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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Description of Wales, by Geraldus
+Cambrensis
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions 
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at 
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Description of Wales
+
+
+Author: Geraldus Cambrensis
+
+
+
+Release Date: February 9, 2015  [eBook #1092]
+[This file was first posted on October 30, 1997]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESCRIPTION OF WALES***
+
+
+Transcribed from the 1912 J. M. Dent edition by David Price, email
+ccx074@pglaf.org
+
+
+
+
+
+                         THE DESCRIPTION OF WALES
+                                    by
+                             Gerald of Wales
+
+
+FIRST PREFACE
+TO STEPHEN LANGTON, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY
+
+
+I, WHO, at the expense of three years’ labour, arranged, a short time
+ago, in three parts, the Topography of Ireland, with a description of its
+natural curiosities, and who afterwards, by two years’ study, completed
+in two parts the Vaticinal History of its Conquest; and who, by
+publishing the Itinerary of the Holy Man (Baldwin) through Cambria,
+prevented his laborious mission from perishing in obscurity, do now
+propose, in the present little work, to give some account of this my
+native country, and to describe the genius of its inhabitants, so
+entirely distinct from that of other nations.  And this production of my
+industry I have determined to dedicate to you, illustrious Stephen,
+archbishop of Canterbury, as I before ascribed to you my Itinerary;
+considering you as a man no less distinguished by your piety, than
+conspicuous for your learning; though so humble an offering may possibly
+be unworthy the acceptance of a personage who, from his eminence,
+deserves to be presented with works of the greatest merit.
+
+Some, indeed, object to this my undertaking, and, apparently from motives
+of affection, compare me to a painter, who, rich in colours, and like
+another Zeuxis, eminent in his art, is endeavouring with all his skill
+and industry to give celebrity to a cottage, or to some other
+contemptible object, whilst the world is anxiously expecting from his
+hand a temple or a palace.  Thus they wonder that I, amidst the many
+great and striking subjects which the world presents, should choose to
+describe and to adorn, with all the graces of composition, such remote
+corners of the earth as Ireland and Wales.
+
+Others again, reproaching me with greater severity, say, that the gifts
+which have been bestowed upon me from above, ought not to be wasted upon
+these insignificant objects, nor lavished in a vain display of learning
+on the commendation of princes, who, from their ignorance and want of
+liberality, have neither taste to appreciate, nor hearts to remunerate
+literary excellence.  And they further add, that every faculty which
+emanates from the Deity, ought rather to be applied to the illustration
+of celestial objects, and to the exultation of his glory, from whose
+abundance all our talents have been received; every faculty (say they)
+ought to be employed in praising him from whom, as from a perennial
+source, every perfect gift is derived, and from whose bounty everything
+which is offered with sincerity obtains an ample reward.  But since
+excellent histories of other countries have been composed and published
+by writers of eminence, I have been induced, by the love I bear to my
+country and to posterity, to believe that I should perform neither an
+useless nor an unacceptable service, were I to unfold the hidden merits
+of my native land; to rescue from obscurity those glorious actions which
+have been hitherto imperfectly described, and to bring into repute, by my
+method of treating it, a subject till now regarded as contemptible.
+
+What indeed could my feeble and unexercised efforts add to the histories
+of the destruction of Troy, Thebes, or Athens, or to the conquest of the
+shores of Latium?  Besides, to do what has been already done, is, in
+fact, to be doing nothing; I have, therefore, thought it more eligible to
+apply my industry to the arrangement of the history of my native country,
+hitherto almost wholly overlooked by strangers; but interesting to my
+relations and countrymen; and from these small beginnings to aspire by
+degrees to works of a nobler cast.  From these inconsiderable attempts,
+some idea may be formed with what success, should Fortune afford an
+opportunity, I am likely to treat matters of greater importance.  For
+although some things should be made our principal objects, whilst others
+ought not to be wholly neglected, I may surely be allowed to exercise the
+powers of my youth, as yet untaught and unexperienced, in pursuits of
+this latter nature, lest by habit I should feel a pleasure in indolence
+and in sloth, the parent of vice.
+
+I have therefore employed these studies as a kind of introduction to the
+glorious treasures of that most excellent of the sciences, which alone
+deserves the name of science; which alone can render us wise to rule and
+to instruct mankind; which alone the other sciences follow, as attendants
+do their queen.  Laying therefore in my youth the foundations of so noble
+a structure, it is my intention, if God will assist me and prolong my
+life, to reserve my maturer years for composing a treatise upon so
+perfect, so sacred a subject: for according to the poet,
+
+                 “Ardua quippe fides robustos exigit annos;”
+
+     “The important concerns of faith require a mind in its full vigour;”
+
+I may be permitted to indulge myself for a short time in other pursuits;
+but in this I should wish not only to continue, but to die.
+
+But before I enter on this important subject, I demand a short interval,
+to enable me to lay before the public my Treatise on the Instruction of a
+Prince, which has been so frequently promised, as well as the Description
+of Wales, which is now before me, and the Topography of Britain.
+
+Of all the British writers, Gildas alone appears to me (as often as the
+course of my subject leads me to consult him) worthy of imitation; for by
+committing to paper the things which he himself saw and knew, and by
+declaring rather than describing the desolation of his country, he has
+compiled a history more remarkable for its truth than for its elegance.
+
+Giraldus therefore follows Gildas, whom he wishes he could copy in his
+life and manners; becoming an imitator of his wisdom rather than of his
+eloquence—of his mind rather than of his writings—of his zeal rather than
+of his style—of his life rather than of his language.
+
+
+
+
+SECOND PREFACE
+TO THE SAME
+
+
+WHEN, amidst various literary pursuits, I first applied my mind to the
+compilation of history, I determined, lest I should appear ungrateful to
+my native land, to describe, to the best of my abilities, my own country
+and its adjoining regions; and afterwards, under God’s guidance, to
+proceed to a description of more distant territories.  But since some
+leading men (whom we have both seen and known) show so great a contempt
+for literature, that they immediately shut up within their book-cases the
+excellent works with which they are presented, and thus doom them, as it
+were, to a perpetual imprisonment; I entreat you, illustrious Prelate, to
+prevent the present little work, which will shortly be delivered to you,
+from perishing in obscurity.  And because this, as well as my former
+productions, though of no transcendent merit, may hereafter prove to many
+a source of entertainment and instruction, I entreat you generously to
+order it to be made public, by which it will acquire reputation.  And I
+shall consider myself sufficiently rewarded for my trouble, if,
+withdrawing for a while from your religious and secular occupations, you
+would kindly condescend to peruse this book, or, at least, give it an
+attentive hearing; for in times like these, when no one remunerates
+literary productions, I neither desire nor expect any other recompense.
+Not that it would appear in any way inconsistent, however there exists
+among men of rank a kind of conspiracy against authors, if a prelate so
+eminently conspicuous for his virtues, for his abilities, both natural
+and acquired, for irreproachable morals, and for munificence, should
+distinguish himself likewise by becoming the generous and sole patron of
+literature.  To comprise your merits in a few words, the lines of Martial
+addressed to Trajan, whilst serving under Dioclesian, may be deservedly
+applied to you:
+
+    “Laudari debes quoniam sub principe duro,
+       Temporibusque malis, ausus es esse bonus.”
+
+And those also of Virgil to Mecænas, which extol the humanity of that
+great man:
+
+    “Omnia cum possis tanto tam clarus amico,
+    Te sensit nemo posse nocere tamen.”
+
+Many indeed remonstrate against my proceedings, and those particularly
+who call themselves my friends insist that, in consequence of my violent
+attachment to study, I pay no attention to the concerns of the world, or
+to the interests of my family; and that, on this account, I shall
+experience a delay in my promotion to worldly dignities; that the
+influence of authors, both poets and historians, has long since ceased;
+that the respect paid to literature vanished with literary princes; and
+that in these degenerate days very different paths lead to honours and
+opulence.  I allow all this, I readily allow it, and acquiesce in the
+truth.  For the unprincipled and covetous attach themselves to the court,
+the churchmen to their books, and the ambitious to the public offices,
+but as every man is under the influence of some darling passion, so the
+love of letters and the study of eloquence have from my infancy had for
+me peculiar charms of attraction.  Impelled by this thirst for knowledge,
+I have carried my researches into the mysterious works of nature farther
+than the generality of my contemporaries, and for the benefit of
+posterity have rescued from oblivion the remarkable events of my own
+times.  But this object was not to be secured without an indefatigable,
+though at the same time an agreeable, exertion; for an accurate
+investigation of every particular is attended with much difficulty.  It
+is difficult to produce an orderly account of the investigation and
+discovery of truth; it is difficult to preserve from the beginning to the
+end a connected relation unbroken by irrelevant matter; and it is
+difficult to render the narration no less elegant in the diction, than
+instructive in its matter, for in prosecuting the series of events, the
+choice of happy expressions is equally perplexing, as the search after
+them painful.  Whatever is written requires the most intense thought, and
+every expression should be carefully polished before it be submitted to
+the public eye; for, by exposing itself to the examination of the present
+and of future ages, it must necessarily undergo the criticism not only of
+the acute, but also of the dissatisfied, reader.  Words merely uttered
+are soon forgotten, and the admiration or disgust which they occasioned
+is no more; but writings once published are never lost, and remain as
+lasting memorials either of the glory or of the disgrace of the author.
+Hence the observation of Seneca, that the malicious attention of the
+envious reader dwells with no less satisfaction on a faulty than on an
+elegant expression, and is as anxious to discover what it may ridicule,
+as what it may commend; as the poet also observes:
+
+    “Discit enim citius meminitque libentius illud
+    Quod quis deridet, quam quod probat et veneratur.”
+
+Among the pursuits, therefore, most worthy of commendation, this holds by
+no means the lowest rank; for history, as the moral philosopher declares,
+“is the record of antiquity, the testimony of ages, the light of truth,
+the soul of memory, the mistress of conduct, and the herald of ancient
+times.”
+
+This study is the more delightful, as it is more honourable to produce
+works worthy of being quoted than to quote the works of others; as it is
+more desirable to be the author of compositions which deserve to be
+admired than to be esteemed a good judge of the writings of other men; as
+it is more meritorious to be the just object of other men’s commendations
+than to be considered an adept in pointing out the merits of others.  On
+these pleasing reflections I feed and regale myself; for I would rather
+resemble Jerome than Croesus, and I prefer to riches themselves the man
+who is capable of despising them.  With these gratifying ideas I rest
+contented and delighted, valuing moderation more than intemperance, and
+an honourable sufficiency more than superfluity; for intemperance and
+superfluity produce their own destruction, but their opposite virtues
+never perish; the former vanish, but the latter, like eternity, remain
+for ever; in short, I prefer praise to lucre, and reputation to riches.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                BOOK I
+    CHAPTER                                                       PAGE
+         I.  Length and Breadth of Wales, the Nature of its        155
+             Soil, and the Three Remaining Tribes of
+             Britons
+        II.  Of the Ancient Division of Wales into Three           156
+             Parts
+       III.  Genealogy of the Princes of Wales                     157
+        IV.  Cantreds—Royal Palaces—Cathedrals                     158
+         V.  Mountains and Rivers of Wales                         159
+        VI.  Concerning the Pleasantness and Fertility of          163
+             Wales
+       VII.  Origin of the Names Cambria and Wales                 164
+      VIII.  Concerning the Nature, Manners, and Dress, the        166
+             Boldness, Agility, and Courage, of this Nation
+        IX.  Their Sober Supper and Frugality                      168
+         X.  Their Hospitality and Liberality                      170
+        XI.  Concerning their cutting of their Hair, their         171
+             Care of their Teeth, and Shaving of their
+             Beard
+       XII.  Their Quickness and Sharpness of Understanding        174
+      XIII.  Their Symphonies and Songs                            175
+       XIV.  Their Wit and Pleasantry                              177
+        XV.  Their Boldness and Confidence in Speaking             183
+       XVI.  Concerning the Soothsayers of this Nation, and        179
+             Persons as it were possessed
+      XVII.  Their Love of High Birth and Ancient Genealogy        183
+     XVIII.  Their Ancient Faith, Love of Christianity and         185
+             Devotion
+                               BOOK II
+         I.  Concerning the Inconstancy and Instability of         189
+             this Nation, and their Want of Reverence for
+             Good Faith and Oaths
+        II.  Their living by Plunder, and Disregard of the         190
+             Bonds of Peace and Friendship
+       III.  Their Deficiency in Battle, and Base and              192
+             Dishonourable Flight
+        IV.  Their Ambitious Seizure of Lands, and                 193
+             Dissensions among Brothers
+         V.  Their great Exaction, and Want of Moderation          194
+        VI.  Concerning the Crime of Incest, and the Abuse         195
+             of Churches by Succession and Participation
+       VII.  Their Sins, and the consequent Loss of Britain        196
+             and of Troy
+      VIII.  In what Manner this Nation is to be overcome          198
+        IX.  In what Manner Wales, when conquered, should          202
+             be governed
+         X.  In what Manner this Nation may resist and             204
+             revolt
+
+BOOK I
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+OF THE LENGTH AND BREADTH OF WALES, THE NATURE OF ITS SOIL, AND THE THREE
+REMAINING TRIBES OF BRITONS
+
+
+CAMBRIA, which, by a corrupt and common term, though less proper, is in
+modern times called Wales, is about two hundred miles long and one
+hundred broad.  The length from Port Gordber {155a} in Anglesey to Port
+Eskewin {155b} in Monmouthshire is eight days’ journey in extent; the
+breadth from Porth Mawr, {155c} or the great Port of St. David’s, to
+Ryd-helic, {155d} which in Latin means _Vadum salicis_, or the Ford of
+the Willow, and in English is called Willow-forde, is four days’ journey.
+It is a country very strongly defended by high mountains, deep valleys,
+extensive woods, rivers, and marshes; insomuch that from the time the
+Saxons took possession of the island the remnants of the Britons,
+retiring into these regions, could never be entirely subdued either by
+the English or by the Normans.  Those who inhabited the southern angle of
+the island, which took its name from the chieftain Corinæus, {156} made
+less resistance, as their country was more defenceless.  The third
+division of the Britons, who obtained a part of Britany in Gaul, were
+transported thither, not after the defeat of their nation, but long
+before, by king Maximus, and, in consequence of the hard and continued
+warfare which they underwent with him, were rewarded by the royal
+munificence with those districts in France.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+OF THE ANCIENT DIVISION OF WALES INTO THREE PARTS
+
+
+WALES was in ancient times divided into three parts nearly equal,
+consideration having been paid, in this division, more to the value than
+to the just quantity or proportion of territory.  They were Venedotia,
+now called North Wales; Demetia, or South Wales, which in British is
+called Deheubarth, that is, the southern part; and Powys, the middle or
+eastern district.  Roderic the Great, or Rhodri Mawr, who was king over
+all Wales, was the cause of this division.  He had three sons, Mervin,
+Anarawt, and Cadell, amongst whom he partitioned the whole principality.
+North Wales fell to the lot of Mervin; Powys to Anarawt; and Cadell
+received the portion of South Wales, together with the general good
+wishes of his brothers and the people; for although this district greatly
+exceeded the others in quantity, it was the least desirable from the
+number of noble chiefs, or Uchelwyr, {157a} men of a superior rank, who
+inhabited it, and were often rebellious to their lords, and impatient of
+control.  But Cadell, on the death of his brothers, obtained the entire
+dominion of Wales, {157b} as did his successors till the time of Tewdwr,
+whose descendants, Rhys, son of Tewdwr, Gruflydd, son of Rhys, and Rhys,
+son of Gruffydd, the ruling prince in our time, enjoyed only (like the
+father) the sovereignty over South Wales.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+GENEALOGY OF THE PRINCES OF WALES
+
+
+THE following is the generation of princes of South Wales: Rhys, son of
+Gruffydd; Gruffydd, son of Rhys; Rhys, son of Tewdwr; Tewdwr, son of
+Eineon; Eineon, son of Owen; Owen, son of Howel Dda, or Howel the Good;
+Howel, son of Cadell, son of Roderic the Great.  Thus the princes of
+South Wales derived their origin from Cadell, son of Roderic the Great.
+The princes of North Wales descended from Mervin in this manner:
+Llewelyn, son of Iorwerth; Iorwerth, son of Owen; Owen, son of Gruffydd;
+Gruffydd, son of Conan; Conan, son of Iago; Iago, son of Edoual; Edoual,
+son of Meyric; Meyric, son of Anarawt (Anandhrec); Anarawt, son of
+Mervin, son of Roderic the Great.  Anarawt leaving no issue, the princes
+of Powys have their own particular descent.
+
+It is worthy of remark, that the Welsh bards and singers, or reciters,
+have the genealogies of the aforesaid princes, written in the Welsh
+language, in their ancient and authentic books; and also retain them in
+their memory from Roderic the Great to B.M.; {158a} and from thence to
+Sylvius, Ascanius, and Æneas; and from the latter produce the
+genealogical series in a lineal descent, even to Adam.
+
+But as an account of such long and remote genealogies may appear to many
+persons trifling rather than historical, we have purposely omitted them
+in our compendium.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+HOW MANY CANTREDS, ROYAL PALACES, AND CATHEDRALS THERE ARE IN WALES
+
+
+SOUTH WALES contains twenty-nine cantreds; North Wales, twelve; Powys,
+six: many of which are at this time in the possession of the English and
+Franks.  For the country now called Shropshire formerly belonged to
+Powys, and the place where the castle of Shrewsbury stands bore the name
+of Pengwern, or the head of the Alder Grove.  There were three royal
+seats in South Wales: Dinevor, in South Wales, removed from Caerleon;
+Aberfraw, {158b} in North Wales; and Pengwern, in Powys.
+
+Wales contains in all fifty-four cantreds.  The word _Cantref_ is derived
+from _Cant_, a hundred, and _Tref_, a village; and means in the British
+and Irish languages such a portion of land as contains a hundred vills.
+
+There are four cathedral churches in Wales: St. David’s, upon the Irish
+sea, David the archbishop being its patron: it was in ancient times the
+metropolitan church, and the district only contained twenty-four
+cantreds, though at this time only twenty-three; for Ergengl, in English
+called Urchenfeld, {159a} is said to have been formerly within the
+diocese of St. David’s, and sometimes was placed within that of Landaff.
+The see of St. David’s had twenty-five successive archbishops; and from
+the time of the removal of the pall into France, to this day, twenty-two
+bishops; whose names and series, as well as the cause of the removal of
+the archiepiscopal pall, may be seen in our Itinerary. {159b}
+
+In South Wales also is situated the bishopric of Landaff, near the Severn
+sea, and near the noble castle of Caerdyf; bishop Teilo being its patron.
+It contains five cantreds, and the fourth part of another, namely,
+Senghennyd.
+
+In North Wales, between Anglesey and the Eryri mountains, is the see of
+Bangor, under the patronage of Daniel, the abbot; it contains about nine
+cantreds.
+
+In North Wales also is the poor little cathedral of Llan-Elwy, or St.
+Asaph, containing about six cantreds, to which Powys is subject.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+OF THE TWO MOUNTAINS FROM WHICH THE NOBLE RIVERS WHICH DIVIDE WALES
+SPRING
+
+
+WALES is divided and distinguished by noble rivers, which derive their
+source from two ranges of mountains, the Ellennith, in South Wales, which
+the English call Moruge, as being the heads of moors, or bogs; and Eryri,
+in North Wales, which they call Snowdon, or mountains of snow; the latter
+of which are said to be of so great an extent, that if all the herds in
+Wales were collected together, they would supply them with pasture for a
+considerable time.  Upon them are two lakes, one of which has a floating
+island; and the other contains fish having only one eye, as we have
+related in our Itinerary.
+
+We must also here remark, that at two places in Scotland, one on the
+eastern, and the other on the western ocean, the sea-fish called mulvelli
+(mullets) have only the right eye.
+
+The noble river Severn takes its rise from the Ellennith mountains, and
+flowing by the castles of Shrewsbury and Bridgenorth, through the city of
+Worcester, and that of Gloucester, celebrated for its iron manufactories,
+falls into the sea a few miles from the latter place, and gives its name
+to the Severn Sea.  This river was for many years the boundary between
+Cambria and Loegria, or Wales and England; it was called in British
+Hafren, from the daughter of Locrinus, who was drowned in it by her
+step-mother; the aspirate being changed, according to the Latin idiom,
+into S, as is usual in words derived from the Greek, it was termed
+Sarina, as hal becomes _sal_; hemi, _semi_; hepta, _septem_.
