"--it is so easy. In children the +relative number of volute and conical striæ indicate their +future. "If there are nine volutes," says a proverb, "to one +conical, the boy will attain distinction without toil."</p> + +<p>Regarded from an ethnological point of view, I can discover +merely that the rugæ of Chinamen's fingers differ from +Europeans', but there is so little uniformity observable that they +form no basis for distinction, and while the striæ may be +noteworthy points in certain medico-legal questions, heredity is +not one of them.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="35"></a></p> + +<h2>LUCIDITY.</h2> + +<p>At the close of an interesting address lately delivered at the +reopening of the Liverpool University College and School of +Medicine, Mr. Matthew Arnold said if there was one word which he +should like to plant in the memories of his audience, and to leave +sticking there after he had gone, it was the word <i>lucidity</i>. +If he had to fix upon the three great wants at this moment of the +three principal nations of Europe, he should say that the great +want of the French was morality, that the great want of the Germans +was civil courage, and that our own great want was lucidity. Our +own want was, of course, what concerned us the most. People were +apt to remark the defects which accompanied certain qualities, and +to think that the qualities could not be desirable because of the +defects which they saw accompanying them. There was no greater and +salutary lesson for men to learn than that a quality may be +accompanied, naturally perhaps, by grave dangers; that it may +actually present itself accompanied by terrible defects, and yet +that it might itself be indispensable. Let him illustrate what he +meant by an example, the force of which they would all readily +feel. Seriousness was a quality of our nation. Perhaps seriousness +was always accompanied by certain dangers. But, at any rate, many +of our French neighbors would say that they found our seriousness +accompanied by so many false ideas, so much prejudice, so much that +was disagreeable, that it could not have the value which we +attributed to it. And yet we knew that it was invaluable. Let them +follow the same mode of reasoning as to the quality of lucidity. +The French had a national turn for lucidity as we had a national +turn for seriousness. Perhaps a national turn for lucidity carried +with it always certain dangers. Be this as it might, it was certain +that we saw in the French, along with their lucidity, a want of +seriousness, a want of reverence, and other faults, which greatly +displeased us. Many of us were inclined in consequence to +undervalue their lucidity, or to deny that they had it. We were +wrong: it existed as our seriousness existed; it was valuable as +our seriousness was valuable. Both the one and the other were +valuable, and in the end indispensable.</p> + +<p>What was lucidity? It was negatively that the French have it, +and he would therefore deal with its negative character merely. +Negatively, lucidity was the perception of the want of truth and +validness in notions long current, the perception that they are no +longer possible, that their time is finished, and they can serve us +no more. All through the last century a prodigious travail for +lucidity was going forward in France. Its principal agent was a man +whose name excited generally repulsion in England, Voltaire. +Voltaire did a great deal of harm in France. But it was not by his +lucidity that he did harm; he did it by his want of seriousness, +his want of reverence, his want of sense for much that is deepest +in human nature. But by his lucidity he did good.</p> + +<p>All admired Luther. Conduct was three-fourths of life, and a man +who worked for conduct, therefore, worked for more than a man who +worked for intelligence. But having promised this, it might be said +that the Luther of the eighteenth century and of the cultivated +classes was Voltaire. As Luther had an antipathy to what was +immoral, so Voltaire had an antipathy to what was absurd, and both +of them made war upon the object of their antipathy with such +masterly power, with so much conviction, so much energy, so much +genius, that they carried their world with them--Luther his +Protestant world, and Voltaire his French world--and the cultivated +classes throughout the continent of Europe generally.</p> + +<p>Voltaire had more than negative lucidity; he had the large and +true conception that a number and equilibrium of activities were +necessary for man. "<i>Il faut douner à notre áme +toutes les formes possibles</i>" was a maxim which Voltaire really +and truly applied in practice, "advancing," as Michelet finely said +of him, in every direction with a marvelous vigor and with that +conquering ambition which Vico called <i>mens heroica</i>. +Nevertheless. Voltaire's signal characteristic was his lucidity, +his negative lucidity.</p> + +<p>There was a great and free intellectual movement in England in +the eighteenth century--indeed, it was from England that it passed +into France; but the English had not that strong natural bent for +lucidity which the French had. Its bent was toward other things in +preference. Our leading thinkers had not the genius and passion for +lucidity which distinguished Voltaire. In their free inquiry they +soon found themselves coming into collision with a number of +established facts, beliefs, conventions. Thereupon all sorts of +practical considerations began to sway them. The danger signal went +up, they often stopped short, turned their eyes another way, or +drew down a curtain between themselves and the light. "It seems +highly probable," said Voltaire, "that nature has made thinking a +portion of the brain, as vegetation is a function of trees; that we +think by the brain just as we walk by the feet." So our reason, at +least, would lead us to conclude, if the theologians did not assure +us of the contrary; such, too, was the opinion of Locke, but he did +not venture to announce it. The French Revolution came, England +grew to abhor France, and was cut off from the Continent, did great +things, gained much, but not in lucidity. The Continent was +reopened, the century advanced, time and experience brought their +lessons, lovers of free and clear thought, such as the late John +Stuart Mill, arose among us. But we could not say that they had by +any means founded among us the reign of lucidity.</p> + +<p>Let them consider that movement of which we were hearing so much +just now: let them look at the Salvation Army and its operations. +They would see numbers, funds, energy, devotedness, excitement, +conversions, and a total absence of lucidity. A little lucidity +would make the whole movement impossible. That movement took for +granted as its basis what was no longer possible or receivable; its +adherents proceeded in all they did on the assumption that that +basis was perfectly solid, and neither saw that it was not solid, +nor ever even thought of asking themselves whether it was solid or +not.</p> + +<p>Taking a very different movement, and one of far higher dignity +and import, they had all had before their minds lately the +long-devoted, laborious, influential, pure, pathetic life of Dr. +Pusey, which had just ended. Many of them had also been reading in +the lively volumes of that acute, but not always good-natured +rattle, Mr. Mozley, an account of that great movement which took +from Dr. Pusey its earlier name. Of its later stage of Ritualism +they had had in this country a now celebrated experience. This +movement was full of interest. It had produced men to be respected, +men to be admired, men to be beloved, men of learning, goodness, +genius, and charm. But could they resist the truth that lucidity +would have been fatal to it? The movers of all those questions +about apostolical succession, church patristic authority, primitive +usage, postures, vestments--questions so passionately debated, and +on which he would not seek to cast ridicule--did not they all begin +by taking for granted something no longer possible or receivable, +build on this basis as if it were indubitably solid, and fail to +see that their basis not being solid, all they built upon it was +fantastic?</p> + +<p>He would not say that negative lucidity was in itself a +satisfactory possession, but he said that it was inevitable and +indispensable, and that it was the condition of all serious +construction for the future. Without it at present a man or a +nation was intellectually and spiritually all abroad. If they saw +it accompanied in France by much that they shrank from, they should +reflect that in England it would have influences joined with it +which it had not in France--the natural seriousness of the people, +their sense of reverence and respect, their love for the past. Come +it must; and here where it had been so late in coming, it would +probably be for the first time seen to come without danger.</p> + +<p>Capitals were natural centers of mental movement, and it was +natural for the classes with most leisure, most freedom, most means +of cultivation, and most conversance with the wide world to have +lucidity though often they had it not. To generate a spirit of +lucidity in provincial towns, and among the middle classes bound to +a life of much routine and plunged in business, was more difficult. +Schools and universities, with serious and disinterested studies, +and connecting those studies the one with the other and continuing +them into years of manhood, were in this case the best agency they +could use. It might be slow, but it was sure. Such an agency they +were now going to employ. Might it fulfill all their expectations! +Might their students, in the words quoted just now, advance in +every direction with a marvelous vigor, and with that conquering +ambition which Vico called <i>mens heroica</i>! And among the many +good results of this, might one result be the acquisition in their +midst of that indispensable spirit--the spirit of lucidity!</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="19"></a></p> + +<h2>ON SOME APPARATUS THAT PERMIT OF ENTERING FLAMES.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: A. de Rochas in the <i>Revue Scientifique</i>.]</p> + +<p>In the following notes I shall recall a few experiments that +indicate under what conditions the human organism is permitted to +remain unharmed amid flames. These experiments were published in +England in 1882, in the twelfth letter from Brewster to Walter +Scott on natural magic. They are, I believe, not much known in +France, and possess a practical interest for those who are engaged +in the art of combating fires.</p> + +<p>At the end of the last century Humphry Davy observed that, on +placing a very fine wire gauze over a flame, the latter was cooled +to such a point that it could not traverse the meshes. This +phenomenon, which he attributed to the conductivity and radiating +power of the metal, he soon utilized in the construction of a lamp +for miners.</p> + +<p>Some years afterward Chevalier Aldini, of Milan, conceived the +idea of making a new application of Davy's discovery in the +manufacture of an envelope that should permit a man to enter into +the midst of flames. This envelope, which was made of metallic +gauze with 1-25th of an inch meshes, was composed of five pieces, +as follows: (1) a helmet, with mask, large enough, to allow a +certain space between it and the internal bonnet of which I shall +speak; (2) a cuirass with armlets; (3) a skirt for the lower part +of the belly and the thighs; (4) a pair of boots formed of a double +wire gauze; and (5) a shield five feet long by one and a half wide, +formed of metallic gauze stretched over a light iron frame. Beneath +this armor the experimenter was clad in breeches and a close coat +of coarse cloth that had previously been soaked in a solution of +alum. The head, hands, and feet were covered by envelopes of +asbestos cloth whose fibers were about a half millimeter in +diameter. The bonnet contained apertures for the eyes, nose, and +ears, and consisted of a single thickness of fabric, as did the +stockings, but the gloves were of double thickness, so that the +wearer could seize burning objects with the hands.</p> + +<p>Aldini, convinced of the services that his apparatus might +render to humanity, traveled over Europe and gave gratuitous +representations with it. The exercises generally took place in the +following order: Aldini began by first wrapping his finger in +asbestos and then with a double layer of wire gauze. He then held +it for some instants in the flame of a candle or alcohol lamp. One +of his assistants afterward put on the asbestos glove of which I +have spoken, and, protecting the palm of his hand with another +piece of asbestos cloth, seized a piece of red-hot iron from a +furnace and slowly carried it to a distance of forty or fifty +meters, lighted some straw with it, and then carried it back to the +furnace. On other occasions, the experimenters, holding firebrands +in their hands, walked for five minutes over a large grating under +which fagots were burning.</p> + +<p>In order to show how the head, eyes, and lungs were protected by +the wire gauze apparatus, one of the experimenters put on the +asbestos bonnet, helmet, and cuirass, and fixed the shield in front +of his breast. Then, in a chafing dish placed on a level with his +shoulder, a great fire of shavings was lighted, and care was taken +to keep it up. Into the midst of these flames the experimenter then +plunged his head and remained thus five or six minutes with his +face turned toward them. In an exhibition given at Paris before a +committee from the Academic des Sciences, there were set up two +parallel fences formed of straw, connected by iron wire to light +wicker work, and arranged so as to leave between them a passage 3 +feet wide by 30 long. The heat was so intense, when the fences were +set on fire, that no one could approach nearer than 20 or 25 feet; +and the flames seemed to fill the whole space between them, and +rose to a height of 9 or 10 feet. Six men clad in the Aldini suit +went in, one behind the other, between the blazing fences, and +walked slowly backward and forward in the narrow passage, while the +fire was being fed with fresh combustibles from the exterior. One +of these men carried on his back, in an ozier basket covered with +wire gauze, a child eight years of age, who had on no other +clothing than an asbestos bonnet. This same man, having the child +with him, entered on another occasion a clear fire whose flames +reached a height of 18 feet, and whose intensity was such that it +could not be looked at. He remained therein so long that the +spectators began to fear that he had succumbed; but he finally came +out safe and sound.</p> + +<p>One of the conclusions to be drawn from the facts just stated is +that man can breathe in the midst of flames. This marvelous +property cannot be attributed exclusively to the cooling of the air +by its passage through the gauze before reaching the lungs; it +shows also a very great resistance of our organs to the action of +heat. The following, moreover, are direct proofs of such +resistance. In England, in their first experiment, Messrs. Joseph +Banks, Charles Blagden, and Dr. Solander remained for ten minutes +in a hot-house whose temperature was 211° Fahr., and their +bodies preserved therein very nearly the usual heat. On breathing +against a thermometer they caused the mercury to fall several +degrees. Each expiration, especially when it was somewhat strong, +produced in their nostrils an agreeable impression of coolness, and +the same impression was also produced on their fingers when +breathed upon. When they touched themselves their skin seemed to be +as cold as that of a corpse; but contact with their watch chains +caused them to experience a sensation like that of a burn. A +thermometer placed under the tongue of one of the experimenters +marked 98° Fahr., which is the normal temperature of the human +species.</p> + +<p>Emboldened by these first results, Blagden entered a hot-house +in which the thermometer in certain parts reached 262° Fahr. He +remained therein eight minutes, walked about in all directions, and +stopped in the coolest part, which was at 240° Fahr. During all +this time he experienced no painful sensations; but, at the end of +seven minutes, he felt an oppression of the lungs that inquieted +him and caused him to leave the place. His pulse at that moment +showed 144 beats to the minute, that is to say, double what it +usually did. To ascertain whether there was any error in the +indications of the thermometer, and to find out what effect would +take place on inert substances exposed to the hot air that he had +breathed, Blogden placed some eggs in a zinc plate in the +hot-house, alongside the thermometer, and found that in twenty +minutes they were baked hard.</p> + +<p>A case is reported where workmen entered a furnace for drying +moulds, in England, the temperature of which was 177°, and +whose iron sole plate was so hot that it carbonized their wooden +shoes. In the immediate vicinity of this furnace the temperature +rose to 160°. Persons not of the trade who approached anywhere +near the furnace experienced pain in the eyes, nose, and ears.</p> + +<p>A baker is cited in Angoumois, France, who spent ten minutes in +a furnace at 132° C.</p> + +<p>The resistance of the human organism to so high temperatures can +be attributed to several causes. First, it has been found that the +quantity of carbonic acid exhaled by the lungs, and consequently +the chemical phenomena of internal combustion that are a source of +animal heat, diminish in measure as the external temperature rises. +Hence, a conflict which has for result the retardation of the +moment at which a living being will tend, without obstacle, to take +the temperature of the surrounding medium. On another hand, it has +been observed that man resists heat so much the less in proportion +as the air is saturated with vapors. Dr. Berger, who supported for +seven minutes a temperature varying from 109° to 110° C. in +dry air, could remain only twelve minutes in a bagnio whose +temperature rose from 41° to 51.75°. At the Hammam of Paris +the highest temperature obtained is 87°, and Dr. E. Martin has +not been able to remain therein more than five minutes. This +physician reports that in 1743, the thermometer having exceeded +40° at Pekin, 14,000 persons perished. These facts are +explained by the cooling that the evaporation of perspiration +produces on the surface of the body. Edwards has calculated that +such evaporation is ten times greater in dry air in motion than in +calm and humid air. The observations become still more striking +when the skin is put in contact with a liquid or a solid which +suppresses perspiration. Lemoine endured a bath of Bareges water of +37° for half an hour; but at 45° he could not remain in it +more than seven minutes, and the perspiration began to flow at the +end of six minutes. According to Brewster, persons who experience +no malaise near a fire which communicates a temperature of 100° +C. to them, can hardly bear contact with alcohol and oil at 55° +and mercury at 48°.</p> + +<p>The facts adduced permit us to understand how it was possible to +bear one of the proofs to which it is said those were submitted who +wished to be initiated into the Egyptian mysteries. In a vast +vaulted chamber nearly a hundred feet long, there were erected two +fences formed of posts, around which were wound branches of Arabian +balm, Egyptian thorn, and tamarind--all very flexible and +inflammable woods. When this was set on fire the flames arose as +far as the vault, licked it, and gave the chamber the appearance of +a hot furnace, the smoke escaping through pipes made for the +purpose. Then the door was suddenly opened before the neophyte, and +he was ordered to traverse this burning place, whose floor was +composed of an incandescent grating.</p> + +<p>The Abbé Terrason recounts all these details in his +historic romance "Sethos," printed at the end of last century. +Unfortunately literary frauds were in fashion then, and the book, +published as a translation of an old Greek manuscript, gives no +indication of sources. I have sought in special works for the data +which the abbé must have had as a basis, but I have not been +able to find them. I suppose, however, that this description, which +is so precise, is not merely a work of the imagination. The author +goes so far as to give the dimensions of the grating (30 feet by +8), and, greatly embarrassed to explain how his hero was enabled to +traverse it without being burned, is obliged to suppose it to have +been formed of very thick bars, between which Sethos had care to +place his feet. But this explanation is inadmissible. He who had +the courage to rush, head bowed, into the midst of the flames, +certainly would not have amused himself by choosing the place to +put his feet. Braving the fire that surrounded his entire body, he +must have had no other thought than that of reaching the end of his +dangerous voyage as soon as possible. We cannot see very well, +moreover, how this immense grate, lying on the ground, was raised +to a red heat and kept at such a temperature. It is infinitely more +simple to suppose that between the two fences there was a ditch +sufficiently deep in which a fire had also been lighted, and which +was covered by a grating as in the Aldini experiments. It is even +probable that this grating was of copper, which, illuminated by the +fireplace, must have presented a terrifying brilliancy, while in +reality it served only to prevent the flames from the fireplace +reaching him who dared to brave them.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="29"></a></p> + +<h2>THE BUILDING STONE SUPPLY.</h2> + +<p>The use of stone as a building material was not resorted to, +except to a trifling extent, in this country until long after the +need of such a solid substance was felt. The early settler +contented himself with the log cabin, the corduroy road, and the +wooden bridge, and loose stone enough for foundation purposes could +readily be gathered from the surface of the earth. Even after the +desirability of more handsome and durable building material for +public edifices in the colonial cities than wood became apparent, +the ample resources which nature had afforded in this country were +overlooked, and brick and stone were imported by the Dutch and +English settlers from the Old World. Thus we find the colonists of +the New Netherlands putting yellow brick on their list of +non-dutiable imports in 1648; and such buildings in Boston as are +described as being "fairly set forth with brick, tile, slate, and +stone," were thus provided only with foreign products. Isolated +instances of quarrying stone are known to have occurred in the last +century; but they are rare. The edifice known as "King's Chapel," +Boston, erected in 1752, is the first one on record as being built +from American stone; this was granite, brought from Braintree, +Mass.</p> + +<p>Granite is a rock particularly abundant in New England, though +also found in lesser quantities elsewhere in this country. The +first granite quarries that were extensively developed were those +at Quincy, Mass., and work began at that point early in the present +century. The fame of the stone became widespread, and it was sent +to distant markets--even to New Orleans. The old Merchants' +Exchange in New York (afterward used as a custom house) the Astor +House in that city, and the Custom House in New Orleans, all nearly +or quite fifty years old, were constructed of Quincy granite, as +were many other fine buildings along the Atlantic coast. In later +years, not only isolated public edifices, but also whole blocks of +stores, have been constructed of this material. It was from the +Quincy quarries that the first railroad in this country was built; +this was a horse-railroad, three miles long, extending to Neponset +River, built in 1827.</p> + +<p>Other points in Massachusetts have been famed for their +excellent granite. After Maine was set off as a distinct State, Fox +Island acquired repute for its granite, and built up an extensive +traffic therein. Westerly, R.I., has also been engaged in quarrying +this valuable rock for many years, most of its choicer specimens +having been wrought for monumental purposes. Statues and other +elaborate monumental designs are now extensively made therefrom. +Smaller pieces and a coarser quality of the stone are here and +elsewhere along the coast obtained in large quantities for the +construction of massive breakwaters to protect harbors. Another +point famous for its granite is Staten Island, New York. This stone +weighs 180 pounds to the cubic foot, while the Quincy granite +weighs but 165. The Staten Island product is used not only for +building purposes, but is also especially esteemed for paving after +both the Russ and Belgian patents. New York and other cities derive +large supplies from this source. The granite of Weehawken, N.J., is +of the same character, and greatly in demand. Port Deposit, Md., +and Richmond, Va, are also centers of granite production. Near +Abbeville, S.C., and in Georgia, granite is found quite like that +of Quincy. Much southern granite, however, decomposes readily, and +is almost as soft as clay. This variety of stone is found in great +abundance in the Rocky Mountains; but, except to a slight extent in +California, it is not yet quarried there.</p> + +<p>Granite, having little grain, can be cut into blocks of almost +any size and shape. Specimens as much as eighty feet long have been +taken out and transported great distances. The quarrying is done by +drilling a series of small holes, six inches or more deep and +almost the same distance apart, inserting steel wedges along the +whole line and then tapping each gently with a hammer in +succession, in order that the strain may be evenly distributed.</p> + +<p>A building material that came into use earlier than granite is +known as freestone or sandstone; although its first employment does +not date back further than the erection of King's Chapel, Boston, +already referred to as the earliest well-known occasion where +granite was used in building. Altogether the most famous American +sandstone quarries are those at Portland, on the Connecticut River, +opposite Middletown. These were worked before the Revolution; and +their product has been shipped to many distant points in the +country. The long rows of "brownstone fronts" in New York city are +mostly of Portland stone, though in many cases the walls are +chiefly of brick covered with thin layers of the stone. The old red +sandstone of the Connecticut valley is distinguished in geology for +the discovery of gigantic fossil footprints of birds, first noticed +in the Portland quarries in 1802. Some of these footprints measured +ten to sixteen inches, and they were from four to six feet apart. +The sandstone of Belleville, N.J., has also extensive use and +reputation. Trinity Church in New York city and the Boston Atheneum +are built of the product of these quarries; St. Lawrence County, +New York, is noted also for a fine bed of sandstone. At Potsdam it +is exposed to a depth of seventy feet. There are places though, in +New England, New York, and Eastern Pennsylvania, where a depth of +three hundred feet has been reached. The Potsdam sandstone is often +split to the thinness of an inch. It hardens by exposure, and is +often used for smelting furnace hearth-stones. Shawangunk Mountain, +in Ulster County, yields a sandstone of inferior quality, which has +been unsuccessfully tried for paving; as it wears very unevenly. +From Ulster, Greene, and Albany Counties sandstone slabs for +sidewalks are extensively quarried for city use; the principal +outlets of these sections being Kingston, Saugerties, Coxsackie, +Bristol, and New Baltimore, on the Hudson. In this region +quantities amounting to millions of square feet are taken out in +large sheets, which are often sawed into the sizes desired. The +vicinity of Medina, in Western New York, yields a sandstone +extensively used in that section for paving and curbing, and a +little for building. A rather poor quality of this stone has been +found along the Potomac, and some of it was used in the erection of +the old Capitol building at Washington. Ohio yields a sandstone +that is of a light gray color; Berea, Amherst, Vermilion, and +Massillon are the chief points of production. St. Genevieve, Mo., +yields a stone of fine grain of a light straw color, which is quite +equal to the famous Caen stone of France. The Lake Superior +sandstones are dark and coarse grained, but strong.</p> + +<p>In some parts of the country, where neither granite nor +sandstone is easily procured, blue and gray limestone are sometimes +used for building, and, when hammer dressed, often look like +granite. A serious objection to their use, however, is the +occasional presence of iron, which rusts on exposure, and defaces +the building. In Western New York they are widely used. Topeka +stone, like the coquine of Florida and Bermuda, is soft like wood +when first quarried, and easily wrought, but it hardens on +exposure. The limestones of Canton, Mo., Joliet and Athens, Ill., +Dayton, Sandusky, Marblehead, and other points in Ohio, +Ellittsville, Ind., and Louisville and Bowling Green, Ky., are +great favorites west. In many of these regions limestone is +extensively used for macadamizing roads, for which it is +excellently adapted. It also yields excellent slabs or flags for +sidewalks.</p> + +<p>One of the principal uses of this variety of stone is its +conversion, by burning, into lime for building purposes. All +limestones are by no means equally excellent in this regard. +Thomaston lime, burned with Pennsylvania coal, near the Penobscot +River, has had a wide reputation for nearly half a century. It has +been shipped thence to all points along the Atlantic coast, +invading Virginia as far as Lynchburg, and going even to New +Orleans, Smithfield, R.I., and Westchester County, N.Y., near the +lower end of the Highlands, also make a particularly excellent +quality of lime. Kingston, in Ulster County, makes an inferior sort +for agricultural purposes. The Ohio and other western stones yield +a poor lime, and that section is almost entirely dependent on the +east for supplies.</p> + +<p>Marbles, like limestones, with which they are closely related, +are very abundant in this country, and are also to be found in a +great variety of colors. As early as 1804 American marble was used +for statuary purposes. Early in the century it also obtained +extensive employment for gravestones. Its use for building purposes +has been more recent than granite and sandstone in this country; +and it is coming to supersede the latter to a great degree. For +mantels, fire-places, porch pillars, and like ornamental purposes, +however, our variegated, rich colored and veined or brecciated +marbles were in use some time before exterior walls were made from +them. Among the earliest marble buildings were Girard College in +Philadelphia and the old City Hall in New York, and the Custom +House in the latter city, afterward used for a sub-treasury. The +new Capitol building at Washington is among the more recent +structures composed of this material. Our exports of marble to Cuba +and elsewhere amount to over $300,000 annually, although we import +nearly the same amount from Italy. And yet an article can be found +in the United States fully as fine as the famous Carrara marble. We +refer to that which comes from Rutland, Vt. This state yields the +largest variety and choicest specimens. The marble belt runs both +ways from Rutland County, where the only quality fit for statuary +is obtained. Toward the north it deteriorates by growing less +sound, though finer in grain; while to the south it becomes +coarser. A beautiful black marble is obtained at Shoreham, Vt. +There are also handsome brecciated marbles in the same state; and +in the extreme northern part, near Lake Champlain, they become more +variegated and rich in hue. Such other marble as is found in New +England is of an inferior quality. The pillars of Girard College +came from Berkshire, Mass., which ranks next after Vermont in +reputation.</p> + +<p>The marble belt extends from New England through New York, +Pennsylvania, Maryland, the District of Columbia, and Virginia, +Tennessee, and the Carolinas, to Georgia and Alabama. Some of the +variegated and high colored varieties obtained near Knoxville, +Tenn., nearly equal that of Vermont. The Rocky Mountains contain a +vast abundance and variety.</p> + +<p>Slate was known to exist in this country to a slight extent in +colonial days. It was then used for gravestones, and to some extent +for roofing and school purposes. But most of our supplies came from +Wales. It is stated that a slate quarry was operated in Northampton +County, Pa., as early as 1805. In 1826 James M. Porter and Samuel +Taylor engaged in the business, obtaining their supplies from the +Kittanninny Mountains. From this time the business developed +rapidly, the village of Slateford being an outgrowth of it, and +large rafts being employed to float the product down the Schuylkill +to Philadelphia. By 1860 the industry had reached the capacity of +20,000 cases of slate, valued at $10 a case, annually. In 1839 +quarries were opened in the Piscataquis River, forty miles north of +Bangor, Me., but poor transportation facilities retarded the +business. Vermont began to yield in 1852. New York's quarries are +confined to Washington County, near the Vermont line. Maryland has +a limited supply from Harford County. The Huron Mountains, north of +Marquette, Mich., contain slate, which is also said to exist in +Pike County, Ga.</p> + +<p>Grindstones, millstones, and whetstones are quarried in New +York, Ohio, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and other States. Mica is found +at Acworth and Grafton, N. H., and near Salt Lake, but our chief +supply comes from Haywood, Yancey, Mitchell, and Macon counties, in +North Carolina, and our product is so large that we can afford to +export it. Other stones, such as silex, for making glass, etc., are +found in profusion in various parts of the country, but we have no +space to enter into a detailed account of them at +present.--<i>Pottery and Glassware Reporter</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="25"></a></p> + +<h2>AN INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.</h2> + +<p>The most interesting change of which the Census gives account is +the increase in the number of farms. The number has virtually +doubled within twenty years. The population of the country has not +increased in like proportion. A large part of the increase in +number of farms has been due to the division of great estates. Nor +has this occurred, as some may imagine, exclusively in the Southern +States and the States to which immigration and migration have +recently been directed. It is an important fact that the +multiplication of farms has continued even in the older Northern +States, though the change has not been as great in these as in +States of the far West or the South. In New York there has been an +increase of 25,000, or 11.5 per cent, in the number of farms since +1870; in New Jersey the increase has been 12.2 per cent., and in +Pennsylvania 22.7 per cent., though the increase in population, and +doubtless in the number of persons engaged in farming, has been +much smaller. Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois also, have been +considered fully settled States for years, at least in an +agricultural point of view, and yet the number of farms has +increased 26.1 per cent, in ten years in Ohio, 20.3 percent, in +Indiana, and 26.1 per cent, in Illinois. The obvious explanation is +that the growth of many cities and towns has created a market for a +far greater supply of those products which may be most +advantageously grown upon farms of moderate size; but even if this +fully accounts for the phenomenon, the change must be recognized as +one of the highest importance industrially, socially, and +politically. The man who owns or rents and cultivates a farm stands +on a very different footing from the laborer who works for wages. +It is not a small matter that, in these six States alone, there are +205,000 more owners or managers of farms than there were only a +decade ago.</p> + +<p>As we go further toward the border, west or north, the influence +of the settlement of new land is more distinctly felt. Even in +Michigan, where new railroads have opened new regions to +settlement, the increase in number of farms has been over 55 per +cent. In Wisconsin, though the increase in railroad mileage has +been about the same as in Michigan, the reported increase in number +of farms has been only 28 per cent., but in Iowa it rises to 60 per +cent., and in Minnesota to nearly 100 per cent. In Kansas the +number of farms is 138,561, against 38,202 in 1870; in Nebraska +63,387, against 12,301; and in Dakota 17,435, against 1,720. In +these regions the process is one of creation of new States rather +than a change in the social and industrial condition of the +population.</p> + +<p>Some Southern States have gained largely, but the increase in +these, though very great, is less surprising than the new States of +the Northwest. The prevailing tendency of Southern agriculture to +large farms and the employment of many hands is especially felt in +States where land is still abundant. The greatest increase is in +Texas, where 174,184 farms are reported, against 61,125 in 1870; in +Florida, with 23,438 farms, against 10,241 in 1870; and in +Arkansas, with 94,433 farms, against 49,424 in 1870. In Missouri +215,575 farms are reported, against 148,228 in 1870. In these +States, though social changes have been great, the increase in +number of farms has been largely due to new settlements, as in the +States of the far Northwest. But the change in the older Southern +States is of a different character.</p> + +<p>Virginia, for example, has long been settled, and had 77,000 +farms thirty years ago. But the increase in number within the past +ten years has been 44,668, or 60.5 per cent. Contrasting this with +the increase in New York, a remarkable difference appears. West +Virginia had few more farms ten years ago than New Jersey; now it +has nearly twice as many, and has gained in number nearly 60 per +cent. North Carolina, too, has increased 78 per cent. in number of +farms since 1870, and South Carolina 80 per cent. In Georgia the +increase has been still greater--from 69,956 to 138,626, or nearly +100 per cent. In Alabama there are 135,864 farms, against 67,382 in +1870, an increase of over 100 per cent. These proportions, +contrasted with those for the older Northern States, reveal a +change that is nothing less than an industrial revolution. But the +force of this tendency to division of estates has been greatest in +the States named. Whereas the ratio of increase in number of farms +becomes greater in Northern States as we go from the East toward +the Mississippi River, at the South it is much smaller in Kentucky, +Tennessee, Mississippi, and Louisiana than in the older States on +the Atlantic coast. Thus in Louisiana the increase has been from +28,481 to 48,292 farms, or 70 per cent., and in Mississippi from +68,023 to 101,772 farms, or less than 50 per cent., against 100 in +Alabama and Georgia. In Kentucky the increase has been from 118,422 +to 166,453 farms, or 40 per cent., and in Tennessee from 118,141 to +165,650 farms, or 40 per cent., against 60 in Virginia and West +Virginia, and 78 in North Carolina. Thus, while the tendency to +division is far greater than in the Northern States of +corresponding age, it is found in full force only in six of the +older Southern States, Alabama, West Virginia, and four on the +Atlantic coast. In these, the revolution already effected +foreshadows and will almost certainly bring about important +political changes within a few years. In these six States there +310,795 more farm owners or occupants than there were ten years +ago.--<i>N.Y. Tribune</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="26"></a></p> + +<h2>A FARMER'S LIME KILN.</h2> + +<p>For information about burning lime we republish the following +article furnished by a correspondent of the <i>Country +Gentleman</i> several years ago:</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/12a.png" alt=""></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 1.<br> +Fig. 2. Fig. 3.<br> +A (Fig. 1), Railway Track--B B B, Iron Rods running<br> +through Kiln--C, Capstone over Arch--D, Arch--E,<br> +Well without brick or ash lining.</p> + +<p>I send you a description and sketch of a lime-kiln put up on my +premises about five years ago. The dimensions of this kiln are 13 +feet square by 25 feet high from foundation, and its capacity 100 +bushels in 24 hours. It was constructed of the limestone quarried +on the spot. It has round iron rods (shown in sketch) passing +through, with iron plates fastened to the ends as clamps to make it +more firm; the pair nearest the top should be not less than 2 feet +from that point, the others interspersed about 2 feet apart--the +greatest strain being near the top. The arch should be 7 feet high +by 5½ wide in front, with a gather on the top and sides of +about 1 foot, with plank floor; and if this has a little incline it +will facilitate shoveling the lime when drawn. The arch should have +a strong capstone; also one immediately under the well of the kiln, +with a hole 2 feet in diameter to draw the lime through; or two may +be used with semicircle cut in each. Iron bars 2 inches wide by 1/8 +inch thick are used in this kiln for closing it, working in slots +fastened to capstone. These slots must be put in before the caps +are laid. When it is desired to draw lime, these bars may be pushed +laterally in the slots, or drawn out entirely, according to +circumstances; 3 bars will be enough. The slots are made of iron +bars 1½ inches wide, with ends rounded and turned up, and +inserted in holes drilled through capstone and keyed above.</p> + +<p>The well of the kiln is lined with fire-brick one course thick, +with a stratum of coal ashes three inches thick tamped in between +the brick and wall, which proves a great protection to the wall. +About 2,000 fire-bricks were used. The proprietors of this kiln say +about one-half the lower part of the well might have been lined +with a first quality of common brick and saved some expense and +been just as good. The form of the well shown in Fig. 3 is 7 feet +in diameter in the bilge, exclusive of the lining of brick and +ashes. Experiments in this vicinity have proved this to be the +best, this contraction toward the top being absolutely necessary, +the expansion of the stone by the heat is so great that the lime +cannot be drawn from perpendicular walls, as was demonstrated in +one instance near here, where a kiln was built on that principle. +The kiln, of course, is for coal, and our stone requires about +three-quarters of a ton per 100 bushels of lime, but this, I am +told, varies according to quality, some requiring more than others; +the quantity can best be determined by experimenting; also the +regulation of the heat--if too great it will cause the stones to +melt or run together as it were, or, if too little, they will not +be properly burned. The business requires skill and judgment to run +it successfully.</p> + +<p>This kiln is located at the foot of a steep bluff, the top about +level with the top of the kiln, with railway track built of wooden +sleepers, with light iron bars, running from the bluff to the top +of the kiln, and a hand-car makes it very convenient filling the +kiln. Such a location should be had if possible. Your inquirer may +perhaps get some ideas of the principles of a kiln for using +<i>coal</i>. The dimensions may be reduced, if desired. If for +<i>wood</i>, the arch would have to be formed for that, and the +height of kiln reduced.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="27"></a></p> + +<h2>THE MANUFACTURE OF APPLE JELLY.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: From the report of the New York Agricultural +Society.]</p> + +<p>Within the county of Oswego, New York, Dewitt C. Peck reports +there are five apple jelly factories in operation. The failure of +the apple crop, for some singular and unexplained reason, does not +extend in great degree to the natural or ungrafted fruit. Though +not so many as common, even of these apples, there are yet enough +to keep these five mills and the numerous cider mills pretty well +employed. The largest jelly factory is located near the village of +Mexico, and as there are some features in regard to this +manufacture peculiar to this establishment which may be new and +interesting, we will undertake a brief description. The factory is +located on the Salmon Creek, which affords the necessary power. A +portion of the main floor, first story, is occupied as a saw mill, +the slabs furnishing fuel for the boiler furnace connected with the +evaporating department. Just above the mill, along the bank of the +pond, and with one end projecting over the water, are arranged +eight large bins, holding from five hundred to one thousand bushels +each, into which the apples are delivered from the teams. The floor +in each of these has a sharp pitch or inclination toward the water +and at the lower end is a grate through which the fruit is +discharged, when wanted, into a trough half submerged in the +pond.</p> + +<p>The preparation of the fruit and extraction of the juice +proceeds as follows: Upon hoisting a gate in the lower end of this +trough, considerable current is caused, and the water carries the +fruit a distance of from thirty to one hundred feet, and passes +into the basement of the mill, where, tumbling down a four-foot +perpendicular fall, into a tank, tight in its lower half and +slatted so as to permit the escape of water and impurities in the +upper half, the apples are thoroughly cleansed from all earthy or +extraneous matter. Such is the friction caused by the concussion of +the fall, the rolling and rubbing of the apples together, and the +pouring of the water, that decayed sections of the fruit are ground +off and the rotten pulp passes away with other impurities. From +this tank the apples are hoisted upon an endless chain elevator, +with buckets in the form of a rake-head with iron teeth, permitting +drainage and escape of water, to an upper story of the mill, whence +by gravity they descend to the grater. The press is wholly of iron, +all its motions, even to the turning of the screws, being actuated +by the water power. The cheese is built up with layers inclosed in +strong cotton cloth, which displaces the straw used in olden time, +and serves also to strain the cider. As it is expressed from the +press tank, the cider passes to a storage tank, and thence to the +defecator.</p> + +<p>This defecator is a copper pan, eleven feet long and about three +feet wide. At each end of this pan is placed a copper tube three +inches in diameter and closed at both ends. Lying between and +connecting these two, are twelve tubes, also of copper, 1½ +inches in diameter, penetrating the larger tubes at equal distances +from their upper and under surfaces, the smaller being parallel +with each other, and 1½ inches apart. When placed in +position, the larger tubes, which act as manifolds, supplying the +smaller with steam, rest upon the bottom of the pan, and thus the +smaller pipes have a space of three-fourths of an inch underneath +their outer surfaces.</p> + +<p>The cider comes from the storage tank in a continuous stream +about three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Steam is introduced to +the large or manifold tubes, and from them distributed through the +smaller ones at a pressure of from twenty-five to thirty pounds per +inch. Trap valves are provided for the escape of water formed by +condensation within the pipes. The primary object of the defecator +is to remove all impurities and perfectly clarify the liquid +passing through it. All portions of pomace and other minute +particles of foreign matter, when heated, expand and float in the +form of scum upon the surface of the cider. An ingeniously +contrived floating rake drags off this scum and delivers it over +the side of the pan. To facilitate this removal, one side of the +pan, commencing at a point just below the surface of the cider, is +curved gently outward and upward, terminating in a slightly +inclined plane, over the edge of which the scum is pushed by the +rake into a trough and carried away. A secondary purpose served by +the defecator is that of reducing the cider by evaporation to a +partial sirup of the specific gravity of about 20° Baume. When +of this consistency the liquid is drawn from the bottom and less +agitated portion of the defecator by a siphon, and thence carried +to the evaporator, which is located upon the same framework and +just below the defecator.</p> + +<p>The evaporator consists of a separate system of six copper +tubes, each twelve feet long and three inches in diameter. These +are each jacketed or inclosed in an iron pipe of four inches +internal diameter, fitted with steam-tight collars so as to leave +half an inch steam space surrounding the copper tubes. The latter +are open at both ends permitting the admission and egress of the +sirup and the escape of the steam caused by evaporation therefrom, +and are arranged upon the frame so as to have a very slight +inclination downward in the direction of the current, and each +nearly underneath its predecessor in regular succession. Each is +connected by an iron supply pipe, having a steam gauge or indicator +attached, with a large manifold, and that by other pipes with a +steam boiler of thirty horse power capacity. Steam being let on at +from twenty five to thirty pounds pressure, the stream of sirup is +received from the defecator through a strainer, which removes any +impurities possibly remaining into the upper evaporator tube; +passing in a gentle flow through that, it is delivered into a +funnel connected with the next tube below, and so, back and forth, +through the whole system. The sirup enters the evaporator at a +consistency of from 20° to 23° Baume, and emerges from the +last tube some three minutes later at a consistency of from 30° +to 32° Baume, which is found on cooling to be the proper point +for perfect jelly. This point is found to vary one or two degrees, +according to the fermentation consequent upon bruises in handling +the fruit, decay of the same, or any little delay in expressing the +juice from the cheese. The least fermentation occasions the +necessity for a lower reduction. To guard against this, no cheese +is allowed to stand over night, no pomace left in the grater or +vat, no cider in the tank; and further to provide against +fermentation, a large water tank is located upon the roof and +filled by a force pump, and by means of hose connected with this, +each grater, press, vat, tank, pipe, trough, or other article of +machinery used, can be thoroughly washed and cleansed. Hot water, +instead of cider, is sometimes sent through the defecator, +evaporator, etc., until all are thoroughly scalded and purified. If +the saccharometer shows too great or too little reduction, the +matter is easily regulated by varying the steam pressure in the +evaporator by means of a valve in the supply pipe. If boiled cider +instead of jelly is wanted for making pies, sauces, etc., it is +drawn off from one of the upper evaporator tubes according to the +consistency desired; or can be produced at the end of the process +by simply reducing the steam pressure.</p> + +<p>As the jelly emerges from the evaporator it is transferred to a +tub holding some fifty gallons, and by mixing a little therein, any +little variations in reduction or in the sweetness or sourness of +the fruit used are equalized. From this it is drawn through +faucets, while hot, into the various packages in which it is +shipped to market. A favorite form of package for family use is a +nicely turned little wooden bucket with cover and bail, two sizes, +holding five and ten pounds respectively. The smaller packages are +shipped in cases for convenience in handling. The present product +of this manufactory is from 1,500 to 1,800 pounds of jelly each day +of ten hours. It is calculated that improvements now in progress +will increase this to something more than a ton per day. Each +bushel of fruit will produce from four to five pounds of jelly, +fruit ripening late in the season being more productive than +earlier varieties. Crab apples produce the finest jelly; sour, +crabbed, natural fruit makes the best looking article, and a +mixture of all varieties gives most satisfactory results as to +flavor and general quality.</p> + +<p>As the pomace is shoveled from the finished cheese, it is again +ground under a toothed cylinder, and thence drops into large +troughs, through a succession of which a considerable stream of +water is flowing. Here it is occasionally agitated by raking from +the lower to the upper end of the trough as the current carries it +downward, and the apple seeds becoming disengaged drop to the +bottom into still water, while the pulp floats away upon the +stream. A succession of troughs serves to remove nearly all the +seeds. The value of the apple seeds thus saved is sufficient to pay +the daily wages of all the hands employed in the whole +establishment. The apples are measured in the wagon box, one and a +half cubic feet being accounted a bushel.</p> + +<p>This mill ordinarily employs about six men: One general +superintendent, who buys and measures the apples, keeps time books, +attends to all the accounts and the working details of the mill, +and acts as cashier; one sawyer, who manufactures lumber for the +local market and saws the slabs into short lengths suitable for the +furnace; one cider maker, who grinds the apples and attends the +presses; one jelly maker, who attends the defecator, evaporator, +and mixing tub, besides acting as his own fireman and engineer; one +who attends the apple seed troughs and acts as general helper, and +one man-of-all-work to pack, ship and assist whenever needed. The +establishment was erected late in the season of 1880, and +manufactured that year about forty-five tons of jelly, besides +considerable cider exchanged to the farmers for apples, and some +boiled cider.</p> + +<p>The price paid for apples in 1880, when the crop was +superabundant, was six to eight cents per bushel; in 1881, fifteen +cents. The proprietor hopes next year to consume 100,000 bushels. +These institutions are important to the farmer in that they use +much fruit not otherwise valuable and very perishable. Fruit so +crabbed and gnarled as to have no market value, and even frozen +apples, if delivered while yet solid, can be used. (Such apples are +placed in the water while frozen, the water draws the frost +sufficiently to be grated, and passing through the press and +evaporator before there is time for chemical change, they are found +to make very good jelly. They are valuable to the consumer by +converting the perishable, cheap, almost worthless crop of the +bearing and abundant years into such enduring form that its +consumption may be carried over to years of scarcity and furnish +healthful food in cheap and pleasant form to many who would +otherwise be deprived; and lastly, they are of great interest to +society, in that they give to cider twice the value for purposes of +food that it has or can have, even to the manufacturer, for use as +a beverage and intoxicant.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="28"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVED GRAPE BAGS.</h2> + +<p>It stands to reason that were our summers warmer we should be +able to grow grapes successfully on open walls; it is therefore +probable that a new grape bag, the invention of M. Pelletier, 20 +Rue de la Banque, Paris, intended to serve a double purpose, viz., +protecting the fruit and hastening its maturity, will, when it +becomes known, be welcomed in this country. It consists of a square +of curved glass so fixed to the bag that the sun's rays are +concentrated upon the fruit, thereby rendering its ripening more +certain in addition to improving its quality generally. The glass +is affixed to the bag by means of a light iron wire support. It +covers that portion of it next the sun, so that it increases the +amount of light and warms the grapes without scorching them, a +result due to the convexity of the glass and the layer of air +between it and the bag. M. Pelletier had the idea of rendering +these bags cheaper by employing plain squares instead of curved +ones, but the advantage thus obtained was more than counterbalanced +by their comparative inefficacy. In practice it was found that the +curved squares gave an average of 7° more than the straight +ones, while there was a difference of 10° when the bags alone +were used, thus plainly demonstrating the practical value of the +invention.</p> + +<p>Whether these glass-fronted bags would have much value in the +case of grapes grown under glass in the ordinary way is a question +that can only be determined by actual experiment; but where the +vines are on walls, either under glass screens or in the open air, +so that the bunches feel the full force of the sun's rays, there +can be no doubt as to their utility, and it is probable that by +their aid many of the continental varieties which we do not now +attempt to grow in the open, and which are scarcely worthy of a +place under glass, might be well ripened. At any rate we ought to +give anything a fair trial which may serve to neutralize, if only +in a slight degree, the uncertainty of our summers. As it is, we +have only about two varieties of grapes, and these not the best of +the hardy kinds, as regards flavor and appearance, that ripen out +of doors, and even these do not always succeed. We know next to +nothing of the many really well-flavored kinds which are so much +appreciated in many parts of the Continent. The fact is, our +outdoor culture of grapes offers a striking contrast to that +practiced under glass, and although our comparatively sunless and +moist climate affords some excuse for our shortcomings in this +respect, there is no valid reason for the utter want of good +culture which is to be observed in a general way.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/13a.png" alt= +"GRAPE BAG.--OPEN."></p> + +<p class="ctr">GRAPE BAG.--OPEN.</p> + +<p>Given intelligent training, constant care in stopping the +laterals, and checking mildew as well as thinning the berries, +allowing each bunch to get the full benefit of sun and air, and I +believe good eatable grapes would often be obtained even in summers +marked by a low average temperature.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/13b.png" alt= +"GRAPE BAG.--CLOSED."></p> + +<p class="ctr">GRAPE BAG.--CLOSED.</p> + +<p>If, moreover, to a good system of culture we add some such +mechanical contrivance as that under notice whereby the bunches +enjoy an average warmth some 10° higher than they otherwise +would do, we not only insure the grapes coming to perfection in +favored districts, but outdoor culture might probably be practiced +in higher latitudes than is now practicable.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/13c.png" alt= +"CURVED GLASS FOR FRONT OF BAG."></p> + +<p class="ctr">CURVED GLASS FOR FRONT OF BAG.</p> + +<p>The improved grape bag would also offer great facilities for +destroying mildew or guarantee the grapes against its attacks, as a +light dusting administered as soon as the berries were fairly +formed would suffice for the season, as owing to the glass +protecting the berries from driving rains, which often accompany +south or south-west winds in summer and autumn, the sulphur would +not be washed off.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/13d.png" alt= +"CURVED GLASS FIXED ON BAG."></p> + +<p class="ctr">CURVED GLASS FIXED ON BAG.</p> + +<p>The inventor claims, and we should say with just reason, that +these glass fronted bags would be found equally serviceable for the +ripening of pears and other choice fruits, and with a view to their +being employed for such a purpose, he has had them made of varying +sizes and shapes. In conclusion, it may be observed that, in +addition to advancing the maturity of the fruits to which they are +applied, they also serve to preserve them from falling to the +ground when ripe.--J. COBNHILL, <i>in the Garden</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="21"></a></p> + +<h2>UTILIZATION OF SOLAR HEAT.</h2> + +<p>At a popular fête in the Tuileries Gardens I was struck +with an experiment which seems deserving of the immediate attention +of the English public and military authorities.</p> + +<p>Among the attractions of the fête was an apparatus for the +concentration and utilization of solar heat, and, though the sun +was not very brilliant, I saw this apparatus set in motion a +printing machine which printed several thousand copies of a +specimen newspaper entitled the <i>Soleil Journal</i>.</p> + +<p>The sun's rays are concentrated in a reflector, which moves at +the same rate as the sun and heats a vertical boiler, setting the +motive steam-engine at work. As may be supposed, the only object +was to demonstrate the possibility of utilizing the concentrated +heat of the solar rays; but I closely examined it, because the +apparatus seems capable of great utility in existing circumstances. +Here in France, indeed, there is a radical drawback--the sun is +often overclouded.</p> + +<p>Thousands of years ago the idea of utilizing the solar rays must +have suggested itself, and there are still savage tribes who know +no other mode of combustion; but the scientific application has +hitherto been lacking. This void this apparatus will fill up. About +fifteen years ago Professor Mouchon, of Tours, began constructing +such an apparatus, and his experiments have been continued by M. +Pifre, who has devoted much labor and expense to realizing M. +Mouchou's idea. A company has now come to his aid, and has +constructed a number of apparatus of different sizes at a factory +which might speedily turn out a large number of them. It is evident +that in a country of uninterrupted sunshine the boiler might be +heated in thirty or forty minutes. A portable apparatus could boil +two and one-half quarts an hour, or, say, four gallons a day, thus +supplying by distillation or ebullition six or eight men. The +apparatus can be easily carried on a man's back, and on condition +of water, even of the worst quality, being obtainable, good +drinking and cooking water is insured. M. De Rougaumond, a young +scientific writer, has just published an interesting volume on the +invention. I was able yesterday to verify his statements, for I saw +cider made, a pump set in motion, and coffee made--in short, the +calorific action of the sun superseding that of fuel. The +apparatus, no doubt, has not yet reached perfection, but as it is +it would enable the soldier in India or Egypt to procure in the +field good water and to cook his food rapidly. The invention is of +especial importance to England just now, but even when the Egyptian +question is settled the Indian troops might find it of inestimable +value.</p> + +<p>Red tape should for once be disregarded, and a competent +commission forthwith sent to 30 Rue d'Assas, with instructions to +report immediately, for every minute saved may avoid suffering for +Englishmen fighting abroad for their country. I may, of course, be +mistaken, but a commission would decide, and if the apparatus is +good the slightest delay in its adoption would be +deplorable.--<i>Paris Correspondence London Times</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="30"></a></p> + +<h2>HOW TO ESTABLISH A TRUE MERIDIAN.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: A paper read before the Engineers' Club of +Philadelphia.]</p> + +<h3>By PROFESSOR L. M. HAUPT.</h3> + +<h3>INTRODUCTORY.</h3> + +<p>The discovery of the magnetic needle was a boon to mankind, and +has been of inestimable service in guiding the mariner through +trackless waters, and the explorer over desert wastes. In these, +its legitimate uses, the needle has not a rival, but all efforts to +apply it to the accurate determination of permanent boundary lines +have proven very unsatisfactory, and have given rise to much +litigation, acerbity, and even death.</p> + +<p>For these and other cogent reasons, strenuous efforts are being +made to dispense, so far as practicable, with the use of the +magnetic needle in surveying, and to substitute therefor the more +accurate method of traversing from a true meridian. This method, +however, involves a greater degree of preparation and higher +qualifications than are generally possessed, and unless the matter +can be so simplified as to be readily understood, it is +unreasonable to expect its general application in practice.</p> + +<p>Much has been written upon the various methods of determining, +the true meridian, but it is so intimately related to the +determination of latitude and time, and these latter in turn upon +the fixing of a true meridian, that the novice can find neither +beginning nor end. When to these difficulties are added the +corrections for parallax, refraction, instrumental errors, personal +equation, and the determination of the probable error, he is +hopelessly confused, and when he learns that time may be sidereal, +mean solar, local, Greenwich, or Washington, and he is referred to +an ephemeris and table of logarithms for data, he becomes lost in +"confusion worse confounded," and gives up in despair, settling +down to the conviction that the simple method of compass surveying +is the best after all, even if not the most accurate.</p> + +<p>Having received numerous requests for information upon the +subject, I have thought it expedient to endeavor to prepare a +description of the method of determining the true meridian which +should be sufficiently clear and practical to be generally +understood by those desiring to make use of such information.</p> + +<p>This will involve an elementary treatment of the subject, +beginning with the</p> + +<h3>DEFINITIONS.</h3> + +<p>The <i>celestial sphere</i> is that imaginary surface upon which +all celestial objects are projected. Its radius is infinite.</p> + +<p>The <i>earth's axis</i> is the imaginary line about which it +revolves.</p> + +<p>The <i>poles</i> are the points in which the axis pierces the +surface of the earth, or of the celestial sphere.</p> + +<p>A <i>meridian</i> is a great circle of the earth cut out by a +plane passing through the axis. All meridians are therefore north +and south lines passing through the poles.</p> + +<p>From these definitions it follows that if there were a star +exactly at the pole it would only be necessary to set up an +instrument and take a bearing to it for the meridian. Such not +being the case, however, we are obliged to take some one of the +near circumpolar stars as our object, and correct the observation +according to its angular distance from the meridian at the time of +observation.</p> + +<p>For convenience, the bright star known as Ursæ Minoris or +Polaris, is generally selected. This star apparently revolves about +the north pole, in an orbit whose mean radius is 1° 19' 13",[1] +making the revolution in 23 hours 56 minutes.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: This is the codeclination as given in the Nautical +Almanac. The mean value decreases by about 20 seconds each +year.]</p> + +<p>During this time it must therefore cross the meridian twice, +once above the pole and once below; the former is called the +<i>upper</i>, and the latter the <i>lower meridian transit or +culmination</i>. It must also pass through the points farthest east +and west from the meridian. The former is called the <i>eastern +elongation</i>, the latter the <i>western</i>.</p> + +<p>An observation may he made upon Polaris at any of these four +points, or at any other point of its orbit, but this latter case +becomes too complicated for ordinary practice, and is therefore not +considered.</p> + +<p>If the observation were made upon the star at the time of its +upper or lower culmination, it would give the true meridian at +once, but this involves a knowledge of the true local time of +transit, or the longitude of the place of observation, which is +generally an unknown quantity; and moreover, as the star is then +moving east or west, or at right angles to the place of the +meridian, at the rate of 15° of arc in about one hour, an error +of so slight a quantity as only four seconds of time would +introduce an error of one minute of arc. If the observation be +made, however, upon either elongation, when the star is moving up +or down, that is, in the direction of the vertical wire of the +instrument, the error of observation in the angle between it and +the pole will be inappreciable. This is, therefore, the best +position upon which to make the observation, as the precise time of +the elongation need not be given. It can be determined with +sufficient accuracy by a glance at the relative positions of the +star Alioth, in the handle of the Dipper, and Polaris (see Fig. 1). +When the line joining these two stars is horizontal or nearly so, +and Alioth is to the <i>west</i> of Polaris, the latter is at its +<i>eastern</i> elongation, and <i>vice versa</i>, thus:</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/14a.png" alt=""></p> + +<p>But since the star at either elongation is off the meridian, it +will be necessary to determine the angle at the place of +observation to be turned off on the instrument to bring it into the +meridian. This angle, called the azimuth of the pole star, varies +with the latitude of the observer, as will appear from Fig 2, and +hence its value must be computed for different latitudes, and the +surveyor must know his <i>latitude</i> before he can apply it. Let +N be the north pole of the celestial sphere; S, the position of +Polaris at its eastern elongation; then N S=1° 19' 13", a +constant quantity. The azimuth of Polaris at the latitude 40° +north is represented by the angle N O S, and that at 60° north, +by the angle N O' S, which is greater, being an exterior angle of +the triangle, O S O. From this we see that the azimuth varies at +the latitude.</p> + +<p>We have first, then, to <i>find the latitude of the place of +observation</i>.</p> + +<p>Of the several methods for doing this, we shall select the +simplest, preceding it by a few definitions.</p> + +<p>A <i>normal</i> line is the one joining the point directly +overhead, called the <i>zenith</i>, with the one under foot called +the <i>nadir</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>celestial horizon</i> is the intersection of the +celestial sphere by a plane passing through the center of the earth +and perpendicular to the normal.</p> + +<p>A <i>vertical circle</i> is one whose plane is perpendicular to +the horizon, hence all such circles must pass through the normal +and have the zenith and nadir points for their poles. The +<i>altitude</i> of a celestial object is its distance above the +horizon measured on the arc of a vertical circle. As the distance +from the horizon to the zenith is 90°, the difference, or +<i>complement</i> of the altitude, is called the <i>zenith +distance</i>, or <i>co-altitude</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>azimuth</i> of an object is the angle between the +vertical plane through the object and the plane of the meridian, +measured on the horizon, and usually read from the south point, as +0°, through west, at 90, north 180°, etc., closing on south +at 0° or 360°.</p> + +<p>These two co-ordinates, the altitude and azimuth, will determine +the position of any object with reference to the observer's place. +The latter's position is usually given by his latitude and +longitude referred to the equator and some standard meridian as +co-ordinates.</p> + +<p>The <i>latitude</i> being the angular distance north or south of +the equator, and the <i>longitude</i> east or west of the assumed +meridian.</p> + +<p>We are now prepared to prove that <i>the altitude of the pole is +equal to the latitude of the place of observation</i>.</p> + +<p>Let H P Z Q¹, etc., Fig. 2, represent a meridian section of +the sphere, in which P is the north pole and Z the place of +observation, then H H¹ will be the horizon, Q Q¹ the +equator, H P will be the altitude of P, and Q¹ Z the latitude +of Z. These two arcs are equal, for H C Z = P C Q¹ = 90°, +and if from these equal quadrants the common angle P C Z be +subtracted, the remainders H C P and Z C Q¹, will be +equal.</p> + +<p>To <i>determine the altitude of the pole</i>, or, in other +words, <i>the latitude of the place</i>.</p> + +<p>Observe the altitude of the pole star <i>when on the +meridian</i>, either above or below the pole, and from this +observed altitude corrected for refraction, subtract the distance +of the star from the pole, or its <i>polar distance</i>, if it was +an upper transit, or add it if a lower. The result will be the +required latitude with sufficient accuracy for ordinary +purposes.</p> + +<p>The time of the star's being on the meridian can be determined +with sufficient accuracy by a mere inspection of the heavens. The +refraction is <i>always negative</i>, and may be taken from the +table appended by looking up the amount set opposite the observed +altitude. Thus, if the observer's altitude should be 40° 39' +the nearest refraction 01' 07", should be subtracted from 40° +37' 00", leaving 40° 37' 53" for the latitude.</p> + +<h3>TO FIND THE AZIMUTH OF POLARIS.</h3> + +<p>As we have shown the azimuth of Polaris to be a function of the +latitude, and as the latitude is now known, we may proceed to find +the required azimuth. For this purpose we have a right-angled +spherical triangle, Z S P, Fig. 4, in which Z is the place of +observation, P the north pole, and S is Polaris. In this triangle +we have given the polar distance, P S = 10° 19' 13"; the angle +at S = 90°; and the distance Z P, being the complement of the +latitude as found above, or 90°--L. Substituting these in the +formula for the azimuth, we will have sin. Z = sin. P S / sin P Z +or sin. of Polar distance / sin. of co-latitude, from which, by +assuming different values for the co-latitude, we compute the +following table:</p> + +<pre> + AZIMUTH TABLE FOR POINTS BETWEEN 26° and 50° N. LAT. +<br> + LATTITUDES + ___________________________________________________________________ +| | | | | | | | +| Year | 26° | 28° | 30° | 32° | 34° | 36° | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | +| 1882 | 1 28 05 | 1 29 40 | 1 31 25 | 1 33 22 | 1 35 30 | 1 37 52 | +| 1883 | 1 27 45 | 1 29 20 | 1 31 04 | 1 33 00 | 1 35 08 | 1 37 30 | +| 1884 | 1 27 23 | 1 28 57 | 1 30 41 | 1 32 37 | 1 34 45 | 1 37 05 | +| 1885 | 1 27 01 | 1 28 35½ | 1 30 19 | 1 32 14 | 1 34 22 | 1 36 41 | +| 1886 | 1 26 39 | 1 28 13 | 1 29 56 | 1 31 51 | 1 33 57 | 1 36 17 | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| Year | 38° | 40° | 42° | 44° | 46° | 48° | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | +| 1882 | 1 40 29 | 1 43 21 | 1 46 33 | 1 50 05 | 1 53 59 | 1 58 20 | +| 1883 | 1 40 07 | 1 42 58 | 1 46 08 | 1 49 39 | 1 53 34 | 1 57 53 | +| 1884 | 1 39 40 | 1 42 31 | 1 45 41 | 1 49 11 | 1 53 05 | 1 57 23 | +| 1885 | 1 39 16 | 1 42 07 | 1 45 16 | 1 48 45 | 1 52 37 | 1 56 54 | +| 1886 | 1 38 51 | 1 41 41 | 1 44 49 | 1 48 17 | 1 52 09 | 1 56 24 | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | +| Year | 50° | +|______|_________| +| | | +| | ° ' " | +| 1882 | 2 03 11 | +| 1883 | 2 02 42 | +| 1884 | 2 02 11 | +| 1885 | 2 01 42 | +| 1886 | 2 01 11 | +|______|_________| +</pre> + +<p>An analysis of this table shows that the azimuth this year +(1882) increases with the latitude from 1° 28' 05" at 26° +north, to 2° 3' 11" at 50° north, or 35' 06". It also shows +that the azimuth of Polaris at any one point of observation +decreases slightly from year to year. This is due to the increase +in declination, or decrease in the star's polar distance. At +26° north latitude, this annual decrease in the azimuth is +about 22", while at 50° north, it is about 30". As the +variation in azimuth for each degree of latitude is small, the +table is only computed for the even numbered degrees; the +intermediate values being readily obtained by interpolation. We see +also that an error of a few minutes of latitude will not affect the +result in finding the meridian, e.g., the azimuth at 40° north +latitude is 1° 43' 21", that at 41° would be 1° 44' +56", the difference (01' 35") being the correction for one degree +of latitude between 40° and 41°. Or, in other words, an +error of one degree in finding one's latitude would only introduce +an error in the azimuth of one and a half minutes. With ordinary +care the probable error of the latitude as determined from the +method already described need not exceed a few minutes, making the +error in azimuth as laid off on the arc of an ordinary transit +graduated to single minutes, practically zero.</p> + +<p>REFRACTION TABLE FOR ANY ALTITUDE WITHIN THE LATITUDE OF THE +UNITED STATES.</p> + +<pre> + _____________________________________________________ +| | | | | +| Apparent | Refraction | Apparent | Refraction | +| Altitude. | _minus_. | Altitude. | _minus_. | +|___________|______________|___________|______________| +| | | | | +| 25° | 0° 2' 4.2" | 38° | 0° 1' 14.4" | +| 26 | 1 58.8 | 39 | 1 11.8 | +| 27 | 1 53.8 | 40 | 1 9.3 | +| 28 | 1 49.1 | 41 | 1 6.9 | +| 29 | 1 44.7 | 42 | 1 4.6 | +| 30 | 1 40.5 | 43 | 1 2.4 | +| 31 | 1 36.6 | 44 | 0 0.3 | +| 32 | 1 33.0 | 45 | 0 58.1 | +| 33 | 1 29.5 | 46 | 0 56.1 | +| 34 | 1 26.1 | 47 | 0 54.2 | +| 35 | 1 23.0 | 48 | 0 52.3 | +| 36 | 1 20.0 | 49 | 0 50.5 | +| 37 | 1 17.1 | 50 | 0 48.8 | +|___________|______________|___________|______________| +</pre> + +<h3>APPLICATIONS.</h3> + +<p>In practice to find the true meridian, two observations must be +made at intervals of six hours, or they may be made upon different +nights. The first is for latitude, the second for azimuth at +elongation.</p> + +<p>To make either, the surveyor should provide himself with a good +transit with vertical arc, a bull's eye, or hand lantern, plumb +bobs, stakes, etc.[1] Having "set up" over the point through which +it is proposed to establish the meridian, at a time when the line +joining Polaris and Alioth is nearly vertical, level the telescope +by means of the attached level, which should be in adjustment, set +the vernier of the vertical arc at zero, and take the reading. If +the pole star is about making its <i>upper</i> transit, it will +rise gradually until reaching the meridian as it moves westward, +and then as gradually descend. When near the highest part of its +orbit point the telescope at the star, having an assistant to hold +the "bull's eye" so as to reflect enough light down the tube from +the object end to illumine the cross wires but not to obscure the +star, or better, use a perforated silvered reflector, clamp the +tube in this position, and as the star continues to rise keep the +<i>horizontal</i> wire upon it by means of the tangent screw until +it "rides" along this wire and finally begins to fall below it. +Take the reading of the vertical arc and the result will be the +observed altitude.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: A sextant and artificial horizon may be used to +find the <i>altitude</i> of a star. In this case the observed angle +must be divided by 2.]</p> + +<h3>ANOTHER METHOD.</h3> + +<p>It is a little more accurate to find the altitude by taking the +complement of the observed zenith distance, if the vertical arc has +sufficient range. This is done by pointing first to Polaris when at +its highest (or lowest) point, reading the vertical arc, turning +the horizontal limb half way around, and the telescope over to get +another reading on the star, when the difference of the two +readings will be the <i>double</i> zenith distance, and <i>half</i> +of this subtracted from 90° will be the required altitude. The +less the time intervening between these two pointings, the more +accurate the result will be.</p> + +<p>Having now found the altitude, correct it for refraction by +subtracting from it the amount opposite the observed altitude, as +given in the refraction table, and the result will be the latitude. +The observer must now wait about six hours until the star is at its +western elongation, or may postpone further operations for some +subsequent night. In the meantime he will take from the azimuth +table the amount given for his date and latitude, now determined, +and if his observation is to be made on the western elongation, he +may turn it off on his instrument, so that when moved to zero, +<i>after</i> the observation, the telescope will be brought into +the meridian or turned to the right, and a stake set by means of a +lantern or plummet lamp.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/14b.png" alt=""></p> + +<p>It is, of course, unnecessary to make this correction at the +time of observation, for the angle between any terrestrial object +and the star may be read and the correction for the azimuth of the +star applied at the surveyor's convenience. It is always well to +check the accuracy of the work by an observation upon the other +elongation before putting in permanent meridian marks, and care +should be taken that they are not placed near any local +attractions. The meridian having been established, the magnetic +variation or declination may readily be found by setting an +instrument on the meridian and noting its bearing as given by the +needle. If, for example, it should be north 5° <i>east</i>, the +variation is west, because the north end of the needle is +<i>west</i> of the meridian, and <i>vice versa</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Local time</i> may also be readily found by observing the +instant when the sun's center[1] crosses the line, and correcting +it for the equation of time as given above--the result is the true +or mean solar time. This, compared with the clock, will show the +error of the latter, and by taking the difference between the local +lime of this and any other place, the difference of longitude is +determined in hours, which can readily be reduced to degrees by +multiplying by fifteen, as 1 h. = 15°.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: To obtain this time by observation, note the +instant of first contact of the sun's limb, and also of last +contact of same, and take the mean.]</p> + +<p>APPROXIMATE EQUATION OF TIME.</p> + +<pre> + _______________________ + | | | + | Date. | Minutes. | + |__________|____________| + | | | + | Jan. 1 | 4 | + | 3 | 5 | + | 5 | 6 | + | 7 | 7 | + | 9 | 8 | + | 12 | 9 | + | 15 | 10 | + | 18 | 11 | + | 21 | 12 | + | 25 | 13 | + | 31 | 14 | + | Feb. 10 | 15 | + | 21 | 14 | Clock + | 27 | 13 | faster + | M'ch 4 | 12 | than + | 8 | 11 | sun. + | 12 | 10 | + | 15 | 9 | + | 19 | 8 | + | 22 | 7 | + | 25 | 6 | + | 28 | 5 | + | April 1 | 4 | + | 4 | 3 | + | 7 | 2 | + | 11 | 1 | + | 15 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 19 | 1 | + | 24 | 2 | + | 30 | 3 | + | May 13 | 4 | Clock + | 29 | 3 | slower. + | June 5 | 2 | + | 10 | 1 | + | 15 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 20 | 1 | + | 25 | 2 | + | 29 | 3 | + | July 5 | 4 | + | 11 | 5 | + | 28 | 6 | Clock + | Aug. 9 | 5 | faster. + | 15 | 4 | + | 20 | 3 | + | 24 | 2 | + | 28 | 1 | + | 31 | 0 | + | |------------| + | Sept. 3 | 1 | + | 6 | 2 | + | 9 | 3 | + | 12 | 4 | + | 15 | 5 | + | 18 | 6 | + | 21 | 7 | + | 24 | 8 | + | 27 | 9 | + | 30 | 10 | + | Oct. 3 | 11 | + | 6 | 12 | + | 10 | 13 | + | 14 | 14 | + | 19 | 15 | + | 27 | 16 | Clock + | Nov. 15 | 15 | slower. + | 20 | 14 | + | 24 | 13 | + | 27 | 12 | + | 30 | 11 | + | Dec. 2 | 10 | + | 5 | 9 | + | 7 | 8 | + | 9 | 7 | + | 11 | 6 | + | 13 | 5 | + | 16 | 4 | + | 18 | 3 | + | 20 | 2 | + | 22 | 1 | + | 24 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 26 | 1 | + | 28 | 2 | Clock + | 30 | 3 | faster. + |__________|____________| +</pre> + +<hr> +<p><a name="22"></a></p> + +<h2>THE OCELLATED PHEASANT.</h2> + +<p>The collections of the Museum of Natural History of Paris have +just been enriched with a magnificent, perfectly adult specimen of +a species of bird that all the scientific establishments had put +down among their desiderata, and which, for twenty years past, has +excited the curiosity of naturalists. This species, in fact, was +known only by a few caudal feathers, of which even the origin was +unknown, and which figured in the galleries of the Jardin des +Plantes under the name of <i>Argus ocellatus</i>. This name was +given by J. Verreaux, who was then assistant naturalist at the +museum. It was inscribed by Prince Ch. L. Bonaparte, in his +Tableaux Paralléliques de l'Ordre des Gallinaces, as +<i>Argus giganteus</i>, and a few years later it was reproduced by +Slater in his Catalogue of the Phasianidæ, and by Gray is his +List of the Gallinaceæ. But it was not till 1871 and 1872 +that Elliot, in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, and in +a splendid monograph of the Phasianidæ, pointed out the +peculiarities that were presented by the feathers preserved at the +Museum of Paris, and published a figure of them of the natural +size.</p> + +<p>The discovery of an individual whose state of preservation +leaves nothing to be desired now comes to demonstrate the +correctness of Verreaux's, Bonaparte's, and Elliot's suppositions. +This bird, whose tail is furnished with feathers absolutely +identical with those that the museum possessed, is not a peacock, +as some have asserted, nor an ordinary Argus of Malacca, nor an +argus of the race that Elliot named <i>Argus grayi</i>, and which +inhabits Borneo, but the type of a new genus of the family +Phasianidæ. This Gallinacean, in fact, which Mr. Maingonnat +has given up to the Museum of Natural History, has not, like the +common Argus of Borneo, excessively elongated secondaries; and its +tail is not formed of normal rectrices, from the middle of which +spring two very long feathers, a little curved and arranged like a +roof; but it consists of twelve wide plane feathers, regularly +tapering, and ornamented with ocellated spots, arranged along the +shaft. Its head is not bare, but is adorned behind with a tuft of +thread-like feathers; and, finally, its system of coloration and +the proportions of the different parts of its body are not the same +as in the common argus of Borneo. There is reason, then, for +placing the bird, under the name of <i>Rheinardius ocellatus</i>, +in the family Phasianidæ, after the genus <i>Argus</i> which +it connects, after a manner, with the pheasants properly so-called. +The specific name <i>ocellatus</i> has belonged to it since 1871, +and must be substituted for that of <i>Rheinardi</i>.</p> + +<p>The bird measures more than two meters in length, three-fourths +of which belong to the tail. The head, which is relatively small, +appears to be larger than it really is, owing to the development of +the piliform tuft on the occiput, this being capable of erection so +as to form a crest 0.05 to 0.06 of a meter in height. The feathers +of this crest are brown and white. The back and sides of the head +are covered with downy feathers of a silky brown and silvery gray, +and the front of the neck with piliform feathers of a ruddy brown. +The upper part of the body is of a blackish tint and the under part +of a reddish brown, the whole dotted with small white or +<i>café-au-lait</i> spots. Analogous spots are found on the +wings and tail, but on the secondaries these become elongated, and +tear-like in form. On the remiges the markings are quite regularly +hexagonal in shape; and on the upper coverts of the tail and on the +rectrices they are accompanied with numerous ferruginous blotches, +some of which are irregularly scattered over the whole surface of +the vane, while others, marked in the center with a blackish spot, +are disposed in series along the shaft and resemble ocelli. This +similitude of marking between the rectrices and subcaudals renders +the distinction between these two kinds of feathers less sharp than +in many other Gallinaceans, and the more so in that two median +rectrices are considerably elongated and assume exactly the aspect +of tail feathers.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/15a.png"><img src= +"images/15a_th.jpg" alt= +"THE OCELLATED PHEASANT (<i>Rheinardius ocellatus</i>)."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE OCELLATED PHEASANT (<i>Rheinardius +ocellatus</i>).</p> + +<p>The true rectrices are twelve in number. They are all absolutely +plane, all spread out horizontally, and they go on increasing in +length from the exterior to the middle. They are quite wide at the +point of insertion, increase in diameter at the middle, and +afterward taper to a sharp point. Altogether they form a tail of +extraordinary length and width which the bird holds slightly +elevated, so as to cause it to describe a graceful curve, and the +point of which touches the soil. The beak, whose upper mandible is +less arched than that of the pheasants, exactly resembles that of +the arguses. It is slightly inflated at the base, above the +nostrils, and these latter are of an elongated-oval form. In the +bird that I have before me the beak, as well as the feet and legs, +is of a dark rose-color. The legs are quite long and are destitute +of spurs. They terminate in front in three quite delicate toes, +connected at the base by membranes, and behind in a thumb that is +inserted so high that it scarcely touches the ground in walking. +This magnificent bird was captured in a portion of Tonkin as yet +unexplored by Europeans, in a locality named Buih-Dinh, 400 +kilometers to the south of Hué.--<i>La Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="23"></a></p> + +<h2>THE MAIDENHAIR TREE.</h2> + +<p>The Maidenhair tree--Gingkgo biloba--of which we give an +illustration, is not only one of our most ornamental deciduous +trees, but one of the most interesting. Few persons would at first +sight take it to be a Conifer, more especially as it is destitute +of resin; nevertheless, to that group it belongs, being closely +allied to the Yew, but distinguishable by its long-stalked, +fan-shaped leaves, with numerous radiating veins, as in an +Adiantum. These leaves, like those of the larch but unlike most +Conifers, are deciduous, turning of a pale yellow color before they +fall. The tree is found in Japan and in China, but generally in the +neighborhood of temples or other buildings, and is, we believe, +unknown in a truly wild state. As in the case of several other +trees planted in like situations, such as Cupressus funebris, Abies +fortunei, A. kæmpferi, Cryptomeria japonica, Sciadopitys +verticillata, it is probable that the trees have been introduced +from Thibet, or other unexplored districts, into China and Japan. +Though now a solitary representative of its genus, the Gingkgo was +well represented in the coal period, and also existed through the +secondary and tertiary epochs, Professor Heer having identified +kindred specimens belonging to sixty species and eight genera in +fossil remains generally distributed through the northern +hemisphere. Whatever inference we may draw, it is at least certain +that the tree was well represented in former times, if now it be +the last of its race. It was first known to Kæmpfer in 1690, +and described by him in 1712, and was introduced into this country +in the middle of the eighteenth century. Loudon relates a curious +tale as to the manner in which a French amateur became possessed of +it. The Frenchman, it appears, came to England, and paid a visit to +an English nurseryman, who was the possessor of five plants, raised +from Japanese seeds. The hospitable Englishman entertained the +Frenchman only too well. He allowed his commercial instincts to be +blunted by wine, and sold to his guest the five plants for the sum +of 25 guineas. Next morning, when time for reflection came, the +Englishman attempted to regain one only of the plants for the same +sum that the Frenchman had given for all five, but without avail. +The plants were conveyed to France, where as each plant had cost +about 40 crowns, <i>ecus</i>, the tree got the name of <i>arbre a +quarante ecus</i>. This is the story as given by Loudon, who tells +us that Andre Thouin used to relate the fact in his lectures at the +Jardin des Plantes, whether as an illustration of the perfidy of +Albion is not stated.</p> + +<p>The tree is dioecious, bearing male catkins on one plant, female +on another. All the female trees in Europe are believed to have +originated from a tree near Geneva, of which Auguste Pyramus de +Candolle secured grafts, and distributed them throughout the +Continent. Nevertheless, the female tree is rarely met with, as +compared with the male; but it is quite possible that a tree which +generally produces male flowers only may sometimes bear female +flowers only. We have no certain evidence of this in the case of +the Gingkgo, but it is a common enough occurrence in other +dioecious plants, and the occurrence of a fruiting specimen near +Philadelphia, as recently recorded by Mr. Meehan, may possibly be +attributed to this cause.</p> + +<p>The tree of which we give a figure is growing at Broadlands, +Hants, and is about 40 feet in height, with a trunk that measures 7 +feet in girth at 3 feet from the ground, with a spread of branches +measuring 45 feet. These dimensions have been considerably exceeded +in other cases. In 1837 a tree at Purser's Cross measured 60 feet +and more in height. Loudon himself had a small tree in his garden +at Bayswater on which a female branch was grafted. It is to be +feared that this specimen has long since perished.</p> + +<p>We have already alluded to its deciduous character, in which it +is allied to the larch. It presents another point of resemblance +both to the larch and the cedar in the short spurs upon which both +leaves and male catkins are borne, but these contracted branches +are mingled with long extension shoots; there seems, however, no +regular alternation between the short and the long shoots, at any +rate the <i>rationale</i> of their production is not understood, +though in all probability a little observation of the growing plant +would soon clear the matter up.</p> + +<p>The fruit is drupaceous, with a soft outer coat and a hard woody +shell, greatly resembling that of a Cycad, both externally and +internally. Whether the albumen contains the peculiar "corpuscles" +common to Cycads and Conifers, we do not for certain know, though +from the presence of 2 to 3 embryos in one seed, as noted by +Endlicher, we presume this is the case. The interest of these +corpuscles, it may be added, lies in the proof of affinity they +offer between Conifers and the higher Cryptogams, such as ferns and +lycopods--an affinity shown also in the peculiar venation of the +Gingkgo. Conifers are in some degree links between ordinary +flowering plants and the higher Cryptogams, and serve to connect in +genealogical sequence groups once considered quite distinct. In +germination the two fleshy cotyledons of the Gingkgo remain within +the shell, leaving the three-sided plumule to pass upward; the +young stem bears its leaves in threes.</p> + +<p>We have no desire to enter further upon the botanical +peculiarities of this tree; enough if we have indicated in what its +peculiar interest consists. We have only to add that in gardens +varieties exist some with leaves more deeply cut than usual, others +with leaves nearly entire, and others with leaves of a +golden-yellow color.--<i>Gardeners' Chronicle</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/15b.png"><img src= +"images/15b_th.jpg" alt= +"THE MAIDENHAIR TREE IN THE GARDENS AT BROADLANDS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE MAIDENHAIR TREE IN THE GARDENS AT +BROADLANDS.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="24"></a></p> + +<h2>THE WOODS OF AMERICA.</h2> + +<p>A collection of woods without a parallel in the world is now +being prepared for exhibition by the Directors of the American +Museum of Natural History. Scattered about the third floor of the +Arsenal, in Central Park, lie 394 logs, some carefully wrapped in +bagging, some inclosed in rough wooden cases, and others partially +sawn longitudinally, horizontally, and diagonally. These logs +represent all but 26 of the varieties of trees indigenous to this +country, and nearly all have a greater or less economic or +commercial value. The 26 varieties needed to complete the +collection will arrive before winter sets in, a number of specimens +being now on their way to this city from the groves of California. +Mr. S. D. Dill and a number of assistants are engaged in preparing +the specimens for exhibition. The logs as they reach the workroom +are wrapped in bagging and inclosed in cases, this method being +used so that the bark, with its growth of lichens and delicate +exfoliations, shall not be injured while the logs are in process of +transportation from various parts of the country to this city. The +logs are each 6 feet in length, and each is the most perfect +specimen of its class that could be found by the experts employed +in making the collection. With the specimens of the trees come to +the museum also specimens of the foliage and the fruits and flowers +of the tree. These come from all parts of the Union--from Alaska on +the north to Texas on the south, from Maine on the east to +California on the west--and there is not a State or Territory in +the Union which has not a representative in this collection of +logs. On arrival here the logs are green, and the first thing in +the way of treatment after their arrival is to season them, a work +requiring great care to prevent them from "checking," as it is +technically called, or "season cracking," as the unscientific term +the splitting of the wood in radiating lines during the seasoning +process. As is well known, the sap-wood of a tree seasons much more +quickly than does the heart of the wood. The prevention of this +splitting is very necessary in preparing these specimens for +exhibition, for when once the wood has split its value for dressing +for exhibition is gone. A new plan to prevent this destruction of +specimens is now being tried with some success under the direction +of Prof. Bickmore, superintendent of the museum. Into the base of +the log and alongside the heart a deep hole is bored with an auger. +As the wood seasons this hole permits of a pressure inward and so +has in many instances doubtless saved valuable specimens. One of +the finest in the collection, a specimen of the persimmon tree, +some two feet in diameter, has been ruined by the seasoning +process. On one side there is a huge crack, extending from the top +to the bottom of the log, which looks as though some amateur +woodman had attempted to split it with an ax and had made a poor +job of it. The great shrinking of the sap-wood of the persimmon +tree makes the wood of but trifling value commercially. It also has +a discouraging effect upon collectors, as it is next to impossible +to cure a specimen, so that all but this one characteristic of the +wood can be shown to the public in a perfect form.</p> + +<p>Before the logs become thoroughly seasoned, or their lines of +growth at all obliterated, a diagram of each is made, showing in +accordance with a regular scale the thickness of the bark, the +sap-wood, and the heart. There is also in this diagram a scale +showing the growth of the tree during each year of its life, these +yearly growths being regularly marked about the heart of the tree +by move or less regular concentric circles, the width of which +grows smaller and smaller as the tree grows older. In this +connection attention may be called to a specimen in the collection +which is considered one of the most remarkable in the world. It is +not a native wood, but an importation, and the tree from which this +wonderful slab is cut is commonly known as the "Pride of India." +The heart of this particular tree was on the port side, and between +it and the bark there is very little sap-wood, not more than an +inch. On the starbord side, so to speak, the sap-wood has grown out +in an abnormal manner, and one of the lines indicative of a year's +growth is one and seven-eighths inches in width, the widest growth, +many experts who have seen the specimen say, that was ever +recorded. The diagrams referred to are to be kept for scientific +uses, and the scheme of exhibition includes these diagrams as a +part of the whole.</p> + +<p>After a log has become seasoned it is carefully sawed through +the center down about one-third of its length. A transverse cut is +then made and the semi-cylindrical section thus severed from the +log is removed. The upper end is then beveled. When a log is thus +treated the inspector can see the lower two-thirds presenting +exactly the same appearance it did when growing in the forest. The +horizontal cut, through the sap-wood and to the center of the +heart, shows the life lines of the tree, and carefully planed as +are this portion, the perpendicular and the beveled sections, the +grain of the wood can thus be plainly seen. That these may be made +even more valuable to the architect and artisan, the right half of +this planed surface will be carefully polished, and the left half +left in the natural state. This portion of the scheme of treatment +is entirely in the interests of architects and artisans, and it is +expected by Prof. Bickmore that it will be the means of securing +for some kinds of trees, essentially of American growth, and which +have been virtually neglected, an important place in architecture +and in ornamental wood-work, and so give a commercial value to +woods that are now of comparatively little value.</p> + +<p>Among the many curious specimens in the collection now being +prepared for exhibition, one which will excite the greatest +curiosity is a specimen of the honey locust, which was brought here +from Missouri. The bark is covered with a growth of thorns from one +to four inches in length, sharp as needles, and growing at +irregular intervals. The specimen arrived here in perfect +condition, but, in order that it might be transported without +injury, it had to be suspended from the roof of a box car, and thus +make its trip from Southern Missouri to this city without change. +Another strange specimen in the novel collection is a portion of +the Yucca tree, an abnormal growth of the lily family. The trunk, +about 2 feet in diameter, is a spongy mass, not susceptible of +treatment to which the other specimens are subjected. Its bark is +an irregular stringy, knotted mass, with porcupine-quill-like +leaves springing out in place of the limbs that grow from all +well-regulated trees. One specimen of the yucca was sent to the +museum two years ago, and though the roots and top of the tree were +sawn off, shoots sprang out, and a number of the handsome flowers +appeared. The tree was supposed to be dead and thoroughly seasoned +by this Fall, but now, when the workmen are ready to prepare it for +exhibition, it has shown new life, new shoots have appeared, and +two tufts of green now decorate the otherwise dry and withered log, +and the yucca promises to bloom again before the winter is over. +One of the most perfect specimens of the Douglass spruce ever seen +is in the collection, and is a decided curiosity. It is a recent +arrival from the Rocky Mountains. Its bark, two inches or more in +thickness, is perforated with holes reaching to the-sap-wood. Many +of these contain acorns, or the remains of acorns, which have been +stored there by provident woodpeckers, who dug the holes in the +bark and there stored their winter supply of food. The oldest +specimen in the collection is a section of the <i>Picea +engelmanni</i>, a species of spruce growing in the Rocky Mountains +at a considerable elevation above the sea. The specimen is 24 +inches in diameter, and the concentric circles show its age to be +410 years. The wood much resembles the black spruce, and is the +most valuable of the Rocky Mountain growths. A specimen of the nut +pine, whose nuts are used for food by the Indians, is only 15 +inches in diameter, and yet its life lines show its age to be 369 +years. The largest specimen yet received is a section of the white +ash, which is 46 inches in diameter and 182 years old. The next +largest specimen is a section of the <i>Platanus occidentalis</i>, +variously known in commerce as the sycamore, button-wood, or plane +tree, which is 42 inches in diameter and only 171 years of age. +Specimens of the redwood tree of California are now on their way to +this city from the Yosemite Valley. One specimen, though a small +one, measures 5 feet in diameter and shows the character of the +wood. A specimen of the enormous growths of this tree was not +secured because of the impossibility of transportation and the fact +that there would be no room in the museum for the storage of such a +specimen, for the diameter of the largest tree of the class is 45 +feet and 8 inches, which represents a circumference of about 110 +feet. Then, too, the Californians object to have the giant trees +cut down for commercial, scientific, or any other purposes.</p> + +<p>To accompany these specimens of the woods of America, Mr. Morris +K. Jesup, who has paid all the expense incurred in the collection +of specimens, is having prepared as an accompanying portion of the +exhibition water color drawings representing the actual size, +color, and appearance of the fruit, foliage, and flowers of the +various trees. Their commercial products, as far as they can be +obtained, will also be exhibited, as, for instance, in the case of +the long-leaved pine, the tar, resin, and pitch, for which it is +especially valued. Then, too, in an herbarium the fruits, leaves, +and flowers are preserved as nearly as possible in their natural +state. When the collection is ready for public view next spring it +will be not only the largest, but the only complete one of its kind +in the country. There is nothing like it in the world, as far as is +known; certainly not in the royal museums of England, France, or +Germany.</p> + +<p>Aside from the value of the collection, in a scientific way, it +is proposed to make it an adjunct to our educational system, which +requires that teachers shall instruct pupils as to the materials +used for food and clothing. The completeness of the exhibition will +be of great assistance also to landscape gardeners, as it will +enable them to lay out private and public parks so that the most +striking effects of foliage may be secured. The beauty of these +effects can best be seen in this country in our own Central Park, +where there are more different varieties and more combinations for +foliage effects than in any other area in the United States. To +ascertain how these effects are obtained one now has to go to much +trouble to learn the names of the trees. With this exhibition such +information can be had merely by observation, for the botanical and +common names of each specimen will be attached to it. It will also +be of practical use in teaching the forester how to cultivate trees +as he would other crops. The rapid disappearance of many valuable +forest trees, with the increase in demand and decrease in supply, +will tend to make the collection valuable as a curiosity in the not +far distant future as representing the extinct trees of the +country.--<i>N.Y. Times</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important +scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be +had gratis at this office.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<p><b>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</b></p> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, +January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. +Two volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50, +stitched in paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.</p> + +<p>COMBINED RATES--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00.</p> + +<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and +canvassers.</p> + +<p><b>MUNN & CO., Publishers,</b></p> + +<p><b>261 Broadway, New York, N. Y.</b></p> + +<hr> +<h2><b>PATENTS.</b></h2> + +<p>In connection with the <b>Scientific American</b>, Messrs. MUNN +& Co. are Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had +35 years' experience, and now have the largest establishment in the +world. Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p> + +<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b> of +all Inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and +residence of the Patentee. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement No. 360, November 25, 1882 + +Author: Various + +Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8559] +Release Date: July, 2005 +First Posted: July 23, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 360 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles +Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 360 + + + + +NEW YORK, NOVEMBER 25, 1882 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIV, No. 360. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + + TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Soaking Pits for Steel Ingots. + --On the successful rolling of steel ingots with their own + initial heat by means of the soaking pit process. By JOHN GJERS. + 6 figures.--Gjers' soaking pits for steel ingots. + + Tempering by compression.--L. Clemandot's process. + + Economical Steam Power. By WILLIAM BARNET LE VAN. + + Mississippi River Improvements near St. Louis, Mo. + + Bunte's Burette for the Analysis of Furnace Gases. 2 figures. + + The "Universal" Gas Engine. 8 figures.--Improved gas engine. + + Gas Furnace for Baking Refractory Products. 1 figure. + + The Efficiency of Fans. 5 figures. + + Machine for Compressing Coal Refuse into Fuel. 1 figure.-- + Bilan's machine. + + Hank Sizing and Wringing Machine. 1 figure. + + Improved Coke Breaker. 2 figures. + + Improvements in Printing Machinery. 2 figures. + +II. TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.--Apparatus for Obtaining + Pure Water for Photographic Use. 3 figures. + + Black Phosphorus.--By P THENARD. + + Composition of Steep Water + + Schreiber's Apparatus for Revivifying Bone Black. 5 figures.-- + Plant: elevation and plan.--Views of elevation.--Continuous + furnace. + + Soap and its Manufacture from a Consumer's Point of View. + (Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 330). + + Cotton seed Oil.--By S. S. BRADFORD. + + On some Apparatus that Permit of Entering Flames.--Chevalier + Aldini's wire gauze and asbestos protectors.--Brewster's account + of test experiments. + +III. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT. ETC.--On a New Arc Electric Lamp. + By W. H. PREECE. 6 figures--The Abdank system.--The lamp.-- + The Electro-magnet.--The Cut-off.--The electrical arrangement. + + Utilization of Solar Heat. + +IV. NATURAL HISTORY.--The Ocellated Pheasant. 1 figure. + + The Maidenhair Tree in the Gardens at Broadlands, Hants, + England. 1 figure. + + The Woods of America.--The Jessup collection in the American + Museum of Natural History, Central Park, and the characteristics + of the specimens. + +V. AGRICULTURE, ETC.--An Industrial Revolution.--Increase in + the number of farms. + + A Farmer's Lime Kiln. 3 figures. + + The Manufacture of Apple Jelly. + + Improved Grape Bags. 4 figures. + +VI. ARCHITECTURE, ETC.--The Building Stone Supply.--Granite + and its sources.--Sandstone.--Blue and gray limestone.--Marble.-- + Slate.--Other stones.--A valuable summary of the sources and uses + of quarry products. + +VII. ASTRONOMY. ETC.--How to Establish a True Meridian. By + Prof. L. M. HAUPT.--Introduction.--Definitions.--To find the + azemuth of Polaris.--Applications, etc. + +VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.--A Characteristic Mining "Rush."--The + Prospective Mining Center of Southern New Mexico. + + The Food and Energy of Man. By Prof. DE CHAUMONT.--Original + food of man.--Function of food.--Classes of alimentary + substances.--Quantity of food.--Importance of varied diet. + + Rattlesnake Poison.--Its Antidotes. By H. H. CROFT. + + The Chinese Sign Manual.--The ethnic bearing of skin furrows + on the hand. + + Lucidity.--Matthew Arnold's remarks at the reopening of the + Liverpool University College and School of Medicine. + + * * * * * + + + + +SOAKING PITS FOR STEEL INGOTS. + +ON THE SUCCESSFUL ROLLING OF STEEL INGOTS WITH THEIR OWN INITIAL HEAT BY +MEANS OF THE SOAKING PIT PROCESS. + +By Mr. JOHN GJERS, Middlesbrough. + +[Footnote: Paper read before the Iron and Steel Institute at Vienna.] + + +When Sir Henry Bessemer, in 1856, made public his great invention, and +announced to the world that he was able to produce malleable steel from +cast iron without the expenditure of any fuel except that which already +existed in the fluid metal imparted to it in the blast furnace, his +statement was received with doubt and surprise. If he at that time had +been able to add that it was also possible to roll such steel into a +finished bar with no further expenditure of fuel, then undoubtedly the +surprise would have been much greater. + +Even this, however, has come to pass; and the author of this paper +is now pleased to be able to inform this meeting that it is not only +possible, but that it is extremely easy and practical, by the means to +be described, to roll a steel ingot into, say, a bloom, a rail, or other +finished article with its own initial heat, without the aid of the +hitherto universally adopted heating furnace. + +It is well understood that in the fluid steel poured into the mould +there is a larger store of heat than is required for the purpose +of rolling or hammering. Not only is there the mere apparent high +temperature of fluid steel, but there is the store of latent heat in +this fluid metal which is given out when solidification takes place. + +It has, no doubt, suggested itself to many that this heat of the ingot +ought to be utilized, and as a matter of fact, there have been, at +various times and in different places, attempts made to do so; but +hitherto all such attempts have proved failures, and a kind of settled +conviction has been established in the steel trade that the theory could +not possibly be carried out in practice. + +The difficulty arose from the fact that a steel ingot when newly +stripped is far too hot in the interior for the purpose of rolling, and +if it be kept long enough for the interior to become in a fit state, +then the exterior gets far too cold to enable it to be rolled +successfully. It has been attempted to overcome this difficulty +by putting the hot ingots under shields or hoods, lined with +non-heat-conducting material, and to bury them in non-heat-conducting +material in a pulverized state, for the purpose of retaining and +equalizing the heat; but all these attempts have proved futile in +practice, and the fact remains, that the universal practice in steel +works at the present day all over the world is to employ a heating +furnace of some description requiring fuel. + +The author introduced his new mode of treating ingots at the Darlington +Steel and Iron Company's Works, in Darlington, early in June this year, +and they are now blooming the whole of their make, about 125 tons a +shift, or about 300 ingots every twelve hours, by such means. + +The machinery at Darlington is not adapted for rolling off in one heat; +nevertheless they have rolled off direct from the ingot treated in the +"soaking pits" a considerable number of double-head rails; and the +experience so gained proves conclusively that with proper machinery +there will be no difficulty in doing so regularly. The quality of the +rails so rolled off has been everything that could be desired; and as +many of the defects in rails originate in the heating furnace, the +author ventures to predict that even in this respect the new process +will stand the test. + +Many eminently practical men have witnessed the operation at Darlington, +and they one and all have expressed their great surprise at the result, +and at the simple and original means by which it is accomplished. + +The process is in course of adoption in several works, both in England +and abroad, and the author hopes that by the time this paper is being +read, there may be some who will from personal experience be able to +testify to the practicability and economy of the process, which is +carried out in the manner now to be described. + +A number of upright pits (the number, say, of the ingots in a cast) are +built in a mass of brickwork sunk in the ground below the level of the +floor, such pits in cross-section being made slightly larger than that +of the ingot, just enough to allow for any fins at the bottom, and +somewhat deeper than the longest ingot likely to be used. In practice +the cross section of the pit is made about 3 in. larger than the large +end of the ingot, and the top of the ingot may be anything from 6 in. to +18 in. below the top of the pit. These pits are commanded by an ingot +crane, by preference so placed in relation to the blooming mill that the +crane also commands the live rollers of the mill. + +Each pit is covered with a separate lid at the floor level, and after +having been well dried and brought to a red heat by the insertion of hot +ingots, they are ready for operation. + +As soon as the ingots are stripped (and they should be stripped as early +as practicable), they are transferred one by one, and placed separately +by means of the crane into these previously heated pits (which the +author calls "soaking pits") and forthwith covered over with the lid, +which practically excludes the air. In these pits, thus covered, the +ingots are allowed to stand and soak; that is, the excessive molten +heat of the interior, and any additional heat rendered sensible during +complete solidification, but which was latent at the time of placing +the ingots into the pit, becomes uniformly distributed, or nearly so, +throughout the metallic mass. No, or comparatively little, heat being +able to escape, as the ingot is surrounded by brick walls as hot as +itself, it follows that the surface heat of the ingot is greatly +increased; and after the space of from twenty to thirty minutes, +according to circumstances, the ingot is lifted out of the pit +apparently much hotter than it went in, and is now swung round to the +rolls, by means of the crane, in a perfect state of heat for rolling, +with this additional advantage to the mill over an ingot heated in an +ordinary furnace from a comparatively cold, that it is always certain to +be at least as hot in the center as it is on the surface. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +Every ingot, when cast, contains within itself a considerably larger +store of heat than is necessary for the rolling operation. Some of this +heat is, of course, lost by passing into the mould, some is lost by +radiation before the ingot enters into the soaking pit, and some is lost +after it enters, by being conducted away by the brickwork; but in the +ordinary course of working, when there is no undue loss of time in +transferring the ingots, after allowing for this loss, there remains a +surplus, which goes into the brickwork of the soaking pits, so that this +surplus of heat from successive ingots tends continually to keep the +pits at the intense heat of the ingot itself. Thus, occasionally it +happens that inadvertently an ingot is delayed so long on its way to the +pit as to arrive there somewhat short of heat, its temperature will be +raised by heat from the walls of the pit itself; the refractory mass +wherein the pit is formed, in fact, acting as an accumulator of heat, +giving and taking heat as required to carry on the operation in a +continuous and practical manner. + +[Illustration: GJERS' SOAKING PITS FOR STEEL INGOTS.] + +During the soaking operation a quantity of gas exudes from the ingot and +fills the pit, thus entirely excluding atmospheric air from entering; +this is seen escaping round the lid, and when the lid is removed +combustion takes place. + +It will be seen by analyses given hereinafter that this gas is entirely +composed of hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbonic oxide, so that the ingots +soak in a perfectly non-oxidizing medium. Hence loss of steel by +oxidation does not take place, and consequently the great loss of +yield which always occurs in the ordinary heating furnace is entirely +obviated. + +The author does not think it necessary to dilate upon the economical +advantages of his process, as they are apparent to every practical man +connected with the manufacture of steel. + +The operation of steel making on a large scale will by this process be +very much simplified. It will help to dispense with a large number of +men, some of them highly paid, directly and indirectly connected with +the heating department; it will do away with costly heating furnaces and +gas generators, and their costly maintenance; it will save all the coal +used in heating; and what is perhaps of still more importance, it will +save the loss in yield of steel; and there will be no more steel spoiled +by overheating in the furnaces. + +The process has been in operation too short a time to give precise +and reliable figures, but it is hoped that by the next meeting of the +Institute these will be forthcoming from various quarters. + +Referring to the illustrations annexed, Fig. 1 shows sectional +elevation, and Fig. 2 plan of a set of eight soaking pits (marked +A). These pits are built in a mass of brickwork, B, on a concrete +foundation, C; the ingots, D, standing upright in the pits. The pits are +lined with firebrick lumps, 6 in. thick, forming an independent lining, +E, which at any time can be readily renewed. F is a cast iron plate, +made to take in four pits, and dropped loosely within the large plate, +G, which surrounds the pits. H is the cover, with a firebrick lining; +and I is a false cover of firebrick, 1 in. smaller than the cross +section of the pit, put in to rest on the top of the ingot. This false +cover need not necessarily be used, but is useful to keep the extreme +top of the ingot extra hot. J is the bottom of the pit, composed of +broken brick and silver sand, forming a good hard bottom at any desired +level. + +Figs. 4 and 5 show outline plan of two sets of soaking pits, K K, eight +each, placed under a 25 ft. sweep crane, L. This crane, if a good one, +could handle any ordinary make--up to 2,000 tons per week, and ought to +have hydraulic racking out and swinging round gear. This crane places +the ingots into the pits, and, when they are ready, picks them out and +swings them round to blooming mill, M. With such a crane, four men and a +boy at the handles are able to pass the whole of that make through the +pits. The author recommends two sets of pits as shown, although one set +of eight pits is quite able to deal with any ordinary output from one +Bessemer pit. + +In case of an extraordinarily large output, the author recommends a +second crane, F, for the purpose of placing the ingots in the pits +only, the crane, L, being entirely used for picking the ingots out +and swinging them round to the live rollers of the mill. The relative +position of the cranes, soaking pits, and blooming mill may of course be +variously arranged according to circumstances, and the soaking pits may +be arranged in single or more rows, or concentrically with the crane at +pleasure. + +Figs. 4 and 5 also show outline plan and elevation of a Bessemer plant, +conveniently arranged for working on the soaking pit system. A A are +the converters, with a transfer crane, B. C is the casting pit with +its crane, D. E E are the two ingot cranes. F is a leading crane which +transfers the ingots from the ingot cranes to the soaking pits, K K, +commanded by the crane, L, which transfers the prepared ingots to the +mill, M. as before described. + + * * * * * + + + + +TEMPERING BY COMPRESSION. + + +L. Clemandot has devised a new method of treating metals, especially +steel, which consists in heating to a cherry red, compressing strongly +and keeping up the pressure until the metal is completely cooled. The +results are so much like those of tempering that he calls his process +tempering by compression. The compressed metal becomes exceedingly hard, +acquiring a molecular contraction and a fineness of grain such that +polishing gives it the appearance of polished nickel. Compressed steel, +like tempered steel, acquires the coercitive force which enables it to +absorb magnetism. This property should be studied in connection with +its durability; experiments have already shown that there is no loss of +magnetism at the expiration of three months. This compression has no +analogue but tempering. Hammering and hardening modify the molecular +state of metals, especially when they are practiced upon metal that is +nearly cold, but the effect of hydraulic pressure is much greater. +The phenomena which are produced in both methods of tempering may be +interpreted in different ways, but it seems likely that there is a +molecular approximation, an amorphism from which results the homogeneity +that is due to the absence of crystallization. Being an operation which +can be measured, it may be graduated and kept within limits which are +prescribed in advance; directions may be given to temper at a +specified pressure, as readily as to work under a given pressure of +steam.--_Chron. Industr_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ECONOMICAL STEAM POWER. + +[Footnote: A paper read by title at a recent stated meeting of the +Franklin Institute] + +By WILLIAM BARNET LE VAN. + + +The most economical application of steam power can be realized only by +a judicious arrangement of the plant: namely, the engines, boilers, and +their accessories for transmission. + +This may appear a somewhat broad assertion; but it is nevertheless one +which is amply justified by facts open to the consideration of all those +who choose to seek for them. + +While it is true that occasionally a factory, mill, or a water-works +may be found in which the whole arrangements have been planned by a +competent engineer, yet such is the exception and not the rule, and such +examples form but a very small percentage of the whole. + +The fact is that but few users of steam power are aware of the numerous +items which compose the cost of economical steam power, while a yet +smaller number give sufficient consideration to the relations which +these items bear to each other, or the manner in which the economy of +any given boiler or engine is affected by the circumstances under which +it is run. + +A large number of persons--and they are those who should know better, +too--take for granted that a boiler or engine which is good for one +situation is good for all; a greater error than such an assumption can +scarcely be imagined. + +It is true that there are certain classes of engines and boilers which +may be relied upon to give moderately good results in almost any +situation--and the best results should _always_ be desired in +arrangement of a mill--there are a considerable number of details which +must be taken into consideration in making a choice of boilers and +engines. + +Take the case of a mill in which it has been supposed that the motive +power could be best exerted by a single engine. The question now is +whether or not it would be best to divide the total power required among +a number of engines. + +_First_.--A division of the motive power presents the following +advantages, namely, a saving of expense on lines of shafting of large +diameter. + +_Second_.--Dispensing with the large driving belt or gearing, the first +named of which, in one instance under the writer's observation, absorbed +_sixty horse-power_ out of about 480, or about _seven per cent_. + +_Third_.--The general convenience of subdividing the work to be done, +so that in case of a stoppage of one portion of the work by reason of +a loose coupling or the changing of a pulley, etc., that portion only +would need to be stopped. + +This last is of itself a most important point, and demands careful +consideration. + +For example, I was at a mill a short time ago when the governor belt +broke. The result was a stoppage of the whole mill. Had the motive power +of this mill been subdivided into a number of small engines only one +department would have been stopped. During the stoppage in this case +the windows of the mill were a sea of heads of men and women (the +operatives), and considerable excitement was caused by the violent +blowing off of steam from the safety-valves, due to the stoppage of the +steam supply to the engine; and this excitement continued until the +cause of the stoppage was understood. Had the power in this mill been +subdivided the stoppage of one of a number of engines would scarcely +have been noticed, and the blowing off of surplus steam would not have +occurred. + +In building a mill the first item to be considered is the interest on +the first cost of the engine, boilers, etc. This item can be subdivided +with advantage into the amounts of interest on the respective costs of, + +_First_. The engine or engines; + +_Second_ The boiler or boilers; + +_Third_. The engine and boiler house. + +In the same connection the _form_ of engine to be used must be +considered. In some few cases--as, for instance, where engines have to +be placed in confined situations--the form is practically fixed by the +space available, it being perhaps possible only to erect a vertical or a +horizontal engine, as the case may be. These, however, are exceptional +instances, and in most cases--at all events where large powers are +required--the engineer may have a free choice in the matter. Under +these circumstances the best form, in the vast majority of cases where +machinery must be driven, is undoubtedly the horizontal engine, and the +worst the beam engine. When properly constructed, the horizontal engine +is more durable than the beam engine, while, its first cost being less, +it can be driven at a higher speed, and it involves a much smaller +outlay for engine house and foundations than the latter. In many +respects the horizontal engine is undoubtedly closely approached in +advantages by the best forms of vertical engines; but on the whole we +consider that where machinery is to be driven the balance of advantages +is decidedly in favor of the former class, and particularly so in the +case of large powers. + +The next point to be decided is, whether a condensing or non-condensing +engine should be employed. In settling this question not only the +respective first costs of the two classes of engines must be taken into +consideration, but also the cost of water and fuel. Excepting, perhaps, +in cases of very small powers, and in those instances where the exhaust +steam from a non-condensing engine can be turned to good account for +heating or drying purpose, it may safely be asserted that in all +instances where a sufficient supply of condensing water is available +at a moderate cost, the extra economy of a well-constructed condensing +engine will fully warrant the additional outlay involved in its +purchase. In these days of high steam pressures, a well constructed +non-condensing engine can, no doubt, be made to approximate closely to +the economy of a condensing engine, but in such a case the extra cost of +the stronger boiler required will go far to balance the additional cost +of the condensing engine. + +Having decided on the form, the next question is, what "class" of engine +shall it be; and by the term class I mean the relative excellence of the +engine as a power-producing machine. An automatic engine costs more than +a plain slide-valve engine, but it will depend upon the cost of fuel at +the location where the engine is to be placed, and the number of hours +per day it is kept running, to decide which class of machine can be +adopted with the greatest economy to the proprietor. The cost of +lubricating materials, fuel, repairs, and percentage of cost to be put +aside for depreciation, will be less in case of the high-class than in +the low-class engine, while the former will also require less boiler +power. + +Against these advantages are to be set the greater first cost of the +automatic engine, and the consequent annual charge due to capital sunk. +These several items should all be fairly estimated when an engine is +to be bought, and the kind chosen accordingly. Let us take the item of +fuel, for instance, and let us suppose this fuel to cost four dollars +per ton at the place where the engine is run. Suppose the engine to be +capable of developing one hundred horse-power, and that it consumes five +pounds of coal per hour per horse-power, and runs ten hours per day: +this would necessitate the supply of two and one-half tons per day at +a cost of ten dollars per day. To be really economical, therefore, any +improvement which would effect a saving of one pound of coal per hour +per horse-power must not cost a greater sum per horse-power than that on +which the cost of the difference of the coal saved (one pound of coal +per hour per horse-power, which would be 1,000 pounds per day) for, say, +three hundred days, three hundred thousand (300,000) pounds, or one +hundred and fifty tons (or six hundred dollars), would pay a fair +interest. + +Assuming that the mill owner estimates his capital as worth to him ten +per cent, per annum, then the improvement which would effect the above +mentioned saving must not cost more than six thousand dollars, and so +on. If, instead of being run only ten hours per day, the engine is run +night and day, then the outlay which it would be justifiable to make to +effect a certain saving per hour would be doubled; while, on the other +hand, if an engine is run less than the usual time per day a given +saving per hour would justify a correspondingly less outlay. + +It has been found that for grain and other elevators, which are not run +constantly, gas engines, although costing more for the same power, +are cheaper than steam engines for elevating purposes where only +occasionally used. + +For this reason it is impossible without considerable investigation to +say what is really the most economical engine to adopt in any particular +case; and as comparatively few users of steam power care to make this +investigation a vast amount of wasteful expenditure results. Although, +however, no absolute rule can be given, we may state that the number +of instances in which an engine which is wasteful of fuel can be used +profitably is exceedingly small. As a rule, in fact, it may generally be +assumed that an engine employed for driving a manufactory of any kind +cannot be of too high a class, the saving effected by the economical +working of such engines in the vast majority of cases enormously +outweighing the interest on their extra first cost. So few people appear +to have a clear idea of the vast importance of economy of fuel in mills +and factories that I perhaps cannot better conclude than by giving an +example showing the saving to be effected in a large establishment by an +economical engine. + +I will take the case of a flouring mill in this city which employed two +engines that required forty pounds of water to be converted into steam +per hour per indicated horse-power. This, at the time, was considered a +moderate amount and the engines were considered "good." + +These engines indicated seventy horse power each, and ran twenty-four +hours per day on an average of three hundred days each year, requiring +as per indicator diagrams forty million three hundred and twenty +thousand pounds (40 x 70 x 24 x 300 x 2 = 40,320,000) of feed water to +be evaporated per annum, which, in Philadelphia, costs three dollars +per horse-power per annum, amounting to (70 x 2 x 300 = $420.00) four +hundred and twenty dollars. + +The coal consumed averaged five and one-half pounds per hour per +horse-power, which, at four dollars per ton, costs + +((70 x 2 x 5.5 x 24 x 300) / 2,000) x 4.00= $11,088 + +Eleven thousand and eighty-eight dollars. + + Cost of coal for 300 days. $11,088 + Cost of water for 300 days. 420 + ------- + Total cost of coal and water. $11,503 + +These engines were replaced by one first-class automatic engine, +which developed one hundred and forty-two horse-power per hour with a +consumption of _three pounds_ of coal per hour per horse-power, and the +indicator diagrams showed a consumption of _thirty_ pounds of water per +hour per horse-power. Coal cost + +((142 x 3 x 24 x 300) / 2,000) x 4.00 = $6,134 + +Six thousand one hundred and thirty-four dollars. Water cost (142 x +3.00= $426.00) four hundred and twenty-six dollars. + + Cost of coal for 300 days. $6,134 + Cost of water for 300 days. 426 + ------ + Total cost of coal and water. $6,560 + +The water evaporated in the latter case to perform the same work was +(142 x 30 x 24 x 300 = 30,672,000) thirty million six hundred and +seventy-two thousand pounds of feed water against (40,320,000) forty +million three hundred and twenty thousand pounds in the former, a saving +of (9,648,000) nine million six hundred and forty-eight thousand pounds +per annum; or, + +(40,320,000 - 30,672,000) / 9,648,000 = 31.4 per cent. + +--_thirty-one and four-tenths per cent_. + +And a saving in coal consumption of + +(11,088 - 6,134) / 4,954 = 87.5 per cent. + +--_eighty-seven and one-half per cent_., or a saving in dollars and +cents of four thousand nine hundred and fifty-four dollars ($4,954). + +In this city, Philadelphia, no allowance for the consumption of water is +made in the case of first class engines, such engines being charged the +same rate per annum per horse-power as an inferior engine, while, +as shown by the above example, a saving in water of _thirty-one and +four-tenths per cent_. has been attained by the employment of a +first-class engine. The builders of such engines will always give a +guarantee of their consumption of water, so that the purchaser can be +able in advance to estimate this as accurately as he can the amount of +fuel he will use. + + * * * * * + + + + +RIVER IMPROVEMENTS NEAR ST. LOUIS. + + +The improvement of the Mississippi River near St. Louis progresses +satisfactorily. The efficacy of the jetty system is illustrated in the +lines of mattresses which showed accumulations of sand deposits ranging +from the surface of the river to nearly sixteen feet in height. At Twin +Hollow, thirteen miles from St. Louis and six miles from Horse-Tail Bar, +there was found a sand bar extending over the widest portion of the +river on which the engineering forces were engaged. Hurdles are built +out from the shore to concentrate the stream on the obstruction, and +then to protect the river from widening willows are interwoven between +the piles. At Carroll's Island mattresses 125 feet wide have been +placed, and the banks revetted with stone from ordinary low water to a +16 foot stage. There is plenty of water over the bar, and at the most +shallow points the lead showed a depth of twelve feet. Beard's Island, a +short distance further, is also being improved, the largest force of men +at any one place being here engaged. Four thousand feet of mattresses +have been begun, and in placing them work will be vigorously prosecuted +until operations are suspended by floating ice. The different sections +are under the direction of W. F. Fries, resident engineer, and E. M. +Currie, superintending engineer. There are now employed about 1,200 men, +thirty barges and scows, two steam launches, and the stern-wheel steamer +A. A. Humphreys. The improvements have cost, in actual money expended, +about $200,000, and as the appropriation for the ensuing year +approximates $600,000, the prospect of a clear channel is gratifying to +those interested in the river. + + * * * * * + + + + +BUNTE'S BURETTE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF FURNACE GASES. + + +For analyzing the gases of blast-furnaces the various apparatus of Orsat +have long been employed; but, by reason of its simplicity, the burette +devised by Dr. Buente, and shown in the accompanying figures, is much +easier to use. Besides, it permits of a much better and more rapid +absorption of the oxide of carbon; and yet, for the lost fractions of +the latter, it is necessary to replace a part of the absorbing liquid +three or four times. The absorbing liquid is prepared by making a +saturated solution of chloride of copper in hydrochloric acid, and +adding thereto a small quantity of dissolved chloride of tin. Afterward, +there are added to the decanted mixture a few spirals of red copper, and +the mixture is then carefully kept from contact with the air. + +To fill the burette with gas, the three-way cock, _a_, is so placed that +the axial aperture shall be in communication with the graduated part, A, +of the burette. After this, water is poured into the funnel, t, and the +burette is put in communication with the gas reservoir by means of a +rubber tube. The lower point of the burette is put in communication with +a rubber pump, V (Fig. 2), on an aspirator (the cock, _b_, being left +open), and the gas is sucked in until all the air that was in the +apparatus has been expelled from it. The cocks, _a_ and _b_, are turned +90 degrees. The water in the funnel prevents the gases communicating +with the top. The point of the three-way cock is afterward closed with a +rubber tube and glass rod. + +If the gas happens to be in the reservoir of an aspirator, it is made +to pass into the apparatus in the following manner: The burette is +completely filled with water, and the point of the three-way cock is +put in communication with a reservoir. If the gas is under pressure, a +portion of it is allowed to escape through the capillary tube into the +water in the funnel, by turning the cock, _a_, properly, and thus all +the water in the conduit is entirely expelled. Afterward _a_ is turned +180 deg., and the lower cock, _b_, is opened. While the water is flowing +through _b_, the burette becomes filled with gas. + +_Mode of Measuring the Gases and Absorption_.--The tube that +communicates with the vessel, F, is put in communication, after the +latter has been completely filled with water, with the point of the +cock, _b_ (Fig. 2). Then the latter is opened, as is also the pinch cock +on the rubber tubing, and water is allowed to enter the burette through +the bottom until the level is at the zero of the graduation. There are +then 100 cubic centimeters in the burette. The superfluous gas has +escaped through the cock, _a_, and passed through the water in the +funnel. The cock, _a_, is afterward closed by turning it 90 deg. To +cause the absorbing liquid to pass into the burette, the water in the +graduated cylinder is made to flow by connecting the rubber tube, s, of +the bottle, S, with the point of the burette. The cock is opened, and +suction is effected with the mouth of the tube, r. When the water has +flowed out to nearly the last drop, _b_ is closed and the suction bottle +is removed. The absorbing liquid (caustic potassa or pyrogallate of +potassa) is poured into a porcelain capsule, P, and the point of the +burette is dipped into the liquid. If the cock, _b_, be opened, the +absorbing liquid will be sucked into the burette. In order to hasten +the absorption, the cock, _b_, is closed, and the burette is shaken +horizontally, the aperture of the funnel being closed by the hand during +the operation. + +If not enough absorbing liquid has entered, there may be sucked into the +burette, by the process described above, a new quantity of liquid. The +reaction finished, the graduated cylinder is put in communication with +the funnel by turning the cock, _a_. The water is allowed to run from +the funnel, and the latter is filled again with water up to the mark. +The gas is then again under the same pressure as at the beginning. + +After the level has become constant, the quantity of gas remaining is +measured. The contraction that has taken place gives, in hundredths of +the total volume, the volume of the gas absorbed. + +When it is desired to make an analysis of smoke due to combustion, +caustic potassa is first sucked into the burette. After complete +absorption, and after putting the gas at the same pressure, the +diminution gives the volume of carbonic acid. + +To determine the oxygen in the remaining gas, a portion of the caustic +potash is allowed to flow out, and an aqueous solution of pyrogallic +acid and potash is allowed to enter. The presence of oxygen is revealed +by the color of the liquid, which becomes darker. + +The gas is then agitated with the absorbing liquid until, upon opening +the cock, _a_, the liquid remains in the capillary tube, that is to say, +until no more water runs from the funnel into the burette. To make a +quantitative analysis of the carbon contained in gas, the pyrogallate of +potash must be entirely removed from the burette. To do this, the liquid +is sucked out by means of the flask, S, until there remain only a few +drops; then the cock, _a_, is opened and water is allowed to flow from +the funnel along the sides of the burette. Then _a_ is closed, and +the washing water is sucked in the same manner. By repeating this +manipulation several times, the absorbing liquid is completely removed. +The acid solution of chloride of copper is then allowed to enter. + +As the absorbing liquids adhere to the glass, it is better, before +noting the level, to replace these liquids by water. The cocks, _a_ and +_b_, are opened, and water is allowed to enter from the funnel, the +absorbing liquid being made to flow at the same time through the cock, +_b_. + +When an acid solution of chloride of copper is employed, dilute +hydrochloric acid is used instead of water. + +Fig. 2 shows the arrangement of the apparatus for the quantitative +analysis of oxide of carbon and hydrogen by combustion. The gas in the +burette is first mixed with atmospheric air, by allowing the liquid to +flow through _b_, and causing air to enter through the axial aperture of +the three way cock, _a_, after cutting off communication at v. Then, as +shown in the figure, the burette is connected with the tube, B, which is +filled with water up to the narrow curved part, and the interior of the +burette is made to communicate with the combustion tube, v, by turning +the cock, a. The combustion tube is heated by means of a Bunsen burner +or alcohol lamp, L. It is necessary to proceed, so that all the water +shall be driven from the cock and the capillary tube, and that it shall +be sent into the burette. The combustion is effected by causing the +mixture of gas to pass from the burette into the tube, B, through the +tube, v, heated to redness, into which there passes a palladium wire. +Water is allowed to flow through the point of the tube, B, while from +the flask, F, it enters through the bottom into the burette, so as to +drive out the gas. The water is allowed to rise into the burette as far +as the cock, and the cocks, _b_ and _b1_, are afterward closed. + +[Illustration: DR. BUeNTE'S GAS BURETTE] + +By a contrary operation, the gas is made to pass from B into the +burette. It is then allowed to cool, and, after the pressure has been +established again, the contraction is measured. If the gas burned is +hydrogen, the contraction multiplied by two-thirds gives the original +volume of the hydrogen gas burned. If the gas burned is oxide of carbon, +there forms an equal volume of carbonic acid, and the contraction is the +half of CO. Thus, to analyze CO, a portion of the liquid is removed from +the burette, then caustic potash is allowed to enter, and the process +goes on as explained above. + +The total contraction resulting from combustion and absorption, +multiplied by two-thirds, gives the volume of the oxide of carbon. + +The hydrogen and oxide carbon may thus be quantitatively analyzed +together or separately.--_Revue Industrielle_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE "UNIVERSAL" GAS ENGINE. + + +The accompanying engravings illustrate a new and very simple form of gas +engine, the invention of J. A. Ewins and H. Newman, and made by Mr. T. +B. Barker, of Scholefield-street, Bloomsbury, Birmingham. It is known as +the "Universal" engine, and is at present constructed in sizes varying +from one-eighth horse-power--one man power--to one horse-power, though +larger sizes are being made. The essentially new feature of the engine +is, says the _Engineer_, the simple rotary ignition valve consisting of +a ratchet plate or flat disk with a number of small radial slots which +successively pass a small slot in the end of the cylinder, and through +which the flame is drawn to ignite the charge. In our illustrations Fig. +1 is a side elevation; Fig. 2 an end view of same; Fig. 3 a plan; Fig. 4 +is a sectional view of the chamber in which the gas and air are mixed, +with the valves appertaining thereto; Fig. 5 is a detail view of the +ratchet plate, with pawl and levers and valve gear shaft; Fig. 6 is +a sectional view of a pump employed in some cases to circulate water +through the jacket; Fig. 7 is a sectional view of arrangement for +lighting, and ratchet plate, j, with central spindle and igniting +apertures, and the spiral spring, k, and fly nut, showing the attachment +to the end of the working cylinder, f1; b5, b5, bevel wheels driving +the valve gear shaft; e, the valve gear driving shaft; e2, eccentric to +drive pump; e cubed, eccentric or cam to drive exhaust valve; e4, crank to +drive ratchet plate; e5, connecting rod to ratchet pawl; f, cylinder +jacket; f1, internal or working cylinder; f2, back cylinder cover; g, +igniting chamber; h, mixing chamber; h1, flap valve; h2, gas inlet +valve, the motion of which is regulated by a governor; h3, gas inlet +valve seat; h4, cover, also forming stop for gas inlet valve; h5, gas +inlet pipe; h6, an inlet valve; h8, cover, also forming stop for air +inlet valve; h9, inlet pipe for air with grating; i, exhaust chamber; +i2, exhaust valve spindle; i7, exhaust pipe; j6, lighting aperture +through cylinder end; l, igniting gas jet; m, regulating and stop valve +for gas. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED GAS ENGINE] + +The engine, it will be seen, is single-acting, and no compression of the +explosive charge is employed. An explosive mixture of combustible gas +and air is drawn through the valves, h2 and h6, and exploded behind +the piston once in a revolution; but by a duplication of the valve and +igniting apparatus, placed also at the front end of the cylinder, the +engine may be constructed double-acting. At the proper time, when the +piston has proceeded far enough to draw in through the mixing chamber, +h, into the igniting chamber, g, the requisite amount of gas and air, +the ratchet plate, j, is pushed into such a position by the pawl, j3, +that the flame from the igniting jet, l, passes through one of the slots +or holes, j1, and explodes the charge when opposite j6, which is the +only aperture in the end of the working cylinder (see Fig. 7 and Fig. +2), thus driving the piston on to the end of its forward stroke. The +exhaust valve, Fig. 9, though not exactly of the form shown, is kept +open during the whole of this return stroke by means of the eccentric, +e3, on the shaft working the ratchet, and thus allowing the products of +combustion to escape through the exhaust pipe, i7, in the direction of +the arrow. Between the ratchet disk and the igniting flame a small plate +not shown is affixed to the pipe, its edge being just above the burner +top. The flame is thus not blown out by the inrushing air when the slots +in ratchet plate and valve face are opposite. This ratchet plate or +ignition valve, the most important in any engine, has so very small a +range of motion per revolution of the engine that it cannot get out of +order, and it appears to require no lubrication or attention whatever. +The engines are working very successfully, and their simplicity enables +them to be made at low cost. They cost for gas from 1/2d. to 11/2d. per hour +for the sizes mentioned. + +[Illustration: Fig.9.] + + * * * * * + + + + +GAS FURNACE FOR BAKING REFRACTORY PRODUCTS. + + +In order that small establishments may put to profit the advantages +derived from the use of annular furnaces heated with gas, smaller +dimensions have been given the baking chambers of such furnaces. The +accompanying figure gives a section of a furnace of this kind, set into +the ground, and the height of whose baking chamber is only one and a +half meters. The chamber is not vaulted, but is covered by slabs of +refractory clay, D, that may be displaced by the aid of a small car +running on a movable track. This car is drawn over the compartment that +is to be emptied, and the slab or cover, D, is taken off and carried +over the newly filled compartment and deposited thereon. + +The gas passes from the channel through the pipe, a, into the vertical +conduits, b, and is afterward disengaged through the tuyeres into the +chamber. In order that the gas may be equally applied for preliminary +heating or smoking, a small smoking furnace, S, has been added to +the apparatus. The upper part of this consists of a wide cylinder +of refractory clay, in the center of whose cover there is placed an +internal tube of refractory clay, which communicates with the channel, +G, through a pipe, d. This latter leads the gas into the tube, t, of the +smoking furnace, which is perforated with a large number of small holes. +The air requisite for combustion enters through the apertures, o, in the +cover of the furnace, and brings about in the latter a high temperature. +The very hot gases descend into the lower iron portion of this small +furnace and pass through a tube, e, into the smoking chamber by the aid +of vertical conduits, b', which serve at the same time as gas tuyeres +for the extremity of the furnace that is exposed to the fire. + +[Illustration: GAS FURNACE FOR BAKING REFRACTORY PRODUCTS.] + +In the lower part of the smoking furnace, which is made of boiler plate +and can be put in communication with the tube, e, there are large +apertures that may be wholly or partially closed by means of registers +so as to carry to the hot gas derived from combustion any quantity +whatever of cold and dry air, and thus cause a variation at will of the +temperature of the gases which are disengaged from the tube, e. + +The use of these smoking apparatus heated by gas does away also with the +inconveniences of the ordinary system, in which the products are soiled +by cinders or dust, and which render the gradual heating of objects to +be baked difficult. At the beginning, there is allowed to enter the +lower part of the small furnace, S, through the apertures, a very +considerable quantity of cold air, so as to lower the temperature of the +smoke gas that escapes from the tube, e, to 30 or 50 degrees. Afterward, +these secondary air entrances are gradually closed so as to increase the +temperature of the gases at will. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE EFFICIENCY OF FANS. + + +Air, like every other gas or combination of gases, possesses weight; +some persons who have been taught that the air exerts a pressure of 14.7 +lb. per square inch, cannot, however, be got to realize the fact that a +cubit foot of air at the same pressure and at a temperature of 62 deg. +weighs the thirteenth part of a pound, or over one ounce; 13.141 cubic +feet of air weigh one pound. In round numbers 30,000 cubic feet of air +weigh one ton; this is a useful figure to remember, and it is easily +carried in the mind. A hall 61 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 17 feet high +will contain one ton of air. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +The work to be done by a fan consists in putting a weight--that of the +air--in motion. The resistances incurred are due to the inertia of the +air and various frictional influences; the nature and amount of these +last vary with the construction of the fan. As the air enters at the +center of the fan and escapes at the circumference, it will be seen that +its motion is changed while in the fan through a right angle. It may +also be taken for granted that within certain limits the air has no +motion in a radial direction when it first comes in contact with a fan +blade. It is well understood that, unless power is to be wasted, motion +should be gradually imparted to any body to be moved. Consequently, the +shape of the blades ought to be such as will impart motion at first +slowly and afterward in a rapidly increasing ratio to the air. It is +also clear that the change of motion should be effected as gradually as +possible. Fig. 1 shows how a fan should not be constructed; Fig. 2 will +serve to give an idea of how it should be made. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +In Fig. 1 it will be seen that the air, as indicated by the bent arrows, +is violently deflected on entering the fan. In Fig. 2 it will be seen +that it follows gentle curves, and so is put gradually in motion. The +curved form of the blades shown in Fig. 2 does not appear to add much to +the efficiency of a fan; but it adds something and keeps down noise. The +idea is that the fan blades when of this form push the air radially from +the center to the circumference. The fact is, however, that the air +flies outward under the influence of centrifugal force, and always tends +to move at a tangent to the fan blades, as in Fig. 3, where the circle +is the path of the tips of the fan blades, and the arrow is a tangent to +that path; and to impart this notion a radial blade, as at C, is perhaps +as good as any other, as far as efficiency is concerned. Concerning the +shape to be imparted to the blades, looked at back or front, opinions +widely differ; but it is certain that if a fan is to be silent the +blades must be narrower at the tips than at the center. Various forms +are adopted by different makers, the straight side and the curved sides, +as shown in Fig. 4, being most commonly used. The proportions as regards +length to breadth are also varied continually. In fact, no two makers of +fans use the same shapes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +As the work done by a fan consists in imparting motion at a stated +velocity to a given weight of air, it is very easy to calculate the +power which must be expended to do a certain amount of work. The +velocity at which the air leaves the fan cannot be greater than that of +the fan tips. In a good fan it may be about two-thirds of that speed. +The resistance to be overcome will be found by multiplying the area of +the fan blades by the pressure of the air and by the velocity of the +center of effort, which must be determined for every fan according to +the shape of its blades. The velocity imparted to the air by the fan +will be just the same as though the air fell in a mass from a given +height. This height can be found by the formula h = v squared / 64; that is to +say, if the velocity be multiplied by itself and divided by 64 we have +the height. Thus, let the velocity be 88 per second, then 88 x 88 = +7,744, and 7,744 / 64 = 121. A stone or other body falling from a height +of 121 feet would have a velocity of 88 per second at the earth. The +pressure against the fan blades will be equal to that of a column of air +of the height due to the velocity, or, in this case, 121 feet. We +have seen that in round numbers 13 cubic feet of air weigh one pound, +consequently a column of air one square foot in section and 121 feet +high, will weigh as many pounds as 13 will go times into 121. Now, 121 +/ 13 = 9.3, and this will be the resistance in pounds per _square foot_ +overcome by the fan. Let the aggregate area of all the blades be 2 +square feet, and the velocity of the center of effort 90 feet per +second, then the power expended will bve (90 x 60 x 2 x 9.3) / 33,000 += 3.04 horse power. The quantity of air delivered ought to be equal in +volume to that of a column with a sectional area equal that of one fan +blade moving at 88 feet per second, or a mile a minute. The blade having +an area of 1 square foot, the delivery ought to be 5,280 feet per +minute, weighing 5,280 / 13 = 406.1 lb. In practice we need hardly say +that such an efficiency is never attained. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +The number of recorded experiments with fans is very small, and a great +deal of ignorance exists as to their true efficiency. Mr. Buckle is one +of the very few authorities on the subject. He gives the accompanying +table of proportions as the best for pressures of from 3 to 6 ounces per +square inch: + +-------------------------------------------------------------- + | Vanes. | Diameter of inlet +Diameter of fans. |------------------------| openings. + | Width. | Length. | +-------------------------------------------------------------- + ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. + 3 0 | 0 9 | 0 9 | 1 6 + 3 6 | 0 101/2 | 0 101/2 | 1 9 + 4 0 | 1 0 | 1 0 | 2 0 + 4 6 | 1 11/2 | 1 11/2 | 2 3 + 5 0 | 1 3 | 1 3 | 2 6 + 6 0 | 1 6 | 1 6 | 3 0 + | | | +-------------------------------------------------------------- + +For higher pressures the blades should be longer and narrower, and +the inlet openings smaller. The case is to be made in the form of an +arithmetical spiral widening, the space between the case and the blades +radially from the origin to the opening for discharge, and the upper +edge of the opening should be level with the lower side of the sweep of +the fan blade, somewhat as shown in Fig. 5. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +A considerable number of patents has been taken out for improvements +in the construction of fans, but they all, or nearly all, relate to +modifications in the form of the case and of the blades. So far, +however, as is known, it appears that, while these things do exert a +marked influence on the noise made by a fan, and modify in some degree +the efficiency of the machine, that this last depends very much more on +the proportions adopted than on the shapes--so long as easy curves +are used and sharp angles avoided. In the case of fans running at low +speeds, it matters very little whether the curves are present or not; +but at high speeds the case is different.--_The Engineer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +MACHINE FOR COMPRESSING COAL REFUSE INTO FUEL. + + +The problem as to how the refuse of coal shall be utilized has been +solved in the manufacture from it of an agglomerated artificial +fuel, which is coming more and more into general use on railways and +steamboats, in the industries, and even in domestic heating. + +The qualities that a good agglomerating machine should present are as +follows: + +1. Very great simplicity, inasmuch as it is called upon to operate in +an atmosphere charged with coal dust, pitch, and steam; and, under such +conditions, it is important that it may be easily got at for cleaning, +and that the changing of its parts (which wear rapidly) may be effected +without, so to speak, interrupting its running. + +2. The compression must be powerful, and, that the product may be +homogeneous, must operate progressively and not by shocks. It must +especially act as much as possible upon the entire surface of the +conglomerate, and this is something that most machines fail to do. + +3. The removal from the mould must be effected easily, and not depend +upon a play of pistons or springs, which soon become foul, and the +operation of which is very irregular. + +The operations embraced in the manufacture of this kind of fuel are as +follows: + +The refuse is sifted in order to separate the dust from the grains of +coal. The dust is not submitted to a washing. The grains are classed +into two sizes, after removing the nut size, which is sold separately. +The grains of each size are washed separately. The washed grains are +either drained or dried by a hydro-extractor in order to free them from +the greater part of the water, the presence of this being an obstacle to +their perfect agglomeration. The water, however, should not be entirely +extracted because the combustibles being poor conductors of heat, a +certain amount of dampness must be preserved to obtain an equal division +of heat in the paste when the mixture is warmed. + +After being dried the grains are mixed with the coal dust, and broken +coal pitch is added in the proportion of eight to ten per cent. of the +coal. The mixture is then thrown into a crushing machine, where it is +reduced to powder and intimately mixed. It then passes into a pug-mill +into which superheated steam is admitted, and by this means is converted +into a plastic paste. This paste is then led into an agitator for the +double purpose of freeing it from the steam that it contains, and of +distributing it in the moulds of the compressing machine. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED MACHINE FOR COMPRESSING REFUSE COAL INTO FUEL.] + +Bilan's machine, shown in the accompanying cut, is designed for +manufacturing spherical conglomerates for domestic purposes. It consists +of a cast iron frame supporting four vertical moulding wheels placed at +right angles to each other and tangent to the line of the centers. These +wheels carry on their periphery cavities that have the form of a quarter +of a sphere. They thus form at the point of contact a complete sphere +in which the material is inclosed. The paste is thrown by shovel, or +emptied by buckets and chain, into the hopper fixed at the upper part +of the frame. From here it is taken up by two helices, mounted on a +vertical shaft traversing the hopper, and forced toward the point where +the four moulding wheels meet. The driving pulley of the machine is +keyed upon a horizontal shaft which is provided with two endless screws +that actuate two gear-wheels, and these latter set in motion the four +moulding wheels by means of beveled pinions. The four moulding wheels +being accurately adjusted so that their cavities meet each other at +every revolution, carry along the paste furnished them by the hopper, +compress it powerfully on the four quarters, and, separating by a +further revolution, allow the finished ball to drop out. + +The external crown of the wheels carrying the moulds consists of four +segments, which may be taken apart at will to be replaced by others when +worn. + +This machine produces about 40 tons per day of this globular artificial +fuel.--_Annales Industrielles_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HANK SIZING AND WRINGING MACHINE. + + +We give a view of a hank sizing machine by Messrs. Heywood & Spencer, +of Radcliffe, near Manchester. The machine is also suitable for fancy +dyeing. It is well known, says the _Textile Manufacturer_, that when +hanks are wrung by hand, not only is the labor very severe, but in +dyeing it is scarcely possible to obtain even colors, and, furthermore, +the production is limited by the capabilities of the man. The machine +we illustrate is intended to perform the heavy part of the work with +greater expedition and with more certainty than could be relied upon +with hand labor. The illustration represents the machine that we +inspected. Its construction seems of the simplest character. It consists +of two vats, between which is placed the gearing for driving the hooks. +The large wheel in this gear, although it always runs in one direction, +contains internal segments, which fall into gear alternately with +pinions on the shanks of the hooks. The motion is a simple one, and it +appeared to us to be perfectly reliable, and not liable to get out of +order. The action is as follows: The attendant lifts the hank out of the +vat and places it on the hooks. The hook connected to the gearing then +commences to turn; it puts in two, two and a half, three, or more twists +into the hank and remains stationary for a few seconds to allow an +interval for the sizer to "wipe off" the excess of size, that is, to +run his hand along the twisted hank. This done, the hook commences to +revolve the reverse way, until the twists are taken out of the hank. +It is then removed, either by lifting off by hand or by the apparatus +shown, attached to the right hand side. This arrangement consists of a +lattice, carrying two arms that, at the proper moment, lift the hank off +the hooks on to the lattice proper, by which it is carried away, and +dropped upon a barrow to be taken to the drying stove. In sizing, a +double operation is customary; the first is called running, and the +second, finishing. In the machine shown, running is carried on one side +simultaneously with finishing in the other, or, if required, running +may be carried on on both sides. If desired, the lifting off motion is +attached to both running and finishing sides, and also the roller partly +seen on the left hand for running the hanks through the size. The +machine we saw was doing about 600 bundles per day at running and at +finishing, but the makers claim the production with a double machine to +be at the rate of about 36 10 lb. bundles per hour (at finishing), wrung +in 11/2 lb. wringers (or I1/2 lb. of yarn at a time), or at running at the +rate of 45 bundles in 2 lb. wringers. The distance between the hooks +is easily adjusted to the length or size of hanks, and altogether the +machine seems one that is worth the attention of the trade. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED HANK SIZING MACHINE.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED COKE BREAKER. + + +The working parts of the breaker now in use by the South Metropolitan +Gas Company consist essentially of a drum provided with cutting edges +projecting from it, which break up the coke against a fixed grid. The +drum is cast in rings, to facilitate repairs when necessary, and the +capacity of the machine can therefore be increased or diminished by +varying the number of these rings. The degree of fineness of the coke +when broken is determined by the regulated distance of the grid from the +drum. Thus there is only one revolving member, no toothed gearing being +required. Consequently the machine works with little power; the one at +the Old Kent Road, which is of the full size for large works, being +actually driven by a one horse power "Otto" gas-engine. Under these +conditions, at a recent trial, two tons of coke were broken in half an +hour, and the material delivered screened into the three classes of +coke, clean breeze (worth as much as the larger coke), and dust, which +at these works is used to mix with lime in the purifiers. The special +advantage of the machine, besides the low power required to drive it and +its simple action, lies in the small quantity of waste. On the occasion +of the trial in question, the dust obtained from two tons of coke +measured only 31/2 bushels, or just over a half hundredweight per ton. +The following statement, prepared from the actual working of the first +machine constructed, shows the practical results of its use. It should +be premised that the machine is assumed to be regularly employed and +driven by the full power for which it is designed, when it will easily +break 8 tons of coke per hour, or 80 tons per working day: + + 500 feet of gas consumed by a 2 horse power + gas-engine, at cost price of gas delivered s. d. + in holder. 0 9 + Oil and cotton waste. 0 6 + Two men supplying machine with large + coke, and shoveling up broken, at 4s. + 6d. 9 0 + Interest and wear and tear (say). 0 3 + ----- + Total per day. 10 6 + ----- + For 80 tons per day, broken at the rate + of. 0 11/2 + Add for loss by dust and waste, 1 cwt., + with price of coke at (say) 13s. 4d. per + ton. 0 8 + ----- + Cost of breaking, per ton. 0 91/2 + +As coke, when broken, will usually fetch from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per ton +more than large, the result of using these machines is a net gain of +from 1s. 3d. to 1s. 9d. per ton of coke. It is not so much the actual +gain, however, that operates in favor of providing a supply of broken +coke, as the certainty that by so doing a market is obtained that would +not otherwise be available. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED COKE BREAKER.] + +It will not be overstating the case to say that this coke breaker is by +far the simplest, strongest, and most economical appliance of its kind +now manufactured. That it does its work well is proved by experience; +and the advantages of its construction are immediately apparent upon +comparison of its simple drum and single spindle with the flying hammers +or rocking jaws, or double drums with toothed gearing which characterize +some other patterns of the same class of plant. It should be remarked, +as already indicated, lest exception should be taken to the size of the +machine chosen here for illustration, that it can be made of any size +down to hand power. On the whole, however, as a few tons of broken coke +might be required at short notice even in a moderate sized works, it +would scarcely be advisable to depend upon too small a machine; since +the regular supply of the fuel thus improved may be trusted in a short +time to increase the demand. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED COKE BREAKER.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENT IN PRINTING MACHINERY. + + +This is the design of Alfred Godfrey, of Clapton. According to this +improvement, as represented at Figs. 1 and 2, a rack, A, is employed +vibrating on the pivot a, and a pinion, a1, so arranged that instead of +the pinion moving on a universal joint, or the rack moving in a parallel +line from side to side of the pinion at the time the motion of the table +is reversed, there is employed, for example, the radial arm, a2, mounted +on the shaft, a3, supporting the driving wheel, a4. The opposite or +vibrating end of the radial arm, a2, supports in suitable bearings the +pinion, a1, and wheel, a5, driving the rack through the medium of the +driving wheel, a4, the effect of which is that through the mechanical +action of the vibrating arm, a2, and pinion, a1 in conjunction with the +vibrating movement of the rack, A, an easy, uniform, and silent motion +is transmitted to the rack and table. + +[Illustration: IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 1] + +[Illustration: IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 2.] + + * * * * * + + + + +A CHARACTERISTIC MINING "RUSH."--THE PROSPECTIVE MINING CENTER OF +SOUTHERN NEW MEXICO. + + +A correspondent of the _Tribune_ describes at length the mining camps +about Lake Valley, New Mexico, hitherto thought likely to be the central +camp of that region, and then graphically tells the story of the recent +"rush" to the Perche district. Within a month of the first strike of +silver ore the country was swarming with prospectors, and a thousand or +more prospects had been located. + +The Perche district is on the eastern flanks of the Mimbres Mountains, +a range which is a part of the Rocky Mountain range, and runs north and +south generally parallel with the Rio Grande, from which it lies about +forty miles to the westward. The northern half of these mountains is +known as the Black Range, and was the center of considerable mining +excitement a year and a half ago. It is there that the Ivanhoe is +located, of which Colonel Gillette was manager, and in which Robert +Ingersoll and Senator Plumb, of Kansas, were interested, much to the +disadvantage of the former. A new company has been organized, however, +with Colonel Ingersoll as president, and the reopening of work on the +Ivanhoe will probably prove a stimulus to the whole Black Range. From +this region the Perche district is from forty to sixty miles south. It +is about twenty-five miles northwest of Lake Valley, and ten miles west +of Hillsboro, a promising little mining town, with some mills and about +300 people. The Perche River has three forks coming down from the +mountains and uniting at Hillsboro, and it is in the region between +these forks that the recent strikes have been made. + +On August 15 "Jack" Shedd, the original discoverer of the Robinson mine +in Colorado, was prospecting on the south branch of the north fork of +the Perche River, when he made the first great strike in the district. +On the summit of a heavily timbered ridge he found some small pieces of +native silver, and then a lump of ore containing very pure silver in the +form of sulphides, weighing 150 pounds, and afterward proved to be worth +on the average $11 a pound. All this was mere float, simply lying on the +surface of the ground. Afterward another block was found, weighing 87 +pounds, of horn silver, with specimens nearly 75 per cent. silver. The +strike was kept a secret for a few days. Said a mining man: "I went up +to help bring the big lump down. We took it by a camp of prospectors who +were lying about entirely ignorant of any find. When they saw it they +instantly saddled their horses, galloped off, and I believe they +prospected all night." A like excitement was created when the news of +this and one or two similar finds reached Lake Valley. Next morning +every waiter was gone from the little hotel, and a dozen men had left +the Sierra mines, to try their fortunes at prospecting. + +As the news spread men poured into the Perche district from no one knows +where, some armed with only a piece of salt pork, a little meal, and a +prospecting pick; some mounted on mules, others on foot; old men and men +half-crippled were among the number, but all bitten by the monomania +which possesses every prospector. Now there are probably 2,000 men in +the Perche district, and the number of prospects located must far exceed +1,000. Three miners from there with whom I was talking recently owned +forty-seven mines among them, and while one acknowledged that hardly one +prospect in a hundred turns out a prize, the other millionaire in embryo +remarked that he wouldn't take $50,000 for one of his mines. So it goes, +and the victims of the mining fever here seem as deaf to reason as the +buyers of mining stock in New York. Fuel was added to the flame by +the report that Shedd had sold his location, named the Solitaire, to +ex-Governor Tabor and Mr. Wurtzbach on August 25 for $100,000. This was +not true. I met Governor Tabor's representative, who came down recently +to examine the properties, and learned that the Governor had not up to +that date bought the mine. He undoubtedly bonded it, however, and his +representative's opinion of the properties seemed highly favorable. +The Solitaire showed what appeared to be a contact vein, with walls of +porphyry and limestone in a ledge thirty feet wide in places, containing +a high assay of horned silver. The vein was composed of quartz, bearing +sulphides, with horn silver plainly visible, giving an average assay of +from $350 to $500. This was free milling. These were the results shown +simply by surface explorations, which were certainly exceedingly +promising. Recently it has been stated that a little development shows +the vein to be only a blind lead, but the statement lacks confirmation. +In any case the effect of so sensational a discovery is the same in +creating an intense excitement and attracting swarms of prospectors. + +But the Perche district does not rest on the Solitaire, for there has +been abundance of mineral wealth discovered throughout its extent. Four +miles south of this prospect, on the middle fork of the Perche, is an +actual mine--the Bullion--which was purchased by four or five Western +mining men for $10,000, and yielded $11,000 in twenty days. The ore +contains horn and native silver. On the same fork are the Iron King and +Andy Johnson, both recently discovered and promising properties, and +there is a valuable mine now in litigation on the south fork of the +Perche, with scores of prospects over the entire district. Now that one +or two sensational strikes have attracted attention, and capital is +developing paying mines, the future of the Perche District seems +assured. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SOY BEAN. + + +The _British Medical Journal_ says that Prof. E. Kinch, writing in the +_Agricultural Students' Gazette_, says that the Soy bean approaches more +nearly to animal food than any other known vegetable production, being +singularly rich in fat and in albuminoids. It is largely used as +an article of food in China and Japan. Efforts have been made to +acclimatize it in various parts of the continent of Europe, and fair +success has been achieved in Italy and France; many foods are made from +it and its straw is a useful fodder. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON A NEW ARC ELECTRIC LAMP. + +[Footnote: Paper read at the British Association, Southampton. Revised +by the Author.--_Nature_.] + +By W.H. PREECE. + + +Electric lamps on the arc principle are almost as numerous as the trees +in the forest, and it is somewhat fresh to come upon something that is +novel. In these lamps the carbons are consumed as the current flows, and +it is the variation in their consumption which occasions the flickering +and irregularity of the light that is so irritating to the eyes. Special +mechanical contrivances or regulators have to be used to compensate for +this destruction of the carbons, as in the Siemens and Brush type, or +else refractory materials have to be combined with the carbons, as in +the Jablochkoff candle and in the lamp Soleil. The steadiness of the +light depends upon the regularity with which the carbons are moved +toward each other as they are consumed, so as to maintain the electric +resistance between them a constant quantity. Each lamp must have a +certain elasticity of regulation of its own, to prevent irregularities +from the variable material of carbon used, and from variations in the +current itself and in the machinery. + +In all electric lamps, except the Brockie, the regulator is in the lamp +itself. In the Brockie system the regulation is automatic, and is made +at certain rapid intervals by the motor engine. This causes a periodic +blinking that is detrimental to this lamp for internal illumination. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2.] + +M. Abdank, the inventor of the system which I have the pleasure of +bringing before the Section, separates his regulator from his lamp. +The regulator may be fixed anywhere, within easy inspection and +manipulation, and away from any disturbing influence in the lamp. The +lamp can be fixed in any inaccessible place. + +_The Lamp_ (Figs. 1, 2, and 3.)--The bottom or negative carbon is fixed, +but the top or positive carbon is movable, in a vertical line. It is +screwed at the point, C, to a brass rod, T (Fig. 2), which moves freely +inside the tubular iron core of an electromagnet, K. This rod is +clutched and lifted by the soft iron armature, A B, when a current +passes through the coil, M M. The mass of the iron in the armature is +distributed so that the greater portion is at one end, B, much nearer +the pole than the other end. Hence this portion is attracted first, the +armature assumes an inclined position, maintained by a brass button, t, +which prevents any adhesion between the armature and the core of the +electromagnet. The electric connection between the carbon and the coil +of the electromagnet is maintained by the flexible wire, S. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +The electromagnet, A (Fig. 1), is fixed to a long and heavy rack, C, +which falls by its own weight and by the weight of the electromagnet and +the carbon fixed to it. The length of the rack is equal to the length of +the two carbons. The fall of the rack is controlled by a friction break, +B (Fig. 3), which acts upon the last of a train of three wheels put +in motion by the above weight. The break, B, is fixed at one end of +a lever, B A, the other end carrying a soft iron armature, F, +easily adjusted by three screws. This armature is attracted by the +electromagnet, E E (whose resistance is 1,200 ohms), whenever a current +circulates through it. The length of the play is regulated by the screw, +V. The spring, L, applies tension to the break. + +_The Regulator_.--This consists of a balance and a cut-off. + +_The Balance_ (Figs. 4 and 5) is made with two solenoids. S and S', +whose relative resistances is adjustable. S conveys the main current, +and is wound with thick wire having practically no resistance, and S' +is traversed by a shunt current, and is wound with fine wire having a +resistance of 600 ohms. In the axes of these two coils a small and light +iron tube (2 mm. diameter and 60 mm. length) freely moves in a vertical +line between two guides. When magnetized it has one pole in the middle +and the other at each end. The upward motion is controlled by the +spring, N T. The spring rests upon the screw, H, with which it makes +contact by platinum electrodes. This contact is broken whenever the +little iron rod strikes the spring, N T. + +The positive lead from the dynamo is attached to the terminal, B, then +passes through the coil, S, to the terminal, B', whence it proceeds to +the lamp. The negative lead is attached to terminal, A, passing directly +to the other terminal, A', and thence to the lamp. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +The shunt which passes through the fine coil, S', commences at the +point, P. The other end is fixed to the screw, H, whence it has two +paths, the one offering no resistance through the spring, T N, to the +upper negative terminal, A'; the other through the terminal, J, to the +electromagnet of the break, M, and thence to the negative terminal of +the lamp, L'. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +_The Cut-off_.--The last part of the apparatus (Fig. 4) to be described +is the cut-off, which is used when there are several lamps in series. It +is brought into play by the switch, C D, which can be placed at E or D. +When it is at E, the negative terminal, A, is in communication with +the positive terminal, B, through the resistance, R, which equals the +resistance of the lamp, which is, therefore, out of circuit. When it is +at D the cut-off acts automatically to do the same thing when required. +This is done by a solenoid, V, which has two coils, the one of thick +wire offering no resistance, and the other of 2,000 ohms resistance. The +fine wire connects the terminals, A' and B. The solenoid has a movable +soft iron core suspended by the spring, U. It has a cross-piece of iron +which can dip into two mercury cups, G and K, when the core is sucked +into the solenoid. When this is the case, which happens when any +accident occurs to the lamp, the terminal, A, is placed in connection +with the terminal, B, through the thick wire of V and the resistance, R, +in the same way as it was done by the switch, C D. + +_Electrical Arrangement_.--The mode in which several lamps are connected +up in series is shown by Fig. 6. M is the dynamo machine. The + lead is +connected to B1 of the balance it then passes to the lamp, L, returning +to the balance, and then proceeds to each other lamp, returning finally +to the negative pole of the machine. When the current enters the balance +it passes through the coil, S, magnetizing the iron core and drawing +it downward (Fig. 4). It then passes to the lamp, L L', through the +carbons, then returns to the balance, and proceeds back to the negative +terminal of the machine. A small portion of the current is shunted off +at the point, P, passing through the coil, S', through the contact +spring, T N, to the terminal, A', and drawing the iron core in +opposition to S. The carbons are in contact, but in passing through +the lamp the current magnetizes the electromagnet, M (Fig. 2), which +attracts the armature, A B, that bites and lifts up the rod, T, with the +upper carbon, a definite and fixed distance that is easily regulated +by the screws, Y Y. The arc then is formed, and will continue to burn +steadily as long as the current remains constant. But the moment the +current falls, due to the increased resistance of the arc, a greater +proportion passes through the shunt, S' (Fig. 4), increasing its +magnetic moment on the iron core, while that of S is diminishing. The +result is that a moment arrives when equilibrium is destroyed, the iron +rod strikes smartly and sharply upon the spring, N T. Contact between T +and H is broken, and the current passes through the electromagnet of the +break in the lamp. The break is released for an instant, the carbons +approach each other. But the same rupture of contact introduces in the +shunt a new resistance of considerable magnitude (viz., 1,200 ohms), +that of the electromagnets of the break. Then the strength of the shunt +current diminishes considerably, and the solenoid, S, recovers briskly +its drawing power upon the rod, and contact is restored. The carbons +approach during these periods only about 0.01 to 0.02 millimeter. +If this is not sufficient to restore equilibrium it is repeated +continually, until equilibrium is obtained. The result is that the +carbon is continually falling by a motion invisible to the eye, but +sufficient to provide for the consumption of the carbons. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +The contact between N T and H is never completely broken, the sparks are +very feeble, and the contacts do not oxidize. The resistances inserted +are so considerable that heating cannot occur, while the portion of the +current abstracted for the control is so small that it may be neglected. + +The balance acts precisely like the key of a Morse machine, and the +break precisely like the sounder-receiver so well known in telegraphy. +It emits the same kind of sounds, and acts automatically like a skilled +and faithful telegraphist. + +This regulation, by very small and short successive steps, offers +several advantages: (1) it is imperceptible to the eye; (2) it does not +affect the main current; (3) any sudden instantaneous variation of the +main current does not allow a too near approach of the carbon points. +Let, now, an accident occur; for instance, a carbon is broken. At once +the automatic cut-off acts, the current passes through the resistance, +R, instead of passing through the lamp. The current through the fine +coil is suddenly increased, the rod is drawn in, contact is made at G +and K, and the current is sent through the coil, R. As soon as contact +is again made by the carbons, the current in the coil, S, is increased, +that of the thick wire in V diminished, and the antagonistic spring, +U, breaks the contact at G and K. The rupture of the light is almost +invisible, because the relighting is so brisk and sharp. + +I have seen this lamp in action, and its constant steadiness leaves +nothing to be desired. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR OBTAINING PURE WATER FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC USE. + + +Our readers are well aware that water as found naturally is never +absolutely free from dissolved impurities; and in ordinary cases it +contains solid impurities derived both from the inorganic and organic +kingdoms, together with gaseous substances; these latter being generally +derived from the atmosphere. + +By far the purest water which occurs in nature is rain-water, and if +this be collected in a secluded district, and after the air has been +well washed by previous rain, its purity is remarkable; the extraneous +matter consisting of little else than a trace of carbonic acid and other +gases dissolved from the air. In fact, such water is far purer than any +distilled water to be obtained in commerce. The case is very different +when the rain-water is collected in a town or densely populated +district, more especially if the water has been allowed to flow over +dirty roofs. The black and foully-smelling liquid popularly known as +soft water is so rich in carbonaceous and organic constituents as to be +of very limited use to the photographer; but by taking the precaution of +fitting up a simple automatic shunt for diverting the stream until the +roofs have been thoroughly washed, it becomes possible to insure a good +supply of clean and serviceable soft water, even in London. Several +forms of shunt have been devised, some of these being so complex as +to offer every prospect of speedy disorganization; but a simple and +efficient apparatus is figured in _Engineering_ by a correspondent who +signs himself "Millwright," and as we have thoroughly proved the value +of an apparatus which is practically identical, we reproduce the +substance of his communication. + +A gentleman of Newcastle, a retired banker, having tried various filters +to purify the rain-water collected on the roof of his house, at length +had the idea to allow no water to run into the cistern until the roof +had been well washed. After first putting up a hard-worked valve, the +arrangement as sketched below has been hit upon. Now Newcastle is a very +smoky place, and yet my friend gets water as pure as gin, and almost +absolutely free from any smack of soot. + +[Illustration] + +The sketch explains itself. The weight, W, and the angle of the lever, +L, are such, that when the valve, V, is once opened it goes full open. A +small hole in the can C, acts like a cataract, and brings matters to a +normal state very soon after the rain ceases. + +The proper action of the apparatus can only be insured by a careful +adjustment of the weight, W, the angle through which the valve opens, +and the magnitude of the vessel, C. It is an advantage to make +the vessel, C, somewhat broader in proportion to its height than +represented, and to provide it with a movable strainer placed about half +way down. This tends to protect the cataract hole, and any accumulation +of leaves and dirt can be removed once in six months or so. Clean soft +water is valuable to the photographer in very many cases. Iron developer +(wet plate) free from chlorides will ordinarily remain effective on the +plate much longer than when chlorides are present, and the pyrogallic +solution for dry-plate work will keep good for along time if made with +soft water, while the lime which is present in hard water causes the +pyrogallic acid to oxidize with considerable rapidity. Negatives that +have been developed with oxalate developer often become covered with a +very unsightly veil of calcium oxalate when rinsed with hard water, and +something of a similar character occasionally occurs in the case of +silver prints which are transferred directly from the exposure frame to +impure water. + +To the carbon printer clean rain-water is of considerable value, as he +can develop much more rapidly with soft water than with hard water; +or, what comes to the same thing, he can dissolve away his superfluous +gelatine at a lower temperature than would otherwise be necessary. + +The cleanest rain-water which can ordinarily be collected in a town is +not sufficiently pure to be used with advantage in the preparation of +the nitrate bath, it being advisable to use the purest distilled water +for this purpose; and in many cases it is well to carefully distill +water for the bath in a glass apparatus of the kind figured below. + +[Illustration] + +A, thin glass flask serving as a retort. The tube, T, is fitted +air-tight to the flask by a cork, C. + +B, receiver into which the tube, T, fits quite loosely. + +D, water vessel intended to keep the spiral of lamp wick, which is shown +as surrounding T, in a moist condition. This wick acts as a siphon, and +water is gradually drawn over into the lower receptacle, E. + +L, spirit lamp, which may, in many cases, be advantageously replaced by +a Bunsen burner. + +A small metal still, provided with a tin condensing worm, is, however, a +more generally serviceable arrangement, and if ordinary precautions are +taken to make sure that the worm tube is clean, the resulting distilled +water will be nearly as pure as that distilled in glass vessels. + +Such a still as that figured below can be heated conveniently over an +ordinary kitchen fire, and should find a place among the appliances +of every photographer. Distilled water should always be used in the +preparation of emulsion, as the impurities of ordinary water may often +introduce disturbing conditions.--_Photographic News_. + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + + + + +BLACK PHOSPHORUS. + +By P. THENARD. + + +The author refers to the customary view that black phosphorus is +merely a mixture of the ordinary phosphorus with traces of a metallic +phosphide, and contends that this explanation is not in all cases +admissible. A specimen of black or rather dark gray phosphorus, which +the author submitted to the Academy, became white if melted and remained +white if suddenly cooled, but if allowed to enter into a state of +superfusion it became again black on contact with either white or black +phosphorus. A portion of the black specimen being dissolved in carbon +disulphide there remained undissolved merely a trace of a very pale +yellow matter which seemed to be amorphous phosphorus.--_Comptes +Rendus_. + + * * * * * + + + + +COMPOSITION OF STEEP WATER. + + +According to M. C. Leeuw, water in which malt has been steeped has the +following composition: + + Organic matter. 0.56 per cent. + Mineral matter. 0.52 " + ---- + Total dry matter. 1.08 " + ---- + Nitrogen. 0.033 " + +The mineral matter consists of-- + + Potash. 0.193 " + Phosphoric acid. 0.031 " + Lime. 0.012 " + Soda. 0.047 " + Magnesia. 0.016 " + Sulphuric acid. 0.007 " + Oxide of iron. traces. + Chlorine and silica. 