+
+The river Wye rises in the same mountains of Ellennith, and flows by the
+castles of Hay and Clifford, through the city of Hereford, by the castles
+of Wilton and Goodrich, through the forest of Dean, abounding with iron
+and deer, and proceeds to Strigul castle, below which it empties itself
+into the sea, and forms in modern times the boundary between England and
+Wales.  The Usk does not derive its origin from these mountains, but from
+those of Cantref Bachan; it flows by the castle of Brecheinoc, or
+Aberhodni, that is, the fall of the river Hodni into the Usk (for Aber,
+in the British language, signifies every place where two rivers unite
+their streams); by the castles of Abergevenni and Usk, through the
+ancient city of Legions, and discharges itself into the Severn Sea, not
+far from Newport.
+
+The river Remni flows towards the sea from the mountains of Brecheinoc,
+having passed the castle and bridge of Remni.  From the same range of
+mountains springs the Taf, which pursues its course to the episcopal see
+of Landaf (to which it gives its name), and falls into the sea below the
+castle of Caerdyf.  The river Avon rushes impetuously from the mountains
+of Glamorgan, between the celebrated Cistercian monasteries of Margan and
+Neth; and the river Neth, descending from the mountains of Brecheinoc,
+unites itself with the sea, at no great distance from the castle of Neth;
+each of these rivers forming a long tract of dangerous quicksands.  From
+the same mountains of Brecheinoc the river Tawe flows down to Abertawe,
+called in English Swainsey.  The Lochor joins the sea near the castle of
+the same name; and the Wendraeth has its confluence near Cydweli.  The
+Tywy, another noble river, rises in the Ellennith mountains, and
+separating the Cantref Mawr from the Cantref Bachan, passes by the castle
+of Llanymddyfri, and the royal palace and castle of Dinevor, strongly
+situated in the deep recesses of its woods, by the noble castle of
+Caermarddin, where Merlin was found, and from whom the city received its
+name, and runs into the sea near the castle of Lhanstephan.  The river
+Taf rises in the Presseleu mountains, not far from the monastery of
+Whitland, and passing by the castle of St. Clare, falls into the sea near
+Abercorran and Talacharn.  From the same mountains flow the rivers
+Cleddeu, encompassing the province of Daugleddeu, and giving it their
+name one passes by the castle of Lahaden, and the other by Haverford, to
+the sea; and in the British language they bear the name of Daugleddeu, or
+two swords.
+
+The noble river Teivi springs from the Ellennith mountains, in the upper
+part of the Cantref Mawr and Caerdigan, not far from the pastures and
+excellent monastery of Stratflur, forming a boundary between Demetia and
+Caerdigan down to the Irish channel; this is the only river in Wales that
+produces beavers, an account of which is given in our Itinerary; and also
+exceeds every other river in the abundance and delicacy of its salmon.
+But as this book may fall into the hands of many persons who will not
+meet with the other, I have thought it right here to insert many curious
+and particular qualities relating to the nature of these animals, how
+they convey their materials from the woods to the river, with what skill
+they employ these materials in constructing places of safety in the
+middle of the stream, how artfully they defend themselves against the
+attack of the hunters on the eastern and how on the western side; the
+singularity of their tails, which partake more of the nature of fish than
+flesh.  For further particulars see the Itinerary. {162a}
+
+From the same mountains issues the Ystuyth, and flowing through the upper
+parts of Penwedic, in Cardiganshire, falls into the sea near the castle
+of Aberystuyth.  From the snowy mountains of Eryri flows the noble river
+Devi, {162b} dividing for a great distance North and South Wales; and
+from the same mountains also the large river Maw, {162c} forming by its
+course the greater and smaller tract of sands called the Traeth Mawr and
+the Traeth Bachan.  The Dissennith also, and the Arthro, flow through
+Merionethshire and the land of Conan.  The Conwy, springing from the
+northern side of the Eryri mountains, unites its waters with the sea
+under the noble castle of Deganwy.  The Cloyd rises from another side of
+the same mountain, and passes by the castle of Ruthlan to the sea.  The
+Doverdwy, called by the English Dee, draws its source from the lake of
+Penmelesmere, and runs through Chester, leaving the wood of Coleshulle,
+Basinwerk, and a rich vein of silver in its neighbourhood, far to the
+right, and by the influx of the sea forming a very dangerous quicksand;
+thus the Dee makes the northern, and the river Wye the southern boundary
+of Wales.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+CONCERNING THE PLEASANTNESS AND FERTILITY OF WALES
+
+
+AS the southern part of Wales near Cardiganshire, but particularly
+Pembrokeshire, is much pleasanter, on account of its plains and
+sea-coast, so North Wales is better defended by nature, is more
+productive of men distinguished for bodily strength, and more fertile in
+the nature of its soil; for, as the mountains of Eryri (Snowdon) could
+supply pasturage for all the herds of cattle in Wales, if collected
+together, so could the Isle of Mona (Anglesey) provide a requisite
+quantity of corn for all the inhabitants: on which account there is an
+old British proverb, “_Mon mam Cymbry_,” that is, “Mona is the mother of
+Wales.”  Merionyth, and the land of Conan, is the rudest and least
+cultivated region, and the least accessible.  The natives of that part of
+Wales excel in the use of long lances, as those of Monmouthshire are
+distinguished for their management of the bow.  It is to be observed,
+that the British language is more delicate and richer in North Wales,
+that country being less intermixed with foreigners.  Many, however,
+assert that the language of Cardiganshire, in South Wales, placed as it
+were in the middle and heart of Cambria, is the most refined.
+
+The people of Cornwall and the Armoricans speak a language similar to
+that of the Britons; and from its origin and near resemblance, it is
+intelligible to the Welsh in many instances, and almost in all; and
+although less delicate and methodical, yet it approaches, as I judge,
+more to the ancient British idiom.  As in the southern parts of England,
+and particularly in Devonshire, the English language seems less
+agreeable, yet it bears more marks of antiquity (the northern parts being
+much corrupted by the irruptions of the Danes and Norwegians), and
+adheres more strictly to the original language and ancient mode of
+speaking; a positive proof of which may be deduced from all the English
+works of Bede, Rhabanus, and king Alfred, being written according to this
+idiom.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+ORIGIN OF THE NAMES CAMBRIA AND WALES
+
+
+CAMBRIA was so called from Camber, son of Brutus, for Brutus, descending
+from the Trojans, by his grandfather, Ascanius, and father, Silvius, led
+the remnant of the Trojans, who had long been detained in Greece, into
+this western isle; and having reigned many years, and given his name to
+the country and people, at his death divided the kingdom of Wales between
+his three sons.  To his eldest son, Locrinus, he gave that part of the
+island which lies between the rivers Humber and Severn, and which from
+him was called Loegria.  To his second son, Albanactus, he gave the lands
+beyond the Humber, which took from him the name of Albania.  But to his
+youngest son, Camber, he bequeathed all that region which lies beyond the
+Severn, and is called after him Cambria; hence the country is properly
+and truly called Cambria, and its inhabitants Cambrians, or Cambrenses.
+Some assert that their name was derived from _Cam_ and _Græco_, that is,
+distorted Greek, on account of the affinity of their languages,
+contracted by their long residence in Greece; but this conjecture, though
+plausible, is not well founded on truth.
+
+The name of Wales was not derived from Wallo, a general, or Wandolena,
+the queen, as the fabulous history of Geoffrey Arthurius {165a} falsely
+maintains, because neither of these personages are to be found amongst
+the Welsh; but it arose from a barbarian appellation.  The Saxons, when
+they seized upon Britain, called this nation, as they did all foreigners,
+Wallenses; and thus the barbarous name remains to the people and their
+country. {165b}
+
+Having discoursed upon the quality and quantity of the land, the
+genealogies of the princes, the sources of the rivers, and the derivation
+of the names of this country, we shall now consider the nature and
+character of the nation.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+CONCERNING THE NATURE, MANNERS, AND DRESS, THE BOLDNESS, AGILITY, AND
+COURAGE, OF THIS NATION
+
+
+THIS people is light and active, hardy rather than strong, and entirely
+bred up to the use of arms; for not only the nobles, but all the people
+are trained to war, and when the trumpet sounds the alarm, the husbandman
+rushes as eagerly from his plough as the courtier from his court; for
+here it is not found that, as in other places,
+
+                      “Agricolis labor actus in orbem,”
+
+returns; for in the months of March and April only the soil is once
+ploughed for oats, and again in the summer a third time, and in winter
+for wheat.  Almost all the people live upon the produce of their herds,
+with oats, milk, cheese, and butter; eating flesh in larger proportions
+than bread.  They pay no attention to commerce, shipping, or
+manufactures, and suffer no interruption but by martial exercises.  They
+anxiously study the defence of their country and their liberty; for these
+they fight, for these they undergo hardships, and for these willingly
+sacrifice their lives; they esteem it a disgrace to die in bed, an honour
+to die in the field of battle; using the poet’s expressions,—
+
+             “Procul hinc avertite pacem,
+    Nobilitas cum pace perit.”
+
+Nor is it wonderful if it degenerates, for the ancestors of these men,
+the Æneadæ, rushed to arms in the cause of liberty.  It is remarkable
+that this people, though unarmed, dares attack an armed foe; the infantry
+defy the cavalry, and by their activity and courage generally prove
+victors.  They resemble in disposition and situation those conquerors
+whom the poet Lucan mentions:
+
+    — —“Populi quos despicit Arctos,
+    Felices errore suo, quos ille timorum
+    Maximus haud urget leti metus, inde ruendi
+    In ferrum, mens prona viris, amimæque capaces,
+    Mortis et ignavum redituræ parsere vitæ.”
+
+They make use of light arms, which do not impede their agility, small
+coats of mail, bundles of arrows, and long lances, helmets and shields,
+and more rarely greaves plated with iron.  The higher class go to battle
+mounted on swift and generous steeds, which their country produces; but
+the greater part of the people fight on foot, on account of the marshy
+nature and unevenness of the soil.  The horsemen as their situation or
+occasion requires, willingly serve as infantry, in attacking or
+retreating; and they either walk bare-footed, or make use of high shoes,
+roughly constructed with untanned leather.  In time of peace, the young
+men, by penetrating the deep recesses of the woods, and climbing the tops
+of mountains, learn by practice to endure fatigue through day and night;
+and as they meditate on war during peace, they acquire the art of
+fighting by accustoming themselves to the use of the lance, and by
+inuring themselves to hard exercise.
+
+In our time, king Henry II., in reply to the inquiries of Emanuel,
+emperor of Constantinople, concerning the situation, nature, and striking
+peculiarities of the British island, among other remarkable circumstances
+mentioned the following: “That in a certain part of the island there was
+a people, called Welsh, so bold and ferocious that, when unarmed, they
+did not fear to encounter an armed force; being ready to shed their blood
+in defence of their country, and to sacrifice their lives for renown;
+which is the more surprising, as the beasts of the field over the whole
+face of the island became gentle, but these desperate men could not be
+tamed.  The wild animals, and particularly the stags and hinds, are so
+abundant, owing to the little molestation they receive, that in our time,
+in the northern parts of the island towards the Peak, {168} when pursued
+by the hounds and hunters, they contributed, by their numbers, to their
+own destruction.”
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+OF THEIR SOBER SUPPER AND FRUGALITY
+
+
+NOT addicted to gluttony or drunkenness, this people who incur no expense
+in food or dress, and whose minds are always bent upon the defence of
+their country, and on the means of plunder, are wholly employed in the
+care of their horses and furniture.  Accustomed to fast from morning till
+evening, and trusting to the care of Providence, they dedicate the whole
+day to business, and in the evening partake of a moderate meal; and even
+if they have none, or only a very scanty one, they patiently wait till
+the next evening; and, neither deterred by cold nor hunger, they employ
+the dark and stormy nights in watching the hostile motions of their
+enemies.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+OF THEIR HOSPITALITY AND LIBERALITY
+
+
+NO one of this nation ever begs, for the houses of all are common to all;
+and they consider liberality and hospitality amongst the first virtues.
+So much does hospitality here rejoice in communication, that it is
+neither offered nor requested by travellers, who, on entering any house,
+only deliver up their arms.  When water is offered to them, if they
+suffer their feet to be washed, they are received as guests; for the
+offer of water to wash the feet is with this nation an hospitable
+invitation.  But if they refuse the proffered service, they only wish for
+morning refreshment, not lodging.  The young men move about in troops and
+families under the direction of a chosen leader.  Attached only to arms
+and ease, and ever ready to stand forth in defence of their country, they
+have free admittance into every house as if it were their own.
+
+Those who arrive in the morning are entertained till evening with the
+conversation of young women, and the music of the harp; for each house
+has its young women and harps allotted to this purpose.  Two
+circumstances here deserve notice: that as no nation labours more under
+the vice of jealousy than the Irish, so none is more free from it than
+the Welsh: and in each family the art of playing on the harp is held
+preferable to any other learning.  In the evening, when no more guests
+are expected, the meal is prepared according to the number and dignity of
+the persons assembled, and according to the wealth of the family who
+entertains.  The kitchen does not supply many dishes, nor high-seasoned
+incitements to eating.  The house is not furnished with tables, cloths,
+or napkins.  They study nature more than splendour, for which reason, the
+guests being seated in threes, instead of couples as elsewhere, {169a}
+they place the dishes before them all at once upon rushes and fresh
+grass, in large platters or trenchers.  They also make use of a thin and
+broad cake of bread, baked every day, such as in old writings was called
+_lagana_; {169b} and they sometimes add chopped meat, with broth.  Such a
+repast was formerly used by the noble youth, from whom this nation boasts
+its descent, and whose manners it still partly imitates, according to the
+word of the poet:
+
+                   “Heu! mensas consumimus, inquit Iulus.”
+
+While the family is engaged in waiting on the guests, the host and
+hostess stand up, paying unremitting attention to everything, and take no
+food till all the company are satisfied; that in case of any deficiency,
+it may fall upon them.  A bed made of rushes, and covered with a coarse
+kind of cloth manufactured in the country, called _brychan_, {170} is
+then placed along the side of the room, and they all in common lie down
+to sleep; nor is their dress at night different from that by day, for at
+all seasons they defend themselves from the cold only by a thin cloak and
+tunic.  The fire continues to burn by night as well as by day, at their
+feet, and they receive much comfort from the natural heat of the persons
+lying near them; but when the under side begins to be tired with the
+hardness of the bed, or the upper one to suffer from cold, they
+immediately leap up, and go to the fire, which soon relieves them from
+both inconveniences; and then returning to their couch, they expose
+alternately their sides to the cold, and to the hardness of the bed.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+CONCERNING THEIR CUTTING OF THEIR HAIR, THEIR CARE OF THEIR TEETH, AND
+SHAVING OF THEIR BEARD
+
+
+THE men and women cut their hair close round to the ears and eyes.  The
+women, after the manner of the Parthians, cover their heads with a large
+white veil, folded together in the form of a crown.
+
+Both sexes exceed any other nation in attention to their teeth, which
+they render like ivory, by constantly rubbing them with green hazel and
+wiping with a woollen cloth.  For their better preservation, they abstain
+from hot meats, and eat only such as are cold, warm, or temperate.  The
+men shave all their beard except the moustaches (_gernoboda_).  This
+custom is not recent, but was observed in ancient and remote ages, as we
+find in the works of Julius Cæsar, who says, {171} “The Britons shave
+every part of their body except their head and upper lip;” and to render
+themselves more active, and avoid the fate of Absalon in their excursions
+through the woods, they are accustomed to cut even the hair from their
+heads; so that this nation more than any other shaves off all pilosity.
+Julius also adds, that the Britons, previous to an engagement, anointed
+their faces with a nitrous ointment, which gave them so ghastly and
+shining an appearance, that the enemy could scarcely bear to look at
+them, particularly if the rays of the sun were reflected on them.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+OF THEIR QUICKNESS AND SHARPNESS OF UNDERSTANDING
+
+
+THESE people being of a sharp and acute intellect, and gifted with a rich
+and powerful understanding, excel in whatever studies they pursue, and
+are more quick and cunning than the other inhabitants of a western clime.
+
+Their musical instruments charm and delight the ear with their sweetness,
+are borne along by such celerity and delicacy of modulation, producing
+such a consonance from the rapidity of seemingly discordant touches, that
+I shall briefly repeat what is set forth in our Irish Topography on the
+subject of the musical instruments of the three nations.  It is
+astonishing that in so complex and rapid a movement of the fingers, the
+musical proportions can be preserved, and that throughout the difficult
+modulations on their various instruments, the harmony is completed with
+such a sweet velocity, so unequal an equality, so discordant a concord,
+as if the chords sounded together fourths or fifths.  They always begin
+from B flat, and return to the same, that the whole may be completed
+under the sweetness of a pleasing sound.  They enter into a movement, and
+conclude it in so delicate a manner, and play the little notes so
+sportively under the blunter sounds of the base strings, enlivening with
+wanton levity, or communicating a deeper internal sensation of pleasure,
+so that the perfection of their art appears in the concealment of it:
+
+    “Si lateat, prosit;
+    — — ferat ars deprensa pudorem.”
+
+    “Art profits when concealed,
+    Disgraces when revealed.”
+
+From this cause, those very strains which afford deep and unspeakable
+mental delight to those who have skilfully penetrated into the mysteries
+of the art, fatigue rather than gratify the ears of others, who seeing,
+do not perceive, and hearing, do not understand; and by whom the finest
+music is esteemed no better than a confused and disorderly noise, and
+will be heard with unwillingness and disgust.
+
+They make use of three instruments, the harp, the pipe, and the crwth or
+crowd (_chorus_). {172}
+
+They omit no part of natural rhetoric in the management of civil actions,
+in quickness of invention, disposition, refutation, and confirmation.  In
+their rhymed songs and set speeches they are so subtle and ingenious,
+that they produce, in their native tongue, ornaments of wonderful and
+exquisite invention both in the words and sentences.  Hence arise those
+poets whom they call Bards, of whom you will find many in this nation,
+endowed with the above faculty, according to the poet’s observation:
+
+    “Plurima concreti fuderunt carmina Bardi.”
+
+But they make use of alliteration (_anominatione_) in preference to all
+other ornaments of rhetoric, and that particular kind which joins by
+consonancy the first letters or syllables of words.  So much do the
+English and Welsh nations employ this ornament of words in all exquisite
+composition, that no sentence is esteemed to be elegantly spoken, no
+oration to be otherwise than uncouth and unrefined, unless it be fully
+polished with the file of this figure.  Thus in the British tongue:
+
+    “Digawn Duw da i unic.”
+
+    “Wrth bob crybwyll rhaïd pwyll parawd.” {173}
+
+And in English,
+
+    “God is together gammen and wisedom.”
+
+The same ornament of speech is also frequent in the Latin language.
+Virgil says,
+
+    “Tales casus Cassandra canebat.”
+
+And again, in his address to Augustus,
+
+    “Dum dubitet natura marem, faceretve puellam,
+    Natus es, o pulcher, pene puella, puer.”
+
+This ornament occurs not in any language we know so frequently as in the
+two first; it is, indeed, surprising that the French, in other respects
+so ornamented, should be entirely ignorant of this verbal elegance so
+much adopted in other languages.  Nor can I believe that the English and
+Welsh, so different and adverse to each other, could designedly have
+agreed in the usage of this figure; but I should rather suppose that it
+had grown habitual to both by long custom, as it pleases the ear by a
+transition from similar to similar sounds.  Cicero, in his book “On
+Elocution,” observes of such who know the practice, not the art, “Other
+persons when they read good orations or poems, approve of the orators or
+poets, not understanding the reason why, being affected, they approve;
+because they cannot know in what place, of what nature, nor how that
+effect is caused which so highly delights them.”