0.212 " + + * * * * * + + + + +SCHREIBER'S APPARATUS FOR REVIVIFYING BONE-BLACK. + + +We give opposite illustrations of Schreiber's apparatus for revivifying +bone-black or animal charcoal. The object of revivification is to render +the black fit to be used again after it has lost its decolorizing +properties through service--that is to say, to free its pores from the +absorbed salts and insoluble compounds that have formed therein +during the operation of sugar refining. There are two methods +employed--fermentation and washing. At present the tendency is to +abandon the former in order to proceed with as small a stock of black as +possible, and to adopt the method of washing with water and acid in a +rotary washer. + +Figs. 1 and 2 represent a plan and elevation of a bone-black room, +containing light filters, A, arranged in a circle around wells, B. These +latter have the form of a prism with trapezoidal base, whose small sides +end at the same point, d, and the large ones at the filter. The funnel, +E, of the washer, F, is placed in the space left by the small ends of +the wells, so that the black may be taken from these latter and thrown +directly into the washer. The washer is arranged so that the black may +flow out near the steam fitter, G, beneath the floor. The discharge of +this filter is toward the side of the elevator, H, which takes in the +wet black below, and carries it up and pours it into the drier situated +at the upper part of the furnace. This elevator, Figs. 3 and 4, is +formed of two vertical wooden uprights, A, ten centimeters in thickness, +to which are fixed two round-iron bars the same as guides. The lift, +properly so-called, consists of an iron frame, C, provided at the four +angles with rollers, D, and supporting a swinging bucket, E, which, on +its arrival at the upper part of the furnace, allows the black to fall +to an inclined plane that leads it to the upper part of the drier. The +left is raised and lowered by means of a pitch-chain, F, fixed to the +middle of the frame, C, and passing over two pulleys, G, at the upper +part of the frame and descending to the mechanism that actuates it. +This latter comprises a nut, I, acting directly on the chain; a toothed +wheel, K, and a pinion, J, gearing with the latter and keyed upon the +shaft of the pulleys, L and M. The diameter of the toothed wheel, K, is +0.295 of a meter, and it makes 53.4 revolutions per minute. The diameter +of the pinion is 0.197 of a meter, and it makes 80 revolutions per +minute. The pulleys, M and L, are 0.31 of a meter in diameter, and +make 80 revolutions per minute. Motion is transmitted to them by other +pulleys, N, keyed upon a shaft placed at the lower part, which receives +its motion from the engine of the establishment through the intermedium +of the pulley, O. The diameter of the latter is 0.385 of a meter, and +that of N is 0.58. They each make 43 revolutions per minute. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ELEVATION OF BONE-BLACK REVIVIFYING PLANT +(SCHREIBER'S SYSTEM.) + +FIG. 2.--PLAN VIEW. + +FIG. 3.--LATERAL VIEW OF ELEVATOR. + +FIG. 4.--FRONT VIEW OF ELEVATOR. + +FIG. 5.--CONTINUOUS FURNACE FOR REVIVIFYING BONE-BLACK.] + +The elevator is set in motion by the simple maneuver of the gearing +lever, P, and when this has been done all the other motions are effected +automatically. + +_The Animal Black Furnace_.--This consists of a masonry casing of +rectangular form, in which are arranged on each side of the same +fire-place two rows of cast-iron retorts, D, of undulating form, each +composed of three parts, set one within the other. These retorts, which +serve for the revivification of the black, are incased in superposed +blocks of refractory clay, P, Q, S, designed to regularize the +transmission of heat and to prevent burning. These pieces are kept in +their respective places by crosspieces, R. The space between the retorts +occupied by the fire-place, Y, is covered with a cylindrical dome, O, of +refractory tiles, forming a fire-chamber with the inner surface of the +blocks, P, Q, and S. The front of the surface consists of a cast-iron +plate, containing the doors to the fire-place and ash pan, and a larger +one to allow of entrance to the interior to make repairs. + +One of the principal disadvantages of furnaces for revivifying animal +charcoal has been that they possessed no automatic drier for drying the +black on its exit from the washer. It was for the purpose of remedying +this that Mr. Schreiber was led to invent the automatic system of drying +shown at the upper part of the furnace, and which is formed of two +pipes, B, of undulating form, like the retorts, with openings throughout +their length for the escape of steam. Between these pipes there is a +closed space into which enters the waste heat and products of combustion +from the furnace. These latter afterward escape through the chimney at +the upper part. + +In order that the black may be put in bags on issuing from the furnace, +it must be cooled as much as possible. For this purpose there are +arranged on each side of the furnace two pieces of cast iron tubes, F, +of rectangular section, forming a prolongation of the retorts and making +with them an angle of about 45 degrees. The extremities of these tubes +terminate in hollow rotary cylinders, G, which permit of regulating the +flow of the black into a car, J (Fig. 1), running on rails. + +From what precedes, it will be readily understood how a furnace is run +on this plan. + +The bone-black in the hopper, A, descends into the drier, B, enters the +retorts, D, and, after revivification, passes into the cooling pipes, F, +from whence it issues cold and ready to be bagged. A coke fire having +been built in the fire-place, Y, the flames spread throughout the fire +chamber, direct themselves toward the bottom, divide into two parts to +the right and left, and heat the back of the retorts in passing. Then +the two currents mount through the lateral flues, V, and unite so as to +form but one in the drier. Within the latter there are arranged plates +designed to break the current from the flames, and allow it to heat all +the inner parts of the pipes, while the apertures in the drier allow of +the escape of the steam. + +By turning one of the cylinders, G, so as to present its aperture +opposite that of the cooler, it instantly fills up with black. At this +moment the whole column, from top to bottom, is set in motion. The +bone-black, in passing through the undulations, is thrown alternately to +the right and left until it finally reaches the coolers. This operation +is repeated as many times as the cylinder is filled during the descent +of one whole column, that is to say, about forty times. + +With an apparatus of the dimensions here described, 120 hectoliters +of bone-black may be revivified in twenty four hours, with 360 to 400 +kilogrammes of coke.--_Annales Industrielles_. + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 330, page 5264.] + + + + +SOAP AND ITS MANUFACTURE, FROM A CONSUMER'S POINT OF VIEW. + + +In our last article, under the above heading, the advantages to be +gained by the use of potash soap as compared with soda soap were pointed +out, and the reasons of this superiority, especially in the case of +washing wool or woolen fabrics, were pretty fully gone into. It was also +further explained why the potash soaps generally sold to the public were +unfit for general use, owing to their not being neutral--that is to say, +containing a considerable excess of free or unsaponified alkali, which +acts injuriously on the fiber of any textile material, and causes sore +hands if used for household or laundry purposes. It was shown that the +cause of this defect was owing to the old-fashioned method of making +potash or soft soap, by boiling with wood ashes or other impure form of +potash; but that a perfectly pure and neutral potash soap could readily +be made with pure caustic potash, which within the last few years has +become a commercial article, manufactured on a large scale; just in +the same manner as the powdered 98 per cent. caustic soda, which was +recommended in our previous articles on making hard soap without +boiling. + +The process of making pure neutral potash soap is very simple, and +almost identical with that for making hard soap with pure powdered +caustic soda. The following directions, if carefully and exactly +followed, will produce a first-class potash soap, suitable either for +the woolen manufacturer for washing his wool, and the cloth afterward +made from it, or for household and laundry purposes, for which uses it +will be found far superior to any soda soap, no matter how pure or well +made it may be. + +Dissolve twenty pounds of pure caustic potash in two gallons of water. +Pure caustic potash is very soluble, and dissolves almost immediately, +heating the water. Let the lye thus made cool until warm to the +hand--say about 90 F. Melt eighty pounds of tallow or grease, which must +be free from salt, and let it cool until fairly hot to the hand--say +130 F.; or eighty pounds of any vegetable or animal oil may be taken +instead. Now pour the caustic potash lye into the melted tallow or oil, +stirring with a flat wooden stirrer about three inches broad, until both +are thoroughly mixed and smooth in appearance. This mixing may be done +in the boiler used to melt the tallow, or in a tub, or half an oil +barrel makes a good mixing vessel. Wrap the tub or barrel well up in +blankets or sheepskins, and put away for a week in some warm dry place, +during which the mixture slowly turns into soap, giving a produce of +about 120 pounds of excellent potash soap. If this soap is made with +tallow or grease it will be nearly as hard as soda soap. When made by +farmers or householders tallow or grease will generally be taken, as it +is the cheapest, and ready to hand on the spot. For manufacturers, or +for making laundry soap, nothing could be better than cotton seed oil. A +magnificent soap can be made with this article, lathering very freely. +When made with oil it is better to remelt in a kettle the potash soap, +made according to the above directions, with half its weight of water, +using very little heat, stirring constantly, and removing the fire as +soon as the water is mixed with and taken up by the soap. A beautifully +bright soap is obtained in this way, and curiously the soap is actually +made much harder and stiffer by this addition of water than when it is +in a more concentrated state previously to the water being added. + +With reference to the caustic potash for making the soap, it can be +obtained in all sizes of drums, but small packages just sufficient for +a batch of soap are generally more economical than larger packages, as +pure caustic potash melts and deteriorates very quickly when exposed +to the air. The Greenbank Alkali Co., of St. Helens, seems to have +appreciated this, and put upon the market pure caustic potash in twenty +pound canisters, which are very convenient for potash soft soap making +by consumers for their own use. + +While on this subject of caustic potash, it cannot be too often repeated +that _caustic potash_ is a totally different article to _caustic soda_, +though just like it in appearance, and therefore often sold as such. +One of the most barefaced instances of this is the so-called "crystal +potash," "ball potash," or "rock potash," of the lye packers, sold in +one pound packages, which absolutely, without exception, do not contain +a single grain of potash, but simply consist of caustic soda more or +less adulterated--as a rule very much "more" than "less!" It is much +to be regretted that this fraud on the public has been so extensively +practiced, as potash has been greatly discredited by this procedure. + +The subject of fleece scouring or washing the wool while growing on +the sheep, with a potash soap made on the spot with the waste tallow +generally to be had on every sheep farm, seems recently to have been +attracting attention in some quarters, and certainly would be a source +of profit to sheep owners by putting their wool on the market in the +best condition, and at the same time cleaning the skin of the sheep. It +therefore appears to be a move in the right direction. + +In concluding this series of articles on practical soap making from a +consumer's point of view, the writer hopes that, although the subject +has been somewhat imperfectly handled, owing to necessarily limited +space and with many unavoidable interruptions, yet that they may have +been found of some interest and assistance to consumers of soap who +desire easily and readily to make a pure and unadulterated article for +their own use. + + * * * * * + + + + +COTTON SEED OIL. + +By S.S. BRADFORD, Ph.G. + + +Having had occasion during the last six years to manufacture lead +plaster in considerable quantities, it occurred to me that cotton seed +oil might be used instead of olive oil, at less expense, and with as +good results. The making of this plaster with cotton seed oil has been +questioned, as, according to some authorities, the product is not of +good consistence, and is apt to be soft, sticky, and dark colored; +but in my experience such is not the case. If the U. S. P. process is +followed in making this plaster, substituting for the olive oil cotton +seed oil, and instead of one half-pint of boiling water one and one-half +pint are added, the product obtained will be equally as good as that +from olive oil. My results with this oil in making lead plaster led me +to try it in making the different liniments of the Pharmacopoeia, with +the following results: + +_Linimentum Ammoniae_.--This liniment, made with cotton seed oil, is of +much better consistency than when made with olive oil. It is not so +thick, will pour easily out of the bottle, and if the ammonia used is of +proper strength, will make a perfect liniment. + +_Linimentum Calcis_.--Cotton seed oil is not at all adapted to making +this liniment. It does not readily saponify, separates quickly, and it +is almost impossible to unite when separated. + +_Linimentum Camphorae_.--Cotton seed oil is far superior to olive oil in +making this liniment, it being a much better solvent of camphor. It has +not that disagreeable odor so commonly found in the liniment. + +_Linimentum Chloroformi_.--Cotton seed oil being very soluble in +chloroform, the liniment made with it leaves nothing to be desired. + +_Linimentum Plumbi Subacetatis_.--When liq. plumbi subacet. is mixed +with cotton seed oil and allowed to stand for some time the oil assumes +a reddish color similar to that of freshly made tincture of myrrh. When +the liquor is mixed with olive oil, if the oil be pure, no such change +takes place. Noticing this change, it occurred to me that this would be +a simple and easy way to detect cotton seed oil when mixed with olive +oil. This change usually takes place after standing from twelve to +twenty-four hours. It is easily detected in mixtures containing five +per cent., or even less, of the oils, and I am convinced, after making +numerous experiments with different oils, that it is peculiar to cotton +seed oil.--_American Journal of Pharmacy_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE FOOD AND ENERGY OF MAN. + +[Footnote: From a lecture delivered at the Sanitary Congress, at +Newcastle-on-Tyne, September 28, 1882.] + +By PROF. DE CHAUMONT, F.R.S. + + +Although eating cannot be said to be in any way a new fashion, it has +nevertheless been reserved for modern times, and indeed we may say the +present generation, to get a fairly clear idea of the way in which +food is really utilized for the work of our bodily frame. We must not, +however, plume ourselves too much upon our superior knowledge, for +inklings of the truth, more or less dim, have been had through all ages, +and we are now stepping into the inheritance of times gone by, using the +long and painful experience of our predecessors as the stepping-stone +to our more accurate knowledge of the present time. In this, as in many +other things, we are to some extent in the position of a dwarf on the +shoulders of a giant; the dwarf may, indeed, see further than the giant; +but he remains a dwarf, and the giant a giant. + +The question has been much discussed as to what the original food of man +was, and some people have made it a subject of excited contention. The +most reasonable conclusion is that man is naturally a frugivorous or +fruit-eating animal, like his cousins the monkeys, whom he still so +much resembles. This forms a further argument in favor of his being +originated in warm regions, where fruits of all kinds were plentiful. It +is pretty clear that the resort to animal food, whether the result of +the pressure of want from failure of vegetable products, or a mere taste +and a desire for change and more appetizing food, is one that took place +many ages ago, probably in the earliest anthropoid, if not in the latest +pithecoid stage. No doubt some advantage was recognized in the more +rapid digestion and the comparative ease with which the hunter or fisher +could obtain food, instead of waiting for the ripening of fruits in +countries which had more or less prolonged periods of cold and inclement +weather. Some anatomical changes have doubtless resulted from the +practice, but they are not of sufficiently marked character to found +much argument upon; all that we can say being that the digestive +apparatus in man seems well adapted for digesting any food that is +capable of yielding nutriment, and that even when an entire change is +made in the mode of feeding, the adaptability of the human system +shows itself in a more or less rapid accommodation to the altered +circumstances. + +Food, then, is any substance which can be taken into the body and +applied to use, either in building up or repairing the tissues and +framework of the body itself, or in providing energy and producing +animal heat, or any substance which, without performing those functions +directly, controls, directs, or assists their performance. With this +wide definition it is evident that we include all the ordinary articles +recognized commonly as food, and that we reject all substances +recognized commonly as poisons. But it will also include such substances +as water and air, both of which are essential for nutrition, but are not +usually recognized as belonging to the list of food substances in the +ordinary sense. When we carry our investigation further, we find that +the organic substances may be again divided into two distinct classes, +namely, that which contains nitrogen (the casein), and those that do not +(the butter and sugar). + +On ascertaining this, we are immediately struck with the remarkable fact +that all the tissues and fluids of the body, muscles (or flesh), +bone, blood--all, in short, except the fat--contain nitrogen, and, +consequently, for their building up in the young, and for their repair +and renewal in the adult, nitrogen is absolutely required. We therefore +reasonably infer that the nitrogenous substance is necessary for this +purpose. Experiment has borne this out, for men who have been compelled +to live without nitrogenous food by dire necessity, and criminals on +whom the experiment has been tried, have all perished sooner or later in +consequence. When nitrogenous substances are used in the body, they +are, of course, broken up and oxidized, or perhaps we ought to say more +accurately, they take the place of the tissues of the body which wear +away and are carried off by oxidation and other chemical changes. + +Now, modern science tell us that such changes are accompanied with +manifestations of energy in some form or other, most frequently in +that of heat, and we must look, therefore, upon nitrogenous food +as contributing to the energy of the body in addition to its other +functions. + +What are the substances which we may class as nitrogenous. In the first +place, we have the typical example of the purest form in _albumin_, +or white of egg; and from this the name is now given to the class of +_albuminates_. The animal albuminates are: Albumin from eggs, fibrin +from muscles, or flesh, myosin, or synronin, also from animals, casein +(or cheesy matter) from milk, and the nitrogenous substances from blood. +In the vegetable kingdom, we have glutin, or vegetable fibrin, which is +the nourishing constituent of wheat, barley, oats, etc.; and legumin, +or vegetable casein, which is the peculiar substance found in peas and +beans. The other organic constituents--viz., the fats and the starches +and sugars--contain no nitrogen, and were at one time thought to be +concerned in producing animal heat. + +We now know--thanks to the labors of Joule, Lyon Playfair, Clausius, +Tyndall, Helmholtz, etc.--that heat itself is a mode of motion, a form +of convertible energy, which can be made to do useful or productive +work, and be expressed in terms of actual work done. Modern experiment +shows that all our energy is derived from that of food, and, in +particular from the non-nitrogenous part of it, that is, the fat, +starch, and sugar. The nutrition of man is best maintained when he is +provided with a due admixture of all the four classes of aliment which +we have mentioned, and not only that, but he is also better off if he +has a variety of each class. Thus he may and ought to have albumen, +fibrine, gluten, and casein among the albuminates, or at least two of +them; butter and lard, or suet, or oil among the fats; starch of wheat, +potato, rice, peas, etc., and cane-sugar, and milk-sugar among the +carbo-hydrates. The salts cannot be replaced, so far as we know. Life +may be maintained in fair vigor for some time on albuminates only, but +this is done at the expense of the tissues, especially the fat of the +body, and the end must soon come; with fat and carbo hydrates alone +vigor may also be maintained for some time, at the expense of the +tissues also, but the limit is a near one, In either of these cases we +suppose sufficient water and salts to be provided. + +We must now inquire into the quantities of food necessary; and this +necessitates a little consideration of the way in which the work of +the body is carried on. We must look upon the human body exactly as a +machine; like an engine with which we are all so familiar. A certain +amount of work requires to be done, say, a certain number of miles of +distance to be traversed; we know that to do this a certain number of +pounds, or hundredweights, or tons of coal must be put into the fire of +the boiler in order to furnish the requisite amount of energy through +the medium of steam. This amount of fuel must bear a certain proportion +to the work, and also to the velocity with which it is done, so both +quantity and time have to be accounted for. + +No lecture on diet would be complete without a reference to the vexed +question of alcohol. I am no teetotal advocate, and I repudiate the +rubbish too often spouted from teetotal platforms, talk that is, +perhaps, inseparable from the advocacy of a cause that imports a good +deal of enthusiasm. I am at one, however, in recognizing the evils of +excess, and would gladly hail their diminution. But I believe that +alcohol properly used may be a comfort and a blessing, just as I know +that improperly used it becomes a bane and a curse. But we are now +concerned with it as an article of diet in relation to useful work, and +it may be well to call attention markedly to the fact that its use in +this way is very limited. The experiments of the late Dr. Parkes, made +in our laboratory, at Netley, were conclusive on the point, that beyond +an amount that would be represented by about one and a half to two pints +of beer, alcohol no longer provided any convertible energy, and that, +therefore, to take it in the belief that it did do so is an error. +It may give a momentary stimulus in considerable doses, but this is +invariably followed by a corresponding depression, and it is a maxim now +generally followed, especially on service, never to give it before or +during work. There are, of course, some persons who are better without +it altogether, and so all moderation ought to be commended, if not +enjoyed. + +There are other beverages which are more useful than the alcoholic, +as restoratives, and for support in fatigue. Tea and coffee are +particularly good. Another excellent restorative is a weak solution +of Liebig's extract of meat, which has a remarkable power of removing +fatigue. Perhaps one of the most useful and most easily obtainable is +weak oatmeal gruel, either hot or cold. With regard to tobacco, it also +has some value in lessening fatigue in those who are able to take it, +but it may easily be carried to excess. Of it we may say, as of alcohol, +that in moderation it seems harmless, and even useful to some extent, +but, in excess, it is rank poison. + +There is one other point which I must refer to, and which is especially +interesting to a great seaport like this. This is the question of +scurvy--a question of vital importance to a maritime nation. A paper +lately issued by Mr. Thomas Gray, of the Board of Trade, discloses the +regrettable fact that since 1873 there has been a serious falling off, +the outbreaks of scurvy having again increased until they reached +ninety-nine in 1881. This, Mr. Gray seems to think, is due to a neglect +of varied food scales; but it may also very probably have arisen from +the neglect of the regulation about lime-juice, either as to issue or +quality, or both. But it is also a fact of very great importance that +mere monotony of diet has a most serious effect upon health; variety +of food is not merely a pandering to gourmandism or greed, but a real +sanitary benefit, aiding digestion and assimilation. Our Board of Trade +has nothing to do with the food scales of ships, but Mr. Gray hints that +the Legislature will have to interfere unless shipowners look to it +themselves. The ease with which preserved foods of all kinds can be +obtained and carried now removes the last shadow of an excuse for +backwardness in this matter, and in particular the provision of a large +supply of potatoes, both fresh and dried, ought to be an unceasing care; +this is done on board American ships, and to this is doubtless owing in +a great part the healthiness of their crews. Scurvy in the present +day is a disgrace to shipowners and masters; and if public opinion is +insufficient to protect the seamen, the legislature will undoubtedly +step in and do so. + +And now let me close by pointing out that the study of this commonplace +matter of eating and drinking opens out to us the conception of the +grand unity of nature; since we see that the body of man differs in no +way essentially from other natural combinations, but is subject to +the same universal physical laws, in which there is no blindness, no +variableness, no mere chance, and disobedience of which is followed as +surely by retribution as even the keenest eschatologist might desire. + + * * * * * + + + + +RATTLESNAKE POISON. + +By HENRY H. CROFT. + + +Some time since, in a paper to which I am unfortunately unable to refer, +a French chemist affirmed that the poisonous principle in snakes, or +eliminated by snakes, was of the nature of an alkaloid, and gave a name +to this class of bodies. + +Mr. Pedler has shown that snake poison is destroyed or neutralized +by means of platinic chloride, owing probably to the formation of an +insoluble double platinic chloride, such as is formed with almost if not +all alkaloids. + +In this country (Texas) where rattlesnakes are very common, and persons +camping out much exposed to their bites, a very favorite anecdote, or +_remedia_ as the Mexicans cull it, is a strong solution of iodine in +potassium iodide.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The solution is applied as soon as possible to the wound, +preferably enlarged, and a few drops taken internally. The common +Mexican _remedia_ is the root of the _Agave virginica_ mashed or chewed +and applied to the wound, while part is swallowed. + +Great faith is placed in this root by all residents here, who are seldom +I without it, but, I have had no experience of it myself; and the +internal administration is no doubt useless. + +Even the wild birds know of this root; the queer paisano (? ground +woodpecker) which eats snakes, when wounded by a _vibora de cascabel_, +runs into woods, digs up and eats a root of the agave, just like the +mongoose; but more than that, goes back, polishes off his enemy, and +eats him. This has been told me by Mexicans who, it may be remarked, are +not _always_ reliable.] + +I have had occasion to prove the efficacy of this mixture in two cases +of _cascabel_ bites, one on a buck, the other on a dog; and it occurred +to me that the same explanation of its action might be given as above +for the platinum salt, viz., the formation of an insoluble iodo compound +as with ordinary alkaloids if the snake poison really belongs to this +class. + +Having last evening killed a moderate sized rattlesnake--_Crotalus +horridus_--which had not bitten anything, I found the gland fully +charged with the white opaque poison; on adding iodine solution to a +drop of this a dense light-brown precipitate was immediately formed, +quite similar to that obtained with most alkaloids, exhibiting under the +microscope no crystalline structure. + +In the absence of iodine a good extemporaneous solution for testing +alkaloids, and perhaps a snake poison antidote, may be made by adding a +few drops of ferric chloride to solution of potassium of iodide; this +is a very convenient test agent which I used in my laboratory for many +years. + +Although rattlesnake poison could be obtained here in very considerable +quantity, it is out of my power to make such experiments as I could +desire, being without any chemical appliances and living a hundred miles +or more from any laboratory. The same may be said with regard to books, +and possibly the above iodine reaction has been already described. + +Dr. Richards states that the cobra poison is destroyed by potassium +permanganate; but this is no argument in favor of that salt as an +antidote. Mr. Pedler also refers to it, but allows that it would not be +probably of any use after the poison had been absorbed. Of this I +think there can be no doubt, remembering the easy decomposition of +permanganate by most organic substances, and I cannot but think that the +medicinal or therapeutic advantages of that salt, taken internally, are +equally problematical, unless the action is supposed to take place in +the stomach. + +In the bladder of the same rattlesnake I found a considerable +quantity of light-brown amorphous ammonium urate, the urine pale +yellow.--_Chemical News_. + +Hermanitas Ranch, Texas. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CHINESE SIGN MANUAL. + +[Footnote: Dr. D. J. Macgowan, in Medical Reports of China. 1881.] + + +Two writers in _Nature_, both having for their theme "Skin-furrows on +the Hand," solicit information on the subject from China.[1] As the +subject is considered to have a bearing on medical jurisprudence and +ethnology as well, this report is a suitable vehicle for responding to +the demand. + +[Footnote 1: Henry Faulds, Tzukiyi Hospital, Tokio, Japan. W. J. +Herschel, Oxford, England.--_Nature_, 28th October and 25th November, +1880.] + +Dr. Faulds' observations on the finger-tips of the Japanese have an +ethnic bearing and relate to the subject of heredity. Mr. Herschel +considers the subject as an agent of Government, he having charge for +twenty years of registration offices in India, where he employed finger +marks as sign manuals, the object being to prevent personation and +repudiation. Doolittle, in his "Social Life of the Chinese," describes +the custom. I cannot now refer to native works where the practice of +employing digital rugae as a sign manual is alluded to. I doubt if its +employment in the courts is of ancient date. Well-informed natives think +that it came into vogue subsequent to the Han period; if so, it is in +Egypt that earliest evidence of the practice is to be found. Just as the +Chinese courts now require criminals to sign confessions by impressing +thereto the whorls of their thumb-tips--the right thumb in the case of +women, the left in the case of men--so the ancient Egyptians, it +is represented, required confessions to be sealed with their +thumbnails--most likely the tip of the digit, as in China. Great +importance is attached in the courts to this digital form of signature, +"finger form." Without a confession no criminal can be legally executed, +and the confession to be valid must be attested by the thumb-print +of the prisoner. No direct coercion is employed to secure this; a +contumacious culprit may, however, be tortured until he performs the +act which is a prerequisite to his execution. Digital signatures are +sometimes required in the army to prevent personation; the general +in command at Wenchow enforces it on all his troops. A document thus +attested can no more be forged or repudiated than a photograph--not so +easily, for while the period of half a lifetime effects great changes +in the physiognomy, the rugae of the fingers present the same appearance +from the cradle to the grave; time writes no wrinkles there. In the +army everywhere, when the description of a person is written down, the +relative number of volutes and coniferous finger-tips is noted. It +is called taking the "whelk striae," the fusiform being called "rice +baskets," and the volutes "peck measures." A person unable to write, the +form of signature which defies personation or repudiation is required in +certain domestic cases, as in the sale of children or women. Often when +a child is sold the parents affix their finger marks to the bill of +sale; when a husband puts away his wife, giving her a bill of divorce, +he marks the document with his entire palm; and when a wife is sold, the +purchaser requires the seller to stamp the paper with hands and feet, +the four organs duly smeared with ink. Professional fortune tellers in +China take into account almost the entire system of the person whose +future they attempt to forecast, and of course they include palmistry, +but the rugae of the finger-ends do not receive much attention. Amateur +fortune-tellers, however, discourse as glibly on them as phrenologists +do of "bumps"--it is so easy. In children the relative number of volute +and conical striae indicate their future. "If there are nine volutes," +says a proverb, "to one conical, the boy will attain distinction without +toil." + +Regarded from an ethnological point of view, I can discover merely that +the rugae of Chinamen's fingers differ from Europeans', but there is so +little uniformity observable that they form no basis for distinction, +and while the striae may be noteworthy points in certain medico-legal +questions, heredity is not one of them. + + * * * * * + + + + +LUCIDITY. + + +At the close of an interesting address lately delivered at the reopening +of the Liverpool University College and School of Medicine, Mr. Matthew +Arnold said if there was one word which he should like to plant in the +memories of his audience, and to leave sticking there after he had gone, +it was the word _lucidity_. If he had to fix upon the three great wants +at this moment of the three principal nations of Europe, he should say +that the great want of the French was morality, that the great want of +the Germans was civil courage, and that our own great want was lucidity. +Our own want was, of course, what concerned us the most. People were apt +to remark the defects which accompanied certain qualities, and to think +that the qualities could not be desirable because of the defects which +they saw accompanying them. There was no greater and salutary lesson for +men to learn than that a quality may be accompanied, naturally perhaps, +by grave dangers; that it may actually present itself accompanied by +terrible defects, and yet that it might itself be indispensable. Let him +illustrate what he meant by an example, the force of which they would +all readily feel. Seriousness was a quality of our nation. Perhaps +seriousness was always accompanied by certain dangers. But, at any rate, +many of our French neighbors would say that they found our seriousness +accompanied by so many false ideas, so much prejudice, so much that was +disagreeable, that it could not have the value which we attributed to +it. And yet we knew that it was invaluable. Let them follow the same +mode of reasoning as to the quality of lucidity. The French had a +national turn for lucidity as we had a national turn for seriousness. +Perhaps a national turn for lucidity carried with it always certain +dangers. Be this as it might, it was certain that we saw in the French, +along with their lucidity, a want of seriousness, a want of reverence, +and other faults, which greatly displeased us. Many of us were inclined +in consequence to undervalue their lucidity, or to deny that they +had it. We were wrong: it existed as our seriousness existed; it was +valuable as our seriousness was valuable. Both the one and the other +were valuable, and in the end indispensable. + +What was lucidity? It was negatively that the French have it, and he +would therefore deal with its negative character merely. Negatively, +lucidity was the perception of the want of truth and validness in +notions long current, the perception that they are no longer possible, +that their time is finished, and they can serve us no more. All through +the last century a prodigious travail for lucidity was going forward +in France. Its principal agent was a man whose name excited generally +repulsion in England, Voltaire. Voltaire did a great deal of harm in +France. But it was not by his lucidity that he did harm; he did it by +his want of seriousness, his want of reverence, his want of sense for +much that is deepest in human nature. But by his lucidity he did good. + +All admired Luther. Conduct was three-fourths of life, and a man who +worked for conduct, therefore, worked for more than a man who worked for +intelligence. But having promised this, it might be said that the Luther +of the eighteenth century and of the cultivated classes was Voltaire. +As Luther had an antipathy to what was immoral, so Voltaire had an +antipathy to what was absurd, and both of them made war upon the object +of their antipathy with such masterly power, with so much conviction, +so much energy, so much genius, that they carried their world with +them--Luther his Protestant world, and Voltaire his French world--and +the cultivated classes throughout the continent of Europe generally. + +Voltaire had more than negative lucidity; he had the large and true +conception that a number and equilibrium of activities were necessary +for man. "_Il faut douner a notre ame toutes les formes possibles_" +was a maxim which Voltaire really and truly applied in practice, +"advancing," as Michelet finely said of him, in every direction with +a marvelous vigor and with that conquering ambition which Vico called +_mens heroica_. Nevertheless. Voltaire's signal characteristic was his +lucidity, his negative lucidity. + +There was a great and free intellectual movement in England in the +eighteenth century--indeed, it was from England that it passed into +France; but the English had not that strong natural bent for lucidity +which the French had. Its bent was toward other things in preference. +Our leading thinkers had not the genius and passion for lucidity which +distinguished Voltaire. In their free inquiry they soon found themselves +coming into collision with a number of established facts, beliefs, +conventions. Thereupon all sorts of practical considerations began to +sway them. The danger signal went up, they often stopped short, turned +their eyes another way, or drew down a curtain between themselves and +the light. "It seems highly probable," said Voltaire, "that nature has +made thinking a portion of the brain, as vegetation is a function of +trees; that we think by the brain just as we walk by the feet." So our +reason, at least, would lead us to conclude, if the theologians did not +assure us of the contrary; such, too, was the opinion of Locke, but he +did not venture to announce it. The French Revolution came, England grew +to abhor France, and was cut off from the Continent, did great things, +gained much, but not in lucidity. The Continent was reopened, the +century advanced, time and experience brought their lessons, lovers of +free and clear thought, such as the late John Stuart Mill, arose among +us. But we could not say that they had by any means founded among us the +reign of lucidity. + +Let them consider that movement of which we were hearing so much just +now: let them look at the Salvation Army and its operations. They would +see numbers, funds, energy, devotedness, excitement, conversions, and +a total absence of lucidity. A little lucidity would make the whole +movement impossible. That movement took for granted as its basis what +was no longer possible or receivable; its adherents proceeded in all +they did on the assumption that that basis was perfectly solid, and +neither saw that it was not solid, nor ever even thought of asking +themselves whether it was solid or not. + +Taking a very different movement, and one of far higher dignity and +import, they had all had before their minds lately the long-devoted, +laborious, influential, pure, pathetic life of Dr. Pusey, which had just +ended. Many of them had also been reading in the lively volumes of that +acute, but not always good-natured rattle, Mr. Mozley, an account of +that great movement which took from Dr. Pusey its earlier name. Of its +later stage of Ritualism they had had in this country a now celebrated +experience. This movement was full of interest. It had produced men to +be respected, men to be admired, men to be beloved, men of learning, +goodness, genius, and charm. But could they resist the truth that +lucidity would have been fatal to it? The movers of all those questions +about apostolical succession, church patristic authority, primitive +usage, postures, vestments--questions so passionately debated, and on +which he would not seek to cast ridicule--did not they all begin by +taking for granted something no longer possible or receivable, build on +this basis as if it were indubitably solid, and fail to see that their +basis not being solid, all they built upon it was fantastic? + +He would not say that negative lucidity was in itself a satisfactory +possession, but he said that it was inevitable and indispensable, and +that it was the condition of all serious construction for the future. +Without it at present a man or a nation was intellectually and +spiritually all abroad. If they saw it accompanied in France by much +that they shrank from, they should reflect that in England it would +have influences joined with it which it had not in France--the natural +seriousness of the people, their sense of reverence and respect, their +love for the past. Come it must; and here where it had been so late in +coming, it would probably be for the first time seen to come without +danger. + +Capitals were natural centers of mental movement, and it was natural for +the classes with most leisure, most freedom, most means of cultivation, +and most conversance with the wide world to have lucidity though often +they had it not. To generate a spirit of lucidity in provincial towns, +and among the middle classes bound to a life of much routine and plunged +in business, was more difficult. Schools and universities, with serious +and disinterested studies, and connecting those studies the one with the +other and continuing them into years of manhood, were in this case the +best agency they could use. It might be slow, but it was sure. Such +an agency they were now going to employ. Might it fulfill all their +expectations! Might their students, in the words quoted just now, +advance in every direction with a marvelous vigor, and with that +conquering ambition which Vico called _mens heroica_! And among the many +good results of this, might one result be the acquisition in their midst +of that indispensable spirit--the spirit of lucidity! + + * * * * * + + + + +ON SOME APPARATUS THAT PERMIT OF ENTERING FLAMES. + +[Footnote: A. de Rochas in the _Revue Scientifique_.] + + +In the following notes I shall recall a few experiments that indicate +under what conditions the human organism is permitted to remain unharmed +amid flames. These experiments were published in England in 1882, in the +twelfth letter from Brewster to Walter Scott on natural magic. They are, +I believe, not much known in France, and possess a practical interest +for those who are engaged in the art of combating fires. + +At the end of the last century Humphry Davy observed that, on placing a +very fine wire gauze over a flame, the latter was cooled to such a +point that it could not traverse the meshes. This phenomenon, which he +attributed to the conductivity and radiating power of the metal, he soon +utilized in the construction of a lamp for miners. + +Some years afterward Chevalier Aldini, of Milan, conceived the idea of +making a new application of Davy's discovery in the manufacture of an +envelope that should permit a man to enter into the midst of flames. +This envelope, which was made of metallic gauze with 1-25th of an inch +meshes, was composed of five pieces, as follows: (1) a helmet, with +mask, large enough, to allow a certain space between it and the internal +bonnet of which I shall speak; (2) a cuirass with armlets; (3) a skirt +for the lower part of the belly and the thighs; (4) a pair of boots +formed of a double wire gauze; and (5) a shield five feet long by one +and a half wide, formed of metallic gauze stretched over a light iron +frame. Beneath this armor the experimenter was clad in breeches and a +close coat of coarse cloth that had previously been soaked in a solution +of alum. The head, hands, and feet were covered by envelopes of asbestos +cloth whose fibers were about a half millimeter in diameter. The bonnet +contained apertures for the eyes, nose, and ears, and consisted of a +single thickness of fabric, as did the stockings, but the gloves were of +double thickness, so that the wearer could seize burning objects with +the hands. + +Aldini, convinced of the services that his apparatus might render to +humanity, traveled over Europe and gave gratuitous representations with +it. The exercises generally took place in the following order: Aldini +began by first wrapping his finger in asbestos and then with a double +layer of wire gauze. He then held it for some instants in the flame of +a candle or alcohol lamp. One of his assistants afterward put on the +asbestos glove of which I have spoken, and, protecting the palm of his +hand with another piece of asbestos cloth, seized a piece of red-hot +iron from a furnace and slowly carried it to a distance of forty or +fifty meters, lighted some straw with it, and then carried it back to +the furnace. On other occasions, the experimenters, holding firebrands +in their hands, walked for five minutes over a large grating under which +fagots were burning. + +In order to show how the head, eyes, and lungs were protected by the +wire gauze apparatus, one of the experimenters put on the asbestos +bonnet, helmet, and cuirass, and fixed the shield in front of his +breast. Then, in a chafing dish placed on a level with his shoulder, a +great fire of shavings was lighted, and care was taken to keep it up. +Into the midst of these flames the experimenter then plunged his head +and remained thus five or six minutes with his face turned toward them. +In an exhibition given at Paris before a committee from the Academic +des Sciences, there were set up two parallel fences formed of straw, +connected by iron wire to light wicker work, and arranged so as to leave +between them a passage 3 feet wide by 30 long. The heat was so intense, +when the fences were set on fire, that no one could approach nearer than +20 or 25 feet; and the flames seemed to fill the whole space between +them, and rose to a height of 9 or 10 feet. Six men clad in the Aldini +suit went in, one behind the other, between the blazing fences, and +walked slowly backward and forward in the narrow passage, while the fire +was being fed with fresh combustibles from the exterior. One of these +men carried on his back, in an ozier basket covered with wire gauze, a +child eight years of age, who had on no other clothing than an asbestos +bonnet. This same man, having the child with him, entered on another +occasion a clear fire whose flames reached a height of 18 feet, and +whose intensity was such that it could not be looked at. He remained +therein so long that the spectators began to fear that he had succumbed; +but he finally came out safe and sound. + +One of the conclusions to be drawn from the facts just stated is that +man can breathe in the midst of flames. This marvelous property cannot +be attributed exclusively to the cooling of the air by its passage +through the gauze before reaching the lungs; it shows also a very great +resistance of our organs to the action of heat. The following, moreover, +are direct proofs of such resistance. In England, in their first +experiment, Messrs. Joseph Banks, Charles Blagden, and Dr. Solander +remained for ten minutes in a hot-house whose temperature was 211 deg. +Fahr., and their bodies preserved therein very nearly the usual heat. On +breathing against a thermometer they caused the mercury to fall several +degrees. Each expiration, especially when it was somewhat strong, +produced in their nostrils an agreeable impression of coolness, and the +same impression was also produced on their fingers when breathed upon. +When they touched themselves their skin seemed to be as cold as that of +a corpse; but contact with their watch chains caused them to experience +a sensation like that of a burn. A thermometer placed under the tongue +of one of the experimenters marked 98 deg. Fahr., which is the normal +temperature of the human species. + +Emboldened by these first results, Blagden entered a hot-house in which +the thermometer in certain parts reached 262 deg. Fahr. He remained therein +eight minutes, walked about in all directions, and stopped in the +coolest part, which was at 240 deg. Fahr. During all this time he +experienced no painful sensations; but, at the end of seven minutes, he +felt an oppression of the lungs that inquieted him and caused him to +leave the place. His pulse at that moment showed 144 beats to the +minute, that is to say, double what it usually did. To ascertain whether +there was any error in the indications of the thermometer, and to find +out what effect would take place on inert substances exposed to the hot +air that he had breathed, Blogden placed some eggs in a zinc plate in +the hot-house, alongside the thermometer, and found that in twenty +minutes they were baked hard. + +A case is reported where workmen entered a furnace for drying moulds, in +England, the temperature of which was 177 deg., and whose iron sole plate +was so hot that it carbonized their wooden shoes. In the immediate +vicinity of this furnace the temperature rose to 160 deg. Persons not of +the trade who approached anywhere near the furnace experienced pain in +the eyes, nose, and ears. + +A baker is cited in Angoumois, France, who spent ten minutes in a +furnace at 132 deg. C. + +The resistance of the human organism to so high temperatures can be +attributed to several causes. First, it has been found that the quantity +of carbonic acid exhaled by the lungs, and consequently the chemical +phenomena of internal combustion that are a source of animal heat, +diminish in measure as the external temperature rises. Hence, a conflict +which has for result the retardation of the moment at which a living +being will tend, without obstacle, to take the temperature of the +surrounding medium. On another hand, it has been observed that man +resists heat so much the less in proportion as the air is saturated +with vapors. Dr. Berger, who supported for seven minutes a temperature +varying from 109 deg. to 110 deg. C. in dry air, could remain only twelve +minutes in a bagnio whose temperature rose from 41 deg. to 51.75 deg. At the +Hammam of Paris the highest temperature obtained is 87 deg., and Dr. E. +Martin has not been able to remain therein more than five minutes. This +physician reports that in 1743, the thermometer having exceeded 40 deg. at +Pekin, 14,000 persons perished. These facts are explained by the cooling +that the evaporation of perspiration produces on the surface of the +body. Edwards has calculated that such evaporation is ten times greater +in dry air in motion than in calm and humid air. The observations become +still more striking when the skin is put in contact with a liquid or a +solid which suppresses perspiration. Lemoine endured a bath of Bareges +water of 37 deg. for half an hour; but at 45 deg. he could not remain in it more +than seven minutes, and the perspiration began to flow at the end of six +minutes. According to Brewster, persons who experience no malaise near +a fire which communicates a temperature of 100 deg. C. to them, can hardly +bear contact with alcohol and oil at 55 deg. and mercury at 48 deg. + +The facts adduced permit us to understand how it was possible to bear +one of the proofs to which it is said those were submitted who wished +to be initiated into the Egyptian mysteries. In a vast vaulted chamber +nearly a hundred feet long, there were erected two fences formed of +posts, around which were wound branches of Arabian balm, Egyptian thorn, +and tamarind--all very flexible and inflammable woods. When this was set +on fire the flames arose as far as the vault, licked it, and gave the +chamber the appearance of a hot furnace, the smoke escaping through +pipes made for the purpose. Then the door was suddenly opened before the +neophyte, and he was ordered to traverse this burning place, whose floor +was composed of an incandescent grating. + +The Abbe Terrason recounts all these details in his historic romance +"Sethos," printed at the end of last century. Unfortunately literary +frauds were in fashion then, and the book, published as a translation of +an old Greek manuscript, gives no indication of sources. I have sought +in special works for the data which the abbe must have had as a basis, +but I have not been able to find them. I suppose, however, that +this description, which is so precise, is not merely a work of the +imagination. The author goes so far as to give the dimensions of the +grating (30 feet by 8), and, greatly embarrassed to explain how his hero +was enabled to traverse it without being burned, is obliged to suppose +it to have been formed of very thick bars, between which Sethos had care +to place his feet. But this explanation is inadmissible. He who had the +courage to rush, head bowed, into the midst of the flames, certainly +would not have amused himself by choosing the place to put his feet. +Braving the fire that surrounded his entire body, he must have had no +other thought than that of reaching the end of his dangerous voyage as +soon as possible. We cannot see very well, moreover, how this immense +grate, lying on the ground, was raised to a red heat and kept at such a +temperature. It is infinitely more simple to suppose that between the +two fences there was a ditch sufficiently deep in which a fire had +also been lighted, and which was covered by a grating as in the Aldini +experiments. It is even probable that this grating was of copper, +which, illuminated by the fireplace, must have presented a terrifying +brilliancy, while in reality it served only to prevent the flames from +the fireplace reaching him who dared to brave them. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BUILDING STONE SUPPLY. + + +The use of stone as a building material was not resorted to, except to +a trifling extent, in this country until long after the need of such a +solid substance was felt. The early settler contented himself with the +log cabin, the corduroy road, and the wooden bridge, and loose stone +enough for foundation purposes could readily be gathered from the +surface of the earth. Even after the desirability of more handsome and +durable building material for public edifices in the colonial cities +than wood became apparent, the ample resources which nature had afforded +in this country were overlooked, and brick and stone were imported by +the Dutch and English settlers from the Old World. Thus we find the +colonists of the New Netherlands putting yellow brick on their list +of non-dutiable imports in 1648; and such buildings in Boston as are +described as being "fairly set forth with brick, tile, slate, and +stone," were thus provided only with foreign products. Isolated +instances of quarrying stone are known to have occurred in the last +century; but they are rare. The edifice known as "King's Chapel," +Boston, erected in 1752, is the first one on record as being built from +American stone; this was granite, brought from Braintree, Mass. + +Granite is a rock particularly abundant in New England, though also +found in lesser quantities elsewhere in this country. The first granite +quarries that were extensively developed were those at Quincy, Mass., +and work began at that point early in the present century. The fame of +the stone became widespread, and it was sent to distant markets--even to +New Orleans. The old Merchants' Exchange in New York (afterward used as +a custom house) the Astor House in that city, and the Custom House in +New Orleans, all nearly or quite fifty years old, were constructed of +Quincy granite, as were many other fine buildings along the Atlantic +coast. In later years, not only isolated public edifices, but also whole +blocks of stores, have been constructed of this material. It was from +the Quincy quarries that the first railroad in this country was built; +this was a horse-railroad, three miles long, extending to Neponset +River, built in 1827. + +Other points in Massachusetts have been famed for their excellent +granite. After Maine was set off as a distinct State, Fox Island +acquired repute for its granite, and built up an extensive traffic +therein. Westerly, R.I., has also been engaged in quarrying this +valuable rock for many years, most of its choicer specimens having been +wrought for monumental purposes. Statues and other elaborate monumental +designs are now extensively made therefrom. Smaller pieces and a coarser +quality of the stone are here and elsewhere along the coast obtained in +large quantities for the construction of massive breakwaters to protect +harbors. Another point famous for its granite is Staten Island, New +York. This stone weighs 180 pounds to the cubic foot, while the Quincy +granite weighs but 165. The Staten Island product is used not only for +building purposes, but is also especially esteemed for paving after both +the Russ and Belgian patents. New York and other cities derive large +supplies from this source. The granite of Weehawken, N.J., is of the +same character, and greatly in demand. Port Deposit, Md., and Richmond, +Va, are also centers of granite production. Near Abbeville, S.C., and +in Georgia, granite is found quite like that of Quincy. Much southern +granite, however, decomposes readily, and is almost as soft as clay. +This variety of stone is found in great abundance in the Rocky +Mountains; but, except to a slight extent in California, it is not yet +quarried there. + +Granite, having little grain, can be cut into blocks of almost any size +and shape. Specimens as much as eighty feet long have been taken out and +transported great distances. The quarrying is done by drilling a series +of small holes, six inches or more deep and almost the same distance +apart, inserting steel wedges along the whole line and then tapping each +gently with a hammer in succession, in order that the strain may be +evenly distributed. + +A building material that came into use earlier than granite is known as +freestone or sandstone; although its first employment does not date back +further than the erection of King's Chapel, Boston, already referred to +as the earliest well-known occasion where granite was used in building. +Altogether the most famous American sandstone quarries are those at +Portland, on the Connecticut River, opposite Middletown. These were +worked before the Revolution; and their product has been shipped to many +distant points in the country. The long rows of "brownstone fronts" in +New York city are mostly of Portland stone, though in many cases the +walls are chiefly of brick covered with thin layers of the stone. The +old red sandstone of the Connecticut valley is distinguished in geology +for the discovery of gigantic fossil footprints of birds, first noticed +in the Portland quarries in 1802. Some of these footprints measured +ten to sixteen inches, and they were from four to six feet apart. The +sandstone of Belleville, N.J., has also extensive use and reputation. +Trinity Church in New York city and the Boston Atheneum are built of the +product of these quarries; St. Lawrence County, New York, is noted also +for a fine bed of sandstone. At Potsdam it is exposed to a depth of +seventy feet. There are places though, in New England, New York, and +Eastern Pennsylvania, where a depth of three hundred feet has been +reached. The Potsdam sandstone is often split to the thinness of an +inch. It hardens by exposure, and is often used for smelting furnace +hearth-stones. Shawangunk Mountain, in Ulster County, yields a sandstone +of inferior quality, which has been unsuccessfully tried for paving; +as it wears very unevenly. From Ulster, Greene, and Albany Counties +sandstone slabs for sidewalks are extensively quarried for city use; +the principal outlets of these sections being Kingston, Saugerties, +Coxsackie, Bristol, and New Baltimore, on the Hudson. In this region +quantities amounting to millions of square feet are taken out in large +sheets, which are often sawed into the sizes desired. The vicinity of +Medina, in Western New York, yields a sandstone extensively used in that +section for paving and curbing, and a little for building. A rather poor +quality of this stone has been found along the Potomac, and some of it +was used in the erection of the old Capitol building at Washington. +Ohio yields a sandstone that is of a light gray color; Berea, Amherst, +Vermilion, and Massillon are the chief points of production. St. +Genevieve, Mo., yields a stone of fine grain of a light straw color, +which is quite equal to the famous Caen stone of France. The Lake +Superior sandstones are dark and coarse grained, but strong. + +In some parts of the country, where neither granite nor sandstone +is easily procured, blue and gray limestone are sometimes used for +building, and, when hammer dressed, often look like granite. A serious +objection to their use, however, is the occasional presence of iron, +which rusts on exposure, and defaces the building. In Western New York +they are widely used. Topeka stone, like the coquine of Florida and +Bermuda, is soft like wood when first quarried, and easily wrought, +but it hardens on exposure. The limestones of Canton, Mo., Joliet and +Athens, Ill., Dayton, Sandusky, Marblehead, and other points in Ohio, +Ellittsville, Ind., and Louisville and Bowling Green, Ky., are great +favorites west. In many of these regions limestone is extensively used +for macadamizing roads, for which it is excellently adapted. It also +yields excellent slabs or flags for sidewalks. + +One of the principal uses of this variety of stone is its conversion, by +burning, into lime for building purposes. All limestones are by no +means equally excellent in this regard. Thomaston lime, burned with +Pennsylvania coal, near the Penobscot River, has had a wide reputation +for nearly half a century. It has been shipped thence to all points +along the Atlantic coast, invading Virginia as far as Lynchburg, and +going even to New Orleans, Smithfield, R.I., and Westchester County, +N.Y., near the lower end of the Highlands, also make a particularly +excellent quality of lime. Kingston, in Ulster County, makes an inferior +sort for agricultural purposes. The Ohio and other western stones yield +a poor lime, and that section is almost entirely dependent on the east +for supplies. + +Marbles, like limestones, with which they are closely related, are very +abundant in this country, and are also to be found in a great variety of +colors. As early as 1804 American marble was used for statuary purposes. +Early in the century it also obtained extensive employment for +gravestones. Its use for building purposes has been more recent than +granite and sandstone in this country; and it is coming to supersede the +latter to a great degree. For mantels, fire-places, porch pillars, and +like ornamental purposes, however, our variegated, rich colored and +veined or brecciated marbles were in use some time before exterior walls +were made from them. Among the earliest marble buildings were Girard +College in Philadelphia and the old City Hall in New York, and the +Custom House in the latter city, afterward used for a sub-treasury. The +new Capitol building at Washington is among the more recent structures +composed of this material. Our exports of marble to Cuba and elsewhere +amount to over $300,000 annually, although we import nearly the same +amount from Italy. And yet an article can be found in the United States +fully as fine as the famous Carrara marble. We refer to that which comes +from Rutland, Vt. This state yields the largest variety and choicest +specimens. The marble belt runs both ways from Rutland County, where +the only quality fit for statuary is obtained. Toward the north it +deteriorates by growing less sound, though finer in grain; while to +the south it becomes coarser. A beautiful black marble is obtained at +Shoreham, Vt. There are also handsome brecciated marbles in the same +state; and in the extreme northern part, near Lake Champlain, they +become more variegated and rich in hue. Such other marble as is found +in New England is of an inferior quality. The pillars of Girard +College came from Berkshire, Mass., which ranks next after Vermont in +reputation. + +The marble belt extends from New England through New York, Pennsylvania, +Maryland, the District of Columbia, and Virginia, Tennessee, and the +Carolinas, to Georgia and Alabama. Some of the variegated and high +colored varieties obtained near Knoxville, Tenn., nearly equal that of +Vermont. The Rocky Mountains contain a vast abundance and variety. + +Slate was known to exist in this country to a slight extent in colonial +days. It was then used for gravestones, and to some extent for roofing +and school purposes. But most of our supplies came from Wales. It is +stated that a slate quarry was operated in Northampton County, Pa., as +early as 1805. In 1826 James M. Porter and Samuel Taylor engaged in the +business, obtaining their supplies from the Kittanninny Mountains. From +this time the business developed rapidly, the village of Slateford being +an outgrowth of it, and large rafts being employed to float the product +down the Schuylkill to Philadelphia. By 1860 the industry had reached +the capacity of 20,000 cases of slate, valued at $10 a case, annually. +In 1839 quarries were opened in the Piscataquis River, forty miles +north of Bangor, Me., but poor transportation facilities retarded the +business. Vermont began to yield in 1852. New York's quarries are +confined to Washington County, near the Vermont line. Maryland has +a limited supply from Harford County. The Huron Mountains, north of +Marquette, Mich., contain slate, which is also said to exist in Pike +County, Ga. + +Grindstones, millstones, and whetstones are quarried in New York, Ohio, +Michigan, Pennsylvania, and other States. Mica is found at Acworth and +Grafton, N. H., and near Salt Lake, but our chief supply comes from +Haywood, Yancey, Mitchell, and Macon counties, in North Carolina, and +our product is so large that we can afford to export it. Other stones, +such as silex, for making glass, etc., are found in profusion in various +parts of the country, but we have no space to enter into a detailed +account of them at present.--_Pottery and Glassware Reporter_. + + * * * * * + + + + +AN INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. + + +The most interesting change of which the Census gives account is the +increase in the number of farms. The number has virtually doubled within +twenty years. The population of the country has not increased in like +proportion. A large part of the increase in number of farms has been due +to the division of great estates. Nor has this occurred, as some may +imagine, exclusively in the Southern States and the States to which +immigration and migration have recently been directed. It is an +important fact that the multiplication of farms has continued even in +the older Northern States, though the change has not been as great in +these as in States of the far West or the South. In New York there has +been an increase of 25,000, or 11.5 per cent, in the number of farms +since 1870; in New Jersey the increase has been 12.2 per cent., and in +Pennsylvania 22.7 per cent., though the increase in population, and +doubtless in the number of persons engaged in farming, has been much +smaller. Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois also, have been considered fully +settled States for years, at least in an agricultural point of view, and +yet the number of farms has increased 26.1 per cent, in ten years in +Ohio, 20.3 percent, in Indiana, and 26.1 per cent, in Illinois. The +obvious explanation is that the growth of many cities and towns has +created a market for a far greater supply of those products which may be +most advantageously grown upon farms of moderate size; but even if this +fully accounts for the phenomenon, the change must be recognized as one +of the highest importance industrially, socially, and politically. The +man who owns or rents and cultivates a farm stands on a very different +footing from the laborer who works for wages. It is not a small matter +that, in these six States alone, there are 205,000 more owners or +managers of farms than there were only a decade ago. + +As we go further toward the border, west or north, the influence of the +settlement of new land is more distinctly felt. Even in Michigan, where +new railroads have opened new regions to settlement, the increase in +number of farms has been over 55 per cent. In Wisconsin, though the +increase in railroad mileage has been about the same as in Michigan, the +reported increase in number of farms has been only 28 per cent., but in +Iowa it rises to 60 per cent., and in Minnesota to nearly 100 per cent. +In Kansas the number of farms is 138,561, against 38,202 in 1870; in +Nebraska 63,387, against 12,301; and in Dakota 17,435, against 1,720. In +these regions the process is one of creation of new States rather than a +change in the social and industrial condition of the population. + +Some Southern States have gained largely, but the increase in these, +though very great, is less surprising than the new States of the +Northwest. The prevailing tendency of Southern agriculture to large +farms and the employment of many hands is especially felt in States +where land is still abundant. The greatest increase is in Texas, where +174,184 farms are reported, against 61,125 in 1870; in Florida, with +23,438 farms, against 10,241 in 1870; and in Arkansas, with 94,433 +farms, against 49,424 in 1870. In Missouri 215,575 farms are reported, +against 148,228 in 1870. In these States, though social changes have +been great, the increase in number of farms has been largely due to new +settlements, as in the States of the far Northwest. But the change in +the older Southern States is of a different character. + +Virginia, for example, has long been settled, and had 77,000 farms +thirty years ago. But the increase in number within the past ten years +has been 44,668, or 60.5 per cent. Contrasting this with the increase in +New York, a remarkable difference appears. West Virginia had few more +farms ten years ago than New Jersey; now it has nearly twice as many, +and has gained in number nearly 60 per cent. North Carolina, too, has +increased 78 per cent. in number of farms since 1870, and South Carolina +80 per cent. In Georgia the increase has been still greater--from 69,956 +to 138,626, or nearly 100 per cent. In Alabama there are 135,864 +farms, against 67,382 in 1870, an increase of over 100 per cent. These +proportions, contrasted with those for the older Northern States, reveal +a change that is nothing less than an industrial revolution. But the +force of this tendency to division of estates has been greatest in the +States named. Whereas the ratio of increase in number of farms becomes +greater in Northern States as we go from the East toward the Mississippi +River, at the South it is much smaller in Kentucky, Tennessee, +Mississippi, and Louisiana than in the older States on the Atlantic +coast. Thus in Louisiana the increase has been from 28,481 to 48,292 +farms, or 70 per cent., and in Mississippi from 68,023 to 101,772 farms, +or less than 50 per cent., against 100 in Alabama and Georgia. In +Kentucky the increase has been from 118,422 to 166,453 farms, or 40 per +cent., and in Tennessee from 118,141 to 165,650 farms, or 40 per cent., +against 60 in Virginia and West Virginia, and 78 in North Carolina. +Thus, while the tendency to division is far greater than in the Northern +States of corresponding age, it is found in full force only in six of +the older Southern States, Alabama, West Virginia, and four on the +Atlantic coast. In these, the revolution already effected foreshadows +and will almost certainly bring about important political changes within +a few years. In these six States there 310,795 more farm owners or +occupants than there were ten years ago.--_N.Y. Tribune_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A FARMER'S LIME KILN. + + +For information about burning lime we republish the following article +furnished by a correspondent of the _Country Gentleman_ several years +ago: + +[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. A (Fig. 1), Railway Track--B B B, +Iron Rods running through Kiln--C, Capstone over Arch--D, Arch--E, Well +without brick or ash lining.] + +I send you a description and sketch of a lime-kiln put up on my premises +about five years ago. The dimensions of this kiln are 13 feet square by +25 feet high from foundation, and its capacity 100 bushels in 24 hours. +It was constructed of the limestone quarried on the spot. It has round +iron rods (shown in sketch) passing through, with iron plates fastened +to the ends as clamps to make it more firm; the pair nearest the top +should be not less than 2 feet from that point, the others interspersed +about 2 feet apart--the greatest strain being near the top. The arch +should be 7 feet high by 51/2 wide in front, with a gather on the top +and sides of about 1 foot, with plank floor; and if this has a little +incline it will facilitate shoveling the lime when drawn. The arch +should have a strong capstone; also one immediately under the well of +the kiln, with a hole 2 feet in diameter to draw the lime through; or +two may be used with semicircle cut in each. Iron bars 2 inches wide by +1/8 inch thick are used in this kiln for closing it, working in slots +fastened to capstone. These slots must be put in before the caps +are laid. When it is desired to draw lime, these bars may be +pushed laterally in the slots, or drawn out entirely, according to +circumstances; 3 bars will be enough. The slots are made of iron bars +11/2 inches wide, with ends rounded and turned up, and inserted in holes +drilled through capstone and keyed above. + +The well of the kiln is lined with fire-brick one course thick, with a +stratum of coal ashes three inches thick tamped in between the brick +and wall, which proves a great protection to the wall. About 2,000 +fire-bricks were used. The proprietors of this kiln say about one-half +the lower part of the well might have been lined with a first quality of +common brick and saved some expense and been just as good. The form of +the well shown in Fig. 3 is 7 feet in diameter in the bilge, exclusive +of the lining of brick and ashes. Experiments in this vicinity have +proved this to be the best, this contraction toward the top being +absolutely necessary, the expansion of the stone by the heat is so +great that the lime cannot be drawn from perpendicular walls, as was +demonstrated in one instance near here, where a kiln was built on that +principle. The kiln, of course, is for coal, and our stone requires +about three-quarters of a ton per 100 bushels of lime, but this, I am +told, varies according to quality, some requiring more than others; the +quantity can best be determined by experimenting; also the regulation of +the heat--if too great it will cause the stones to melt or run together +as it were, or, if too little, they will not be properly burned. The +business requires skill and judgment to run it successfully. + +This kiln is located at the foot of a steep bluff, the top about level +with the top of the kiln, with railway track built of wooden sleepers, +with light iron bars, running from the bluff to the top of the kiln, and +a hand-car makes it very convenient filling the kiln. Such a location +should be had if possible. Your inquirer may perhaps get some ideas +of the principles of a kiln for using _coal_. The dimensions may be +reduced, if desired. If for _wood_, the arch would have to be formed for +that, and the height of kiln reduced. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF APPLE JELLY. + +[Footnote: From the report of the New York Agricultural Society.] + + +Within the county of Oswego, New York, Dewitt C. Peck reports there are +five apple jelly factories in operation. The failure of the apple crop, +for some singular and unexplained reason, does not extend in great +degree to the natural or ungrafted fruit. Though not so many as common, +even of these apples, there are yet enough to keep these five mills and +the numerous cider mills pretty well employed. The largest jelly factory +is located near the village of Mexico, and as there are some features in +regard to this manufacture peculiar to this establishment which may be +new and interesting, we will undertake a brief description. The factory +is located on the Salmon Creek, which affords the necessary power. A +portion of the main floor, first story, is occupied as a saw mill, +the slabs furnishing fuel for the boiler furnace connected with the +evaporating department. Just above the mill, along the bank of the pond, +and with one end projecting over the water, are arranged eight large +bins, holding from five hundred to one thousand bushels each, into which +the apples are delivered from the teams. The floor in each of these has +a sharp pitch or inclination toward the water and at the lower end is a +grate through which the fruit is discharged, when wanted, into a trough +half submerged in the pond. + +The preparation of the fruit and extraction of the juice proceeds +as follows: Upon hoisting a gate in the lower end of this trough, +considerable current is caused, and the water carries the fruit a +distance of from thirty to one hundred feet, and passes into the +basement of the mill, where, tumbling down a four-foot perpendicular +fall, into a tank, tight in its lower half and slatted so as to permit +the escape of water and impurities in the upper half, the apples are +thoroughly cleansed from all earthy or extraneous matter. Such is the +friction caused by the concussion of the fall, the rolling and rubbing +of the apples together, and the pouring of the water, that decayed +sections of the fruit are ground off and the rotten pulp passes away +with other impurities. From this tank the apples are hoisted upon an +endless chain elevator, with buckets in the form of a rake-head with +iron teeth, permitting drainage and escape of water, to an upper story +of the mill, whence by gravity they descend to the grater. The press +is wholly of iron, all its motions, even to the turning of the screws, +being actuated by the water power. The cheese is built up with layers +inclosed in strong cotton cloth, which displaces the straw used in olden +time, and serves also to strain the cider. As it is expressed from +the press tank, the cider passes to a storage tank, and thence to the +defecator. + +This defecator is a copper pan, eleven feet long and about three feet +wide. At each end of this pan is placed a copper tube three inches in +diameter and closed at both ends. Lying between and connecting +these two, are twelve tubes, also of copper, 11/2 inches in diameter, +penetrating the larger tubes at equal distances from their upper and +under surfaces, the smaller being parallel with each other, and 11/2 +inches apart. When placed in position, the larger tubes, which act as +manifolds, supplying the smaller with steam, rest upon the bottom of the +pan, and thus the smaller pipes have a space of three-fourths of an inch +underneath their outer surfaces. + +The cider comes from the storage tank in a continuous stream about +three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Steam is introduced to the large +or manifold tubes, and from them distributed through the smaller ones at +a pressure of from twenty-five to thirty pounds per inch. Trap valves +are provided for the escape of water formed by condensation within the +pipes. The primary object of the defecator is to remove all impurities +and perfectly clarify the liquid passing through it. All portions of +pomace and other minute particles of foreign matter, when heated, +expand and float in the form of scum upon the surface of the cider. An +ingeniously contrived floating rake drags off this scum and delivers it +over the side of the pan. To facilitate this removal, one side of the +pan, commencing at a point just below the surface of the cider, is +curved gently outward and upward, terminating in a slightly inclined +plane, over the edge of which the scum is pushed by the rake into a +trough and carried away. A secondary purpose served by the defecator +is that of reducing the cider by evaporation to a partial sirup of the +specific gravity of about 20 deg. Baume. When of this consistency the liquid +is drawn from the bottom and less agitated portion of the defecator by a +siphon, and thence carried to the evaporator, which is located upon the +same framework and just below the defecator. + +The evaporator consists of a separate system of six copper tubes, each +twelve feet long and three inches in diameter. These are each jacketed +or inclosed in an iron pipe of four inches internal diameter, fitted +with steam-tight collars so as to leave half an inch steam space +surrounding the copper tubes. The latter are open at both ends +permitting the admission and egress of the sirup and the escape of the +steam caused by evaporation therefrom, and are arranged upon the frame +so as to have a very slight inclination downward in the direction of +the current, and each nearly underneath its predecessor in regular +succession. Each is connected by an iron supply pipe, having a steam +gauge or indicator attached, with a large manifold, and that by other +pipes with a steam boiler of thirty horse power capacity. Steam being +let on at from twenty five to thirty pounds pressure, the stream of +sirup is received from the defecator through a strainer, which removes +any impurities possibly remaining into the upper evaporator tube; +passing in a gentle flow through that, it is delivered into a funnel +connected with the next tube below, and so, back and forth, through the +whole system. The sirup enters the evaporator at a consistency of from +20 deg. to 23 deg. Baume, and emerges from the last tube some three minutes +later at a consistency of from 30 deg. to 32 deg. Baume, which is found on +cooling to be the proper point for perfect jelly. This point is found to +vary one or two degrees, according to the fermentation consequent upon +bruises in handling the fruit, decay of the same, or any little delay in +expressing the juice from the cheese. The least fermentation occasions +the necessity for a lower reduction. To guard against this, no cheese +is allowed to stand over night, no pomace left in the grater or vat, no +cider in the tank; and further to provide against fermentation, a large +water tank is located upon the roof and filled by a force pump, and by +means of hose connected with this, each grater, press, vat, tank, pipe, +trough, or other article of machinery used, can be thoroughly washed and +cleansed. Hot water, instead of cider, is sometimes sent through the +defecator, evaporator, etc., until all are thoroughly scalded and +purified. If the saccharometer shows too great or too little reduction, +the matter is easily regulated by varying the steam pressure in the +evaporator by means of a valve in the supply pipe. If boiled cider +instead of jelly is wanted for making pies, sauces, etc., it is drawn +off from one of the upper evaporator tubes according to the consistency +desired; or can be produced at the end of the process by simply reducing +the steam pressure. + +As the jelly emerges from the evaporator it is transferred to a tub +holding some fifty gallons, and by mixing a little therein, any little +variations in reduction or in the sweetness or sourness of the fruit +used are equalized. From this it is drawn through faucets, while hot, +into the various packages in which it is shipped to market. A favorite +form of package for family use is a nicely turned little wooden +bucket with cover and bail, two sizes, holding five and ten pounds +respectively. The smaller packages are shipped in cases for convenience +in handling. The present product of this manufactory is from 1,500 to +1,800 pounds of jelly each day of ten hours. It is calculated that +improvements now in progress will increase this to something more than a +ton per day. Each bushel of fruit will produce from four to five pounds +of jelly, fruit ripening late in the season being more productive than +earlier varieties. Crab apples produce the finest jelly; sour, crabbed, +natural fruit makes the best looking article, and a mixture of all +varieties gives most satisfactory results as to flavor and general +quality. + +As the pomace is shoveled from the finished cheese, it is again ground +under a toothed cylinder, and thence drops into large troughs, through a +succession of which a considerable stream of water is flowing. Here it +is occasionally agitated by raking from the lower to the upper end of +the trough as the current carries it downward, and the apple seeds +becoming disengaged drop to the bottom into still water, while the pulp +floats away upon the stream. A succession of troughs serves to remove +nearly all the seeds. The value of the apple seeds thus saved is +sufficient to pay the daily wages of all the hands employed in the whole +establishment. The apples are measured in the wagon box, one and a half +cubic feet being accounted a bushel. + +This mill ordinarily employs about six men: One general superintendent, +who buys and measures the apples, keeps time books, attends to all the +accounts and the working details of the mill, and acts as cashier; one +sawyer, who manufactures lumber for the local market and saws the slabs +into short lengths suitable for the furnace; one cider maker, who grinds +the apples and attends the presses; one jelly maker, who attends the +defecator, evaporator, and mixing tub, besides acting as his own fireman +and engineer; one who attends the apple seed troughs and acts as general +helper, and one man-of-all-work to pack, ship and assist whenever +needed. The establishment was erected late in the season of 1880, +and manufactured that year about forty-five tons of jelly, besides +considerable cider exchanged to the farmers for apples, and some boiled +cider. + +The price paid for apples in 1880, when the crop was superabundant, was +six to eight cents per bushel; in 1881, fifteen cents. The proprietor +hopes next year to consume 100,000 bushels. These institutions are +important to the farmer in that they use much fruit not otherwise +valuable and very perishable. Fruit so crabbed and gnarled as to have no +market value, and even frozen apples, if delivered while yet solid, can +be used. (Such apples are placed in the water while frozen, the water +draws the frost sufficiently to be grated, and passing through the press +and evaporator before there is time for chemical change, they are found +to make very good jelly. They are valuable to the consumer by converting +the perishable, cheap, almost worthless crop of the bearing and abundant +years into such enduring form that its consumption may be carried over +to years of scarcity and furnish healthful food in cheap and pleasant +form to many who would otherwise be deprived; and lastly, they are of +great interest to society, in that they give to cider twice the value +for purposes of food that it has or can have, even to the manufacturer, +for use as a beverage and intoxicant. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED GRAPE BAGS. + + +It stands to reason that were our summers warmer we should be able to +grow grapes successfully on open walls; it is therefore probable that +a new grape bag, the invention of M. Pelletier, 20 Rue de la Banque, +Paris, intended to serve a double purpose, viz., protecting the fruit +and hastening its maturity, will, when it becomes known, be welcomed in +this country. It consists of a square of curved glass so fixed to +the bag that the sun's rays are concentrated upon the fruit, thereby +rendering its ripening more certain in addition to improving its quality +generally. The glass is affixed to the bag by means of a light iron wire +support. It covers that portion of it next the sun, so that it increases +the amount of light and warms the grapes without scorching them, a +result due to the convexity of the glass and the layer of air between it +and the bag. M. Pelletier had the idea of rendering these bags cheaper +by employing plain squares instead of curved ones, but the advantage +thus obtained was more than counterbalanced by their comparative +inefficacy. In practice it was found that the curved squares gave an +average of 7 deg. more than the straight ones, while there was a difference +of 10 deg. when the bags alone were used, thus plainly demonstrating the +practical value of the invention. + +Whether these glass-fronted bags would have much value in the case of +grapes grown under glass in the ordinary way is a question that can only +be determined by actual experiment; but where the vines are on walls, +either under glass screens or in the open air, so that the bunches feel +the full force of the sun's rays, there can be no doubt as to their +utility, and it is probable that by their aid many of the continental +varieties which we do not now attempt to grow in the open, and which are +scarcely worthy of a place under glass, might be well ripened. At +any rate we ought to give anything a fair trial which may serve to +neutralize, if only in a slight degree, the uncertainty of our summers. +As it is, we have only about two varieties of grapes, and these not the +best of the hardy kinds, as regards flavor and appearance, that ripen +out of doors, and even these do not always succeed. We know next to +nothing of the many really well-flavored kinds which are so much +appreciated in many parts of the Continent. The fact is, our outdoor +culture of grapes offers a striking contrast to that practiced under +glass, and although our comparatively sunless and moist climate affords +some excuse for our shortcomings in this respect, there is no valid +reason for the utter want of good culture which is to be observed in a +general way. + +[Illustration: GRAPE BAG.--OPEN.] + +Given intelligent training, constant care in stopping the laterals, and +checking mildew as well as thinning the berries, allowing each bunch to +get the full benefit of sun and air, and I believe good eatable grapes +would often be obtained even in summers marked by a low average +temperature. + +[Illustration: GRAPE BAG.--CLOSED.] + +If, moreover, to a good system of culture we add some such mechanical +contrivance as that under notice whereby the bunches enjoy an average +warmth some 10 deg. higher than they otherwise would do, we not only insure +the grapes coming to perfection in favored districts, but outdoor +culture might probably be practiced in higher latitudes than is now +practicable. + +[Illustration: CURVED GLASS FOR FRONT OF BAG.] + +The improved grape bag would also offer great facilities for destroying +mildew or guarantee the grapes against its attacks, as a light dusting +administered as soon as the berries were fairly formed would suffice for +the season, as owing to the glass protecting the berries from driving +rains, which often accompany south or south-west winds in summer and +autumn, the sulphur would not be washed off. + +[Illustration: CURVED GLASS FIXED ON BAG.] + +The inventor claims, and we should say with just reason, that these +glass fronted bags would be found equally serviceable for the ripening +of pears and other choice fruits, and with a view to their being +employed for such a purpose, he has had them made of varying sizes and +shapes. In conclusion, it may be observed that, in addition to advancing +the maturity of the fruits to which they are applied, they also serve to +preserve them from falling to the ground when ripe.--J. COBNHILL, _in +the Garden_. + + * * * * * + + + + +UTILIZATION OF SOLAR HEAT. + + +At a popular fete in the Tuileries Gardens I was struck with an +experiment which seems deserving of the immediate attention of the +English public and military authorities. + +Among the attractions of the fete was an apparatus for the concentration +and utilization of solar heat, and, though the sun was not very +brilliant, I saw this apparatus set in motion a printing machine which +printed several thousand copies of a specimen newspaper entitled the +_Soleil Journal_. + +The sun's rays are concentrated in a reflector, which moves at the +same rate as the sun and heats a vertical boiler, setting the motive +steam-engine at work. As may be supposed, the only object was to +demonstrate the possibility of utilizing the concentrated heat of the +solar rays; but I closely examined it, because the apparatus seems +capable of great utility in existing circumstances. Here in France, +indeed, there is a radical drawback--the sun is often overclouded. + +Thousands of years ago the idea of utilizing the solar rays must have +suggested itself, and there are still savage tribes who know no other +mode of combustion; but the scientific application has hitherto been +lacking. This void this apparatus will fill up. About fifteen years ago +Professor Mouchon, of Tours, began constructing such an apparatus, and +his experiments have been continued by M. Pifre, who has devoted much +labor and expense to realizing M. Mouchou's idea. A company has now come +to his aid, and has constructed a number of apparatus of different sizes +at a factory which might speedily turn out a large number of them. It is +evident that in a country of uninterrupted sunshine the boiler might be +heated in thirty or forty minutes. A portable apparatus could boil two +and one-half quarts an hour, or, say, four gallons a day, thus supplying +by distillation or ebullition six or eight men. The apparatus can be +easily carried on a man's back, and on condition of water, even of the +worst quality, being obtainable, good drinking and cooking water is +insured. M. De Rougaumond, a young scientific writer, has just published +an interesting volume on the invention. I was able yesterday to verify +his statements, for I saw cider made, a pump set in motion, and coffee +made--in short, the calorific action of the sun superseding that of +fuel. The apparatus, no doubt, has not yet reached perfection, but as it +is it would enable the soldier in India or Egypt to procure in the field +good water and to cook his food rapidly. The invention is of especial +importance to England just now, but even when the Egyptian question is +settled the Indian troops might find it of inestimable value. + +Red tape should for once be disregarded, and a competent commission +forthwith sent to 30 Rue d'Assas, with instructions to report +immediately, for every minute saved may avoid suffering for Englishmen +fighting abroad for their country. I may, of course, be mistaken, but +a commission would decide, and if the apparatus is good the slightest +delay in its adoption would be deplorable.