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+OF THEIR SYMPHONIES AND SONGS
+
+
+IN their musical concerts they do not sing in unison like the inhabitants
+of other countries, but in many different parts; so that in a company of
+singers, which one very frequently meets with in Wales, you will hear as
+many different parts and voices as there are performers, who all at
+length unite, with organic melody, in one consonance and the soft
+sweetness of B flat.  In the northern district of Britain, beyond the
+Humber, and on the borders of Yorkshire, the inhabitants make use of the
+same kind of symphonious harmony, but with less variety; singing only in
+two parts, one murmuring in the base, the other warbling in the acute or
+treble.  Neither of the two nations has acquired this peculiarity by art,
+but by long habit, which has rendered it natural and familiar; and the
+practice is now so firmly rooted in them, that it is unusual to hear a
+simple and single melody well sung; and, what is still more wonderful,
+the children, even from their infancy, sing in the same manner.  As the
+English in general do not adopt this mode of singing, but only those of
+the northern countries, I believe that it was from the Danes and
+Norwegians, by whom these parts of the island were more frequently
+invaded, and held longer under their dominion, that the natives
+contracted their mode of singing as well as speaking.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+THEIR WIT AND PLEASANTRY
+
+
+THE heads of different families, in order to excite the laughter of their
+guests, and gain credit by their sayings, make use of great facetiousness
+in their conversation; at one time uttering their jokes in a light, easy
+manner, at another time, under the disguise of equivocation, passing the
+severest censures.  For the sake of explanation I shall here subjoin a
+few examples.  Tegeingl is the name of a province in North Wales, over
+which David, son of Owen, had dominion, and which had once been in the
+possession of his brother.  The same word also was the name of a certain
+woman with whom, it was said, each brother had an intrigue, from which
+circumstance arose this term of reproach, “To have Tegeingl, after
+Tegeingl had been in possession of his brother.”
+
+At another time, when Rhys, son of Gruffydd, prince of South Wales,
+accompanied by a multitude of his people, devoutly entered the church of
+St. David’s, previous to an intended journey, the oblations having been
+made, and mass solemnised, a young man came to him in the church, and
+publicly declared himself to be his son, threw himself at his feet, and
+with tears humbly requested that the truth of this assertion might be
+ascertained by the trial of the burning iron.  Intelligence of this
+circumstance being conveyed to his family and his two sons, who had just
+gone out of the church, a youth who was present made this remark: “This
+is not wonderful; some have brought gold, and others silver, as
+offerings; but this man, who had neither, brought what he had, namely,
+iron;” thus taunting him with his poverty.  On mentioning a certain house
+that was strongly built and almost impregnable, one of the company said,
+“This house indeed is strong, for if it should contain food it could
+never be got at,” thus alluding both to the food and to the house.  In
+like manner, a person, wishing to hint at the avaricious disposition of
+the mistress of a house, said, “I only find fault with our hostess for
+putting too little butter to her salt,” whereas the accessory should be
+put to the principal; thus, by a subtle transposition of the words,
+converting the accessory into the principal, by making it appear to
+abound in quantity.  Many similar sayings of great men and philosophers
+are recorded in the Saturnalia of Macrobius.  When Cicero saw his
+son-in-law, Lentulus, a man of small stature, with a long sword by his
+side: “Who,” says he, “has girded my son-in-law to that sword?” thus
+changing the accessary into the principal.  The same person, on seeing
+the half-length portrait of his brother Quintus Cicero, drawn with very
+large features and an immense shield, exclaimed, “Half of my brother is
+greater than the whole!”  When the sister of Faustus had an intrigue with
+a fuller, “Is it strange,” says he, “that my sister has a spot, when she
+is connected with a fuller?”  When Antiochus showed Hannibal his army,
+and the great warlike preparations he had made against the Romans, and
+asked him, “Thinkest thou, O Hannibal, that these are sufficient for the
+Romans?”  Hannibal, ridiculing the unmilitary appearance of the soldiers,
+wittily and severely replied, “I certainly think them sufficient for the
+Romans, however greedy;” Antiochus asking his opinion about the military
+preparations, and Hannibal alluding to them as becoming a prey to the
+Romans.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+THEIR BOLDNESS AND CONFIDENCE IN SPEAKING
+
+
+NATURE hath given not only to the highest, but also to the inferior,
+classes of the people of this nation, a boldness and confidence in
+speaking and answering, even in the presence of their princes and
+chieftains.  The Romans and Franks had the same faculty; but neither the
+English, nor the Saxons and Germans, from whom they are descended, had
+it.  It is in vain urged, that this defect may arise from the state of
+servitude which the English endured; for the Saxons and Germans, who
+enjoy their liberty, have the same failing, and derive this natural
+coldness of disposition from the frozen region they inhabit; the English
+also, although placed in a distant climate, still retain the exterior
+fairness of complexion and inward coldness of disposition, as inseparable
+from their original and natural character.  The Britons, on the contrary,
+transplanted from the hot and parched regions of Dardania into these more
+temperate districts, as
+
+              “Cœlum non animum mutant qui trans mare currunt,”
+
+still retain their brown complexion and that natural warmth of temper
+from which their confidence is derived.  For three nations, remnants of
+the Greeks after the destruction of Troy, fled from Asia into different
+parts of Europe, the Romans under Æneas, the Franks under Antenor, and
+the Britons under Brutus; and from thence arose that courage, that
+nobleness of mind, that ancient dignity, that acuteness of understanding,
+and confidence of speech, for which these three nations are so highly
+distinguished.  But the Britons, from having been detained longer in
+Greece than the other two nations, after the destruction of their
+country, and having migrated at a later period into the western parts of
+Europe, retained in a greater degree the primitive words and phrases of
+their native language.  You will find amongst them the names Oenus,
+Resus, Æneas, Hector, Achilles, Heliodorus, Theodorus, Ajax, Evander,
+Uliex, Anianus, Elisa, Guendolena, and many others, bearing marks of
+their antiquity.  It is also to be observed, that almost all words in the
+British language correspond either with the Greek or Latin, as ὑδωζ,
+water, is called in British, dwr; ἁλς, salt, in British, halen; ονομα,
+eno, a name; πεντε, pump, five; δεκα, deg, ten.  The Latins also use the
+words frænum, tripos, gladius, lorica; the Britons, froyn (ffrwyn),
+trepet (tribedd), cleddyf, and lluric (llurig); unicus is made unic
+(unig); canis, can (cwn); and belua, beleu.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+CONCERNING THE SOOTHSAYERS OF THIS NATION, AND PERSONS AS IT WERE
+POSSESSED
+
+
+THERE are certain persons in Cambria, whom you will find nowhere else,
+called Awenddyon, {179} or people inspired; when consulted upon any
+doubtful event, they roar out violently, are rendered beside themselves,
+and become, as it were, possessed by a spirit.  They do not deliver the
+answer to what is required in a connected manner; but the person who
+skilfully observes them, will find, after many preambles, and many
+nugatory and incoherent, though ornamented speeches, the desired
+explanation conveyed in some turn of a word: they are then roused from
+their ecstasy, as from a deep sleep, and, as it were, by violence
+compelled to return to their proper senses.  After having answered the
+questions, they do not recover till violently shaken by other people; nor
+can they remember the replies they have given.  If consulted a second or
+third time upon the same point, they will make use of expressions totally
+different; perhaps they speak by the means of fanatic and ignorant
+spirits.  These gifts are usually conferred upon them in dreams: some
+seem to have sweet milk or honey poured on their lips; others fancy that
+a written schedule is applied to their mouths and on awaking they
+publicly declare that they have received this gift.  Such is the saying
+of Esdras, “The Lord said unto me, open thy mouth, and I opened my mouth,
+and behold a cup full of water, whose colour was like fire; and when I
+had drank it, my heart brought forth understanding, and wisdom entered
+into my breast.”  They invoke, during their prophecies, the true and
+living God, and the Holy Trinity, and pray that they may not by their
+sins be prevented from finding the truth.  These prophets are only found
+among the Britons descended from the Trojans.  For Calchas and Cassandra,
+endowed with the spirit of prophecy, openly foretold, during the siege of
+Troy, the destruction of that fine city; on which account the high
+priest, Helenus, influenced by the prophetic books of Calchas, and of
+others who had long before predicted the ruin of their country, in the
+first year went over to the Greeks with the sons of Priam (to whom he was
+high priest), and was afterwards rewarded in Greece.  Cassandra, daughter
+of king Priam, every day foretold the overthrow of the city; but the
+pride and presumption of the Trojans prevented them from believing her
+word.  Even on the very night that the city was betrayed, she clearly
+described the treachery and the method of it:
+
+                      “— tales casus Cassandra canebat,”
+
+as in the same manner, during the existence of the kingdom of the
+Britons, both Merlin Caledonius and Ambrosius are said to have foretold
+the destruction of their nation, as well as the coming of the Saxons, and
+afterwards that of the Normans; and I think a circumstance related by
+Aulus Gellius worth inserting in this place.  On the day that Caius Cæsar
+and Cneius Pompey, during the civil war, fought a pitched battle in
+Thessalia, a memorable event occurred in that part of Italy situated
+beyond the river Po.  A priest named Cornelius, honourable from his rank,
+venerable for his religion, and holy in his manners, in an inspired
+moment proclaimed, “Cæsar has conquered,” and named the day, the events,
+the mutual attack, and the conflicts of the two armies.  Whether such
+things are exhibited by the spirit, let the reader more particularly
+inquire; I do not assert they are the acts of a Pythonic or a diabolic
+spirit; for as foreknowledge is the property of God alone, so is it in
+his power to confer knowledge of future events.  There are differences of
+gifts, says the Apostle, but one and the same spirit; whence Peter, in
+his second Epistle, writes, “For the prophecy came not in the old time by
+the will of man, but men spake as if they were inspired by the Holy
+Ghost:” to the same effect did the Chaldeans answer king Nebuchadonazar
+on the interpretation of his dream, which he wished to extort from them.
+“There is not,” say they, “a man upon earth who can, O king,
+satisfactorily answer your question; let no king therefore, however great
+or potent, make a similar request to any magician, astrologer, or
+Chaldean; for it is a rare thing that the king requireth, and there is
+none other that can shew it before the king, except the Gods, whose
+dwelling is not with flesh.”  On this passage Jerome remarks, “The
+diviners and all the learned of this world confess, that the prescience
+of future events belongs to God alone; the prophets therefore, who
+foretold things to come, spake by the spirit of God.  Hence some persons
+object, that, if they were under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, they
+would sometimes premise, “Thus saith the Lord God,” or make use of some
+expression in the prophetic style; and as such a mode of prophesying is
+not taken notice of by Merlin, and no mention is made of his sanctity,
+devotion, or faith, many think that he spake by a Pythonic spirit.  To
+which I answer, that the spirit of prophecy was given not only to the
+holy, but sometimes to unbelievers and Gentiles, to Baal, to the sibyls,
+and even to bad people, as to Caiaphas and Bela.  On which occasion
+Origen says: “Do not wonder, if he whom ye have mentioned declares that
+the Scribes and Pharisees and doctors amongst the Jews prophesied
+concerning Christ; for Caiaphas said: “It is expedient for us that one
+man die for the people:” but asserts at the same time, that because he
+was high priest for that year, he prophesied.  Let no man therefore be
+lifted up, if he prophesies, if he merits prescience; for prophecies
+shall fail, tongues shall cease, knowledge shall vanish away; and now
+abideth, faith, hope, and charity: these three; but the greatest of these
+is Charity, which never faileth.  But these bad men not only prophesied,
+but sometimes performed great miracles, which others could not
+accomplish.  John the Baptist, who was so great a personage, performed no
+miracle, as John the Evangelist testifies: “And many came to Jesus and
+said, Because John wrought no signs,” etc.  Nor do we hear that the
+mother of God performed any miracle; we read in the Acts of the Apostles,
+that the sons of Sheva cast out devils in the name of Jesus, whom Paul
+preached; and in Matthew and Luke we may find these words: “Many shall
+say unto me in that day, Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in thy name?
+and in thy name have cast out devils? and in thy name done many wonderful
+works? and then I will profess unto them, I never knew you.”  And in
+another place, John says: “Master, we saw a certain man casting out
+devils in thy name, and forbade him, because he followeth not with us.”
+But Jesus said: “Forbid him not; no man can do a miracle in my name, and
+speak evil of me; for whoever is not against me, is for me.”
+
+Alexander of Macedon, a gentile, traversed the Caspian mountains, and
+miraculously confined ten tribes within their promontories, where they
+still remain, and will continue until the coming of Elias and Enoch.  We
+read, indeed, the prophecies of Merlin, but hear nothing either of his
+sanctity or his miracles.  Some say, that the prophets, when they
+prophesied, did not become frantic, as it is affirmed of Merlin
+Silvestris, and others possessed, whom we have before mentioned.  Some
+prophesied by dreams, visions, and enigmatical sayings, as Ezechiel and
+Daniel; others by acts and words, as Noah, in the construction of the
+ark, alluded to the church; Abraham, in the slaying of his son, to the
+passion of Christ; and Moses by his speech, when he said, “A prophet
+shall the Lord God raise up to you of your brethren; hear him;” meaning
+Christ.  Others have prophesied in a more excellent way by the internal
+revelation and inspiration of the Holy Spirit, as David did when
+persecuted by Saul: “When Saul heard that David had fled to Naioth (which
+is a hill in Ramah, and the seat of the prophets), he sent messengers to
+take him; and when they saw the company of the prophets prophesying, and
+Samuel standing at their head, the Spirit of God came upon the messengers
+of Saul, and they also prophesied; and he sent messengers a second and
+again a third time, and they also prophesied.  And Saul enraged went
+thither also; and the Spirit of God was upon him also, and he went on,
+and prophesied until he came to Naioth, and he stripped off his royal
+vestments, and prophesied with the rest for all that day and all that
+night; whilst David and Samuel secretly observed what passed.”  Nor is it
+wonderful that those persons who suddenly receive the Spirit of God, and
+so signal a mark of grace, should for a time seem alienated from their
+earthly state of mind.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+THEIR LOVE OF HIGH BIRTH AND ANCIENT GENEALOGY
+
+
+THE Welsh esteem noble birth and generous descent above all things, {183}
+and are, therefore, more desirous of marrying into noble than rich
+families.  Even the common people retain their genealogy, and can not
+only readily recount the names of their grandfathers and
+great-grandfathers, but even refer back to the sixth or seventh
+generation, or beyond them, in this manner: Rhys, son of Gruffydd, son of
+Rhys, son of Tewdwr, son of Eineon, son of Owen, son of Howel, son of
+Cadell, son of Roderic Mawr, and so on.
+
+Being particularly attached to family descent, they revenge with
+vehemence the injuries which may tend to the disgrace of their blood; and
+being naturally of a vindictive and passionate disposition, they are ever
+ready to avenge not only recent but ancient affronts; they neither
+inhabit towns, villages, nor castles, but lead a solitary life in the
+woods, on the borders of which they do not erect sumptuous palaces, nor
+lofty stone buildings, but content themselves with small huts made of the
+boughs of trees twisted together, constructed with little labour and
+expense, and sufficient to endure throughout the year.  They have neither
+orchards nor gardens, but gladly eat the fruit of both when given to
+them.  The greater part of their land is laid down to pasturage; little
+is cultivated, a very small quantity is ornamented with flowers, and a
+still smaller is sown.  They seldom yoke less than four oxen to their
+ploughs; the driver walks before, but backwards, and when he falls down,
+is frequently exposed to danger from the refractory oxen.  Instead of
+small sickles in mowing, they make use of a moderate-sized piece of iron
+formed like a knife, with two pieces of wood fixed loosely and flexibly
+to the head, which they think a more expeditious instrument; but since
+
+    “Segnius irritant animos demissa per aures,
+    Quam quæ sunt oculis subjecta fidelibus,”
+
+their mode of using it will be better known by inspection than by any
+description.  The boats {184} which they employ in fishing or in crossing
+the rivers are made of twigs, not oblong nor pointed, but almost round,
+or rather triangular, covered both within and without with raw hides.
+When a salmon thrown into one of these boats strikes it hard with his
+tail, he often oversets it, and endangers both the vessel and its
+navigator.  The fishermen, according to the custom of the country, in
+going to and from the rivers, carry these boats on their shoulders; on
+which occasion that famous dealer in fables, Bleddercus, who lived a
+little before our time, thus mysteriously said: “There is amongst us a
+people who, when they go out in search of prey, carry their horses on
+their backs to the place of plunder; in order to catch their prey, they
+leap upon their horses, and when it is taken, carry their horses home
+again upon their shoulders.”
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+OF THE ANTIQUITY OF THEIR FAITH, THEIR LOVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND DEVOTION
+
+
+IN ancient times, and about two hundred years before the overthrow of
+Britain, the Welsh were instructed and confirmed in the faith by Faganus
+and Damianus, sent into the island at the request of king Lucius by pope
+Eleutherius, and from that period when Germanus of Auxerre, and Lupus of
+Troyes, came over on account of the corruption which had crept into the
+island by the invasion of the Saxons, but particularly with a view of
+expelling the Pelagian heresy, nothing heretical or contrary to the true
+faith was to be found amongst the natives.  But it is said that some
+parts of the ardent doctrines are still retained.  They give the first
+piece broken off from every loaf of bread to the poor; they sit down to
+dinner by three to a dish, in honour of the Trinity.  With extended arms
+and bowing head, they ask a blessing of every monk or priest, or of every
+person wearing a religious habit.  But they desire, above all other
+nations, the episcopal ordination and unction, by which the grace of the
+spirit is given.  They give a tenth of all their property, animals,
+cattle, and sheep, either when they marry, or go on a pilgrimage, or, by
+the counsel of the church, are persuaded to amend their lives.  This
+partition of their effects they call the great tithe, two parts of which
+they give to the church where they were baptised, and the third to the
+bishop of the diocese.  But of all pilgrimages they prefer that to Rome,
+where they pay the most fervent adoration to the apostolic see.  We
+observe that they show a greater respect than other nations to churches
+and ecclesiastical persons, to the relics of saints, bells, holy books,
+and the cross, which they devoutly revere; and hence their churches enjoy
+more than common tranquillity.  For peace is not only preserved towards
+all animals feeding in churchyards, but at a great distance beyond them,
+where certain boundaries and ditches have been appointed by the bishops,
+in order to maintain the security of the sanctuary.  But the principal
+churches to which antiquity has annexed the greater reverence extend
+their protection to the herds as far as they can go to feed in the
+morning and return at night.  If, therefore, any person has incurred the
+enmity of his prince, on applying to the church for protection, he and
+his family will continue to live unmolested; but many persons abuse this
+indemnity, far exceeding the indulgence of the canon, which in such cases
+grants only personal safety; and from the places of refuge even make
+hostile irruptions, and more severely harass the country than the prince
+himself.  Hermits and anchorites more strictly abstinent and more
+spiritual can nowhere be found; for this nation is earnest in all its
+pursuits, and neither worse men than the bad, nor better than the good,
+can be met with.
+
+Happy and fortunate indeed would this nation be, nay, completely blessed,
+if it had good prelates and pastors, and but one prince, and that prince
+a good one.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK II
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+HAVING in the former book clearly set forth the character, manners, and
+customs of the British nation, and having collected and explained
+everything which could redound to its credit or glory; an attention to
+order now requires that, in this second part, we should employ our pen in
+pointing out those particulars in which it seems to transgress the line
+of virtue and commendation; having first obtained leave to speak the
+truth, without which history not only loses its authority, but becomes
+undeserving of its very name.  For the painter who professes to imitate
+nature, loses his reputation, if, by indulging his fancy, he represents
+only those parts of the subject which best suit him.
+
+Since, therefore, no man is born without faults, and he is esteemed the
+best whose errors are the least, let the wise man consider everything
+human as connected with himself; for in worldly affairs there is no
+perfect happiness under heaven.  Evil borders upon good, and vices are
+confounded with virtues; as the report of good qualities is delightful to
+a well-disposed mind, so the relation of the contrary should not be
+offensive.  The natural disposition of this nation might have been
+corrupted and perverted by long exile and poverty; for as poverty
+extinguisheth many faults, so it often generates failings that are
+contrary to virtue.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+OF THE INCONSTANCY AND INSTABILITY OF THIS NATION, AND THEIR WANT OF
+REVERENCE FOR GOOD FAITH AND OATHS
+
+
+THESE people are no less light in mind than in body, and are by no means
+to be relied upon.  They are easily urged to undertake any action, and
+are as easily checked from prosecuting it—a people quick in action, but
+more stubborn in a bad than in a good cause, and constant only in acts of
+inconstancy.  They pay no respect to oaths, faith, or truth; and so
+lightly do they esteem the covenant of faith, held so inviolable by other
+nations, that it is usual to sacrifice their faith for nothing, by
+holding forth the right hand, not only in serious and important concerns,
+but even on every trifling occasion, and for the confirmation of almost
+every common assertion.  They never scruple at taking a false oath for
+the sake of any temporary emolument or advantage; so that in civil and
+ecclesiastical causes, each party, being ready to swear whatever seems
+expedient to its purpose, endeavours both to prove and defend, although
+the venerable laws, by which oaths are deemed sacred, and truth is
+honoured and respected, by favouring the accused and throwing an odium
+upon the accuser, impose the burden of bringing proofs upon the latter.