--_Paris Correspondence London +Times_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO ESTABLISH A TRUE MERIDIAN. + +[Footnote: A paper read before the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia.] + +By PROFESSOR L. M. HAUPT. + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +The discovery of the magnetic needle was a boon to mankind, and has been +of inestimable service in guiding the mariner through trackless waters, +and the explorer over desert wastes. In these, its legitimate uses, the +needle has not a rival, but all efforts to apply it to the accurate +determination of permanent boundary lines have proven very +unsatisfactory, and have given rise to much litigation, acerbity, and +even death. + +For these and other cogent reasons, strenuous efforts are being made to +dispense, so far as practicable, with the use of the magnetic needle +in surveying, and to substitute therefor the more accurate method of +traversing from a true meridian. This method, however, involves a +greater degree of preparation and higher qualifications than are +generally possessed, and unless the matter can be so simplified as to be +readily understood, it is unreasonable to expect its general application +in practice. + +Much has been written upon the various methods of determining, the +true meridian, but it is so intimately related to the determination of +latitude and time, and these latter in turn upon the fixing of a true +meridian, that the novice can find neither beginning nor end. When to +these difficulties are added the corrections for parallax, refraction, +instrumental errors, personal equation, and the determination of the +probable error, he is hopelessly confused, and when he learns that time +may be sidereal, mean solar, local, Greenwich, or Washington, and he is +referred to an ephemeris and table of logarithms for data, he becomes +lost in "confusion worse confounded," and gives up in despair, settling +down to the conviction that the simple method of compass surveying is +the best after all, even if not the most accurate. + +Having received numerous requests for information upon the subject, I +have thought it expedient to endeavor to prepare a description of the +method of determining the true meridian which should be sufficiently +clear and practical to be generally understood by those desiring to make +use of such information. + +This will involve an elementary treatment of the subject, beginning with +the + + +DEFINITIONS. + +The _celestial sphere_ is that imaginary surface upon which all +celestial objects are projected. Its radius is infinite. + +The _earth's axis_ is the imaginary line about which it revolves. + +The _poles_ are the points in which the axis pierces the surface of the +earth, or of the celestial sphere. + +A _meridian_ is a great circle of the earth cut out by a plane passing +through the axis. All meridians are therefore north and south lines +passing through the poles. + +From these definitions it follows that if there were a star exactly at +the pole it would only be necessary to set up an instrument and take a +bearing to it for the meridian. Such not being the case, however, we are +obliged to take some one of the near circumpolar stars as our object, +and correct the observation according to its angular distance from the +meridian at the time of observation. + +For convenience, the bright star known as Ursae Minoris or Polaris, is +generally selected. This star apparently revolves about the north pole, +in an orbit whose mean radius is 1 deg. 19' 13",[1] making the revolution in +23 hours 56 minutes. + +[Footnote 1: This is the codeclination as given in the Nautical Almanac. +The mean value decreases by about 20 seconds each year.] + +During this time it must therefore cross the meridian twice, once above +the pole and once below; the former is called the _upper_, and the +latter the _lower meridian transit or culmination_. It must also pass +through the points farthest east and west from the meridian. The former +is called the _eastern elongation_, the latter the _western_. + +An observation may he made upon Polaris at any of these four points, +or at any other point of its orbit, but this latter case becomes too +complicated for ordinary practice, and is therefore not considered. + +If the observation were made upon the star at the time of its upper or +lower culmination, it would give the true meridian at once, but this +involves a knowledge of the true local time of transit, or the longitude +of the place of observation, which is generally an unknown quantity; and +moreover, as the star is then moving east or west, or at right angles to +the place of the meridian, at the rate of 15 deg. of arc in about one hour, +an error of so slight a quantity as only four seconds of time would +introduce an error of one minute of arc. If the observation be made, +however, upon either elongation, when the star is moving up or down, +that is, in the direction of the vertical wire of the instrument, the +error of observation in the angle between it and the pole will be +inappreciable. This is, therefore, the best position upon which to make +the observation, as the precise time of the elongation need not be +given. It can be determined with sufficient accuracy by a glance at the +relative positions of the star Alioth, in the handle of the Dipper, +and Polaris (see Fig. 1). When the line joining these two stars is +horizontal or nearly so, and Alioth is to the _west_ of Polaris, the +latter is at its _eastern_ elongation, and _vice versa_, thus: + +[Illustration] + +But since the star at either elongation is off the meridian, it will +be necessary to determine the angle at the place of observation to be +turned off on the instrument to bring it into the meridian. This angle, +called the azimuth of the pole star, varies with the latitude of the +observer, as will appear from Fig 2, and hence its value must be +computed for different latitudes, and the surveyor must know his +_latitude_ before he can apply it. Let N be the north pole of the +celestial sphere; S, the position of Polaris at its eastern elongation; +then N S=1 deg. 19' 13", a constant quantity. The azimuth of Polaris at the +latitude 40 deg. north is represented by the angle N O S, and that at 60 deg. +north, by the angle N O' S, which is greater, being an exterior angle +of the triangle, O S O. From this we see that the azimuth varies at the +latitude. + +We have first, then, to _find the latitude of the place of observation_. + +Of the several methods for doing this, we shall select the simplest, +preceding it by a few definitions. + +A _normal_ line is the one joining the point directly overhead, called +the _zenith_, with the one under foot called the _nadir_. + +The _celestial horizon_ is the intersection of the celestial sphere by a +plane passing through the center of the earth and perpendicular to the +normal. + +A _vertical circle_ is one whose plane is perpendicular to the horizon, +hence all such circles must pass through the normal and have the zenith +and nadir points for their poles. The _altitude_ of a celestial object +is its distance above the horizon measured on the arc of a vertical +circle. As the distance from the horizon to the zenith is 90 deg., the +difference, or _complement_ of the altitude, is called the _zenith +distance_, or _co-altitude_. + +The _azimuth_ of an object is the angle between the vertical plane +through the object and the plane of the meridian, measured on the +horizon, and usually read from the south point, as 0 deg., through west, at +90, north 180 deg., etc., closing on south at 0 deg. or 360 deg. + +These two co-ordinates, the altitude and azimuth, will determine the +position of any object with reference to the observer's place. The +latter's position is usually given by his latitude and longitude +referred to the equator and some standard meridian as co-ordinates. + +The _latitude_ being the angular distance north or south of the equator, +and the _longitude_ east or west of the assumed meridian. + +We are now prepared to prove that _the altitude of the pole is equal to +the latitude of the place of observation_. + +Let H P Z Q1, etc., Fig. 2, represent a meridian section of the sphere, +in which P is the north pole and Z the place of observation, then H H1 +will be the horizon, Q Q1 the equator, H P will be the altitude of P, +and Q1 Z the latitude of Z. These two arcs are equal, for H C Z = P C +Q1 = 90 deg., and if from these equal quadrants the common angle P C Z be +subtracted, the remainders H C P and Z C Q1, will be equal. + +To _determine the altitude of the pole_, or, in other words, _the +latitude of the place_. + +Observe the altitude of the pole star _when on the meridian_, either +above or below the pole, and from this observed altitude corrected for +refraction, subtract the distance of the star from the pole, or its +_polar distance_, if it was an upper transit, or add it if a lower. +The result will be the required latitude with sufficient accuracy for +ordinary purposes. + +The time of the star's being on the meridian can be determined with +sufficient accuracy by a mere inspection of the heavens. The refraction +is _always negative_, and may be taken from the table appended by +looking up the amount set opposite the observed altitude. Thus, if the +observer's altitude should be 40 deg. 39' the nearest refraction 01' 07", +should be subtracted from 40 deg. 37' 00", leaving 40 deg. 37' 53" for the +latitude. + + +TO FIND THE AZIMUTH OF POLARIS. + +As we have shown the azimuth of Polaris to be a function of the +latitude, and as the latitude is now known, we may proceed to find the +required azimuth. For this purpose we have a right-angled spherical +triangle, Z S P, Fig. 4, in which Z is the place of observation, P the +north pole, and S is Polaris. In this triangle we have given the polar +distance, P S = 10 deg. 19' 13"; the angle at S = 90 deg.; and the distance Z +P, being the complement of the latitude as found above, or 90 deg.--L. +Substituting these in the formula for the azimuth, we will have sin. Z = +sin. P S / sin P Z or sin. of Polar distance / sin. of co-latitude, from +which, by assuming different values for the co-latitude, we compute the +following table: + + AZIMUTH TABLE FOR POINTS BETWEEN 26 deg. and 50 deg. N. LAT. + + LATTITUDES + ___________________________________________________________________ +| | | | | | | | +| Year | 26 deg. | 28 deg. | 30 deg. | 32 deg. | 34 deg. | 36 deg. | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | +| 1882 | 1 28 05 | 1 29 40 | 1 31 25 | 1 33 22 | 1 35 30 | 1 37 52 | +| 1883 | 1 27 45 | 1 29 20 | 1 31 04 | 1 33 00 | 1 35 08 | 1 37 30 | +| 1884 | 1 27 23 | 1 28 57 | 1 30 41 | 1 32 37 | 1 34 45 | 1 37 05 | +| 1885 | 1 27 01 | 1 28 351/2 | 1 30 19 | 1 32 14 | 1 34 22 | 1 36 41 | +| 1886 | 1 26 39 | 1 28 13 | 1 29 56 | 1 31 51 | 1 33 57 | 1 36 17 | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| Year | 38 deg. | 40 deg. | 42 deg. | 44 deg. | 46 deg. | 48 deg. | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | +| 1882 | 1 40 29 | 1 43 21 | 1 46 33 | 1 50 05 | 1 53 59 | 1 58 20 | +| 1883 | 1 40 07 | 1 42 58 | 1 46 08 | 1 49 39 | 1 53 34 | 1 57 53 | +| 1884 | 1 39 40 | 1 42 31 | 1 45 41 | 1 49 11 | 1 53 05 | 1 57 23 | +| 1885 | 1 39 16 | 1 42 07 | 1 45 16 | 1 48 45 | 1 52 37 | 1 56 54 | +| 1886 | 1 38 51 | 1 41 41 | 1 44 49 | 1 48 17 | 1 52 09 | 1 56 24 | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | +| Year | 50 deg. | +|______|_________| +| | | +| | deg. ' " | +| 1882 | 2 03 11 | +| 1883 | 2 02 42 | +| 1884 | 2 02 11 | +| 1885 | 2 01 42 | +| 1886 | 2 01 11 | +|______|_________| + +An analysis of this table shows that the azimuth this year (1882) +increases with the latitude from 1 deg. 28' 05" at 26 deg. north, to 2 deg. 3' 11" +at 50 deg. north, or 35' 06". It also shows that the azimuth of Polaris at +any one point of observation decreases slightly from year to year. This +is due to the increase in declination, or decrease in the star's polar +distance. At 26 deg. north latitude, this annual decrease in the azimuth +is about 22", while at 50 deg. north, it is about 30". As the variation in +azimuth for each degree of latitude is small, the table is only computed +for the even numbered degrees; the intermediate values being readily +obtained by interpolation. We see also that an error of a few minutes of +latitude will not affect the result in finding the meridian, e.g., the +azimuth at 40 deg. north latitude is 1 deg. 43' 21", that at 41 deg. would be 1 deg. 44' +56", the difference (01' 35") being the correction for one degree of +latitude between 40 deg. and 41 deg. Or, in other words, an error of one degree +in finding one's latitude would only introduce an error in the azimuth +of one and a half minutes. With ordinary care the probable error of the +latitude as determined from the method already described need not exceed +a few minutes, making the error in azimuth as laid off on the arc of an +ordinary transit graduated to single minutes, practically zero. + +REFRACTION TABLE FOR ANY ALTITUDE WITHIN THE LATITUDE OF THE UNITED +STATES. + + _____________________________________________________ +| | | | | +| Apparent | Refraction | Apparent | Refraction | +| Altitude. | _minus_. | Altitude. | _minus_. | +|___________|______________|___________|______________| +| | | | | +| 25 deg. | 0 deg. 2' 4.2" | 38 deg. | 0 deg. 1' 14.4" | +| 26 | 1 58.8 | 39 | 1 11.8 | +| 27 | 1 53.8 | 40 | 1 9.3 | +| 28 | 1 49.1 | 41 | 1 6.9 | +| 29 | 1 44.7 | 42 | 1 4.6 | +| 30 | 1 40.5 | 43 | 1 2.4 | +| 31 | 1 36.6 | 44 | 0 0.3 | +| 32 | 1 33.0 | 45 | 0 58.1 | +| 33 | 1 29.5 | 46 | 0 56.1 | +| 34 | 1 26.1 | 47 | 0 54.2 | +| 35 | 1 23.0 | 48 | 0 52.3 | +| 36 | 1 20.0 | 49 | 0 50.5 | +| 37 | 1 17.1 | 50 | 0 48.8 | +|___________|______________|___________|______________| + + +APPLICATIONS. + +In practice to find the true meridian, two observations must be made at +intervals of six hours, or they may be made upon different nights. The +first is for latitude, the second for azimuth at elongation. + +To make either, the surveyor should provide himself with a good transit +with vertical arc, a bull's eye, or hand lantern, plumb bobs, stakes, +etc.[1] Having "set up" over the point through which it is proposed to +establish the meridian, at a time when the line joining Polaris and +Alioth is nearly vertical, level the telescope by means of the attached +level, which should be in adjustment, set the vernier of the vertical +arc at zero, and take the reading. If the pole star is about making its +_upper_ transit, it will rise gradually until reaching the meridian as +it moves westward, and then as gradually descend. When near the highest +part of its orbit point the telescope at the star, having an assistant +to hold the "bull's eye" so as to reflect enough light down the tube +from the object end to illumine the cross wires but not to obscure the +star, or better, use a perforated silvered reflector, clamp the tube in +this position, and as the star continues to rise keep the _horizontal_ +wire upon it by means of the tangent screw until it "rides" along this +wire and finally begins to fall below it. Take the reading of the +vertical arc and the result will be the observed altitude. + +[Footnote 1: A sextant and artificial horizon may be used to find the +_altitude_ of a star. In this case the observed angle must be divided by +2.] + + +ANOTHER METHOD. + +It is a little more accurate to find the altitude by taking the +complement of the observed zenith distance, if the vertical arc has +sufficient range. This is done by pointing first to Polaris when at +its highest (or lowest) point, reading the vertical arc, turning the +horizontal limb half way around, and the telescope over to get another +reading on the star, when the difference of the two readings will be the +_double_ zenith distance, and _half_ of this subtracted from 90 deg. will be +the required altitude. The less the time intervening between these two +pointings, the more accurate the result will be. + +Having now found the altitude, correct it for refraction by subtracting +from it the amount opposite the observed altitude, as given in the +refraction table, and the result will be the latitude. The observer must +now wait about six hours until the star is at its western elongation, +or may postpone further operations for some subsequent night. In the +meantime he will take from the azimuth table the amount given for his +date and latitude, now determined, and if his observation is to be made +on the western elongation, he may turn it off on his instrument, so +that when moved to zero, _after_ the observation, the telescope will be +brought into the meridian or turned to the right, and a stake set by +means of a lantern or plummet lamp. + +[Illustration] + +It is, of course, unnecessary to make this correction at the time of +observation, for the angle between any terrestrial object and the star +may be read and the correction for the azimuth of the star applied at +the surveyor's convenience. It is always well to check the accuracy of +the work by an observation upon the other elongation before putting in +permanent meridian marks, and care should be taken that they are not +placed near any local attractions. The meridian having been established, +the magnetic variation or declination may readily be found by setting +an instrument on the meridian and noting its bearing as given by the +needle. If, for example, it should be north 5 deg. _east_, the variation is +west, because the north end of the needle is _west_ of the meridian, and +_vice versa_. + +_Local time_ may also be readily found by observing the instant when the +sun's center[1] crosses the line, and correcting it for the equation of +time as given above--the result is the true or mean solar time. This, +compared with the clock, will show the error of the latter, and by +taking the difference between the local lime of this and any other +place, the difference of longitude is determined in hours, which can +readily be reduced to degrees by multiplying by fifteen, as 1 h. = 15 deg. + +[Footnote 1: To obtain this time by observation, note the instant of +first contact of the sun's limb, and also of last contact of same, and +take the mean.] + +APPROXIMATE EQUATION OF TIME. + + _______________________ + | | | + | Date. | Minutes. | + |__________|____________| + | | | + | Jan. 1 | 4 | + | 3 | 5 | + | 5 | 6 | + | 7 | 7 | + | 9 | 8 | + | 12 | 9 | + | 15 | 10 | + | 18 | 11 | + | 21 | 12 | + | 25 | 13 | + | 31 | 14 | + | Feb. 10 | 15 | + | 21 | 14 | Clock + | 27 | 13 | faster + | M'ch 4 | 12 | than + | 8 | 11 | sun. + | 12 | 10 | + | 15 | 9 | + | 19 | 8 | + | 22 | 7 | + | 25 | 6 | + | 28 | 5 | + | April 1 | 4 | + | 4 | 3 | + | 7 | 2 | + | 11 | 1 | + | 15 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 19 | 1 | + | 24 | 2 | + | 30 | 3 | + | May 13 | 4 | Clock + | 29 | 3 | slower. + | June 5 | 2 | + | 10 | 1 | + | 15 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 20 | 1 | + | 25 | 2 | + | 29 | 3 | + | July 5 | 4 | + | 11 | 5 | + | 28 | 6 | Clock + | Aug. 9 | 5 | faster. + | 15 | 4 | + | 20 | 3 | + | 24 | 2 | + | 28 | 1 | + | 31 | 0 | + | |------------| + | Sept. 3 | 1 | + | 6 | 2 | + | 9 | 3 | + | 12 | 4 | + | 15 | 5 | + | 18 | 6 | + | 21 | 7 | + | 24 | 8 | + | 27 | 9 | + | 30 | 10 | + | Oct. 3 | 11 | + | 6 | 12 | + | 10 | 13 | + | 14 | 14 | + | 19 | 15 | + | 27 | 16 | Clock + | Nov. 15 | 15 | slower. + | 20 | 14 | + | 24 | 13 | + | 27 | 12 | + | 30 | 11 | + | Dec. 2 | 10 | + | 5 | 9 | + | 7 | 8 | + | 9 | 7 | + | 11 | 6 | + | 13 | 5 | + | 16 | 4 | + | 18 | 3 | + | 20 | 2 | + | 22 | 1 | + | 24 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 26 | 1 | + | 28 | 2 | Clock + | 30 | 3 | faster. + |__________|____________| + + * * * * * + + + + +THE OCELLATED PHEASANT. + + +The collections of the Museum of Natural History of Paris have just been +enriched with a magnificent, perfectly adult specimen of a species of +bird that all the scientific establishments had put down among their +desiderata, and which, for twenty years past, has excited the curiosity +of naturalists. This species, in fact, was known only by a few caudal +feathers, of which even the origin was unknown, and which figured in the +galleries of the Jardin des Plantes under the name of _Argus ocellatus_. +This name was given by J. Verreaux, who was then assistant naturalist at +the museum. It was inscribed by Prince Ch. L. Bonaparte, in his Tableaux +Paralleliques de l'Ordre des Gallinaces, as _Argus giganteus_, and a +few years later it was reproduced by Slater in his Catalogue of the +Phasianidae, and by Gray is his List of the Gallinaceae. But it was not +till 1871 and 1872 that Elliot, in the Annals and Magazine of Natural +History, and in a splendid monograph of the Phasianidae, pointed out +the peculiarities that were presented by the feathers preserved at the +Museum of Paris, and published a figure of them of the natural size. + +The discovery of an individual whose state of preservation leaves +nothing to be desired now comes to demonstrate the correctness of +Verreaux's, Bonaparte's, and Elliot's suppositions. This bird, whose +tail is furnished with feathers absolutely identical with those that +the museum possessed, is not a peacock, as some have asserted, nor an +ordinary Argus of Malacca, nor an argus of the race that Elliot named +_Argus grayi_, and which inhabits Borneo, but the type of a new genus of +the family Phasianidae. This Gallinacean, in fact, which Mr. Maingonnat +has given up to the Museum of Natural History, has not, like the common +Argus of Borneo, excessively elongated secondaries; and its tail is not +formed of normal rectrices, from the middle of which spring two very +long feathers, a little curved and arranged like a roof; but it consists +of twelve wide plane feathers, regularly tapering, and ornamented with +ocellated spots, arranged along the shaft. Its head is not bare, but is +adorned behind with a tuft of thread-like feathers; and, finally, its +system of coloration and the proportions of the different parts of its +body are not the same as in the common argus of Borneo. There is reason, +then, for placing the bird, under the name of _Rheinardius ocellatus_, +in the family Phasianidae, after the genus _Argus_ which it connects, +after a manner, with the pheasants properly so-called. The specific name +_ocellatus_ has belonged to it since 1871, and must be substituted for +that of _Rheinardi_. + +The bird measures more than two meters in length, three-fourths of which +belong to the tail. The head, which is relatively small, appears to be +larger than it really is, owing to the development of the piliform tuft +on the occiput, this being capable of erection so as to form a crest +0.05 to 0.06 of a meter in height. The feathers of this crest are +brown and white. The back and sides of the head are covered with downy +feathers of a silky brown and silvery gray, and the front of the neck +with piliform feathers of a ruddy brown. The upper part of the body is +of a blackish tint and the under part of a reddish brown, the whole +dotted with small white or _cafe-au-lait_ spots. Analogous spots are +found on the wings and tail, but on the secondaries these become +elongated, and tear-like in form. On the remiges the markings are quite +regularly hexagonal in shape; and on the upper coverts of the tail +and on the rectrices they are accompanied with numerous ferruginous +blotches, some of which are irregularly scattered over the whole surface +of the vane, while others, marked in the center with a blackish spot, +are disposed in series along the shaft and resemble ocelli. This +similitude of marking between the rectrices and subcaudals renders the +distinction between these two kinds of feathers less sharp than in many +other Gallinaceans, and the more so in that two median rectrices are +considerably elongated and assume exactly the aspect of tail feathers. + +[Illustration: THE OCELLATED PHEASANT (_Rheinardius ocellatus_).] + +The true rectrices are twelve in number. They are all absolutely plane, +all spread out horizontally, and they go on increasing in length +from the exterior to the middle. They are quite wide at the point of +insertion, increase in diameter at the middle, and afterward taper to +a sharp point. Altogether they form a tail of extraordinary length and +width which the bird holds slightly elevated, so as to cause it to +describe a graceful curve, and the point of which touches the soil. The +beak, whose upper mandible is less arched than that of the pheasants, +exactly resembles that of the arguses. It is slightly inflated at the +base, above the nostrils, and these latter are of an elongated-oval +form. In the bird that I have before me the beak, as well as the feet +and legs, is of a dark rose-color. The legs are quite long and are +destitute of spurs. They terminate in front in three quite delicate +toes, connected at the base by membranes, and behind in a thumb that is +inserted so high that it scarcely touches the ground in walking. This +magnificent bird was captured in a portion of Tonkin as yet unexplored +by Europeans, in a locality named Buih-Dinh, 400 kilometers to the south +of Hue.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MAIDENHAIR TREE. + + +The Maidenhair tree--Gingkgo biloba--of which we give an illustration, +is not only one of our most ornamental deciduous trees, but one of the +most interesting. Few persons would at first sight take it to be a +Conifer, more especially as it is destitute of resin; nevertheless, +to that group it belongs, being closely allied to the Yew, but +distinguishable by its long-stalked, fan-shaped leaves, with numerous +radiating veins, as in an Adiantum. These leaves, like those of the +larch but unlike most Conifers, are deciduous, turning of a pale yellow +color before they fall. The tree is found in Japan and in China, but +generally in the neighborhood of temples or other buildings, and is, we +believe, unknown in a truly wild state. As in the case of several other +trees planted in like situations, such as Cupressus funebris, Abies +fortunei, A. kaempferi, Cryptomeria japonica, Sciadopitys verticillata, +it is probable that the trees have been introduced from Thibet, or +other unexplored districts, into China and Japan. Though now a solitary +representative of its genus, the Gingkgo was well represented in the +coal period, and also existed through the secondary and tertiary epochs, +Professor Heer having identified kindred specimens belonging to sixty +species and eight genera in fossil remains generally distributed through +the northern hemisphere. Whatever inference we may draw, it is at least +certain that the tree was well represented in former times, if now it +be the last of its race. It was first known to Kaempfer in 1690, and +described by him in 1712, and was introduced into this country in the +middle of the eighteenth century. Loudon relates a curious tale as +to the manner in which a French amateur became possessed of it. The +Frenchman, it appears, came to England, and paid a visit to an English +nurseryman, who was the possessor of five plants, raised from Japanese +seeds. The hospitable Englishman entertained the Frenchman only too +well. He allowed his commercial instincts to be blunted by wine, and +sold to his guest the five plants for the sum of 25 guineas. Next +morning, when time for reflection came, the Englishman attempted to +regain one only of the plants for the same sum that the Frenchman had +given for all five, but without avail. The plants were conveyed to +France, where as each plant had cost about 40 crowns, _ecus_, the tree +got the name of _arbre a quarante ecus_. This is the story as given by +Loudon, who tells us that Andre Thouin used to relate the fact in his +lectures at the Jardin des Plantes, whether as an illustration of the +perfidy of Albion is not stated. + +The tree is dioecious, bearing male catkins on one plant, female on +another. All the female trees in Europe are believed to have originated +from a tree near Geneva, of which Auguste Pyramus de Candolle secured +grafts, and distributed them throughout the Continent. Nevertheless, the +female tree is rarely met with, as compared with the male; but it is +quite possible that a tree which generally produces male flowers only +may sometimes bear female flowers only. We have no certain evidence of +this in the case of the Gingkgo, but it is a common enough occurrence in +other dioecious plants, and the occurrence of a fruiting specimen near +Philadelphia, as recently recorded by Mr. Meehan, may possibly be +attributed to this cause. + +The tree of which we give a figure is growing at Broadlands, Hants, and +is about 40 feet in height, with a trunk that measures 7 feet in girth +at 3 feet from the ground, with a spread of branches measuring 45 feet. +These dimensions have been considerably exceeded in other cases. In 1837 +a tree at Purser's Cross measured 60 feet and more in height. Loudon +himself had a small tree in his garden at Bayswater on which a female +branch was grafted. It is to be feared that this specimen has long since +perished. + +We have already alluded to its deciduous character, in which it is +allied to the larch. It presents another point of resemblance both to +the larch and the cedar in the short spurs upon which both leaves and +male catkins are borne, but these contracted branches are mingled with +long extension shoots; there seems, however, no regular alternation +between the short and the long shoots, at any rate the _rationale_ of +their production is not understood, though in all probability a little +observation of the growing plant would soon clear the matter up. + +The fruit is drupaceous, with a soft outer coat and a hard woody shell, +greatly resembling that of a Cycad, both externally and internally. +Whether the albumen contains the peculiar "corpuscles" common to Cycads +and Conifers, we do not for certain know, though from the presence of 2 +to 3 embryos in one seed, as noted by Endlicher, we presume this is the +case. The interest of these corpuscles, it may be added, lies in the +proof of affinity they offer between Conifers and the higher Cryptogams, +such as ferns and lycopods--an affinity shown also in the peculiar +venation of the Gingkgo. Conifers are in some degree links between +ordinary flowering plants and the higher Cryptogams, and serve to +connect in genealogical sequence groups once considered quite distinct. +In germination the two fleshy cotyledons of the Gingkgo remain within +the shell, leaving the three-sided plumule to pass upward; the young +stem bears its leaves in threes. + +We have no desire to enter further upon the botanical peculiarities of +this tree; enough if we have indicated in what its peculiar interest +consists. We have only to add that in gardens varieties exist some with +leaves more deeply cut than usual, others with leaves nearly entire, and +others with leaves of a golden-yellow color.--_Gardeners' Chronicle_. + +[Illustration: THE MAIDENHAIR TREE IN THE GARDENS AT BROADLANDS.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE WOODS OF AMERICA. + + +A collection of woods without a parallel in the world is now being +prepared for exhibition by the Directors of the American Museum of +Natural History. Scattered about the third floor of the Arsenal, in +Central Park, lie 394 logs, some carefully wrapped in bagging, +some inclosed in rough wooden cases, and others partially sawn +longitudinally, horizontally, and diagonally. These logs represent all +but 26 of the varieties of trees indigenous to this country, and +nearly all have a greater or less economic or commercial value. The 26 +varieties needed to complete the collection will arrive before winter +sets in, a number of specimens being now on their way to this city from +the groves of California. Mr. S. D. Dill and a number of assistants are +engaged in preparing the specimens for exhibition. The logs as they +reach the workroom are wrapped in bagging and inclosed in cases, this +method being used so that the bark, with its growth of lichens and +delicate exfoliations, shall not be injured while the logs are in +process of transportation from various parts of the country to this +city. The logs are each 6 feet in length, and each is the most perfect +specimen of its class that could be found by the experts employed in +making the collection. With the specimens of the trees come to the +museum also specimens of the foliage and the fruits and flowers of the +tree. These come from all parts of the Union--from Alaska on the north +to Texas on the south, from Maine on the east to California on the +west--and there is not a State or Territory in the Union which has not a +representative in this collection of logs. On arrival here the logs are +green, and the first thing in the way of treatment after their arrival +is to season them, a work requiring great care to prevent them from +"checking," as it is technically called, or "season cracking," as the +unscientific term the splitting of the wood in radiating lines during +the seasoning process. As is well known, the sap-wood of a tree seasons +much more quickly than does the heart of the wood. The prevention of +this splitting is very necessary in preparing these specimens for +exhibition, for when once the wood has split its value for dressing for +exhibition is gone. A new plan to prevent this destruction of specimens +is now being tried with some success under the direction of Prof. +Bickmore, superintendent of the museum. Into the base of the log and +alongside the heart a deep hole is bored with an auger. As the wood +seasons this hole permits of a pressure inward and so has in many +instances doubtless saved valuable specimens. One of the finest in the +collection, a specimen of the persimmon tree, some two feet in diameter, +has been ruined by the seasoning process. On one side there is a huge +crack, extending from the top to the bottom of the log, which looks as +though some amateur woodman had attempted to split it with an ax and +had made a poor job of it. The great shrinking of the sap-wood of the +persimmon tree makes the wood of but trifling value commercially. +It also has a discouraging effect upon collectors, as it is next to +impossible to cure a specimen, so that all but this one characteristic +of the wood can be shown to the public in a perfect form. + +Before the logs become thoroughly seasoned, or their lines of growth at +all obliterated, a diagram of each is made, showing in accordance with +a regular scale the thickness of the bark, the sap-wood, and the heart. +There is also in this diagram a scale showing the growth of the tree +during each year of its life, these yearly growths being regularly +marked about the heart of the tree by move or less regular concentric +circles, the width of which grows smaller and smaller as the tree grows +older. In this connection attention may be called to a specimen in the +collection which is considered one of the most remarkable in the world. +It is not a native wood, but an importation, and the tree from which +this wonderful slab is cut is commonly known as the "Pride of India." +The heart of this particular tree was on the port side, and between it +and the bark there is very little sap-wood, not more than an inch. +On the starbord side, so to speak, the sap-wood has grown out in an +abnormal manner, and one of the lines indicative of a year's growth is +one and seven-eighths inches in width, the widest growth, many experts +who have seen the specimen say, that was ever recorded. The diagrams +referred to are to be kept for scientific uses, and the scheme of +exhibition includes these diagrams as a part of the whole. + +After a log has become seasoned it is carefully sawed through the center +down about one-third of its length. A transverse cut is then made and +the semi-cylindrical section thus severed from the log is removed. The +upper end is then beveled. When a log is thus treated the inspector can +see the lower two-thirds presenting exactly the same appearance it did +when growing in the forest. The horizontal cut, through the sap-wood +and to the center of the heart, shows the life lines of the tree, and +carefully planed as are this portion, the perpendicular and the beveled +sections, the grain of the wood can thus be plainly seen. That these may +be made even more valuable to the architect and artisan, the right half +of this planed surface will be carefully polished, and the left half +left in the natural state. This portion of the scheme of treatment is +entirely in the interests of architects and artisans, and it is expected +by Prof. Bickmore that it will be the means of securing for some kinds +of trees, essentially of American growth, and which have been virtually +neglected, an important place in architecture and in ornamental +wood-work, and so give a commercial value to woods that are now of +comparatively little value. + +Among the many curious specimens in the collection now being prepared +for exhibition, one which will excite the greatest curiosity is a +specimen of the honey locust, which was brought here from Missouri. +The bark is covered with a growth of thorns from one to four inches +in length, sharp as needles, and growing at irregular intervals. The +specimen arrived here in perfect condition, but, in order that it might +be transported without injury, it had to be suspended from the roof of +a box car, and thus make its trip from Southern Missouri to this city +without change. Another strange specimen in the novel collection is a +portion of the Yucca tree, an abnormal growth of the lily family. The +trunk, about 2 feet in diameter, is a spongy mass, not susceptible of +treatment to which the other specimens are subjected. Its bark is an +irregular stringy, knotted mass, with porcupine-quill-like leaves +springing out in place of the limbs that grow from all well-regulated +trees. One specimen of the yucca was sent to the museum two years ago, +and though the roots and top of the tree were sawn off, shoots sprang +out, and a number of the handsome flowers appeared. The tree was +supposed to be dead and thoroughly seasoned by this Fall, but now, when +the workmen are ready to prepare it for exhibition, it has shown new +life, new shoots have appeared, and two tufts of green now decorate the +otherwise dry and withered log, and the yucca promises to bloom again +before the winter is over. One of the most perfect specimens of the +Douglass spruce ever seen is in the collection, and is a decided +curiosity. It is a recent arrival from the Rocky Mountains. Its bark, +two inches or more in thickness, is perforated with holes reaching to +the-sap-wood. Many of these contain acorns, or the remains of acorns, +which have been stored there by provident woodpeckers, who dug the holes +in the bark and there stored their winter supply of food. The oldest +specimen in the collection is a section of the _Picea engelmanni_, a +species of spruce growing in the Rocky Mountains at a considerable +elevation above the sea. The specimen is 24 inches in diameter, and the +concentric circles show its age to be 410 years. The wood much resembles +the black spruce, and is the most valuable of the Rocky Mountain +growths. A specimen of the nut pine, whose nuts are used for food by the +Indians, is only 15 inches in diameter, and yet its life lines show its +age to be 369 years. The largest specimen yet received is a section of +the white ash, which is 46 inches in diameter and 182 years old. The +next largest specimen is a section of the _Platanus occidentalis_, +variously known in commerce as the sycamore, button-wood, or plane tree, +which is 42 inches in diameter and only 171 years of age. Specimens of +the redwood tree of California are now on their way to this city from +the Yosemite Valley. One specimen, though a small one, measures 5 feet +in diameter and shows the character of the wood. A specimen of +the enormous growths of this tree was not secured because of the +impossibility of transportation and the fact that there would be no room +in the museum for the storage of such a specimen, for the diameter of +the largest tree of the class is 45 feet and 8 inches, which represents +a circumference of about 110 feet. Then, too, the Californians object to +have the giant trees cut down for commercial, scientific, or any other +purposes. + +To accompany these specimens of the woods of America, Mr. Morris K. +Jesup, who has paid all the expense incurred in the collection of +specimens, is having prepared as an accompanying portion of the +exhibition water color drawings representing the actual size, color, +and appearance of the fruit, foliage, and flowers of the various trees. +Their commercial products, as far as they can be obtained, will also be +exhibited, as, for instance, in the case of the long-leaved pine, the +tar, resin, and pitch, for which it is especially valued. Then, too, in +an herbarium the fruits, leaves, and flowers are preserved as nearly as +possible in their natural state. When the collection is ready for public +view next spring it will be not only the largest, but the only complete +one of its kind in the country. There is nothing like it in the world, +as far as is known; certainly not in the royal museums of England, +France, or Germany. + +Aside from the value of the collection, in a scientific way, it is +proposed to make it an adjunct to our educational system, which requires +that teachers shall instruct pupils as to the materials used for food +and clothing. The completeness of the exhibition will be of great +assistance also to landscape gardeners, as it will enable them to lay +out private and public parks so that the most striking effects of +foliage may be secured. The beauty of these effects can best be seen in +this country in our own Central Park, where there are more different +varieties and more combinations for foliage effects than in any other +area in the United States. To ascertain how these effects are obtained +one now has to go to much trouble to learn the names of the trees. With +this exhibition such information can be had merely by observation, for +the botanical and common names of each specimen will be attached to +it. It will also be of practical use in teaching the forester how to +cultivate trees as he would other crops. The rapid disappearance of +many valuable forest trees, with the increase in demand and decrease in +supply, will tend to make the collection valuable as a curiosity in +the not far distant future as representing the extinct trees of the +country.--_N.Y. Times_. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. 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Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement No. 360, November 25, 1882 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: July, 2005 [EBook #8559] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on July 23, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUP. NO. 360 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, +Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 360 + + + + +NEW YORK, NOVEMBER 25, 1882 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIV, No. 360. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + + TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Soaking Pits for Steel Ingots. + --On the successful rolling of steel ingots with their own + initial heat by means of the soaking pit process. By JOHN GJERS. + 6 figures.--Gjers' soaking pits for steel ingots. + + Tempering by compression.--L. Clemandot's process. + + Economical Steam Power. By WILLIAM BARNET LE VAN. + + Mississippi River Improvements near St. Louis, Mo. + + Bunte's Burette for the Analysis of Furnace Gases. 2 figures. + + The "Universal" Gas Engine. 8 figures.--Improved gas engine. + + Gas Furnace for Baking Refractory Products. 1 figure. + + The Efficiency of Fans. 5 figures. + + Machine for Compressing Coal Refuse into Fuel. 1 figure.-- + Bilan's machine. + + Hank Sizing and Wringing Machine. 1 figure. + + Improved Coke Breaker. 2 figures. + + Improvements in Printing Machinery. 2 figures. + +II. TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.--Apparatus for Obtaining + Pure Water for Photographic Use. 3 figures. + + Black Phosphorus.--By P THENARD. + + Composition of Steep Water + + Schreiber's Apparatus for Revivifying Bone Black. 5 figures.-- + Plant: elevation and plan.--Views of elevation.--Continuous + furnace. + + Soap and its Manufacture from a Consumer's Point of View. + (Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 330). + + Cotton seed Oil.--By S. S. BRADFORD. + + On some Apparatus that Permit of Entering Flames.--Chevalier + Aldini's wire gauze and asbestos protectors.--Brewster's account + of test experiments. + +III. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT. ETC.--On a New Arc Electric Lamp. + By W. H. PREECE. 6 figures--The Abdank system.--The lamp.-- + The Electro-magnet.--The Cut-off.--The electrical arrangement. + + Utilization of Solar Heat. + +IV. NATURAL HISTORY.--The Ocellated Pheasant. 1 figure. + + The Maidenhair Tree in the Gardens at Broadlands, Hants, + England. 1 figure. + + The Woods of America.--The Jessup collection in the American + Museum of Natural History, Central Park, and the characteristics + of the specimens. + +V. AGRICULTURE, ETC.--An Industrial Revolution.--Increase in + the number of farms. + + A Farmer's Lime Kiln. 3 figures. + + The Manufacture of Apple Jelly. + + Improved Grape Bags. 4 figures. + +VI. ARCHITECTURE, ETC.--The Building Stone Supply.--Granite + and its sources.--Sandstone.--Blue and gray limestone.--Marble.-- + Slate.--Other stones.--A valuable summary of the sources and uses + of quarry products. + +VII. ASTRONOMY. ETC.--How to Establish a True Meridian. By + Prof. L. M. HAUPT.--Introduction.--Definitions.--To find the + azemuth of Polaris.--Applications, etc. + +VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.--A Characteristic Mining "Rush."--The + Prospective Mining Center of Southern New Mexico. + + The Food and Energy of Man. By Prof. DE CHAUMONT.--Original + food of man.--Function of food.--Classes of alimentary + substances.--Quantity of food.--Importance of varied diet. + + Rattlesnake Poison.--Its Antidotes. By H. H. CROFT. + + The Chinese Sign Manual.--The ethnic bearing of skin furrows + on the hand. + + Lucidity.--Matthew Arnold's remarks at the reopening of the + Liverpool University College and School of Medicine. + + * * * * * + + + + +SOAKING PITS FOR STEEL INGOTS. + +ON THE SUCCESSFUL ROLLING OF STEEL INGOTS WITH THEIR OWN INITIAL HEAT BY +MEANS OF THE SOAKING PIT PROCESS. + +By Mr. JOHN GJERS, Middlesbrough. + +[Footnote: Paper read before the Iron and Steel Institute at Vienna.] + + +When Sir Henry Bessemer, in 1856, made public his great invention, and +announced to the world that he was able to produce malleable steel from +cast iron without the expenditure of any fuel except that which already +existed in the fluid metal imparted to it in the blast furnace, his +statement was received with doubt and surprise. If he at that time had +been able to add that it was also possible to roll such steel into a +finished bar with no further expenditure of fuel, then undoubtedly the +surprise would have been much greater. + +Even this, however, has come to pass; and the author of this paper +is now pleased to be able to inform this meeting that it is not only +possible, but that it is extremely easy and practical, by the means to +be described, to roll a steel ingot into, say, a bloom, a rail, or other +finished article with its own initial heat, without the aid of the +hitherto universally adopted heating furnace. + +It is well understood that in the fluid steel poured into the mould +there is a larger store of heat than is required for the purpose +of rolling or hammering. Not only is there the mere apparent high +temperature of fluid steel, but there is the store of latent heat in +this fluid metal which is given out when solidification takes place. + +It has, no doubt, suggested itself to many that this heat of the ingot +ought to be utilized, and as a matter of fact, there have been, at +various times and in different places, attempts made to do so; but +hitherto all such attempts have proved failures, and a kind of settled +conviction has been established in the steel trade that the theory could +not possibly be carried out in practice. + +The difficulty arose from the fact that a steel ingot when newly +stripped is far too hot in the interior for the purpose of rolling, and +if it be kept long enough for the interior to become in a fit state, +then the exterior gets far too cold to enable it to be rolled +successfully. It has been attempted to overcome this difficulty +by putting the hot ingots under shields or hoods, lined with +non-heat-conducting material, and to bury them in non-heat-conducting +material in a pulverized state, for the purpose of retaining and +equalizing the heat; but all these attempts have proved futile in +practice, and the fact remains, that the universal practice in steel +works at the present day all over the world is to employ a heating +furnace of some description requiring fuel. + +The author introduced his new mode of treating ingots at the Darlington +Steel and Iron Company's Works, in Darlington, early in June this year, +and they are now blooming the whole of their make, about 125 tons a +shift, or about 300 ingots every twelve hours, by such means. + +The machinery at Darlington is not adapted for rolling off in one heat; +nevertheless they have rolled off direct from the ingot treated in the +"soaking pits" a considerable number of double-head rails; and the +experience so gained proves conclusively that with proper machinery +there will be no difficulty in doing so regularly. The quality of the +rails so rolled off has been everything that could be desired; and as +many of the defects in rails originate in the heating furnace, the +author ventures to predict that even in this respect the new process +will stand the test. + +Many eminently practical men have witnessed the operation at Darlington, +and they one and all have expressed their great surprise at the result, +and at the simple and original means by which it is accomplished. + +The process is in course of adoption in several works, both in England +and abroad, and the author hopes that by the time this paper is being +read, there may be some who will from personal experience be able to +testify to the practicability and economy of the process, which is +carried out in the manner now to be described. + +A number of upright pits (the number, say, of the ingots in a cast) are +built in a mass of brickwork sunk in the ground below the level of the +floor, such pits in cross-section being made slightly larger than that +of the ingot, just enough to allow for any fins at the bottom, and +somewhat deeper than the longest ingot likely to be used. In practice +the cross section of the pit is made about 3 in. larger than the large +end of the ingot, and the top of the ingot may be anything from 6 in. to +18 in. below the top of the pit. These pits are commanded by an ingot +crane, by preference so placed in relation to the blooming mill that the +crane also commands the live rollers of the mill. + +Each pit is covered with a separate lid at the floor level, and after +having been well dried and brought to a red heat by the insertion of hot +ingots, they are ready for operation. + +As soon as the ingots are stripped (and they should be stripped as early +as practicable), they are transferred one by one, and placed separately +by means of the crane into these previously heated pits (which the +author calls "soaking pits") and forthwith covered over with the lid, +which practically excludes the air. In these pits, thus covered, the +ingots are allowed to stand and soak; that is, the excessive molten +heat of the interior, and any additional heat rendered sensible during +complete solidification, but which was latent at the time of placing +the ingots into the pit, becomes uniformly distributed, or nearly so, +throughout the metallic mass. No, or comparatively little, heat being +able to escape, as the ingot is surrounded by brick walls as hot as +itself, it follows that the surface heat of the ingot is greatly +increased; and after the space of from twenty to thirty minutes, +according to circumstances, the ingot is lifted out of the pit +apparently much hotter than it went in, and is now swung round to the +rolls, by means of the crane, in a perfect state of heat for rolling, +with this additional advantage to the mill over an ingot heated in an +ordinary furnace from a comparatively cold, that it is always certain to +be at least as hot in the center as it is on the surface. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +Every ingot, when cast, contains within itself a considerably larger +store of heat than is necessary for the rolling operation. Some of this +heat is, of course, lost by passing into the mould, some is lost by +radiation before the ingot enters into the soaking pit, and some is lost +after it enters, by being conducted away by the brickwork; but in the +ordinary course of working, when there is no undue loss of time in +transferring the ingots, after allowing for this loss, there remains a +surplus, which goes into the brickwork of the soaking pits, so that this +surplus of heat from successive ingots tends continually to keep the +pits at the intense heat of the ingot itself. Thus, occasionally it +happens that inadvertently an ingot is delayed so long on its way to the +pit as to arrive there somewhat short of heat, its temperature will be +raised by heat from the walls of the pit itself; the refractory mass +wherein the pit is formed, in fact, acting as an accumulator of heat, +giving and taking heat as required to carry on the operation in a +continuous and practical manner. + +[Illustration: GJERS' SOAKING PITS FOR STEEL INGOTS.] + +During the soaking operation a quantity of gas exudes from the ingot and +fills the pit, thus entirely excluding atmospheric air from entering; +this is seen escaping round the lid, and when the lid is removed +combustion takes place. + +It will be seen by analyses given hereinafter that this gas is entirely +composed of hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbonic oxide, so that the ingots +soak in a perfectly non-oxidizing medium. Hence loss of steel by +oxidation does not take place, and consequently the great loss of +yield which always occurs in the ordinary heating furnace is entirely +obviated. + +The author does not think it necessary to dilate upon the economical +advantages of his process, as they are apparent to every practical man +connected with the manufacture of steel. + +The operation of steel making on a large scale will by this process be +very much simplified. It will help to dispense with a large number of +men, some of them highly paid, directly and indirectly connected with +the heating department; it will do away with costly heating furnaces and +gas generators, and their costly maintenance; it will save all the coal +used in heating; and what is perhaps of still more importance, it will +save the loss in yield of steel; and there will be no more steel spoiled +by overheating in the furnaces. + +The process has been in operation too short a time to give precise +and reliable figures, but it is hoped that by the next meeting of the +Institute these will be forthcoming from various quarters. + +Referring to the illustrations annexed, Fig. 1 shows sectional +elevation, and Fig. 2 plan of a set of eight soaking pits (marked +A). These pits are built in a mass of brickwork, B, on a concrete +foundation, C; the ingots, D, standing upright in the pits. The pits are +lined with firebrick lumps, 6 in. thick, forming an independent lining, +E, which at any time can be readily renewed. F is a cast iron plate, +made to take in four pits, and dropped loosely within the large plate, +G, which surrounds the pits. H is the cover, with a firebrick lining; +and I is a false cover of firebrick, 1 in. smaller than the cross +section of the pit, put in to rest on the top of the ingot. This false +cover need not necessarily be used, but is useful to keep the extreme +top of the ingot extra hot. J is the bottom of the pit, composed of +broken brick and silver sand, forming a good hard bottom at any desired +level. + +Figs. 4 and 5 show outline plan of two sets of soaking pits, K K, eight +each, placed under a 25 ft. sweep crane, L. This crane, if a good one, +could handle any ordinary make--up to 2,000 tons per week, and ought to +have hydraulic racking out and swinging round gear. This crane places +the ingots into the pits, and, when they are ready, picks them out and +swings them round to blooming mill, M. With such a crane, four men and a +boy at the handles are able to pass the whole of that make through the +pits. The author recommends two sets of pits as shown, although one set +of eight pits is quite able to deal with any ordinary output from one +Bessemer pit. + +In case of an extraordinarily large output, the author recommends a +second crane, F, for the purpose of placing the ingots in the pits +only, the crane, L, being entirely used for picking the ingots out +and swinging them round to the live rollers of the mill. The relative +position of the cranes, soaking pits, and blooming mill may of course be +variously arranged according to circumstances, and the soaking pits may +be arranged in single or more rows, or concentrically with the crane at +pleasure. + +Figs. 4 and 5 also show outline plan and elevation of a Bessemer plant, +conveniently arranged for working on the soaking pit system. A A are +the converters, with a transfer crane, B. C is the casting pit with +its crane, D. E E are the two ingot cranes. F is a leading crane which +transfers the ingots from the ingot cranes to the soaking pits, K K, +commanded by the crane, L, which transfers the prepared ingots to the +mill, M. as before described. + + * * * * * + + + + +TEMPERING BY COMPRESSION. + + +L. Clemandot has devised a new method of treating metals, especially +steel, which consists in heating to a cherry red, compressing strongly +and keeping up the pressure until the metal is completely cooled. The +results are so much like those of tempering that he calls his process +tempering by compression. The compressed metal becomes exceedingly hard, +acquiring a molecular contraction and a fineness of grain such that +polishing gives it the appearance of polished nickel. Compressed steel, +like tempered steel, acquires the coercitive force which enables it to +absorb magnetism. This property should be studied in connection with +its durability; experiments have already shown that there is no loss of +magnetism at the expiration of three months. This compression has no +analogue but tempering. Hammering and hardening modify the molecular +state of metals, especially when they are practiced upon metal that is +nearly cold, but the effect of hydraulic pressure is much greater. +The phenomena which are produced in both methods of tempering may be +interpreted in different ways, but it seems likely that there is a +molecular approximation, an amorphism from which results the homogeneity +that is due to the absence of crystallization. Being an operation which +can be measured, it may be graduated and kept within limits which are +prescribed in advance; directions may be given to temper at a +specified pressure, as readily as to work under a given pressure of +steam.--_Chron. Industr_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ECONOMICAL STEAM POWER. + +[Footnote: A paper read by title at a recent stated meeting of the +Franklin Institute] + +By WILLIAM BARNET LE VAN. + + +The most economical application of steam power can be realized only by +a judicious arrangement of the plant: namely, the engines, boilers, and +their accessories for transmission. + +This may appear a somewhat broad assertion; but it is nevertheless one +which is amply justified by facts open to the consideration of all those +who choose to seek for them. + +While it is true that occasionally a factory, mill, or a water-works +may be found in which the whole arrangements have been planned by a +competent engineer, yet such is the exception and not the rule, and such +examples form but a very small percentage of the whole. + +The fact is that but few users of steam power are aware of the numerous +items which compose the cost of economical steam power, while a yet +smaller number give sufficient consideration to the relations which +these items bear to each other, or the manner in which the economy of +any given boiler or engine is affected by the circumstances under which +it is run. + +A large number of persons--and they are those who should know better, +too--take for granted that a boiler or engine which is good for one +situation is good for all; a greater error than such an assumption can +scarcely be imagined. + +It is true that there are certain classes of engines and boilers which +may be relied upon to give moderately good results in almost any +situation--and the best results should _always_ be desired in +arrangement of a mill--there are a considerable number of details which +must be taken into consideration in making a choice of boilers and +engines. + +Take the case of a mill in which it has been supposed that the motive +power could be best exerted by a single engine. The question now is +whether or not it would be best to divide the total power required among +a number of engines. + +_First_.--A division of the motive power presents the following +advantages, namely, a saving of expense on lines of shafting of large +diameter. + +_Second_.--Dispensing with the large driving belt or gearing, the first +named of which, in one instance under the writer's observation, absorbed +_sixty horse-power_ out of about 480, or about _seven per cent_. + +_Third_.--The general convenience of subdividing the work to be done, +so that in case of a stoppage of one portion of the work by reason of +a loose coupling or the changing of a pulley, etc., that portion only +would need to be stopped. + +This last is of itself a most important point, and demands careful +consideration. + +For example, I was at a mill a short time ago when the governor belt +broke. The result was a stoppage of the whole mill. Had the motive power +of this mill been subdivided into a number of small engines only one +department would have been stopped. During the stoppage in this case +the windows of the mill were a sea of heads of men and women (the +operatives), and considerable excitement was caused by the violent +blowing off of steam from the safety-valves, due to the stoppage of the +steam supply to the engine; and this excitement continued until the +cause of the stoppage was understood. Had the power in this mill been +subdivided the stoppage of one of a number of engines would scarcely +have been noticed, and the blowing off of surplus steam would not have +occurred. + +In building a mill the first item to be considered is the interest on +the first cost of the engine, boilers, etc. This item can be subdivided +with advantage into the amounts of interest on the respective costs of, + +_First_. The engine or engines; + +_Second_ The boiler or boilers; + +_Third_. The engine and boiler house. + +In the same connection the _form_ of engine to be used must be +considered. In some few cases--as, for instance, where engines have to +be placed in confined situations--the form is practically fixed by the +space available, it being perhaps possible only to erect a vertical or a +horizontal engine, as the case may be. These, however, are exceptional +instances, and in most cases--at all events where large powers are +required--the engineer may have a free choice in the matter. Under +these circumstances the best form, in the vast majority of cases where +machinery must be driven, is undoubtedly the horizontal engine, and the +worst the beam engine. When properly constructed, the horizontal engine +is more durable than the beam engine, while, its first cost being less, +it can be driven at a higher speed, and it involves a much smaller +outlay for engine house and foundations than the latter. In many +respects the horizontal engine is undoubtedly closely approached in +advantages by the best forms of vertical engines; but on the whole we +consider that where machinery is to be driven the balance of advantages +is decidedly in favor of the former class, and particularly so in the +case of large powers. + +The next point to be decided is, whether a condensing or non-condensing +engine should be employed. In settling this question not only the +respective first costs of the two classes of engines must be taken into +consideration, but also the cost of water and fuel. Excepting, perhaps, +in cases of very small powers, and in those instances where the exhaust +steam from a non-condensing engine can be turned to good account for +heating or drying purpose, it may safely be asserted that in all +instances where a sufficient supply of condensing water is available +at a moderate cost, the extra economy of a well-constructed condensing +engine will fully warrant the additional outlay involved in its +purchase. In these days of high steam pressures, a well constructed +non-condensing engine can, no doubt, be made to approximate closely to +the economy of a condensing engine, but in such a case the extra cost of +the stronger boiler required will go far to balance the additional cost +of the condensing engine. + +Having decided on the form, the next question is, what "class" of engine +shall it be; and by the term class I mean the relative excellence of the +engine as a power-producing machine. An automatic engine costs more than +a plain slide-valve engine, but it will depend upon the cost of fuel at +the location where the engine is to be placed, and the number of hours +per day it is kept running, to decide which class of machine can be +adopted with the greatest economy to the proprietor. The cost of +lubricating materials, fuel, repairs, and percentage of cost to be put +aside for depreciation, will be less in case of the high-class than in +the low-class engine, while the former will also require less boiler +power. + +Against these advantages are to be set the greater first cost of the +automatic engine, and the consequent annual charge due to capital sunk. +These several items should all be fairly estimated when an engine is +to be bought, and the kind chosen accordingly. Let us take the item of +fuel, for instance, and let us suppose this fuel to cost four dollars +per ton at the place where the engine is run. Suppose the engine to be +capable of developing one hundred horse-power, and that it consumes five +pounds of coal per hour per horse-power, and runs ten hours per day: +this would necessitate the supply of two and one-half tons per day at +a cost of ten dollars per day. To be really economical, therefore, any +improvement which would effect a saving of one pound of coal per hour +per horse-power must not cost a greater sum per horse-power than that on +which the cost of the difference of the coal saved (one pound of coal +per hour per horse-power, which would be 1,000 pounds per day) for, say, +three hundred days, three hundred thousand (300,000) pounds, or one +hundred and fifty tons (or six hundred dollars), would pay a fair +interest. + +Assuming that the mill owner estimates his capital as worth to him ten +per cent, per annum, then the improvement which would effect the above +mentioned saving must not cost more than six thousand dollars, and so +on. If, instead of being run only ten hours per day, the engine is run +night and day, then the outlay which it would be justifiable to make to +effect a certain saving per hour would be doubled; while, on the other +hand, if an engine is run less than the usual time per day a given +saving per hour would justify a correspondingly less outlay. + +It has been found that for grain and other elevators, which are not run +constantly, gas engines, although costing more for the same power, +are cheaper than steam engines for elevating purposes where only +occasionally used. + +For this reason it is impossible without considerable investigation to +say what is really the most economical engine to adopt in any particular +case; and as comparatively few users of steam power care to make this +investigation a vast amount of wasteful expenditure results. Although, +however, no absolute rule can be given, we may state that the number +of instances in which an engine which is wasteful of fuel can be used +profitably is exceedingly small. As a rule, in fact, it may generally be +assumed that an engine employed for driving a manufactory of any kind +cannot be of too high a class, the saving effected by the economical +working of such engines in the vast majority of cases enormously +outweighing the interest on their extra first cost. So few people appear +to have a clear idea of the vast importance of economy of fuel in mills +and factories that I perhaps cannot better conclude than by giving an +example showing the saving to be effected in a large establishment by an +economical engine. + +I will take the case of a flouring mill in this city which employed two +engines that required forty pounds of water to be converted into steam +per hour per indicated horse-power. This, at the time, was considered a +moderate amount and the engines were considered "good." + +These engines indicated seventy horse power each, and ran twenty-four +hours per day on an average of three hundred days each year, requiring +as per indicator diagrams forty million three hundred and twenty +thousand pounds (40 x 70 x 24 x 300 x 2 = 40,320,000) of feed water to +be evaporated per annum, which, in Philadelphia, costs three dollars +per horse-power per annum, amounting to (70 x 2 x 300 = $420.00) four +hundred and twenty dollars. + +The coal consumed averaged five and one-half pounds per hour per +horse-power, which, at four dollars per ton, costs + +((70 x 2 x 5.5 x 24 x 300) / 2,000) x 4.00= $11,088 + +Eleven thousand and eighty-eight dollars. + + Cost of coal for 300 days. $11,088 + Cost of water for 300 days. 420 + ------- + Total cost of coal and water. $11,503 + +These engines were replaced by one first-class automatic engine, +which developed one hundred and forty-two horse-power per hour with a +consumption of _three pounds_ of coal per hour per horse-power, and the +indicator diagrams showed a consumption of _thirty_ pounds of water per +hour per horse-power. Coal cost + +((142 x 3 x 24 x 300) / 2,000) x 4.00 = $6,134 + +Six thousand one hundred and thirty-four dollars. Water cost (142 x +3.00= $426.00) four hundred and twenty-six dollars. + + Cost of coal for 300 days. $6,134 + Cost of water for 300 days. 426 + ------ + Total cost of coal and water. $6,560 + +The water evaporated in the latter case to perform the same work was +(142 x 30 x 24 x 300 = 30,672,000) thirty million six hundred and +seventy-two thousand pounds of feed water against (40,320,000) forty +million three hundred and twenty thousand pounds in the former, a saving +of (9,648,000) nine million six hundred and forty-eight thousand pounds +per annum; or, + +(40,320,000 - 30,672,000) / 9,648,000 = 31.4 per cent. + +--_thirty-one and four-tenths per cent_. + +And a saving in coal consumption of + +(11,088 - 6,134) / 4,954 = 87.5 per cent. + +--_eighty-seven and one-half per cent_., or a saving in dollars and +cents of four thousand nine hundred and fifty-four dollars ($4,954). + +In this city, Philadelphia, no allowance for the consumption of water is +made in the case of first class engines, such engines being charged the +same rate per annum per horse-power as an inferior engine, while, +as shown by the above example, a saving in water of _thirty-one and +four-tenths per cent_. has been attained by the employment of a +first-class engine. The builders of such engines will always give a +guarantee of their consumption of water, so that the purchaser can be +able in advance to estimate this as accurately as he can the amount of +fuel he will use. + + * * * * * + + + + +RIVER IMPROVEMENTS NEAR ST. LOUIS. + + +The improvement of the Mississippi River near St. Louis progresses +satisfactorily. The efficacy of the jetty system is illustrated in the +lines of mattresses which showed accumulations of sand deposits ranging +from the surface of the river to nearly sixteen feet in height. At Twin +Hollow, thirteen miles from St. Louis and six miles from Horse-Tail Bar, +there was found a sand bar extending over the widest portion of the +river on which the engineering forces were engaged. Hurdles are built +out from the shore to concentrate the stream on the obstruction, and +then to protect the river from widening willows are interwoven between +the piles. At Carroll's Island mattresses 125 feet wide have been +placed, and the banks revetted with stone from ordinary low water to a +16 foot stage. There is plenty of water over the bar, and at the most +shallow points the lead showed a depth of twelve feet. Beard's Island, a +short distance further, is also being improved, the largest force of men +at any one place being here engaged. Four thousand feet of mattresses +have been begun, and in placing them work will be vigorously prosecuted +until operations are suspended by floating ice. The different sections +are under the direction of W. F. Fries, resident engineer, and E. M. +Currie, superintending engineer. There are now employed about 1,200 men, +thirty barges and scows, two steam launches, and the stern-wheel steamer +A. A. Humphreys. The improvements have cost, in actual money expended, +about $200,000, and as the appropriation for the ensuing year +approximates $600,000, the prospect of a clear channel is gratifying to +those interested in the river. + + * * * * * + + + + +BUNTE'S BURETTE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF FURNACE GASES. + + +For analyzing the gases of blast-furnaces the various apparatus of Orsat +have long been employed; but, by reason of its simplicity, the burette +devised by Dr. Buente, and shown in the accompanying figures, is much +easier to use. Besides, it permits of a much better and more rapid +absorption of the oxide of carbon; and yet, for the lost fractions of +the latter, it is necessary to replace a part of the absorbing liquid +three or four times. The absorbing liquid is prepared by making a +saturated solution of chloride of copper in hydrochloric acid, and +adding thereto a small quantity of dissolved chloride of tin. Afterward, +there are added to the decanted mixture a few spirals of red copper, and +the mixture is then carefully kept from contact with the air. + +To fill the burette with gas, the three-way cock, _a_, is so placed that +the axial aperture shall be in communication with the graduated part, A, +of the burette. After this, water is poured into the funnel, t, and the +burette is put in communication with the gas reservoir by means of a +rubber tube. The lower point of the burette is put in communication with +a rubber pump, V (Fig. 2), on an aspirator (the cock, _b_, being left +open), and the gas is sucked in until all the air that was in the +apparatus has been expelled from it. The cocks, _a_ and _b_, are turned +90 degrees. The water in the funnel prevents the gases communicating +with the top. The point of the three-way cock is afterward closed with a +rubber tube and glass rod. + +If the gas happens to be in the reservoir of an aspirator, it is made +to pass into the apparatus in the following manner: The burette is +completely filled with water, and the point of the three-way cock is +put in communication with a reservoir. If the gas is under pressure, a +portion of it is allowed to escape through the capillary tube into the +water in the funnel, by turning the cock, _a_, properly, and thus all +the water in the conduit is entirely expelled. Afterward _a_ is turned +180 deg., and the lower cock, _b_, is opened. While the water is flowing +through _b_, the burette becomes filled with gas. + +_Mode of Measuring the Gases and Absorption_.--The tube that +communicates with the vessel, F, is put in communication, after the +latter has been completely filled with water, with the point of the +cock, _b_ (Fig. 2). Then the latter is opened, as is also the pinch cock +on the rubber tubing, and water is allowed to enter the burette through +the bottom until the level is at the zero of the graduation. There are +then 100 cubic centimeters in the burette. The superfluous gas has +escaped through the cock, _a_, and passed through the water in the +funnel. The cock, _a_, is afterward closed by turning it 90 deg.. To +cause the absorbing liquid to pass into the burette, the water in the +graduated cylinder is made to flow by connecting the rubber tube, s, of +the bottle, S, with the point of the burette. The cock is opened, and +suction is effected with the mouth of the tube, r. When the water has +flowed out to nearly the last drop, _b_ is closed and the suction bottle +is removed. The absorbing liquid (caustic potassa or pyrogallate of +potassa) is poured into a porcelain capsule, P, and the point of the +burette is dipped into the liquid. If the cock, _b_, be opened, the +absorbing liquid will be sucked into the burette. In order to hasten +the absorption, the cock, _b_, is closed, and the burette is shaken +horizontally, the aperture of the funnel being closed by the hand during +the operation. + +If not enough absorbing liquid has entered, there may be sucked into the +burette, by the process described above, a new quantity of liquid. The +reaction finished, the graduated cylinder is put in communication with +the funnel by turning the cock, _a_. The water is allowed to run from +the funnel, and the latter is filled again with water up to the mark. +The gas is then again under the same pressure as at the beginning. + +After the level has become constant, the quantity of gas remaining is +measured. The contraction that has taken place gives, in hundredths of +the total volume, the volume of the gas absorbed. + +When it is desired to make an analysis of smoke due to combustion, +caustic potassa is first sucked into the burette. After complete +absorption, and after putting the gas at the same pressure, the +diminution gives the volume of carbonic acid. + +To determine the oxygen in the remaining gas, a portion of the caustic +potash is allowed to flow out, and an aqueous solution of pyrogallic +acid and potash is allowed to enter. The presence of oxygen is revealed +by the color of the liquid, which becomes darker. + +The gas is then agitated with the absorbing liquid until, upon opening +the cock, _a_, the liquid remains in the capillary tube, that is to say, +until no more water runs from the funnel into the burette. To make a +quantitative analysis of the carbon contained in gas, the pyrogallate of +potash must be entirely removed from the burette. To do this, the liquid +is sucked out by means of the flask, S, until there remain only a few +drops; then the cock, _a_, is opened and water is allowed to flow from +the funnel along the sides of the burette. Then _a_ is closed, and +the washing water is sucked in the same manner. By repeating this +manipulation several times, the absorbing liquid is completely removed. +The acid solution of chloride of copper is then allowed to enter. + +As the absorbing liquids adhere to the glass, it is better, before +noting the level, to replace these liquids by water. The cocks, _a_ and +_b_, are opened, and water is allowed to enter from the funnel, the +absorbing liquid being made to flow at the same time through the cock, +_b_. + +When an acid solution of chloride of copper is employed, dilute +hydrochloric acid is used instead of water. + +Fig. 2 shows the arrangement of the apparatus for the quantitative +analysis of oxide of carbon and hydrogen by combustion. The gas in the +burette is first mixed with atmospheric air, by allowing the liquid to +flow through _b_, and causing air to enter through the axial aperture of +the three way cock, _a_, after cutting off communication at v. Then, as +shown in the figure, the burette is connected with the tube, B, which is +filled with water up to the narrow curved part, and the interior of the +burette is made to communicate with the combustion tube, v, by turning +the cock, a. The combustion tube is heated by means of a Bunsen burner +or alcohol lamp, L. It is necessary to proceed, so that all the water +shall be driven from the cock and the capillary tube, and that it shall +be sent into the burette. The combustion is effected by causing the +mixture of gas to pass from the burette into the tube, B, through the +tube, v, heated to redness, into which there passes a palladium wire. +Water is allowed to flow through the point of the tube, B, while from +the flask, F, it enters through the bottom into the burette, so as to +drive out the gas. The water is allowed to rise into the burette as far +as the cock, and the cocks, _b_ and _b_, are afterward closed. + +[Illustration: DR. BUeNTE'S GAS BURETTE] + +By a contrary operation, the gas is made to pass from B into the +burette. It is then allowed to cool, and, after the pressure has been +established again, the contraction is measured. If the gas burned is +hydrogen, the contraction multiplied by two-thirds gives the original +volume of the hydrogen gas burned. If the gas burned is oxide of carbon, +there forms an equal volume of carbonic acid, and the contraction is the +half of CO. Thus, to analyze CO, a portion of the liquid is removed from +the burette, then caustic potash is allowed to enter, and the process +goes on as explained above. + +The total contraction resulting from combustion and absorption, +multiplied by two-thirds, gives the volume of the oxide of carbon. + +The hydrogen and oxide carbon may thus be quantitatively analyzed +together or separately.--_Revue Industrielle_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE "UNIVERSAL" GAS ENGINE. + + +The accompanying engravings illustrate a new and very simple form of gas +engine, the invention of J. A. Ewins and H. Newman, and made by Mr. T. +B. Barker, of Scholefield-street, Bloomsbury, Birmingham. It is known as +the "Universal" engine, and is at present constructed in sizes varying +from one-eighth horse-power--one man power--to one horse-power, though +larger sizes are being made. The essentially new feature of the engine +is, says the _Engineer_, the simple rotary ignition valve consisting of +a ratchet plate or flat disk with a number of small radial slots which +successively pass a small slot in the end of the cylinder, and through +which the flame is drawn to ignite the charge. In our illustrations Fig. +1 is a side elevation; Fig. 2 an end view of same; Fig. 3 a plan; Fig. 4 +is a sectional view of the chamber in which the gas and air are mixed, +with the valves appertaining thereto; Fig. 5 is a detail view of the +ratchet plate, with pawl and levers and valve gear shaft; Fig. 6 is +a sectional view of a pump employed in some cases to circulate water +through the jacket; Fig. 7 is a sectional view of arrangement for +lighting, and ratchet plate, j, with central spindle and igniting +apertures, and the spiral spring, k, and fly nut, showing the attachment +to the end of the working cylinder, f1; b5, b5, bevel wheels driving +the valve gear shaft; e, the valve gear driving shaft; e2, eccentric to +drive pump; e cubed, eccentric or cam to drive exhaust valve; e4, crank to +drive ratchet plate; e5, connecting rod to ratchet pawl; f, cylinder +jacket; f1, internal or working cylinder; f2, back cylinder cover; g, +igniting chamber; h, mixing chamber; h1, flap valve; h2, gas inlet +valve, the motion of which is regulated by a governor; h3, gas inlet +valve seat; h4, cover, also forming stop for gas inlet valve; h5, gas +inlet pipe; h6, an inlet valve; h8, cover, also forming stop for air +inlet valve; h9, inlet pipe for air with grating; i, exhaust chamber; +i2, exhaust valve spindle; i7, exhaust pipe; j6, lighting aperture +through cylinder end; l, igniting gas jet; m, regulating and stop valve +for gas. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED GAS ENGINE] + +The engine, it will be seen, is single-acting, and no compression of the +explosive charge is employed. An explosive mixture of combustible gas +and air is drawn through the valves, h2 and h6, and exploded behind +the piston once in a revolution; but by a duplication of the valve and +igniting apparatus, placed also at the front end of the cylinder, the +engine may be constructed double-acting. At the proper time, when the +piston has proceeded far enough to draw in through the mixing chamber, +h, into the igniting chamber, g, the requisite amount of gas and air, +the ratchet plate, j, is pushed into such a position by the pawl, j3, +that the flame from the igniting jet, l, passes through one of the slots +or holes, j1, and explodes the charge when opposite j6, which is the +only aperture in the end of the working cylinder (see Fig. 7 and Fig. +2), thus driving the piston on to the end of its forward stroke. The +exhaust valve, Fig. 9, though not exactly of the form shown, is kept +open during the whole of this return stroke by means of the eccentric, +e3, on the shaft working the ratchet, and thus allowing the products of +combustion to escape through the exhaust pipe, i7, in the direction of +the arrow. Between the ratchet disk and the igniting flame a small plate +not shown is affixed to the pipe, its edge being just above the burner +top. The flame is thus not blown out by the inrushing air when the slots +in ratchet plate and valve face are opposite. This ratchet plate or +ignition valve, the most important in any engine, has so very small a +range of motion per revolution of the engine that it cannot get out of +order, and it appears to require no lubrication or attention whatever. +The engines are working very successfully, and their simplicity enables +them to be made at low cost. They cost for gas from 1/2d. to 11/2d. per hour +for the sizes mentioned. + +[Illustration: Fig.9.] + + * * * * * + + + + +GAS FURNACE FOR BAKING REFRACTORY PRODUCTS. + + +In order that small establishments may put to profit the advantages +derived from the use of annular furnaces heated with gas, smaller +dimensions have been given the baking chambers of such furnaces. The +accompanying figure gives a section of a furnace of this kind, set into +the ground, and the height of whose baking chamber is only one and a +half meters. The chamber is not vaulted, but is covered by slabs of +refractory clay, D, that may be displaced by the aid of a small car +running on a movable track. This car is drawn over the compartment that +is to be emptied, and the slab or cover, D, is taken off and carried +over the newly filled compartment and deposited thereon. + +The gas passes from the channel through the pipe, a, into the vertical +conduits, b, and is afterward disengaged through the tuyeres into the +chamber. In order that the gas may be equally applied for preliminary +heating or smoking, a small smoking furnace, S, has been added to +the apparatus. The upper part of this consists of a wide cylinder +of refractory clay, in the center of whose cover there is placed an +internal tube of refractory clay, which communicates with the channel, +G, through a pipe, d. This latter leads the gas into the tube, t, of the +smoking furnace, which is perforated with a large number of small holes. +The air requisite for combustion enters through the apertures, o, in the +cover of the furnace, and brings about in the latter a high temperature. +The very hot gases descend into the lower iron portion of this small +furnace and pass through a tube, e, into the smoking chamber by the aid +of vertical conduits, b', which serve at the same time as gas tuyeres +for the extremity of the furnace that is exposed to the fire. + +[Illustration: GAS FURNACE FOR BAKING REFRACTORY PRODUCTS.] + +In the lower part of the smoking furnace, which is made of boiler plate +and can be put in communication with the tube, e, there are large +apertures that may be wholly or partially closed by means of registers +so as to carry to the hot gas derived from combustion any quantity +whatever of cold and dry air, and thus cause a variation at will of the +temperature of the gases which are disengaged from the tube, e. + +The use of these smoking apparatus heated by gas does away also with the +inconveniences of the ordinary system, in which the products are soiled +by cinders or dust, and which render the gradual heating of objects to +be baked difficult. At the beginning, there is allowed to enter the +lower part of the small furnace, S, through the apertures, a very +considerable quantity of cold air, so as to lower the temperature of the +smoke gas that escapes from the tube, e, to 30 or 50 degrees. Afterward, +these secondary air entrances are gradually closed so as to increase the +temperature of the gases at will. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE EFFICIENCY OF FANS. + + +Air, like every other gas or combination of gases, possesses weight; +some persons who have been taught that the air exerts a pressure of 14.7 +lb. per square inch, cannot, however, be got to realize the fact that a +cubit foot of air at the same pressure and at a temperature of 62 deg. +weighs the thirteenth part of a pound, or over one ounce; 13.141 cubic +feet of air weigh one pound. In round numbers 30,000 cubic feet of air +weigh one ton; this is a useful figure to remember, and it is easily +carried in the mind. A hall 61 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 17 feet high +will contain one ton of air. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +The work to be done by a fan consists in putting a weight--that of the +air--in motion. The resistances incurred are due to the inertia of the +air and various frictional influences; the nature and amount of these +last vary with the construction of the fan. As the air enters at the +center of the fan and escapes at the circumference, it will be seen that +its motion is changed while in the fan through a right angle. It may +also be taken for granted that within certain limits the air has no +motion in a radial direction when it first comes in contact with a fan +blade. It is well understood that, unless power is to be wasted, motion +should be gradually imparted to any body to be moved. Consequently, the +shape of the blades ought to be such as will impart motion at first +slowly and afterward in a rapidly increasing ratio to the air. It is +also clear that the change of motion should be effected as gradually as +possible. Fig. 1 shows how a fan should not be constructed; Fig. 2 will +serve to give an idea of how it should be made. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +In Fig. 1 it will be seen that the air, as indicated by the bent arrows, +is violently deflected on entering the fan. In Fig. 2 it will be seen +that it follows gentle curves, and so is put gradually in motion. The +curved form of the blades shown in Fig. 2 does not appear to add much to +the efficiency of a fan; but it adds something and keeps down noise. The +idea is that the fan blades when of this form push the air radially from +the center to the circumference. The fact is, however, that the air +flies outward under the influence of centrifugal force, and always tends +to move at a tangent to the fan blades, as in Fig. 3, where the circle +is the path of the tips of the fan blades, and the arrow is a tangent to +that path; and to impart this notion a radial blade, as at C, is perhaps +as good as any other, as far as efficiency is concerned. Concerning the +shape to be imparted to the blades, looked at back or front, opinions +widely differ; but it is certain that if a fan is to be silent the +blades must be narrower at the tips than at the center. Various forms +are adopted by different makers, the straight side and the curved sides, +as shown in Fig. 4, being most commonly used. The proportions as regards +length to breadth are also varied continually. In fact, no two makers of +fans use the same shapes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +As the work done by a fan consists in imparting motion at a stated +velocity to a given weight of air, it is very easy to calculate the +power which must be expended to do a certain amount of work. The +velocity at which the air leaves the fan cannot be greater than that of +the fan tips. In a good fan it may be about two-thirds of that speed. +The resistance to be overcome will be found by multiplying the area of +the fan blades by the pressure of the air and by the velocity of the +center of effort, which must be determined for every fan according to +the shape of its blades. The velocity imparted to the air by the fan +will be just the same as though the air fell in a mass from a given +height. This height can be found by the formula h = v squared / 64; that is to +say, if the velocity be multiplied by itself and divided by 64 we have +the height. Thus, let the velocity be 88 per second, then 88 x 88 = +7,744, and 7,744 / 64 = 121. A stone or other body falling from a height +of 121 feet would have a velocity of 88 per second at the earth. The +pressure against the fan blades will be equal to that of a column of air +of the height due to the velocity, or, in this case, 121 feet. We +have seen that in round numbers 13 cubic feet of air weigh one pound, +consequently a column of air one square foot in section and 121 feet +high, will weigh as many pounds as 13 will go times into 121. Now, 121 +/ 13 = 9.3, and this will be the resistance in pounds per _square foot_ +overcome by the fan. Let the aggregate area of all the blades be 2 +square feet, and the velocity of the center of effort 90 feet per +second, then the power expended will bve (90 x 60 x 2 x 9.3) / 33,000 += 3.04 horse power. The quantity of air delivered ought to be equal in +volume to that of a column with a sectional area equal that of one fan +blade moving at 88 feet per second, or a mile a minute. The blade having +an area of 1 square foot, the delivery ought to be 5,280 feet per +minute, weighing 5,280 / 13 = 406.1 lb. In practice we need hardly say +that such an efficiency is never attained. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +The number of recorded experiments with fans is very small, and a great +deal of ignorance exists as to their true efficiency. Mr. Buckle is one +of the very few authorities on the subject. He gives the accompanying +table of proportions as the best for pressures of from 3 to 6 ounces per +square inch: + +-------------------------------------------------------------- + | Vanes. | Diameter of inlet +Diameter of fans. |------------------------| openings. + | Width. | Length. | +-------------------------------------------------------------- + ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. + 3 0 | 0 9 | 0 9 | 1 6 + 3 6 | 0 101/2 | 0 101/2 | 1 9 + 4 0 | 1 0 | 1 0 | 2 0 + 4 6 | 1 11/2 | 1 11/2 | 2 3 + 5 0 | 1 3 | 1 3 | 2 6 + 6 0 | 1 6 | 1 6 | 3 0 + | | | +-------------------------------------------------------------- + +For higher pressures the blades should be longer and narrower, and +the inlet openings smaller. The case is to be made in the form of an +arithmetical spiral widening, the space between the case and the blades +radially from the origin to the opening for discharge, and the upper +edge of the opening should be level with the lower side of the sweep of +the fan blade, somewhat as shown in Fig. 5. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +A considerable number of patents has been taken out for improvements +in the construction of fans, but they all, or nearly all, relate to +modifications in the form of the case and of the blades. So far, +however, as is known, it appears that, while these things do exert a +marked influence on the noise made by a fan, and modify in some degree +the efficiency of the machine, that this last depends very much more on +the proportions adopted than on the shapes--so long as easy curves +are used and sharp angles avoided. In the case of fans running at low +speeds, it matters very little whether the curves are present or not; +but at high speeds the case is different.--_The Engineer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +MACHINE FOR COMPRESSING COAL REFUSE INTO FUEL. + + +The problem as to how the refuse of coal shall be utilized has been +solved in the manufacture from it of an agglomerated artificial +fuel, which is coming more and more into general use on railways and +steamboats, in the industries, and even in domestic heating. + +The qualities that a good agglomerating machine should present are as +follows: + +1. Very great simplicity, inasmuch as it is called upon to operate in +an atmosphere charged with coal dust, pitch, and steam; and, under such +conditions, it is important that it may be easily got at for cleaning, +and that the changing of its parts (which wear rapidly) may be effected +without, so to speak, interrupting its running. + +2. The compression must be powerful, and, that the product may be +homogeneous, must operate progressively and not by shocks. It must +especially act as much as possible upon the entire surface of the +conglomerate, and this is something that most machines fail to do. + +3. The removal from the mould must be effected easily, and not depend +upon a play of pistons or springs, which soon become foul, and the +operation of which is very irregular. + +The operations embraced in the manufacture of this kind of fuel are as +follows: + +The refuse is sifted in order to separate the dust from the grains of +coal. The dust is not submitted to a washing. The grains are classed +into two sizes, after removing the nut size, which is sold separately. +The grains of each size are washed separately. The washed grains are +either drained or dried by a hydro-extractor in order to free them from +the greater part of the water, the presence of this being an obstacle to +their perfect agglomeration. The water, however, should not be entirely +extracted because the combustibles being poor conductors of heat, a +certain amount of dampness must be preserved to obtain an equal division +of heat in the paste when the mixture is warmed. + +After being dried the grains are mixed with the coal dust, and broken +coal pitch is added in the proportion of eight to ten per cent. of the +coal. The mixture is then thrown into a crushing machine, where it is +reduced to powder and intimately mixed. It then passes into a pug-mill +into which superheated steam is admitted, and by this means is converted +into a plastic paste. This paste is then led into an agitator for the +double purpose of freeing it from the steam that it contains, and of +distributing it in the moulds of the compressing machine. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED MACHINE FOR COMPRESSING REFUSE COAL INTO FUEL.] + +Bilan's machine, shown in the accompanying cut, is designed for +manufacturing spherical conglomerates for domestic purposes. It consists +of a cast iron frame supporting four vertical moulding wheels placed at +right angles to each other and tangent to the line of the centers. These +wheels carry on their periphery cavities that have the form of a quarter +of a sphere. They thus form at the point of contact a complete sphere +in which the material is inclosed. The paste is thrown by shovel, or +emptied by buckets and chain, into the hopper fixed at the upper part +of the frame. From here it is taken up by two helices, mounted on a +vertical shaft traversing the hopper, and forced toward the point where +the four moulding wheels meet. The driving pulley of the machine is +keyed upon a horizontal shaft which is provided with two endless screws +that actuate two gear-wheels, and these latter set in motion the four +moulding wheels by means of beveled pinions. The four moulding wheels +being accurately adjusted so that their cavities meet each other at +every revolution, carry along the paste furnished them by the hopper, +compress it powerfully on the four quarters, and, separating by a +further revolution, allow the finished ball to drop out. + +The external crown of the wheels carrying the moulds consists of four +segments, which may be taken apart at will to be replaced by others when +worn. + +This machine produces about 40 tons per day of this globular artificial +fuel.--_Annales Industrielles_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HANK SIZING AND WRINGING MACHINE. + + +We give a view of a hank sizing machine by Messrs. Heywood & Spencer, +of Radcliffe, near Manchester. The machine is also suitable for fancy +dyeing. It is well known, says the _Textile Manufacturer_, that when +hanks are wrung by hand, not only is the labor very severe, but in +dyeing it is scarcely possible to obtain even colors, and, furthermore, +the production is limited by the capabilities of the man. The machine +we illustrate is intended to perform the heavy part of the work with +greater expedition and with more certainty than could be relied upon +with hand labor. The illustration represents the machine that we +inspected. Its construction seems of the simplest character. It consists +of two vats, between which is placed the gearing for driving the hooks. +The large wheel in this gear, although it always runs in one direction, +contains internal segments, which fall into gear alternately with +pinions on the shanks of the hooks. The motion is a simple one, and it +appeared to us to be perfectly reliable, and not liable to get out of +order. The action is as follows: The attendant lifts the hank out of the +vat and places it on the hooks. The hook connected to the gearing then +commences to turn; it puts in two, two and a half, three, or more twists +into the hank and remains stationary for a few seconds to allow an +interval for the sizer to "wipe off" the excess of size, that is, to +run his hand along the twisted hank. This done, the hook commences to +revolve the reverse way, until the twists are taken out of the hank. +It is then removed, either by lifting off by hand or by the apparatus +shown, attached to the right hand side. This arrangement consists of a +lattice, carrying two arms that, at the proper moment, lift the hank off +the hooks on to the lattice proper, by which it is carried away, and +dropped upon a barrow to be taken to the drying stove. In sizing, a +double operation is customary; the first is called running, and the +second, finishing. In the machine shown, running is carried on one side +simultaneously with finishing in the other, or, if required, running +may be carried on on both sides. If desired, the lifting off motion is +attached to both running and finishing sides, and also the roller partly +seen on the left hand for running the hanks through the size. The +machine we saw was doing about 600 bundles per day at running and at +finishing, but the makers claim the production with a double machine to +be at the rate of about 36 10 lb. bundles per hour (at finishing), wrung +in 11/2 lb. wringers (or I1/2 lb. of yarn at a time), or at running at the +rate of 45 bundles in 2 lb. wringers. The distance between the hooks +is easily adjusted to the length or size of hanks, and altogether the +machine seems one that is worth the attention of the trade. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED HANK SIZING MACHINE.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED COKE BREAKER. + + +The working parts of the breaker now in use by the South Metropolitan +Gas Company consist essentially of a drum provided with cutting edges +projecting from it, which break up the coke against a fixed grid. The +drum is cast in rings, to facilitate repairs when necessary, and the +capacity of the machine can therefore be increased or diminished by +varying the number of these rings. The degree of fineness of the coke +when broken is determined by the regulated distance of the grid from the +drum. Thus there is only one revolving member, no toothed gearing being +required. Consequently the machine works with little power; the one at +the Old Kent Road, which is of the full size for large works, being +actually driven by a one horse power "Otto" gas-engine. Under these +conditions, at a recent trial, two tons of coke were broken in half an +hour, and the material delivered screened into the three classes of +coke, clean breeze (worth as much as the larger coke), and dust, which +at these works is used to mix with lime in the purifiers. The special +advantage of the machine, besides the low power required to drive it and +its simple action, lies in the small quantity of waste. On the occasion +of the trial in question, the dust obtained from two tons of coke +measured only 31/2 bushels, or just over a half hundredweight per ton. +The following statement, prepared from the actual working of the first +machine constructed, shows the practical results of its use. It should +be premised that the machine is assumed to be regularly employed and +driven by the full power for which it is designed, when it will easily +break 8 tons of coke per hour, or 80 tons per working day: + + 500 feet of gas consumed by a 2 horse power + gas-engine, at cost price of gas delivered s. d. + in holder. 0 9 + Oil and cotton waste. 0 6 + Two men supplying machine with large + coke, and shoveling up broken, at 4s. + 6d. 9 0 + Interest and wear and tear (say). 0 3 + ----- + Total per day. 10 6 + ----- + For 80 tons per day, broken at the rate + of. 0 11/2 + Add for loss by dust and waste, 1 cwt., + with price of coke at (say) 13s. 4d. per + ton. 0 8 + ----- + Cost of breaking, per ton. 0 91/2 + +As coke, when broken, will usually fetch from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per ton +more than large, the result of using these machines is a net gain of +from 1s. 3d. to 1s. 9d. per ton of coke. It is not so much the actual +gain, however, that operates in favor of providing a supply of broken +coke, as the certainty that by so doing a market is obtained that would +not otherwise be available. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED COKE BREAKER.] + +It will not be overstating the case to say that this coke breaker is by +far the simplest, strongest, and most economical appliance of its kind +now manufactured. That it does its work well is proved by experience; +and the advantages of its construction are immediately apparent upon +comparison of its simple drum and single spindle with the flying hammers +or rocking jaws, or double drums with toothed gearing which characterize +some other patterns of the same class of plant. It should be remarked, +as already indicated, lest exception should be taken to the size of the +machine chosen here for illustration, that it can be made of any size +down to hand power. On the whole, however, as a few tons of broken coke +might be required at short notice even in a moderate sized works, it +would scarcely be advisable to depend upon too small a machine; since +the regular supply of the fuel thus improved may be trusted in a short +time to increase the demand. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED COKE BREAKER.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENT IN PRINTING MACHINERY. + + +This is the design of Alfred Godfrey, of Clapton. According to this +improvement, as represented at Figs. 1 and 2, a rack, A, is employed +vibrating on the pivot a, and a pinion, a1, so arranged that instead of +the pinion moving on a universal joint, or the rack moving in a parallel +line from side to side of the pinion at the time the motion of the table +is reversed, there is employed, for example, the radial arm, a2, mounted +on the shaft, a3, supporting the driving wheel, a4. The opposite or +vibrating end of the radial arm, a2, supports in suitable bearings the +pinion, a1, and wheel, a5, driving the rack through the medium of the +driving wheel, a4, the effect of which is that through the mechanical +action of the vibrating arm, a2, and pinion, a1 in conjunction with the +vibrating movement of the rack, A, an easy, uniform, and silent motion +is transmitted to the rack and table. + +[Illustration: IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 1] + +[Illustration: IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 2.] + + * * * * * + + + + +A CHARACTERISTIC MINING "RUSH."--THE PROSPECTIVE MINING CENTER OF +SOUTHERN NEW MEXICO. + + +A correspondent of the _Tribune_ describes at length the mining camps +about Lake Valley, New Mexico, hitherto thought likely to be the central +camp of that region, and then graphically tells the story of the recent +"rush" to the Perche district. Within a month of the first strike of +silver ore the country was swarming with prospectors, and a thousand or +more prospects had been located. + +The Perche district is on the eastern flanks of the Mimbres Mountains, +a range which is a part of the Rocky Mountain range, and runs north and +south generally parallel with the Rio Grande, from which it lies about +forty miles to the westward. The northern half of these mountains is +known as the Black Range, and was the center of considerable mining +excitement a year and a half ago. It is there that the Ivanhoe is +located, of which Colonel Gillette was manager, and in which Robert +Ingersoll and Senator Plumb, of Kansas, were interested, much to the +disadvantage of the former. A new company has been organized, however, +with Colonel Ingersoll as president, and the reopening of work on the +Ivanhoe will probably prove a stimulus to the whole Black Range. From +this region the Perche district is from forty to sixty miles south. It +is about twenty-five miles northwest of Lake Valley, and ten miles west +of Hillsboro, a promising little mining town, with some mills and about +300 people. The Perche River has three forks coming down from the +mountains and uniting at Hillsboro, and it is in the region between +these forks that the recent strikes have been made. + +On August 15 "Jack" Shedd, the original discoverer of the Robinson mine +in Colorado, was prospecting on the south branch of the north fork of +the Perche River, when he made the first great strike in the district. +On the summit of a heavily timbered ridge he found some small pieces of +native silver, and then a lump of ore containing very pure silver in the +form of sulphides, weighing 150 pounds, and afterward proved to be worth +on the average $11 a pound. All this was mere float, simply lying on the +surface of the ground. Afterward another block was found, weighing 87 +pounds, of horn silver, with specimens nearly 75 per cent. silver. The +strike was kept a secret for a few days. Said a mining man: "I went up +to help bring the big lump down. We took it by a camp of prospectors who +were lying about entirely ignorant of any find. When they saw it they +instantly saddled their horses, galloped off, and I believe they +prospected all night." A like excitement was created when the news of +this and one or two similar finds reached Lake Valley. Next morning +every waiter was gone from the little hotel, and a dozen men had left +the Sierra mines, to try their fortunes at prospecting. + +As the news spread men poured into the Perche district from no one knows +where, some armed with only a piece of salt pork, a little meal, and a +prospecting pick; some mounted on mules, others on foot; old men and men +half-crippled were among the number, but all bitten by the monomania +which possesses every prospector. Now there are probably 2,000 men in +the Perche district, and the number of prospects located must far exceed +1,000. Three miners from there with whom I was talking recently owned +forty-seven mines among them, and while one acknowledged that hardly one +prospect in a hundred turns out a prize, the other millionaire in embryo +remarked that he wouldn't take $50,000 for one of his mines. So it goes, +and the victims of the mining fever here seem as deaf to reason as the +buyers of mining stock in New York. Fuel was added to the flame by +the report that Shedd had sold his location, named the Solitaire, to +ex-Governor Tabor and Mr. Wurtzbach on August 25 for $100,000. This was +not true. I met Governor Tabor's representative, who came down recently +to examine the properties, and learned that the Governor had not up to +that date bought the mine. He undoubtedly bonded it, however, and his +representative's opinion of the properties seemed highly favorable. +The Solitaire showed what appeared to be a contact vein, with walls of +porphyry and limestone in a ledge thirty feet wide in places, containing +a high assay of horned silver. The vein was composed of quartz, bearing +sulphides, with horn silver plainly visible, giving an average assay of +from $350 to $500. This was free milling. These were the results shown +simply by surface explorations, which were certainly exceedingly +promising. Recently it has been stated that a little development shows +the vein to be only a blind lead, but the statement lacks confirmation. +In any case the effect of so sensational a discovery is the same in +creating an intense excitement and attracting swarms of prospectors. + +But the Perche district does not rest on the Solitaire, for there has +been abundance of mineral wealth discovered throughout its extent. Four +miles south of this prospect, on the middle fork of the Perche, is an +actual mine--the Bullion--which was purchased by four or five Western +mining men for $10,000, and yielded $11,000 in twenty days. The ore +contains horn and native silver. On the same fork are the Iron King and +Andy Johnson, both recently discovered and promising properties, and +there is a valuable mine now in litigation on the south fork of the +Perche, with scores of prospects over the entire district. Now that one +or two sensational strikes have attracted attention, and capital is +developing paying mines, the future of the Perche District seems +assured. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SOY BEAN. + + +The _British Medical Journal_ says that Prof. E. Kinch, writing in the +_Agricultural Students' Gazette_, says that the Soy bean approaches more +nearly to animal food than any other known vegetable production, being +singularly rich in fat and in albuminoids. It is largely used as +an article of food in China and Japan. Efforts have been made to +acclimatize it in various parts of the continent of Europe, and fair +success has been achieved in Italy and France; many foods are made from +it and its straw is a useful fodder. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON A NEW ARC ELECTRIC LAMP. + +[Footnote: Paper read at the British Association, Southampton. Revised +by the Author.--_Nature_.] + +By W.H. PREECE. + + +Electric lamps on the arc principle are almost as numerous as the trees +in the forest, and it is somewhat fresh to come upon something that is +novel. In these lamps the carbons are consumed as the current flows, and +it is the variation in their consumption which occasions the flickering +and irregularity of the light that is so irritating to the eyes. Special +mechanical contrivances or regulators have to be used to compensate for +this destruction of the carbons, as in the Siemens and Brush type, or +else refractory materials have to be combined with the carbons, as in +the Jablochkoff candle and in the lamp Soleil. The steadiness of the +light depends upon the regularity with which the carbons are moved +toward each other as they are consumed, so as to maintain the electric +resistance between them a constant quantity. Each lamp must have a +certain elasticity of regulation of its own, to prevent irregularities +from the variable material of carbon used, and from variations in the +current itself and in the machinery. + +In all electric lamps, except the Brockie, the regulator is in the lamp +itself. In the Brockie system the regulation is automatic, and is made +at certain rapid intervals by the motor engine. This causes a periodic +blinking that is detrimental to this lamp for internal illumination. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2.] + +M. Abdank, the inventor of the system which I have the pleasure of +bringing before the Section, separates his regulator from his lamp. +The regulator may be fixed anywhere, within easy inspection and +manipulation, and away from any disturbing influence in the lamp. The +lamp can be fixed in any inaccessible place. + +_The Lamp_ (Figs. 1, 2, and 3.)--The bottom or negative carbon is fixed, +but the top or positive carbon is movable, in a vertical line. It is +screwed at the point, C, to a brass rod, T (Fig. 2), which moves freely +inside the tubular iron core of an electromagnet, K. This rod is +clutched and lifted by the soft iron armature, A B, when a current +passes through the coil, M M. The mass of the iron in the armature is +distributed so that the greater portion is at one end, B, much nearer +the pole than the other end. Hence this portion is attracted first, the +armature assumes an inclined position, maintained by a brass button, t, +which prevents any adhesion between the armature and the core of the +electromagnet. The electric connection between the carbon and the coil +of the electromagnet is maintained by the flexible wire, S. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +The electromagnet, A (Fig. 1), is fixed to a long and heavy rack, C, +which falls by its own weight and by the weight of the electromagnet and +the carbon fixed to it. The length of the rack is equal to the length of +the two carbons. The fall of the rack is controlled by a friction break, +B (Fig. 3), which acts upon the last of a train of three wheels put +in motion by the above weight. The break, B, is fixed at one end of +a lever, B A, the other end carrying a soft iron armature, F, +easily adjusted by three screws. This armature is attracted by the +electromagnet, E E (whose resistance is 1,200 ohms), whenever a current +circulates through it. The length of the play is regulated by the screw, +V. The spring, L, applies tension to the break. + +_The Regulator_.--This consists of a balance and a cut-off. + +_The Balance_ (Figs. 4 and 5) is made with two solenoids. S and S', +whose relative resistances is adjustable. S conveys the main current, +and is wound with thick wire having practically no resistance, and S' +is traversed by a shunt current, and is wound with fine wire having a +resistance of 600 ohms. In the axes of these two coils a small and light +iron tube (2 mm. diameter and 60 mm. length) freely moves in a vertical +line between two guides. When magnetized it has one pole in the middle +and the other at each end. The upward motion is controlled by the +spring, N T. The spring rests upon the screw, H, with which it makes +contact by platinum electrodes. This contact is broken whenever the +little iron rod strikes the spring, N T. + +The positive lead from the dynamo is attached to the terminal, B, then +passes through the coil, S, to the terminal, B', whence it proceeds to +the lamp. The negative lead is attached to terminal, A, passing directly +to the other terminal, A', and thence to the lamp. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +The shunt which passes through the fine coil, S', commences at the +point, P. The other end is fixed to the screw, H, whence it has two +paths, the one offering no resistance through the spring, T N, to the +upper negative terminal, A'; the other through the terminal, J, to the +electromagnet of the break, M, and thence to the negative terminal of +the lamp, L'. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +_The Cut-off_.--The last part of the apparatus (Fig. 4) to be described +is the cut-off, which is used when there are several lamps in series. It +is brought into play by the switch, C D, which can be placed at E or D. +When it is at E, the negative terminal, A, is in communication with +the positive terminal, B, through the resistance, R, which equals the +resistance of the lamp, which is, therefore, out of circuit. When it is +at D the cut-off acts automatically to do the same thing when required. +This is done by a solenoid, V, which has two coils, the one of thick +wire offering no resistance, and the other of 2,000 ohms resistance. The +fine wire connects the terminals, A' and B. The solenoid has a movable +soft iron core suspended by the spring, U. It has a cross-piece of iron +which can dip into two mercury cups, G and K, when the core is sucked +into the solenoid. When this is the case, which happens when any +accident occurs to the lamp, the terminal, A, is placed in connection +with the terminal, B, through the thick wire of V and the resistance, R, +in the same way as it was done by the switch, C D. + +_Electrical Arrangement_.--The mode in which several lamps are connected +up in series is shown by Fig. 6. M is the dynamo machine. The + lead is +connected to B1 of the balance it then passes to the lamp, L, returning +to the balance, and then proceeds to each other lamp, returning finally +to the negative pole of the machine. When the current enters the balance +it passes through the coil, S, magnetizing the iron core and drawing +it downward (Fig. 4). It then passes to the lamp, L L', through the +carbons, then returns to the balance, and proceeds back to the negative +terminal of the machine. A small portion of the current is shunted off +at the point, P, passing through the coil, S', through the contact +spring, T N, to the terminal, A', and drawing the iron core in +opposition to S. The carbons are in contact, but in passing through +the lamp the current magnetizes the electromagnet, M (Fig. 2), which +attracts the armature, A B, that bites and lifts up the rod, T, with the +upper carbon, a definite and fixed distance that is easily regulated +by the screws, Y Y. The arc then is formed, and will continue to burn +steadily as long as the current remains constant. But the moment the +current falls, due to the increased resistance of the arc, a greater +proportion passes through the shunt, S' (Fig. 4), increasing its +magnetic moment on the iron core, while that of S is diminishing. The +result is that a moment arrives when equilibrium is destroyed, the iron +rod strikes smartly and sharply upon the spring, N T. Contact between T +and H is broken, and the current passes through the electromagnet of the +break in the lamp. The break is released for an instant, the carbons +approach each other. But the same rupture of contact introduces in the +shunt a new resistance of considerable magnitude (viz., 1,200 ohms), +that of the electromagnets of the break. Then the strength of the shunt +current diminishes considerably, and the solenoid, S, recovers briskly +its drawing power upon the rod, and contact is restored. The carbons +approach during these periods only about 0.01 to 0.02 millimeter. +If this is not sufficient to restore equilibrium it is repeated +continually, until equilibrium is obtained. The result is that the +carbon is continually falling by a motion invisible to the eye, but +sufficient to provide for the consumption of the carbons. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +The contact between N T and H is never completely broken, the sparks are +very feeble, and the contacts do not oxidize. The resistances inserted +are so considerable that heating cannot occur, while the portion of the +current abstracted for the control is so small that it may be neglected. + +The balance acts precisely like the key of a Morse machine, and the +break precisely like the sounder-receiver so well known in telegraphy. +It emits the same kind of sounds, and acts automatically like a skilled +and faithful telegraphist. + +This regulation, by very small and short successive steps, offers +several advantages: (1) it is imperceptible to the eye; (2) it does not +affect the main current; (3) any sudden instantaneous variation of the +main current does not allow a too near approach of the carbon points. +Let, now, an accident occur; for instance, a carbon is broken. At once +the automatic cut-off acts, the current passes through the resistance, +R, instead of passing through the lamp. The current through the fine +coil is suddenly increased, the rod is drawn in, contact is made at G +and K, and the current is sent through the coil, R. As soon as contact +is again made by the carbons, the current in the coil, S, is increased, +that of the thick wire in V diminished, and the antagonistic spring, +U, breaks the contact at G and K. The rupture of the light is almost +invisible, because the relighting is so brisk and sharp. + +I have seen this lamp in action, and its constant steadiness leaves +nothing to be desired. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR OBTAINING PURE WATER FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC USE. + + +Our readers are well aware that water as found naturally is never +absolutely free from dissolved impurities; and in ordinary cases it +contains solid impurities derived both from the inorganic and organic +kingdoms, together with gaseous substances; these latter being generally +derived from the atmosphere. + +By far the purest water which occurs in nature is rain-water, and if +this be collected in a secluded district, and after the air has been +well washed by previous rain, its purity is remarkable; the extraneous +matter consisting of little else than a trace of carbonic acid and other +gases dissolved from the air. In fact, such water is far purer than any +distilled water to be obtained in commerce. The case is very different +when the rain-water is collected in a town or densely populated +district, more especially if the water has been allowed to flow over +dirty roofs. The black and foully-smelling liquid popularly known as +soft water is so rich in carbonaceous and organic constituents as to be +of very limited use to the photographer; but by taking the precaution of +fitting up a simple automatic shunt for diverting the stream until the +roofs have been thoroughly washed, it becomes possible to insure a good +supply of clean and serviceable soft water, even in London. Several +forms of shunt have been devised, some of these being so complex as +to offer every prospect of speedy disorganization; but a simple and +efficient apparatus is figured in _Engineering_ by a correspondent who +signs himself "Millwright," and as we have thoroughly proved the value +of an apparatus which is practically identical, we reproduce the +substance of his communication. + +A gentleman of Newcastle, a retired banker, having tried various filters +to purify the rain-water collected on the roof of his house, at length +had the idea to allow no water to run into the cistern until the roof +had been well washed. After first putting up a hard-worked valve, the +arrangement as sketched below has been hit upon. Now Newcastle is a very +smoky place, and yet my friend gets water as pure as gin, and almost +absolutely free from any smack of soot. + +[Illustration] + +The sketch explains itself. The weight, W, and the angle of the lever, +L, are such, that when the valve, V, is once opened it goes full open. A +small hole in the can C, acts like a cataract, and brings matters to a +normal state very soon after the rain ceases. + +The proper action of the apparatus can only be insured by a careful +adjustment of the weight, W, the angle through which the valve opens, +and the magnitude of the vessel, C. It is an advantage to make +the vessel, C, somewhat broader in proportion to its height than +represented, and to provide it with a movable strainer placed about half +way down. This tends to protect the cataract hole, and any accumulation +of leaves and dirt can be removed once in six months or so. Clean soft +water is valuable to the photographer in very many cases. Iron developer +(wet plate) free from chlorides will ordinarily remain effective on the +plate much longer than when chlorides are present, and the pyrogallic +solution for dry-plate work will keep good for along time if made with +soft water, while the lime which is present in hard water causes the +pyrogallic acid to oxidize with considerable rapidity. Negatives that +have been developed with oxalate developer often become covered with a +very unsightly veil of calcium oxalate when rinsed with hard water, and +something of a similar character occasionally occurs in the case of +silver prints which are transferred directly from the exposure frame to +impure water. + +To the carbon printer clean rain-water is of considerable value, as he +can develop much more rapidly with soft water than with hard water; +or, what comes to the same thing, he can dissolve away his superfluous +gelatine at a lower temperature than would otherwise be necessary. + +The cleanest rain-water which can ordinarily be collected in a town is +not sufficiently pure to be used with advantage in the preparation of +the nitrate bath, it being advisable to use the purest distilled water +for this purpose; and in many cases it is well to carefully distill +water for the bath in a glass apparatus of the kind figured below. + +[Illustration] + +A, thin glass flask serving as a retort. The tube, T, is fitted +air-tight to the flask by a cork, C. + +B, receiver into which the tube, T, fits quite loosely. + +D, water vessel intended to keep the spiral of lamp wick, which is shown +as surrounding T, in a moist condition. This wick acts as a siphon, and +water is gradually drawn over into the lower receptacle, E. + +L, spirit lamp, which may, in many cases, be advantageously replaced by +a Bunsen burner. + +A small metal still, provided with a tin condensing worm, is, however, a +more generally serviceable arrangement, and if ordinary precautions are +taken to make sure that the worm tube is clean, the resulting distilled +water will be nearly as pure as that distilled in glass vessels. + +Such a still as that figured below can be heated conveniently over an +ordinary kitchen fire, and should find a place among the appliances +of every photographer. Distilled water should always be used in the +preparation of emulsion, as the impurities of ordinary water may often +introduce disturbing conditions.--_Photographic News_. + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + + + + +BLACK PHOSPHORUS. + +By P. THENARD. + + +The author refers to the customary view that black phosphorus is +merely a mixture of the ordinary phosphorus with traces of a metallic +phosphide, and contends that this explanation is not in all cases +admissible. A specimen of black or rather dark gray phosphorus, which +the author submitted to the Academy, became white if melted and remained +white if suddenly cooled, but if allowed to enter into a state of +superfusion it became again black on contact with either white or black +phosphorus. A portion of the black specimen being dissolved in carbon +disulphide there remained undissolved merely a trace of a very pale +yellow matter which seemed to be amorphous phosphorus.--_Comptes +Rendus_. + + * * * * * + + + + +COMPOSITION OF STEEP WATER. + + +According to M. C. Leeuw, water in which malt has been steeped has the +following composition: + + Organic matter. 0.56 per cent. + Mineral matter. 0.52 " + ---- + Total dry matter. 1.08 " + ---- + Nitrogen. 0.033 " + +The mineral matter consists of-- + + Potash. 0.193 " + Phosphoric acid. 0.031 " + Lime. 0.012 " + Soda. 0.047 " + Magnesia. 0.016 " + Sulphuric acid. 0.007 " + Oxide of iron. traces. + Chlorine and silica. 0.212 " + + * * * * * + + + + +SCHREIBER'S APPARATUS FOR REVIVIFYING BONE-BLACK. + + +We give opposite illustrations of Schreiber's apparatus for revivifying +bone-black or animal charcoal. The object of revivification is to render +the black fit to be used again after it has lost its decolorizing +properties through service--that is to say, to free its pores from the +absorbed salts and insoluble compounds that have formed therein +during the operation of sugar refining. There are two methods +employed--fermentation and washing. At present the tendency is to +abandon the former in order to proceed with as small a stock of black as +possible, and to adopt the method of washing with water and acid in a +rotary washer. + +Figs. 1 and 2 represent a plan and elevation of a bone-black room, +containing light filters, A, arranged in a circle around wells, B. These +latter have the form of a prism with trapezoidal base, whose small sides +end at the same point, d, and the large ones at the filter. The funnel, +E, of the washer, F, is placed in the space left by the small ends of +the wells, so that the black may be taken from these latter and thrown +directly into the washer. The washer is arranged so that the black may +flow out near the steam fitter, G, beneath the floor. The discharge of +this filter is toward the side of the elevator, H, which takes in the +wet black below, and carries it up and pours it into the drier situated +at the upper part of the furnace. This elevator, Figs. 3 and 4, is +formed of two vertical wooden uprights, A, ten centimeters in thickness, +to which are fixed two round-iron bars the same as guides. The lift, +properly so-called, consists of an iron frame, C, provided at the four +angles with rollers, D, and supporting a swinging bucket, E, which, on +its arrival at the upper part of the furnace, allows the black to fall +to an inclined plane that leads it to the upper part of the drier. The +left is raised and lowered by means of a pitch-chain, F, fixed to the +middle of the frame, C, and passing over two pulleys, G, at the upper +part of the frame and descending to the mechanism that actuates it. +This latter comprises a nut, I, acting directly on the chain; a toothed +wheel, K, and a pinion, J, gearing with the latter and keyed upon the +shaft of the pulleys, L and M. The diameter of the toothed wheel, K, is +0.295 of a meter, and it makes 53.4 revolutions per minute. The diameter +of the pinion is 0.197 of a meter, and it makes 80 revolutions per +minute. The pulleys, M and L, are 0.31 of a meter in diameter, and +make 80 revolutions per minute. Motion is transmitted to them by other +pulleys, N, keyed upon a shaft placed at the lower part, which receives +its motion from the engine of the establishment through the intermedium +of the pulley, O. The diameter of the latter is 0.385 of a meter, and +that of N is 0.58. They each make 43 revolutions per minute. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ELEVATION OF BONE-BLACK REVIVIFYING PLANT +(SCHREIBER'S SYSTEM.) + +FIG. 2.--PLAN VIEW. + +FIG. 3.--LATERAL VIEW OF ELEVATOR. + +FIG. 4.--FRONT VIEW OF ELEVATOR. + +FIG. 5.--CONTINUOUS FURNACE FOR REVIVIFYING BONE-BLACK.] + +The elevator is set in motion by the simple maneuver of the gearing +lever, P, and when this has been done all the other motions are effected +automatically. + +_The Animal Black Furnace_.--This consists of a masonry casing of +rectangular form, in which are arranged on each side of the same +fire-place two rows of cast-iron retorts, D, of undulating form, each +composed of three parts, set one within the other. These retorts, which +serve for the revivification of the black, are incased in superposed +blocks of refractory clay, P, Q, S, designed to regularize the +transmission of heat and to prevent burning. These pieces are kept in +their respective places by crosspieces, R. The space between the retorts +occupied by the fire-place, Y, is covered with a cylindrical dome, O, of +refractory tiles, forming a fire-chamber with the inner surface of the +blocks, P, Q, and S. The front of the surface consists of a cast-iron +plate, containing the doors to the fire-place and ash pan, and a larger +one to allow of entrance to the interior to make repairs. + +One of the principal disadvantages of furnaces for revivifying animal +charcoal has been that they possessed no automatic drier for drying the +black on its exit from the washer. It was for the purpose of remedying +this that Mr. Schreiber was led to invent the automatic system of drying +shown at the upper part of the furnace, and which is formed of two +pipes, B, of undulating form, like the retorts, with openings throughout +their length for the escape of steam. Between these pipes there is a +closed space into which enters the waste heat and products of combustion +from the furnace. These latter afterward escape through the chimney at +the upper part. + +In order that the black may be put in bags on issuing from the furnace, +it must be cooled as much as possible. For this purpose there are +arranged on each side of the furnace two pieces of cast iron tubes, F, +of rectangular section, forming a prolongation of the retorts and making +with them an angle of about 45 degrees. The extremities of these tubes +terminate in hollow rotary cylinders, G, which permit of regulating the +flow of the black into a car, J (Fig. 1), running on rails. + +From what precedes, it will be readily understood how a furnace is run +on this plan. + +The bone-black in the hopper, A, descends into the drier, B, enters the +retorts, D, and, after revivification, passes into the cooling pipes, F, +from whence it issues cold and ready to be bagged. A coke fire having +been built in the fire-place, Y, the flames spread throughout the fire +chamber, direct themselves toward the bottom, divide into two parts to +the right and left, and heat the back of the retorts in passing. Then +the two currents mount through the lateral flues, V, and unite so as to +form but one in the drier. Within the latter there are arranged plates +designed to break the current from the flames, and allow it to heat all +the inner parts of the pipes, while the apertures in the drier allow of +the escape of the steam. + +By turning one of the cylinders, G, so as to present its aperture +opposite that of the cooler, it instantly fills up with black. At this +moment the whole column, from top to bottom, is set in motion. The +bone-black, in passing through the undulations, is thrown alternately to +the right and left until it finally reaches the coolers. This operation +is repeated as many times as the cylinder is filled during the descent +of one whole column, that is to say, about forty times. + +With an apparatus of the dimensions here described, 120 hectoliters +of bone-black may be revivified in twenty four hours, with 360 to 400 +kilogrammes of coke.--_Annales Industrielles_. + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 330, page 5264.] + + + + +SOAP AND ITS MANUFACTURE, FROM A CONSUMER'S POINT OF VIEW. + + +In our last article, under the above heading, the advantages to be +gained by the use of potash soap as compared with soda soap were pointed +out, and the reasons of this superiority, especially in the case of +washing wool or woolen fabrics, were pretty fully gone into. It was also +further explained why the potash soaps generally sold to the public were +unfit for general use, owing to their not being neutral--that is to say, +containing a considerable excess of free or unsaponified alkali, which +acts injuriously on the fiber of any textile material, and causes sore +hands if used for household or laundry purposes. It was shown that the +cause of this defect was owing to the old-fashioned method of making +potash or soft soap, by boiling with wood ashes or other impure form of +potash; but that a perfectly pure and neutral potash soap could readily +be made with pure caustic potash, which within the last few years has +become a commercial article, manufactured on a large scale; just in +the same manner as the powdered 98 per cent. caustic soda, which was +recommended in our previous articles on making hard soap without +boiling. + +The process of making pure neutral potash soap is very simple, and +almost identical with that for making hard soap with pure powdered +caustic soda. The following directions, if carefully and exactly +followed, will produce a first-class potash soap, suitable either for +the woolen manufacturer for washing his wool, and the cloth afterward +made from it, or for household and laundry purposes, for which uses it +will be found far superior to any soda soap, no matter how pure or well +made it may be. + +Dissolve twenty pounds of pure caustic potash in two gallons of water. +Pure caustic potash is very soluble, and dissolves almost immediately, +heating the water. Let the lye thus made cool until warm to the +hand--say about 90 F. Melt eighty pounds of tallow or grease, which must +be free from salt, and let it cool until fairly hot to the hand--say +130 F.; or eighty pounds of any vegetable or animal oil may be taken +instead. Now pour the caustic potash lye into the melted tallow or oil, +stirring with a flat wooden stirrer about three inches broad, until both +are thoroughly mixed and smooth in appearance. This mixing may be done +in the boiler used to melt the tallow, or in a tub, or half an oil +barrel makes a good mixing vessel. Wrap the tub or barrel well up in +blankets or sheepskins, and put away for a week in some warm dry place, +during which the mixture slowly turns into soap, giving a produce of +about 120 pounds of excellent potash soap. If this soap is made with +tallow or grease it will be nearly as hard as soda soap. When made by +farmers or householders tallow or grease will generally be taken, as it +is the cheapest, and ready to hand on the spot. For manufacturers, or +for making laundry soap, nothing could be better than cotton seed oil. A +magnificent soap can be made with this article, lathering very freely. +When made with oil it is better to remelt in a kettle the potash soap, +made according to the above directions, with half its weight of water, +using very little heat, stirring constantly, and removing the fire as +soon as the water is mixed with and taken up by the soap. A beautifully +bright soap is obtained in this way, and curiously the soap is actually +made much harder and stiffer by this addition of water than when it is +in a more concentrated state previously to the water being added. + +With reference to the caustic potash for making the soap, it can be +obtained in all sizes of drums, but small packages just sufficient for +a batch of soap are generally more economical than larger packages, as +pure caustic potash melts and deteriorates very quickly when exposed +to the air. The Greenbank Alkali Co., of St. Helens, seems to have +appreciated this, and put upon the market pure caustic potash in twenty +pound canisters, which are very convenient for potash soft soap making +by consumers for their own use. + +While on this subject of caustic potash, it cannot be too often repeated +that _caustic potash_ is a totally different article to _caustic soda_, +though just like it in appearance, and therefore often sold as such. +One of the most barefaced instances of this is the so-called "crystal +potash," "ball potash," or "rock potash," of the lye packers, sold in +one pound packages, which absolutely, without exception, do not contain +a single grain of potash, but simply consist of caustic soda more or +less adulterated--as a rule very much "more" than "less!" It is much +to be regretted that this fraud on the public has been so extensively +practiced, as potash has been greatly discredited by this procedure. + +The subject of fleece scouring or washing the wool while growing on +the sheep, with a potash soap made on the spot with the waste tallow +generally to be had on every sheep farm, seems recently to have been +attracting attention in some quarters, and certainly would be a source +of profit to sheep owners by putting their wool on the market in the +best condition, and at the same time cleaning the skin of the sheep. It +therefore appears to be a move in the right direction. + +In concluding this series of articles on practical soap making from a +consumer's point of view, the writer hopes that, although the subject +has been somewhat imperfectly handled, owing to necessarily limited +space and with many unavoidable interruptions, yet that they may have +been found of some interest and assistance to consumers of soap who +desire easily and readily to make a pure and unadulterated article for +their own use. + + * * * * * + + + + +COTTON SEED OIL. + +By S.S. BRADFORD, Ph.G. + + +Having had occasion during the last six years to manufacture lead +plaster in considerable quantities, it occurred to me that cotton seed +oil might be used instead of olive oil, at less expense, and with as +good results. The making of this plaster with cotton seed oil has been +questioned, as, according to some authorities, the product is not of +good consistence, and is apt to be soft, sticky, and dark colored; +but in my experience such is not the case. If the U. S. P. process is +followed in making this plaster, substituting for the olive oil cotton +seed oil, and instead of one half-pint of boiling water one and one-half +pint are added, the product obtained will be equally as good as that +from olive oil. My results with this oil in making lead plaster led me +to try it in making the different liniments of the Pharmacopoeia, with +the following results: + +_Linimentum Ammoniae_.--This liniment, made with cotton seed oil, is of +much better consistency than when made with olive oil. It is not so +thick, will pour easily out of the bottle, and if the ammonia used is of +proper strength, will make a perfect liniment. + +_Linimentum Calcis_.--Cotton seed oil is not at all adapted to making +this liniment. It does not readily saponify, separates quickly, and it +is almost impossible to unite when separated. + +_Linimentum Camphorae_.--Cotton seed oil is far superior to olive oil in +making this liniment, it being a much better solvent of camphor. It has +not that disagreeable odor so commonly found in the liniment. + +_Linimentum Chloroformi_.--Cotton seed oil being very soluble in +chloroform, the liniment made with it leaves nothing to be desired. + +_Linimentum Plumbi Subacetatis_.--When liq. plumbi subacet. is mixed +with cotton seed oil and allowed to stand for some time the oil assumes +a reddish color similar to that of freshly made tincture of myrrh. When +the liquor is mixed with olive oil, if the oil be pure, no such change +takes place. Noticing this change, it occurred to me that this would be +a simple and easy way to detect cotton seed oil when mixed with olive +oil. This change usually takes place after standing from twelve to +twenty-four hours. It is easily detected in mixtures containing five +per cent., or even less, of the oils, and I am convinced, after making +numerous experiments with different oils, that it is peculiar to cotton +seed oil.--_American Journal of Pharmacy_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE FOOD AND ENERGY OF MAN. + +[Footnote: From a lecture delivered at the Sanitary Congress, at +Newcastle-on-Tyne, September 28, 1882.] + +By PROF. DE CHAUMONT, F.R.S. + + +Although eating cannot be said to be in any way a new fashion, it has +nevertheless been reserved for modern times, and indeed we may say the +present generation, to get a fairly clear idea of the way in which +food is really utilized for the work of our bodily frame. We must not, +however, plume ourselves too much upon our superior knowledge, for +inklings of the truth, more or less dim, have been had through all ages, +and we are now stepping into the inheritance of times gone by, using the +long and painful experience of our predecessors as the stepping-stone +to our more accurate knowledge of the present time. In this, as in many +other things, we are to some extent in the position of a dwarf on the +shoulders of a giant; the dwarf may, indeed, see further than the giant; +but he remains a dwarf, and the giant a giant. + +The question has been much discussed as to what the original food of man +was, and some people have made it a subject of excited contention. The +most reasonable conclusion is that man is naturally a frugivorous or +fruit-eating animal, like his cousins the monkeys, whom he still so +much resembles. This forms a further argument in favor of his being +originated in warm regions, where fruits of all kinds were plentiful. It +is pretty clear that the resort to animal food, whether the result of +the pressure of want from failure of vegetable products, or a mere taste +and a desire for change and more appetizing food, is one that took place +many ages ago, probably in the earliest anthropoid, if not in the latest +pithecoid stage. No doubt some advantage was recognized in the more +rapid digestion and the comparative ease with which the hunter or fisher +could obtain food, instead of waiting for the ripening of fruits in +countries which had more or less prolonged periods of cold and inclement +weather. Some anatomical changes have doubtless resulted from the +practice, but they are not of sufficiently marked character to found +much argument upon; all that we can say being that the digestive +apparatus in man seems well adapted for digesting any food that is +capable of yielding nutriment, and that even when an entire change is +made in the mode of feeding, the adaptability of the human system +shows itself in a more or less rapid accommodation to the altered +circumstances. + +Food, then, is any substance which can be taken into the body and +applied to use, either in building up or repairing the tissues and +framework of the body itself, or in providing energy and producing +animal heat, or any substance which, without performing those functions +directly, controls, directs, or assists their performance. With this +wide definition it is evident that we include all the ordinary articles +recognized commonly as food, and that we reject all substances +recognized commonly as poisons. But it will also include such substances +as water and air, both of which are essential for nutrition, but are not +usually recognized as belonging to the list of food substances in the +ordinary sense. When we carry our investigation further, we find that +the organic substances may be again divided into two distinct classes, +namely, that which contains nitrogen (the casein), and those that do not +(the butter and sugar). + +On ascertaining this, we are immediately struck with the remarkable fact +that all the tissues and fluids of the body, muscles (or flesh), +bone, blood--all, in short, except the fat--contain nitrogen, and, +consequently, for their building up in the young, and for their repair +and renewal in the adult, nitrogen is absolutely required. We therefore +reasonably infer that the nitrogenous substance is necessary for this +purpose. Experiment has borne this out, for men who have been compelled +to live without nitrogenous food by dire necessity, and criminals on +whom the experiment has been tried, have all perished sooner or later in +consequence. When nitrogenous substances are used in the body, they +are, of course, broken up and oxidized, or perhaps we ought to say more +accurately, they take the place of the tissues of the body which wear +away and are carried off by oxidation and other chemical changes. + +Now, modern science tell us that such changes are accompanied with +manifestations of energy in some form or other, most frequently in +that of heat, and we must look, therefore, upon nitrogenous food +as contributing to the energy of the body in addition to its other +functions. + +What are the substances which we may class as nitrogenous. In the first +place, we have the typical example of the purest form in _albumin_, +or white of egg; and from this the name is now given to the class of +_albuminates_. The animal albuminates are: Albumin from eggs, fibrin +from muscles, or flesh, myosin, or synronin, also from animals, casein +(or cheesy matter) from milk, and the nitrogenous substances from blood. +In the vegetable kingdom, we have glutin, or vegetable fibrin, which is +the nourishing constituent of wheat, barley, oats, etc.; and legumin, +or vegetable casein, which is the peculiar substance found in peas and +beans. The other organic constituents--viz., the fats and the starches +and sugars--contain no nitrogen, and were at one time thought to be +concerned in producing animal heat. + +We now know--thanks to the labors of Joule, Lyon Playfair, Clausius, +Tyndall, Helmholtz, etc.--that heat itself is a mode of motion, a form +of convertible energy, which can be made to do useful or productive +work, and be expressed in terms of actual work done. Modern experiment +shows that all our energy is derived from that of food, and, in +particular from the non-nitrogenous part of it, that is, the fat, +starch, and sugar. The nutrition of man is best maintained when he is +provided with a due admixture of all the four classes of aliment which +we have mentioned, and not only that, but he is also better off if he +has a variety of each class. Thus he may and ought to have albumen, +fibrine, gluten, and casein among the albuminates, or at least two of +them; butter and lard, or suet, or oil among the fats; starch of wheat, +potato, rice, peas, etc., and cane-sugar, and milk-sugar among the +carbo-hydrates. The salts cannot be replaced, so far as we know. Life +may be maintained in fair vigor for some time on albuminates only, but +this is done at the expense of the tissues, especially the fat of the +body, and the end must soon come; with fat and carbo hydrates alone +vigor may also be maintained for some time, at the expense of the +tissues also, but the limit is a near one, In either of these cases we +suppose sufficient water and salts to be provided. + +We must now inquire into the quantities of food necessary; and this +necessitates a little consideration of the way in which the work of +the body is carried on. We must look upon the human body exactly as a +machine; like an engine with which we are all so familiar. A certain +amount of work requires to be done, say, a certain number of miles of +distance to be traversed; we know that to do this a certain number of +pounds, or hundredweights, or tons of coal must be put into the fire of +the boiler in order to furnish the requisite amount of energy through +the medium of steam. This amount of fuel must bear a certain proportion +to the work, and also to the velocity with which it is done, so both +quantity and time have to be accounted for. + +No lecture on diet would be complete without a reference to the vexed +question of alcohol. I am no teetotal advocate, and I repudiate the +rubbish too often spouted from teetotal platforms, talk that is, +perhaps, inseparable from the advocacy of a cause that imports a good +deal of enthusiasm. I am at one, however, in recognizing the evils of +excess, and would gladly hail their diminution. But I believe that +alcohol properly used may be a comfort and a blessing, just as I know +that improperly used it becomes a bane and a curse. But we are now +concerned with it as an article of diet in relation to useful work, and +it may be well to call attention markedly to the fact that its use in +this way is very limited. The experiments of the late Dr. Parkes, made +in our laboratory, at Netley, were conclusive on the point, that beyond +an amount that would be represented by about one and a half to two pints +of beer, alcohol no longer provided any convertible energy, and that, +therefore, to take it in the belief that it did do so is an error. +It may give a momentary stimulus in considerable doses, but this is +invariably followed by a corresponding depression, and it is a maxim now +generally followed, especially on service, never to give it before or +during work. There are, of course, some persons who are better without +it altogether, and so all moderation ought to be commended, if not +enjoyed. + +There are other beverages which are more useful than the alcoholic, +as restoratives, and for support in fatigue. Tea and coffee are +particularly good. Another excellent restorative is a weak solution +of Liebig's extract of meat, which has a remarkable power of removing +fatigue. Perhaps one of the most useful and most easily obtainable is +weak oatmeal gruel, either hot or cold. With regard to tobacco, it also +has some value in lessening fatigue in those who are able to take it, +but it may easily be carried to excess. Of it we may say, as of alcohol, +that in moderation it seems harmless, and even useful to some extent, +but, in excess, it is rank poison. + +There is one other point which I must refer to, and which is especially +interesting to a great seaport like this. This is the question of +scurvy--a question of vital importance to a maritime nation. A paper +lately issued by Mr. Thomas Gray, of the Board of Trade, discloses the +regrettable fact that since 1873 there has been a serious falling off, +the outbreaks of scurvy having again increased until they reached +ninety-nine in 1881. This, Mr. Gray seems to think, is due to a neglect +of varied food scales; but it may also very probably have arisen from +the neglect of the regulation about lime-juice, either as to issue or +quality, or both. But it is also a fact of very great importance that +mere monotony of diet has a most serious effect upon health; variety +of food is not merely a pandering to gourmandism or greed, but a real +sanitary benefit, aiding digestion and assimilation. Our Board of Trade +has nothing to do with the food scales of ships, but Mr. Gray hints that +the Legislature will have to interfere unless shipowners look to it +themselves. The ease with which preserved foods of all kinds can be +obtained and carried now removes the last shadow of an excuse for +backwardness in this matter, and in particular the provision of a large +supply of potatoes, both fresh and dried, ought to be an unceasing care; +this is done on board American ships, and to this is doubtless owing in +a great part the healthiness of their crews. Scurvy in the present +day is a disgrace to shipowners and masters; and if public opinion is +insufficient to protect the seamen, the legislature will undoubtedly +step in and do so. + +And now let me close by pointing out that the study of this commonplace +matter of eating and drinking opens out to us the conception of the +grand unity of nature; since we see that the body of man differs in no +way essentially from other natural combinations, but is subject to +the same universal physical laws, in which there is no blindness, no +variableness, no mere chance, and disobedience of which is followed as +surely by retribution as even the keenest eschatologist might desire. + + * * * * * + + + + +RATTLESNAKE POISON. + +By HENRY H. CROFT. + + +Some time since, in a paper to which I am unfortunately unable to refer, +a French chemist affirmed that the poisonous principle in snakes, or +eliminated by snakes, was of the nature of an alkaloid, and gave a name +to this class of bodies. + +Mr. Pedler has shown that snake poison is destroyed or neutralized +by means of platinic chloride, owing probably to the formation of an +insoluble double platinic chloride, such as is formed with almost if not +all alkaloids. + +In this country (Texas) where rattlesnakes are very common, and persons +camping out much exposed to their bites, a very favorite anecdote, or +_remedia_ as the Mexicans cull it, is a strong solution of iodine in +potassium iodide.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The solution is applied as soon as possible to the wound, +preferably enlarged, and a few drops taken internally. The common +Mexican _remedia_ is the root of the _Agave virginica_ mashed or chewed +and applied to the wound, while part is swallowed. + +Great faith is placed in this root by all residents here, who are seldom +I without it, but, I have had no experience of it myself; and the +internal administration is no doubt useless. + +Even the wild birds know of this root; the queer paisano (? ground +woodpecker) which eats snakes, when wounded by a _vibora de cascabel_, +runs into woods, digs up and eats a root of the agave, just like the +mongoose; but more than that, goes back, polishes off his enemy, and +eats him. This has been told me by Mexicans who, it may be remarked, are +not _always_ reliable.] + +I have had occasion to prove the efficacy of this mixture in two cases +of _cascabel_ bites, one on a buck, the other on a dog; and it occurred +to me that the same explanation of its action might be given as above +for the platinum salt, viz., the formation of an insoluble iodo compound +as with ordinary alkaloids if the snake poison really belongs to this +class. + +Having last evening killed a moderate sized rattlesnake--_Crotalus +horridus_--which had not bitten anything, I found the gland fully +charged with the white opaque poison; on adding iodine solution to a +drop of this a dense light-brown precipitate was immediately formed, +quite similar to that obtained with most alkaloids, exhibiting under the +microscope no crystalline structure. + +In the absence of iodine a good extemporaneous solution for testing +alkaloids, and perhaps a snake poison antidote, may be made by adding a +few drops of ferric chloride to solution of potassium of iodide; this +is a very convenient test agent which I used in my laboratory for many +years. + +Although rattlesnake poison could be obtained here in very considerable +quantity, it is out of my power to make such experiments as I could +desire, being without any chemical appliances and living a hundred miles +or more from any laboratory. The same may be said with regard to books, +and possibly the above iodine reaction has been already described. + +Dr. Richards states that the cobra poison is destroyed by potassium +permanganate; but this is no argument in favor of that salt as an +antidote. Mr. Pedler also refers to it, but allows that it would not be +probably of any use after the poison had been absorbed. Of this I +think there can be no doubt, remembering the easy decomposition of +permanganate by most organic substances, and I cannot but think that the +medicinal or therapeutic advantages of that salt, taken internally, are +equally problematical, unless the action is supposed to take place in +the stomach. + +In the bladder of the same rattlesnake I found a considerable +quantity of light-brown amorphous ammonium urate, the urine pale +yellow.--_Chemical News_. + +Hermanitas Ranch, Texas. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CHINESE SIGN MANUAL. + +[Footnote: Dr. D. J. Macgowan, in Medical Reports of China. 1881.] + + +Two writers in _Nature_, both having for their theme "Skin-furrows on +the Hand," solicit information on the subject from China.[1] As the +subject is considered to have a bearing on medical jurisprudence and +ethnology as well, this report is a suitable vehicle for responding to +the demand. + +[Footnote 1: Henry Faulds, Tzukiyi Hospital, Tokio, Japan. W. J. +Herschel, Oxford, England.--_Nature_, 28th October and 25th November, +1880.] + +Dr. Faulds' observations on the finger-tips of the Japanese have an +ethnic bearing and relate to the subject of heredity. Mr. Herschel +considers the subject as an agent of Government, he having charge for +twenty years of registration offices in India, where he employed finger +marks as sign manuals, the object being to prevent personation and +repudiation. Doolittle, in his "Social Life of the Chinese," describes +the custom. I cannot now refer to native works where the practice of +employing digital rugae as a sign manual is alluded to. I doubt if its +employment in the courts is of ancient date. Well-informed natives think +that it came into vogue subsequent to the Han period; if so, it is in +Egypt that earliest evidence of the practice is to be found. Just as the +Chinese courts now require criminals to sign confessions by impressing +thereto the whorls of their thumb-tips--the right thumb in the case of +women, the left in the case of men--so the ancient Egyptians, it +is represented, required confessions to be sealed with their +thumbnails--most likely the tip of the digit, as in China. Great +importance is attached in the courts to this digital form of signature, +"finger form." Without a confession no criminal can be legally executed, +and the confession to be valid must be attested by the thumb-print +of the prisoner. No direct coercion is employed to secure this; a +contumacious culprit may, however, be tortured until he performs the +act which is a prerequisite to his execution. Digital signatures are +sometimes required in the army to prevent personation; the general +in command at Wenchow enforces it on all his troops. A document thus +attested can no more be forged or repudiated than a photograph--not so +easily, for while the period of half a lifetime effects great changes +in the physiognomy, the rugae of the fingers present the same appearance +from the cradle to the grave; time writes no wrinkles there. In the +army everywhere, when the description of a person is written down, the +relative number of volutes and coniferous finger-tips is noted. It +is called taking the "whelk striae," the fusiform being called "rice +baskets," and the volutes "peck measures." A person unable to write, the +form of signature which defies personation or repudiation is required in +certain domestic cases, as in the sale of children or women. Often when +a child is sold the parents affix their finger marks to the bill of +sale; when a husband puts away his wife, giving her a bill of divorce, +he marks the document with his entire palm; and when a wife is sold, the +purchaser requires the seller to stamp the paper with hands and feet, +the four organs duly smeared with ink. Professional fortune tellers in +China take into account almost the entire system of the person whose +future they attempt to forecast, and of course they include palmistry, +but the rugae of the finger-ends do not receive much attention. Amateur +fortune-tellers, however, discourse as glibly on them as phrenologists +do of "bumps"--it is so easy. In children the relative number of volute +and conical striae indicate their future. "If there are nine volutes," +says a proverb, "to one conical, the boy will attain distinction without +toil." + +Regarded from an ethnological point of view, I can discover merely that +the rugae of Chinamen's fingers differ from Europeans', but there is so +little uniformity observable that they form no basis for distinction, +and while the striae may be noteworthy points in certain medico-legal +questions, heredity is not one of them. + + * * * * * + + + + +LUCIDITY. + + +At the close of an interesting address lately delivered at the reopening +of the Liverpool University College and School of Medicine, Mr. Matthew +Arnold said if there was one word which he should like to plant in the +memories of his audience, and to leave sticking there after he had gone, +it was the word _lucidity_. If he had to fix upon the three great wants +at this moment of the three principal nations of Europe, he should say +that the great want of the French was morality, that the great want of +the Germans was civil courage, and that our own great want was lucidity. +Our own want was, of course, what concerned us the most. People were apt +to remark the defects which accompanied certain qualities, and to think +that the qualities could not be desirable because of the defects which +they saw accompanying them. There was no greater and salutary lesson for +men to learn than that a quality may be accompanied, naturally perhaps, +by grave dangers; that it may actually present itself accompanied by +terrible defects, and yet that it might itself be indispensable. Let him +illustrate what he meant by an example, the force of which they would +all readily feel. Seriousness was a quality of our nation. Perhaps +seriousness was always accompanied by certain dangers. But, at any rate, +many of our French neighbors would say that they found our seriousness +accompanied by so many false ideas, so much prejudice, so much that was +disagreeable, that it could not have the value which we attributed to +it. And yet we knew that it was invaluable. Let them follow the same +mode of reasoning as to the quality of lucidity. The French had a +national turn for lucidity as we had a national turn for seriousness. +Perhaps a national turn for lucidity carried with it always certain +dangers. Be this as it might, it was certain that we saw in the French, +along with their lucidity, a want of seriousness, a want of reverence, +and other faults, which greatly displeased us. Many of us were inclined +in consequence to undervalue their lucidity, or to deny that they +had it. We were wrong: it existed as our seriousness existed; it was +valuable as our seriousness was valuable. Both the one and the other +were valuable, and in the end indispensable. + +What was lucidity? It was negatively that the French have it, and he +would therefore deal with its negative character merely. Negatively, +lucidity was the perception of the want of truth and validness in +notions long current, the perception that they are no longer possible, +that their time is finished, and they can serve us no more. All through +the last century a prodigious travail for lucidity was going forward +in France. Its principal agent was a man whose name excited generally +repulsion in England, Voltaire. Voltaire did a great deal of harm in +France. But it was not by his lucidity that he did harm; he did it by +his want of seriousness, his want of reverence, his want of sense for +much that is deepest in human nature. But by his lucidity he did good. + +All admired Luther. Conduct was three-fourths of life, and a man who +worked for conduct, therefore, worked for more than a man who worked for +intelligence. But having promised this, it might be said that the Luther +of the eighteenth century and of the cultivated classes was Voltaire. +As Luther had an antipathy to what was immoral, so Voltaire had an +antipathy to what was absurd, and both of them made war upon the object +of their antipathy with such masterly power, with so much conviction, +so much energy, so much genius, that they carried their world with +them--Luther his Protestant world, and Voltaire his French world--and +the cultivated classes throughout the continent of Europe generally. + +Voltaire had more than negative lucidity; he had the large and true +conception that a number and equilibrium of activities were necessary +for man. "_Il faut douner a notre ame toutes les formes possibles_" +was a maxim which Voltaire really and truly applied in practice, +"advancing," as Michelet finely said of him, in every direction with +a marvelous vigor and with that conquering ambition which Vico called +_mens heroica_. Nevertheless. Voltaire's signal characteristic was his +lucidity, his negative lucidity. + +There was a great and free intellectual movement in England in the +eighteenth century--indeed, it was from England that it passed into +France; but the English had not that strong natural bent for lucidity +which the French had. Its bent was toward other things in preference. +Our leading thinkers had not the genius and passion for lucidity which +distinguished Voltaire. In their free inquiry they soon found themselves +coming into collision with a number of established facts, beliefs, +conventions. Thereupon all sorts of practical considerations began to +sway them. The danger signal went up, they often stopped short, turned +their eyes another way, or drew down a curtain between themselves and +the light. "It seems highly probable," said Voltaire, "that nature has +made thinking a portion of the brain, as vegetation is a function of +trees; that we think by the brain just as we walk by the feet." So our +reason, at least, would lead us to conclude, if the theologians did not +assure us of the contrary; such, too, was the opinion of Locke, but he +did not venture to announce it. The French Revolution came, England grew +to abhor France, and was cut off from the Continent, did great things, +gained much, but not in lucidity. The Continent was reopened, the +century advanced, time and experience brought their lessons, lovers of +free and clear thought, such as the late John Stuart Mill, arose among +us. But we could not say that they had by any means founded among us the +reign of lucidity. + +Let them consider that movement of which we were hearing so much just +now: let them look at the Salvation Army and its operations. They would +see numbers, funds, energy, devotedness, excitement, conversions, and +a total absence of lucidity. A little lucidity would make the whole +movement impossible. That movement took for granted as its basis what +was no longer possible or receivable; its adherents proceeded in all +they did on the assumption that that basis was perfectly solid, and +neither saw that it was not solid, nor ever even thought of asking +themselves whether it was solid or not. + +Taking a very different movement, and one of far higher dignity and +import, they had all had before their minds lately the long-devoted, +laborious, influential, pure, pathetic life of Dr. Pusey, which had just +ended. Many of them had also been reading in the lively volumes of that +acute, but not always good-natured rattle, Mr. Mozley, an account of +that great movement which took from Dr. Pusey its earlier name. Of its +later stage of Ritualism they had had in this country a now celebrated +experience. This movement was full of interest. It had produced men to +be respected, men to be admired, men to be beloved, men of learning, +goodness, genius, and charm. But could they resist the truth that +lucidity would have been fatal to it? The movers of all those questions +about apostolical succession, church patristic authority, primitive +usage, postures, vestments--questions so passionately debated, and on +which he would not seek to cast ridicule--did not they all begin by +taking for granted something no longer possible or receivable, build on +this basis as if it were indubitably solid, and fail to see that their +basis not being solid, all they built upon it was fantastic? + +He would not say that negative lucidity was in itself a satisfactory +possession, but he said that it was inevitable and indispensable, and +that it was the condition of all serious construction for the future. +Without it at present a man or a nation was intellectually and +spiritually all abroad. If they saw it accompanied in France by much +that they shrank from, they should reflect that in England it would +have influences joined with it which it had not in France--the natural +seriousness of the people, their sense of reverence and respect, their +love for the past. Come it must; and here where it had been so late in +coming, it would probably be for the first time seen to come without +danger. + +Capitals were natural centers of mental movement, and it was natural for +the classes with most leisure, most freedom, most means of cultivation, +and most conversance with the wide world to have lucidity though often +they had it not. To generate a spirit of lucidity in provincial towns, +and among the middle classes bound to a life of much routine and plunged +in business, was more difficult. Schools and universities, with serious +and disinterested studies, and connecting those studies the one with the +other and continuing them into years of manhood, were in this case the +best agency they could use. It might be slow, but it was sure. Such +an agency they were now going to employ. Might it fulfill all their +expectations! Might their students, in the words quoted just now, +advance in every direction with a marvelous vigor, and with that +conquering ambition which Vico called _mens heroica_! And among the many +good results of this, might one result be the acquisition in their midst +of that indispensable spirit--the spirit of lucidity! + + * * * * * + + + + +ON SOME APPARATUS THAT PERMIT OF ENTERING FLAMES. + +[Footnote: A. de Rochas in the _Revue Scientifique_.] + + +In the following notes I shall recall a few experiments that indicate +under what conditions the human organism is permitted to remain unharmed +amid flames. These experiments were published in England in 1882, in the +twelfth letter from Brewster to Walter Scott on natural magic. They are, +I believe, not much known in France, and possess a practical interest +for those who are engaged in the art of combating fires. + +At the end of the last century Humphry Davy observed that, on placing a +very fine wire gauze over a flame, the latter was cooled to such a +point that it could not traverse the meshes. This phenomenon, which he +attributed to the conductivity and radiating power of the metal, he soon +utilized in the construction of a lamp for miners. + +Some years afterward Chevalier Aldini, of Milan, conceived the idea of +making a new application of Davy's discovery in the manufacture of an +envelope that should permit a man to enter into the midst of flames. +This envelope, which was made of metallic gauze with 1-25th of an inch +meshes, was composed of five pieces, as follows: (1) a helmet, with +mask, large enough, to allow a certain space between it and the internal +bonnet of which I shall speak; (2) a cuirass with armlets; (3) a skirt +for the lower part of the belly and the thighs; (4) a pair of boots +formed of a double wire gauze; and (5) a shield five feet long by one +and a half wide, formed of metallic gauze stretched over a light iron +frame. Beneath this armor the experimenter was clad in breeches and a +close coat of coarse cloth that had previously been soaked in a solution +of alum. The head, hands, and feet were covered by envelopes of asbestos +cloth whose fibers were about a half millimeter in diameter. The bonnet +contained apertures for the eyes, nose, and ears, and consisted of a +single thickness of fabric, as did the stockings, but the gloves were of +double thickness, so that the wearer could seize burning objects with +the hands. + +Aldini, convinced of the services that his apparatus might render to +humanity, traveled over Europe and gave gratuitous representations with +it. The exercises generally took place in the following order: Aldini +began by first wrapping his finger in asbestos and then with a double +layer of wire gauze. He then held it for some instants in the flame of +a candle or alcohol lamp. One of his assistants afterward put on the +asbestos glove of which I have spoken, and, protecting the palm of his +hand with another piece of asbestos cloth, seized a piece of red-hot +iron from a furnace and slowly carried it to a distance of forty or +fifty meters, lighted some straw with it, and then carried it back to +the furnace. On other occasions, the experimenters, holding firebrands +in their hands, walked for five minutes over a large grating under which +fagots were burning. + +In order to show how the head, eyes, and lungs were protected by the +wire gauze apparatus, one of the experimenters put on the asbestos +bonnet, helmet, and cuirass, and fixed the shield in front of his +breast. Then, in a chafing dish placed on a level with his shoulder, a +great fire of shavings was lighted, and care was taken to keep it up. +Into the midst of these flames the experimenter then plunged his head +and remained thus five or six minutes with his face turned toward them. +In an exhibition given at Paris before a committee from the Academic +des Sciences, there were set up two parallel fences formed of straw, +connected by iron wire to light wicker work, and arranged so as to leave +between them a passage 3 feet wide by 30 long. The heat was so intense, +when the fences were set on fire, that no one could approach nearer than +20 or 25 feet; and the flames seemed to fill the whole space between +them, and rose to a height of 9 or 10 feet. Six men clad in the Aldini +suit went in, one behind the other, between the blazing fences, and +walked slowly backward and forward in the narrow passage, while the fire +was being fed with fresh combustibles from the exterior. One of these +men carried on his back, in an ozier basket covered with wire gauze, a +child eight years of age, who had on no other clothing than an asbestos +bonnet. This same man, having the child with him, entered on another +occasion a clear fire whose flames reached a height of 18 feet, and +whose intensity was such that it could not be looked at. He remained +therein so long that the spectators began to fear that he had succumbed; +but he finally came out safe and sound. + +One of the conclusions to be drawn from the facts just stated is that +man can breathe in the midst of flames. This marvelous property cannot +be attributed exclusively to the cooling of the air by its passage +through the gauze before reaching the lungs; it shows also a very great +resistance of our organs to the action of heat. The following, moreover, +are direct proofs of such resistance. In England, in their first +experiment, Messrs. Joseph Banks, Charles Blagden, and Dr. Solander +remained for ten minutes in a hot-house whose temperature was 211 deg. +Fahr., and their bodies preserved therein very nearly the usual heat. On +breathing against a thermometer they caused the mercury to fall several +degrees. Each expiration, especially when it was somewhat strong, +produced in their nostrils an agreeable impression of coolness, and the +same impression was also produced on their fingers when breathed upon. +When they touched themselves their skin seemed to be as cold as that of +a corpse; but contact with their watch chains caused them to experience +a sensation like that of a burn. A thermometer placed under the tongue +of one of the experimenters marked 98 deg. Fahr., which is the normal +temperature of the human species. + +Emboldened by these first results, Blagden entered a hot-house in which +the thermometer in certain parts reached 262 deg. Fahr. He remained therein +eight minutes, walked about in all directions, and stopped in the +coolest part, which was at 240 deg. Fahr. During all this time he +experienced no painful sensations; but, at the end of seven minutes, he +felt an oppression of the lungs that inquieted him and caused him to +leave the place. His pulse at that moment showed 144 beats to the +minute, that is to say, double what it usually did. To ascertain whether +there was any error in the indications of the thermometer, and to find +out what effect would take place on inert substances exposed to the hot +air that he had breathed, Blogden placed some eggs in a zinc plate in +the hot-house, alongside the thermometer, and found that in twenty +minutes they were baked hard. + +A case is reported where workmen entered a furnace for drying moulds, in +England, the temperature of which was 177 deg., and whose iron sole plate +was so hot that it carbonized their wooden shoes. In the immediate +vicinity of this furnace the temperature rose to 160 deg.. Persons not of +the trade who approached anywhere near the furnace experienced pain in +the eyes, nose, and ears. + +A baker is cited in Angoumois, France, who spent ten minutes in a +furnace at 132 deg. C. + +The resistance of the human organism to so high temperatures can be +attributed to several causes. First, it has been found that the quantity +of carbonic acid exhaled by the lungs, and consequently the chemical +phenomena of internal combustion that are a source of animal heat, +diminish in measure as the external temperature rises. Hence, a conflict +which has for result the retardation of the moment at which a living +being will tend, without obstacle, to take the temperature of the +surrounding medium. On another hand, it has been observed that man +resists heat so much the less in proportion as the air is saturated +with vapors. Dr. Berger, who supported for seven minutes a temperature +varying from 109 deg. to 110 deg. C. in dry air, could remain only twelve +minutes in a bagnio whose temperature rose from 41 deg. to 51.75 deg.. At the +Hammam of Paris the highest temperature obtained is 87 deg., and Dr. E. +Martin has not been able to remain therein more than five minutes. This +physician reports that in 1743, the thermometer having exceeded 40 deg. at +Pekin, 14,000 persons perished. These facts are explained by the cooling +that the evaporation of perspiration produces on the surface of the +body. Edwards has calculated that such evaporation is ten times greater +in dry air in motion than in calm and humid air. The observations become +still more striking when the skin is put in contact with a liquid or a +solid which suppresses perspiration. Lemoine endured a bath of Bareges +water of 37 deg. for half an hour; but at 45 deg. he could not remain in it more +than seven minutes, and the perspiration began to flow at the end of six +minutes. According to Brewster, persons who experience no malaise near +a fire which communicates a temperature of 100 deg. C. to them, can hardly +bear contact with alcohol and oil at 55 deg. and mercury at 48 deg.. + +The facts adduced permit us to understand how it was possible to bear +one of the proofs to which it is said those were submitted who wished +to be initiated into the Egyptian mysteries. In a vast vaulted chamber +nearly a hundred feet long, there were erected two fences formed of +posts, around which were wound branches of Arabian balm, Egyptian thorn, +and tamarind--all very flexible and inflammable woods. When this was set +on fire the flames arose as far as the vault, licked it, and gave the +chamber the appearance of a hot furnace, the smoke escaping through +pipes made for the purpose. Then the door was suddenly opened before the +neophyte, and he was ordered to traverse this burning place, whose floor +was composed of an incandescent grating. + +The Abbe Terrason recounts all these details in his historic romance +"Sethos," printed at the end of last century. Unfortunately literary +frauds were in fashion then, and the book, published as a translation of +an old Greek manuscript, gives no indication of sources. I have sought +in special works for the data which the abbe must have had as a basis, +but I have not been able to find them. I suppose, however, that +this description, which is so precise, is not merely a work of the +imagination. The author goes so far as to give the dimensions of the +grating (30 feet by 8), and, greatly embarrassed to explain how his hero +was enabled to traverse it without being burned, is obliged to suppose +it to have been formed of very thick bars, between which Sethos had care +to place his feet. But this explanation is inadmissible. He who had the +courage to rush, head bowed, into the midst of the flames, certainly +would not have amused himself by choosing the place to put his feet. +Braving the fire that surrounded his entire body, he must have had no +other thought than that of reaching the end of his dangerous voyage as +soon as possible. We cannot see very well, moreover, how this immense +grate, lying on the ground, was raised to a red heat and kept at such a +temperature. It is infinitely more simple to suppose that between the +two fences there was a ditch sufficiently deep in which a fire had +also been lighted, and which was covered by a grating as in the Aldini +experiments. It is even probable that this grating was of copper, +which, illuminated by the fireplace, must have presented a terrifying +brilliancy, while in reality it served only to prevent the flames from +the fireplace reaching him who dared to brave them. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BUILDING STONE SUPPLY. + + +The use of stone as a building material was not resorted to, except to +a trifling extent, in this country until long after the need of such a +solid substance was felt. The early settler contented himself with the +log cabin, the corduroy road, and the wooden bridge, and loose stone +enough for foundation purposes could readily be gathered from the +surface of the earth. Even after the desirability of more handsome and +durable building material for public edifices in the colonial cities +than wood became apparent, the ample resources which nature had afforded +in this country were overlooked, and brick and stone were imported by +the Dutch and English settlers from the Old World. Thus we find the +colonists of the New Netherlands putting yellow brick on their list +of non-dutiable imports in 1648; and such buildings in Boston as are +described as being "fairly set forth with brick, tile, slate, and +stone," were thus provided only with foreign products. Isolated +instances of quarrying stone are known to have occurred in the last +century; but they are rare. The edifice known as "King's Chapel," +Boston, erected in 1752, is the first one on record as being built from +American stone; this was granite, brought from Braintree, Mass. + +Granite is a rock particularly abundant in New England, though also +found in lesser quantities elsewhere in this country. The first granite +quarries that were extensively developed were those at Quincy, Mass., +and work began at that point early in the present century. The fame of +the stone became widespread, and it was sent to distant markets--even to +New Orleans. The old Merchants' Exchange in New York (afterward used as +a custom house) the Astor House in that city, and the Custom House in +New Orleans, all nearly or quite fifty years old, were constructed of +Quincy granite, as were many other fine buildings along the Atlantic +coast. In later years, not only isolated public edifices, but also whole +blocks of stores, have been constructed of this material. It was from +the Quincy quarries that the first railroad in this country was built; +this was a horse-railroad, three miles long, extending to Neponset +River, built in 1827. + +Other points in Massachusetts have been famed for their excellent +granite. After Maine was set off as a distinct State, Fox Island +acquired repute for its granite, and built up an extensive traffic +therein. Westerly, R.I., has also been engaged in quarrying this +valuable rock for many years, most of its choicer specimens having been +wrought for monumental purposes. Statues and other elaborate monumental +designs are now extensively made therefrom. Smaller pieces and a coarser +quality of the stone are here and elsewhere along the coast obtained in +large quantities for the construction of massive breakwaters to protect +harbors. Another point famous for its granite is Staten Island, New +York. This stone weighs 180 pounds to the cubic foot, while the Quincy +granite weighs but 165. The Staten Island product is used not only for +building purposes, but is also especially esteemed for paving after both +the Russ and Belgian patents. New York and other cities derive large +supplies from this source. The granite of Weehawken, N.J., is of the +same character, and greatly in demand. Port Deposit, Md., and Richmond, +Va, are also centers of granite production. Near Abbeville, S.C., and +in Georgia, granite is found quite like that of Quincy. Much southern +granite, however, decomposes readily, and is almost as soft as clay. +This variety of stone is found in great abundance in the Rocky +Mountains; but, except to a slight extent in California, it is not yet +quarried there. + +Granite, having little grain, can be cut into blocks of almost any size +and shape. Specimens as much as eighty feet long have been taken out and +transported great distances. The quarrying is done by drilling a series +of small holes, six inches or more deep and almost the same distance +apart, inserting steel wedges along the whole line and then tapping each +gently with a hammer in succession, in order that the strain may be +evenly distributed. + +A building material that came into use earlier than granite is known as +freestone or sandstone; although its first employment does not date back +further than the erection of King's Chapel, Boston, already referred to +as the earliest well-known occasion where granite was used in building. +Altogether the most famous American sandstone quarries are those at +Portland, on the Connecticut River, opposite Middletown. These were +worked before the Revolution; and their product has been shipped to many +distant points in the country. The long rows of "brownstone fronts" in +New York city are mostly of Portland stone, though in many cases the +walls are chiefly of brick covered with thin layers of the stone. The +old red sandstone of the Connecticut valley is distinguished in geology +for the discovery of gigantic fossil footprints of birds, first noticed +in the Portland quarries in 1802. Some of these footprints measured +ten to sixteen inches, and they were from four to six feet apart. The +sandstone of Belleville, N.J., has also extensive use and reputation. +Trinity Church in New York city and the Boston Atheneum are built of the +product of these quarries; St. Lawrence County, New York, is noted also +for a fine bed of sandstone. At Potsdam it is exposed to a depth of +seventy feet. There are places though, in New England, New York, and +Eastern Pennsylvania, where a depth of three hundred feet has been +reached. The Potsdam sandstone is often split to the thinness of an +inch. It hardens by exposure, and is often used for smelting furnace +hearth-stones. Shawangunk Mountain, in Ulster County, yields a sandstone +of inferior quality, which has been unsuccessfully tried for paving; +as it wears very unevenly. From Ulster, Greene, and Albany Counties +sandstone slabs for sidewalks are extensively quarried for city use; +the principal outlets of these sections being Kingston, Saugerties, +Coxsackie, Bristol, and New Baltimore, on the Hudson. In this region +quantities amounting to millions of square feet are taken out in large +sheets, which are often sawed into the sizes desired. The vicinity of +Medina, in Western New York, yields a sandstone extensively used in that +section for paving and curbing, and a little for building. A rather poor +quality of this stone has been found along the Potomac, and some of it +was used in the erection of the old Capitol building at Washington. +Ohio yields a sandstone that is of a light gray color; Berea, Amherst, +Vermilion, and Massillon are the chief points of production. St. +Genevieve, Mo., yields a stone of fine grain of a light straw color, +which is quite equal to the famous Caen stone of France. The Lake +Superior sandstones are dark and coarse grained, but strong. + +In some parts of the country, where neither granite nor sandstone +is easily procured, blue and gray limestone are sometimes used for +building, and, when hammer dressed, often look like granite. A serious +objection to their use, however, is the occasional presence of iron, +which rusts on exposure, and defaces the building. In Western New York +they are widely used. Topeka stone, like the coquine of Florida and +Bermuda, is soft like wood when first quarried, and easily wrought, +but it hardens on exposure. The limestones of Canton, Mo., Joliet and +Athens, Ill., Dayton, Sandusky, Marblehead, and other points in Ohio, +Ellittsville, Ind., and Louisville and Bowling Green, Ky., are great +favorites west. In many of these regions limestone is extensively used +for macadamizing roads, for which it is excellently adapted. It also +yields excellent slabs or flags for sidewalks. + +One of the principal uses of this variety of stone is its conversion, by +burning, into lime for building purposes. All limestones are by no +means equally excellent in this regard. Thomaston lime, burned with +Pennsylvania coal, near the Penobscot River, has had a wide reputation +for nearly half a century. It has been shipped thence to all points +along the Atlantic coast, invading Virginia as far as Lynchburg, and +going even to New Orleans, Smithfield, R.I., and Westchester County, +N.Y., near the lower end of the Highlands, also make a particularly +excellent quality of lime. Kingston, in Ulster County, makes an inferior +sort for agricultural purposes. The Ohio and other western stones yield +a poor lime, and that section is almost entirely dependent on the east +for supplies. + +Marbles, like limestones, with which they are closely related, are very +abundant in this country, and are also to be found in a great variety of +colors. As early as 1804 American marble was used for statuary purposes. +Early in the century it also obtained extensive employment for +gravestones. Its use for building purposes has been more recent than +granite and sandstone in this country; and it is coming to supersede the +latter to a great degree. For mantels, fire-places, porch pillars, and +like ornamental purposes, however, our variegated, rich colored and +veined or brecciated marbles were in use some time before exterior walls +were made from them. Among the earliest marble buildings were Girard +College in Philadelphia and the old City Hall in New York, and the +Custom House in the latter city, afterward used for a sub-treasury. The +new Capitol building at Washington is among the more recent structures +composed of this material. Our exports of marble to Cuba and elsewhere +amount to over $300,000 annually, although we import nearly the same +amount from Italy. And yet an article can be found in the United States +fully as fine as the famous Carrara marble. We refer to that which comes +from Rutland, Vt. This state yields the largest variety and choicest +specimens. The marble belt runs both ways from Rutland County, where +the only quality fit for statuary is obtained. Toward the north it +deteriorates by growing less sound, though finer in grain; while to +the south it becomes coarser. A beautiful black marble is obtained at +Shoreham, Vt. There are also handsome brecciated marbles in the same +state; and in the extreme northern part, near Lake Champlain, they +become more variegated and rich in hue. Such other marble as is found +in New England is of an inferior quality. The pillars of Girard +College came from Berkshire, Mass., which ranks next after Vermont in +reputation. + +The marble belt extends from New England through New York, Pennsylvania, +Maryland, the District of Columbia, and Virginia, Tennessee, and the +Carolinas, to Georgia and Alabama. Some of the variegated and high +colored varieties obtained near Knoxville, Tenn., nearly equal that of +Vermont. The Rocky Mountains contain a vast abundance and variety. + +Slate was known to exist in this country to a slight extent in colonial +days. It was then used for gravestones, and to some extent for roofing +and school purposes. But most of our supplies came from Wales. It is +stated that a slate quarry was operated in Northampton County, Pa., as +early as 1805. In 1826 James M. Porter and Samuel Taylor engaged in the +business, obtaining their supplies from the Kittanninny Mountains. From +this time the business developed rapidly, the village of Slateford being +an outgrowth of it, and large rafts being employed to float the product +down the Schuylkill to Philadelphia. By 1860 the industry had reached +the capacity of 20,000 cases of slate, valued at $10 a case, annually. +In 1839 quarries were opened in the Piscataquis River, forty miles +north of Bangor, Me., but poor transportation facilities retarded the +business. Vermont began to yield in 1852. New York's quarries are +confined to Washington County, near the Vermont line. Maryland has +a limited supply from Harford County. The Huron Mountains, north of +Marquette, Mich., contain slate, which is also said to exist in Pike +County, Ga. + +Grindstones, millstones, and whetstones are quarried in New York, Ohio, +Michigan, Pennsylvania, and other States. Mica is found at Acworth and +Grafton, N. H., and near Salt Lake, but our chief supply comes from +Haywood, Yancey, Mitchell, and Macon counties, in North Carolina, and +our product is so large that we can afford to export it. Other stones, +such as silex, for making glass, etc., are found in profusion in various +parts of the country, but we have no space to enter into a detailed +account of them at present.--_Pottery and Glassware Reporter_. + + * * * * * + + + + +AN INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. + + +The most interesting change of which the Census gives account is the +increase in the number of farms. The number has virtually doubled within +twenty years. The population of the country has not increased in like +proportion. A large part of the increase in number of farms has been due +to the division of great estates. Nor has this occurred, as some may +imagine, exclusively in the Southern States and the States to which +immigration and migration have recently been directed. It is an +important fact that the multiplication of farms has continued even in +the older Northern States, though the change has not been as great in +these as in States of the far West or the South. In New York there has +been an increase of 25,000, or 11.5 per cent, in the number of farms +since 1870; in New Jersey the increase has been 12.2 per cent., and in +Pennsylvania 22.7 per cent., though the increase in population, and +doubtless in the number of persons engaged in farming, has been much +smaller. Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois also, have been considered fully +settled States for years, at least in an agricultural point of view, and +yet the number of farms has increased 26.1 per cent, in ten years in +Ohio, 20.3 percent, in Indiana, and 26.1 per cent, in Illinois. The +obvious explanation is that the growth of many cities and towns has +created a market for a far greater supply of those products which may be +most advantageously grown upon farms of moderate size; but even if this +fully accounts for the phenomenon, the change must be recognized as one +of the highest importance industrially, socially, and politically. The +man who owns or rents and cultivates a farm stands on a very different +footing from the laborer who works for wages. It is not a small matter +that, in these six States alone, there are 205,000 more owners or +managers of farms than there were only a decade ago. + +As we go further toward the border, west or north, the influence of the +settlement of new land is more distinctly felt. Even in Michigan, where +new railroads have opened new regions to settlement, the increase in +number of farms has been over 55 per cent. In Wisconsin, though the +increase in railroad mileage has been about the same as in Michigan, the +reported increase in number of farms has been only 28 per cent., but in +Iowa it rises to 60 per cent., and in Minnesota to nearly 100 per cent. +In Kansas the number of farms is 138,561, against 38,202 in 1870; in +Nebraska 63,387, against 12,301; and in Dakota 17,435, against 1,720. In +these regions the process is one of creation of new States rather than a +change in the social and industrial condition of the population. + +Some Southern States have gained largely, but the increase in these, +though very great, is less surprising than the new States of the +Northwest. The prevailing tendency of Southern agriculture to large +farms and the employment of many hands is especially felt in States +where land is still abundant. The greatest increase is in Texas, where +174,184 farms are reported, against 61,125 in 1870; in Florida, with +23,438 farms, against 10,241 in 1870; and in Arkansas, with 94,433 +farms, against 49,424 in 1870. In Missouri 215,575 farms are reported, +against 148,228 in 1870. In these States, though social changes have +been great, the increase in number of farms has been largely due to new +settlements, as in the States of the far Northwest. But the change in +the older Southern States is of a different character. + +Virginia, for example, has long been settled, and had 77,000 farms +thirty years ago. But the increase in number within the past ten years +has been 44,668, or 60.5 per cent. Contrasting this with the increase in +New York, a remarkable difference appears. West Virginia had few more +farms ten years ago than New Jersey; now it has nearly twice as many, +and has gained in number nearly 60 per cent. North Carolina, too, has +increased 78 per cent. in number of farms since 1870, and South Carolina +80 per cent. In Georgia the increase has been still greater--from 69,956 +to 138,626, or nearly 100 per cent. In Alabama there are 135,864 +farms, against 67,382 in 1870, an increase of over 100 per cent. These +proportions, contrasted with those for the older Northern States, reveal +a change that is nothing less than an industrial revolution. But the +force of this tendency to division of estates has been greatest in the +States named. Whereas the ratio of increase in number of farms becomes +greater in Northern States as we go from the East toward the Mississippi +River, at the South it is much smaller in Kentucky, Tennessee, +Mississippi, and Louisiana than in the older States on the Atlantic +coast. Thus in Louisiana the increase has been from 28,481 to 48,292 +farms, or 70 per cent., and in Mississippi from 68,023 to 101,772 farms, +or less than 50 per cent., against 100 in Alabama and Georgia. In +Kentucky the increase has been from 118,422 to 166,453 farms, or 40 per +cent., and in Tennessee from 118,141 to 165,650 farms, or 40 per cent., +against 60 in Virginia and West Virginia, and 78 in North Carolina. +Thus, while the tendency to division is far greater than in the Northern +States of corresponding age, it is found in full force only in six of +the older Southern States, Alabama, West Virginia, and four on the +Atlantic coast. In these, the revolution already effected foreshadows +and will almost certainly bring about important political changes within +a few years. In these six States there 310,795 more farm owners or +occupants than there were ten years ago.--_N.Y. Tribune_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A FARMER'S LIME KILN. + + +For information about burning lime we republish the following article +furnished by a correspondent of the _Country Gentleman_ several years +ago: + +[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. A (Fig. 1), Railway Track--B B B, +Iron Rods running through Kiln--C, Capstone over Arch--D, Arch--E, Well +without brick or ash lining.] + +I send you a description and sketch of a lime-kiln put up on my premises +about five years ago. The dimensions of this kiln are 13 feet square by +25 feet high from foundation, and its capacity 100 bushels in 24 hours. +It was constructed of the limestone quarried on the spot. It has round +iron rods (shown in sketch) passing through, with iron plates fastened +to the ends as clamps to make it more firm; the pair nearest the top +should be not less than 2 feet from that point, the others interspersed +about 2 feet apart--the greatest strain being near the top. The arch +should be 7 feet high by 51/2 wide in front, with a gather on the top +and sides of about 1 foot, with plank floor; and if this has a little +incline it will facilitate shoveling the lime when drawn. The arch +should have a strong capstone; also one immediately under the well of +the kiln, with a hole 2 feet in diameter to draw the lime through; or +two may be used with semicircle cut in each. Iron bars 2 inches wide by +1/8 inch thick are used in this kiln for closing it, working in slots +fastened to capstone. These slots must be put in before the caps +are laid. When it is desired to draw lime, these bars may be +pushed laterally in the slots, or drawn out entirely, according to +circumstances; 3 bars will be enough. The slots are made of iron bars +11/2 inches wide, with ends rounded and turned up, and inserted in holes +drilled through capstone and keyed above. + +The well of the kiln is lined with fire-brick one course thick, with a +stratum of coal ashes three inches thick tamped in between the brick +and wall, which proves a great protection to the wall. About 2,000 +fire-bricks were used. The proprietors of this kiln say about one-half +the lower part of the well might have been lined with a first quality of +common brick and saved some expense and been just as good. The form of +the well shown in Fig. 3 is 7 feet in diameter in the bilge, exclusive +of the lining of brick and ashes. Experiments in this vicinity have +proved this to be the best, this contraction toward the top being +absolutely necessary, the expansion of the stone by the heat is so +great that the lime cannot be drawn from perpendicular walls, as was +demonstrated in one instance near here, where a kiln was built on that +principle. The kiln, of course, is for coal, and our stone requires +about three-quarters of a ton per 100 bushels of lime, but this, I am +told, varies according to quality, some requiring more than others; the +quantity can best be determined by experimenting; also the regulation of +the heat--if too great it will cause the stones to melt or run together +as it were, or, if too little, they will not be properly burned. The +business requires skill and judgment to run it successfully. + +This kiln is located at the foot of a steep bluff, the top about level +with the top of the kiln, with railway track built of wooden sleepers, +with light iron bars, running from the bluff to the top of the kiln, and +a hand-car makes it very convenient filling the kiln. Such a location +should be had if possible. Your inquirer may perhaps get some ideas +of the principles of a kiln for using _coal_. The dimensions may be +reduced, if desired. If for _wood_, the arch would have to be formed for +that, and the height of kiln reduced. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF APPLE JELLY. + +[Footnote: From the report of the New York Agricultural Society.] + + +Within the county of Oswego, New York, Dewitt C. Peck reports there are +five apple jelly factories in operation. The failure of the apple crop, +for some singular and unexplained reason, does not extend in great +degree to the natural or ungrafted fruit. Though not so many as common, +even of these apples, there are yet enough to keep these five mills and +the numerous cider mills pretty well employed. The largest jelly factory +is located near the village of Mexico, and as there are some features in +regard to this manufacture peculiar to this establishment which may be +new and interesting, we will undertake a brief description. The factory +is located on the Salmon Creek, which affords the necessary power. A +portion of the main floor, first story, is occupied as a saw mill, +the slabs furnishing fuel for the boiler furnace connected with the +evaporating department. Just above the mill, along the bank of the pond, +and with one end projecting over the water, are arranged eight large +bins, holding from five hundred to one thousand bushels each, into which +the apples are delivered from the teams. The floor in each of these has +a sharp pitch or inclination toward the water and at the lower end is a +grate through which the fruit is discharged, when wanted, into a trough +half submerged in the pond. + +The preparation of the fruit and extraction of the juice proceeds +as follows: Upon hoisting a gate in the lower end of this trough, +considerable current is caused, and the water carries the fruit a +distance of from thirty to one hundred feet, and passes into the +basement of the mill, where, tumbling down a four-foot perpendicular +fall, into a tank, tight in its lower half and slatted so as to permit +the escape of water and impurities in the upper half, the apples are +thoroughly cleansed from all earthy or extraneous matter. Such is the +friction caused by the concussion of the fall, the rolling and rubbing +of the apples together, and the pouring of the water, that decayed +sections of the fruit are ground off and the rotten pulp passes away +with other impurities. From this tank the apples are hoisted upon an +endless chain elevator, with buckets in the form of a rake-head with +iron teeth, permitting drainage and escape of water, to an upper story +of the mill, whence by gravity they descend to the grater. The press +is wholly of iron, all its motions, even to the turning of the screws, +being actuated by the water power. The cheese is built up with layers +inclosed in strong cotton cloth, which displaces the straw used in olden +time, and serves also to strain the cider. As it is expressed from +the press tank, the cider passes to a storage tank, and thence to the +defecator. + +This defecator is a copper pan, eleven feet long and about three feet +wide. At each end of this pan is placed a copper tube three inches in +diameter and closed at both ends. Lying between and connecting +these two, are twelve tubes, also of copper, 11/2 inches in diameter, +penetrating the larger tubes at equal distances from their upper and +under surfaces, the smaller being parallel with each other, and 11/2 +inches apart. When placed in position, the larger tubes, which act as +manifolds, supplying the smaller with steam, rest upon the bottom of the +pan, and thus the smaller pipes have a space of three-fourths of an inch +underneath their outer surfaces. + +The cider comes from the storage tank in a continuous stream about +three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Steam is introduced to the large +or manifold tubes, and from them distributed through the smaller ones at +a pressure of from twenty-five to thirty pounds per inch. Trap valves +are provided for the escape of water formed by condensation within the +pipes. The primary object of the defecator is to remove all impurities +and perfectly clarify the liquid passing through it. All portions of +pomace and other minute particles of foreign matter, when heated, +expand and float in the form of scum upon the surface of the cider. An +ingeniously contrived floating rake drags off this scum and delivers it +over the side of the pan. To facilitate this removal, one side of the +pan, commencing at a point just below the surface of the cider, is +curved gently outward and upward, terminating in a slightly inclined +plane, over the edge of which the scum is pushed by the rake into a +trough and carried away. A secondary purpose served by the defecator +is that of reducing the cider by evaporation to a partial sirup of the +specific gravity of about 20 deg. Baume. When of this consistency the liquid +is drawn from the bottom and less agitated portion of the defecator by a +siphon, and thence carried to the evaporator, which is located upon the +same framework and just below the defecator. + +The evaporator consists of a separate system of six copper tubes, each +twelve feet long and three inches in diameter. These are each jacketed +or inclosed in an iron pipe of four inches internal diameter, fitted +with steam-tight collars so as to leave half an inch steam space +surrounding the copper tubes. The latter are open at both ends +permitting the admission and egress of the sirup and the escape of the +steam caused by evaporation therefrom, and are arranged upon the frame +so as to have a very slight inclination downward in the direction of +the current, and each nearly underneath its predecessor in regular +succession. Each is connected by an iron supply pipe, having a steam +gauge or indicator attached, with a large manifold, and that by other +pipes with a steam boiler of thirty horse power capacity. Steam being +let on at from twenty five to thirty pounds pressure, the stream of +sirup is received from the defecator through a strainer, which removes +any impurities possibly remaining into the upper evaporator tube; +passing in a gentle flow through that, it is delivered into a funnel +connected with the next tube below, and so, back and forth, through the +whole system. The sirup enters the evaporator at a consistency of from +20 deg. to 23 deg. Baume, and emerges from the last tube some three minutes +later at a consistency of from 30 deg. to 32 deg. Baume, which is found on +cooling to be the proper point for perfect jelly. This point is found to +vary one or two degrees, according to the fermentation consequent upon +bruises in handling the fruit, decay of the same, or any little delay in +expressing the juice from the cheese. The least fermentation occasions +the necessity for a lower reduction. To guard against this, no cheese +is allowed to stand over night, no pomace left in the grater or vat, no +cider in the tank; and further to provide against fermentation, a large +water tank is located upon the roof and filled by a force pump, and by +means of hose connected with this, each grater, press, vat, tank, pipe, +trough, or other article of machinery used, can be thoroughly washed and +cleansed. Hot water, instead of cider, is sometimes sent through the +defecator, evaporator, etc., until all are thoroughly scalded and +purified. If the saccharometer shows too great or too little reduction, +the matter is easily regulated by varying the steam pressure in the +evaporator by means of a valve in the supply pipe. If boiled cider +instead of jelly is wanted for making pies, sauces, etc., it is drawn +off from one of the upper evaporator tubes according to the consistency +desired; or can be produced at the end of the process by simply reducing +the steam pressure. + +As the jelly emerges from the evaporator it is transferred to a tub +holding some fifty gallons, and by mixing a little therein, any little +variations in reduction or in the sweetness or sourness of the fruit +used are equalized. From this it is drawn through faucets, while hot, +into the various packages in which it is shipped to market. A favorite +form of package for family use is a nicely turned little wooden +bucket with cover and bail, two sizes, holding five and ten pounds +respectively. The smaller packages are shipped in cases for convenience +in handling. The present product of this manufactory is from 1,500 to +1,800 pounds of jelly each day of ten hours. It is calculated that +improvements now in progress will increase this to something more than a +ton per day. Each bushel of fruit will produce from four to five pounds +of jelly, fruit ripening late in the season being more productive than +earlier varieties. Crab apples produce the finest jelly; sour, crabbed, +natural fruit makes the best looking article, and a mixture of all +varieties gives most satisfactory results as to flavor and general +quality. + +As the pomace is shoveled from the finished cheese, it is again ground +under a toothed cylinder, and thence drops into large troughs, through a +succession of which a considerable stream of water is flowing. Here it +is occasionally agitated by raking from the lower to the upper end of +the trough as the current carries it downward, and the apple seeds +becoming disengaged drop to the bottom into still water, while the pulp +floats away upon the stream. A succession of troughs serves to remove +nearly all the seeds. The value of the apple seeds thus saved is +sufficient to pay the daily wages of all the hands employed in the whole +establishment. The apples are measured in the wagon box, one and a half +cubic feet being accounted a bushel. + +This mill ordinarily employs about six men: One general superintendent, +who buys and measures the apples, keeps time books, attends to all the +accounts and the working details of the mill, and acts as cashier; one +sawyer, who manufactures lumber for the local market and saws the slabs +into short lengths suitable for the furnace; one cider maker, who grinds +the apples and attends the presses; one jelly maker, who attends the +defecator, evaporator, and mixing tub, besides acting as his own fireman +and engineer; one who attends the apple seed troughs and acts as general +helper, and one man-of-all-work to pack, ship and assist whenever +needed. The establishment was erected late in the season of 1880, +and manufactured that year about forty-five tons of jelly, besides +considerable cider exchanged to the farmers for apples, and some boiled +cider. + +The price paid for apples in 1880, when the crop was superabundant, was +six to eight cents per bushel; in 1881, fifteen cents. The proprietor +hopes next year to consume 100,000 bushels. These institutions are +important to the farmer in that they use much fruit not otherwise +valuable and very perishable. Fruit so crabbed and gnarled as to have no +market value, and even frozen apples, if delivered while yet solid, can +be used. (Such apples are placed in the water while frozen, the water +draws the frost sufficiently to be grated, and passing through the press +and evaporator before there is time for chemical change, they are found +to make very good jelly. They are valuable to the consumer by converting +the perishable, cheap, almost worthless crop of the bearing and abundant +years into such enduring form that its consumption may be carried over +to years of scarcity and furnish healthful food in cheap and pleasant +form to many who would otherwise be deprived; and lastly, they are of +great interest to society, in that they give to cider twice the value +for purposes of food that it has or can have, even to the manufacturer, +for use as a beverage and intoxicant. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED GRAPE BAGS. + + +It stands to reason that were our summers warmer we should be able to +grow grapes successfully on open walls; it is therefore probable that +a new grape bag, the invention of M. Pelletier, 20 Rue de la Banque, +Paris, intended to serve a double purpose, viz., protecting the fruit +and hastening its maturity, will, when it becomes known, be welcomed in +this country. It consists of a square of curved glass so fixed to +the bag that the sun's rays are concentrated upon the fruit, thereby +rendering its ripening more certain in addition to improving its quality +generally. The glass is affixed to the bag by means of a light iron wire +support. It covers that portion of it next the sun, so that it increases +the amount of light and warms the grapes without scorching them, a +result due to the convexity of the glass and the layer of air between it +and the bag. M. Pelletier had the idea of rendering these bags cheaper +by employing plain squares instead of curved ones, but the advantage +thus obtained was more than counterbalanced by their comparative +inefficacy. In practice it was found that the curved squares gave an +average of 7 deg. more than the straight ones, while there was a difference +of 10 deg. when the bags alone were used, thus plainly demonstrating the +practical value of the invention. + +Whether these glass-fronted bags would have much value in the case of +grapes grown under glass in the ordinary way is a question that can only +be determined by actual experiment; but where the vines are on walls, +either under glass screens or in the open air, so that the bunches feel +the full force of the sun's rays, there can be no doubt as to their +utility, and it is probable that by their aid many of the continental +varieties which we do not now attempt to grow in the open, and which are +scarcely worthy of a place under glass, might be well ripened. At +any rate we ought to give anything a fair trial which may serve to +neutralize, if only in a slight degree, the uncertainty of our summers. +As it is, we have only about two varieties of grapes, and these not the +best of the hardy kinds, as regards flavor and appearance, that ripen +out of doors, and even these do not always succeed. We know next to +nothing of the many really well-flavored kinds which are so much +appreciated in many parts of the Continent. The fact is, our outdoor +culture of grapes offers a striking contrast to that practiced under +glass, and although our comparatively sunless and moist climate affords +some excuse for our shortcomings in this respect, there is no valid +reason for the utter want of good culture which is to be observed in a +general way. + +[Illustration: GRAPE BAG.--OPEN.] + +Given intelligent training, constant care in stopping the laterals, and +checking mildew as well as thinning the berries, allowing each bunch to +get the full benefit of sun and air, and I believe good eatable grapes +would often be obtained even in summers marked by a low average +temperature. + +[Illustration: GRAPE BAG.--CLOSED.] + +If, moreover, to a good system of culture we add some such mechanical +contrivance as that under notice whereby the bunches enjoy an average +warmth some 10 deg. higher than they otherwise would do, we not only insure +the grapes coming to perfection in favored districts, but outdoor +culture might probably be practiced in higher latitudes than is now +practicable. + +[Illustration: CURVED GLASS FOR FRONT OF BAG.] + +The improved grape bag would also offer great facilities for destroying +mildew or guarantee the grapes against its attacks, as a light dusting +administered as soon as the berries were fairly formed would suffice for +the season, as owing to the glass protecting the berries from driving +rains, which often accompany south or south-west winds in summer and +autumn, the sulphur would not be washed off. + +[Illustration: CURVED GLASS FIXED ON BAG.] + +The inventor claims, and we should say with just reason, that these +glass fronted bags would be found equally serviceable for the ripening +of pears and other choice fruits, and with a view to their being +employed for such a purpose, he has had them made of varying sizes and +shapes. In conclusion, it may be observed that, in addition to advancing +the maturity of the fruits to which they are applied, they also serve to +preserve them from falling to the ground when ripe.--J. COBNHILL, _in +the Garden_. + + * * * * * + + + + +UTILIZATION OF SOLAR HEAT. + + +At a popular fete in the Tuileries Gardens I was struck with an +experiment which seems deserving of the immediate attention of the +English public and military authorities. + +Among the attractions of the fete was an apparatus for the concentration +and utilization of solar heat, and, though the sun was not very +brilliant, I saw this apparatus set in motion a printing machine which +printed several thousand copies of a specimen newspaper entitled the +_Soleil Journal_. + +The sun's rays are concentrated in a reflector, which moves at the +same rate as the sun and heats a vertical boiler, setting the motive +steam-engine at work. As may be supposed, the only object was to +demonstrate the possibility of utilizing the concentrated heat of the +solar rays; but I closely examined it, because the apparatus seems +capable of great utility in existing circumstances. Here in France, +indeed, there is a radical drawback--the sun is often overclouded. + +Thousands of years ago the idea of utilizing the solar rays must have +suggested itself, and there are still savage tribes who know no other +mode of combustion; but the scientific application has hitherto been +lacking. This void this apparatus will fill up. About fifteen years ago +Professor Mouchon, of Tours, began constructing such an apparatus, and +his experiments have been continued by M. Pifre, who has devoted much +labor and expense to realizing M. Mouchou's idea. A company has now come +to his aid, and has constructed a number of apparatus of different sizes +at a factory which might speedily turn out a large number of them. It is +evident that in a country of uninterrupted sunshine the boiler might be +heated in thirty or forty minutes. A portable apparatus could boil two +and one-half quarts an hour, or, say, four gallons a day, thus supplying +by distillation or ebullition six or eight men. The apparatus can be +easily carried on a man's back, and on condition of water, even of the +worst quality, being obtainable, good drinking and cooking water is +insured. M. De Rougaumond, a young scientific writer, has just published +an interesting volume on the invention. I was able yesterday to verify +his statements, for I saw cider made, a pump set in motion, and coffee +made--in short, the calorific action of the sun superseding that of +fuel. The apparatus, no doubt, has not yet reached perfection, but as it +is it would enable the soldier in India or Egypt to procure in the field +good water and to cook his food rapidly. The invention is of especial +importance to England just now, but even when the Egyptian question is +settled the Indian troops might find it of inestimable value. + +Red tape should for once be disregarded, and a competent commission +forthwith sent to 30 Rue d'Assas, with instructions to report +immediately, for every minute saved may avoid suffering for Englishmen +fighting abroad for their country. I may, of course, be mistaken, but +a commission would decide, and if the apparatus is good the slightest +delay in its adoption would be deplorable.--_Paris Correspondence London +Times_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO ESTABLISH A TRUE MERIDIAN. + +[Footnote: A paper read before the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia.] + +By PROFESSOR L. M. HAUPT. + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +The discovery of the magnetic needle was a boon to mankind, and has been +of inestimable service in guiding the mariner through trackless waters, +and the explorer over desert wastes. In these, its legitimate uses, the +needle has not a rival, but all efforts to apply it to the accurate +determination of permanent boundary lines have proven very +unsatisfactory, and have given rise to much litigation, acerbity, and +even death. + +For these and other cogent reasons, strenuous efforts are being made to +dispense, so far as practicable, with the use of the magnetic needle +in surveying, and to substitute therefor the more accurate method of +traversing from a true meridian. This method, however, involves a +greater degree of preparation and higher qualifications than are +generally possessed, and unless the matter can be so simplified as to be +readily understood, it is unreasonable to expect its general application +in practice. + +Much has been written upon the various methods of determining, the +true meridian, but it is so intimately related to the determination of +latitude and time, and these latter in turn upon the fixing of a true +meridian, that the novice can find neither beginning nor end. When to +these difficulties are added the corrections for parallax, refraction, +instrumental errors, personal equation, and the determination of the +probable error, he is hopelessly confused, and when he learns that time +may be sidereal, mean solar, local, Greenwich, or Washington, and he is +referred to an ephemeris and table of logarithms for data, he becomes +lost in "confusion worse confounded," and gives up in despair, settling +down to the conviction that the simple method of compass surveying is +the best after all, even if not the most accurate. + +Having received numerous requests for information upon the subject, I +have thought it expedient to endeavor to prepare a description of the +method of determining the true meridian which should be sufficiently +clear and practical to be generally understood by those desiring to make +use of such information. + +This will involve an elementary treatment of the subject, beginning with +the + + +DEFINITIONS. + +The _celestial sphere_ is that imaginary surface upon which all +celestial objects are projected. Its radius is infinite. + +The _earth's axis_ is the imaginary line about which it revolves. + +The _poles_ are the points in which the axis pierces the surface of the +earth, or of the celestial sphere. + +A _meridian_ is a great circle of the earth cut out by a plane passing +through the axis. All meridians are therefore north and south lines +passing through the poles. + +From these definitions it follows that if there were a star exactly at +the pole it would only be necessary to set up an instrument and take a +bearing to it for the meridian. Such not being the case, however, we are +obliged to take some one of the near circumpolar stars as our object, +and correct the observation according to its angular distance from the +meridian at the time of observation. + +For convenience, the bright star known as Ursae Minoris or Polaris, is +generally selected. This star apparently revolves about the north pole, +in an orbit whose mean radius is 1 deg. 19' 13",[1] making the revolution in +23 hours 56 minutes. + +[Footnote 1: This is the codeclination as given in the Nautical Almanac. +The mean value decreases by about 20 seconds each year.] + +During this time it must therefore cross the meridian twice, once above +the pole and once below; the former is called the _upper_, and the +latter the _lower meridian transit or culmination_. It must also pass +through the points farthest east and west from the meridian. The former +is called the _eastern elongation_, the latter the _western_. + +An observation may he made upon Polaris at any of these four points, +or at any other point of its orbit, but this latter case becomes too +complicated for ordinary practice, and is therefore not considered. + +If the observation were made upon the star at the time of its upper or +lower culmination, it would give the true meridian at once, but this +involves a knowledge of the true local time of transit, or the longitude +of the place of observation, which is generally an unknown quantity; and +moreover, as the star is then moving east or west, or at right angles to +the place of the meridian, at the rate of 15 deg. of arc in about one hour, +an error of so slight a quantity as only four seconds of time would +introduce an error of one minute of arc. If the observation be made, +however, upon either elongation, when the star is moving up or down, +that is, in the direction of the vertical wire of the instrument, the +error of observation in the angle between it and the pole will be +inappreciable. This is, therefore, the best position upon which to make +the observation, as the precise time of the elongation need not be +given. It can be determined with sufficient accuracy by a glance at the +relative positions of the star Alioth, in the handle of the Dipper, +and Polaris (see Fig. 1). When the line joining these two stars is +horizontal or nearly so, and Alioth is to the _west_ of Polaris, the +latter is at its _eastern_ elongation, and _vice versa_, thus: + +[Illustration] + +But since the star at either elongation is off the meridian, it will +be necessary to determine the angle at the place of observation to be +turned off on the instrument to bring it into the meridian. This angle, +called the azimuth of the pole star, varies with the latitude of the +observer, as will appear from Fig 2, and hence its value must be +computed for different latitudes, and the surveyor must know his +_latitude_ before he can apply it. Let N be the north pole of the +celestial sphere; S, the position of Polaris at its eastern elongation; +then N S=1 deg. 19' 13", a constant quantity. The azimuth of Polaris at the +latitude 40 deg. north is represented by the angle N O S, and that at 60 deg. +north, by the angle N O' S, which is greater, being an exterior angle +of the triangle, O S O. From this we see that the azimuth varies at the +latitude. + +We have first, then, to _find the latitude of the place of observation_. + +Of the several methods for doing this, we shall select the simplest, +preceding it by a few definitions. + +A _normal_ line is the one joining the point directly overhead, called +the _zenith_, with the one under foot called the _nadir_. + +The _celestial horizon_ is the intersection of the celestial sphere by a +plane passing through the center of the earth and perpendicular to the +normal. + +A _vertical circle_ is one whose plane is perpendicular to the horizon, +hence all such circles must pass through the normal and have the zenith +and nadir points for their poles. The _altitude_ of a celestial object +is its distance above the horizon measured on the arc of a vertical +circle. As the distance from the horizon to the zenith is 90 deg., the +difference, or _complement_ of the altitude, is called the _zenith +distance_, or _co-altitude_. + +The _azimuth_ of an object is the angle between the vertical plane +through the object and the plane of the meridian, measured on the +horizon, and usually read from the south point, as 0 deg., through west, at +90, north 180 deg., etc., closing on south at 0 deg. or 360 deg.. + +These two co-ordinates, the altitude and azimuth, will determine the +position of any object with reference to the observer's place. The +latter's position is usually given by his latitude and longitude +referred to the equator and some standard meridian as co-ordinates. + +The _latitude_ being the angular distance north or south of the equator, +and the _longitude_ east or west of the assumed meridian. + +We are now prepared to prove that _the altitude of the pole is equal to +the latitude of the place of observation_. + +Let H P Z Q, etc., Fig. 2, represent a meridian section of the sphere, +in which P is the north pole and Z the place of observation, then H H +will be the horizon, Q Q the equator, H P will be the altitude of P, +and Q Z the latitude of Z. These two arcs are equal, for H C Z = P C +Q = 90 deg., and if from these equal quadrants the common angle P C Z be +subtracted, the remainders H C P and Z C Q, will be equal. + +To _determine the altitude of the pole_, or, in other words, _the +latitude of the place_. + +Observe the altitude of the pole star _when on the meridian_, either +above or below the pole, and from this observed altitude corrected for +refraction, subtract the distance of the star from the pole, or its +_polar distance_, if it was an upper transit, or add it if a lower. +The result will be the required latitude with sufficient accuracy for +ordinary purposes. + +The time of the star's being on the meridian can be determined with +sufficient accuracy by a mere inspection of the heavens. The refraction +is _always negative_, and may be taken from the table appended by +looking up the amount set opposite the observed altitude. Thus, if the +observer's altitude should be 40 deg. 39' the nearest refraction 01' 07", +should be subtracted from 40 deg. 37' 00", leaving 40 deg. 37' 53" for the +latitude. + + +TO FIND THE AZIMUTH OF POLARIS. + +As we have shown the azimuth of Polaris to be a function of the +latitude, and as the latitude is now known, we may proceed to find the +required azimuth. For this purpose we have a right-angled spherical +triangle, Z S P, Fig. 4, in which Z is the place of observation, P the +north pole, and S is Polaris. In this triangle we have given the polar +distance, P S = 10 deg. 19' 13"; the angle at S = 90 deg.; and the distance Z +P, being the complement of the latitude as found above, or 90 deg.--L. +Substituting these in the formula for the azimuth, we will have sin. Z = +sin. P S / sin P Z or sin. of Polar distance / sin. of co-latitude, from +which, by assuming different values for the co-latitude, we compute the +following table: + + AZIMUTH TABLE FOR POINTS BETWEEN 26 deg. and 50 deg. N. LAT. + + LATTITUDES + ___________________________________________________________________ +| | | | | | | | +| Year | 26 deg. | 28 deg. | 30 deg. | 32 deg. | 34 deg. | 36 deg. | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | +| 1882 | 1 28 05 | 1 29 40 | 1 31 25 | 1 33 22 | 1 35 30 | 1 37 52 | +| 1883 | 1 27 45 | 1 29 20 | 1 31 04 | 1 33 00 | 1 35 08 | 1 37 30 | +| 1884 | 1 27 23 | 1 28 57 | 1 30 41 | 1 32 37 | 1 34 45 | 1 37 05 | +| 1885 | 1 27 01 | 1 28 351/2 | 1 30 19 | 1 32 14 | 1 34 22 | 1 36 41 | +| 1886 | 1 26 39 | 1 28 13 | 1 29 56 | 1 31 51 | 1 33 57 | 1 36 17 | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| Year | 38 deg. | 40 deg. | 42 deg. | 44 deg. | 46 deg. | 48 deg. | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | deg. ' " | +| 1882 | 1 40 29 | 1 43 21 | 1 46 33 | 1 50 05 | 1 53 59 | 1 58 20 | +| 1883 | 1 40 07 | 1 42 58 | 1 46 08 | 1 49 39 | 1 53 34 | 1 57 53 | +| 1884 | 1 39 40 | 1 42 31 | 1 45 41 | 1 49 11 | 1 53 05 | 1 57 23 | +| 1885 | 1 39 16 | 1 42 07 | 1 45 16 | 1 48 45 | 1 52 37 | 1 56 54 | +| 1886 | 1 38 51 | 1 41 41 | 1 44 49 | 1 48 17 | 1 52 09 | 1 56 24 | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | +| Year | 50 deg. | +|______|_________| +| | | +| | deg. ' " | +| 1882 | 2 03 11 | +| 1883 | 2 02 42 | +| 1884 | 2 02 11 | +| 1885 | 2 01 42 | +| 1886 | 2 01 11 | +|______|_________| + +An analysis of this table shows that the azimuth this year (1882) +increases with the latitude from 1 deg. 28' 05" at 26 deg. north, to 2 deg. 3' 11" +at 50 deg. north, or 35' 06". It also shows that the azimuth of Polaris at +any one point of observation decreases slightly from year to year. This +is due to the increase in declination, or decrease in the star's polar +distance. At 26 deg. north latitude, this annual decrease in the azimuth +is about 22", while at 50 deg. north, it is about 30". As the variation in +azimuth for each degree of latitude is small, the table is only computed +for the even numbered degrees; the intermediate values being readily +obtained by interpolation. We see also that an error of a few minutes of +latitude will not affect the result in finding the meridian, e.g., the +azimuth at 40 deg. north latitude is 1 deg. 43' 21", that at 41 deg. would be 1 deg. 44' +56", the difference (01' 35") being the correction for one degree of +latitude between 40 deg. and 41 deg.. Or, in other words, an error of one degree +in finding one's latitude would only introduce an error in the azimuth +of one and a half minutes. With ordinary care the probable error of the +latitude as determined from the method already described need not exceed +a few minutes, making the error in azimuth as laid off on the arc of an +ordinary transit graduated to single minutes, practically zero. + +REFRACTION TABLE FOR ANY ALTITUDE WITHIN THE LATITUDE OF THE UNITED +STATES. + + _____________________________________________________ +| | | | | +| Apparent | Refraction | Apparent | Refraction | +| Altitude. | _minus_. | Altitude. | _minus_. | +|___________|______________|___________|______________| +| | | | | +| 25 deg. | 0 deg. 2' 4.2" | 38 deg. | 0 deg. 1' 14.4" | +| 26 | 1 58.8 | 39 | 1 11.8 | +| 27 | 1 53.8 | 40 | 1 9.3 | +| 28 | 1 49.1 | 41 | 1 6.9 | +| 29 | 1 44.7 | 42 | 1 4.6 | +| 30 | 1 40.5 | 43 | 1 2.4 | +| 31 | 1 36.6 | 44 | 0 0.3 | +| 32 | 1 33.0 | 45 | 0 58.1 | +| 33 | 1 29.5 | 46 | 0 56.1 | +| 34 | 1 26.1 | 47 | 0 54.2 | +| 35 | 1 23.0 | 48 | 0 52.3 | +| 36 | 1 20.0 | 49 | 0 50.5 | +| 37 | 1 17.1 | 50 | 0 48.8 | +|___________|______________|___________|______________| + + +APPLICATIONS. + +In practice to find the true meridian, two observations must be made at +intervals of six hours, or they may be made upon different nights. The +first is for latitude, the second for azimuth at elongation. + +To make either, the surveyor should provide himself with a good transit +with vertical arc, a bull's eye, or hand lantern, plumb bobs, stakes, +etc.[1] Having "set up" over the point through which it is proposed to +establish the meridian, at a time when the line joining Polaris and +Alioth is nearly vertical, level the telescope by means of the attached +level, which should be in adjustment, set the vernier of the vertical +arc at zero, and take the reading. If the pole star is about making its +_upper_ transit, it will rise gradually until reaching the meridian as +it moves westward, and then as gradually descend. When near the highest +part of its orbit point the telescope at the star, having an assistant +to hold the "bull's eye" so as to reflect enough light down the tube +from the object end to illumine the cross wires but not to obscure the +star, or better, use a perforated silvered reflector, clamp the tube in +this position, and as the star continues to rise keep the _horizontal_ +wire upon it by means of the tangent screw until it "rides" along this +wire and finally begins to fall below it. Take the reading of the +vertical arc and the result will be the observed altitude. + +[Footnote 1: A sextant and artificial horizon may be used to find the +_altitude_ of a star. In this case the observed angle must be divided by +2.] + + +ANOTHER METHOD. + +It is a little more accurate to find the altitude by taking the +complement of the observed zenith distance, if the vertical arc has +sufficient range. This is done by pointing first to Polaris when at +its highest (or lowest) point, reading the vertical arc, turning the +horizontal limb half way around, and the telescope over to get another +reading on the star, when the difference of the two readings will be the +_double_ zenith distance, and _half_ of this subtracted from 90 deg. will be +the required altitude. The less the time intervening between these two +pointings, the more accurate the result will be. + +Having now found the altitude, correct it for refraction by subtracting +from it the amount opposite the observed altitude, as given in the +refraction table, and the result will be the latitude. The observer must +now wait about six hours until the star is at its western elongation, +or may postpone further operations for some subsequent night. In the +meantime he will take from the azimuth table the amount given for his +date and latitude, now determined, and if his observation is to be made +on the western elongation, he may turn it off on his instrument, so +that when moved to zero, _after_ the observation, the telescope will be +brought into the meridian or turned to the right, and a stake set by +means of a lantern or plummet lamp. + +[Illustration] + +It is, of course, unnecessary to make this correction at the time of +observation, for the angle between any terrestrial object and the star +may be read and the correction for the azimuth of the star applied at +the surveyor's convenience. It is always well to check the accuracy of +the work by an observation upon the other elongation before putting in +permanent meridian marks, and care should be taken that they are not +placed near any local attractions. The meridian having been established, +the magnetic variation or declination may readily be found by setting +an instrument on the meridian and noting its bearing as given by the +needle. If, for example, it should be north 5 deg. _east_, the variation is +west, because the north end of the needle is _west_ of the meridian, and +_vice versa_. + +_Local time_ may also be readily found by observing the instant when the +sun's center[1] crosses the line, and correcting it for the equation of +time as given above--the result is the true or mean solar time. This, +compared with the clock, will show the error of the latter, and by +taking the difference between the local lime of this and any other +place, the difference of longitude is determined in hours, which can +readily be reduced to degrees by multiplying by fifteen, as 1 h. = 15 deg.. + +[Footnote 1: To obtain this time by observation, note the instant of +first contact of the sun's limb, and also of last contact of same, and +take the mean.] + +APPROXIMATE EQUATION OF TIME. + + _______________________ + | | | + | Date. | Minutes. | + |__________|____________| + | | | + | Jan. 1 | 4 | + | 3 | 5 | + | 5 | 6 | + | 7 | 7 | + | 9 | 8 | + | 12 | 9 | + | 15 | 10 | + | 18 | 11 | + | 21 | 12 | + | 25 | 13 | + | 31 | 14 | + | Feb. 10 | 15 | + | 21 | 14 | Clock + | 27 | 13 | faster + | M'ch 4 | 12 | than + | 8 | 11 | sun. + | 12 | 10 | + | 15 | 9 | + | 19 | 8 | + | 22 | 7 | + | 25 | 6 | + | 28 | 5 | + | April 1 | 4 | + | 4 | 3 | + | 7 | 2 | + | 11 | 1 | + | 15 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 19 | 1 | + | 24 | 2 | + | 30 | 3 | + | May 13 | 4 | Clock + | 29 | 3 | slower. + | June 5 | 2 | + | 10 | 1 | + | 15 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 20 | 1 | + | 25 | 2 | + | 29 | 3 | + | July 5 | 4 | + | 11 | 5 | + | 28 | 6 | Clock + | Aug. 9 | 5 | faster. + | 15 | 4 | + | 20 | 3 | + | 24 | 2 | + | 28 | 1 | + | 31 | 0 | + | |------------| + | Sept. 3 | 1 | + | 6 | 2 | + | 9 | 3 | + | 12 | 4 | + | 15 | 5 | + | 18 | 6 | + | 21 | 7 | + | 24 | 8 | + | 27 | 9 | + | 30 | 10 | + | Oct. 3 | 11 | + | 6 | 12 | + | 10 | 13 | + | 14 | 14 | + | 19 | 15 | + | 27 | 16 | Clock + | Nov. 15 | 15 | slower. + | 20 | 14 | + | 24 | 13 | + | 27 | 12 | + | 30 | 11 | + | Dec. 2 | 10 | + | 5 | 9 | + | 7 | 8 | + | 9 | 7 | + | 11 | 6 | + | 13 | 5 | + | 16 | 4 | + | 18 | 3 | + | 20 | 2 | + | 22 | 1 | + | 24 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 26 | 1 | + | 28 | 2 | Clock + | 30 | 3 | faster. + |__________|____________| + + * * * * * + + + + +THE OCELLATED PHEASANT. + + +The collections of the Museum of Natural History of Paris have just been +enriched with a magnificent, perfectly adult specimen of a species of +bird that all the scientific establishments had put down among their +desiderata, and which, for twenty years past, has excited the curiosity +of naturalists. This species, in fact, was known only by a few caudal +feathers, of which even the origin was unknown, and which figured in the +galleries of the Jardin des Plantes under the name of _Argus ocellatus_. +This name was given by J. Verreaux, who was then assistant naturalist at +the museum. It was inscribed by Prince Ch. L. Bonaparte, in his Tableaux +Paralleliques de l'Ordre des Gallinaces, as _Argus giganteus_, and a +few years later it was reproduced by Slater in his Catalogue of the +Phasianidae, and by Gray is his List of the Gallinaceae. But it was not +till 1871 and 1872 that Elliot, in the Annals and Magazine of Natural +History, and in a splendid monograph of the Phasianidae, pointed out +the peculiarities that were presented by the feathers preserved at the +Museum of Paris, and published a figure of them of the natural size. + +The discovery of an individual whose state of preservation leaves +nothing to be desired now comes to demonstrate the correctness of +Verreaux's, Bonaparte's, and Elliot's suppositions. This bird, whose +tail is furnished with feathers absolutely identical with those that +the museum possessed, is not a peacock, as some have asserted, nor an +ordinary Argus of Malacca, nor an argus of the race that Elliot named +_Argus grayi_, and which inhabits Borneo, but the type of a new genus of +the family Phasianidae. This Gallinacean, in fact, which Mr. Maingonnat +has given up to the Museum of Natural History, has not, like the common +Argus of Borneo, excessively elongated secondaries; and its tail is not +formed of normal rectrices, from the middle of which spring two very +long feathers, a little curved and arranged like a roof; but it consists +of twelve wide plane feathers, regularly tapering, and ornamented with +ocellated spots, arranged along the shaft. Its head is not bare, but is +adorned behind with a tuft of thread-like feathers; and, finally, its +system of coloration and the proportions of the different parts of its +body are not the same as in the common argus of Borneo. There is reason, +then, for placing the bird, under the name of _Rheinardius ocellatus_, +in the family Phasianidae, after the genus _Argus_ which it connects, +after a manner, with the pheasants properly so-called. The specific name +_ocellatus_ has belonged to it since 1871, and must be substituted for +that of _Rheinardi_. + +The bird measures more than two meters in length, three-fourths of which +belong to the tail. The head, which is relatively small, appears to be +larger than it really is, owing to the development of the piliform tuft +on the occiput, this being capable of erection so as to form a crest +0.05 to 0.06 of a meter in height. The feathers of this crest are +brown and white. The back and sides of the head are covered with downy +feathers of a silky brown and silvery gray, and the front of the neck +with piliform feathers of a ruddy brown. The upper part of the body is +of a blackish tint and the under part of a reddish brown, the whole +dotted with small white or _cafe-au-lait_ spots. Analogous spots are +found on the wings and tail, but on the secondaries these become +elongated, and tear-like in form. On the remiges the markings are quite +regularly hexagonal in shape; and on the upper coverts of the tail +and on the rectrices they are accompanied with numerous ferruginous +blotches, some of which are irregularly scattered over the whole surface +of the vane, while others, marked in the center with a blackish spot, +are disposed in series along the shaft and resemble ocelli. This +similitude of marking between the rectrices and subcaudals renders the +distinction between these two kinds of feathers less sharp than in many +other Gallinaceans, and the more so in that two median rectrices are +considerably elongated and assume exactly the aspect of tail feathers. + +[Illustration: THE OCELLATED PHEASANT (_Rheinardius ocellatus_).] + +The true rectrices are twelve in number. They are all absolutely plane, +all spread out horizontally, and they go on increasing in length +from the exterior to the middle. They are quite wide at the point of +insertion, increase in diameter at the middle, and afterward taper to +a sharp point. Altogether they form a tail of extraordinary length and +width which the bird holds slightly elevated, so as to cause it to +describe a graceful curve, and the point of which touches the soil. The +beak, whose upper mandible is less arched than that of the pheasants, +exactly resembles that of the arguses. It is slightly inflated at the +base, above the nostrils, and these latter are of an elongated-oval +form. In the bird that I have before me the beak, as well as the feet +and legs, is of a dark rose-color. The legs are quite long and are +destitute of spurs. They terminate in front in three quite delicate +toes, connected at the base by membranes, and behind in a thumb that is +inserted so high that it scarcely touches the ground in walking. This +magnificent bird was captured in a portion of Tonkin as yet unexplored +by Europeans, in a locality named Buih-Dinh, 400 kilometers to the south +of Hue.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MAIDENHAIR TREE. + + +The Maidenhair tree--Gingkgo biloba--of which we give an illustration, +is not only one of our most ornamental deciduous trees, but one of the +most interesting. Few persons would at first sight take it to be a +Conifer, more especially as it is destitute of resin; nevertheless, +to that group it belongs, being closely allied to the Yew, but +distinguishable by its long-stalked, fan-shaped leaves, with numerous +radiating veins, as in an Adiantum. These leaves, like those of the +larch but unlike most Conifers, are deciduous, turning of a pale yellow +color before they fall. The tree is found in Japan and in China, but +generally in the neighborhood of temples or other buildings, and is, we +believe, unknown in a truly wild state. As in the case of several other +trees planted in like situations, such as Cupressus funebris, Abies +fortunei, A. kaempferi, Cryptomeria japonica, Sciadopitys verticillata, +it is probable that the trees have been introduced from Thibet, or +other unexplored districts, into China and Japan. Though now a solitary +representative of its genus, the Gingkgo was well represented in the +coal period, and also existed through the secondary and tertiary epochs, +Professor Heer having identified kindred specimens belonging to sixty +species and eight genera in fossil remains generally distributed through +the northern hemisphere. Whatever inference we may draw, it is at least +certain that the tree was well represented in former times, if now it +be the last of its race. It was first known to Kaempfer in 1690, and +described by him in 1712, and was introduced into this country in the +middle of the eighteenth century. Loudon relates a curious tale as +to the manner in which a French amateur became possessed of it. The +Frenchman, it appears, came to England, and paid a visit to an English +nurseryman, who was the possessor of five plants, raised from Japanese +seeds. The hospitable Englishman entertained the Frenchman only too +well. He allowed his commercial instincts to be blunted by wine, and +sold to his guest the five plants for the sum of 25 guineas. Next +morning, when time for reflection came, the Englishman attempted to +regain one only of the plants for the same sum that the Frenchman had +given for all five, but without avail. The plants were conveyed to +France, where as each plant had cost about 40 crowns, _ecus_, the tree +got the name of _arbre a quarante ecus_. This is the story as given by +Loudon, who tells us that Andre Thouin used to relate the fact in his +lectures at the Jardin des Plantes, whether as an illustration of the +perfidy of Albion is not stated. + +The tree is dioecious, bearing male catkins on one plant, female on +another. All the female trees in Europe are believed to have originated +from a tree near Geneva, of which Auguste Pyramus de Candolle secured +grafts, and distributed them throughout the Continent. Nevertheless, the +female tree is rarely met with, as compared with the male; but it is +quite possible that a tree which generally produces male flowers only +may sometimes bear female flowers only. We have no certain evidence of +this in the case of the Gingkgo, but it is a common enough occurrence in +other dioecious plants, and the occurrence of a fruiting specimen near +Philadelphia, as recently recorded by Mr. Meehan, may possibly be +attributed to this cause. + +The tree of which we give a figure is growing at Broadlands, Hants, and +is about 40 feet in height, with a trunk that measures 7 feet in girth +at 3 feet from the ground, with a spread of branches measuring 45 feet. +These dimensions have been considerably exceeded in other cases. In 1837 +a tree at Purser's Cross measured 60 feet and more in height. Loudon +himself had a small tree in his garden at Bayswater on which a female +branch was grafted. It is to be feared that this specimen has long since +perished. + +We have already alluded to its deciduous character, in which it is +allied to the larch. It presents another point of resemblance both to +the larch and the cedar in the short spurs upon which both leaves and +male catkins are borne, but these contracted branches are mingled with +long extension shoots; there seems, however, no regular alternation +between the short and the long shoots, at any rate the _rationale_ of +their production is not understood, though in all probability a little +observation of the growing plant would soon clear the matter up. + +The fruit is drupaceous, with a soft outer coat and a hard woody shell, +greatly resembling that of a Cycad, both externally and internally. +Whether the albumen contains the peculiar "corpuscles" common to Cycads +and Conifers, we do not for certain know, though from the presence of 2 +to 3 embryos in one seed, as noted by Endlicher, we presume this is the +case. The interest of these corpuscles, it may be added, lies in the +proof of affinity they offer between Conifers and the higher Cryptogams, +such as ferns and lycopods--an affinity shown also in the peculiar +venation of the Gingkgo. Conifers are in some degree links between +ordinary flowering plants and the higher Cryptogams, and serve to +connect in genealogical sequence groups once considered quite distinct. +In germination the two fleshy cotyledons of the Gingkgo remain within +the shell, leaving the three-sided plumule to pass upward; the young +stem bears its leaves in threes. + +We have no desire to enter further upon the botanical peculiarities of +this tree; enough if we have indicated in what its peculiar interest +consists. We have only to add that in gardens varieties exist some with +leaves more deeply cut than usual, others with leaves nearly entire, and +others with leaves of a golden-yellow color.--_Gardeners' Chronicle_. + +[Illustration: THE MAIDENHAIR TREE IN THE GARDENS AT BROADLANDS.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE WOODS OF AMERICA. + + +A collection of woods without a parallel in the world is now being +prepared for exhibition by the Directors of the American Museum of +Natural History. Scattered about the third floor of the Arsenal, in +Central Park, lie 394 logs, some carefully wrapped in bagging, +some inclosed in rough wooden cases, and others partially sawn +longitudinally, horizontally, and diagonally. These logs represent all +but 26 of the varieties of trees indigenous to this country, and +nearly all have a greater or less economic or commercial value. The 26 +varieties needed to complete the collection will arrive before winter +sets in, a number of specimens being now on their way to this city from +the groves of California. Mr. S. D. Dill and a number of assistants are +engaged in preparing the specimens for exhibition. The logs as they +reach the workroom are wrapped in bagging and inclosed in cases, this +method being used so that the bark, with its growth of lichens and +delicate exfoliations, shall not be injured while the logs are in +process of transportation from various parts of the country to this +city. The logs are each 6 feet in length, and each is the most perfect +specimen of its class that could be found by the experts employed in +making the collection. With the specimens of the trees come to the +museum also specimens of the foliage and the fruits and flowers of the +tree. These come from all parts of the Union--from Alaska on the north +to Texas on the south, from Maine on the east to California on the +west--and there is not a State or Territory in the Union which has not a +representative in this collection of logs. On arrival here the logs are +green, and the first thing in the way of treatment after their arrival +is to season them, a work requiring great care to prevent them from +"checking," as it is technically called, or "season cracking," as the +unscientific term the splitting of the wood in radiating lines during +the seasoning process. As is well known, the sap-wood of a tree seasons +much more quickly than does the heart of the wood. The prevention of +this splitting is very necessary in preparing these specimens for +exhibition, for when once the wood has split its value for dressing for +exhibition is gone. A new plan to prevent this destruction of specimens +is now being tried with some success under the direction of Prof. +Bickmore, superintendent of the museum. Into the base of the log and +alongside the heart a deep hole is bored with an auger. As the wood +seasons this hole permits of a pressure inward and so has in many +instances doubtless saved valuable specimens. One of the finest in the +collection, a specimen of the persimmon tree, some two feet in diameter, +has been ruined by the seasoning process. On one side there is a huge +crack, extending from the top to the bottom of the log, which looks as +though some amateur woodman had attempted to split it with an ax and +had made a poor job of it. The great shrinking of the sap-wood of the +persimmon tree makes the wood of but trifling value commercially. +It also has a discouraging effect upon collectors, as it is next to +impossible to cure a specimen, so that all but this one characteristic +of the wood can be shown to the public in a perfect form. + +Before the logs become thoroughly seasoned, or their lines of growth at +all obliterated, a diagram of each is made, showing in accordance with +a regular scale the thickness of the bark, the sap-wood, and the heart. +There is also in this diagram a scale showing the growth of the tree +during each year of its life, these yearly growths being regularly +marked about the heart of the tree by move or less regular concentric +circles, the width of which grows smaller and smaller as the tree grows +older. In this connection attention may be called to a specimen in the +collection which is considered one of the most remarkable in the world. +It is not a native wood, but an importation, and the tree from which +this wonderful slab is cut is commonly known as the "Pride of India." +The heart of this particular tree was on the port side, and between it +and the bark there is very little sap-wood, not more than an inch. +On the starbord side, so to speak, the sap-wood has grown out in an +abnormal manner, and one of the lines indicative of a year's growth is +one and seven-eighths inches in width, the widest growth, many experts +who have seen the specimen say, that was ever recorded. The diagrams +referred to are to be kept for scientific uses, and the scheme of +exhibition includes these diagrams as a part of the whole. + +After a log has become seasoned it is carefully sawed through the center +down about one-third of its length. A transverse cut is then made and +the semi-cylindrical section thus severed from the log is removed. The +upper end is then beveled. When a log is thus treated the inspector can +see the lower two-thirds presenting exactly the same appearance it did +when growing in the forest. The horizontal cut, through the sap-wood +and to the center of the heart, shows the life lines of the tree, and +carefully planed as are this portion, the perpendicular and the beveled +sections, the grain of the wood can thus be plainly seen. That these may +be made even more valuable to the architect and artisan, the right half +of this planed surface will be carefully polished, and the left half +left in the natural state. This portion of the scheme of treatment is +entirely in the interests of architects and artisans, and it is expected +by Prof. Bickmore that it will be the means of securing for some kinds +of trees, essentially of American growth, and which have been virtually +neglected, an important place in architecture and in ornamental +wood-work, and so give a commercial value to woods that are now of +comparatively little value. + +Among the many curious specimens in the collection now being prepared +for exhibition, one which will excite the greatest curiosity is a +specimen of the honey locust, which was brought here from Missouri. +The bark is covered with a growth of thorns from one to four inches +in length, sharp as needles, and growing at irregular intervals. The +specimen arrived here in perfect condition, but, in order that it might +be transported without injury, it had to be suspended from the roof of +a box car, and thus make its trip from Southern Missouri to this city +without change. Another strange specimen in the novel collection is a +portion of the Yucca tree, an abnormal growth of the lily family. The +trunk, about 2 feet in diameter, is a spongy mass, not susceptible of +treatment to which the other specimens are subjected. Its bark is an +irregular stringy, knotted mass, with porcupine-quill-like leaves +springing out in place of the limbs that grow from all well-regulated +trees. One specimen of the yucca was sent to the museum two years ago, +and though the roots and top of the tree were sawn off, shoots sprang +out, and a number of the handsome flowers appeared. The tree was +supposed to be dead and thoroughly seasoned by this Fall, but now, when +the workmen are ready to prepare it for exhibition, it has shown new +life, new shoots have appeared, and two tufts of green now decorate the +otherwise dry and withered log, and the yucca promises to bloom again +before the winter is over. One of the most perfect specimens of the +Douglass spruce ever seen is in the collection, and is a decided +curiosity. It is a recent arrival from the Rocky Mountains. Its bark, +two inches or more in thickness, is perforated with holes reaching to +the-sap-wood. Many of these contain acorns, or the remains of acorns, +which have been stored there by provident woodpeckers, who dug the holes +in the bark and there stored their winter supply of food. The oldest +specimen in the collection is a section of the _Picea engelmanni_, a +species of spruce growing in the Rocky Mountains at a considerable +elevation above the sea. The specimen is 24 inches in diameter, and the +concentric circles show its age to be 410 years. The wood much resembles +the black spruce, and is the most valuable of the Rocky Mountain +growths. A specimen of the nut pine, whose nuts are used for food by the +Indians, is only 15 inches in diameter, and yet its life lines show its +age to be 369 years. The largest specimen yet received is a section of +the white ash, which is 46 inches in diameter and 182 years old. The +next largest specimen is a section of the _Platanus occidentalis_, +variously known in commerce as the sycamore, button-wood, or plane tree, +which is 42 inches in diameter and only 171 years of age. Specimens of +the redwood tree of California are now on their way to this city from +the Yosemite Valley. One specimen, though a small one, measures 5 feet +in diameter and shows the character of the wood. A specimen of +the enormous growths of this tree was not secured because of the +impossibility of transportation and the fact that there would be no room +in the museum for the storage of such a specimen, for the diameter of +the largest tree of the class is 45 feet and 8 inches, which represents +a circumference of about 110 feet. Then, too, the Californians object to +have the giant trees cut down for commercial, scientific, or any other +purposes. + +To accompany these specimens of the woods of America, Mr. Morris K. +Jesup, who has paid all the expense incurred in the collection of +specimens, is having prepared as an accompanying portion of the +exhibition water color drawings representing the actual size, color, +and appearance of the fruit, foliage, and flowers of the various trees. +Their commercial products, as far as they can be obtained, will also be +exhibited, as, for instance, in the case of the long-leaved pine, the +tar, resin, and pitch, for which it is especially valued. Then, too, in +an herbarium the fruits, leaves, and flowers are preserved as nearly as +possible in their natural state. When the collection is ready for public +view next spring it will be not only the largest, but the only complete +one of its kind in the country. There is nothing like it in the world, +as far as is known; certainly not in the royal museums of England, +France, or Germany. + +Aside from the value of the collection, in a scientific way, it is +proposed to make it an adjunct to our educational system, which requires +that teachers shall instruct pupils as to the materials used for food +and clothing. The completeness of the exhibition will be of great +assistance also to landscape gardeners, as it will enable them to lay +out private and public parks so that the most striking effects of +foliage may be secured. The beauty of these effects can best be seen in +this country in our own Central Park, where there are more different +varieties and more combinations for foliage effects than in any other +area in the United States. To ascertain how these effects are obtained +one now has to go to much trouble to learn the names of the trees. With +this exhibition such information can be had merely by observation, for +the botanical and common names of each specimen will be attached to +it. It will also be of practical use in teaching the forester how to +cultivate trees as he would other crops. The rapid disappearance of +many valuable forest trees, with the increase in demand and decrease in +supply, will tend to make the collection valuable as a curiosity in +the not far distant future as representing the extinct trees of the +country.--_N.Y. Times_. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. 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Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement No. 360, November 25, 1882 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: July, 2005 [EBook #8559] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on July 23, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUP. NO. 360 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, +Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 360 + + + + +NEW YORK, NOVEMBER 25, 1882 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIV, No. 360. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + + TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Soaking Pits for Steel Ingots. + --On the successful rolling of steel ingots with their own + initial heat by means of the soaking pit process. By JOHN GJERS. + 6 figures.--Gjers' soaking pits for steel ingots. + + Tempering by compression.--L. Clemandot's process. + + Economical Steam Power. By WILLIAM BARNET LE VAN. + + Mississippi River Improvements near St. Louis, Mo. + + Bunte's Burette for the Analysis of Furnace Gases. 2 figures. + + The "Universal" Gas Engine. 8 figures.--Improved gas engine. + + Gas Furnace for Baking Refractory Products. 1 figure. + + The Efficiency of Fans. 5 figures. + + Machine for Compressing Coal Refuse into Fuel. 1 figure.-- + Bilan's machine. + + Hank Sizing and Wringing Machine. 1 figure. + + Improved Coke Breaker. 2 figures. + + Improvements in Printing Machinery. 2 figures. + +II. TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.--Apparatus for Obtaining + Pure Water for Photographic Use. 3 figures. + + Black Phosphorus.--By P THENARD. + + Composition of Steep Water + + Schreiber's Apparatus for Revivifying Bone Black. 5 figures.-- + Plant: elevation and plan.--Views of elevation.--Continuous + furnace. + + Soap and its Manufacture from a Consumer's Point of View. + (Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 330). + + Cotton seed Oil.--By S. S. BRADFORD. + + On some Apparatus that Permit of Entering Flames.--Chevalier + Aldini's wire gauze and asbestos protectors.--Brewster's account + of test experiments. + +III. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT. ETC.--On a New Arc Electric Lamp. + By W. H. PREECE. 6 figures--The Abdank system.--The lamp.-- + The Electro-magnet.--The Cut-off.--The electrical arrangement. + + Utilization of Solar Heat. + +IV. NATURAL HISTORY.--The Ocellated Pheasant. 1 figure. + + The Maidenhair Tree in the Gardens at Broadlands, Hants, + England. 1 figure. + + The Woods of America.--The Jessup collection in the American + Museum of Natural History, Central Park, and the characteristics + of the specimens. + +V. AGRICULTURE, ETC.--An Industrial Revolution.--Increase in + the number of farms. + + A Farmer's Lime Kiln. 3 figures. + + The Manufacture of Apple Jelly. + + Improved Grape Bags. 4 figures. + +VI. ARCHITECTURE, ETC.--The Building Stone Supply.--Granite + and its sources.--Sandstone.--Blue and gray limestone.--Marble.-- + Slate.--Other stones.--A valuable summary of the sources and uses + of quarry products. + +VII. ASTRONOMY. ETC.--How to Establish a True Meridian. By + Prof. L. M. HAUPT.--Introduction.--Definitions.--To find the + azemuth of Polaris.--Applications, etc. + +VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.--A Characteristic Mining "Rush."--The + Prospective Mining Center of Southern New Mexico. + + The Food and Energy of Man. By Prof. DE CHAUMONT.--Original + food of man.--Function of food.--Classes of alimentary + substances.--Quantity of food.--Importance of varied diet. + + Rattlesnake Poison.--Its Antidotes. By H. H. CROFT. + + The Chinese Sign Manual.--The ethnic bearing of skin furrows + on the hand. + + Lucidity.--Matthew Arnold's remarks at the reopening of the + Liverpool University College and School of Medicine. + + * * * * * + + + + +SOAKING PITS FOR STEEL INGOTS. + +ON THE SUCCESSFUL ROLLING OF STEEL INGOTS WITH THEIR OWN INITIAL HEAT BY +MEANS OF THE SOAKING PIT PROCESS. + +By Mr. JOHN GJERS, Middlesbrough. + +[Footnote: Paper read before the Iron and Steel Institute at Vienna.] + + +When Sir Henry Bessemer, in 1856, made public his great invention, and +announced to the world that he was able to produce malleable steel from +cast iron without the expenditure of any fuel except that which already +existed in the fluid metal imparted to it in the blast furnace, his +statement was received with doubt and surprise. If he at that time had +been able to add that it was also possible to roll such steel into a +finished bar with no further expenditure of fuel, then undoubtedly the +surprise would have been much greater. + +Even this, however, has come to pass; and the author of this paper +is now pleased to be able to inform this meeting that it is not only +possible, but that it is extremely easy and practical, by the means to +be described, to roll a steel ingot into, say, a bloom, a rail, or other +finished article with its own initial heat, without the aid of the +hitherto universally adopted heating furnace. + +It is well understood that in the fluid steel poured into the mould +there is a larger store of heat than is required for the purpose +of rolling or hammering. Not only is there the mere apparent high +temperature of fluid steel, but there is the store of latent heat in +this fluid metal which is given out when solidification takes place. + +It has, no doubt, suggested itself to many that this heat of the ingot +ought to be utilized, and as a matter of fact, there have been, at +various times and in different places, attempts made to do so; but +hitherto all such attempts have proved failures, and a kind of settled +conviction has been established in the steel trade that the theory could +not possibly be carried out in practice. + +The difficulty arose from the fact that a steel ingot when newly +stripped is far too hot in the interior for the purpose of rolling, and +if it be kept long enough for the interior to become in a fit state, +then the exterior gets far too cold to enable it to be rolled +successfully. It has been attempted to overcome this difficulty +by putting the hot ingots under shields or hoods, lined with +non-heat-conducting material, and to bury them in non-heat-conducting +material in a pulverized state, for the purpose of retaining and +equalizing the heat; but all these attempts have proved futile in +practice, and the fact remains, that the universal practice in steel +works at the present day all over the world is to employ a heating +furnace of some description requiring fuel. + +The author introduced his new mode of treating ingots at the Darlington +Steel and Iron Company's Works, in Darlington, early in June this year, +and they are now blooming the whole of their make, about 125 tons a +shift, or about 300 ingots every twelve hours, by such means. + +The machinery at Darlington is not adapted for rolling off in one heat; +nevertheless they have rolled off direct from the ingot treated in the +"soaking pits" a considerable number of double-head rails; and the +experience so gained proves conclusively that with proper machinery +there will be no difficulty in doing so regularly. The quality of the +rails so rolled off has been everything that could be desired; and as +many of the defects in rails originate in the heating furnace, the +author ventures to predict that even in this respect the new process +will stand the test. + +Many eminently practical men have witnessed the operation at Darlington, +and they one and all have expressed their great surprise at the result, +and at the simple and original means by which it is accomplished. + +The process is in course of adoption in several works, both in England +and abroad, and the author hopes that by the time this paper is being +read, there may be some who will from personal experience be able to +testify to the practicability and economy of the process, which is +carried out in the manner now to be described. + +A number of upright pits (the number, say, of the ingots in a cast) are +built in a mass of brickwork sunk in the ground below the level of the +floor, such pits in cross-section being made slightly larger than that +of the ingot, just enough to allow for any fins at the bottom, and +somewhat deeper than the longest ingot likely to be used. In practice +the cross section of the pit is made about 3 in. larger than the large +end of the ingot, and the top of the ingot may be anything from 6 in. to +18 in. below the top of the pit. These pits are commanded by an ingot +crane, by preference so placed in relation to the blooming mill that the +crane also commands the live rollers of the mill. + +Each pit is covered with a separate lid at the floor level, and after +having been well dried and brought to a red heat by the insertion of hot +ingots, they are ready for operation. + +As soon as the ingots are stripped (and they should be stripped as early +as practicable), they are transferred one by one, and placed separately +by means of the crane into these previously heated pits (which the +author calls "soaking pits") and forthwith covered over with the lid, +which practically excludes the air. In these pits, thus covered, the +ingots are allowed to stand and soak; that is, the excessive molten +heat of the interior, and any additional heat rendered sensible during +complete solidification, but which was latent at the time of placing +the ingots into the pit, becomes uniformly distributed, or nearly so, +throughout the metallic mass. No, or comparatively little, heat being +able to escape, as the ingot is surrounded by brick walls as hot as +itself, it follows that the surface heat of the ingot is greatly +increased; and after the space of from twenty to thirty minutes, +according to circumstances, the ingot is lifted out of the pit +apparently much hotter than it went in, and is now swung round to the +rolls, by means of the crane, in a perfect state of heat for rolling, +with this additional advantage to the mill over an ingot heated in an +ordinary furnace from a comparatively cold, that it is always certain to +be at least as hot in the center as it is on the surface. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +Every ingot, when cast, contains within itself a considerably larger +store of heat than is necessary for the rolling operation. Some of this +heat is, of course, lost by passing into the mould, some is lost by +radiation before the ingot enters into the soaking pit, and some is lost +after it enters, by being conducted away by the brickwork; but in the +ordinary course of working, when there is no undue loss of time in +transferring the ingots, after allowing for this loss, there remains a +surplus, which goes into the brickwork of the soaking pits, so that this +surplus of heat from successive ingots tends continually to keep the +pits at the intense heat of the ingot itself. Thus, occasionally it +happens that inadvertently an ingot is delayed so long on its way to the +pit as to arrive there somewhat short of heat, its temperature will be +raised by heat from the walls of the pit itself; the refractory mass +wherein the pit is formed, in fact, acting as an accumulator of heat, +giving and taking heat as required to carry on the operation in a +continuous and practical manner. + +[Illustration: GJERS' SOAKING PITS FOR STEEL INGOTS.] + +During the soaking operation a quantity of gas exudes from the ingot and +fills the pit, thus entirely excluding atmospheric air from entering; +this is seen escaping round the lid, and when the lid is removed +combustion takes place. + +It will be seen by analyses given hereinafter that this gas is entirely +composed of hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbonic oxide, so that the ingots +soak in a perfectly non-oxidizing medium. Hence loss of steel by +oxidation does not take place, and consequently the great loss of +yield which always occurs in the ordinary heating furnace is entirely +obviated. + +The author does not think it necessary to dilate upon the economical +advantages of his process, as they are apparent to every practical man +connected with the manufacture of steel. + +The operation of steel making on a large scale will by this process be +very much simplified. It will help to dispense with a large number of +men, some of them highly paid, directly and indirectly connected with +the heating department; it will do away with costly heating furnaces and +gas generators, and their costly maintenance; it will save all the coal +used in heating; and what is perhaps of still more importance, it will +save the loss in yield of steel; and there will be no more steel spoiled +by overheating in the furnaces. + +The process has been in operation too short a time to give precise +and reliable figures, but it is hoped that by the next meeting of the +Institute these will be forthcoming from various quarters. + +Referring to the illustrations annexed, Fig. 1 shows sectional +elevation, and Fig. 2 plan of a set of eight soaking pits (marked +A). These pits are built in a mass of brickwork, B, on a concrete +foundation, C; the ingots, D, standing upright in the pits. The pits are +lined with firebrick lumps, 6 in. thick, forming an independent lining, +E, which at any time can be readily renewed. F is a cast iron plate, +made to take in four pits, and dropped loosely within the large plate, +G, which surrounds the pits. H is the cover, with a firebrick lining; +and I is a false cover of firebrick, 1 in. smaller than the cross +section of the pit, put in to rest on the top of the ingot. This false +cover need not necessarily be used, but is useful to keep the extreme +top of the ingot extra hot. J is the bottom of the pit, composed of +broken brick and silver sand, forming a good hard bottom at any desired +level. + +Figs. 4 and 5 show outline plan of two sets of soaking pits, K K, eight +each, placed under a 25 ft. sweep crane, L. This crane, if a good one, +could handle any ordinary make--up to 2,000 tons per week, and ought to +have hydraulic racking out and swinging round gear. This crane places +the ingots into the pits, and, when they are ready, picks them out and +swings them round to blooming mill, M. With such a crane, four men and a +boy at the handles are able to pass the whole of that make through the +pits. The author recommends two sets of pits as shown, although one set +of eight pits is quite able to deal with any ordinary output from one +Bessemer pit. + +In case of an extraordinarily large output, the author recommends a +second crane, F, for the purpose of placing the ingots in the pits +only, the crane, L, being entirely used for picking the ingots out +and swinging them round to the live rollers of the mill. The relative +position of the cranes, soaking pits, and blooming mill may of course be +variously arranged according to circumstances, and the soaking pits may +be arranged in single or more rows, or concentrically with the crane at +pleasure. + +Figs. 4 and 5 also show outline plan and elevation of a Bessemer plant, +conveniently arranged for working on the soaking pit system. A A are +the converters, with a transfer crane, B. C is the casting pit with +its crane, D. E E are the two ingot cranes. F is a leading crane which +transfers the ingots from the ingot cranes to the soaking pits, K K, +commanded by the crane, L, which transfers the prepared ingots to the +mill, M. as before described. + + * * * * * + + + + +TEMPERING BY COMPRESSION. + + +L. Clemandot has devised a new method of treating metals, especially +steel, which consists in heating to a cherry red, compressing strongly +and keeping up the pressure until the metal is completely cooled. The +results are so much like those of tempering that he calls his process +tempering by compression. The compressed metal becomes exceedingly hard, +acquiring a molecular contraction and a fineness of grain such that +polishing gives it the appearance of polished nickel. Compressed steel, +like tempered steel, acquires the coercitive force which enables it to +absorb magnetism. This property should be studied in connection with +its durability; experiments have already shown that there is no loss of +magnetism at the expiration of three months. This compression has no +analogue but tempering. Hammering and hardening modify the molecular +state of metals, especially when they are practiced upon metal that is +nearly cold, but the effect of hydraulic pressure is much greater. +The phenomena which are produced in both methods of tempering may be +interpreted in different ways, but it seems likely that there is a +molecular approximation, an amorphism from which results the homogeneity +that is due to the absence of crystallization. Being an operation which +can be measured, it may be graduated and kept within limits which are +prescribed in advance; directions may be given to temper at a +specified pressure, as readily as to work under a given pressure of +steam.--_Chron. Industr_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ECONOMICAL STEAM POWER. + +[Footnote: A paper read by title at a recent stated meeting of the +Franklin Institute] + +By WILLIAM BARNET LE VAN. + + +The most economical application of steam power can be realized only by +a judicious arrangement of the plant: namely, the engines, boilers, and +their accessories for transmission. + +This may appear a somewhat broad assertion; but it is nevertheless one +which is amply justified by facts open to the consideration of all those +who choose to seek for them. + +While it is true that occasionally a factory, mill, or a water-works +may be found in which the whole arrangements have been planned by a +competent engineer, yet such is the exception and not the rule, and such +examples form but a very small percentage of the whole. + +The fact is that but few users of steam power are aware of the numerous +items which compose the cost of economical steam power, while a yet +smaller number give sufficient consideration to the relations which +these items bear to each other, or the manner in which the economy of +any given boiler or engine is affected by the circumstances under which +it is run. + +A large number of persons--and they are those who should know better, +too--take for granted that a boiler or engine which is good for one +situation is good for all; a greater error than such an assumption can +scarcely be imagined. + +It is true that there are certain classes of engines and boilers which +may be relied upon to give moderately good results in almost any +situation--and the best results should _always_ be desired in +arrangement of a mill--there are a considerable number of details which +must be taken into consideration in making a choice of boilers and +engines. + +Take the case of a mill in which it has been supposed that the motive +power could be best exerted by a single engine. The question now is +whether or not it would be best to divide the total power required among +a number of engines. + +_First_.--A division of the motive power presents the following +advantages, namely, a saving of expense on lines of shafting of large +diameter. + +_Second_.--Dispensing with the large driving belt or gearing, the first +named of which, in one instance under the writer's observation, absorbed +_sixty horse-power_ out of about 480, or about _seven per cent_. + +_Third_.--The general convenience of subdividing the work to be done, +so that in case of a stoppage of one portion of the work by reason of +a loose coupling or the changing of a pulley, etc., that portion only +would need to be stopped. + +This last is of itself a most important point, and demands careful +consideration. + +For example, I was at a mill a short time ago when the governor belt +broke. The result was a stoppage of the whole mill. Had the motive power +of this mill been subdivided into a number of small engines only one +department would have been stopped. During the stoppage in this case +the windows of the mill were a sea of heads of men and women (the +operatives), and considerable excitement was caused by the violent +blowing off of steam from the safety-valves, due to the stoppage of the +steam supply to the engine; and this excitement continued until the +cause of the stoppage was understood. Had the power in this mill been +subdivided the stoppage of one of a number of engines would scarcely +have been noticed, and the blowing off of surplus steam would not have +occurred. + +In building a mill the first item to be considered is the interest on +the first cost of the engine, boilers, etc. This item can be subdivided +with advantage into the amounts of interest on the respective costs of, + +_First_. The engine or engines; + +_Second_ The boiler or boilers; + +_Third_. The engine and boiler house. + +In the same connection the _form_ of engine to be used must be +considered. In some few cases--as, for instance, where engines have to +be placed in confined situations--the form is practically fixed by the +space available, it being perhaps possible only to erect a vertical or a +horizontal engine, as the case may be. These, however, are exceptional +instances, and in most cases--at all events where large powers are +required--the engineer may have a free choice in the matter. Under +these circumstances the best form, in the vast majority of cases where +machinery must be driven, is undoubtedly the horizontal engine, and the +worst the beam engine. When properly constructed, the horizontal engine +is more durable than the beam engine, while, its first cost being less, +it can be driven at a higher speed, and it involves a much smaller +outlay for engine house and foundations than the latter. In many +respects the horizontal engine is undoubtedly closely approached in +advantages by the best forms of vertical engines; but on the whole we +consider that where machinery is to be driven the balance of advantages +is decidedly in favor of the former class, and particularly so in the +case of large powers. + +The next point to be decided is, whether a condensing or non-condensing +engine should be employed. In settling this question not only the +respective first costs of the two classes of engines must be taken into +consideration, but also the cost of water and fuel. Excepting, perhaps, +in cases of very small powers, and in those instances where the exhaust +steam from a non-condensing engine can be turned to good account for +heating or drying purpose, it may safely be asserted that in all +instances where a sufficient supply of condensing water is available +at a moderate cost, the extra economy of a well-constructed condensing +engine will fully warrant the additional outlay involved in its +purchase. In these days of high steam pressures, a well constructed +non-condensing engine can, no doubt, be made to approximate closely to +the economy of a condensing engine, but in such a case the extra cost of +the stronger boiler required will go far to balance the additional cost +of the condensing engine. + +Having decided on the form, the next question is, what "class" of engine +shall it be; and by the term class I mean the relative excellence of the +engine as a power-producing machine. An automatic engine costs more than +a plain slide-valve engine, but it will depend upon the cost of fuel at +the location where the engine is to be placed, and the number of hours +per day it is kept running, to decide which class of machine can be +adopted with the greatest economy to the proprietor. The cost of +lubricating materials, fuel, repairs, and percentage of cost to be put +aside for depreciation, will be less in case of the high-class than in +the low-class engine, while the former will also require less boiler +power. + +Against these advantages are to be set the greater first cost of the +automatic engine, and the consequent annual charge due to capital sunk. +These several items should all be fairly estimated when an engine is +to be bought, and the kind chosen accordingly. Let us take the item of +fuel, for instance, and let us suppose this fuel to cost four dollars +per ton at the place where the engine is run. Suppose the engine to be +capable of developing one hundred horse-power, and that it consumes five +pounds of coal per hour per horse-power, and runs ten hours per day: +this would necessitate the supply of two and one-half tons per day at +a cost of ten dollars per day. To be really economical, therefore, any +improvement which would effect a saving of one pound of coal per hour +per horse-power must not cost a greater sum per horse-power than that on +which the cost of the difference of the coal saved (one pound of coal +per hour per horse-power, which would be 1,000 pounds per day) for, say, +three hundred days, three hundred thousand (300,000) pounds, or one +hundred and fifty tons (or six hundred dollars), would pay a fair +interest. + +Assuming that the mill owner estimates his capital as worth to him ten +per cent, per annum, then the improvement which would effect the above +mentioned saving must not cost more than six thousand dollars, and so +on. If, instead of being run only ten hours per day, the engine is run +night and day, then the outlay which it would be justifiable to make to +effect a certain saving per hour would be doubled; while, on the other +hand, if an engine is run less than the usual time per day a given +saving per hour would justify a correspondingly less outlay. + +It has been found that for grain and other elevators, which are not run +constantly, gas engines, although costing more for the same power, +are cheaper than steam engines for elevating purposes where only +occasionally used. + +For this reason it is impossible without considerable investigation to +say what is really the most economical engine to adopt in any particular +case; and as comparatively few users of steam power care to make this +investigation a vast amount of wasteful expenditure results. Although, +however, no absolute rule can be given, we may state that the number +of instances in which an engine which is wasteful of fuel can be used +profitably is exceedingly small. As a rule, in fact, it may generally be +assumed that an engine employed for driving a manufactory of any kind +cannot be of too high a class, the saving effected by the economical +working of such engines in the vast majority of cases enormously +outweighing the interest on their extra first cost. So few people appear +to have a clear idea of the vast importance of economy of fuel in mills +and factories that I perhaps cannot better conclude than by giving an +example showing the saving to be effected in a large establishment by an +economical engine. + +I will take the case of a flouring mill in this city which employed two +engines that required forty pounds of water to be converted into steam +per hour per indicated horse-power. This, at the time, was considered a +moderate amount and the engines were considered "good." + +These engines indicated seventy horse power each, and ran twenty-four +hours per day on an average of three hundred days each year, requiring +as per indicator diagrams forty million three hundred and twenty +thousand pounds (40 x 70 x 24 x 300 x 2 = 40,320,000) of feed water to +be evaporated per annum, which, in Philadelphia, costs three dollars +per horse-power per annum, amounting to (70 x 2 x 300 = $420.00) four +hundred and twenty dollars. + +The coal consumed averaged five and one-half pounds per hour per +horse-power, which, at four dollars per ton, costs + +((70 x 2 x 5.5 x 24 x 300) / 2,000) x 4.00= $11,088 + +Eleven thousand and eighty-eight dollars. + + Cost of coal for 300 days. $11,088 + Cost of water for 300 days. 420 + ------- + Total cost of coal and water. $11,503 + +These engines were replaced by one first-class automatic engine, +which developed one hundred and forty-two horse-power per hour with a +consumption of _three pounds_ of coal per hour per horse-power, and the +indicator diagrams showed a consumption of _thirty_ pounds of water per +hour per horse-power. Coal cost + +((142 x 3 x 24 x 300) / 2,000) x 4.00 = $6,134 + +Six thousand one hundred and thirty-four dollars. Water cost (142 x +3.00= $426.00) four hundred and twenty-six dollars. + + Cost of coal for 300 days. $6,134 + Cost of water for 300 days. 426 + ------ + Total cost of coal and water. $6,560 + +The water evaporated in the latter case to perform the same work was +(142 x 30 x 24 x 300 = 30,672,000) thirty million six hundred and +seventy-two thousand pounds of feed water against (40,320,000) forty +million three hundred and twenty thousand pounds in the former, a saving +of (9,648,000) nine million six hundred and forty-eight thousand pounds +per annum; or, + +(40,320,000 - 30,672,000) / 9,648,000 = 31.4 per cent. + +--_thirty-one and four-tenths per cent_. + +And a saving in coal consumption of + +(11,088 - 6,134) / 4,954 = 87.5 per cent. + +--_eighty-seven and one-half per cent_., or a saving in dollars and +cents of four thousand nine hundred and fifty-four dollars ($4,954). + +In this city, Philadelphia, no allowance for the consumption of water is +made in the case of first class engines, such engines being charged the +same rate per annum per horse-power as an inferior engine, while, +as shown by the above example, a saving in water of _thirty-one and +four-tenths per cent_. has been attained by the employment of a +first-class engine. The builders of such engines will always give a +guarantee of their consumption of water, so that the purchaser can be +able in advance to estimate this as accurately as he can the amount of +fuel he will use. + + * * * * * + + + + +RIVER IMPROVEMENTS NEAR ST. LOUIS. + + +The improvement of the Mississippi River near St. Louis progresses +satisfactorily. The efficacy of the jetty system is illustrated in the +lines of mattresses which showed accumulations of sand deposits ranging +from the surface of the river to nearly sixteen feet in height. At Twin +Hollow, thirteen miles from St. Louis and six miles from Horse-Tail Bar, +there was found a sand bar extending over the widest portion of the +river on which the engineering forces were engaged. Hurdles are built +out from the shore to concentrate the stream on the obstruction, and +then to protect the river from widening willows are interwoven between +the piles. At Carroll's Island mattresses 125 feet wide have been +placed, and the banks revetted with stone from ordinary low water to a +16 foot stage. There is plenty of water over the bar, and at the most +shallow points the lead showed a depth of twelve feet. Beard's Island, a +short distance further, is also being improved, the largest force of men +at any one place being here engaged. Four thousand feet of mattresses +have been begun, and in placing them work will be vigorously prosecuted +until operations are suspended by floating ice. The different sections +are under the direction of W. F. Fries, resident engineer, and E. M. +Currie, superintending engineer. There are now employed about 1,200 men, +thirty barges and scows, two steam launches, and the stern-wheel steamer +A. A. Humphreys. The improvements have cost, in actual money expended, +about $200,000, and as the appropriation for the ensuing year +approximates $600,000, the prospect of a clear channel is gratifying to +those interested in the river. + + * * * * * + + + + +BUNTE'S BURETTE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF FURNACE GASES. + + +For analyzing the gases of blast-furnaces the various apparatus of Orsat +have long been employed; but, by reason of its simplicity, the burette +devised by Dr. Bünte, and shown in the accompanying figures, is much +easier to use. Besides, it permits of a much better and more rapid +absorption of the oxide of carbon; and yet, for the lost fractions of +the latter, it is necessary to replace a part of the absorbing liquid +three or four times. The absorbing liquid is prepared by making a +saturated solution of chloride of copper in hydrochloric acid, and +adding thereto a small quantity of dissolved chloride of tin. Afterward, +there are added to the decanted mixture a few spirals of red copper, and +the mixture is then carefully kept from contact with the air. + +To fill the burette with gas, the three-way cock, _a_, is so placed that +the axial aperture shall be in communication with the graduated part, A, +of the burette. After this, water is poured into the funnel, t, and the +burette is put in communication with the gas reservoir by means of a +rubber tube. The lower point of the burette is put in communication with +a rubber pump, V (Fig. 2), on an aspirator (the cock, _b_, being left +open), and the gas is sucked in until all the air that was in the +apparatus has been expelled from it. The cocks, _a_ and _b_, are turned +90 degrees. The water in the funnel prevents the gases communicating +with the top. The point of the three-way cock is afterward closed with a +rubber tube and glass rod. + +If the gas happens to be in the reservoir of an aspirator, it is made +to pass into the apparatus in the following manner: The burette is +completely filled with water, and the point of the three-way cock is +put in communication with a reservoir. If the gas is under pressure, a +portion of it is allowed to escape through the capillary tube into the +water in the funnel, by turning the cock, _a_, properly, and thus all +the water in the conduit is entirely expelled. Afterward _a_ is turned +180°, and the lower cock, _b_, is opened. While the water is flowing +through _b_, the burette becomes filled with gas. + +_Mode of Measuring the Gases and Absorption_.