+But to a people so cunning and crafty, this yoke is pleasant, and this
+burden is light.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+THEIR LIVING BY PLUNDER, AND DISREGARD OF THE BONDS OF PEACE AND
+FRIENDSHIP
+
+
+THIS nation conceives it right to commit acts of plunder, theft, and
+robbery, not only against foreigners and hostile nations, but even
+against their own countrymen.  When an opportunity of attacking the enemy
+with advantage occurs, they respect not the leagues of peace and
+friendship, preferring base lucre to the solemn obligations of oaths and
+good faith; to which circumstance Gildas alludes in his book concerning
+the overthrow of the Britons, actuated by the love of truth, and
+according to the rules of history, not suppressing the vices of his
+countrymen.  “They are neither brave in war, nor faithful in peace.”  But
+when Julius Cæsar, great as the world itself,
+
+                 “Territa quæsitis ostendit terga Britannis,”
+
+were they not brave under their leader Cassivellaunus?  And when Belinus
+and Brennus added the Roman empire to their conquests?  What were they in
+the time of Constantine, son of our Helen?  What, in the reign of
+Aurelius Ambrosius, whom even Eutropius commends?  What were they in the
+time of our famous prince Arthur?  I will not say fabulous.  On the
+contrary, they, who were almost subdued by the Scots and Picts, often
+harassed with success the auxiliary Roman legions, and exclaimed, as we
+learn from Gildas, “The barbarians drove us to the sea, the sea drove us
+again back to the barbarians; on one side we were subdued, on the other
+drowned, and here we were put to death.  Were they not,” says he, “at
+that time brave and praiseworthy?”  When attacked and conquered by the
+Saxons, who originally had been called in as stipendiaries to their
+assistance, were they not brave?  But the strongest argument made use of
+by those who accuse this nation of cowardice, is, that Gildas, a holy
+man, and a Briton by birth, has handed down to posterity nothing
+remarkable concerning them, in any of his historical works.  We promise,
+however, a solution of the contrary in our British Topography, if God
+grants us a continuance of life.
+
+As a further proof, it may be necessary to add, that from the time when
+that illustrious prince of the Britons, mentioned at the beginning of
+this book, totally exhausted the strength of the country, by transporting
+the whole armed force beyond the seas; that island, which had before been
+so highly illustrious for its incomparable valour, remained for many
+subsequent years destitute of men and arms, and exposed to the predatory
+attacks of pirates and robbers.  So distinguished, indeed, were the
+natives of this island for their bravery, that, by their prowess, that
+king subdued almost all Cisalpine Gaul, and dared even to make an attack
+on the Roman empire.
+
+In process of time, the Britons, recovering their long-lost population
+and knowledge of the use of arms, re-acquired their high and ancient
+character.  Let the different æras be therefore marked, and the
+historical accounts will accord.  With regard to Gildas, who inveighs so
+bitterly against his own nation, the Britons affirm that, highly
+irritated at the death of his brother, the prince of Albania, whom king
+Arthur had slain, he wrote these invectives, and upon the same occasion
+threw into the sea many excellent books, in which he had described the
+actions of Arthur, and the celebrated deeds of his countrymen; from which
+cause it arises, that no authentic account of so great a prince is any
+where to be found.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+OF THEIR DEFICIENCY IN BATTLE, AND BASE AND DISHONOURABLE FLIGHT
+
+
+IN war this nation is very severe in the first attack, terrible by their
+clamour and looks, filling the air with horrid shouts and the deep-toned
+clangour of very long trumpets; swift and rapid in their advances and
+frequent throwing of darts.  Bold in the first onset, they cannot bear a
+repulse, being easily thrown into confusion as soon as they turn their
+backs; and they trust to flight for safety, without attempting to rally,
+which the poet thought reprehensible in martial conflicts:
+
+                      “Ignavum scelus est tantum fuga;”
+
+and elsewhere—
+
+                 “In vitium culpæ ducit fuga, si caret arte.”
+
+The character given to the Teutones in the Roman History, may be applied
+to this people.  “In their first attack they are more than men, in the
+second, less than women.”  Their courage manifests itself chiefly in the
+retreat, when they frequently return, and, like the Parthians, shoot
+their arrows behind them; and, as after success and victory in battle,
+even cowards boast of their courage, so, after a reverse of fortune, even
+the bravest men are not allowed their due claims of merit.  Their mode of
+fighting consists in chasing the enemy or in retreating.  This
+light-armed people, relying more on their activity than on their
+strength, cannot struggle for the field of battle, enter into close
+engagement, or endure long and severe actions, such as the poet
+describes:
+
+    “Jam clypeo clypeus, umbone repellitur umbo,
+    Ense minax ensis, pede pes, et cuspide cuspis.”
+
+Though defeated and put to flight on one day, they are ready to resume
+the combat on the next, neither dejected by their loss, nor by their
+dishonour; and although, perhaps, they do not display great fortitude in
+open engagements and regular conflicts, yet they harass the enemy by
+ambuscades and nightly sallies.  Hence, neither oppressed by hunger or
+cold, nor fatigued by martial labours, nor despondent in adversity, but
+ready, after a defeat, to return immediately to action, and again endure
+the dangers of war; they are as easy to overcome in a single battle, as
+difficult to subdue in a protracted war.  The poet Claudian thus speaks
+of a people similar in disposition:—
+
+    “Dum percunt, meminêre mali: si corda parumper
+    Respirare sinas, nullo tot funera censu
+    Prætercunt, tantique levis jactura cruoris.”
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+THEIR AMBITIOUS SEIZURE OF LANDS, AND DISSENSIONS AMONG BROTHERS
+
+
+THIS nation is, above all others, addicted to the digging up of boundary
+ditches, removing the limits, transgressing landmarks, and extending
+their territory by every possible means.  So great is their disposition
+towards this common violence, that they scruple not to claim as their
+hereditary right, those lands which are held under lease, or at will, on
+condition of planting, or by any other title, even although indemnity had
+been publicly secured on oath to the tenant by the lord proprietor of the
+soil.  Hence arise suits and contentions, murders and conflagrations, and
+frequent fratricides, increased, perhaps, by the ancient national custom
+of brothers dividing their property amongst each other.  Another heavy
+grievance also prevails; the princes entrust the education of their
+children to the care of the principal men of their country, each of whom,
+after the death of his father, endeavours, by every possible means, to
+exalt his own charge above his neighbours.  From which cause great
+disturbances have frequently arisen amongst brothers, and terminated in
+the most cruel and unjust murders; and on which account friendships are
+found to be more sincere between foster-brothers, than between those who
+are connected by the natural ties of brotherhood.  It is also remarkable,
+that brothers shew more affection to one another when dead, than when
+living; for they persecute the living even unto death, but revenge the
+deceased with all their power.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+THEIR GREAT EXACTION, AND WANT OF MODERATION
+
+
+WHERE they find plenty, and can exercise their power, they levy the most
+unjust exactions.  Immoderate in their love of food and intoxicating
+drink, they say with the Apostle, “We are instructed both to abound, and
+to suffer need;” but do not add with him, “becoming all things to all
+men, that I might by all means save some.”  As in times of scarcity their
+abstinence and parsimony are too severe, so, when seated at another man’s
+table, after a long fasting, (like wolves and eagles, who, like them,
+live by plunder, and are rarely satisfied,) their appetite is immoderate.
+They are therefore penurious in times of scarcity, and extravagant in
+times of plenty; but no man, as in England, mortgages his property for
+the gluttonous gratification of his own appetite.  They wish, however,
+that all people would join with them in their bad habits and expenses; as
+the commission of crimes reduces to a level all those who are concerned
+in the perpetration of them.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+CONCERNING THE CRIME OF INCEST, AND THE ABUSE OF CHURCHES BY SUCCESSION
+AND PARTICIPATION
+
+
+THE crime of incest hath so much prevailed, not only among the higher,
+but among the lower orders of this people, that, not having the fear of
+God before their eyes, they are not ashamed of intermarrying with their
+relations, even in the third degree of consanguinity.  They generally
+abuse these dispensations with a view of appeasing those enmities which
+so often subsist between them, because “their feet are swift to shed
+blood;” and from their love of high descent, which they so ardently
+affect and covet, they unite themselves to their own people, refusing to
+intermarry with strangers, and arrogantly presuming on their own
+superiority of blood and family.  They do not engage in marriage, until
+they have tried, by previous cohabitation, the disposition, and
+particularly the fecundity, of the person with whom they are engaged.  An
+ancient custom also prevails of hiring girls from their parents at a
+certain price, and a stipulated penalty, in case of relinquishing their
+connection.
+
+Their churches have almost as many parsons and sharers as there are
+principal men in the parish.  The sons, after the decease of their
+fathers, succeed to the ecclesiastical benefices, not by election, but by
+hereditary right possessing and polluting the sanctuary of God.  And if a
+prelate should by chance presume to appoint or institute any other
+person, the people would certainly revenge the injury upon the institutor
+and the instituted.  With respect to these two excesses of incest and
+succession, which took root formerly in Armorica, and are not yet
+eradicated, Ildebert, bishop of Le Mans, in one of his epistles, says,
+“that he was present with a British priest at a council summoned with a
+view of putting an end to the enormities of this nation:” hence it
+appears that these vices have for a long time prevailed both in Britany
+and Britain.  The words of the Psalmist may not inaptly be applied to
+them; “They are corrupt and become abominable in their doings, there is
+none that doeth good, no, not one: they are all gone out of the way, they
+are altogether become abominable,” etc.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+OF THEIR SINS, AND THE CONSEQUENT LOSS OF BRITAIN AND OF TROY
+
+
+MOREOVER, through their sins, and particularly that detestable and wicked
+vice of Sodom, as well as by divine vengeance, they lost Britain as they
+formerly lost Troy.  For we read in the Roman history, that the emperor
+Constantine having resigned the city and the Western empire to the
+blessed Sylvester and his successors, with an intention of rebuilding
+Troy, and there establishing the chief seat of the Eastern Empire, heard
+a voice, saying, “Dost thou go to rebuild Sodom?” upon which, he altered
+his intention, turned his ships and standards towards Byzantium, and
+there fixing his seat of empire, gave his own propitious name to the
+city.  The British history informs us, that Mailgon, king of the Britons,
+and many others, were addicted to this vice; that enormity, however, had
+entirely ceased for so long a time, that the recollection of it was
+nearly worn out.  But since that, as if the time of repentance was almost
+expired, and because the nation, by its warlike successes and acquisition
+of territory, has in our times unusually increased in population and
+strength, they boast in their turn, and most confidently and unanimously
+affirm, that in a short time their countrymen shall return to the island,
+and, according to the prophecies of Merlin, the nation, and even the
+name, of foreigners, shall be extinguished in the island, and the Britons
+shall exult again in their ancient name and privileges.  But to me it
+appears far otherwise; for since
+
+    “Luxuriant animi rebus plerumque secundis,
+    Nec facile est æqua commoda mente pati;”
+
+And because
+
+    “Non habet unde suum paupertas pascat amorem, . . .
+    Divitiis alitur luxuriosus amor.”
+
+So that their abstinence from that vice, which in their prosperity they
+could not resist, may be attributed more justly to their poverty and
+state of exile than to their sense of virtue.  For they cannot be said to
+have repented, when we see them involved in such an abyss of vices,
+perjury, theft, robbery, rapine, murders, fratricides, adultery, and
+incest, and become every day more entangled and ensnared in evil-doing;
+so that the words of the prophet Hosea may be truly applied to them,
+“There is no truth, nor mercy,” etc.
+
+Other matters of which they boast are more properly to be attributed to
+the diligence and activity of the Norman kings than to their own merits
+or power.  For previous to the coming of the Normans, when the English
+kings contented themselves with the sovereignty of Britain alone, and
+employed their whole military force in the subjugation of this people,
+they almost wholly extirpated them; as did king Offa, who by a long and
+extensive dyke separated the British from the English; Ethelfrid also,
+who demolished the noble city of Legions, {197} and put to death the
+monks of the celebrated monastery at Banchor, who had been called in to
+promote the success of the Britons by their prayers; and lastly Harold,
+who himself on foot, with an army of light-armed infantry, and conforming
+to the customary diet of the country, so bravely penetrated through every
+part of Wales, that he scarcely left a man alive in it; and as a memorial
+of his signal victories many stones may be found in Wales bearing this
+inscription:—“HIC VICTOR FUIT HAROLDUS”—“HERE HAROLD CONQUERED.” {198}
+
+To these bloody and recent victories of the English may be attributed the
+peaceable state of Wales during the reigns of the three first Norman
+kings; when the nation increased in population, and being taught the use
+of arms and the management of horses by the English and Normans (with
+whom they had much intercourse, by following the court, or by being sent
+as hostages), took advantage of the necessary attention which the three
+succeeding kings were obliged to pay to their foreign possessions, and
+once more lifting up their crests, recovered their lands, and spurned the
+yoke that had formerly been imposed upon them.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+IN WHAT MANNER THIS NATION IS TO BE OVERCOME
+
+
+THE prince who would wish to subdue this nation, and govern it peaceably,
+must use this method.  He must be determined to apply a diligent and
+constant attention to this purpose for one year at least; for a people
+who with a collected force will not openly attack the enemy in the field,
+nor wait to be besieged in castles, is not to be overcome at the first
+onset, but to be worn out by prudent delay and patience.  Let him divide
+their strength, and by bribes and promises endeavour to stir up one
+against the other, knowing the spirit of hatred and envy which generally
+prevails amongst them; and in the autumn let not only the marches, but
+also the interior part of the country be strongly fortified with castles,
+provisions, and confidential families.  In the meantime the purchase of
+corn, cloth, and salt, with which they are usually supplied from England,
+should be strictly interdicted; and well-manned ships placed as a guard
+on the coast, to prevent their importation of these articles from Ireland
+or the Severn sea, and to facilitate the supply of his own army.
+Afterwards, when the severity of winter approaches, when the trees are
+void of leaves, and the mountains no longer afford pasturage—when they
+are deprived of any hopes of plunder, and harassed on every side by the
+repeated attacks of the enemy—let a body of light-armed infantry
+penetrate into their woody and mountainous retreats, and let these troops
+be supported and relieved by others; and thus by frequent changes, and
+replacing the men who are either fatigued or slain in battle, this nation
+may be ultimately subdued; nor can it be overcome without the above
+precautions, nor without great danger and loss of men.  Though many of
+the English hired troops may perish in a day of battle, money will
+procure as many or more on the morrow for the same service; but to the
+Welsh, who have neither foreign nor stipendiary troops, the loss is for
+the time irreparable.  In these matters, therefore, as an artificer is to
+be trusted in his trade, so attention is to be paid to the counsel of
+those who, having been long conversant in similar concerns, are become
+acquainted with the manners and customs of their country, and whom it
+greatly interests, that an enemy, for whom during long and frequent
+conflicts they have contracted an implacable hatred, should by their
+assistance be either weakened or destroyed.  Happy should I have termed
+the borders of Wales inhabited by the English, if their kings, in the
+government of these parts, and in their military operations against the
+enemy, had rather employed the marchers and barons of the country, than
+adopted the counsels and policy of the people of Anjou and the Normans.
+In this, as well as in every other military expedition, either in Ireland
+or in Wales, the natives of the marches, from the constant state of
+warfare in which they are engaged, and whose manners are formed from the
+habits of war, are bold and active, skilful on horseback, quick on foot,
+not nice as to their diet, and ever prepared when necessity requires to
+abstain both from corn and wine.  By such men were the first hostile
+attacks made upon Wales as well as Ireland, and by such men alone can
+their final conquest be accomplished.  For the Flemings, Normans,
+Coterells, and Bragmans, are good and well-disciplined soldiers in their
+own country; but the Gallic soldiery is known to differ much from the
+Welsh and Irish.  In their country the battle is on level, here on rough
+ground; there in an open field, here in forests; there they consider
+their armour as an honour, here as a burden; there soldiers are taken
+prisoners, here they are beheaded; there they are ransomed, here they are
+put to death.  Where, therefore, the armies engage in a flat country, a
+heavy and complex armour, made of cloth and iron, both protects and
+decorates the soldier; but when the engagement is in narrow defiles, in
+woods or marshes, where the infantry have the advantage over the cavalry,
+a light armour is preferable.  For light arms afford sufficient
+protection against unarmed men, by whom victory is either lost or won at
+the first onset; where it is necessary that an active and retreating
+enemy should be overcome by a certain proportional quantity of moderate
+armour; whereas with a more complex sort, and with high and curved
+saddles, it is difficult to dismount, more so to mount, and with the
+greatest difficulty can such troops march, if required, with the
+infantry.  In order, therefore, that
+
+               “Singula quæque locum teneant sortita decenter,”
+
+we maintain it is necessary to employ heavy-armed and strong troops
+against men heavily armed, depending entirely upon their natural
+strength, and accustomed to fight in an open plain; but against
+light-armed and active troops, who prefer rough ground, men accustomed to
+such conflicts, and armed in a similar manner, must be employed.  But let
+the cities and fortresses on the Severn, and the whole territory on its
+western banks towards Wales, occupied by the English, as well as the
+provinces of Shropshire and Cheshire, which are protected by powerful
+armies, or by any other special privileges and honourable independence,
+rejoice in the provident bounty of their prince.  There should be a
+yearly examination of the warlike stores, of the arms, and horses, by
+good and discreet men deputed for that purpose, and who, not intent on
+its plunder and ruin, interest themselves in the defence and protection
+of their country.  By these salutary measures, the soldiers, citizens,
+and the whole mass of the people, being instructed and accustomed to the
+use of arms, liberty may be opposed by liberty, and pride be checked by
+pride.  For the Welsh, who are neither worn out by laborious burdens, nor
+molested by the exactions of their lords, are ever prompt to avenge an
+injury.  Hence arise their distinguished bravery in the defence of their
+country; hence their readiness to take up arms and to rebel.  Nothing so
+much excites, encourages, and invites the hearts of men to probity as the
+cheerfulness of liberty; nothing so much dejects and dispirits them as
+the oppression of servitude.  This portion of the kingdom, protected by
+arms and courage, might be of great use to the prince, not only in these
+or the adjacent parts, but, if necessity required, in more remote
+regions; and although the public treasury might receive a smaller annual
+revenue from these provinces, yet the deficiency would be abundantly
+compensated by the peace of the kingdom and the honour of its sovereign;
+especially as the heavy and dangerous expenses of one military expedition
+into Wales usually amount to the whole income among from the revenues of
+the province.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+IN WHAT MANNER WALES, WHEN CONQUERED, SHOULD BE GOVERNED
+
+
+AS therefore this nation is to be subdued by resolution in the manner
+proposed, so when subdued, its government must be directed by moderation,
+according to the following plan.  Let the care of it be committed to a
+man of a firm and determined mind; who during the time of peace, by
+paying due obedience to the laws, and respect to the government, may
+render it firm and stable.  For like other nations in a barbarous state,
+this people, although they are strangers to the principles of honour, yet
+above all things desire to be honoured; and approve and respect in others
+that truth which they themselves do not profess.  Whenever the natural
+inconstancy of their indisposition shall induce them to revolt, let
+punishment instantly follow the offence; but when they shall have
+submitted themselves again to order, and made proper amends for their
+faults (as it is the custom of bad men to remember wrath after quarrels),
+let their former transgression be overlooked, and let them enjoy security
+and respect, as long as they continue faithful.  Thus, by mild treatment
+they will be invited to obedience and the love of peace, and the thought
+of certain punishment will deter them from rash attempts.  We have often
+observed persons who, confounding these matters, by complaining of
+faults, depressing for services, flattering in war, plundering in peace,
+despoiling the weak, paying respect to revolters, by thus rendering all
+things confused, have at length been confounded themselves.  Besides, as
+circumstances which are foreseen do less mischief, and as that state is
+happy which thinks of war in the time of peace, let the wise man be upon
+his guard, and prepared against the approaching inconveniences of war, by
+the construction of forts, the widening of passes through woods, and the
+providing of a trusty household.  For those who are cherished and
+sustained during the time of peace, are more ready to come forward in
+times of danger, and are more confidently to be depended upon; and as a
+nation unsubdued ever meditates plots under the disguise of friendship,
+let not the prince or his governor entrust the protection of his camp or
+capital to their fidelity.  By the examples of many remarkable men, some
+of whom have been cruelly put to death, and others deprived of their
+castles and dignities, through their own neglect and want of care, we may
+see, that the artifices of a crafty and subdued nation are much more to
+be dreaded than their open warfare; their good-will than their anger,
+their honey than their gall, their malice than their attack, their
+treachery than their aggression, and their pretended friendship more than
+their open enmity.  A prudent and provident man therefore should
+contemplate in the misfortune of others what he ought himself to avoid;
+correction taught by example is harmless, as Ennodius {203} says: “The
+ruin of predecessors instructs those who succeed; and a former
+miscarriage becomes a future caution.”  If a well-disposed prince should
+wish these great designs to be accomplished without the effusion of
+blood, the marches, as we before mentioned, must be put into a state of
+defence on all sides, and all intercourse by sea and land interdicted;
+some of the Welsh may be stirred up to deadly feuds, by means of
+stipends, and by transferring the property of one person to another; and
+thus worn out with hunger, and a want of the necessaries of life, and
+harassed by frequent murders and implacable enmities, they will at last
+be compelled to surrender.
+
+There are three things which ruin this nation, and prevent its enjoying
+the satisfaction of a fruitful progeny.  First, because both the natural
+and legitimate sons endeavour to divide the paternal inheritance amongst
+themselves; from which cause, as we have before observed, continual
+fratricides take place.  Secondly, because the education of their sons is
+committed to the care of the high-born people of the country, who, on the
+death of their fathers, endeavour by all possible means to exalt their
+pupil; from whence arise murders, conflagrations, and almost a total
+destruction of the country.  And, thirdly, because from the pride and
+obstinacy of their disposition, they will not (like other nations)
+subject themselves to the dominion of one lord and king.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+IN WHAT MANNER THIS NATION MAY RESIST AND REVOLT
+
+
+HAVING hitherto so partially and elaborately spoken in favour of the
+English, and being equally connected by birth with each nation, justice
+demands that we should argue on both sides; let us therefore, at the
+close of our work, turn our attention towards the Welsh, and briefly, but
+effectually, instruct them in the art of resistance.  If the Welsh were
+more commonly accustomed to the Gallic mode of arming, and depended more
+on steady fighting than on their agility; if their princes were unanimous
+and inseparable in their defence; or rather, if they had only one prince,
+and that a good one; this nation situated in so powerful, strong, and
+inaccessible a country, could hardly ever be completely overcome.  If,
+therefore, they would be inseparable, they would become insuperable,
+being assisted by these three circumstances; a country well defended by
+nature, a people both contented and accustomed to live upon little, a
+community whose nobles as well as privates are instructed in the use of
+arms; and especially as the English fight for power, the Welsh for
+liberty; the one to procure gain, the other to avoid loss; the English
+hirelings for money, the Welsh patriots for their country.  The English,
+I say, fight in order to expel the natural inhabitants from the island,
+and secure to themselves the possession of the whole; but the Welsh
+maintain the conflict, that they, who have so long enjoyed the
+sovereignty of the whole kingdom, may at least find a hiding place in the
+worst corner of it, amongst woods and marshes; and, banished, as it were,
+for their offences, may there in a state of poverty, for a limited time,
+perform penance for the excesses they committed in the days of their
+prosperity.  For the perpetual remembrance of their former greatness, the
+recollection of their Trojan descent, and the high and continued majesty
+of the kingdom of Britain, may draw forth many a latent spark of
+animosity, and encourage the daring spirit of rebellion.  Hence during
+the military expedition which king Henry II. made in our days against
+South Wales, an old Welshman at Pencadair, who had faithfully adhered to
+him, being desired to give his opinion about the royal army, and whether
+he thought that of the rebels would make resistance, and what would be
+the final event of this war, replied, “This nation, O king, may now, as
+in former times, be harassed, and in a great measure weakened and
+destroyed by your and other powers, and it will often prevail by its
+laudable exertions; but it can never be totally subdued through the wrath
+of man, unless the wrath of God shall concur.  Nor do I think, that any
+other nation than this of Wales, or any other language, whatever may
+hereafter come to pass, shall, in the day of severe examination before
+the Supreme Judge, answer for this corner of the earth.”
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+{155a}  Port Gordber, written _Gordwr_ by Humphrey Lhwyd in his Breviary
+of Britain, probably a corruption from Gorddyar, a roaring, applied to
+the sea, as Gorddyar môr, the roaring of the sea.
+
+{155b}  The harbour, now known by the name of Portscwit, (and recorded in
+the Triads as one of the three passages or ferries in the Isle of
+Britain), is situated on the Welsh side of the Bristol channel, at a
+short distance from the lower passage.
+
+{155c}  Port Mawr, or the large port, is thus mentioned by Leland in his
+Itinerary, tom. v. pp. 28, 29:—“About a mile of is Port Mawre, where is a
+great sande with a shorte estuary into the lande.  And sum say that there
+hath beene a castel at or aboute Port Mawr, but the tokens be not very
+evidente.”
+
+{155d}  Rhyd-helyg, or the Ford of the Willow.—I imagine this place is
+Walford in Herefordshire, near the banks of the river Wye.
+
+{156}  Brutus, according to the fable, in his way to Britain, met with a
+company of Trojans, who had fled from Troy with Antenor and Corinæus at
+their head, who submitted themselves to Brutus, and joined his company;
+which Corinæus, being a very valiant man, rendered great service to
+Brutus during his wars in Gaul and Britain; in return for which, Brutus,
+having subdued the island, and divided it amongst his people, gave
+Cornwall to Corinæus, who, as it is said, called it after his own name,
+Cernyw.
+
+{157a}  Uchelwyr, so called from _Uchel_, high, and _gwr_, a man.
+
+{157b}  This assertion is unfounded, if we give credit to the Welsh
+Chronicle, which dates the death of Cadell in 907, and that of Anarawdin
+in 913.  [Howell Dda, the son of Cadell, reunited Wales under one
+sovereign.]
+
+{158a}  B.M.—This abbreviation, which in every manuscript I have seen of
+Giraldus has been construed into _Beatam Mariam_, and in many of them is
+written _Beatam Virginem_, may with much greater propriety be applied to
+_Belinus Magnus_, or Beli the Great, a distinguished British King, to
+whom most of the British pedigrees ascended; and because his name
+occurred so frequently in them it was often written short, B.M., which
+some men, by mistake, interpret _Beata Maria_.—(Sir R. C. H.)
+
+{158b}  Aberfraw, a small town at the conflux of the river Fraw and the
+sea, on the S.W. part of the isle of Anglesey, and twelve miles S.E. of
+Holyhead.
+
+{159a}  A great lordship in Herefordshire, including the district between
+Hereford and Monmouth, bordering on the river Wye.
+
+{159b}  Book ii. chapter i.
+
+{162a}  Book ii. c. 4.
+
+{162b}  If by the mountains of Eryri we are to understand the Snowdonian
+range of hills, our author has not been quite accurate in fixing the
+source of the river Dovy, which rises between Dynas-y-mowddu and Bala
+Lake, to the southward of Mount Arran: from whence it pursues its course
+to Mallwyd, and Machynlleth, below which place it becomes an estuary, and
+the boundary between North and South Wales.
+
+{162c}  Our author is again incorrect in stating that the river Maw
+forms, by its course, the two tracts of sands called Traeth Mawr and
+Traeth Bychan.  This river, from which Barmouth derives the name of
+Abermaw, and to which Giraldus, in the fifth chapter of the second book
+of his Itinerary, has given the epithet of _bifurcus_, runs far to the
+southward of either of the Traeths.  The Traeth Mawr, or large sands, are
+formed by the impetuous torrents which descend from Snowdon by
+Beddgelert, and pass under the Devil’s Bridge at Pont Aberglasllyn, so
+called from the river Glasllyn; and the Traeth Bychan, or little sands,
+are formed by numerous streams which unite themselves in the vale of
+Festiniog, and become an æstuary near the village of Maentwrog.
+
+{165a}  Better known as Geoffrey of Monmouth.
+
+{165b}  The Anglo-Saxons called the Britons _Wealhas_, from a word in
+their own language, which signified literally foreigners; and hence we
+derive the modern name Welsh.
+
+{168}  The Peak, in Derbyshire.
+
+{169a}  Sir R. C. Hoare has altogether misunderstood the original here.
+It was the custom in the middle ages to place the guests at table in
+pairs, and each two persons ate out of one plate.  Each couple was a
+_mess_.  At a later period, among the great the mess consisted of four
+persons; but it appears that in Wales, at this time, it was formed of
+three guests.
+
+{169b}  “Bread, called _Lagana_, was, I suppose, the sort of household
+bread, or thin cake baked on an iron plate, called a griddle (_gradell_),
+still common in Caermarthenshire, and called _Bara Llech_ and _Bara
+Llechan_, or griddle bread, from being so baked.”—Owen.  “_Laganum_, a
+fritter or pancake, _Baranyiod_.”—_Lluyd_, _Archaiology_, p. 75.
+
+{170}  _Brychan_, in Lhuyd’s Archaiology and Cornish Grammar, is spelt
+Bryccan, and interpreted a blanket.
+
+{171}  “Omnes vero se Britanni vitro inficiunt, quod cæruleum efficit
+colorem, atque hoc horridore sunt in pugna adspectu; capilloque sunt
+promisso, atque omni parte corporis rasa, præter caput et labrum
+superius.”—_Cæsar de Bello Gallico_, cap. 13, 14.
+
+{172}  This instrument is generally supposed to have been the origin of
+the violin, which was not commonly known in England till the reign of
+Charles I.  Before this time the crwth was not probably confined to the
+Principality, from the name of _Crowdero_ in Hudibras; as also from a
+fiddler being still called a _crowder_ in some parts of England, though
+he now plays on a violin instead of a crwth.
+
+{173}  These Welsh lines quoted by Giraldus are selected from two
+different stanzas of moral verses, called Eglynion y Clywed, the
+composition of some anonymous bard; or probably the work of several:
+
+    “A glyweisti a gant Dywyneg,
+    Milwr doeth detholedig;
+    Digawn Duw da i unig?
+
+    “Hast thou heard what was sung by Dywynic?
+    A wise and chosen warrior;
+    God will effect solace to the orphan.
+
+    “A glyweisti a gant Anarawd?
+    Milwr doniawg did lawd;
+    Rhaid wrth anmhwyll pwyll parawd.
+
+    “Hast thou heard what was sung by Anarawd?
+    A warrior endowed with many gifts;
+    With want of sense ready wit is necessary.”
+
+Or, as Giraldus quotes it,
+
+    “Wrth bob crybwll rhaid pwyll parawd.”
+
+    “With every hint ready wit is necessary.”
+
+                                        _Myvyvrian Archaiology_, page 172.
+
+{179}  Awenydhion, in a literal sense, means persons inspired by the
+Muse, and is derived from Awen and Awenydd, a poetical rapture, or the
+gift of poetry.  It was the appellation of the disciples, or candidates
+for the Bardic Order; but the most general acceptation of the word was,
+Poets, or Bards.
+
+{183}  Genealogies were preserved as a principle of necessity under the
+ancient British constitution.  A man’s pedigree was in reality his title
+deed, by which he claimed his birthright in the country.  Every one was
+obliged to show his descent through nine generations, in order to be
+acknowledged a free native, and by this right he claimed his portion of
+land in the community.  He was affected with respect to legal process in
+his collateral affinities through nine degrees.  For instance, every
+murder committed had a fine levied on the relations of the murderer,
+divided into nine degrees; his brother paying the greatest, and the ninth
+in affinity the least.  This fine was distributed in the same way among
+the relatives of the victim.  A person past the ninth descent formed a
+new family.  Every family was represented by its elder; and these elders
+from every family were delegates to the national council.—_Owen_.
+
+{184}  The _naviculæ_ mentioned by Giraldus bear the modern name of
+_coracles_, and are much used on the Welsh rivers for the taking of
+salmon.  Their name is derived probably from the Celtic word _corawg_,
+which signifies a _ship_.  They are mentioned by the ancient writers.
+
+{197}  By the city of Legions Chester is here meant, not Caerleon.
+
+{198}  Of the stones inscribed “HIC VICTOR FUIT HAROLDUS”—“HERE HAROLD
+CONQUERED,” no original, I believe, remains extant; but at the village of
+Trelech, in Monmouthshire, there is a modern pedestal bearing the above
+inscription.—See the description and engraving in Coxe’s Monmouthshire,
+p. 234.
+
+{203}  In one MS. of Giraldus in the British Museum, this name is written
+Ovidius.
+
+
+
+
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+
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Description of Wales, by Geraldus
+Cambrensis
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions 
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at 
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Description of Wales
+
+
+Author: Geraldus Cambrensis
+
+
+
+Release Date: February 9, 2015  [eBook #1092]
+[This file was first posted on October 30, 1997]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESCRIPTION OF WALES***
+</pre>
+<p>Transcribed from the 1912 J. M. Dent edition by David Price,
+email ccx074@pglaf.org</p>
+<h1><span class="smcap">The Description of Wales</span><br />
+by<br />
+Gerald of Wales</h1>
+<h2><a name="page145"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+145</span>FIRST PREFACE<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">TO STEPHEN LANGTON, ARCHBISHOP OF
+CANTERBURY</span></h2>
+<p>I, <span class="smcap">who</span>, at the expense of three
+years&rsquo; labour, arranged, a short time ago, in three parts,
+the Topography of Ireland, with a description of its natural
+curiosities, and who afterwards, by two years&rsquo; study,
+completed in two parts the Vaticinal History of its Conquest; and
+who, by publishing the Itinerary of the Holy Man (Baldwin)
+through Cambria, prevented his laborious mission from perishing
+in obscurity, do now propose, in the present little work, to give
+some account of this my native country, and to describe the
+genius of its inhabitants, so entirely distinct from that of
+other nations.&nbsp; And this production of my industry I have
+determined to dedicate to you, illustrious Stephen, archbishop of
+Canterbury, as I before ascribed to you my Itinerary; considering
+you as a man no less distinguished by your piety, than
+conspicuous for your learning; though so humble an offering may
+possibly be unworthy the acceptance of a personage who, from his
+eminence, deserves to be presented with works of the greatest
+merit.</p>
+<p>Some, indeed, object to this my undertaking, and, apparently
+from motives of affection, compare me to a painter, who, rich in
+colours, and like another Zeuxis, eminent in his art, is
+endeavouring with all his skill and industry to give celebrity to
+a cottage, or to some other contemptible object, whilst the world
+is anxiously expecting from his hand a temple or a palace.&nbsp;
+Thus they wonder that I, amidst the many great and striking
+subjects <a name="page146"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+146</span>which the world presents, should choose to describe and
+to adorn, with all the graces of composition, such remote corners
+of the earth as Ireland and Wales.</p>
+<p>Others again, reproaching me with greater severity, say, that
+the gifts which have been bestowed upon me from above, ought not
+to be wasted upon these insignificant objects, nor lavished in a
+vain display of learning on the commendation of princes, who,
+from their ignorance and want of liberality, have neither taste
+to appreciate, nor hearts to remunerate literary
+excellence.&nbsp; And they further add, that every faculty which
+emanates from the Deity, ought rather to be applied to the
+illustration of celestial objects, and to the exultation of his
+glory, from whose abundance all our talents have been received;
+every faculty (say they) ought to be employed in praising him
+from whom, as from a perennial source, every perfect gift is
+derived, and from whose bounty everything which is offered with
+sincerity obtains an ample reward.&nbsp; But since excellent
+histories of other countries have been composed and published by
+writers of eminence, I have been induced, by the love I bear to
+my country and to posterity, to believe that I should perform
+neither an useless nor an unacceptable service, were I to unfold
+the hidden merits of my native land; to rescue from obscurity
+those glorious actions which have been hitherto imperfectly
+described, and to bring into repute, by my method of treating it,
+a subject till now regarded as contemptible.</p>
+<p>What indeed could my feeble and unexercised efforts add to the
+histories of the destruction of Troy, Thebes, or Athens, or to
+the conquest of the shores of Latium?&nbsp; Besides, to do what
+has been already done, is, in fact, to be doing nothing; I have,
+therefore, thought it more eligible to apply my industry to the
+arrangement of the history of my native country, hitherto almost
+wholly overlooked by strangers; but interesting to my relations
+and countrymen; and from these small beginnings to aspire by
+degrees to works of a nobler cast.&nbsp; <a
+name="page147"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 147</span>From these
+inconsiderable attempts, some idea may be formed with what
+success, should Fortune afford an opportunity, I am likely to
+treat matters of greater importance.&nbsp; For although some
+things should be made our principal objects, whilst others ought
+not to be wholly neglected, I may surely be allowed to exercise
+the powers of my youth, as yet untaught and unexperienced, in
+pursuits of this latter nature, lest by habit I should feel a
+pleasure in indolence and in sloth, the parent of vice.</p>
+<p>I have therefore employed these studies as a kind of
+introduction to the glorious treasures of that most excellent of
+the sciences, which alone deserves the name of science; which
+alone can render us wise to rule and to instruct mankind; which
+alone the other sciences follow, as attendants do their
+queen.&nbsp; Laying therefore in my youth the foundations of so
+noble a structure, it is my intention, if God will assist me and
+prolong my life, to reserve my maturer years for composing a
+treatise upon so perfect, so sacred a subject: for according to
+the poet,</p>
+<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">&ldquo;Ardua quippe
+fides robustos exigit annos;&rdquo;</p>
+<p style="text-align: center">&ldquo;The important concerns of
+faith require a mind in its full vigour;&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>I may be permitted to indulge myself for a short time in other
+pursuits; but in this I should wish not only to continue, but to
+die.</p>
+<p>But before I enter on this important subject, I demand a short
+interval, to enable me to lay before the public my Treatise on
+the Instruction of a Prince, which has been so frequently
+promised, as well as the Description of Wales, which is now
+before me, and the Topography of Britain.</p>
+<p>Of all the British writers, Gildas alone appears to me (as
+often as the course of my subject leads me to consult him) worthy
+of imitation; for by committing to paper the things which he
+himself saw and knew, and by declaring rather than describing the
+desolation of his <a name="page148"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+148</span>country, he has compiled a history more remarkable for
+its truth than for its elegance.</p>
+<p>Giraldus therefore follows Gildas, whom he wishes he could
+copy in his life and manners; becoming an imitator of his wisdom
+rather than of his eloquence&mdash;of his mind rather than of his
+writings&mdash;of his zeal rather than of his style&mdash;of his
+life rather than of his language.</p>
+<h2><a name="page149"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+149</span>SECOND PREFACE<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">TO THE SAME</span></h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">When</span>, amidst various literary
+pursuits, I first applied my mind to the compilation of history,
+I determined, lest I should appear ungrateful to my native land,
+to describe, to the best of my abilities, my own country and its
+adjoining regions; and afterwards, under God&rsquo;s guidance, to
+proceed to a description of more distant territories.&nbsp; But
+since some leading men (whom we have both seen and known) show so
+great a contempt for literature, that they immediately shut up
+within their book-cases the excellent works with which they are
+presented, and thus doom them, as it were, to a perpetual
+imprisonment; I entreat you, illustrious Prelate, to prevent the
+present little work, which will shortly be delivered to you, from
+perishing in obscurity.&nbsp; And because this, as well as my
+former productions, though of no transcendent merit, may
+hereafter prove to many a source of entertainment and
+instruction, I entreat you generously to order it to be made
+public, by which it will acquire reputation.&nbsp; And I shall
+consider myself sufficiently rewarded for my trouble, if,
+withdrawing for a while from your religious and secular
+occupations, you would kindly condescend to peruse this book, or,
+at least, give it an attentive hearing; for in times like these,
+when no one remunerates literary productions, I neither desire
+nor expect any other recompense.&nbsp; Not that it would appear
+in any way inconsistent, however there exists among men of rank a
+kind of conspiracy against authors, if a prelate so eminently
+conspicuous for his <a name="page150"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 150</span>virtues, for his abilities, both
+natural and acquired, for irreproachable morals, and for
+munificence, should distinguish himself likewise by becoming the
+generous and sole patron of literature.&nbsp; To comprise your
+merits in a few words, the lines of Martial addressed to Trajan,
+whilst serving under Dioclesian, may be deservedly applied to
+you:</p>
+<blockquote><p>&ldquo;Laudari debes quoniam sub principe duro,<br
+/>
+&nbsp;&nbsp; Temporibusque malis, ausus es esse bonus.&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>And those also of Virgil to Mec&aelig;nas, which extol the
+humanity of that great man:</p>
+<blockquote><p>&ldquo;Omnia cum possis tanto tam clarus amico,<br
+/>
+Te sensit nemo posse nocere tamen.&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Many indeed remonstrate against my proceedings, and those
+particularly who call themselves my friends insist that, in
+consequence of my violent attachment to study, I pay no attention
+to the concerns of the world, or to the interests of my family;
+and that, on this account, I shall experience a delay in my
+promotion to worldly dignities; that the influence of authors,
+both poets and historians, has long since ceased; that the
+respect paid to literature vanished with literary princes; and
+that in these degenerate days very different paths lead to
+honours and opulence.&nbsp; I allow all this, I readily allow it,
+and acquiesce in the truth.&nbsp; For the unprincipled and
+covetous attach themselves to the court, the churchmen to their
+books, and the ambitious to the public offices, but as every man
+is under the influence of some darling passion, so the love of
+letters and the study of eloquence have from my infancy had for
+me peculiar charms of attraction.&nbsp; Impelled by this thirst
+for knowledge, I have carried my researches into the mysterious
+works of nature farther than the generality of my contemporaries,
+and for the benefit of posterity have rescued from oblivion the
+remarkable events of my own times.&nbsp; But this object was not
+to be secured without an indefatigable, <a
+name="page151"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 151</span>though at
+the same time an agreeable, exertion; for an accurate
+investigation of every particular is attended with much
+difficulty.&nbsp; It is difficult to produce an orderly account
+of the investigation and discovery of truth; it is difficult to
+preserve from the beginning to the end a connected relation
+unbroken by irrelevant matter; and it is difficult to render the