--The tube that +communicates with the vessel, F, is put in communication, after the +latter has been completely filled with water, with the point of the +cock, _b_ (Fig. 2). Then the latter is opened, as is also the pinch cock +on the rubber tubing, and water is allowed to enter the burette through +the bottom until the level is at the zero of the graduation. There are +then 100 cubic centimeters in the burette. The superfluous gas has +escaped through the cock, _a_, and passed through the water in the +funnel. The cock, _a_, is afterward closed by turning it 90°. To +cause the absorbing liquid to pass into the burette, the water in the +graduated cylinder is made to flow by connecting the rubber tube, s, of +the bottle, S, with the point of the burette. The cock is opened, and +suction is effected with the mouth of the tube, r. When the water has +flowed out to nearly the last drop, _b_ is closed and the suction bottle +is removed. The absorbing liquid (caustic potassa or pyrogallate of +potassa) is poured into a porcelain capsule, P, and the point of the +burette is dipped into the liquid. If the cock, _b_, be opened, the +absorbing liquid will be sucked into the burette. In order to hasten +the absorption, the cock, _b_, is closed, and the burette is shaken +horizontally, the aperture of the funnel being closed by the hand during +the operation. + +If not enough absorbing liquid has entered, there may be sucked into the +burette, by the process described above, a new quantity of liquid. The +reaction finished, the graduated cylinder is put in communication with +the funnel by turning the cock, _a_. The water is allowed to run from +the funnel, and the latter is filled again with water up to the mark. +The gas is then again under the same pressure as at the beginning. + +After the level has become constant, the quantity of gas remaining is +measured. The contraction that has taken place gives, in hundredths of +the total volume, the volume of the gas absorbed. + +When it is desired to make an analysis of smoke due to combustion, +caustic potassa is first sucked into the burette. After complete +absorption, and after putting the gas at the same pressure, the +diminution gives the volume of carbonic acid. + +To determine the oxygen in the remaining gas, a portion of the caustic +potash is allowed to flow out, and an aqueous solution of pyrogallic +acid and potash is allowed to enter. The presence of oxygen is revealed +by the color of the liquid, which becomes darker. + +The gas is then agitated with the absorbing liquid until, upon opening +the cock, _a_, the liquid remains in the capillary tube, that is to say, +until no more water runs from the funnel into the burette. To make a +quantitative analysis of the carbon contained in gas, the pyrogallate of +potash must be entirely removed from the burette. To do this, the liquid +is sucked out by means of the flask, S, until there remain only a few +drops; then the cock, _a_, is opened and water is allowed to flow from +the funnel along the sides of the burette. Then _a_ is closed, and +the washing water is sucked in the same manner. By repeating this +manipulation several times, the absorbing liquid is completely removed. +The acid solution of chloride of copper is then allowed to enter. + +As the absorbing liquids adhere to the glass, it is better, before +noting the level, to replace these liquids by water. The cocks, _a_ and +_b_, are opened, and water is allowed to enter from the funnel, the +absorbing liquid being made to flow at the same time through the cock, +_b_. + +When an acid solution of chloride of copper is employed, dilute +hydrochloric acid is used instead of water. + +Fig. 2 shows the arrangement of the apparatus for the quantitative +analysis of oxide of carbon and hydrogen by combustion. The gas in the +burette is first mixed with atmospheric air, by allowing the liquid to +flow through _b_, and causing air to enter through the axial aperture of +the three way cock, _a_, after cutting off communication at v. Then, as +shown in the figure, the burette is connected with the tube, B, which is +filled with water up to the narrow curved part, and the interior of the +burette is made to communicate with the combustion tube, v, by turning +the cock, a. The combustion tube is heated by means of a Bunsen burner +or alcohol lamp, L. It is necessary to proceed, so that all the water +shall be driven from the cock and the capillary tube, and that it shall +be sent into the burette. The combustion is effected by causing the +mixture of gas to pass from the burette into the tube, B, through the +tube, v, heated to redness, into which there passes a palladium wire. +Water is allowed to flow through the point of the tube, B, while from +the flask, F, it enters through the bottom into the burette, so as to +drive out the gas. The water is allowed to rise into the burette as far +as the cock, and the cocks, _b_ and _b¹_, are afterward closed. + +[Illustration: DR. BÜNTE'S GAS BURETTE] + +By a contrary operation, the gas is made to pass from B into the +burette. It is then allowed to cool, and, after the pressure has been +established again, the contraction is measured. If the gas burned is +hydrogen, the contraction multiplied by two-thirds gives the original +volume of the hydrogen gas burned. If the gas burned is oxide of carbon, +there forms an equal volume of carbonic acid, and the contraction is the +half of CO. Thus, to analyze CO, a portion of the liquid is removed from +the burette, then caustic potash is allowed to enter, and the process +goes on as explained above. + +The total contraction resulting from combustion and absorption, +multiplied by two-thirds, gives the volume of the oxide of carbon. + +The hydrogen and oxide carbon may thus be quantitatively analyzed +together or separately.--_Revue Industrielle_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE "UNIVERSAL" GAS ENGINE. + + +The accompanying engravings illustrate a new and very simple form of gas +engine, the invention of J. A. Ewins and H. Newman, and made by Mr. T. +B. Barker, of Scholefield-street, Bloomsbury, Birmingham. It is known as +the "Universal" engine, and is at present constructed in sizes varying +from one-eighth horse-power--one man power--to one horse-power, though +larger sizes are being made. The essentially new feature of the engine +is, says the _Engineer_, the simple rotary ignition valve consisting of +a ratchet plate or flat disk with a number of small radial slots which +successively pass a small slot in the end of the cylinder, and through +which the flame is drawn to ignite the charge. In our illustrations Fig. +1 is a side elevation; Fig. 2 an end view of same; Fig. 3 a plan; Fig. 4 +is a sectional view of the chamber in which the gas and air are mixed, +with the valves appertaining thereto; Fig. 5 is a detail view of the +ratchet plate, with pawl and levers and valve gear shaft; Fig. 6 is +a sectional view of a pump employed in some cases to circulate water +through the jacket; Fig. 7 is a sectional view of arrangement for +lighting, and ratchet plate, j, with central spindle and igniting +apertures, and the spiral spring, k, and fly nut, showing the attachment +to the end of the working cylinder, f1; b5, b5, bevel wheels driving +the valve gear shaft; e, the valve gear driving shaft; e2, eccentric to +drive pump; e³, eccentric or cam to drive exhaust valve; e4, crank to +drive ratchet plate; e5, connecting rod to ratchet pawl; f, cylinder +jacket; f1, internal or working cylinder; f2, back cylinder cover; g, +igniting chamber; h, mixing chamber; h1, flap valve; h2, gas inlet +valve, the motion of which is regulated by a governor; h3, gas inlet +valve seat; h4, cover, also forming stop for gas inlet valve; h5, gas +inlet pipe; h6, an inlet valve; h8, cover, also forming stop for air +inlet valve; h9, inlet pipe for air with grating; i, exhaust chamber; +i2, exhaust valve spindle; i7, exhaust pipe; j6, lighting aperture +through cylinder end; l, igniting gas jet; m, regulating and stop valve +for gas. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED GAS ENGINE] + +The engine, it will be seen, is single-acting, and no compression of the +explosive charge is employed. An explosive mixture of combustible gas +and air is drawn through the valves, h2 and h6, and exploded behind +the piston once in a revolution; but by a duplication of the valve and +igniting apparatus, placed also at the front end of the cylinder, the +engine may be constructed double-acting. At the proper time, when the +piston has proceeded far enough to draw in through the mixing chamber, +h, into the igniting chamber, g, the requisite amount of gas and air, +the ratchet plate, j, is pushed into such a position by the pawl, j3, +that the flame from the igniting jet, l, passes through one of the slots +or holes, j1, and explodes the charge when opposite j6, which is the +only aperture in the end of the working cylinder (see Fig. 7 and Fig. +2), thus driving the piston on to the end of its forward stroke. The +exhaust valve, Fig. 9, though not exactly of the form shown, is kept +open during the whole of this return stroke by means of the eccentric, +e3, on the shaft working the ratchet, and thus allowing the products of +combustion to escape through the exhaust pipe, i7, in the direction of +the arrow. Between the ratchet disk and the igniting flame a small plate +not shown is affixed to the pipe, its edge being just above the burner +top. The flame is thus not blown out by the inrushing air when the slots +in ratchet plate and valve face are opposite. This ratchet plate or +ignition valve, the most important in any engine, has so very small a +range of motion per revolution of the engine that it cannot get out of +order, and it appears to require no lubrication or attention whatever. +The engines are working very successfully, and their simplicity enables +them to be made at low cost. They cost for gas from œd. to 1œd. per hour +for the sizes mentioned. + +[Illustration: Fig.9.] + + * * * * * + + + + +GAS FURNACE FOR BAKING REFRACTORY PRODUCTS. + + +In order that small establishments may put to profit the advantages +derived from the use of annular furnaces heated with gas, smaller +dimensions have been given the baking chambers of such furnaces. The +accompanying figure gives a section of a furnace of this kind, set into +the ground, and the height of whose baking chamber is only one and a +half meters. The chamber is not vaulted, but is covered by slabs of +refractory clay, D, that may be displaced by the aid of a small car +running on a movable track. This car is drawn over the compartment that +is to be emptied, and the slab or cover, D, is taken off and carried +over the newly filled compartment and deposited thereon. + +The gas passes from the channel through the pipe, a, into the vertical +conduits, b, and is afterward disengaged through the tuyeres into the +chamber. In order that the gas may be equally applied for preliminary +heating or smoking, a small smoking furnace, S, has been added to +the apparatus. The upper part of this consists of a wide cylinder +of refractory clay, in the center of whose cover there is placed an +internal tube of refractory clay, which communicates with the channel, +G, through a pipe, d. This latter leads the gas into the tube, t, of the +smoking furnace, which is perforated with a large number of small holes. +The air requisite for combustion enters through the apertures, o, in the +cover of the furnace, and brings about in the latter a high temperature. +The very hot gases descend into the lower iron portion of this small +furnace and pass through a tube, e, into the smoking chamber by the aid +of vertical conduits, b', which serve at the same time as gas tuyeres +for the extremity of the furnace that is exposed to the fire. + +[Illustration: GAS FURNACE FOR BAKING REFRACTORY PRODUCTS.] + +In the lower part of the smoking furnace, which is made of boiler plate +and can be put in communication with the tube, e, there are large +apertures that may be wholly or partially closed by means of registers +so as to carry to the hot gas derived from combustion any quantity +whatever of cold and dry air, and thus cause a variation at will of the +temperature of the gases which are disengaged from the tube, e. + +The use of these smoking apparatus heated by gas does away also with the +inconveniences of the ordinary system, in which the products are soiled +by cinders or dust, and which render the gradual heating of objects to +be baked difficult. At the beginning, there is allowed to enter the +lower part of the small furnace, S, through the apertures, a very +considerable quantity of cold air, so as to lower the temperature of the +smoke gas that escapes from the tube, e, to 30 or 50 degrees. Afterward, +these secondary air entrances are gradually closed so as to increase the +temperature of the gases at will. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE EFFICIENCY OF FANS. + + +Air, like every other gas or combination of gases, possesses weight; +some persons who have been taught that the air exerts a pressure of 14.7 +lb. per square inch, cannot, however, be got to realize the fact that a +cubit foot of air at the same pressure and at a temperature of 62 deg. +weighs the thirteenth part of a pound, or over one ounce; 13.141 cubic +feet of air weigh one pound. In round numbers 30,000 cubic feet of air +weigh one ton; this is a useful figure to remember, and it is easily +carried in the mind. A hall 61 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 17 feet high +will contain one ton of air. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +The work to be done by a fan consists in putting a weight--that of the +air--in motion. The resistances incurred are due to the inertia of the +air and various frictional influences; the nature and amount of these +last vary with the construction of the fan. As the air enters at the +center of the fan and escapes at the circumference, it will be seen that +its motion is changed while in the fan through a right angle. It may +also be taken for granted that within certain limits the air has no +motion in a radial direction when it first comes in contact with a fan +blade. It is well understood that, unless power is to be wasted, motion +should be gradually imparted to any body to be moved. Consequently, the +shape of the blades ought to be such as will impart motion at first +slowly and afterward in a rapidly increasing ratio to the air. It is +also clear that the change of motion should be effected as gradually as +possible. Fig. 1 shows how a fan should not be constructed; Fig. 2 will +serve to give an idea of how it should be made. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +In Fig. 1 it will be seen that the air, as indicated by the bent arrows, +is violently deflected on entering the fan. In Fig. 2 it will be seen +that it follows gentle curves, and so is put gradually in motion. The +curved form of the blades shown in Fig. 2 does not appear to add much to +the efficiency of a fan; but it adds something and keeps down noise. The +idea is that the fan blades when of this form push the air radially from +the center to the circumference. The fact is, however, that the air +flies outward under the influence of centrifugal force, and always tends +to move at a tangent to the fan blades, as in Fig. 3, where the circle +is the path of the tips of the fan blades, and the arrow is a tangent to +that path; and to impart this notion a radial blade, as at C, is perhaps +as good as any other, as far as efficiency is concerned. Concerning the +shape to be imparted to the blades, looked at back or front, opinions +widely differ; but it is certain that if a fan is to be silent the +blades must be narrower at the tips than at the center. Various forms +are adopted by different makers, the straight side and the curved sides, +as shown in Fig. 4, being most commonly used. The proportions as regards +length to breadth are also varied continually. In fact, no two makers of +fans use the same shapes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +As the work done by a fan consists in imparting motion at a stated +velocity to a given weight of air, it is very easy to calculate the +power which must be expended to do a certain amount of work. The +velocity at which the air leaves the fan cannot be greater than that of +the fan tips. In a good fan it may be about two-thirds of that speed. +The resistance to be overcome will be found by multiplying the area of +the fan blades by the pressure of the air and by the velocity of the +center of effort, which must be determined for every fan according to +the shape of its blades. The velocity imparted to the air by the fan +will be just the same as though the air fell in a mass from a given +height. This height can be found by the formula h = v² / 64; that is to +say, if the velocity be multiplied by itself and divided by 64 we have +the height. Thus, let the velocity be 88 per second, then 88 x 88 = +7,744, and 7,744 / 64 = 121. A stone or other body falling from a height +of 121 feet would have a velocity of 88 per second at the earth. The +pressure against the fan blades will be equal to that of a column of air +of the height due to the velocity, or, in this case, 121 feet. We +have seen that in round numbers 13 cubic feet of air weigh one pound, +consequently a column of air one square foot in section and 121 feet +high, will weigh as many pounds as 13 will go times into 121. Now, 121 +/ 13 = 9.3, and this will be the resistance in pounds per _square foot_ +overcome by the fan. Let the aggregate area of all the blades be 2 +square feet, and the velocity of the center of effort 90 feet per +second, then the power expended will bve (90 x 60 x 2 x 9.3) / 33,000 += 3.04 horse power. The quantity of air delivered ought to be equal in +volume to that of a column with a sectional area equal that of one fan +blade moving at 88 feet per second, or a mile a minute. The blade having +an area of 1 square foot, the delivery ought to be 5,280 feet per +minute, weighing 5,280 / 13 = 406.1 lb. In practice we need hardly say +that such an efficiency is never attained. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +The number of recorded experiments with fans is very small, and a great +deal of ignorance exists as to their true efficiency. Mr. Buckle is one +of the very few authorities on the subject. He gives the accompanying +table of proportions as the best for pressures of from 3 to 6 ounces per +square inch: + +-------------------------------------------------------------- + | Vanes. | Diameter of inlet +Diameter of fans. |------------------------| openings. + | Width. | Length. | +-------------------------------------------------------------- + ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. + 3 0 | 0 9 | 0 9 | 1 6 + 3 6 | 0 10œ | 0 10œ | 1 9 + 4 0 | 1 0 | 1 0 | 2 0 + 4 6 | 1 1œ | 1 1œ | 2 3 + 5 0 | 1 3 | 1 3 | 2 6 + 6 0 | 1 6 | 1 6 | 3 0 + | | | +-------------------------------------------------------------- + +For higher pressures the blades should be longer and narrower, and +the inlet openings smaller. The case is to be made in the form of an +arithmetical spiral widening, the space between the case and the blades +radially from the origin to the opening for discharge, and the upper +edge of the opening should be level with the lower side of the sweep of +the fan blade, somewhat as shown in Fig. 5. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +A considerable number of patents has been taken out for improvements +in the construction of fans, but they all, or nearly all, relate to +modifications in the form of the case and of the blades. So far, +however, as is known, it appears that, while these things do exert a +marked influence on the noise made by a fan, and modify in some degree +the efficiency of the machine, that this last depends very much more on +the proportions adopted than on the shapes--so long as easy curves +are used and sharp angles avoided. In the case of fans running at low +speeds, it matters very little whether the curves are present or not; +but at high speeds the case is different.--_The Engineer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +MACHINE FOR COMPRESSING COAL REFUSE INTO FUEL. + + +The problem as to how the refuse of coal shall be utilized has been +solved in the manufacture from it of an agglomerated artificial +fuel, which is coming more and more into general use on railways and +steamboats, in the industries, and even in domestic heating. + +The qualities that a good agglomerating machine should present are as +follows: + +1. Very great simplicity, inasmuch as it is called upon to operate in +an atmosphere charged with coal dust, pitch, and steam; and, under such +conditions, it is important that it may be easily got at for cleaning, +and that the changing of its parts (which wear rapidly) may be effected +without, so to speak, interrupting its running. + +2. The compression must be powerful, and, that the product may be +homogeneous, must operate progressively and not by shocks. It must +especially act as much as possible upon the entire surface of the +conglomerate, and this is something that most machines fail to do. + +3. The removal from the mould must be effected easily, and not depend +upon a play of pistons or springs, which soon become foul, and the +operation of which is very irregular. + +The operations embraced in the manufacture of this kind of fuel are as +follows: + +The refuse is sifted in order to separate the dust from the grains of +coal. The dust is not submitted to a washing. The grains are classed +into two sizes, after removing the nut size, which is sold separately. +The grains of each size are washed separately. The washed grains are +either drained or dried by a hydro-extractor in order to free them from +the greater part of the water, the presence of this being an obstacle to +their perfect agglomeration. The water, however, should not be entirely +extracted because the combustibles being poor conductors of heat, a +certain amount of dampness must be preserved to obtain an equal division +of heat in the paste when the mixture is warmed. + +After being dried the grains are mixed with the coal dust, and broken +coal pitch is added in the proportion of eight to ten per cent. of the +coal. The mixture is then thrown into a crushing machine, where it is +reduced to powder and intimately mixed. It then passes into a pug-mill +into which superheated steam is admitted, and by this means is converted +into a plastic paste. This paste is then led into an agitator for the +double purpose of freeing it from the steam that it contains, and of +distributing it in the moulds of the compressing machine. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED MACHINE FOR COMPRESSING REFUSE COAL INTO FUEL.] + +Bilan's machine, shown in the accompanying cut, is designed for +manufacturing spherical conglomerates for domestic purposes. It consists +of a cast iron frame supporting four vertical moulding wheels placed at +right angles to each other and tangent to the line of the centers. These +wheels carry on their periphery cavities that have the form of a quarter +of a sphere. They thus form at the point of contact a complete sphere +in which the material is inclosed. The paste is thrown by shovel, or +emptied by buckets and chain, into the hopper fixed at the upper part +of the frame. From here it is taken up by two helices, mounted on a +vertical shaft traversing the hopper, and forced toward the point where +the four moulding wheels meet. The driving pulley of the machine is +keyed upon a horizontal shaft which is provided with two endless screws +that actuate two gear-wheels, and these latter set in motion the four +moulding wheels by means of beveled pinions. The four moulding wheels +being accurately adjusted so that their cavities meet each other at +every revolution, carry along the paste furnished them by the hopper, +compress it powerfully on the four quarters, and, separating by a +further revolution, allow the finished ball to drop out. + +The external crown of the wheels carrying the moulds consists of four +segments, which may be taken apart at will to be replaced by others when +worn. + +This machine produces about 40 tons per day of this globular artificial +fuel.--_Annales Industrielles_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HANK SIZING AND WRINGING MACHINE. + + +We give a view of a hank sizing machine by Messrs. Heywood & Spencer, +of Radcliffe, near Manchester. The machine is also suitable for fancy +dyeing. It is well known, says the _Textile Manufacturer_, that when +hanks are wrung by hand, not only is the labor very severe, but in +dyeing it is scarcely possible to obtain even colors, and, furthermore, +the production is limited by the capabilities of the man. The machine +we illustrate is intended to perform the heavy part of the work with +greater expedition and with more certainty than could be relied upon +with hand labor. The illustration represents the machine that we +inspected. Its construction seems of the simplest character. It consists +of two vats, between which is placed the gearing for driving the hooks. +The large wheel in this gear, although it always runs in one direction, +contains internal segments, which fall into gear alternately with +pinions on the shanks of the hooks. The motion is a simple one, and it +appeared to us to be perfectly reliable, and not liable to get out of +order. The action is as follows: The attendant lifts the hank out of the +vat and places it on the hooks. The hook connected to the gearing then +commences to turn; it puts in two, two and a half, three, or more twists +into the hank and remains stationary for a few seconds to allow an +interval for the sizer to "wipe off" the excess of size, that is, to +run his hand along the twisted hank. This done, the hook commences to +revolve the reverse way, until the twists are taken out of the hank. +It is then removed, either by lifting off by hand or by the apparatus +shown, attached to the right hand side. This arrangement consists of a +lattice, carrying two arms that, at the proper moment, lift the hank off +the hooks on to the lattice proper, by which it is carried away, and +dropped upon a barrow to be taken to the drying stove. In sizing, a +double operation is customary; the first is called running, and the +second, finishing. In the machine shown, running is carried on one side +simultaneously with finishing in the other, or, if required, running +may be carried on on both sides. If desired, the lifting off motion is +attached to both running and finishing sides, and also the roller partly +seen on the left hand for running the hanks through the size. The +machine we saw was doing about 600 bundles per day at running and at +finishing, but the makers claim the production with a double machine to +be at the rate of about 36 10 lb. bundles per hour (at finishing), wrung +in 1œ lb. wringers (or Iœ lb. of yarn at a time), or at running at the +rate of 45 bundles in 2 lb. wringers. The distance between the hooks +is easily adjusted to the length or size of hanks, and altogether the +machine seems one that is worth the attention of the trade. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED HANK SIZING MACHINE.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED COKE BREAKER. + + +The working parts of the breaker now in use by the South Metropolitan +Gas Company consist essentially of a drum provided with cutting edges +projecting from it, which break up the coke against a fixed grid. The +drum is cast in rings, to facilitate repairs when necessary, and the +capacity of the machine can therefore be increased or diminished by +varying the number of these rings. The degree of fineness of the coke +when broken is determined by the regulated distance of the grid from the +drum. Thus there is only one revolving member, no toothed gearing being +required. Consequently the machine works with little power; the one at +the Old Kent Road, which is of the full size for large works, being +actually driven by a one horse power "Otto" gas-engine. Under these +conditions, at a recent trial, two tons of coke were broken in half an +hour, and the material delivered screened into the three classes of +coke, clean breeze (worth as much as the larger coke), and dust, which +at these works is used to mix with lime in the purifiers. The special +advantage of the machine, besides the low power required to drive it and +its simple action, lies in the small quantity of waste. On the occasion +of the trial in question, the dust obtained from two tons of coke +measured only 3œ bushels, or just over a half hundredweight per ton. +The following statement, prepared from the actual working of the first +machine constructed, shows the practical results of its use. It should +be premised that the machine is assumed to be regularly employed and +driven by the full power for which it is designed, when it will easily +break 8 tons of coke per hour, or 80 tons per working day: + + 500 feet of gas consumed by a 2 horse power + gas-engine, at cost price of gas delivered s. d. + in holder. 0 9 + Oil and cotton waste. 0 6 + Two men supplying machine with large + coke, and shoveling up broken, at 4s. + 6d. 9 0 + Interest and wear and tear (say). 0 3 + ----- + Total per day. 10 6 + ----- + For 80 tons per day, broken at the rate + of. 0 1œ + Add for loss by dust and waste, 1 cwt., + with price of coke at (say) 13s. 4d. per + ton. 0 8 + ----- + Cost of breaking, per ton. 0 9œ + +As coke, when broken, will usually fetch from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per ton +more than large, the result of using these machines is a net gain of +from 1s. 3d. to 1s. 9d. per ton of coke. It is not so much the actual +gain, however, that operates in favor of providing a supply of broken +coke, as the certainty that by so doing a market is obtained that would +not otherwise be available. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED COKE BREAKER.] + +It will not be overstating the case to say that this coke breaker is by +far the simplest, strongest, and most economical appliance of its kind +now manufactured. That it does its work well is proved by experience; +and the advantages of its construction are immediately apparent upon +comparison of its simple drum and single spindle with the flying hammers +or rocking jaws, or double drums with toothed gearing which characterize +some other patterns of the same class of plant. It should be remarked, +as already indicated, lest exception should be taken to the size of the +machine chosen here for illustration, that it can be made of any size +down to hand power. On the whole, however, as a few tons of broken coke +might be required at short notice even in a moderate sized works, it +would scarcely be advisable to depend upon too small a machine; since +the regular supply of the fuel thus improved may be trusted in a short +time to increase the demand. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED COKE BREAKER.] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENT IN PRINTING MACHINERY. + + +This is the design of Alfred Godfrey, of Clapton. According to this +improvement, as represented at Figs. 1 and 2, a rack, A, is employed +vibrating on the pivot a, and a pinion, a1, so arranged that instead of +the pinion moving on a universal joint, or the rack moving in a parallel +line from side to side of the pinion at the time the motion of the table +is reversed, there is employed, for example, the radial arm, a2, mounted +on the shaft, a3, supporting the driving wheel, a4. The opposite or +vibrating end of the radial arm, a2, supports in suitable bearings the +pinion, a1, and wheel, a5, driving the rack through the medium of the +driving wheel, a4, the effect of which is that through the mechanical +action of the vibrating arm, a2, and pinion, a1 in conjunction with the +vibrating movement of the rack, A, an easy, uniform, and silent motion +is transmitted to the rack and table. + +[Illustration: IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 1] + +[Illustration: IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 2.] + + * * * * * + + + + +A CHARACTERISTIC MINING "RUSH."--THE PROSPECTIVE MINING CENTER OF +SOUTHERN NEW MEXICO. + + +A correspondent of the _Tribune_ describes at length the mining camps +about Lake Valley, New Mexico, hitherto thought likely to be the central +camp of that region, and then graphically tells the story of the recent +"rush" to the Perche district. Within a month of the first strike of +silver ore the country was swarming with prospectors, and a thousand or +more prospects had been located. + +The Perche district is on the eastern flanks of the Mimbres Mountains, +a range which is a part of the Rocky Mountain range, and runs north and +south generally parallel with the Rio Grande, from which it lies about +forty miles to the westward. The northern half of these mountains is +known as the Black Range, and was the center of considerable mining +excitement a year and a half ago. It is there that the Ivanhoe is +located, of which Colonel Gillette was manager, and in which Robert +Ingersoll and Senator Plumb, of Kansas, were interested, much to the +disadvantage of the former. A new company has been organized, however, +with Colonel Ingersoll as president, and the reopening of work on the +Ivanhoe will probably prove a stimulus to the whole Black Range. From +this region the Perche district is from forty to sixty miles south. It +is about twenty-five miles northwest of Lake Valley, and ten miles west +of Hillsboro, a promising little mining town, with some mills and about +300 people. The Perche River has three forks coming down from the +mountains and uniting at Hillsboro, and it is in the region between +these forks that the recent strikes have been made. + +On August 15 "Jack" Shedd, the original discoverer of the Robinson mine +in Colorado, was prospecting on the south branch of the north fork of +the Perche River, when he made the first great strike in the district. +On the summit of a heavily timbered ridge he found some small pieces of +native silver, and then a lump of ore containing very pure silver in the +form of sulphides, weighing 150 pounds, and afterward proved to be worth +on the average $11 a pound. All this was mere float, simply lying on the +surface of the ground. Afterward another block was found, weighing 87 +pounds, of horn silver, with specimens nearly 75 per cent. silver. The +strike was kept a secret for a few days. Said a mining man: "I went up +to help bring the big lump down. We took it by a camp of prospectors who +were lying about entirely ignorant of any find. When they saw it they +instantly saddled their horses, galloped off, and I believe they +prospected all night." A like excitement was created when the news of +this and one or two similar finds reached Lake Valley. Next morning +every waiter was gone from the little hotel, and a dozen men had left +the Sierra mines, to try their fortunes at prospecting. + +As the news spread men poured into the Perche district from no one knows +where, some armed with only a piece of salt pork, a little meal, and a +prospecting pick; some mounted on mules, others on foot; old men and men +half-crippled were among the number, but all bitten by the monomania +which possesses every prospector. Now there are probably 2,000 men in +the Perche district, and the number of prospects located must far exceed +1,000. Three miners from there with whom I was talking recently owned +forty-seven mines among them, and while one acknowledged that hardly one +prospect in a hundred turns out a prize, the other millionaire in embryo +remarked that he wouldn't take $50,000 for one of his mines. So it goes, +and the victims of the mining fever here seem as deaf to reason as the +buyers of mining stock in New York. Fuel was added to the flame by +the report that Shedd had sold his location, named the Solitaire, to +ex-Governor Tabor and Mr. Wurtzbach on August 25 for $100,000. This was +not true. I met Governor Tabor's representative, who came down recently +to examine the properties, and learned that the Governor had not up to +that date bought the mine. He undoubtedly bonded it, however, and his +representative's opinion of the properties seemed highly favorable. +The Solitaire showed what appeared to be a contact vein, with walls of +porphyry and limestone in a ledge thirty feet wide in places, containing +a high assay of horned silver. The vein was composed of quartz, bearing +sulphides, with horn silver plainly visible, giving an average assay of +from $350 to $500. This was free milling. These were the results shown +simply by surface explorations, which were certainly exceedingly +promising. Recently it has been stated that a little development shows +the vein to be only a blind lead, but the statement lacks confirmation. +In any case the effect of so sensational a discovery is the same in +creating an intense excitement and attracting swarms of prospectors. + +But the Perche district does not rest on the Solitaire, for there has +been abundance of mineral wealth discovered throughout its extent. Four +miles south of this prospect, on the middle fork of the Perche, is an +actual mine--the Bullion--which was purchased by four or five Western +mining men for $10,000, and yielded $11,000 in twenty days. The ore +contains horn and native silver. On the same fork are the Iron King and +Andy Johnson, both recently discovered and promising properties, and +there is a valuable mine now in litigation on the south fork of the +Perche, with scores of prospects over the entire district. Now that one +or two sensational strikes have attracted attention, and capital is +developing paying mines, the future of the Perche District seems +assured. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SOY BEAN. + + +The _British Medical Journal_ says that Prof. E. Kinch, writing in the +_Agricultural Students' Gazette_, says that the Soy bean approaches more +nearly to animal food than any other known vegetable production, being +singularly rich in fat and in albuminoids. It is largely used as +an article of food in China and Japan. Efforts have been made to +acclimatize it in various parts of the continent of Europe, and fair +success has been achieved in Italy and France; many foods are made from +it and its straw is a useful fodder. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON A NEW ARC ELECTRIC LAMP. + +[Footnote: Paper read at the British Association, Southampton. Revised +by the Author.--_Nature_.] + +By W.H. PREECE. + + +Electric lamps on the arc principle are almost as numerous as the trees +in the forest, and it is somewhat fresh to come upon something that is +novel. In these lamps the carbons are consumed as the current flows, and +it is the variation in their consumption which occasions the flickering +and irregularity of the light that is so irritating to the eyes. Special +mechanical contrivances or regulators have to be used to compensate for +this destruction of the carbons, as in the Siemens and Brush type, or +else refractory materials have to be combined with the carbons, as in +the Jablochkoff candle and in the lamp Soleil. The steadiness of the +light depends upon the regularity with which the carbons are moved +toward each other as they are consumed, so as to maintain the electric +resistance between them a constant quantity. Each lamp must have a +certain elasticity of regulation of its own, to prevent irregularities +from the variable material of carbon used, and from variations in the +current itself and in the machinery. + +In all electric lamps, except the Brockie, the regulator is in the lamp +itself. In the Brockie system the regulation is automatic, and is made +at certain rapid intervals by the motor engine. This causes a periodic +blinking that is detrimental to this lamp for internal illumination. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2.] + +M. Abdank, the inventor of the system which I have the pleasure of +bringing before the Section, separates his regulator from his lamp. +The regulator may be fixed anywhere, within easy inspection and +manipulation, and away from any disturbing influence in the lamp. The +lamp can be fixed in any inaccessible place. + +_The Lamp_ (Figs. 1, 2, and 3.)--The bottom or negative carbon is fixed, +but the top or positive carbon is movable, in a vertical line. It is +screwed at the point, C, to a brass rod, T (Fig. 2), which moves freely +inside the tubular iron core of an electromagnet, K. This rod is +clutched and lifted by the soft iron armature, A B, when a current +passes through the coil, M M. The mass of the iron in the armature is +distributed so that the greater portion is at one end, B, much nearer +the pole than the other end. Hence this portion is attracted first, the +armature assumes an inclined position, maintained by a brass button, t, +which prevents any adhesion between the armature and the core of the +electromagnet. The electric connection between the carbon and the coil +of the electromagnet is maintained by the flexible wire, S. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +The electromagnet, A (Fig. 1), is fixed to a long and heavy rack, C, +which falls by its own weight and by the weight of the electromagnet and +the carbon fixed to it. The length of the rack is equal to the length of +the two carbons. The fall of the rack is controlled by a friction break, +B (Fig. 3), which acts upon the last of a train of three wheels put +in motion by the above weight. The break, B, is fixed at one end of +a lever, B A, the other end carrying a soft iron armature, F, +easily adjusted by three screws. This armature is attracted by the +electromagnet, E E (whose resistance is 1,200 ohms), whenever a current +circulates through it. The length of the play is regulated by the screw, +V. The spring, L, applies tension to the break. + +_The Regulator_.--This consists of a balance and a cut-off. + +_The Balance_ (Figs. 4 and 5) is made with two solenoids. S and S', +whose relative resistances is adjustable. S conveys the main current, +and is wound with thick wire having practically no resistance, and S' +is traversed by a shunt current, and is wound with fine wire having a +resistance of 600 ohms. In the axes of these two coils a small and light +iron tube (2 mm. diameter and 60 mm. length) freely moves in a vertical +line between two guides. When magnetized it has one pole in the middle +and the other at each end. The upward motion is controlled by the +spring, N T. The spring rests upon the screw, H, with which it makes +contact by platinum electrodes. This contact is broken whenever the +little iron rod strikes the spring, N T. + +The positive lead from the dynamo is attached to the terminal, B, then +passes through the coil, S, to the terminal, B', whence it proceeds to +the lamp. The negative lead is attached to terminal, A, passing directly +to the other terminal, A', and thence to the lamp. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +The shunt which passes through the fine coil, S', commences at the +point, P. The other end is fixed to the screw, H, whence it has two +paths, the one offering no resistance through the spring, T N, to the +upper negative terminal, A'; the other through the terminal, J, to the +electromagnet of the break, M, and thence to the negative terminal of +the lamp, L'. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +_The Cut-off_.--The last part of the apparatus (Fig. 4) to be described +is the cut-off, which is used when there are several lamps in series. It +is brought into play by the switch, C D, which can be placed at E or D. +When it is at E, the negative terminal, A, is in communication with +the positive terminal, B, through the resistance, R, which equals the +resistance of the lamp, which is, therefore, out of circuit. When it is +at D the cut-off acts automatically to do the same thing when required. +This is done by a solenoid, V, which has two coils, the one of thick +wire offering no resistance, and the other of 2,000 ohms resistance. The +fine wire connects the terminals, A' and B. The solenoid has a movable +soft iron core suspended by the spring, U. It has a cross-piece of iron +which can dip into two mercury cups, G and K, when the core is sucked +into the solenoid. When this is the case, which happens when any +accident occurs to the lamp, the terminal, A, is placed in connection +with the terminal, B, through the thick wire of V and the resistance, R, +in the same way as it was done by the switch, C D. + +_Electrical Arrangement_.--The mode in which several lamps are connected +up in series is shown by Fig. 6. M is the dynamo machine. The + lead is +connected to B1 of the balance it then passes to the lamp, L, returning +to the balance, and then proceeds to each other lamp, returning finally +to the negative pole of the machine. When the current enters the balance +it passes through the coil, S, magnetizing the iron core and drawing +it downward (Fig. 4). It then passes to the lamp, L L', through the +carbons, then returns to the balance, and proceeds back to the negative +terminal of the machine. A small portion of the current is shunted off +at the point, P, passing through the coil, S', through the contact +spring, T N, to the terminal, A', and drawing the iron core in +opposition to S. The carbons are in contact, but in passing through +the lamp the current magnetizes the electromagnet, M (Fig. 2), which +attracts the armature, A B, that bites and lifts up the rod, T, with the +upper carbon, a definite and fixed distance that is easily regulated +by the screws, Y Y. The arc then is formed, and will continue to burn +steadily as long as the current remains constant. But the moment the +current falls, due to the increased resistance of the arc, a greater +proportion passes through the shunt, S' (Fig. 4), increasing its +magnetic moment on the iron core, while that of S is diminishing. The +result is that a moment arrives when equilibrium is destroyed, the iron +rod strikes smartly and sharply upon the spring, N T. Contact between T +and H is broken, and the current passes through the electromagnet of the +break in the lamp. The break is released for an instant, the carbons +approach each other. But the same rupture of contact introduces in the +shunt a new resistance of considerable magnitude (viz., 1,200 ohms), +that of the electromagnets of the break. Then the strength of the shunt +current diminishes considerably, and the solenoid, S, recovers briskly +its drawing power upon the rod, and contact is restored. The carbons +approach during these periods only about 0.01 to 0.02 millimeter. +If this is not sufficient to restore equilibrium it is repeated +continually, until equilibrium is obtained. The result is that the +carbon is continually falling by a motion invisible to the eye, but +sufficient to provide for the consumption of the carbons. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +The contact between N T and H is never completely broken, the sparks are +very feeble, and the contacts do not oxidize. The resistances inserted +are so considerable that heating cannot occur, while the portion of the +current abstracted for the control is so small that it may be neglected. + +The balance acts precisely like the key of a Morse machine, and the +break precisely like the sounder-receiver so well known in telegraphy. +It emits the same kind of sounds, and acts automatically like a skilled +and faithful telegraphist. + +This regulation, by very small and short successive steps, offers +several advantages: (1) it is imperceptible to the eye; (2) it does not +affect the main current; (3) any sudden instantaneous variation of the +main current does not allow a too near approach of the carbon points. +Let, now, an accident occur; for instance, a carbon is broken. At once +the automatic cut-off acts, the current passes through the resistance, +R, instead of passing through the lamp. The current through the fine +coil is suddenly increased, the rod is drawn in, contact is made at G +and K, and the current is sent through the coil, R. As soon as contact +is again made by the carbons, the current in the coil, S, is increased, +that of the thick wire in V diminished, and the antagonistic spring, +U, breaks the contact at G and K. The rupture of the light is almost +invisible, because the relighting is so brisk and sharp. + +I have seen this lamp in action, and its constant steadiness leaves +nothing to be desired. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR OBTAINING PURE WATER FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC USE. + + +Our readers are well aware that water as found naturally is never +absolutely free from dissolved impurities; and in ordinary cases it +contains solid impurities derived both from the inorganic and organic +kingdoms, together with gaseous substances; these latter being generally +derived from the atmosphere. + +By far the purest water which occurs in nature is rain-water, and if +this be collected in a secluded district, and after the air has been +well washed by previous rain, its purity is remarkable; the extraneous +matter consisting of little else than a trace of carbonic acid and other +gases dissolved from the air. In fact, such water is far purer than any +distilled water to be obtained in commerce. The case is very different +when the rain-water is collected in a town or densely populated +district, more especially if the water has been allowed to flow over +dirty roofs. The black and foully-smelling liquid popularly known as +soft water is so rich in carbonaceous and organic constituents as to be +of very limited use to the photographer; but by taking the precaution of +fitting up a simple automatic shunt for diverting the stream until the +roofs have been thoroughly washed, it becomes possible to insure a good +supply of clean and serviceable soft water, even in London. Several +forms of shunt have been devised, some of these being so complex as +to offer every prospect of speedy disorganization; but a simple and +efficient apparatus is figured in _Engineering_ by a correspondent who +signs himself "Millwright," and as we have thoroughly proved the value +of an apparatus which is practically identical, we reproduce the +substance of his communication. + +A gentleman of Newcastle, a retired banker, having tried various filters +to purify the rain-water collected on the roof of his house, at length +had the idea to allow no water to run into the cistern until the roof +had been well washed. After first putting up a hard-worked valve, the +arrangement as sketched below has been hit upon. Now Newcastle is a very +smoky place, and yet my friend gets water as pure as gin, and almost +absolutely free from any smack of soot. + +[Illustration] + +The sketch explains itself. The weight, W, and the angle of the lever, +L, are such, that when the valve, V, is once opened it goes full open. A +small hole in the can C, acts like a cataract, and brings matters to a +normal state very soon after the rain ceases. + +The proper action of the apparatus can only be insured by a careful +adjustment of the weight, W, the angle through which the valve opens, +and the magnitude of the vessel, C. It is an advantage to make +the vessel, C, somewhat broader in proportion to its height than +represented, and to provide it with a movable strainer placed about half +way down. This tends to protect the cataract hole, and any accumulation +of leaves and dirt can be removed once in six months or so. Clean soft +water is valuable to the photographer in very many cases. Iron developer +(wet plate) free from chlorides will ordinarily remain effective on the +plate much longer than when chlorides are present, and the pyrogallic +solution for dry-plate work will keep good for along time if made with +soft water, while the lime which is present in hard water causes the +pyrogallic acid to oxidize with considerable rapidity. Negatives that +have been developed with oxalate developer often become covered with a +very unsightly veil of calcium oxalate when rinsed with hard water, and +something of a similar character occasionally occurs in the case of +silver prints which are transferred directly from the exposure frame to +impure water. + +To the carbon printer clean rain-water is of considerable value, as he +can develop much more rapidly with soft water than with hard water; +or, what comes to the same thing, he can dissolve away his superfluous +gelatine at a lower temperature than would otherwise be necessary. + +The cleanest rain-water which can ordinarily be collected in a town is +not sufficiently pure to be used with advantage in the preparation of +the nitrate bath, it being advisable to use the purest distilled water +for this purpose; and in many cases it is well to carefully distill +water for the bath in a glass apparatus of the kind figured below. + +[Illustration] + +A, thin glass flask serving as a retort. The tube, T, is fitted +air-tight to the flask by a cork, C. + +B, receiver into which the tube, T, fits quite loosely. + +D, water vessel intended to keep the spiral of lamp wick, which is shown +as surrounding T, in a moist condition. This wick acts as a siphon, and +water is gradually drawn over into the lower receptacle, E. + +L, spirit lamp, which may, in many cases, be advantageously replaced by +a Bunsen burner. + +A small metal still, provided with a tin condensing worm, is, however, a +more generally serviceable arrangement, and if ordinary precautions are +taken to make sure that the worm tube is clean, the resulting distilled +water will be nearly as pure as that distilled in glass vessels. + +Such a still as that figured below can be heated conveniently over an +ordinary kitchen fire, and should find a place among the appliances +of every photographer. Distilled water should always be used in the +preparation of emulsion, as the impurities of ordinary water may often +introduce disturbing conditions.--_Photographic News_. + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + + + + +BLACK PHOSPHORUS. + +By P. THENARD. + + +The author refers to the customary view that black phosphorus is +merely a mixture of the ordinary phosphorus with traces of a metallic +phosphide, and contends that this explanation is not in all cases +admissible. A specimen of black or rather dark gray phosphorus, which +the author submitted to the Academy, became white if melted and remained +white if suddenly cooled, but if allowed to enter into a state of +superfusion it became again black on contact with either white or black +phosphorus. A portion of the black specimen being dissolved in carbon +disulphide there remained undissolved merely a trace of a very pale +yellow matter which seemed to be amorphous phosphorus.--_Comptes +Rendus_. + + * * * * * + + + + +COMPOSITION OF STEEP WATER. + + +According to M. C. Leeuw, water in which malt has been steeped has the +following composition: + + Organic matter. 0.56 per cent. + Mineral matter. 0.52 " + ---- + Total dry matter. 1.08 " + ---- + Nitrogen. 0.033 " + +The mineral matter consists of-- + + Potash. 0.193 " + Phosphoric acid. 0.031 " + Lime. 0.012 " + Soda. 0.047 " + Magnesia. 0.016 " + Sulphuric acid. 0.007 " + Oxide of iron. traces. + Chlorine and silica. 0.212 " + + * * * * * + + + + +SCHREIBER'S APPARATUS FOR REVIVIFYING BONE-BLACK. + + +We give opposite illustrations of Schreiber's apparatus for revivifying +bone-black or animal charcoal. The object of revivification is to render +the black fit to be used again after it has lost its decolorizing +properties through service--that is to say, to free its pores from the +absorbed salts and insoluble compounds that have formed therein +during the operation of sugar refining. There are two methods +employed--fermentation and washing. At present the tendency is to +abandon the former in order to proceed with as small a stock of black as +possible, and to adopt the method of washing with water and acid in a +rotary washer. + +Figs. 1 and 2 represent a plan and elevation of a bone-black room, +containing light filters, A, arranged in a circle around wells, B. These +latter have the form of a prism with trapezoidal base, whose small sides +end at the same point, d, and the large ones at the filter. The funnel, +E, of the washer, F, is placed in the space left by the small ends of +the wells, so that the black may be taken from these latter and thrown +directly into the washer. The washer is arranged so that the black may +flow out near the steam fitter, G, beneath the floor. The discharge of +this filter is toward the side of the elevator, H, which takes in the +wet black below, and carries it up and pours it into the drier situated +at the upper part of the furnace. This elevator, Figs. 3 and 4, is +formed of two vertical wooden uprights, A, ten centimeters in thickness, +to which are fixed two round-iron bars the same as guides. The lift, +properly so-called, consists of an iron frame, C, provided at the four +angles with rollers, D, and supporting a swinging bucket, E, which, on +its arrival at the upper part of the furnace, allows the black to fall +to an inclined plane that leads it to the upper part of the drier. The +left is raised and lowered by means of a pitch-chain, F, fixed to the +middle of the frame, C, and passing over two pulleys, G, at the upper +part of the frame and descending to the mechanism that actuates it. +This latter comprises a nut, I, acting directly on the chain; a toothed +wheel, K, and a pinion, J, gearing with the latter and keyed upon the +shaft of the pulleys, L and M. The diameter of the toothed wheel, K, is +0.295 of a meter, and it makes 53.4 revolutions per minute. The diameter +of the pinion is 0.197 of a meter, and it makes 80 revolutions per +minute. The pulleys, M and L, are 0.31 of a meter in diameter, and +make 80 revolutions per minute. Motion is transmitted to them by other +pulleys, N, keyed upon a shaft placed at the lower part, which receives +its motion from the engine of the establishment through the intermedium +of the pulley, O. The diameter of the latter is 0.385 of a meter, and +that of N is 0.58. They each make 43 revolutions per minute. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ELEVATION OF BONE-BLACK REVIVIFYING PLANT +(SCHREIBER'S SYSTEM.) + +FIG. 2.--PLAN VIEW. + +FIG. 3.--LATERAL VIEW OF ELEVATOR. + +FIG. 4.--FRONT VIEW OF ELEVATOR. + +FIG. 5.--CONTINUOUS FURNACE FOR REVIVIFYING BONE-BLACK.] + +The elevator is set in motion by the simple maneuver of the gearing +lever, P, and when this has been done all the other motions are effected +automatically. + +_The Animal Black Furnace_.--This consists of a masonry casing of +rectangular form, in which are arranged on each side of the same +fire-place two rows of cast-iron retorts, D, of undulating form, each +composed of three parts, set one within the other. These retorts, which +serve for the revivification of the black, are incased in superposed +blocks of refractory clay, P, Q, S, designed to regularize the +transmission of heat and to prevent burning. These pieces are kept in +their respective places by crosspieces, R. The space between the retorts +occupied by the fire-place, Y, is covered with a cylindrical dome, O, of +refractory tiles, forming a fire-chamber with the inner surface of the +blocks, P, Q, and S. The front of the surface consists of a cast-iron +plate, containing the doors to the fire-place and ash pan, and a larger +one to allow of entrance to the interior to make repairs. + +One of the principal disadvantages of furnaces for revivifying animal +charcoal has been that they possessed no automatic drier for drying the +black on its exit from the washer. It was for the purpose of remedying +this that Mr. Schreiber was led to invent the automatic system of drying +shown at the upper part of the furnace, and which is formed of two +pipes, B, of undulating form, like the retorts, with openings throughout +their length for the escape of steam. Between these pipes there is a +closed space into which enters the waste heat and products of combustion +from the furnace. These latter afterward escape through the chimney at +the upper part. + +In order that the black may be put in bags on issuing from the furnace, +it must be cooled as much as possible. For this purpose there are +arranged on each side of the furnace two pieces of cast iron tubes, F, +of rectangular section, forming a prolongation of the retorts and making +with them an angle of about 45 degrees. The extremities of these tubes +terminate in hollow rotary cylinders, G, which permit of regulating the +flow of the black into a car, J (Fig. 1), running on rails. + +From what precedes, it will be readily understood how a furnace is run +on this plan. + +The bone-black in the hopper, A, descends into the drier, B, enters the +retorts, D, and, after revivification, passes into the cooling pipes, F, +from whence it issues cold and ready to be bagged. A coke fire having +been built in the fire-place, Y, the flames spread throughout the fire +chamber, direct themselves toward the bottom, divide into two parts to +the right and left, and heat the back of the retorts in passing. Then +the two currents mount through the lateral flues, V, and unite so as to +form but one in the drier. Within the latter there are arranged plates +designed to break the current from the flames, and allow it to heat all +the inner parts of the pipes, while the apertures in the drier allow of +the escape of the steam. + +By turning one of the cylinders, G, so as to present its aperture +opposite that of the cooler, it instantly fills up with black. At this +moment the whole column, from top to bottom, is set in motion. The +bone-black, in passing through the undulations, is thrown alternately to +the right and left until it finally reaches the coolers. This operation +is repeated as many times as the cylinder is filled during the descent +of one whole column, that is to say, about forty times. + +With an apparatus of the dimensions here described, 120 hectoliters +of bone-black may be revivified in twenty four hours, with 360 to 400 +kilogrammes of coke.--_Annales Industrielles_. + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 330, page 5264.] + + + + +SOAP AND ITS MANUFACTURE, FROM A CONSUMER'S POINT OF VIEW. + + +In our last article, under the above heading, the advantages to be +gained by the use of potash soap as compared with soda soap were pointed +out, and the reasons of this superiority, especially in the case of +washing wool or woolen fabrics, were pretty fully gone into. It was also +further explained why the potash soaps generally sold to the public were +unfit for general use, owing to their not being neutral--that is to say, +containing a considerable excess of free or unsaponified alkali, which +acts injuriously on the fiber of any textile material, and causes sore +hands if used for household or laundry purposes. It was shown that the +cause of this defect was owing to the old-fashioned method of making +potash or soft soap, by boiling with wood ashes or other impure form of +potash; but that a perfectly pure and neutral potash soap could readily +be made with pure caustic potash, which within the last few years has +become a commercial article, manufactured on a large scale; just in +the same manner as the powdered 98 per cent. caustic soda, which was +recommended in our previous articles on making hard soap without +boiling. + +The process of making pure neutral potash soap is very simple, and +almost identical with that for making hard soap with pure powdered +caustic soda. The following directions, if carefully and exactly +followed, will produce a first-class potash soap, suitable either for +the woolen manufacturer for washing his wool, and the cloth afterward +made from it, or for household and laundry purposes, for which uses it +will be found far superior to any soda soap, no matter how pure or well +made it may be. + +Dissolve twenty pounds of pure caustic potash in two gallons of water. +Pure caustic potash is very soluble, and dissolves almost immediately, +heating the water. Let the lye thus made cool until warm to the +hand--say about 90 F. Melt eighty pounds of tallow or grease, which must +be free from salt, and let it cool until fairly hot to the hand--say +130 F.; or eighty pounds of any vegetable or animal oil may be taken +instead. Now pour the caustic potash lye into the melted tallow or oil, +stirring with a flat wooden stirrer about three inches broad, until both +are thoroughly mixed and smooth in appearance. This mixing may be done +in the boiler used to melt the tallow, or in a tub, or half an oil +barrel makes a good mixing vessel. Wrap the tub or barrel well up in +blankets or sheepskins, and put away for a week in some warm dry place, +during which the mixture slowly turns into soap, giving a produce of +about 120 pounds of excellent potash soap. If this soap is made with +tallow or grease it will be nearly as hard as soda soap. When made by +farmers or householders tallow or grease will generally be taken, as it +is the cheapest, and ready to hand on the spot. For manufacturers, or +for making laundry soap, nothing could be better than cotton seed oil. A +magnificent soap can be made with this article, lathering very freely. +When made with oil it is better to remelt in a kettle the potash soap, +made according to the above directions, with half its weight of water, +using very little heat, stirring constantly, and removing the fire as +soon as the water is mixed with and taken up by the soap. A beautifully +bright soap is obtained in this way, and curiously the soap is actually +made much harder and stiffer by this addition of water than when it is +in a more concentrated state previously to the water being added. + +With reference to the caustic potash for making the soap, it can be +obtained in all sizes of drums, but small packages just sufficient for +a batch of soap are generally more economical than larger packages, as +pure caustic potash melts and deteriorates very quickly when exposed +to the air. The Greenbank Alkali Co., of St. Helens, seems to have +appreciated this, and put upon the market pure caustic potash in twenty +pound canisters, which are very convenient for potash soft soap making +by consumers for their own use. + +While on this subject of caustic potash, it cannot be too often repeated +that _caustic potash_ is a totally different article to _caustic soda_, +though just like it in appearance, and therefore often sold as such. +One of the most barefaced instances of this is the so-called "crystal +potash," "ball potash," or "rock potash," of the lye packers, sold in +one pound packages, which absolutely, without exception, do not contain +a single grain of potash, but simply consist of caustic soda more or +less adulterated--as a rule very much "more" than "less!" It is much +to be regretted that this fraud on the public has been so extensively +practiced, as potash has been greatly discredited by this procedure. + +The subject of fleece scouring or washing the wool while growing on +the sheep, with a potash soap made on the spot with the waste tallow +generally to be had on every sheep farm, seems recently to have been +attracting attention in some quarters, and certainly would be a source +of profit to sheep owners by putting their wool on the market in the +best condition, and at the same time cleaning the skin of the sheep. It +therefore appears to be a move in the right direction. + +In concluding this series of articles on practical soap making from a +consumer's point of view, the writer hopes that, although the subject +has been somewhat imperfectly handled, owing to necessarily limited +space and with many unavoidable interruptions, yet that they may have +been found of some interest and assistance to consumers of soap who +desire easily and readily to make a pure and unadulterated article for +their own use. + + * * * * * + + + + +COTTON SEED OIL. + +By S.S. BRADFORD, Ph.G. + + +Having had occasion during the last six years to manufacture lead +plaster in considerable quantities, it occurred to me that cotton seed +oil might be used instead of olive oil, at less expense, and with as +good results. The making of this plaster with cotton seed oil has been +questioned, as, according to some authorities, the product is not of +good consistence, and is apt to be soft, sticky, and dark colored; +but in my experience such is not the case. If the U. S. P. process is +followed in making this plaster, substituting for the olive oil cotton +seed oil, and instead of one half-pint of boiling water one and one-half +pint are added, the product obtained will be equally as good as that +from olive oil. My results with this oil in making lead plaster led me +to try it in making the different liniments of the Pharmacopoeia, with +the following results: + +_Linimentum Ammoniæ_.--This liniment, made with cotton seed oil, is of +much better consistency than when made with olive oil. It is not so +thick, will pour easily out of the bottle, and if the ammonia used is of +proper strength, will make a perfect liniment. + +_Linimentum Calcis_.--Cotton seed oil is not at all adapted to making +this liniment. It does not readily saponify, separates quickly, and it +is almost impossible to unite when separated. + +_Linimentum Camphoræ_.--Cotton seed oil is far superior to olive oil in +making this liniment, it being a much better solvent of camphor. It has +not that disagreeable odor so commonly found in the liniment. + +_Linimentum Chloroformi_.--Cotton seed oil being very soluble in +chloroform, the liniment made with it leaves nothing to be desired. + +_Linimentum Plumbi Subacetatis_.--When liq. plumbi subacet. is mixed +with cotton seed oil and allowed to stand for some time the oil assumes +a reddish color similar to that of freshly made tincture of myrrh. When +the liquor is mixed with olive oil, if the oil be pure, no such change +takes place. Noticing this change, it occurred to me that this would be +a simple and easy way to detect cotton seed oil when mixed with olive +oil. This change usually takes place after standing from twelve to +twenty-four hours. It is easily detected in mixtures containing five +per cent., or even less, of the oils, and I am convinced, after making +numerous experiments with different oils, that it is peculiar to cotton +seed oil.--_American Journal of Pharmacy_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE FOOD AND ENERGY OF MAN. + +[Footnote: From a lecture delivered at the Sanitary Congress, at +Newcastle-on-Tyne, September 28, 1882.] + +By PROF. DE CHAUMONT, F.R.S. + + +Although eating cannot be said to be in any way a new fashion, it has +nevertheless been reserved for modern times, and indeed we may say the +present generation, to get a fairly clear idea of the way in which +food is really utilized for the work of our bodily frame. We must not, +however, plume ourselves too much upon our superior knowledge, for +inklings of the truth, more or less dim, have been had through all ages, +and we are now stepping into the inheritance of times gone by, using the +long and painful experience of our predecessors as the stepping-stone +to our more accurate knowledge of the present time. In this, as in many +other things, we are to some extent in the position of a dwarf on the +shoulders of a giant; the dwarf may, indeed, see further than the giant; +but he remains a dwarf, and the giant a giant. + +The question has been much discussed as to what the original food of man +was, and some people have made it a subject of excited contention. The +most reasonable conclusion is that man is naturally a frugivorous or +fruit-eating animal, like his cousins the monkeys, whom he still so +much resembles. This forms a further argument in favor of his being +originated in warm regions, where fruits of all kinds were plentiful. It +is pretty clear that the resort to animal food, whether the result of +the pressure of want from failure of vegetable products, or a mere taste +and a desire for change and more appetizing food, is one that took place +many ages ago, probably in the earliest anthropoid, if not in the latest +pithecoid stage. No doubt some advantage was recognized in the more +rapid digestion and the comparative ease with which the hunter or fisher +could obtain food, instead of waiting for the ripening of fruits in +countries which had more or less prolonged periods of cold and inclement +weather. Some anatomical changes have doubtless resulted from the +practice, but they are not of sufficiently marked character to found +much argument upon; all that we can say being that the digestive +apparatus in man seems well adapted for digesting any food that is +capable of yielding nutriment, and that even when an entire change is +made in the mode of feeding, the adaptability of the human system +shows itself in a more or less rapid accommodation to the altered +circumstances. + +Food, then, is any substance which can be taken into the body and +applied to use, either in building up or repairing the tissues and +framework of the body itself, or in providing energy and producing +animal heat, or any substance which, without performing those functions +directly, controls, directs, or assists their performance. With this +wide definition it is evident that we include all the ordinary articles +recognized commonly as food, and that we reject all substances +recognized commonly as poisons. But it will also include such substances +as water and air, both of which are essential for nutrition, but are not +usually recognized as belonging to the list of food substances in the +ordinary sense. When we carry our investigation further, we find that +the organic substances may be again divided into two distinct classes, +namely, that which contains nitrogen (the casein), and those that do not +(the butter and sugar). + +On ascertaining this, we are immediately struck with the remarkable fact +that all the tissues and fluids of the body, muscles (or flesh), +bone, blood--all, in short, except the fat--contain nitrogen, and, +consequently, for their building up in the young, and for their repair +and renewal in the adult, nitrogen is absolutely required. We therefore +reasonably infer that the nitrogenous substance is necessary for this +purpose. Experiment has borne this out, for men who have been compelled +to live without nitrogenous food by dire necessity, and criminals on +whom the experiment has been tried, have all perished sooner or later in +consequence. When nitrogenous substances are used in the body, they +are, of course, broken up and oxidized, or perhaps we ought to say more +accurately, they take the place of the tissues of the body which wear +away and are carried off by oxidation and other chemical changes. + +Now, modern science tell us that such changes are accompanied with +manifestations of energy in some form or other, most frequently in +that of heat, and we must look, therefore, upon nitrogenous food +as contributing to the energy of the body in addition to its other +functions. + +What are the substances which we may class as nitrogenous. In the first +place, we have the typical example of the purest form in _albumin_, +or white of egg; and from this the name is now given to the class of +_albuminates_. The animal albuminates are: Albumin from eggs, fibrin +from muscles, or flesh, myosin, or synronin, also from animals, casein +(or cheesy matter) from milk, and the nitrogenous substances from blood. +In the vegetable kingdom, we have glutin, or vegetable fibrin, which is +the nourishing constituent of wheat, barley, oats, etc.; and legumin, +or vegetable casein, which is the peculiar substance found in peas and +beans. The other organic constituents--viz., the fats and the starches +and sugars--contain no nitrogen, and were at one time thought to be +concerned in producing animal heat. + +We now know--thanks to the labors of Joule, Lyon Playfair, Clausius, +Tyndall, Helmholtz, etc.--that heat itself is a mode of motion, a form +of convertible energy, which can be made to do useful or productive +work, and be expressed in terms of actual work done. Modern experiment +shows that all our energy is derived from that of food, and, in +particular from the non-nitrogenous part of it, that is, the fat, +starch, and sugar. The nutrition of man is best maintained when he is +provided with a due admixture of all the four classes of aliment which +we have mentioned, and not only that, but he is also better off if he +has a variety of each class. Thus he may and ought to have albumen, +fibrine, gluten, and casein among the albuminates, or at least two of +them; butter and lard, or suet, or oil among the fats; starch of wheat, +potato, rice, peas, etc., and cane-sugar, and milk-sugar among the +carbo-hydrates. The salts cannot be replaced, so far as we know. Life +may be maintained in fair vigor for some time on albuminates only, but +this is done at the expense of the tissues, especially the fat of the +body, and the end must soon come; with fat and carbo hydrates alone +vigor may also be maintained for some time, at the expense of the +tissues also, but the limit is a near one, In either of these cases we +suppose sufficient water and salts to be provided. + +We must now inquire into the quantities of food necessary; and this +necessitates a little consideration of the way in which the work of +the body is carried on. We must look upon the human body exactly as a +machine; like an engine with which we are all so familiar. A certain +amount of work requires to be done, say, a certain number of miles of +distance to be traversed; we know that to do this a certain number of +pounds, or hundredweights, or tons of coal must be put into the fire of +the boiler in order to furnish the requisite amount of energy through +the medium of steam. This amount of fuel must bear a certain proportion +to the work, and also to the velocity with which it is done, so both +quantity and time have to be accounted for. + +No lecture on diet would be complete without a reference to the vexed +question of alcohol. I am no teetotal advocate, and I repudiate the +rubbish too often spouted from teetotal platforms, talk that is, +perhaps, inseparable from the advocacy of a cause that imports a good +deal of enthusiasm. I am at one, however, in recognizing the evils of +excess, and would gladly hail their diminution. But I believe that +alcohol properly used may be a comfort and a blessing, just as I know +that improperly used it becomes a bane and a curse. But we are now +concerned with it as an article of diet in relation to useful work, and +it may be well to call attention markedly to the fact that its use in +this way is very limited. The experiments of the late Dr. Parkes, made +in our laboratory, at Netley, were conclusive on the point, that beyond +an amount that would be represented by about one and a half to two pints +of beer, alcohol no longer provided any convertible energy, and that, +therefore, to take it in the belief that it did do so is an error. +It may give a momentary stimulus in considerable doses, but this is +invariably followed by a corresponding depression, and it is a maxim now +generally followed, especially on service, never to give it before or +during work. There are, of course, some persons who are better without +it altogether, and so all moderation ought to be commended, if not +enjoyed. + +There are other beverages which are more useful than the alcoholic, +as restoratives, and for support in fatigue. Tea and coffee are +particularly good. Another excellent restorative is a weak solution +of Liebig's extract of meat, which has a remarkable power of removing +fatigue. Perhaps one of the most useful and most easily obtainable is +weak oatmeal gruel, either hot or cold. With regard to tobacco, it also +has some value in lessening fatigue in those who are able to take it, +but it may easily be carried to excess. Of it we may say, as of alcohol, +that in moderation it seems harmless, and even useful to some extent, +but, in excess, it is rank poison. + +There is one other point which I must refer to, and which is especially +interesting to a great seaport like this. This is the question of +scurvy--a question of vital importance to a maritime nation. A paper +lately issued by Mr. Thomas Gray, of the Board of Trade, discloses the +regrettable fact that since 1873 there has been a serious falling off, +the outbreaks of scurvy having again increased until they reached +ninety-nine in 1881. This, Mr. Gray seems to think, is due to a neglect +of varied food scales; but it may also very probably have arisen from +the neglect of the regulation about lime-juice, either as to issue or +quality, or both. But it is also a fact of very great importance that +mere monotony of diet has a most serious effect upon health; variety +of food is not merely a pandering to gourmandism or greed, but a real +sanitary benefit, aiding digestion and assimilation. Our Board of Trade +has nothing to do with the food scales of ships, but Mr. Gray hints that +the Legislature will have to interfere unless shipowners look to it +themselves. The ease with which preserved foods of all kinds can be +obtained and carried now removes the last shadow of an excuse for +backwardness in this matter, and in particular the provision of a large +supply of potatoes, both fresh and dried, ought to be an unceasing care; +this is done on board American ships, and to this is doubtless owing in +a great part the healthiness of their crews. Scurvy in the present +day is a disgrace to shipowners and masters; and if public opinion is +insufficient to protect the seamen, the legislature will undoubtedly +step in and do so. + +And now let me close by pointing out that the study of this commonplace +matter of eating and drinking opens out to us the conception of the +grand unity of nature; since we see that the body of man differs in no +way essentially from other natural combinations, but is subject to +the same universal physical laws, in which there is no blindness, no +variableness, no mere chance, and disobedience of which is followed as +surely by retribution as even the keenest eschatologist might desire. + + * * * * * + + + + +RATTLESNAKE POISON. + +By HENRY H. CROFT. + + +Some time since, in a paper to which I am unfortunately unable to refer, +a French chemist affirmed that the poisonous principle in snakes, or +eliminated by snakes, was of the nature of an alkaloid, and gave a name +to this class of bodies. + +Mr. Pedler has shown that snake poison is destroyed or neutralized +by means of platinic chloride, owing probably to the formation of an +insoluble double platinic chloride, such as is formed with almost if not +all alkaloids. + +In this country (Texas) where rattlesnakes are very common, and persons +camping out much exposed to their bites, a very favorite anecdote, or +_remedia_ as the Mexicans cull it, is a strong solution of iodine in +potassium iodide.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The solution is applied as soon as possible to the wound, +preferably enlarged, and a few drops taken internally. The common +Mexican _remedia_ is the root of the _Agave virginica_ mashed or chewed +and applied to the wound, while part is swallowed. + +Great faith is placed in this root by all residents here, who are seldom +I without it, but, I have had no experience of it myself; and the +internal administration is no doubt useless. + +Even the wild birds know of this root; the queer paisano (? ground +woodpecker) which eats snakes, when wounded by a _vibora de cascabel_, +runs into woods, digs up and eats a root of the agave, just like the +mongoose; but more than that, goes back, polishes off his enemy, and +eats him. This has been told me by Mexicans who, it may be remarked, are +not _always_ reliable.] + +I have had occasion to prove the efficacy of this mixture in two cases +of _cascabel_ bites, one on a buck, the other on a dog; and it occurred +to me that the same explanation of its action might be given as above +for the platinum salt, viz., the formation of an insoluble iodo compound +as with ordinary alkaloids if the snake poison really belongs to this +class. + +Having last evening killed a moderate sized rattlesnake--_Crotalus +horridus_--which had not bitten anything, I found the gland fully +charged with the white opaque poison; on adding iodine solution to a +drop of this a dense light-brown precipitate was immediately formed, +quite similar to that obtained with most alkaloids, exhibiting under the +microscope no crystalline structure. + +In the absence of iodine a good extemporaneous solution for testing +alkaloids, and perhaps a snake poison antidote, may be made by adding a +few drops of ferric chloride to solution of potassium of iodide; this +is a very convenient test agent which I used in my laboratory for many +years. + +Although rattlesnake poison could be obtained here in very considerable +quantity, it is out of my power to make such experiments as I could +desire, being without any chemical appliances and living a hundred miles +or more from any laboratory. The same may be said with regard to books, +and possibly the above iodine reaction has been already described. + +Dr. Richards states that the cobra poison is destroyed by potassium +permanganate; but this is no argument in favor of that salt as an +antidote. Mr. Pedler also refers to it, but allows that it would not be +probably of any use after the poison had been absorbed. Of this I +think there can be no doubt, remembering the easy decomposition of +permanganate by most organic substances, and I cannot but think that the +medicinal or therapeutic advantages of that salt, taken internally, are +equally problematical, unless the action is supposed to take place in +the stomach. + +In the bladder of the same rattlesnake I found a considerable +quantity of light-brown amorphous ammonium urate, the urine pale +yellow.--_Chemical News_. + +Hermanitas Ranch, Texas. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CHINESE SIGN MANUAL. + +[Footnote: Dr. D. J. Macgowan, in Medical Reports of China. 1881.] + + +Two writers in _Nature_, both having for their theme "Skin-furrows on +the Hand," solicit information on the subject from China.[1] As the +subject is considered to have a bearing on medical jurisprudence and +ethnology as well, this report is a suitable vehicle for responding to +the demand. + +[Footnote 1: Henry Faulds, Tzukiyi Hospital, Tokio, Japan. W. J. +Herschel, Oxford, England.