+narration no less elegant in the diction, than instructive in its
+matter, for in prosecuting the series of events, the choice of
+happy expressions is equally perplexing, as the search after them
+painful.&nbsp; Whatever is written requires the most intense
+thought, and every expression should be carefully polished before
+it be submitted to the public eye; for, by exposing itself to the
+examination of the present and of future ages, it must
+necessarily undergo the criticism not only of the acute, but also
+of the dissatisfied, reader.&nbsp; Words merely uttered are soon
+forgotten, and the admiration or disgust which they occasioned is
+no more; but writings once published are never lost, and remain
+as lasting memorials either of the glory or of the disgrace of
+the author.&nbsp; Hence the observation of Seneca, that the
+malicious attention of the envious reader dwells with no less
+satisfaction on a faulty than on an elegant expression, and is as
+anxious to discover what it may ridicule, as what it may commend;
+as the poet also observes:</p>
+<blockquote><p>&ldquo;Discit enim citius meminitque libentius
+illud<br />
+Quod quis deridet, quam quod probat et veneratur.&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Among the pursuits, therefore, most worthy of commendation,
+this holds by no means the lowest rank; for history, as the moral
+philosopher declares, &ldquo;is the record of antiquity, the
+testimony of ages, the light of truth, the soul of memory, the
+mistress of conduct, and the herald of ancient times.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>This study is the more delightful, as it is more honourable to
+produce works worthy of being quoted than to quote the works of
+others; as it is more desirable to be <a name="page152"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 152</span>the author of compositions which
+deserve to be admired than to be esteemed a good judge of the
+writings of other men; as it is more meritorious to be the just
+object of other men&rsquo;s commendations than to be considered
+an adept in pointing out the merits of others.&nbsp; On these
+pleasing reflections I feed and regale myself; for I would rather
+resemble Jerome than Croesus, and I prefer to riches themselves
+the man who is capable of despising them.&nbsp; With these
+gratifying ideas I rest contented and delighted, valuing
+moderation more than intemperance, and an honourable sufficiency
+more than superfluity; for intemperance and superfluity produce
+their own destruction, but their opposite virtues never perish;
+the former vanish, but the latter, like eternity, remain for
+ever; in short, I prefer praise to lucre, and reputation to
+riches.</p>
+<h2><a name="page153"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+153</span>CONTENTS</h2>
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3"><p style="text-align: center">BOOK I</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">CHAPTER</span></p>
+</td>
+<td><p>&nbsp;</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span
+class="GutSmall">PAGE</span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">I.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Length and Breadth of Wales, the Nature of its Soil, and
+the Three Remaining Tribes of Britons</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page155">155</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">II.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Of the Ancient Division of Wales into Three Parts</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page156">156</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">III.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Genealogy of the Princes of Wales</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page157">157</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">IV.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Cantreds&mdash;Royal Palaces&mdash;Cathedrals</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page158">158</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">V.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Mountains and Rivers of Wales</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page159">159</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">VI.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Concerning the Pleasantness and Fertility of Wales</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page163">163</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">VII.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Origin of the Names Cambria and Wales</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page164">164</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">VIII.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Concerning the Nature, Manners, and Dress, the Boldness,
+Agility, and Courage, of this Nation</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page166">166</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">IX.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Their Sober Supper and Frugality</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page168">168</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">X.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Their Hospitality and Liberality</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page170">170</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">XI.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Concerning their cutting of their Hair, their Care of
+their Teeth, and Shaving of their Beard</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page171">171</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">XII.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Their Quickness and Sharpness of Understanding</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page174">174</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">XIII.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Their Symphonies and Songs</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page175">175</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">XIV.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Their Wit and Pleasantry</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page177">177</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">XV.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Their Boldness and Confidence in Speaking</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page183">183</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">XVI.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Concerning the Soothsayers of this Nation, and Persons as
+it were possessed</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page179">179</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">XVII.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Their Love of High Birth and Ancient Genealogy</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page183">183</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">XVIII.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Their Ancient Faith, Love of Christianity and Devotion</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page185">185</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3"><p style="text-align: center"><a
+name="page154"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 154</span>BOOK II</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">I.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Concerning the Inconstancy and Instability of this Nation,
+and their Want of Reverence for Good Faith and Oaths</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page189">189</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">II.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Their living by Plunder, and Disregard of the Bonds of
+Peace and Friendship</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page190">190</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">III.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Their Deficiency in Battle, and Base and Dishonourable
+Flight</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page192">192</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">IV.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Their Ambitious Seizure of Lands, and Dissensions among
+Brothers</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page193">193</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">V.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Their great Exaction, and Want of Moderation</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page194">194</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">VI.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Concerning the Crime of Incest, and the Abuse of Churches
+by Succession and Participation</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page195">195</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">VII.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>Their Sins, and the consequent Loss of Britain and of
+Troy</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page196">196</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">VIII.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>In what Manner this Nation is to be overcome</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page198">198</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">IX.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>In what Manner Wales, when conquered, should be
+governed</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page202">202</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p style="text-align: right">X.</p>
+</td>
+<td><p>In what Manner this Nation may resist and revolt</p>
+</td>
+<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a
+href="#page204">204</a></span></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<h2><a name="page155"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 155</span>BOOK
+I</h2>
+<h3>CHAPTER I<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">OF THE LENGTH AND BREADTH OF WALES, THE
+NATURE OF ITS SOIL, AND THE THREE REMAINING TRIBES OF
+BRITONS</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">Cambria</span>, which, by a corrupt and
+common term, though less proper, is in modern times called Wales,
+is about two hundred miles long and one hundred broad.&nbsp; The
+length from Port Gordber <a name="citation155a"></a><a
+href="#footnote155a" class="citation">[155a]</a> in Anglesey to
+Port Eskewin <a name="citation155b"></a><a href="#footnote155b"
+class="citation">[155b]</a> in Monmouthshire is eight days&rsquo;
+journey in extent; the breadth from Porth Mawr, <a
+name="citation155c"></a><a href="#footnote155c"
+class="citation">[155c]</a> or the great Port of St.
+David&rsquo;s, to Ryd-helic, <a name="citation155d"></a><a
+href="#footnote155d" class="citation">[155d]</a> which in Latin
+means <i>Vadum salicis</i>, or the Ford of the Willow, and in
+English is called Willow-forde, is four days&rsquo;
+journey.&nbsp; It is a country very strongly defended by high
+mountains, deep valleys, extensive woods, rivers, and marshes;
+insomuch that from <a name="page156"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+156</span>the time the Saxons took possession of the island the
+remnants of the Britons, retiring into these regions, could never
+be entirely subdued either by the English or by the
+Normans.&nbsp; Those who inhabited the southern angle of the
+island, which took its name from the chieftain Corin&aelig;us, <a
+name="citation156"></a><a href="#footnote156"
+class="citation">[156]</a> made less resistance, as their country
+was more defenceless.&nbsp; The third division of the Britons,
+who obtained a part of Britany in Gaul, were transported thither,
+not after the defeat of their nation, but long before, by king
+Maximus, and, in consequence of the hard and continued warfare
+which they underwent with him, were rewarded by the royal
+munificence with those districts in France.</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER II<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">OF THE ANCIENT DIVISION OF WALES INTO
+THREE PARTS</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">Wales</span> was in ancient times divided
+into three parts nearly equal, consideration having been paid, in
+this division, more to the value than to the just quantity or
+proportion of territory.&nbsp; They were Venedotia, now called
+North Wales; Demetia, or South Wales, which in British is called
+Deheubarth, that is, the southern part; and Powys, the middle or
+eastern district.&nbsp; Roderic the Great, or Rhodri Mawr, who
+was king over all Wales, was the cause of this division.&nbsp; He
+had three sons, Mervin, Anarawt, and Cadell, amongst whom he
+partitioned the whole principality.&nbsp; North Wales fell to the
+lot of Mervin; Powys to Anarawt; and Cadell received <a
+name="page157"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 157</span>the portion
+of South Wales, together with the general good wishes of his
+brothers and the people; for although this district greatly
+exceeded the others in quantity, it was the least desirable from
+the number of noble chiefs, or Uchelwyr, <a
+name="citation157a"></a><a href="#footnote157a"
+class="citation">[157a]</a> men of a superior rank, who inhabited
+it, and were often rebellious to their lords, and impatient of
+control.&nbsp; But Cadell, on the death of his brothers, obtained
+the entire dominion of Wales, <a name="citation157b"></a><a
+href="#footnote157b" class="citation">[157b]</a> as did his
+successors till the time of Tewdwr, whose descendants, Rhys, son
+of Tewdwr, Gruflydd, son of Rhys, and Rhys, son of Gruffydd, the
+ruling prince in our time, enjoyed only (like the father) the
+sovereignty over South Wales.</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER III<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">GENEALOGY OF THE PRINCES OF
+WALES</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> following is the generation of
+princes of South Wales: Rhys, son of Gruffydd; Gruffydd, son of
+Rhys; Rhys, son of Tewdwr; Tewdwr, son of Eineon; Eineon, son of
+Owen; Owen, son of Howel Dda, or Howel the Good; Howel, son of
+Cadell, son of Roderic the Great.&nbsp; Thus the princes of South
+Wales derived their origin from Cadell, son of Roderic the
+Great.&nbsp; The princes of North Wales descended from Mervin in
+this manner: Llewelyn, son of Iorwerth; Iorwerth, son of Owen;
+Owen, son of Gruffydd; Gruffydd, son of Conan; Conan, son of
+Iago; Iago, son of Edoual; Edoual, son of Meyric; Meyric, son of
+Anarawt (Anandhrec); Anarawt, son of Mervin, son of Roderic the
+Great.&nbsp; Anarawt leaving no issue, the princes of Powys have
+their own particular descent.</p>
+<p>It is worthy of remark, that the Welsh bards and <a
+name="page158"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 158</span>singers, or
+reciters, have the genealogies of the aforesaid princes, written
+in the Welsh language, in their ancient and authentic books; and
+also retain them in their memory from Roderic the Great to B.M.;
+<a name="citation158a"></a><a href="#footnote158a"
+class="citation">[158a]</a> and from thence to Sylvius, Ascanius,
+and &AElig;neas; and from the latter produce the genealogical
+series in a lineal descent, even to Adam.</p>
+<p>But as an account of such long and remote genealogies may
+appear to many persons trifling rather than historical, we have
+purposely omitted them in our compendium.</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER IV<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">HOW MANY CANTREDS, ROYAL PALACES, AND
+CATHEDRALS THERE ARE IN WALES</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">South Wales</span> contains twenty-nine
+cantreds; North Wales, twelve; Powys, six: many of which are at
+this time in the possession of the English and Franks.&nbsp; For
+the country now called Shropshire formerly belonged to Powys, and
+the place where the castle of Shrewsbury stands bore the name of
+Pengwern, or the head of the Alder Grove.&nbsp; There were three
+royal seats in South Wales: Dinevor, in South Wales, removed from
+Caerleon; Aberfraw, <a name="citation158b"></a><a
+href="#footnote158b" class="citation">[158b]</a> in North Wales;
+and Pengwern, in Powys.</p>
+<p>Wales contains in all fifty-four cantreds.&nbsp; The word
+<i>Cantref</i> is derived from <i>Cant</i>, a hundred, and
+<i>Tref</i>, a village; <a name="page159"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 159</span>and means in the British and Irish
+languages such a portion of land as contains a hundred vills.</p>
+<p>There are four cathedral churches in Wales: St. David&rsquo;s,
+upon the Irish sea, David the archbishop being its patron: it was
+in ancient times the metropolitan church, and the district only
+contained twenty-four cantreds, though at this time only
+twenty-three; for Ergengl, in English called Urchenfeld, <a
+name="citation159a"></a><a href="#footnote159a"
+class="citation">[159a]</a> is said to have been formerly within
+the diocese of St. David&rsquo;s, and sometimes was placed within
+that of Landaff.&nbsp; The see of St. David&rsquo;s had
+twenty-five successive archbishops; and from the time of the
+removal of the pall into France, to this day, twenty-two bishops;
+whose names and series, as well as the cause of the removal of
+the archiepiscopal pall, may be seen in our Itinerary. <a
+name="citation159b"></a><a href="#footnote159b"
+class="citation">[159b]</a></p>
+<p>In South Wales also is situated the bishopric of Landaff, near
+the Severn sea, and near the noble castle of Caerdyf; bishop
+Teilo being its patron.&nbsp; It contains five cantreds, and the
+fourth part of another, namely, Senghennyd.</p>
+<p>In North Wales, between Anglesey and the Eryri mountains, is
+the see of Bangor, under the patronage of Daniel, the abbot; it
+contains about nine cantreds.</p>
+<p>In North Wales also is the poor little cathedral of Llan-Elwy,
+or St. Asaph, containing about six cantreds, to which Powys is
+subject.</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER V<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">OF THE TWO MOUNTAINS FROM WHICH THE NOBLE
+RIVERS WHICH DIVIDE WALES SPRING</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">Wales</span> is divided and distinguished
+by noble rivers, which derive their source from two ranges of
+mountains, <a name="page160"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+160</span>the Ellennith, in South Wales, which the English call
+Moruge, as being the heads of moors, or bogs; and Eryri, in North
+Wales, which they call Snowdon, or mountains of snow; the latter
+of which are said to be of so great an extent, that if all the
+herds in Wales were collected together, they would supply them
+with pasture for a considerable time.&nbsp; Upon them are two
+lakes, one of which has a floating island; and the other contains
+fish having only one eye, as we have related in our
+Itinerary.</p>
+<p>We must also here remark, that at two places in Scotland, one
+on the eastern, and the other on the western ocean, the sea-fish
+called mulvelli (mullets) have only the right eye.</p>
+<p>The noble river Severn takes its rise from the Ellennith
+mountains, and flowing by the castles of Shrewsbury and
+Bridgenorth, through the city of Worcester, and that of
+Gloucester, celebrated for its iron manufactories, falls into the
+sea a few miles from the latter place, and gives its name to the
+Severn Sea.&nbsp; This river was for many years the boundary
+between Cambria and Loegria, or Wales and England; it was called
+in British Hafren, from the daughter of Locrinus, who was drowned
+in it by her step-mother; the aspirate being changed, according
+to the Latin idiom, into S, as is usual in words derived from the
+Greek, it was termed Sarina, as hal becomes <i>sal</i>; hemi,
+<i>semi</i>; hepta, <i>septem</i>.</p>
+<p>The river Wye rises in the same mountains of Ellennith, and
+flows by the castles of Hay and Clifford, through the city of
+Hereford, by the castles of Wilton and Goodrich, through the
+forest of Dean, abounding with iron and deer, and proceeds to
+Strigul castle, below which it empties itself into the sea, and
+forms in modern times the boundary between England and
+Wales.&nbsp; The Usk does not derive its origin from these
+mountains, but from those of Cantref Bachan; it flows by the
+castle of Brecheinoc, or Aberhodni, that is, the fall of the
+river Hodni into the Usk (for Aber, in the British language,
+signifies every place where two rivers unite their <a
+name="page161"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 161</span>streams);
+by the castles of Abergevenni and Usk, through the ancient city
+of Legions, and discharges itself into the Severn Sea, not far
+from Newport.</p>
+<p>The river Remni flows towards the sea from the mountains of
+Brecheinoc, having passed the castle and bridge of Remni.&nbsp;
+From the same range of mountains springs the Taf, which pursues
+its course to the episcopal see of Landaf (to which it gives its
+name), and falls into the sea below the castle of Caerdyf.&nbsp;
+The river Avon rushes impetuously from the mountains of
+Glamorgan, between the celebrated Cistercian monasteries of
+Margan and Neth; and the river Neth, descending from the
+mountains of Brecheinoc, unites itself with the sea, at no great
+distance from the castle of Neth; each of these rivers forming a
+long tract of dangerous quicksands.&nbsp; From the same mountains
+of Brecheinoc the river Tawe flows down to Abertawe, called in
+English Swainsey.&nbsp; The Lochor joins the sea near the castle
+of the same name; and the Wendraeth has its confluence near
+Cydweli.&nbsp; The Tywy, another noble river, rises in the
+Ellennith mountains, and separating the Cantref Mawr from the
+Cantref Bachan, passes by the castle of Llanymddyfri, and the
+royal palace and castle of Dinevor, strongly situated in the deep
+recesses of its woods, by the noble castle of Caermarddin, where
+Merlin was found, and from whom the city received its name, and
+runs into the sea near the castle of Lhanstephan.&nbsp; The river
+Taf rises in the Presseleu mountains, not far from the monastery
+of Whitland, and passing by the castle of St. Clare, falls into
+the sea near Abercorran and Talacharn.&nbsp; From the same
+mountains flow the rivers Cleddeu, encompassing the province of
+Daugleddeu, and giving it their name one passes by the castle of
+Lahaden, and the other by Haverford, to the sea; and in the
+British language they bear the name of Daugleddeu, or two
+swords.</p>
+<p>The noble river Teivi springs from the Ellennith mountains, in
+the upper part of the Cantref Mawr and <a
+name="page162"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 162</span>Caerdigan,
+not far from the pastures and excellent monastery of Stratflur,
+forming a boundary between Demetia and Caerdigan down to the
+Irish channel; this is the only river in Wales that produces
+beavers, an account of which is given in our Itinerary; and also
+exceeds every other river in the abundance and delicacy of its
+salmon.&nbsp; But as this book may fall into the hands of many
+persons who will not meet with the other, I have thought it right
+here to insert many curious and particular qualities relating to
+the nature of these animals, how they convey their materials from
+the woods to the river, with what skill they employ these
+materials in constructing places of safety in the middle of the
+stream, how artfully they defend themselves against the attack of
+the hunters on the eastern and how on the western side; the
+singularity of their tails, which partake more of the nature of
+fish than flesh.&nbsp; For further particulars see the Itinerary.
+<a name="citation162a"></a><a href="#footnote162a"
+class="citation">[162a]</a></p>
+<p>From the same mountains issues the Ystuyth, and flowing
+through the upper parts of Penwedic, in Cardiganshire, falls into
+the sea near the castle of Aberystuyth.&nbsp; From the snowy
+mountains of Eryri flows the noble river Devi, <a
+name="citation162b"></a><a href="#footnote162b"
+class="citation">[162b]</a> dividing for a great distance North
+and South Wales; and from the same mountains also the large river
+Maw, <a name="citation162c"></a><a href="#footnote162c"
+class="citation">[162c]</a> forming by its course the greater and
+<a name="page163"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 163</span>smaller
+tract of sands called the Traeth Mawr and the Traeth
+Bachan.&nbsp; The Dissennith also, and the Arthro, flow through
+Merionethshire and the land of Conan.&nbsp; The Conwy, springing
+from the northern side of the Eryri mountains, unites its waters
+with the sea under the noble castle of Deganwy.&nbsp; The Cloyd
+rises from another side of the same mountain, and passes by the
+castle of Ruthlan to the sea.&nbsp; The Doverdwy, called by the
+English Dee, draws its source from the lake of Penmelesmere, and
+runs through Chester, leaving the wood of Coleshulle, Basinwerk,
+and a rich vein of silver in its neighbourhood, far to the right,
+and by the influx of the sea forming a very dangerous quicksand;
+thus the Dee makes the northern, and the river Wye the southern
+boundary of Wales.</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER VI<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">CONCERNING THE PLEASANTNESS AND FERTILITY
+OF WALES</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">As</span> the southern part of Wales near
+Cardiganshire, but particularly Pembrokeshire, is much
+pleasanter, on account of its plains and sea-coast, so North
+Wales is better defended by nature, is more productive of men
+distinguished for bodily strength, and more fertile in the nature
+of its soil; for, as the mountains of Eryri (Snowdon) could
+supply pasturage for all the herds of cattle in Wales, if
+collected together, so could the Isle of Mona (Anglesey) provide
+a requisite quantity of corn for all the inhabitants: on which
+account there is an old British proverb, &ldquo;<i>Mon mam
+Cymbry</i>,&rdquo; that is, &ldquo;Mona is the mother of
+Wales.&rdquo;&nbsp; Merionyth, and the land of <a
+name="page164"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 164</span>Conan, is
+the rudest and least cultivated region, and the least
+accessible.&nbsp; The natives of that part of Wales excel in the
+use of long lances, as those of Monmouthshire are distinguished
+for their management of the bow.&nbsp; It is to be observed, that
+the British language is more delicate and richer in North Wales,
+that country being less intermixed with foreigners.&nbsp; Many,
+however, assert that the language of Cardiganshire, in South
+Wales, placed as it were in the middle and heart of Cambria, is
+the most refined.</p>
+<p>The people of Cornwall and the Armoricans speak a language
+similar to that of the Britons; and from its origin and near
+resemblance, it is intelligible to the Welsh in many instances,
+and almost in all; and although less delicate and methodical, yet
+it approaches, as I judge, more to the ancient British
+idiom.&nbsp; As in the southern parts of England, and
+particularly in Devonshire, the English language seems less
+agreeable, yet it bears more marks of antiquity (the northern
+parts being much corrupted by the irruptions of the Danes and
+Norwegians), and adheres more strictly to the original language
+and ancient mode of speaking; a positive proof of which may be
+deduced from all the English works of Bede, Rhabanus, and king
+Alfred, being written according to this idiom.</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER VII<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">ORIGIN OF THE NAMES CAMBRIA AND
+WALES</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">Cambria</span> was so called from Camber,
+son of Brutus, for Brutus, descending from the Trojans, by his
+grandfather, Ascanius, and father, Silvius, led the remnant of
+the Trojans, who had long been detained in Greece, into this
+western isle; and having reigned many years, and given his name
+to the country and people, at his <a name="page165"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 165</span>death divided the kingdom of Wales
+between his three sons.&nbsp; To his eldest son, Locrinus, he
+gave that part of the island which lies between the rivers Humber
+and Severn, and which from him was called Loegria.&nbsp; To his
+second son, Albanactus, he gave the lands beyond the Humber,
+which took from him the name of Albania.&nbsp; But to his
+youngest son, Camber, he bequeathed all that region which lies
+beyond the Severn, and is called after him Cambria; hence the
+country is properly and truly called Cambria, and its inhabitants
+Cambrians, or Cambrenses.&nbsp; Some assert that their name was
+derived from <i>Cam</i> and <i>Gr&aelig;co</i>, that is,
+distorted Greek, on account of the affinity of their languages,
+contracted by their long residence in Greece; but this
+conjecture, though plausible, is not well founded on truth.</p>
+<p>The name of Wales was not derived from Wallo, a general, or
+Wandolena, the queen, as the fabulous history of Geoffrey
+Arthurius <a name="citation165a"></a><a href="#footnote165a"
+class="citation">[165a]</a> falsely maintains, because neither of
+these personages are to be found amongst the Welsh; but it arose
+from a barbarian appellation.&nbsp; The Saxons, when they seized
+upon Britain, called this nation, as they did all foreigners,
+Wallenses; and thus the barbarous name remains to the people and
+their country. <a name="citation165b"></a><a href="#footnote165b"
+class="citation">[165b]</a></p>
+<p>Having discoursed upon the quality and quantity of the land,
+the genealogies of the princes, the sources of the rivers, and
+the derivation of the names of this country, we shall now
+consider the nature and character of the nation.</p>
+<h3><a name="page166"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+166</span>CHAPTER VIII<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">CONCERNING THE NATURE, MANNERS, AND DRESS,
+THE BOLDNESS, AGILITY, AND COURAGE, OF THIS NATION</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">This</span> people is light and active,
+hardy rather than strong, and entirely bred up to the use of
+arms; for not only the nobles, but all the people are trained to
+war, and when the trumpet sounds the alarm, the husbandman rushes
+as eagerly from his plough as the courtier from his court; for
+here it is not found that, as in other places,</p>
+<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">&ldquo;Agricolis labor
+actus in orbem,&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>returns; for in the months of March and April only the soil is
+once ploughed for oats, and again in the summer a third time, and
+in winter for wheat.&nbsp; Almost all the people live upon the
+produce of their herds, with oats, milk, cheese, and butter;
+eating flesh in larger proportions than bread.&nbsp; They pay no
+attention to commerce, shipping, or manufactures, and suffer no
+interruption but by martial exercises.&nbsp; They anxiously study
+the defence of their country and their liberty; for these they
+fight, for these they undergo hardships, and for these willingly
+sacrifice their lives; they esteem it a disgrace to die in bed,
+an honour to die in the field of battle; using the poet&rsquo;s
+expressions,&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&ldquo;Procul
+hinc avertite pacem,<br />
+Nobilitas cum pace perit.&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Nor is it wonderful if it degenerates, for the ancestors of
+these men, the &AElig;nead&aelig;, rushed to arms in the cause of
+liberty.&nbsp; It is remarkable that this people, though unarmed,
+dares attack an armed foe; the infantry defy the cavalry, and by
+their activity and courage generally prove victors.&nbsp; They
+resemble in disposition and <a name="page167"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 167</span>situation those conquerors whom the
+poet Lucan mentions:</p>
+<blockquote><p>&mdash; &mdash;&ldquo;Populi quos despicit
+Arctos,<br />
+Felices errore suo, quos ille timorum<br />
+Maximus haud urget leti metus, inde ruendi<br />
+In ferrum, mens prona viris, amim&aelig;que capaces,<br />
+Mortis et ignavum reditur&aelig; parsere vit&aelig;.&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>They make use of light arms, which do not impede their
+agility, small coats of mail, bundles of arrows, and long lances,
+helmets and shields, and more rarely greaves plated with
+iron.&nbsp; The higher class go to battle mounted on swift and
+generous steeds, which their country produces; but the greater
+part of the people fight on foot, on account of the marshy nature
+and unevenness of the soil.&nbsp; The horsemen as their situation
+or occasion requires, willingly serve as infantry, in attacking
+or retreating; and they either walk bare-footed, or make use of
+high shoes, roughly constructed with untanned leather.&nbsp; In
+time of peace, the young men, by penetrating the deep recesses of
+the woods, and climbing the tops of mountains, learn by practice
+to endure fatigue through day and night; and as they meditate on
+war during peace, they acquire the art of fighting by accustoming
+themselves to the use of the lance, and by inuring themselves to
+hard exercise.</p>
+<p>In our time, king Henry II., in reply to the inquiries of
+Emanuel, emperor of Constantinople, concerning the situation,
+nature, and striking peculiarities of the British island, among
+other remarkable circumstances mentioned the following:
+&ldquo;That in a certain part of the island there was a people,
+called Welsh, so bold and ferocious that, when unarmed, they did
+not fear to encounter an armed force; being ready to shed their
+blood in defence of their country, and to sacrifice their lives
+for renown; which is the more surprising, as the beasts of the
+field over the whole face of the island became gentle, but these
+desperate men could not be tamed.&nbsp; The wild animals, and
+particularly the stags and hinds, <a name="page168"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 168</span>are so abundant, owing to the little
+molestation they receive, that in our time, in the northern parts
+of the island towards the Peak, <a name="citation168"></a><a
+href="#footnote168" class="citation">[168]</a> when pursued by
+the hounds and hunters, they contributed, by their numbers, to
+their own destruction.&rdquo;</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER IX<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">OF THEIR SOBER SUPPER AND
+FRUGALITY</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">Not</span> addicted to gluttony or
+drunkenness, this people who incur no expense in food or dress,
+and whose minds are always bent upon the defence of their
+country, and on the means of plunder, are wholly employed in the
+care of their horses and furniture.&nbsp; Accustomed to fast from
+morning till evening, and trusting to the care of Providence,
+they dedicate the whole day to business, and in the evening
+partake of a moderate meal; and even if they have none, or only a
+very scanty one, they patiently wait till the next evening; and,
+neither deterred by cold nor hunger, they employ the dark and
+stormy nights in watching the hostile motions of their
+enemies.</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER X<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">OF THEIR HOSPITALITY AND
+LIBERALITY</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">No</span> one of this nation ever begs,
+for the houses of all are common to all; and they consider
+liberality and hospitality amongst the first virtues.&nbsp; So
+much does hospitality here rejoice in communication, that it is
+neither offered nor requested by travellers, who, on entering any
+house, only deliver up their arms.&nbsp; When <a
+name="page169"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 169</span>water is
+offered to them, if they suffer their feet to be washed, they are
+received as guests; for the offer of water to wash the feet is
+with this nation an hospitable invitation.&nbsp; But if they
+refuse the proffered service, they only wish for morning
+refreshment, not lodging.&nbsp; The young men move about in
+troops and families under the direction of a chosen leader.&nbsp;
+Attached only to arms and ease, and ever ready to stand forth in
+defence of their country, they have free admittance into every
+house as if it were their own.</p>
+<p>Those who arrive in the morning are entertained till evening
+with the conversation of young women, and the music of the harp;
+for each house has its young women and harps allotted to this
+purpose.&nbsp; Two circumstances here deserve notice: that as no
+nation labours more under the vice of jealousy than the Irish, so
+none is more free from it than the Welsh: and in each family the
+art of playing on the harp is held preferable to any other
+learning.&nbsp; In the evening, when no more guests are expected,
+the meal is prepared according to the number and dignity of the
+persons assembled, and according to the wealth of the family who
+entertains.&nbsp; The kitchen does not supply many dishes, nor
+high-seasoned incitements to eating.&nbsp; The house is not
+furnished with tables, cloths, or napkins.&nbsp; They study
+nature more than splendour, for which reason, the guests being
+seated in threes, instead of couples as elsewhere, <a
+name="citation169a"></a><a href="#footnote169a"
+class="citation">[169a]</a> they place the dishes before them all
+at once upon rushes and fresh grass, in large platters or
+trenchers.&nbsp; They also make use of a thin and broad cake of
+bread, baked every day, such as in old writings was called
+<i>lagana</i>; <a name="citation169b"></a><a href="#footnote169b"
+class="citation">[169b]</a> and they <a name="page170"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 170</span>sometimes add chopped meat, with
+broth.&nbsp; Such a repast was formerly used by the noble youth,
+from whom this nation boasts its descent, and whose manners it
+still partly imitates, according to the word of the poet:</p>
+<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">&ldquo;Heu! mensas
+consumimus, inquit Iulus.&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>While the family is engaged in waiting on the guests, the host
+and hostess stand up, paying unremitting attention to everything,
+and take no food till all the company are satisfied; that in case
+of any deficiency, it may fall upon them.&nbsp; A bed made of
+rushes, and covered with a coarse kind of cloth manufactured in
+the country, called <i>brychan</i>, <a name="citation170"></a><a
+href="#footnote170" class="citation">[170]</a> is then placed
+along the side of the room, and they all in common lie down to
+sleep; nor is their dress at night different from that by day,
+for at all seasons they defend themselves from the cold only by a
+thin cloak and tunic.&nbsp; The fire continues to burn by night
+as well as by day, at their feet, and they receive much comfort
+from the natural heat of the persons lying near them; but when
+the under side begins to be tired with the hardness of the bed,
+or the upper one to suffer from cold, they immediately leap up,
+and go to the fire, which soon relieves them from both
+inconveniences; and then returning to their couch, they expose
+alternately their sides to the cold, and to the hardness of the
+bed.</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XI<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">CONCERNING THEIR CUTTING OF THEIR HAIR,
+THEIR CARE OF THEIR TEETH, AND SHAVING OF THEIR BEARD</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> men and women cut their hair
+close round to the ears and eyes.&nbsp; The women, after the
+manner of the <a name="page171"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+171</span>Parthians, cover their heads with a large white veil,
+folded together in the form of a crown.</p>
+<p>Both sexes exceed any other nation in attention to their
+teeth, which they render like ivory, by constantly rubbing them
+with green hazel and wiping with a woollen cloth.&nbsp; For their
+better preservation, they abstain from hot meats, and eat only
+such as are cold, warm, or temperate.&nbsp; The men shave all
+their beard except the moustaches (<i>gernoboda</i>).&nbsp; This
+custom is not recent, but was observed in ancient and remote
+ages, as we find in the works of Julius C&aelig;sar, who says, <a
+name="citation171"></a><a href="#footnote171"
+class="citation">[171]</a> &ldquo;The Britons shave every part of
+their body except their head and upper lip;&rdquo; and to render
+themselves more active, and avoid the fate of Absalon in their
+excursions through the woods, they are accustomed to cut even the
+hair from their heads; so that this nation more than any other
+shaves off all pilosity.&nbsp; Julius also adds, that the
+Britons, previous to an engagement, anointed their faces with a
+nitrous ointment, which gave them so ghastly and shining an
+appearance, that the enemy could scarcely bear to look at them,
+particularly if the rays of the sun were reflected on them.</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XII<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">OF THEIR QUICKNESS AND SHARPNESS OF
+UNDERSTANDING</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">These</span> people being of a sharp and
+acute intellect, and gifted with a rich and powerful
+understanding, excel in whatever studies they pursue, and are
+more quick and cunning than the other inhabitants of a western
+clime.</p>
+<p>Their musical instruments charm and delight the ear <a
+name="page172"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 172</span>with their
+sweetness, are borne along by such celerity and delicacy of
+modulation, producing such a consonance from the rapidity of
+seemingly discordant touches, that I shall briefly repeat what is
+set forth in our Irish Topography on the subject of the musical
+instruments of the three nations.&nbsp; It is astonishing that in
+so complex and rapid a movement of the fingers, the musical
+proportions can be preserved, and that throughout the difficult
+modulations on their various instruments, the harmony is
+completed with such a sweet velocity, so unequal an equality, so
+discordant a concord, as if the chords sounded together fourths
+or fifths.&nbsp; They always begin from B flat, and return to the
+same, that the whole may be completed under the sweetness of a
+pleasing sound.&nbsp; They enter into a movement, and conclude it
+in so delicate a manner, and play the little notes so sportively
+under the blunter sounds of the base strings, enlivening with
+wanton levity, or communicating a deeper internal sensation of
+pleasure, so that the perfection of their art appears in the
+concealment of it:</p>
+<blockquote><p>&ldquo;Si lateat, prosit;<br />
+&mdash; &mdash; ferat ars deprensa pudorem.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>&ldquo;Art profits when concealed,<br />
+Disgraces when revealed.&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>From this cause, those very strains which afford deep and
+unspeakable mental delight to those who have skilfully penetrated
+into the mysteries of the art, fatigue rather than gratify the
+ears of others, who seeing, do not perceive, and hearing, do not
+understand; and by whom the finest music is esteemed no better
+than a confused and disorderly noise, and will be heard with
+unwillingness and disgust.</p>
+<p>They make use of three instruments, the harp, the pipe, and
+the crwth or crowd (<i>chorus</i>). <a name="citation172"></a><a
+href="#footnote172" class="citation">[172]</a></p>
+<p><a name="page173"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 173</span>They
+omit no part of natural rhetoric in the management of civil
+actions, in quickness of invention, disposition, refutation, and
+confirmation.&nbsp; In their rhymed songs and set speeches they
+are so subtle and ingenious, that they produce, in their native
+tongue, ornaments of wonderful and exquisite invention both in
+the words and sentences.&nbsp; Hence arise those poets whom they
+call Bards, of whom you will find many in this nation, endowed
+with the above faculty, according to the poet&rsquo;s
+observation:</p>
+<blockquote><p>&ldquo;Plurima concreti fuderunt carmina
+Bardi.&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>But they make use of alliteration (<i>anominatione</i>) in
+preference to all other ornaments of rhetoric, and that
+particular kind which joins by consonancy the first letters or
+syllables of words.&nbsp; So much do the English and Welsh
+nations employ this ornament of words in all exquisite
+composition, that no sentence is esteemed to be elegantly spoken,
+no oration to be otherwise than uncouth and unrefined, unless it
+be fully polished with the file of this figure.&nbsp; Thus in the
+British tongue:</p>
+<blockquote><p>&ldquo;Digawn Duw da i unic.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>&ldquo;Wrth bob crybwyll rha&iuml;d pwyll parawd.&rdquo; <a
+name="citation173"></a><a href="#footnote173"
+class="citation">[173]</a></p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><a name="page174"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 174</span>And
+in English,</p>
+<blockquote><p>&ldquo;God is together gammen and
+wisedom.&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>The same ornament of speech is also frequent in the Latin
+language.&nbsp; Virgil says,</p>
+<blockquote><p>&ldquo;Tales casus Cassandra canebat.&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>And again, in his address to Augustus,</p>
+<blockquote><p>&ldquo;Dum dubitet natura marem, faceretve
+puellam,<br />
+Natus es, o pulcher, pene puella, puer.&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>This ornament occurs not in any language we know so frequently
+as in the two first; it is, indeed, surprising that the French,
+in other respects so ornamented, should be entirely ignorant of
+this verbal elegance so much adopted in other languages.&nbsp;
+Nor can I believe that the English and Welsh, so different and
+adverse to each other, could designedly have agreed in the usage
+of this figure; but I should rather suppose that it had grown
+habitual to both by long custom, as it pleases the ear by a
+transition from similar to similar sounds.&nbsp; Cicero, in his
+book &ldquo;On Elocution,&rdquo; observes of such who know the
+practice, not the art, &ldquo;Other persons when they read good
+orations or poems, approve of the orators or poets, not
+understanding the reason why, being affected, they approve;
+because they cannot know in what place, of what nature, nor how
+that effect is caused which so highly delights them.&rdquo;</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XIII<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">OF THEIR SYMPHONIES AND SONGS</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> their musical concerts they do
+not sing in unison like the inhabitants of other countries, but
+in many different <a name="page175"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+175</span>parts; so that in a company of singers, which one very
+frequently meets with in Wales, you will hear as many different
+parts and voices as there are performers, who all at length
+unite, with organic melody, in one consonance and the soft
+sweetness of B flat.&nbsp; In the northern district of Britain,
+beyond the Humber, and on the borders of Yorkshire, the
+inhabitants make use of the same kind of symphonious harmony, but
+with less variety; singing only in two parts, one murmuring in
+the base, the other warbling in the acute or treble.&nbsp;
+Neither of the two nations has acquired this peculiarity by art,
+but by long habit, which has rendered it natural and familiar;
+and the practice is now so firmly rooted in them, that it is
+unusual to hear a simple and single melody well sung; and, what
+is still more wonderful, the children, even from their infancy,
+sing in the same manner.&nbsp; As the English in general do not
+adopt this mode of singing, but only those of the northern
+countries, I believe that it was from the Danes and Norwegians,
+by whom these parts of the island were more frequently invaded,
+and held longer under their dominion, that the natives contracted