--_Nature_, 28th October and 25th November, +1880.] + +Dr. Faulds' observations on the finger-tips of the Japanese have an +ethnic bearing and relate to the subject of heredity. Mr. Herschel +considers the subject as an agent of Government, he having charge for +twenty years of registration offices in India, where he employed finger +marks as sign manuals, the object being to prevent personation and +repudiation. Doolittle, in his "Social Life of the Chinese," describes +the custom. I cannot now refer to native works where the practice of +employing digital rugæ as a sign manual is alluded to. I doubt if its +employment in the courts is of ancient date. Well-informed natives think +that it came into vogue subsequent to the Han period; if so, it is in +Egypt that earliest evidence of the practice is to be found. Just as the +Chinese courts now require criminals to sign confessions by impressing +thereto the whorls of their thumb-tips--the right thumb in the case of +women, the left in the case of men--so the ancient Egyptians, it +is represented, required confessions to be sealed with their +thumbnails--most likely the tip of the digit, as in China. Great +importance is attached in the courts to this digital form of signature, +"finger form." Without a confession no criminal can be legally executed, +and the confession to be valid must be attested by the thumb-print +of the prisoner. No direct coercion is employed to secure this; a +contumacious culprit may, however, be tortured until he performs the +act which is a prerequisite to his execution. Digital signatures are +sometimes required in the army to prevent personation; the general +in command at Wenchow enforces it on all his troops. A document thus +attested can no more be forged or repudiated than a photograph--not so +easily, for while the period of half a lifetime effects great changes +in the physiognomy, the rugæ of the fingers present the same appearance +from the cradle to the grave; time writes no wrinkles there. In the +army everywhere, when the description of a person is written down, the +relative number of volutes and coniferous finger-tips is noted. It +is called taking the "whelk striæ," the fusiform being called "rice +baskets," and the volutes "peck measures." A person unable to write, the +form of signature which defies personation or repudiation is required in +certain domestic cases, as in the sale of children or women. Often when +a child is sold the parents affix their finger marks to the bill of +sale; when a husband puts away his wife, giving her a bill of divorce, +he marks the document with his entire palm; and when a wife is sold, the +purchaser requires the seller to stamp the paper with hands and feet, +the four organs duly smeared with ink. Professional fortune tellers in +China take into account almost the entire system of the person whose +future they attempt to forecast, and of course they include palmistry, +but the rugæ of the finger-ends do not receive much attention. Amateur +fortune-tellers, however, discourse as glibly on them as phrenologists +do of "bumps"--it is so easy. In children the relative number of volute +and conical striæ indicate their future. "If there are nine volutes," +says a proverb, "to one conical, the boy will attain distinction without +toil." + +Regarded from an ethnological point of view, I can discover merely that +the rugæ of Chinamen's fingers differ from Europeans', but there is so +little uniformity observable that they form no basis for distinction, +and while the striæ may be noteworthy points in certain medico-legal +questions, heredity is not one of them. + + * * * * * + + + + +LUCIDITY. + + +At the close of an interesting address lately delivered at the reopening +of the Liverpool University College and School of Medicine, Mr. Matthew +Arnold said if there was one word which he should like to plant in the +memories of his audience, and to leave sticking there after he had gone, +it was the word _lucidity_. If he had to fix upon the three great wants +at this moment of the three principal nations of Europe, he should say +that the great want of the French was morality, that the great want of +the Germans was civil courage, and that our own great want was lucidity. +Our own want was, of course, what concerned us the most. People were apt +to remark the defects which accompanied certain qualities, and to think +that the qualities could not be desirable because of the defects which +they saw accompanying them. There was no greater and salutary lesson for +men to learn than that a quality may be accompanied, naturally perhaps, +by grave dangers; that it may actually present itself accompanied by +terrible defects, and yet that it might itself be indispensable. Let him +illustrate what he meant by an example, the force of which they would +all readily feel. Seriousness was a quality of our nation. Perhaps +seriousness was always accompanied by certain dangers. But, at any rate, +many of our French neighbors would say that they found our seriousness +accompanied by so many false ideas, so much prejudice, so much that was +disagreeable, that it could not have the value which we attributed to +it. And yet we knew that it was invaluable. Let them follow the same +mode of reasoning as to the quality of lucidity. The French had a +national turn for lucidity as we had a national turn for seriousness. +Perhaps a national turn for lucidity carried with it always certain +dangers. Be this as it might, it was certain that we saw in the French, +along with their lucidity, a want of seriousness, a want of reverence, +and other faults, which greatly displeased us. Many of us were inclined +in consequence to undervalue their lucidity, or to deny that they +had it. We were wrong: it existed as our seriousness existed; it was +valuable as our seriousness was valuable. Both the one and the other +were valuable, and in the end indispensable. + +What was lucidity? It was negatively that the French have it, and he +would therefore deal with its negative character merely. Negatively, +lucidity was the perception of the want of truth and validness in +notions long current, the perception that they are no longer possible, +that their time is finished, and they can serve us no more. All through +the last century a prodigious travail for lucidity was going forward +in France. Its principal agent was a man whose name excited generally +repulsion in England, Voltaire. Voltaire did a great deal of harm in +France. But it was not by his lucidity that he did harm; he did it by +his want of seriousness, his want of reverence, his want of sense for +much that is deepest in human nature. But by his lucidity he did good. + +All admired Luther. Conduct was three-fourths of life, and a man who +worked for conduct, therefore, worked for more than a man who worked for +intelligence. But having promised this, it might be said that the Luther +of the eighteenth century and of the cultivated classes was Voltaire. +As Luther had an antipathy to what was immoral, so Voltaire had an +antipathy to what was absurd, and both of them made war upon the object +of their antipathy with such masterly power, with so much conviction, +so much energy, so much genius, that they carried their world with +them--Luther his Protestant world, and Voltaire his French world--and +the cultivated classes throughout the continent of Europe generally. + +Voltaire had more than negative lucidity; he had the large and true +conception that a number and equilibrium of activities were necessary +for man. "_Il faut douner à notre áme toutes les formes possibles_" +was a maxim which Voltaire really and truly applied in practice, +"advancing," as Michelet finely said of him, in every direction with +a marvelous vigor and with that conquering ambition which Vico called +_mens heroica_. Nevertheless. Voltaire's signal characteristic was his +lucidity, his negative lucidity. + +There was a great and free intellectual movement in England in the +eighteenth century--indeed, it was from England that it passed into +France; but the English had not that strong natural bent for lucidity +which the French had. Its bent was toward other things in preference. +Our leading thinkers had not the genius and passion for lucidity which +distinguished Voltaire. In their free inquiry they soon found themselves +coming into collision with a number of established facts, beliefs, +conventions. Thereupon all sorts of practical considerations began to +sway them. The danger signal went up, they often stopped short, turned +their eyes another way, or drew down a curtain between themselves and +the light. "It seems highly probable," said Voltaire, "that nature has +made thinking a portion of the brain, as vegetation is a function of +trees; that we think by the brain just as we walk by the feet." So our +reason, at least, would lead us to conclude, if the theologians did not +assure us of the contrary; such, too, was the opinion of Locke, but he +did not venture to announce it. The French Revolution came, England grew +to abhor France, and was cut off from the Continent, did great things, +gained much, but not in lucidity. The Continent was reopened, the +century advanced, time and experience brought their lessons, lovers of +free and clear thought, such as the late John Stuart Mill, arose among +us. But we could not say that they had by any means founded among us the +reign of lucidity. + +Let them consider that movement of which we were hearing so much just +now: let them look at the Salvation Army and its operations. They would +see numbers, funds, energy, devotedness, excitement, conversions, and +a total absence of lucidity. A little lucidity would make the whole +movement impossible. That movement took for granted as its basis what +was no longer possible or receivable; its adherents proceeded in all +they did on the assumption that that basis was perfectly solid, and +neither saw that it was not solid, nor ever even thought of asking +themselves whether it was solid or not. + +Taking a very different movement, and one of far higher dignity and +import, they had all had before their minds lately the long-devoted, +laborious, influential, pure, pathetic life of Dr. Pusey, which had just +ended. Many of them had also been reading in the lively volumes of that +acute, but not always good-natured rattle, Mr. Mozley, an account of +that great movement which took from Dr. Pusey its earlier name. Of its +later stage of Ritualism they had had in this country a now celebrated +experience. This movement was full of interest. It had produced men to +be respected, men to be admired, men to be beloved, men of learning, +goodness, genius, and charm. But could they resist the truth that +lucidity would have been fatal to it? The movers of all those questions +about apostolical succession, church patristic authority, primitive +usage, postures, vestments--questions so passionately debated, and on +which he would not seek to cast ridicule--did not they all begin by +taking for granted something no longer possible or receivable, build on +this basis as if it were indubitably solid, and fail to see that their +basis not being solid, all they built upon it was fantastic? + +He would not say that negative lucidity was in itself a satisfactory +possession, but he said that it was inevitable and indispensable, and +that it was the condition of all serious construction for the future. +Without it at present a man or a nation was intellectually and +spiritually all abroad. If they saw it accompanied in France by much +that they shrank from, they should reflect that in England it would +have influences joined with it which it had not in France--the natural +seriousness of the people, their sense of reverence and respect, their +love for the past. Come it must; and here where it had been so late in +coming, it would probably be for the first time seen to come without +danger. + +Capitals were natural centers of mental movement, and it was natural for +the classes with most leisure, most freedom, most means of cultivation, +and most conversance with the wide world to have lucidity though often +they had it not. To generate a spirit of lucidity in provincial towns, +and among the middle classes bound to a life of much routine and plunged +in business, was more difficult. Schools and universities, with serious +and disinterested studies, and connecting those studies the one with the +other and continuing them into years of manhood, were in this case the +best agency they could use. It might be slow, but it was sure. Such +an agency they were now going to employ. Might it fulfill all their +expectations! Might their students, in the words quoted just now, +advance in every direction with a marvelous vigor, and with that +conquering ambition which Vico called _mens heroica_! And among the many +good results of this, might one result be the acquisition in their midst +of that indispensable spirit--the spirit of lucidity! + + * * * * * + + + + +ON SOME APPARATUS THAT PERMIT OF ENTERING FLAMES. + +[Footnote: A. de Rochas in the _Revue Scientifique_.] + + +In the following notes I shall recall a few experiments that indicate +under what conditions the human organism is permitted to remain unharmed +amid flames. These experiments were published in England in 1882, in the +twelfth letter from Brewster to Walter Scott on natural magic. They are, +I believe, not much known in France, and possess a practical interest +for those who are engaged in the art of combating fires. + +At the end of the last century Humphry Davy observed that, on placing a +very fine wire gauze over a flame, the latter was cooled to such a +point that it could not traverse the meshes. This phenomenon, which he +attributed to the conductivity and radiating power of the metal, he soon +utilized in the construction of a lamp for miners. + +Some years afterward Chevalier Aldini, of Milan, conceived the idea of +making a new application of Davy's discovery in the manufacture of an +envelope that should permit a man to enter into the midst of flames. +This envelope, which was made of metallic gauze with 1-25th of an inch +meshes, was composed of five pieces, as follows: (1) a helmet, with +mask, large enough, to allow a certain space between it and the internal +bonnet of which I shall speak; (2) a cuirass with armlets; (3) a skirt +for the lower part of the belly and the thighs; (4) a pair of boots +formed of a double wire gauze; and (5) a shield five feet long by one +and a half wide, formed of metallic gauze stretched over a light iron +frame. Beneath this armor the experimenter was clad in breeches and a +close coat of coarse cloth that had previously been soaked in a solution +of alum. The head, hands, and feet were covered by envelopes of asbestos +cloth whose fibers were about a half millimeter in diameter. The bonnet +contained apertures for the eyes, nose, and ears, and consisted of a +single thickness of fabric, as did the stockings, but the gloves were of +double thickness, so that the wearer could seize burning objects with +the hands. + +Aldini, convinced of the services that his apparatus might render to +humanity, traveled over Europe and gave gratuitous representations with +it. The exercises generally took place in the following order: Aldini +began by first wrapping his finger in asbestos and then with a double +layer of wire gauze. He then held it for some instants in the flame of +a candle or alcohol lamp. One of his assistants afterward put on the +asbestos glove of which I have spoken, and, protecting the palm of his +hand with another piece of asbestos cloth, seized a piece of red-hot +iron from a furnace and slowly carried it to a distance of forty or +fifty meters, lighted some straw with it, and then carried it back to +the furnace. On other occasions, the experimenters, holding firebrands +in their hands, walked for five minutes over a large grating under which +fagots were burning. + +In order to show how the head, eyes, and lungs were protected by the +wire gauze apparatus, one of the experimenters put on the asbestos +bonnet, helmet, and cuirass, and fixed the shield in front of his +breast. Then, in a chafing dish placed on a level with his shoulder, a +great fire of shavings was lighted, and care was taken to keep it up. +Into the midst of these flames the experimenter then plunged his head +and remained thus five or six minutes with his face turned toward them. +In an exhibition given at Paris before a committee from the Academic +des Sciences, there were set up two parallel fences formed of straw, +connected by iron wire to light wicker work, and arranged so as to leave +between them a passage 3 feet wide by 30 long. The heat was so intense, +when the fences were set on fire, that no one could approach nearer than +20 or 25 feet; and the flames seemed to fill the whole space between +them, and rose to a height of 9 or 10 feet. Six men clad in the Aldini +suit went in, one behind the other, between the blazing fences, and +walked slowly backward and forward in the narrow passage, while the fire +was being fed with fresh combustibles from the exterior. One of these +men carried on his back, in an ozier basket covered with wire gauze, a +child eight years of age, who had on no other clothing than an asbestos +bonnet. This same man, having the child with him, entered on another +occasion a clear fire whose flames reached a height of 18 feet, and +whose intensity was such that it could not be looked at. He remained +therein so long that the spectators began to fear that he had succumbed; +but he finally came out safe and sound. + +One of the conclusions to be drawn from the facts just stated is that +man can breathe in the midst of flames. This marvelous property cannot +be attributed exclusively to the cooling of the air by its passage +through the gauze before reaching the lungs; it shows also a very great +resistance of our organs to the action of heat. The following, moreover, +are direct proofs of such resistance. In England, in their first +experiment, Messrs. Joseph Banks, Charles Blagden, and Dr. Solander +remained for ten minutes in a hot-house whose temperature was 211° +Fahr., and their bodies preserved therein very nearly the usual heat. On +breathing against a thermometer they caused the mercury to fall several +degrees. Each expiration, especially when it was somewhat strong, +produced in their nostrils an agreeable impression of coolness, and the +same impression was also produced on their fingers when breathed upon. +When they touched themselves their skin seemed to be as cold as that of +a corpse; but contact with their watch chains caused them to experience +a sensation like that of a burn. A thermometer placed under the tongue +of one of the experimenters marked 98° Fahr., which is the normal +temperature of the human species. + +Emboldened by these first results, Blagden entered a hot-house in which +the thermometer in certain parts reached 262° Fahr. He remained therein +eight minutes, walked about in all directions, and stopped in the +coolest part, which was at 240° Fahr. During all this time he +experienced no painful sensations; but, at the end of seven minutes, he +felt an oppression of the lungs that inquieted him and caused him to +leave the place. His pulse at that moment showed 144 beats to the +minute, that is to say, double what it usually did. To ascertain whether +there was any error in the indications of the thermometer, and to find +out what effect would take place on inert substances exposed to the hot +air that he had breathed, Blogden placed some eggs in a zinc plate in +the hot-house, alongside the thermometer, and found that in twenty +minutes they were baked hard. + +A case is reported where workmen entered a furnace for drying moulds, in +England, the temperature of which was 177°, and whose iron sole plate +was so hot that it carbonized their wooden shoes. In the immediate +vicinity of this furnace the temperature rose to 160°. Persons not of +the trade who approached anywhere near the furnace experienced pain in +the eyes, nose, and ears. + +A baker is cited in Angoumois, France, who spent ten minutes in a +furnace at 132° C. + +The resistance of the human organism to so high temperatures can be +attributed to several causes. First, it has been found that the quantity +of carbonic acid exhaled by the lungs, and consequently the chemical +phenomena of internal combustion that are a source of animal heat, +diminish in measure as the external temperature rises. Hence, a conflict +which has for result the retardation of the moment at which a living +being will tend, without obstacle, to take the temperature of the +surrounding medium. On another hand, it has been observed that man +resists heat so much the less in proportion as the air is saturated +with vapors. Dr. Berger, who supported for seven minutes a temperature +varying from 109° to 110° C. in dry air, could remain only twelve +minutes in a bagnio whose temperature rose from 41° to 51.75°. At the +Hammam of Paris the highest temperature obtained is 87°, and Dr. E. +Martin has not been able to remain therein more than five minutes. This +physician reports that in 1743, the thermometer having exceeded 40° at +Pekin, 14,000 persons perished. These facts are explained by the cooling +that the evaporation of perspiration produces on the surface of the +body. Edwards has calculated that such evaporation is ten times greater +in dry air in motion than in calm and humid air. The observations become +still more striking when the skin is put in contact with a liquid or a +solid which suppresses perspiration. Lemoine endured a bath of Bareges +water of 37° for half an hour; but at 45° he could not remain in it more +than seven minutes, and the perspiration began to flow at the end of six +minutes. According to Brewster, persons who experience no malaise near +a fire which communicates a temperature of 100° C. to them, can hardly +bear contact with alcohol and oil at 55° and mercury at 48°. + +The facts adduced permit us to understand how it was possible to bear +one of the proofs to which it is said those were submitted who wished +to be initiated into the Egyptian mysteries. In a vast vaulted chamber +nearly a hundred feet long, there were erected two fences formed of +posts, around which were wound branches of Arabian balm, Egyptian thorn, +and tamarind--all very flexible and inflammable woods. When this was set +on fire the flames arose as far as the vault, licked it, and gave the +chamber the appearance of a hot furnace, the smoke escaping through +pipes made for the purpose. Then the door was suddenly opened before the +neophyte, and he was ordered to traverse this burning place, whose floor +was composed of an incandescent grating. + +The Abbé Terrason recounts all these details in his historic romance +"Sethos," printed at the end of last century. Unfortunately literary +frauds were in fashion then, and the book, published as a translation of +an old Greek manuscript, gives no indication of sources. I have sought +in special works for the data which the abbé must have had as a basis, +but I have not been able to find them. I suppose, however, that +this description, which is so precise, is not merely a work of the +imagination. The author goes so far as to give the dimensions of the +grating (30 feet by 8), and, greatly embarrassed to explain how his hero +was enabled to traverse it without being burned, is obliged to suppose +it to have been formed of very thick bars, between which Sethos had care +to place his feet. But this explanation is inadmissible. He who had the +courage to rush, head bowed, into the midst of the flames, certainly +would not have amused himself by choosing the place to put his feet. +Braving the fire that surrounded his entire body, he must have had no +other thought than that of reaching the end of his dangerous voyage as +soon as possible. We cannot see very well, moreover, how this immense +grate, lying on the ground, was raised to a red heat and kept at such a +temperature. It is infinitely more simple to suppose that between the +two fences there was a ditch sufficiently deep in which a fire had +also been lighted, and which was covered by a grating as in the Aldini +experiments. It is even probable that this grating was of copper, +which, illuminated by the fireplace, must have presented a terrifying +brilliancy, while in reality it served only to prevent the flames from +the fireplace reaching him who dared to brave them. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BUILDING STONE SUPPLY. + + +The use of stone as a building material was not resorted to, except to +a trifling extent, in this country until long after the need of such a +solid substance was felt. The early settler contented himself with the +log cabin, the corduroy road, and the wooden bridge, and loose stone +enough for foundation purposes could readily be gathered from the +surface of the earth. Even after the desirability of more handsome and +durable building material for public edifices in the colonial cities +than wood became apparent, the ample resources which nature had afforded +in this country were overlooked, and brick and stone were imported by +the Dutch and English settlers from the Old World. Thus we find the +colonists of the New Netherlands putting yellow brick on their list +of non-dutiable imports in 1648; and such buildings in Boston as are +described as being "fairly set forth with brick, tile, slate, and +stone," were thus provided only with foreign products. Isolated +instances of quarrying stone are known to have occurred in the last +century; but they are rare. The edifice known as "King's Chapel," +Boston, erected in 1752, is the first one on record as being built from +American stone; this was granite, brought from Braintree, Mass. + +Granite is a rock particularly abundant in New England, though also +found in lesser quantities elsewhere in this country. The first granite +quarries that were extensively developed were those at Quincy, Mass., +and work began at that point early in the present century. The fame of +the stone became widespread, and it was sent to distant markets--even to +New Orleans. The old Merchants' Exchange in New York (afterward used as +a custom house) the Astor House in that city, and the Custom House in +New Orleans, all nearly or quite fifty years old, were constructed of +Quincy granite, as were many other fine buildings along the Atlantic +coast. In later years, not only isolated public edifices, but also whole +blocks of stores, have been constructed of this material. It was from +the Quincy quarries that the first railroad in this country was built; +this was a horse-railroad, three miles long, extending to Neponset +River, built in 1827. + +Other points in Massachusetts have been famed for their excellent +granite. After Maine was set off as a distinct State, Fox Island +acquired repute for its granite, and built up an extensive traffic +therein. Westerly, R.I., has also been engaged in quarrying this +valuable rock for many years, most of its choicer specimens having been +wrought for monumental purposes. Statues and other elaborate monumental +designs are now extensively made therefrom. Smaller pieces and a coarser +quality of the stone are here and elsewhere along the coast obtained in +large quantities for the construction of massive breakwaters to protect +harbors. Another point famous for its granite is Staten Island, New +York. This stone weighs 180 pounds to the cubic foot, while the Quincy +granite weighs but 165. The Staten Island product is used not only for +building purposes, but is also especially esteemed for paving after both +the Russ and Belgian patents. New York and other cities derive large +supplies from this source. The granite of Weehawken, N.J., is of the +same character, and greatly in demand. Port Deposit, Md., and Richmond, +Va, are also centers of granite production. Near Abbeville, S.C., and +in Georgia, granite is found quite like that of Quincy. Much southern +granite, however, decomposes readily, and is almost as soft as clay. +This variety of stone is found in great abundance in the Rocky +Mountains; but, except to a slight extent in California, it is not yet +quarried there. + +Granite, having little grain, can be cut into blocks of almost any size +and shape. Specimens as much as eighty feet long have been taken out and +transported great distances. The quarrying is done by drilling a series +of small holes, six inches or more deep and almost the same distance +apart, inserting steel wedges along the whole line and then tapping each +gently with a hammer in succession, in order that the strain may be +evenly distributed. + +A building material that came into use earlier than granite is known as +freestone or sandstone; although its first employment does not date back +further than the erection of King's Chapel, Boston, already referred to +as the earliest well-known occasion where granite was used in building. +Altogether the most famous American sandstone quarries are those at +Portland, on the Connecticut River, opposite Middletown. These were +worked before the Revolution; and their product has been shipped to many +distant points in the country. The long rows of "brownstone fronts" in +New York city are mostly of Portland stone, though in many cases the +walls are chiefly of brick covered with thin layers of the stone. The +old red sandstone of the Connecticut valley is distinguished in geology +for the discovery of gigantic fossil footprints of birds, first noticed +in the Portland quarries in 1802. Some of these footprints measured +ten to sixteen inches, and they were from four to six feet apart. The +sandstone of Belleville, N.J., has also extensive use and reputation. +Trinity Church in New York city and the Boston Atheneum are built of the +product of these quarries; St. Lawrence County, New York, is noted also +for a fine bed of sandstone. At Potsdam it is exposed to a depth of +seventy feet. There are places though, in New England, New York, and +Eastern Pennsylvania, where a depth of three hundred feet has been +reached. The Potsdam sandstone is often split to the thinness of an +inch. It hardens by exposure, and is often used for smelting furnace +hearth-stones. Shawangunk Mountain, in Ulster County, yields a sandstone +of inferior quality, which has been unsuccessfully tried for paving; +as it wears very unevenly. From Ulster, Greene, and Albany Counties +sandstone slabs for sidewalks are extensively quarried for city use; +the principal outlets of these sections being Kingston, Saugerties, +Coxsackie, Bristol, and New Baltimore, on the Hudson. In this region +quantities amounting to millions of square feet are taken out in large +sheets, which are often sawed into the sizes desired. The vicinity of +Medina, in Western New York, yields a sandstone extensively used in that +section for paving and curbing, and a little for building. A rather poor +quality of this stone has been found along the Potomac, and some of it +was used in the erection of the old Capitol building at Washington. +Ohio yields a sandstone that is of a light gray color; Berea, Amherst, +Vermilion, and Massillon are the chief points of production. St. +Genevieve, Mo., yields a stone of fine grain of a light straw color, +which is quite equal to the famous Caen stone of France. The Lake +Superior sandstones are dark and coarse grained, but strong. + +In some parts of the country, where neither granite nor sandstone +is easily procured, blue and gray limestone are sometimes used for +building, and, when hammer dressed, often look like granite. A serious +objection to their use, however, is the occasional presence of iron, +which rusts on exposure, and defaces the building. In Western New York +they are widely used. Topeka stone, like the coquine of Florida and +Bermuda, is soft like wood when first quarried, and easily wrought, +but it hardens on exposure. The limestones of Canton, Mo., Joliet and +Athens, Ill., Dayton, Sandusky, Marblehead, and other points in Ohio, +Ellittsville, Ind., and Louisville and Bowling Green, Ky., are great +favorites west. In many of these regions limestone is extensively used +for macadamizing roads, for which it is excellently adapted. It also +yields excellent slabs or flags for sidewalks. + +One of the principal uses of this variety of stone is its conversion, by +burning, into lime for building purposes. All limestones are by no +means equally excellent in this regard. Thomaston lime, burned with +Pennsylvania coal, near the Penobscot River, has had a wide reputation +for nearly half a century. It has been shipped thence to all points +along the Atlantic coast, invading Virginia as far as Lynchburg, and +going even to New Orleans, Smithfield, R.I., and Westchester County, +N.Y., near the lower end of the Highlands, also make a particularly +excellent quality of lime. Kingston, in Ulster County, makes an inferior +sort for agricultural purposes. The Ohio and other western stones yield +a poor lime, and that section is almost entirely dependent on the east +for supplies. + +Marbles, like limestones, with which they are closely related, are very +abundant in this country, and are also to be found in a great variety of +colors. As early as 1804 American marble was used for statuary purposes. +Early in the century it also obtained extensive employment for +gravestones. Its use for building purposes has been more recent than +granite and sandstone in this country; and it is coming to supersede the +latter to a great degree. For mantels, fire-places, porch pillars, and +like ornamental purposes, however, our variegated, rich colored and +veined or brecciated marbles were in use some time before exterior walls +were made from them. Among the earliest marble buildings were Girard +College in Philadelphia and the old City Hall in New York, and the +Custom House in the latter city, afterward used for a sub-treasury. The +new Capitol building at Washington is among the more recent structures +composed of this material. Our exports of marble to Cuba and elsewhere +amount to over $300,000 annually, although we import nearly the same +amount from Italy. And yet an article can be found in the United States +fully as fine as the famous Carrara marble. We refer to that which comes +from Rutland, Vt. This state yields the largest variety and choicest +specimens. The marble belt runs both ways from Rutland County, where +the only quality fit for statuary is obtained. Toward the north it +deteriorates by growing less sound, though finer in grain; while to +the south it becomes coarser. A beautiful black marble is obtained at +Shoreham, Vt. There are also handsome brecciated marbles in the same +state; and in the extreme northern part, near Lake Champlain, they +become more variegated and rich in hue. Such other marble as is found +in New England is of an inferior quality. The pillars of Girard +College came from Berkshire, Mass., which ranks next after Vermont in +reputation. + +The marble belt extends from New England through New York, Pennsylvania, +Maryland, the District of Columbia, and Virginia, Tennessee, and the +Carolinas, to Georgia and Alabama. Some of the variegated and high +colored varieties obtained near Knoxville, Tenn., nearly equal that of +Vermont. The Rocky Mountains contain a vast abundance and variety. + +Slate was known to exist in this country to a slight extent in colonial +days. It was then used for gravestones, and to some extent for roofing +and school purposes. But most of our supplies came from Wales. It is +stated that a slate quarry was operated in Northampton County, Pa., as +early as 1805. In 1826 James M. Porter and Samuel Taylor engaged in the +business, obtaining their supplies from the Kittanninny Mountains. From +this time the business developed rapidly, the village of Slateford being +an outgrowth of it, and large rafts being employed to float the product +down the Schuylkill to Philadelphia. By 1860 the industry had reached +the capacity of 20,000 cases of slate, valued at $10 a case, annually. +In 1839 quarries were opened in the Piscataquis River, forty miles +north of Bangor, Me., but poor transportation facilities retarded the +business. Vermont began to yield in 1852. New York's quarries are +confined to Washington County, near the Vermont line. Maryland has +a limited supply from Harford County. The Huron Mountains, north of +Marquette, Mich., contain slate, which is also said to exist in Pike +County, Ga. + +Grindstones, millstones, and whetstones are quarried in New York, Ohio, +Michigan, Pennsylvania, and other States. Mica is found at Acworth and +Grafton, N. H., and near Salt Lake, but our chief supply comes from +Haywood, Yancey, Mitchell, and Macon counties, in North Carolina, and +our product is so large that we can afford to export it. Other stones, +such as silex, for making glass, etc., are found in profusion in various +parts of the country, but we have no space to enter into a detailed +account of them at present.--_Pottery and Glassware Reporter_. + + * * * * * + + + + +AN INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. + + +The most interesting change of which the Census gives account is the +increase in the number of farms. The number has virtually doubled within +twenty years. The population of the country has not increased in like +proportion. A large part of the increase in number of farms has been due +to the division of great estates. Nor has this occurred, as some may +imagine, exclusively in the Southern States and the States to which +immigration and migration have recently been directed. It is an +important fact that the multiplication of farms has continued even in +the older Northern States, though the change has not been as great in +these as in States of the far West or the South. In New York there has +been an increase of 25,000, or 11.5 per cent, in the number of farms +since 1870; in New Jersey the increase has been 12.2 per cent., and in +Pennsylvania 22.7 per cent., though the increase in population, and +doubtless in the number of persons engaged in farming, has been much +smaller. Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois also, have been considered fully +settled States for years, at least in an agricultural point of view, and +yet the number of farms has increased 26.1 per cent, in ten years in +Ohio, 20.3 percent, in Indiana, and 26.1 per cent, in Illinois. The +obvious explanation is that the growth of many cities and towns has +created a market for a far greater supply of those products which may be +most advantageously grown upon farms of moderate size; but even if this +fully accounts for the phenomenon, the change must be recognized as one +of the highest importance industrially, socially, and politically. The +man who owns or rents and cultivates a farm stands on a very different +footing from the laborer who works for wages. It is not a small matter +that, in these six States alone, there are 205,000 more owners or +managers of farms than there were only a decade ago. + +As we go further toward the border, west or north, the influence of the +settlement of new land is more distinctly felt. Even in Michigan, where +new railroads have opened new regions to settlement, the increase in +number of farms has been over 55 per cent. In Wisconsin, though the +increase in railroad mileage has been about the same as in Michigan, the +reported increase in number of farms has been only 28 per cent., but in +Iowa it rises to 60 per cent., and in Minnesota to nearly 100 per cent. +In Kansas the number of farms is 138,561, against 38,202 in 1870; in +Nebraska 63,387, against 12,301; and in Dakota 17,435, against 1,720. In +these regions the process is one of creation of new States rather than a +change in the social and industrial condition of the population. + +Some Southern States have gained largely, but the increase in these, +though very great, is less surprising than the new States of the +Northwest. The prevailing tendency of Southern agriculture to large +farms and the employment of many hands is especially felt in States +where land is still abundant. The greatest increase is in Texas, where +174,184 farms are reported, against 61,125 in 1870; in Florida, with +23,438 farms, against 10,241 in 1870; and in Arkansas, with 94,433 +farms, against 49,424 in 1870. In Missouri 215,575 farms are reported, +against 148,228 in 1870. In these States, though social changes have +been great, the increase in number of farms has been largely due to new +settlements, as in the States of the far Northwest. But the change in +the older Southern States is of a different character. + +Virginia, for example, has long been settled, and had 77,000 farms +thirty years ago. But the increase in number within the past ten years +has been 44,668, or 60.5 per cent. Contrasting this with the increase in +New York, a remarkable difference appears. West Virginia had few more +farms ten years ago than New Jersey; now it has nearly twice as many, +and has gained in number nearly 60 per cent. North Carolina, too, has +increased 78 per cent. in number of farms since 1870, and South Carolina +80 per cent. In Georgia the increase has been still greater--from 69,956 +to 138,626, or nearly 100 per cent. In Alabama there are 135,864 +farms, against 67,382 in 1870, an increase of over 100 per cent. These +proportions, contrasted with those for the older Northern States, reveal +a change that is nothing less than an industrial revolution. But the +force of this tendency to division of estates has been greatest in the +States named. Whereas the ratio of increase in number of farms becomes +greater in Northern States as we go from the East toward the Mississippi +River, at the South it is much smaller in Kentucky, Tennessee, +Mississippi, and Louisiana than in the older States on the Atlantic +coast. Thus in Louisiana the increase has been from 28,481 to 48,292 +farms, or 70 per cent., and in Mississippi from 68,023 to 101,772 farms, +or less than 50 per cent., against 100 in Alabama and Georgia. In +Kentucky the increase has been from 118,422 to 166,453 farms, or 40 per +cent., and in Tennessee from 118,141 to 165,650 farms, or 40 per cent., +against 60 in Virginia and West Virginia, and 78 in North Carolina. +Thus, while the tendency to division is far greater than in the Northern +States of corresponding age, it is found in full force only in six of +the older Southern States, Alabama, West Virginia, and four on the +Atlantic coast. In these, the revolution already effected foreshadows +and will almost certainly bring about important political changes within +a few years. In these six States there 310,795 more farm owners or +occupants than there were ten years ago.--_N.Y. Tribune_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A FARMER'S LIME KILN. + + +For information about burning lime we republish the following article +furnished by a correspondent of the _Country Gentleman_ several years +ago: + +[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. A (Fig. 1), Railway Track--B B B, +Iron Rods running through Kiln--C, Capstone over Arch--D, Arch--E, Well +without brick or ash lining.] + +I send you a description and sketch of a lime-kiln put up on my premises +about five years ago. The dimensions of this kiln are 13 feet square by +25 feet high from foundation, and its capacity 100 bushels in 24 hours. +It was constructed of the limestone quarried on the spot. It has round +iron rods (shown in sketch) passing through, with iron plates fastened +to the ends as clamps to make it more firm; the pair nearest the top +should be not less than 2 feet from that point, the others interspersed +about 2 feet apart--the greatest strain being near the top. The arch +should be 7 feet high by 5œ wide in front, with a gather on the top +and sides of about 1 foot, with plank floor; and if this has a little +incline it will facilitate shoveling the lime when drawn. The arch +should have a strong capstone; also one immediately under the well of +the kiln, with a hole 2 feet in diameter to draw the lime through; or +two may be used with semicircle cut in each. Iron bars 2 inches wide by +1/8 inch thick are used in this kiln for closing it, working in slots +fastened to capstone. These slots must be put in before the caps +are laid. When it is desired to draw lime, these bars may be +pushed laterally in the slots, or drawn out entirely, according to +circumstances; 3 bars will be enough. The slots are made of iron bars +1œ inches wide, with ends rounded and turned up, and inserted in holes +drilled through capstone and keyed above. + +The well of the kiln is lined with fire-brick one course thick, with a +stratum of coal ashes three inches thick tamped in between the brick +and wall, which proves a great protection to the wall. About 2,000 +fire-bricks were used. The proprietors of this kiln say about one-half +the lower part of the well might have been lined with a first quality of +common brick and saved some expense and been just as good. The form of +the well shown in Fig. 3 is 7 feet in diameter in the bilge, exclusive +of the lining of brick and ashes. Experiments in this vicinity have +proved this to be the best, this contraction toward the top being +absolutely necessary, the expansion of the stone by the heat is so +great that the lime cannot be drawn from perpendicular walls, as was +demonstrated in one instance near here, where a kiln was built on that +principle. The kiln, of course, is for coal, and our stone requires +about three-quarters of a ton per 100 bushels of lime, but this, I am +told, varies according to quality, some requiring more than others; the +quantity can best be determined by experimenting; also the regulation of +the heat--if too great it will cause the stones to melt or run together +as it were, or, if too little, they will not be properly burned. The +business requires skill and judgment to run it successfully. + +This kiln is located at the foot of a steep bluff, the top about level +with the top of the kiln, with railway track built of wooden sleepers, +with light iron bars, running from the bluff to the top of the kiln, and +a hand-car makes it very convenient filling the kiln. Such a location +should be had if possible. Your inquirer may perhaps get some ideas +of the principles of a kiln for using _coal_. The dimensions may be +reduced, if desired. If for _wood_, the arch would have to be formed for +that, and the height of kiln reduced. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF APPLE JELLY. + +[Footnote: From the report of the New York Agricultural Society.] + + +Within the county of Oswego, New York, Dewitt C. Peck reports there are +five apple jelly factories in operation. The failure of the apple crop, +for some singular and unexplained reason, does not extend in great +degree to the natural or ungrafted fruit. Though not so many as common, +even of these apples, there are yet enough to keep these five mills and +the numerous cider mills pretty well employed. The largest jelly factory +is located near the village of Mexico, and as there are some features in +regard to this manufacture peculiar to this establishment which may be +new and interesting, we will undertake a brief description. The factory +is located on the Salmon Creek, which affords the necessary power. A +portion of the main floor, first story, is occupied as a saw mill, +the slabs furnishing fuel for the boiler furnace connected with the +evaporating department. Just above the mill, along the bank of the pond, +and with one end projecting over the water, are arranged eight large +bins, holding from five hundred to one thousand bushels each, into which +the apples are delivered from the teams. The floor in each of these has +a sharp pitch or inclination toward the water and at the lower end is a +grate through which the fruit is discharged, when wanted, into a trough +half submerged in the pond. + +The preparation of the fruit and extraction of the juice proceeds +as follows: Upon hoisting a gate in the lower end of this trough, +considerable current is caused, and the water carries the fruit a +distance of from thirty to one hundred feet, and passes into the +basement of the mill, where, tumbling down a four-foot perpendicular +fall, into a tank, tight in its lower half and slatted so as to permit +the escape of water and impurities in the upper half, the apples are +thoroughly cleansed from all earthy or extraneous matter. Such is the +friction caused by the concussion of the fall, the rolling and rubbing +of the apples together, and the pouring of the water, that decayed +sections of the fruit are ground off and the rotten pulp passes away +with other impurities. From this tank the apples are hoisted upon an +endless chain elevator, with buckets in the form of a rake-head with +iron teeth, permitting drainage and escape of water, to an upper story +of the mill, whence by gravity they descend to the grater. The press +is wholly of iron, all its motions, even to the turning of the screws, +being actuated by the water power. The cheese is built up with layers +inclosed in strong cotton cloth, which displaces the straw used in olden +time, and serves also to strain the cider. As it is expressed from +the press tank, the cider passes to a storage tank, and thence to the +defecator. + +This defecator is a copper pan, eleven feet long and about three feet +wide. At each end of this pan is placed a copper tube three inches in +diameter and closed at both ends. Lying between and connecting +these two, are twelve tubes, also of copper, 1œ inches in diameter, +penetrating the larger tubes at equal distances from their upper and +under surfaces, the smaller being parallel with each other, and 1œ +inches apart. When placed in position, the larger tubes, which act as +manifolds, supplying the smaller with steam, rest upon the bottom of the +pan, and thus the smaller pipes have a space of three-fourths of an inch +underneath their outer surfaces. + +The cider comes from the storage tank in a continuous stream about +three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Steam is introduced to the large +or manifold tubes, and from them distributed through the smaller ones at +a pressure of from twenty-five to thirty pounds per inch. Trap valves +are provided for the escape of water formed by condensation within the +pipes. The primary object of the defecator is to remove all impurities +and perfectly clarify the liquid passing through it. All portions of +pomace and other minute particles of foreign matter, when heated, +expand and float in the form of scum upon the surface of the cider. An +ingeniously contrived floating rake drags off this scum and delivers it +over the side of the pan. To facilitate this removal, one side of the +pan, commencing at a point just below the surface of the cider, is +curved gently outward and upward, terminating in a slightly inclined +plane, over the edge of which the scum is pushed by the rake into a +trough and carried away. A secondary purpose served by the defecator +is that of reducing the cider by evaporation to a partial sirup of the +specific gravity of about 20° Baume. When of this consistency the liquid +is drawn from the bottom and less agitated portion of the defecator by a +siphon, and thence carried to the evaporator, which is located upon the +same framework and just below the defecator. + +The evaporator consists of a separate system of six copper tubes, each +twelve feet long and three inches in diameter. These are each jacketed +or inclosed in an iron pipe of four inches internal diameter, fitted +with steam-tight collars so as to leave half an inch steam space +surrounding the copper tubes. The latter are open at both ends +permitting the admission and egress of the sirup and the escape of the +steam caused by evaporation therefrom, and are arranged upon the frame +so as to have a very slight inclination downward in the direction of +the current, and each nearly underneath its predecessor in regular +succession. Each is connected by an iron supply pipe, having a steam +gauge or indicator attached, with a large manifold, and that by other +pipes with a steam boiler of thirty horse power capacity. Steam being +let on at from twenty five to thirty pounds pressure, the stream of +sirup is received from the defecator through a strainer, which removes +any impurities possibly remaining into the upper evaporator tube; +passing in a gentle flow through that, it is delivered into a funnel +connected with the next tube below, and so, back and forth, through the +whole system. The sirup enters the evaporator at a consistency of from +20° to 23° Baume, and emerges from the last tube some three minutes +later at a consistency of from 30° to 32° Baume, which is found on +cooling to be the proper point for perfect jelly. This point is found to +vary one or two degrees, according to the fermentation consequent upon +bruises in handling the fruit, decay of the same, or any little delay in +expressing the juice from the cheese. The least fermentation occasions +the necessity for a lower reduction. To guard against this, no cheese +is allowed to stand over night, no pomace left in the grater or vat, no +cider in the tank; and further to provide against fermentation, a large +water tank is located upon the roof and filled by a force pump, and by +means of hose connected with this, each grater, press, vat, tank, pipe, +trough, or other article of machinery used, can be thoroughly washed and +cleansed. Hot water, instead of cider, is sometimes sent through the +defecator, evaporator, etc., until all are thoroughly scalded and +purified. If the saccharometer shows too great or too little reduction, +the matter is easily regulated by varying the steam pressure in the +evaporator by means of a valve in the supply pipe. If boiled cider +instead of jelly is wanted for making pies, sauces, etc., it is drawn +off from one of the upper evaporator tubes according to the consistency +desired; or can be produced at the end of the process by simply reducing +the steam pressure. + +As the jelly emerges from the evaporator it is transferred to a tub +holding some fifty gallons, and by mixing a little therein, any little +variations in reduction or in the sweetness or sourness of the fruit +used are equalized. From this it is drawn through faucets, while hot, +into the various packages in which it is shipped to market. A favorite +form of package for family use is a nicely turned little wooden +bucket with cover and bail, two sizes, holding five and ten pounds +respectively. The smaller packages are shipped in cases for convenience +in handling. The present product of this manufactory is from 1,500 to +1,800 pounds of jelly each day of ten hours. It is calculated that +improvements now in progress will increase this to something more than a +ton per day. Each bushel of fruit will produce from four to five pounds +of jelly, fruit ripening late in the season being more productive than +earlier varieties. Crab apples produce the finest jelly; sour, crabbed, +natural fruit makes the best looking article, and a mixture of all +varieties gives most satisfactory results as to flavor and general +quality. + +As the pomace is shoveled from the finished cheese, it is again ground +under a toothed cylinder, and thence drops into large troughs, through a +succession of which a considerable stream of water is flowing. Here it +is occasionally agitated by raking from the lower to the upper end of +the trough as the current carries it downward, and the apple seeds +becoming disengaged drop to the bottom into still water, while the pulp +floats away upon the stream. A succession of troughs serves to remove +nearly all the seeds. The value of the apple seeds thus saved is +sufficient to pay the daily wages of all the hands employed in the whole +establishment. The apples are measured in the wagon box, one and a half +cubic feet being accounted a bushel. + +This mill ordinarily employs about six men: One general superintendent, +who buys and measures the apples, keeps time books, attends to all the +accounts and the working details of the mill, and acts as cashier; one +sawyer, who manufactures lumber for the local market and saws the slabs +into short lengths suitable for the furnace; one cider maker, who grinds +the apples and attends the presses; one jelly maker, who attends the +defecator, evaporator, and mixing tub, besides acting as his own fireman +and engineer; one who attends the apple seed troughs and acts as general +helper, and one man-of-all-work to pack, ship and assist whenever +needed. The establishment was erected late in the season of 1880, +and manufactured that year about forty-five tons of jelly, besides +considerable cider exchanged to the farmers for apples, and some boiled +cider. + +The price paid for apples in 1880, when the crop was superabundant, was +six to eight cents per bushel; in 1881, fifteen cents. The proprietor +hopes next year to consume 100,000 bushels. These institutions are +important to the farmer in that they use much fruit not otherwise +valuable and very perishable. Fruit so crabbed and gnarled as to have no +market value, and even frozen apples, if delivered while yet solid, can +be used. (Such apples are placed in the water while frozen, the water +draws the frost sufficiently to be grated, and passing through the press +and evaporator before there is time for chemical change, they are found +to make very good jelly. They are valuable to the consumer by converting +the perishable, cheap, almost worthless crop of the bearing and abundant +years into such enduring form that its consumption may be carried over +to years of scarcity and furnish healthful food in cheap and pleasant +form to many who would otherwise be deprived; and lastly, they are of +great interest to society, in that they give to cider twice the value +for purposes of food that it has or can have, even to the manufacturer, +for use as a beverage and intoxicant. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED GRAPE BAGS. + + +It stands to reason that were our summers warmer we should be able to +grow grapes successfully on open walls; it is therefore probable that +a new grape bag, the invention of M. Pelletier, 20 Rue de la Banque, +Paris, intended to serve a double purpose, viz., protecting the fruit +and hastening its maturity, will, when it becomes known, be welcomed in +this country. It consists of a square of curved glass so fixed to +the bag that the sun's rays are concentrated upon the fruit, thereby +rendering its ripening more certain in addition to improving its quality +generally. The glass is affixed to the bag by means of a light iron wire +support. It covers that portion of it next the sun, so that it increases +the amount of light and warms the grapes without scorching them, a +result due to the convexity of the glass and the layer of air between it +and the bag. M. Pelletier had the idea of rendering these bags cheaper +by employing plain squares instead of curved ones, but the advantage +thus obtained was more than counterbalanced by their comparative +inefficacy. In practice it was found that the curved squares gave an +average of 7° more than the straight ones, while there was a difference +of 10° when the bags alone were used, thus plainly demonstrating the +practical value of the invention. + +Whether these glass-fronted bags would have much value in the case of +grapes grown under glass in the ordinary way is a question that can only +be determined by actual experiment; but where the vines are on walls, +either under glass screens or in the open air, so that the bunches feel +the full force of the sun's rays, there can be no doubt as to their +utility, and it is probable that by their aid many of the continental +varieties which we do not now attempt to grow in the open, and which are +scarcely worthy of a place under glass, might be well ripened. At +any rate we ought to give anything a fair trial which may serve to +neutralize, if only in a slight degree, the uncertainty of our summers. +As it is, we have only about two varieties of grapes, and these not the +best of the hardy kinds, as regards flavor and appearance, that ripen +out of doors, and even these do not always succeed. We know next to +nothing of the many really well-flavored kinds which are so much +appreciated in many parts of the Continent. The fact is, our outdoor +culture of grapes offers a striking contrast to that practiced under +glass, and although our comparatively sunless and moist climate affords +some excuse for our shortcomings in this respect, there is no valid +reason for the utter want of good culture which is to be observed in a +general way. + +[Illustration: GRAPE BAG.--OPEN.] + +Given intelligent training, constant care in stopping the laterals, and +checking mildew as well as thinning the berries, allowing each bunch to +get the full benefit of sun and air, and I believe good eatable grapes +would often be obtained even in summers marked by a low average +temperature. + +[Illustration: GRAPE BAG.--CLOSED.] + +If, moreover, to a good system of culture we add some such mechanical +contrivance as that under notice whereby the bunches enjoy an average +warmth some 10° higher than they otherwise would do, we not only insure +the grapes coming to perfection in favored districts, but outdoor +culture might probably be practiced in higher latitudes than is now +practicable. + +[Illustration: CURVED GLASS FOR FRONT OF BAG.] + +The improved grape bag would also offer great facilities for destroying +mildew or guarantee the grapes against its attacks, as a light dusting +administered as soon as the berries were fairly formed would suffice for +the season, as owing to the glass protecting the berries from driving +rains, which often accompany south or south-west winds in summer and +autumn, the sulphur would not be washed off. + +[Illustration: CURVED GLASS FIXED ON BAG.] + +The inventor claims, and we should say with just reason, that these +glass fronted bags would be found equally serviceable for the ripening +of pears and other choice fruits, and with a view to their being +employed for such a purpose, he has had them made of varying sizes and +shapes. In conclusion, it may be observed that, in addition to advancing +the maturity of the fruits to which they are applied, they also serve to +preserve them from falling to the ground when ripe.--J. COBNHILL, _in +the Garden_. + + * * * * * + + + + +UTILIZATION OF SOLAR HEAT. + + +At a popular fête in the Tuileries Gardens I was struck with an +experiment which seems deserving of the immediate attention of the +English public and military authorities. + +Among the attractions of the fête was an apparatus for the concentration +and utilization of solar heat, and, though the sun was not very +brilliant, I saw this apparatus set in motion a printing machine which +printed several thousand copies of a specimen newspaper entitled the +_Soleil Journal_. + +The sun's rays are concentrated in a reflector, which moves at the +same rate as the sun and heats a vertical boiler, setting the motive +steam-engine at work. As may be supposed, the only object was to +demonstrate the possibility of utilizing the concentrated heat of the +solar rays; but I closely examined it, because the apparatus seems +capable of great utility in existing circumstances. Here in France, +indeed, there is a radical drawback--the sun is often overclouded. + +Thousands of years ago the idea of utilizing the solar rays must have +suggested itself, and there are still savage tribes who know no other +mode of combustion; but the scientific application has hitherto been +lacking. This void this apparatus will fill up. About fifteen years ago +Professor Mouchon, of Tours, began constructing such an apparatus, and +his experiments have been continued by M. Pifre, who has devoted much +labor and expense to realizing M. Mouchou's idea. A company has now come +to his aid, and has constructed a number of apparatus of different sizes +at a factory which might speedily turn out a large number of them. It is +evident that in a country of uninterrupted sunshine the boiler might be +heated in thirty or forty minutes. A portable apparatus could boil two +and one-half quarts an hour, or, say, four gallons a day, thus supplying +by distillation or ebullition six or eight men. The apparatus can be +easily carried on a man's back, and on condition of water, even of the +worst quality, being obtainable, good drinking and cooking water is +insured. M. De Rougaumond, a young scientific writer, has just published +an interesting volume on the invention. I was able yesterday to verify +his statements, for I saw cider made, a pump set in motion, and coffee +made--in short, the calorific action of the sun superseding that of +fuel. The apparatus, no doubt, has not yet reached perfection, but as it +is it would enable the soldier in India or Egypt to procure in the field +good water and to cook his food rapidly. The invention is of especial +importance to England just now, but even when the Egyptian question is +settled the Indian troops might find it of inestimable value. + +Red tape should for once be disregarded, and a competent commission +forthwith sent to 30 Rue d'Assas, with instructions to report +immediately, for every minute saved may avoid suffering for Englishmen +fighting abroad for their country. I may, of course, be mistaken, but +a commission would decide, and if the apparatus is good the slightest +delay in its adoption would be deplorable.--_Paris Correspondence London +Times_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO ESTABLISH A TRUE MERIDIAN. + +[Footnote: A paper read before the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia.] + +By PROFESSOR L. M. HAUPT. + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +The discovery of the magnetic needle was a boon to mankind, and has been +of inestimable service in guiding the mariner through trackless waters, +and the explorer over desert wastes. In these, its legitimate uses, the +needle has not a rival, but all efforts to apply it to the accurate +determination of permanent boundary lines have proven very +unsatisfactory, and have given rise to much litigation, acerbity, and +even death. + +For these and other cogent reasons, strenuous efforts are being made to +dispense, so far as practicable, with the use of the magnetic needle +in surveying, and to substitute therefor the more accurate method of +traversing from a true meridian. This method, however, involves a +greater degree of preparation and higher qualifications than are +generally possessed, and unless the matter can be so simplified as to be +readily understood, it is unreasonable to expect its general application +in practice. + +Much has been written upon the various methods of determining, the +true meridian, but it is so intimately related to the determination of +latitude and time, and these latter in turn upon the fixing of a true +meridian, that the novice can find neither beginning nor end. When to +these difficulties are added the corrections for parallax, refraction, +instrumental errors, personal equation, and the determination of the +probable error, he is hopelessly confused, and when he learns that time +may be sidereal, mean solar, local, Greenwich, or Washington, and he is +referred to an ephemeris and table of logarithms for data, he becomes +lost in "confusion worse confounded," and gives up in despair, settling +down to the conviction that the simple method of compass surveying is +the best after all, even if not the most accurate. + +Having received numerous requests for information upon the subject, I +have thought it expedient to endeavor to prepare a description of the +method of determining the true meridian which should be sufficiently +clear and practical to be generally understood by those desiring to make +use of such information. + +This will involve an elementary treatment of the subject, beginning with +the + + +DEFINITIONS. + +The _celestial sphere_ is that imaginary surface upon which all +celestial objects are projected. Its radius is infinite. + +The _earth's axis_ is the imaginary line about which it revolves. + +The _poles_ are the points in which the axis pierces the surface of the +earth, or of the celestial sphere. + +A _meridian_ is a great circle of the earth cut out by a plane passing +through the axis. All meridians are therefore north and south lines +passing through the poles. + +From these definitions it follows that if there were a star exactly at +the pole it would only be necessary to set up an instrument and take a +bearing to it for the meridian. Such not being the case, however, we are +obliged to take some one of the near circumpolar stars as our object, +and correct the observation according to its angular distance from the +meridian at the time of observation. + +For convenience, the bright star known as Ursæ Minoris or Polaris, is +generally selected. This star apparently revolves about the north pole, +in an orbit whose mean radius is 1° 19' 13",[1] making the revolution in +23 hours 56 minutes. + +[Footnote 1: This is the codeclination as given in the Nautical Almanac. +The mean value decreases by about 20 seconds each year.] + +During this time it must therefore cross the meridian twice, once above +the pole and once below; the former is called the _upper_, and the +latter the _lower meridian transit or culmination_. It must also pass +through the points farthest east and west from the meridian. The former +is called the _eastern elongation_, the latter the _western_. + +An observation may he made upon Polaris at any of these four points, +or at any other point of its orbit, but this latter case becomes too +complicated for ordinary practice, and is therefore not considered. + +If the observation were made upon the star at the time of its upper or +lower culmination, it would give the true meridian at once, but this +involves a knowledge of the true local time of transit, or the longitude +of the place of observation, which is generally an unknown quantity; and +moreover, as the star is then moving east or west, or at right angles to +the place of the meridian, at the rate of 15° of arc in about one hour, +an error of so slight a quantity as only four seconds of time would +introduce an error of one minute of arc. If the observation be made, +however, upon either elongation, when the star is moving up or down, +that is, in the direction of the vertical wire of the instrument, the +error of observation in the angle between it and the pole will be +inappreciable. This is, therefore, the best position upon which to make +the observation, as the precise time of the elongation need not be +given. It can be determined with sufficient accuracy by a glance at the +relative positions of the star Alioth, in the handle of the Dipper, +and Polaris (see Fig. 1). When the line joining these two stars is +horizontal or nearly so, and Alioth is to the _west_ of Polaris, the +latter is at its _eastern_ elongation, and _vice versa_, thus: + +[Illustration] + +But since the star at either elongation is off the meridian, it will +be necessary to determine the angle at the place of observation to be +turned off on the instrument to bring it into the meridian. This angle, +called the azimuth of the pole star, varies with the latitude of the +observer, as will appear from Fig 2, and hence its value must be +computed for different latitudes, and the surveyor must know his +_latitude_ before he can apply it. Let N be the north pole of the +celestial sphere; S, the position of Polaris at its eastern elongation; +then N S=1° 19' 13", a constant quantity. The azimuth of Polaris at the +latitude 40° north is represented by the angle N O S, and that at 60° +north, by the angle N O' S, which is greater, being an exterior angle +of the triangle, O S O. From this we see that the azimuth varies at the +latitude. + +We have first, then, to _find the latitude of the place of observation_. + +Of the several methods for doing this, we shall select the simplest, +preceding it by a few definitions. + +A _normal_ line is the one joining the point directly overhead, called +the _zenith_, with the one under foot called the _nadir_. + +The _celestial horizon_ is the intersection of the celestial sphere by a +plane passing through the center of the earth and perpendicular to the +normal. + +A _vertical circle_ is one whose plane is perpendicular to the horizon, +hence all such circles must pass through the normal and have the zenith +and nadir points for their poles. The _altitude_ of a celestial object +is its distance above the horizon measured on the arc of a vertical +circle. As the distance from the horizon to the zenith is 90°, the +difference, or _complement_ of the altitude, is called the _zenith +distance_, or _co-altitude_. + +The _azimuth_ of an object is the angle between the vertical plane +through the object and the plane of the meridian, measured on the +horizon, and usually read from the south point, as 0°, through west, at +90, north 180°, etc., closing on south at 0° or 360°. + +These two co-ordinates, the altitude and azimuth, will determine the +position of any object with reference to the observer's place. The +latter's position is usually given by his latitude and longitude +referred to the equator and some standard meridian as co-ordinates. + +The _latitude_ being the angular distance north or south of the equator, +and the _longitude_ east or west of the assumed meridian. + +We are now prepared to prove that _the altitude of the pole is equal to +the latitude of the place of observation_. + +Let H P Z Q¹, etc., Fig. 2, represent a meridian section of the sphere, +in which P is the north pole and Z the place of observation, then H H¹ +will be the horizon, Q Q¹ the equator, H P will be the altitude of P, +and Q¹ Z the latitude of Z. These two arcs are equal, for H C Z = P C +Q¹ = 90°, and if from these equal quadrants the common angle P C Z be +subtracted, the remainders H C P and Z C Q¹, will be equal. + +To _determine the altitude of the pole_, or, in other words, _the +latitude of the place_. + +Observe the altitude of the pole star _when on the meridian_, either +above or below the pole, and from this observed altitude corrected for +refraction, subtract the distance of the star from the pole, or its +_polar distance_, if it was an upper transit, or add it if a lower. +The result will be the required latitude with sufficient accuracy for +ordinary purposes. + +The time of the star's being on the meridian can be determined with +sufficient accuracy by a mere inspection of the heavens. The refraction +is _always negative_, and may be taken from the table appended by +looking up the amount set opposite the observed altitude. Thus, if the +observer's altitude should be 40° 39' the nearest refraction 01' 07", +should be subtracted from 40° 37' 00", leaving 40° 37' 53" for the +latitude. + + +TO FIND THE AZIMUTH OF POLARIS. + +As we have shown the azimuth of Polaris to be a function of the +latitude, and as the latitude is now known, we may proceed to find the +required azimuth. For this purpose we have a right-angled spherical +triangle, Z S P, Fig. 4, in which Z is the place of observation, P the +north pole, and S is Polaris. In this triangle we have given the polar +distance, P S = 10° 19' 13"; the angle at S = 90°; and the distance Z +P, being the complement of the latitude as found above, or 90°--L. +Substituting these in the formula for the azimuth, we will have sin. Z = +sin. P S / sin P Z or sin. of Polar distance / sin. of co-latitude, from +which, by assuming different values for the co-latitude, we compute the +following table: + + AZIMUTH TABLE FOR POINTS BETWEEN 26° and 50° N. LAT. + + LATTITUDES + ___________________________________________________________________ +| | | | | | | | +| Year | 26° | 28° | 30° | 32° | 34° | 36° | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | +| 1882 | 1 28 05 | 1 29 40 | 1 31 25 | 1 33 22 | 1 35 30 | 1 37 52 | +| 1883 | 1 27 45 | 1 29 20 | 1 31 04 | 1 33 00 | 1 35 08 | 1 37 30 | +| 1884 | 1 27 23 | 1 28 57 | 1 30 41 | 1 32 37 | 1 34 45 | 1 37 05 | +| 1885 | 1 27 01 | 1 28 35œ | 1 30 19 | 1 32 14 | 1 34 22 | 1 36 41 | +| 1886 | 1 26 39 | 1 28 13 | 1 29 56 | 1 31 51 | 1 33 57 | 1 36 17 | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| Year | 38° | 40° | 42° | 44° | 46° | 48° | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | +| 1882 | 1 40 29 | 1 43 21 | 1 46 33 | 1 50 05 | 1 53 59 | 1 58 20 | +| 1883 | 1 40 07 | 1 42 58 | 1 46 08 | 1 49 39 | 1 53 34 | 1 57 53 | +| 1884 | 1 39 40 | 1 42 31 | 1 45 41 | 1 49 11 | 1 53 05 | 1 57 23 | +| 1885 | 1 39 16 | 1 42 07 | 1 45 16 | 1 48 45 | 1 52 37 | 1 56 54 | +| 1886 | 1 38 51 | 1 41 41 | 1 44 49 | 1 48 17 | 1 52 09 | 1 56 24 | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | +| Year | 50° | +|______|_________| +| | | +| | ° ' " | +| 1882 | 2 03 11 | +| 1883 | 2 02 42 | +| 1884 | 2 02 11 | +| 1885 | 2 01 42 | +| 1886 | 2 01 11 | +|______|_________| + +An analysis of this table shows that the azimuth this year (1882) +increases with the latitude from 1° 28' 05" at 26° north, to 2° 3' 11" +at 50° north, or 35' 06". It also shows that the azimuth of Polaris at +any one point of observation decreases slightly from year to year. This +is due to the increase in declination, or decrease in the star's polar +distance. At 26° north latitude, this annual decrease in the azimuth +is about 22", while at 50° north, it is about 30". As the variation in +azimuth for each degree of latitude is small, the table is only computed +for the even numbered degrees; the intermediate values being readily +obtained by interpolation. We see also that an error of a few minutes of +latitude will not affect the result in finding the meridian, e.g., the +azimuth at 40° north latitude is 1° 43' 21", that at 41° would be 1° 44' +56", the difference (01' 35") being the correction for one degree of +latitude between 40° and 41°. Or, in other words, an error of one degree +in finding one's latitude would only introduce an error in the azimuth +of one and a half minutes. With ordinary care the probable error of the +latitude as determined from the method already described need not exceed +a few minutes, making the error in azimuth as laid off on the arc of an +ordinary transit graduated to single minutes, practically zero. + +REFRACTION TABLE FOR ANY ALTITUDE WITHIN THE LATITUDE OF THE UNITED +STATES. + + _____________________________________________________ +| | | | | +| Apparent | Refraction | Apparent | Refraction | +| Altitude. | _minus_. | Altitude. | _minus_. | +|___________|______________|___________|______________| +| | | | | +| 25° | 0° 2' 4.2" | 38° | 0° 1' 14.4" | +| 26 | 1 58.8 | 39 | 1 11.8 | +| 27 | 1 53.8 | 40 | 1 9.3 | +| 28 | 1 49.1 | 41 | 1 6.9 | +| 29 | 1 44.7 | 42 | 1 4.6 | +| 30 | 1 40.5 | 43 | 1 2.4 | +| 31 | 1 36.6 | 44 | 0 0.3 | +| 32 | 1 33.0 | 45 | 0 58.1 | +| 33 | 1 29.5 | 46 | 0 56.1 | +| 34 | 1 26.1 | 47 | 0 54.2 | +| 35 | 1 23.0 | 48 | 0 52.3 | +| 36 | 1 20.0 | 49 | 0 50.5 | +| 37 | 1 17.1 | 50 | 0 48.8 | +|___________|______________|___________|______________| + + +APPLICATIONS. + +In practice to find the true meridian, two observations must be made at +intervals of six hours, or they may be made upon different nights. The +first is for latitude, the second for azimuth at elongation. + +To make either, the surveyor should provide himself with a good transit +with vertical arc, a bull's eye, or hand lantern, plumb bobs, stakes, +etc.[1] Having "set up" over the point through which it is proposed to +establish the meridian, at a time when the line joining Polaris and +Alioth is nearly vertical, level the telescope by means of the attached +level, which should be in adjustment, set the vernier of the vertical +arc at zero, and take the reading. If the pole star is about making its +_upper_ transit, it will rise gradually until reaching the meridian as +it moves westward, and then as gradually descend. When near the highest +part of its orbit point the telescope at the star, having an assistant +to hold the "bull's eye" so as to reflect enough light down the tube +from the object end to illumine the cross wires but not to obscure the +star, or better, use a perforated silvered reflector, clamp the tube in +this position, and as the star continues to rise keep the _horizontal_ +wire upon it by means of the tangent screw until it "rides" along this +wire and finally begins to fall below it. Take the reading of the +vertical arc and the result will be the observed altitude. + +[Footnote 1: A sextant and artificial horizon may be used to find the +_altitude_ of a star. In this case the observed angle must be divided by +2.] + + +ANOTHER METHOD. + +It is a little more accurate to find the altitude by taking the +complement of the observed zenith distance, if the vertical arc has +sufficient range. This is done by pointing first to Polaris when at +its highest (or lowest) point, reading the vertical arc, turning the +horizontal limb half way around, and the telescope over to get another +reading on the star, when the difference of the two readings will be the +_double_ zenith distance, and _half_ of this subtracted from 90° will be +the required altitude. The less the time intervening between these two +pointings, the more accurate the result will be. + +Having now found the altitude, correct it for refraction by subtracting +from it the amount opposite the observed altitude, as given in the +refraction table, and the result will be the latitude. The observer must +now wait about six hours until the star is at its western elongation, +or may postpone further operations for some subsequent night. In the +meantime he will take from the azimuth table the amount given for his +date and latitude, now determined, and if his observation is to be made +on the western elongation, he may turn it off on his instrument, so +that when moved to zero, _after_ the observation, the telescope will be +brought into the meridian or turned to the right, and a stake set by +means of a lantern or plummet lamp. + +[Illustration] + +It is, of course, unnecessary to make this correction at the time of +observation, for the angle between any terrestrial object and the star +may be read and the correction for the azimuth of the star applied at +the surveyor's convenience. It is always well to check the accuracy of +the work by an observation upon the other elongation before putting in +permanent meridian marks, and care should be taken that they are not +placed near any local attractions. The meridian having been established, +the magnetic variation or declination may readily be found by setting +an instrument on the meridian and noting its bearing as given by the +needle. If, for example, it should be north 5° _east_, the variation is +west, because the north end of the needle is _west_ of the meridian, and +_vice versa_. + +_Local time_ may also be readily found by observing the instant when the +sun's center[1] crosses the line, and correcting it for the equation of +time as given above--the result is the true or mean solar time. This, +compared with the clock, will show the error of the latter, and by +taking the difference between the local lime of this and any other +place, the difference of longitude is determined in hours, which can +readily be reduced to degrees by multiplying by fifteen, as 1 h. = 15°. + +[Footnote 1: To obtain this time by observation, note the instant of +first contact of the sun's limb, and also of last contact of same, and +take the mean.] + +APPROXIMATE EQUATION OF TIME. + + _______________________ + | | | + | Date. | Minutes. | + |__________|____________| + | | | + | Jan. 1 | 4 | + | 3 | 5 | + | 5 | 6 | + | 7 | 7 | + | 9 | 8 | + | 12 | 9 | + | 15 | 10 | + | 18 | 11 | + | 21 | 12 | + | 25 | 13 | + | 31 | 14 | + | Feb. 10 | 15 | + | 21 | 14 | Clock + | 27 | 13 | faster + | M'ch 4 | 12 | than + | 8 | 11 | sun. + | 12 | 10 | + | 15 | 9 | + | 19 | 8 | + | 22 | 7 | + | 25 | 6 | + | 28 | 5 | + | April 1 | 4 | + | 4 | 3 | + | 7 | 2 | + | 11 | 1 | + | 15 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 19 | 1 | + | 24 | 2 | + | 30 | 3 | + | May 13 | 4 | Clock + | 29 | 3 | slower. + | June 5 | 2 | + | 10 | 1 | + | 15 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 20 | 1 | + | 25 | 2 | + | 29 | 3 | + | July 5 | 4 | + | 11 | 5 | + | 28 | 6 | Clock + | Aug. 9 | 5 | faster. + | 15 | 4 | + | 20 | 3 | + | 24 | 2 | + | 28 | 1 | + | 31 | 0 | + | |------------| + | Sept. 3 | 1 | + | 6 | 2 | + | 9 | 3 | + | 12 | 4 | + | 15 | 5 | + | 18 | 6 | + | 21 | 7 | + | 24 | 8 | + | 27 | 9 | + | 30 | 10 | + | Oct. 3 | 11 | + | 6 | 12 | + | 10 | 13 | + | 14 | 14 | + | 19 | 15 | + | 27 | 16 | Clock + | Nov. 15 | 15 | slower. + | 20 | 14 | + | 24 | 13 | + | 27 | 12 | + | 30 | 11 | + | Dec. 2 | 10 | + | 5 | 9 | + | 7 | 8 | + | 9 | 7 | + | 11 | 6 | + | 13 | 5 | + | 16 | 4 | + | 18 | 3 | + | 20 | 2 | + | 22 | 1 | + | 24 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 26 | 1 | + | 28 | 2 | Clock + | 30 | 3 | faster. + |__________|____________| + + * * * * * + + + + +THE OCELLATED PHEASANT. + + +The collections of the Museum of Natural History of Paris have just been +enriched with a magnificent, perfectly adult specimen of a species of +bird that all the scientific establishments had put down among their +desiderata, and which, for twenty years past, has excited the curiosity +of naturalists. This species, in fact, was known only by a few caudal +feathers, of which even the origin was unknown, and which figured in the +galleries of the Jardin des Plantes under the name of _Argus ocellatus_. +This name was given by J. Verreaux, who was then assistant naturalist at +the museum. It was inscribed by Prince Ch. L. Bonaparte, in his Tableaux +Paralléliques de l'Ordre des Gallinaces, as _Argus giganteus_, and a +few years later it was reproduced by Slater in his Catalogue of the +Phasianidæ, and by Gray is his List of the Gallinaceæ. But it was not +till 1871 and 1872 that Elliot, in the Annals and Magazine of Natural +History, and in a splendid monograph of the Phasianidæ, pointed out +the peculiarities that were presented by the feathers preserved at the +Museum of Paris, and published a figure of them of the natural size. + +The discovery of an individual whose state of preservation leaves +nothing to be desired now comes to demonstrate the correctness of +Verreaux's, Bonaparte's, and Elliot's suppositions. This bird, whose +tail is furnished with feathers absolutely identical with those that +the museum possessed, is not a peacock, as some have asserted, nor an +ordinary Argus of Malacca, nor an argus of the race that Elliot named +_Argus grayi_, and which inhabits Borneo, but the type of a new genus of +the family Phasianidæ. This Gallinacean, in fact, which Mr. Maingonnat +has given up to the Museum of Natural History, has not, like the common +Argus of Borneo, excessively elongated secondaries; and its tail is not +formed of normal rectrices, from the middle of which spring two very +long feathers, a little curved and arranged like a roof; but it consists +of twelve wide plane feathers, regularly tapering, and ornamented with +ocellated spots, arranged along the shaft. Its head is not bare, but is +adorned behind with a tuft of thread-like feathers; and, finally, its +system of coloration and the proportions of the different parts of its +body are not the same as in the common argus of Borneo. There is reason, +then, for placing the bird, under the name of _Rheinardius ocellatus_, +in the family Phasianidæ, after the genus _Argus_ which it connects, +after a manner, with the pheasants properly so-called. The specific name +_ocellatus_ has belonged to it since 1871, and must be substituted for +that of _Rheinardi_. + +The bird measures more than two meters in length, three-fourths of which +belong to the tail. The head, which is relatively small, appears to be +larger than it really is, owing to the development of the piliform tuft +on the occiput, this being capable of erection so as to form a crest +0.05 to 0.06 of a meter in height. The feathers of this crest are +brown and white. The back and sides of the head are covered with downy +feathers of a silky brown and silvery gray, and the front of the neck +with piliform feathers of a ruddy brown. The upper part of the body is +of a blackish tint and the under part of a reddish brown, the whole +dotted with small white or _café-au-lait_ spots. Analogous spots are +found on the wings and tail, but on the secondaries these become +elongated, and tear-like in form. On the remiges the markings are quite +regularly hexagonal in shape; and on the upper coverts of the tail +and on the rectrices they are accompanied with numerous ferruginous +blotches, some of which are irregularly scattered over the whole surface +of the vane, while others, marked in the center with a blackish spot, +are disposed in series along the shaft and resemble ocelli. This +similitude of marking between the rectrices and subcaudals renders the +distinction between these two kinds of feathers less sharp than in many +other Gallinaceans, and the more so in that two median rectrices are +considerably elongated and assume exactly the aspect of tail feathers. + +[Illustration: THE OCELLATED PHEASANT (_Rheinardius ocellatus_).] + +The true rectrices are twelve in number. They are all absolutely plane, +all spread out horizontally, and they go on increasing in length +from the exterior to the middle. They are quite wide at the point of +insertion, increase in diameter at the middle, and afterward taper to +a sharp point. Altogether they form a tail of extraordinary length and +width which the bird holds slightly elevated, so as to cause it to +describe a graceful curve, and the point of which touches the soil. The +beak, whose upper mandible is less arched than that of the pheasants, +exactly resembles that of the arguses. It is slightly inflated at the +base, above the nostrils, and these latter are of an elongated-oval +form. In the bird that I have before me the beak, as well as the feet +and legs, is of a dark rose-color. The legs are quite long and are +destitute of spurs. They terminate in front in three quite delicate +toes, connected at the base by membranes, and behind in a thumb that is +inserted so high that it scarcely touches the ground in walking. This +magnificent bird was captured in a portion of Tonkin as yet unexplored +by Europeans, in a locality named Buih-Dinh, 400 kilometers to the south +of Hué.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MAIDENHAIR TREE. + + +The Maidenhair tree--Gingkgo biloba--of which we give an illustration, +is not only one of our most ornamental deciduous trees, but one of the +most interesting. Few persons would at first sight take it to be a +Conifer, more especially as it is destitute of resin; nevertheless, +to that group it belongs, being closely allied to the Yew, but +distinguishable by its long-stalked, fan-shaped leaves, with numerous +radiating veins, as in an Adiantum. These leaves, like those of the +larch but unlike most Conifers, are deciduous, turning of a pale yellow +color before they fall. The tree is found in Japan and in China, but +generally in the neighborhood of temples or other buildings, and is, we +believe, unknown in a truly wild state. As in the case of several other +trees planted in like situations, such as Cupressus funebris, Abies +fortunei, A. kæmpferi, Cryptomeria japonica, Sciadopitys verticillata, +it is probable that the trees have been introduced from Thibet, or +other unexplored districts, into China and Japan. Though now a solitary +representative of its genus, the Gingkgo was well represented in the +coal period, and also existed through the secondary and tertiary epochs, +Professor Heer having identified kindred specimens belonging to sixty +species and eight genera in fossil remains generally distributed through +the northern hemisphere. Whatever inference we may draw, it is at least +certain that the tree was well represented in former times, if now it +be the last of its race. It was first known to Kæmpfer in 1690, and +described by him in 1712, and was introduced into this country in the +middle of the eighteenth century. Loudon relates a curious tale as +to the manner in which a French amateur became possessed of it. The +Frenchman, it appears, came to England, and paid a visit to an English +nurseryman, who was the possessor of five plants, raised from Japanese +seeds. The hospitable Englishman entertained the Frenchman only too +well. He allowed his commercial instincts to be blunted by wine, and +sold to his guest the five plants for the sum of 25 guineas. Next +morning, when time for reflection came, the Englishman attempted to +regain one only of the plants for the same sum that the Frenchman had +given for all five, but without avail. The plants were conveyed to +France, where as each plant had cost about 40 crowns, _ecus_, the tree +got the name of _arbre a quarante ecus_. This is the story as given by +Loudon, who tells us that Andre Thouin used to relate the fact in his +lectures at the Jardin des Plantes, whether as an illustration of the +perfidy of Albion is not stated. + +The tree is dioecious, bearing male catkins on one plant, female on +another. All the female trees in Europe are believed to have originated +from a tree near Geneva, of which Auguste Pyramus de Candolle secured +grafts, and distributed them throughout the Continent. Nevertheless, the +female tree is rarely met with, as compared with the male; but it is +quite possible that a tree which generally produces male flowers only +may sometimes bear female flowers only. We have no certain evidence of +this in the case of the Gingkgo, but it is a common enough occurrence in +other dioecious plants, and the occurrence of a fruiting specimen near +Philadelphia, as recently recorded by Mr. Meehan, may possibly be +attributed to this cause. + +The tree of which we give a figure is growing at Broadlands, Hants, and +is about 40 feet in height, with a trunk that measures 7 feet in girth +at 3 feet from the ground, with a spread of branches measuring 45 feet. +These dimensions have been considerably exceeded in other cases. In 1837 +a tree at Purser's Cross measured 60 feet and more in height. Loudon +himself had a small tree in his garden at Bayswater on which a female +branch was grafted. It is to be feared that this specimen has long since +perished. + +We have already alluded to its deciduous character, in which it is +allied to the larch. It presents another point of resemblance both to +the larch and the cedar in the short spurs upon which both leaves and +male catkins are borne, but these contracted branches are mingled with +long extension shoots; there seems, however, no regular alternation +between the short and the long shoots, at any rate the _rationale_ of +their production is not understood, though in all probability a little +observation of the growing plant would soon clear the matter up. + +The fruit is drupaceous, with a soft outer coat and a hard woody shell, +greatly resembling that of a Cycad, both externally and internally. +Whether the albumen contains the peculiar "corpuscles" common to Cycads +and Conifers, we do not for certain know, though from the presence of 2 +to 3 embryos in one seed, as noted by Endlicher, we presume this is the +case. The interest of these corpuscles, it may be added, lies in the +proof of affinity they offer between Conifers and the higher Cryptogams, +such as ferns and lycopods--an affinity shown also in the peculiar +venation of the Gingkgo. Conifers are in some degree links between +ordinary flowering plants and the higher Cryptogams, and serve to +connect in genealogical sequence groups once considered quite distinct. +In germination the two fleshy cotyledons of the Gingkgo remain within +the shell, leaving the three-sided plumule to pass upward; the young +stem bears its leaves in threes. + +We have no desire to enter further upon the botanical peculiarities of +this tree; enough if we have indicated in what its peculiar interest +consists. We have only to add that in gardens varieties exist some with +leaves more deeply cut than usual, others with leaves nearly entire, and +others with leaves of a golden-yellow color.--_Gardeners' Chronicle_. + +[Illustration: THE MAIDENHAIR TREE IN THE GARDENS AT BROADLANDS.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE WOODS OF AMERICA. + + +A collection of woods without a parallel in the world is now being +prepared for exhibition by the Directors of the American Museum of +Natural History. Scattered about the third floor of the Arsenal, in +Central Park, lie 394 logs, some carefully wrapped in bagging, +some inclosed in rough wooden cases, and others partially sawn +longitudinally, horizontally, and diagonally. These logs represent all +but 26 of the varieties of trees indigenous to this country, and +nearly all have a greater or less economic or commercial value. The 26 +varieties needed to complete the collection will arrive before winter +sets in, a number of specimens being now on their way to this city from +the groves of California. Mr. S. D. Dill and a number of assistants are +engaged in preparing the specimens for exhibition. The logs as they +reach the workroom are wrapped in bagging and inclosed in cases, this +method being used so that the bark, with its growth of lichens and +delicate exfoliations, shall not be injured while the logs are in +process of transportation from various parts of the country to this +city. The logs are each 6 feet in length, and each is the most perfect +specimen of its class that could be found by the experts employed in +making the collection. With the specimens of the trees come to the +museum also specimens of the foliage and the fruits and flowers of the +tree. These come from all parts of the Union--from Alaska on the north +to Texas on the south, from Maine on the east to California on the +west--and there is not a State or Territory in the Union which has not a +representative in this collection of logs. On arrival here the logs are +green, and the first thing in the way of treatment after their arrival +is to season them, a work requiring great care to prevent them from +"checking," as it is technically called, or "season cracking," as the +unscientific term the splitting of the wood in radiating lines during +the seasoning process. As is well known, the sap-wood of a tree seasons +much more quickly than does the heart of the wood. The prevention of +this splitting is very necessary in preparing these specimens for +exhibition, for when once the wood has split its value for dressing for +exhibition is gone. A new plan to prevent this destruction of specimens +is now being tried with some success under the direction of Prof. +Bickmore, superintendent of the museum. Into the base of the log and +alongside the heart a deep hole is bored with an auger. As the wood +seasons this hole permits of a pressure inward and so has in many +instances doubtless saved valuable specimens. One of the finest in the +collection, a specimen of the persimmon tree, some two feet in diameter, +has been ruined by the seasoning process. On one side there is a huge +crack, extending from the top to the bottom of the log, which looks as +though some amateur woodman had attempted to split it with an ax and +had made a poor job of it. The great shrinking of the sap-wood of the +persimmon tree makes the wood of but trifling value commercially. +It also has a discouraging effect upon collectors, as it is next to +impossible to cure a specimen, so that all but this one characteristic +of the wood can be shown to the public in a perfect form. + +Before the logs become thoroughly seasoned, or their lines of growth at +all obliterated, a diagram of each is made, showing in accordance with +a regular scale the thickness of the bark, the sap-wood, and the heart. +There is also in this diagram a scale showing the growth of the tree +during each year of its life, these yearly growths being regularly +marked about the heart of the tree by move or less regular concentric +circles, the width of which grows smaller and smaller as the tree grows +older. In this connection attention may be called to a specimen in the +collection which is considered one of the most remarkable in the world. +It is not a native wood, but an importation, and the tree from which +this wonderful slab is cut is commonly known as the "Pride of India." +The heart of this particular tree was on the port side, and between it +and the bark there is very little sap-wood, not more than an inch. +On the starbord side, so to speak, the sap-wood has grown out in an +abnormal manner, and one of the lines indicative of a year's growth is +one and seven-eighths inches in width, the widest growth, many experts +who have seen the specimen say, that was ever recorded. The diagrams +referred to are to be kept for scientific uses, and the scheme of +exhibition includes these diagrams as a part of the whole. + +After a log has become seasoned it is carefully sawed through the center +down about one-third of its length. A transverse cut is then made and +the semi-cylindrical section thus severed from the log is removed. The +upper end is then beveled. When a log is thus treated the inspector can +see the lower two-thirds presenting exactly the same appearance it did +when growing in the forest. The horizontal cut, through the sap-wood +and to the center of the heart, shows the life lines of the tree, and +carefully planed as are this portion, the perpendicular and the beveled +sections, the grain of the wood can thus be plainly seen. That these may +be made even more valuable to the architect and artisan, the right half +of this planed surface will be carefully polished, and the left half +left in the natural state. This portion of the scheme of treatment is +entirely in the interests of architects and artisans, and it is expected +by Prof. Bickmore that it will be the means of securing for some kinds +of trees, essentially of American growth, and which have been virtually +neglected, an important place in architecture and in ornamental +wood-work, and so give a commercial value to woods that are now of +comparatively little value. + +Among the many curious specimens in the collection now being prepared +for exhibition, one which will excite the greatest curiosity is a +specimen of the honey locust, which was brought here from Missouri. +The bark is covered with a growth of thorns from one to four inches +in length, sharp as needles, and growing at irregular intervals. The +specimen arrived here in perfect condition, but, in order that it might +be transported without injury, it had to be suspended from the roof of +a box car, and thus make its trip from Southern Missouri to this city +without change. Another strange specimen in the novel collection is a +portion of the Yucca tree, an abnormal growth of the lily family. The +trunk, about 2 feet in diameter, is a spongy mass, not susceptible of +treatment to which the other specimens are subjected. Its bark is an +irregular stringy, knotted mass, with porcupine-quill-like leaves +springing out in place of the limbs that grow from all well-regulated +trees. One specimen of the yucca was sent to the museum two years ago, +and though the roots and top of the tree were sawn off, shoots sprang +out, and a number of the handsome flowers appeared. The tree was +supposed to be dead and thoroughly seasoned by this Fall, but now, when +the workmen are ready to prepare it for exhibition, it has shown new +life, new shoots have appeared, and two tufts of green now decorate the +otherwise dry and withered log, and the yucca promises to bloom again +before the winter is over. One of the most perfect specimens of the +Douglass spruce ever seen is in the collection, and is a decided +curiosity. It is a recent arrival from the Rocky Mountains. Its bark, +two inches or more in thickness, is perforated with holes reaching to +the-sap-wood. Many of these contain acorns, or the remains of acorns, +which have been stored there by provident woodpeckers, who dug the holes +in the bark and there stored their winter supply of food. The oldest +specimen in the collection is a section of the _Picea engelmanni_, a +species of spruce growing in the Rocky Mountains at a considerable +elevation above the sea. The specimen is 24 inches in diameter, and the +concentric circles show its age to be 410 years. The wood much resembles +the black spruce, and is the most valuable of the Rocky Mountain +growths. A specimen of the nut pine, whose nuts are used for food by the +Indians, is only 15 inches in diameter, and yet its life lines show its +age to be 369 years. The largest specimen yet received is a section of +the white ash, which is 46 inches in diameter and 182 years old. The +next largest specimen is a section of the _Platanus occidentalis_, +variously known in commerce as the sycamore, button-wood, or plane tree, +which is 42 inches in diameter and only 171 years of age. Specimens of +the redwood tree of California are now on their way to this city from +the Yosemite Valley. One specimen, though a small one, measures 5 feet +in diameter and shows the character of the wood. A specimen of +the enormous growths of this tree was not secured because of the +impossibility of transportation and the fact that there would be no room +in the museum for the storage of such a specimen, for the diameter of +the largest tree of the class is 45 feet and 8 inches, which represents +a circumference of about 110 feet. Then, too, the Californians object to +have the giant trees cut down for commercial, scientific, or any other +purposes. + +To accompany these specimens of the woods of America, Mr. Morris K. +Jesup, who has paid all the expense incurred in the collection of +specimens, is having prepared as an accompanying portion of the +exhibition water color drawings representing the actual size, color, +and appearance of the fruit, foliage, and flowers of the various trees. +Their commercial products, as far as they can be obtained, will also be +exhibited, as, for instance, in the case of the long-leaved pine, the +tar, resin, and pitch, for which it is especially valued. Then, too, in +an herbarium the fruits, leaves, and flowers are preserved as nearly as +possible in their natural state. When the collection is ready for public +view next spring it will be not only the largest, but the only complete +one of its kind in the country. There is nothing like it in the world, +as far as is known; certainly not in the royal museums of England, +France, or Germany. + +Aside from the value of the collection, in a scientific way, it is +proposed to make it an adjunct to our educational system, which requires +that teachers shall instruct pupils as to the materials used for food +and clothing. The completeness of the exhibition will be of great +assistance also to landscape gardeners, as it will enable them to lay +out private and public parks so that the most striking effects of +foliage may be secured. The beauty of these effects can best be seen in +this country in our own Central Park, where there are more different +varieties and more combinations for foliage effects than in any other +area in the United States. To ascertain how these effects are obtained +one now has to go to much trouble to learn the names of the trees. With +this exhibition such information can be had merely by observation, for +the botanical and common names of each specimen will be attached to +it. It will also be of practical use in teaching the forester how to +cultivate trees as he would other crops. The rapid disappearance of +many valuable forest trees, with the increase in demand and decrease in +supply, will tend to make the collection valuable as a curiosity in +the not far distant future as representing the extinct trees of the +country.--_N.Y. Times_. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. 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