+their mode of singing as well as speaking.</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XIV<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">THEIR WIT AND PLEASANTRY</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> heads of different families, in
+order to excite the laughter of their guests, and gain credit by
+their sayings, make use of great facetiousness in their
+conversation; at one time uttering their jokes in a light, easy
+manner, at another time, under the disguise of equivocation,
+passing the severest censures.&nbsp; For the sake of explanation
+I shall here subjoin a few examples.&nbsp; Tegeingl is the name
+of a province in North Wales, over which David, son of <a
+name="page176"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 176</span>Owen, had
+dominion, and which had once been in the possession of his
+brother.&nbsp; The same word also was the name of a certain woman
+with whom, it was said, each brother had an intrigue, from which
+circumstance arose this term of reproach, &ldquo;To have
+Tegeingl, after Tegeingl had been in possession of his
+brother.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>At another time, when Rhys, son of Gruffydd, prince of South
+Wales, accompanied by a multitude of his people, devoutly entered
+the church of St. David&rsquo;s, previous to an intended journey,
+the oblations having been made, and mass solemnised, a young man
+came to him in the church, and publicly declared himself to be
+his son, threw himself at his feet, and with tears humbly
+requested that the truth of this assertion might be ascertained
+by the trial of the burning iron.&nbsp; Intelligence of this
+circumstance being conveyed to his family and his two sons, who
+had just gone out of the church, a youth who was present made
+this remark: &ldquo;This is not wonderful; some have brought
+gold, and others silver, as offerings; but this man, who had
+neither, brought what he had, namely, iron;&rdquo; thus taunting
+him with his poverty.&nbsp; On mentioning a certain house that
+was strongly built and almost impregnable, one of the company
+said, &ldquo;This house indeed is strong, for if it should
+contain food it could never be got at,&rdquo; thus alluding both
+to the food and to the house.&nbsp; In like manner, a person,
+wishing to hint at the avaricious disposition of the mistress of
+a house, said, &ldquo;I only find fault with our hostess for
+putting too little butter to her salt,&rdquo; whereas the
+accessory should be put to the principal; thus, by a subtle
+transposition of the words, converting the accessory into the
+principal, by making it appear to abound in quantity.&nbsp; Many
+similar sayings of great men and philosophers are recorded in the
+Saturnalia of Macrobius.&nbsp; When Cicero saw his son-in-law,
+Lentulus, a man of small stature, with a long sword by his side:
+&ldquo;Who,&rdquo; says he, &ldquo;has girded my son-in-law to
+that sword?&rdquo; thus changing the accessary into the
+principal.&nbsp; The same person, on seeing <a
+name="page177"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 177</span>the
+half-length portrait of his brother Quintus Cicero, drawn with
+very large features and an immense shield, exclaimed, &ldquo;Half
+of my brother is greater than the whole!&rdquo;&nbsp; When the
+sister of Faustus had an intrigue with a fuller, &ldquo;Is it
+strange,&rdquo; says he, &ldquo;that my sister has a spot, when
+she is connected with a fuller?&rdquo;&nbsp; When Antiochus
+showed Hannibal his army, and the great warlike preparations he
+had made against the Romans, and asked him, &ldquo;Thinkest thou,
+O Hannibal, that these are sufficient for the
+Romans?&rdquo;&nbsp; Hannibal, ridiculing the unmilitary
+appearance of the soldiers, wittily and severely replied,
+&ldquo;I certainly think them sufficient for the Romans, however
+greedy;&rdquo; Antiochus asking his opinion about the military
+preparations, and Hannibal alluding to them as becoming a prey to
+the Romans.</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XV<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">THEIR BOLDNESS AND CONFIDENCE IN
+SPEAKING</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">Nature</span> hath given not only to the
+highest, but also to the inferior, classes of the people of this
+nation, a boldness and confidence in speaking and answering, even
+in the presence of their princes and chieftains.&nbsp; The Romans
+and Franks had the same faculty; but neither the English, nor the
+Saxons and Germans, from whom they are descended, had it.&nbsp;
+It is in vain urged, that this defect may arise from the state of
+servitude which the English endured; for the Saxons and Germans,
+who enjoy their liberty, have the same failing, and derive this
+natural coldness of disposition from the frozen region they
+inhabit; the English also, although placed in a distant climate,
+still retain the exterior fairness of complexion and inward
+coldness of disposition, as inseparable from their original and
+natural character.&nbsp; The Britons, on <a
+name="page178"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 178</span>the
+contrary, transplanted from the hot and parched regions of
+Dardania into these more temperate districts, as</p>
+<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">&ldquo;C&oelig;lum non
+animum mutant qui trans mare currunt,&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>still retain their brown complexion and that natural warmth of
+temper from which their confidence is derived.&nbsp; For three
+nations, remnants of the Greeks after the destruction of Troy,
+fled from Asia into different parts of Europe, the Romans under
+&AElig;neas, the Franks under Antenor, and the Britons under
+Brutus; and from thence arose that courage, that nobleness of
+mind, that ancient dignity, that acuteness of understanding, and
+confidence of speech, for which these three nations are so highly
+distinguished.&nbsp; But the Britons, from having been detained
+longer in Greece than the other two nations, after the
+destruction of their country, and having migrated at a later
+period into the western parts of Europe, retained in a greater
+degree the primitive words and phrases of their native
+language.&nbsp; You will find amongst them the names Oenus,
+Resus, &AElig;neas, Hector, Achilles, Heliodorus, Theodorus,
+Ajax, Evander, Uliex, Anianus, Elisa, Guendolena, and many
+others, bearing marks of their antiquity.&nbsp; It is also to be
+observed, that almost all words in the British language
+correspond either with the Greek or Latin, as
+&#8017;&delta;&omega;&zeta;, water, is called in British, dwr;
+&#7937;&lambda;&sigmaf;, salt, in British, halen;
+&omicron;&nu;&omicron;&mu;&alpha;, eno, a name;
+&pi;&epsilon;&nu;&tau;&epsilon;, pump, five;
+&delta;&epsilon;&kappa;&alpha;, deg, ten.&nbsp; The Latins also
+use the words fr&aelig;num, tripos, gladius, lorica; the Britons,
+froyn (ffrwyn), trepet (tribedd), cleddyf, and lluric (llurig);
+unicus is made unic (unig); canis, can (cwn); and belua,
+beleu.</p>
+<h3><a name="page179"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+179</span>CHAPTER XVI<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">CONCERNING THE SOOTHSAYERS OF THIS NATION,
+AND PERSONS AS IT WERE POSSESSED</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are certain persons in
+Cambria, whom you will find nowhere else, called Awenddyon, <a
+name="citation179"></a><a href="#footnote179"
+class="citation">[179]</a> or people inspired; when consulted
+upon any doubtful event, they roar out violently, are rendered
+beside themselves, and become, as it were, possessed by a
+spirit.&nbsp; They do not deliver the answer to what is required
+in a connected manner; but the person who skilfully observes
+them, will find, after many preambles, and many nugatory and
+incoherent, though ornamented speeches, the desired explanation
+conveyed in some turn of a word: they are then roused from their
+ecstasy, as from a deep sleep, and, as it were, by violence
+compelled to return to their proper senses.&nbsp; After having
+answered the questions, they do not recover till violently shaken
+by other people; nor can they remember the replies they have
+given.&nbsp; If consulted a second or third time upon the same
+point, they will make use of expressions totally different;
+perhaps they speak by the means of fanatic and ignorant
+spirits.&nbsp; These gifts are usually conferred upon them in
+dreams: some seem to have sweet milk or honey poured on their
+lips; others fancy that a written schedule is applied to their
+mouths and on awaking they publicly declare that they have
+received this gift.&nbsp; Such is the saying of Esdras,
+&ldquo;The Lord said unto me, open thy mouth, and I opened my
+mouth, and behold a cup full of water, whose colour was like
+fire; and when I had drank it, my heart brought forth
+understanding, and wisdom entered <a name="page180"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 180</span>into my breast.&rdquo;&nbsp; They
+invoke, during their prophecies, the true and living God, and the
+Holy Trinity, and pray that they may not by their sins be
+prevented from finding the truth.&nbsp; These prophets are only
+found among the Britons descended from the Trojans.&nbsp; For
+Calchas and Cassandra, endowed with the spirit of prophecy,
+openly foretold, during the siege of Troy, the destruction of
+that fine city; on which account the high priest, Helenus,
+influenced by the prophetic books of Calchas, and of others who
+had long before predicted the ruin of their country, in the first
+year went over to the Greeks with the sons of Priam (to whom he
+was high priest), and was afterwards rewarded in Greece.&nbsp;
+Cassandra, daughter of king Priam, every day foretold the
+overthrow of the city; but the pride and presumption of the
+Trojans prevented them from believing her word.&nbsp; Even on the
+very night that the city was betrayed, she clearly described the
+treachery and the method of it:</p>
+<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">&ldquo;&mdash; tales
+casus Cassandra canebat,&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>as in the same manner, during the existence of the kingdom of
+the Britons, both Merlin Caledonius and Ambrosius are said to
+have foretold the destruction of their nation, as well as the
+coming of the Saxons, and afterwards that of the Normans; and I
+think a circumstance related by Aulus Gellius worth inserting in
+this place.&nbsp; On the day that Caius C&aelig;sar and Cneius
+Pompey, during the civil war, fought a pitched battle in
+Thessalia, a memorable event occurred in that part of Italy
+situated beyond the river Po.&nbsp; A priest named Cornelius,
+honourable from his rank, venerable for his religion, and holy in
+his manners, in an inspired moment proclaimed, &ldquo;C&aelig;sar
+has conquered,&rdquo; and named the day, the events, the mutual
+attack, and the conflicts of the two armies.&nbsp; Whether such
+things are exhibited by the spirit, let the reader more
+particularly inquire; I do not assert they are the acts of a
+Pythonic or a diabolic spirit; for as foreknowledge is the
+property of God alone, so is it in his <a
+name="page181"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 181</span>power to
+confer knowledge of future events.&nbsp; There are differences of
+gifts, says the Apostle, but one and the same spirit; whence
+Peter, in his second Epistle, writes, &ldquo;For the prophecy
+came not in the old time by the will of man, but men spake as if
+they were inspired by the Holy Ghost:&rdquo; to the same effect
+did the Chaldeans answer king Nebuchadonazar on the
+interpretation of his dream, which he wished to extort from
+them.&nbsp; &ldquo;There is not,&rdquo; say they, &ldquo;a man
+upon earth who can, O king, satisfactorily answer your question;
+let no king therefore, however great or potent, make a similar
+request to any magician, astrologer, or Chaldean; for it is a
+rare thing that the king requireth, and there is none other that
+can shew it before the king, except the Gods, whose dwelling is
+not with flesh.&rdquo;&nbsp; On this passage Jerome remarks,
+&ldquo;The diviners and all the learned of this world confess,
+that the prescience of future events belongs to God alone; the
+prophets therefore, who foretold things to come, spake by the
+spirit of God.&nbsp; Hence some persons object, that, if they
+were under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, they would sometimes
+premise, &ldquo;Thus saith the Lord God,&rdquo; or make use of
+some expression in the prophetic style; and as such a mode of
+prophesying is not taken notice of by Merlin, and no mention is
+made of his sanctity, devotion, or faith, many think that he
+spake by a Pythonic spirit.&nbsp; To which I answer, that the
+spirit of prophecy was given not only to the holy, but sometimes
+to unbelievers and Gentiles, to Baal, to the sibyls, and even to
+bad people, as to Caiaphas and Bela.&nbsp; On which occasion
+Origen says: &ldquo;Do not wonder, if he whom ye have mentioned
+declares that the Scribes and Pharisees and doctors amongst the
+Jews prophesied concerning Christ; for Caiaphas said: &ldquo;It
+is expedient for us that one man die for the people:&rdquo; but
+asserts at the same time, that because he was high priest for
+that year, he prophesied.&nbsp; Let no man therefore be lifted
+up, if he prophesies, if he merits prescience; for prophecies
+shall fail, tongues shall cease, knowledge shall vanish <a
+name="page182"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 182</span>away; and
+now abideth, faith, hope, and charity: these three; but the
+greatest of these is Charity, which never faileth.&nbsp; But
+these bad men not only prophesied, but sometimes performed great
+miracles, which others could not accomplish.&nbsp; John the
+Baptist, who was so great a personage, performed no miracle, as
+John the Evangelist testifies: &ldquo;And many came to Jesus and
+said, Because John wrought no signs,&rdquo; etc.&nbsp; Nor do we
+hear that the mother of God performed any miracle; we read in the
+Acts of the Apostles, that the sons of Sheva cast out devils in
+the name of Jesus, whom Paul preached; and in Matthew and Luke we
+may find these words: &ldquo;Many shall say unto me in that day,
+Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in thy name? and in thy name
+have cast out devils? and in thy name done many wonderful works?
+and then I will profess unto them, I never knew you.&rdquo;&nbsp;
+And in another place, John says: &ldquo;Master, we saw a certain
+man casting out devils in thy name, and forbade him, because he
+followeth not with us.&rdquo;&nbsp; But Jesus said: &ldquo;Forbid
+him not; no man can do a miracle in my name, and speak evil of
+me; for whoever is not against me, is for me.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>Alexander of Macedon, a gentile, traversed the Caspian
+mountains, and miraculously confined ten tribes within their
+promontories, where they still remain, and will continue until
+the coming of Elias and Enoch.&nbsp; We read, indeed, the
+prophecies of Merlin, but hear nothing either of his sanctity or
+his miracles.&nbsp; Some say, that the prophets, when they
+prophesied, did not become frantic, as it is affirmed of Merlin
+Silvestris, and others possessed, whom we have before
+mentioned.&nbsp; Some prophesied by dreams, visions, and
+enigmatical sayings, as Ezechiel and Daniel; others by acts and
+words, as Noah, in the construction of the ark, alluded to the
+church; Abraham, in the slaying of his son, to the passion of
+Christ; and Moses by his speech, when he said, &ldquo;A prophet
+shall the Lord God raise up to you of your brethren; hear
+him;&rdquo; meaning Christ.&nbsp; Others have prophesied in a
+more excellent <a name="page183"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+183</span>way by the internal revelation and inspiration of the
+Holy Spirit, as David did when persecuted by Saul: &ldquo;When
+Saul heard that David had fled to Naioth (which is a hill in
+Ramah, and the seat of the prophets), he sent messengers to take
+him; and when they saw the company of the prophets prophesying,
+and Samuel standing at their head, the Spirit of God came upon
+the messengers of Saul, and they also prophesied; and he sent
+messengers a second and again a third time, and they also
+prophesied.&nbsp; And Saul enraged went thither also; and the
+Spirit of God was upon him also, and he went on, and prophesied
+until he came to Naioth, and he stripped off his royal vestments,
+and prophesied with the rest for all that day and all that night;
+whilst David and Samuel secretly observed what
+passed.&rdquo;&nbsp; Nor is it wonderful that those persons who
+suddenly receive the Spirit of God, and so signal a mark of
+grace, should for a time seem alienated from their earthly state
+of mind.</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XVII<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">THEIR LOVE OF HIGH BIRTH AND ANCIENT
+GENEALOGY</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Welsh esteem noble birth and
+generous descent above all things, <a name="citation183"></a><a
+href="#footnote183" class="citation">[183]</a> and are,
+therefore, more desirous of marrying into noble than rich
+families.&nbsp; Even the <a name="page184"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 184</span>common people retain their
+genealogy, and can not only readily recount the names of their
+grandfathers and great-grandfathers, but even refer back to the
+sixth or seventh generation, or beyond them, in this manner:
+Rhys, son of Gruffydd, son of Rhys, son of Tewdwr, son of Eineon,
+son of Owen, son of Howel, son of Cadell, son of Roderic Mawr,
+and so on.</p>
+<p>Being particularly attached to family descent, they revenge
+with vehemence the injuries which may tend to the disgrace of
+their blood; and being naturally of a vindictive and passionate
+disposition, they are ever ready to avenge not only recent but
+ancient affronts; they neither inhabit towns, villages, nor
+castles, but lead a solitary life in the woods, on the borders of
+which they do not erect sumptuous palaces, nor lofty stone
+buildings, but content themselves with small huts made of the
+boughs of trees twisted together, constructed with little labour
+and expense, and sufficient to endure throughout the year.&nbsp;
+They have neither orchards nor gardens, but gladly eat the fruit
+of both when given to them.&nbsp; The greater part of their land
+is laid down to pasturage; little is cultivated, a very small
+quantity is ornamented with flowers, and a still smaller is
+sown.&nbsp; They seldom yoke less than four oxen to their
+ploughs; the driver walks before, but backwards, and when he
+falls down, is frequently exposed to danger from the refractory
+oxen.&nbsp; Instead of small sickles in mowing, they make use of
+a moderate-sized piece of iron formed like a knife, with two
+pieces of wood fixed loosely and flexibly to the head, which they
+think a more expeditious instrument; but since</p>
+<blockquote><p>&ldquo;Segnius irritant animos demissa per
+aures,<br />
+Quam qu&aelig; sunt oculis subjecta fidelibus,&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>their mode of using it will be better known by inspection than
+by any description.&nbsp; The boats <a name="citation184"></a><a
+href="#footnote184" class="citation">[184]</a> which they employ
+<a name="page185"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 185</span>in
+fishing or in crossing the rivers are made of twigs, not oblong
+nor pointed, but almost round, or rather triangular, covered both
+within and without with raw hides.&nbsp; When a salmon thrown
+into one of these boats strikes it hard with his tail, he often
+oversets it, and endangers both the vessel and its
+navigator.&nbsp; The fishermen, according to the custom of the
+country, in going to and from the rivers, carry these boats on
+their shoulders; on which occasion that famous dealer in fables,
+Bleddercus, who lived a little before our time, thus mysteriously
+said: &ldquo;There is amongst us a people who, when they go out
+in search of prey, carry their horses on their backs to the place
+of plunder; in order to catch their prey, they leap upon their
+horses, and when it is taken, carry their horses home again upon
+their shoulders.&rdquo;</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XVIII<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">OF THE ANTIQUITY OF THEIR FAITH, THEIR
+LOVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND DEVOTION</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> ancient times, and about two
+hundred years before the overthrow of Britain, the Welsh were
+instructed and confirmed in the faith by Faganus and Damianus,
+sent into the island at the request of king Lucius by pope
+Eleutherius, and from that period when Germanus of Auxerre, and
+Lupus of Troyes, came over on account of the corruption which had
+crept into the island by the invasion of the Saxons, but
+particularly with a view of expelling the Pelagian heresy,
+nothing heretical or contrary to the true faith was to be found
+amongst the natives.&nbsp; But it is said that some parts of the
+ardent doctrines are still retained.&nbsp; They give the first
+piece broken off from every loaf of bread to the poor; they sit
+down to dinner by three to a dish, in honour of the
+Trinity.&nbsp; With extended arms and bowing head, they ask a
+blessing of every monk or priest, or of every person <a
+name="page186"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 186</span>wearing a
+religious habit.&nbsp; But they desire, above all other nations,
+the episcopal ordination and unction, by which the grace of the
+spirit is given.&nbsp; They give a tenth of all their property,
+animals, cattle, and sheep, either when they marry, or go on a
+pilgrimage, or, by the counsel of the church, are persuaded to
+amend their lives.&nbsp; This partition of their effects they
+call the great tithe, two parts of which they give to the church
+where they were baptised, and the third to the bishop of the
+diocese.&nbsp; But of all pilgrimages they prefer that to Rome,
+where they pay the most fervent adoration to the apostolic
+see.&nbsp; We observe that they show a greater respect than other
+nations to churches and ecclesiastical persons, to the relics of
+saints, bells, holy books, and the cross, which they devoutly
+revere; and hence their churches enjoy more than common
+tranquillity.&nbsp; For peace is not only preserved towards all
+animals feeding in churchyards, but at a great distance beyond
+them, where certain boundaries and ditches have been appointed by
+the bishops, in order to maintain the security of the
+sanctuary.&nbsp; But the principal churches to which antiquity
+has annexed the greater reverence extend their protection to the
+herds as far as they can go to feed in the morning and return at
+night.&nbsp; If, therefore, any person has incurred the enmity of
+his prince, on applying to the church for protection, he and his
+family will continue to live unmolested; but many persons abuse
+this indemnity, far exceeding the indulgence of the canon, which
+in such cases grants only personal safety; and from the places of
+refuge even make hostile irruptions, and more severely harass the
+country than the prince himself.&nbsp; Hermits and anchorites
+more strictly abstinent and more spiritual can nowhere be found;
+for this nation is earnest in all its pursuits, and neither worse
+men than the bad, nor better than the good, can be met with.</p>
+<p>Happy and fortunate indeed would this nation be, nay,
+completely blessed, if it had good prelates and pastors, and but
+one prince, and that prince a good one.</p>
+<h2><a name="page187"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 187</span>BOOK
+II</h2>
+<h3><a name="page188"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+188</span>PREFACE</h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">Having</span> in the former book clearly
+set forth the character, manners, and customs of the British
+nation, and having collected and explained everything which could
+redound to its credit or glory; an attention to order now
+requires that, in this second part, we should employ our pen in
+pointing out those particulars in which it seems to transgress
+the line of virtue and commendation; having first obtained leave
+to speak the truth, without which history not only loses its
+authority, but becomes undeserving of its very name.&nbsp; For
+the painter who professes to imitate nature, loses his
+reputation, if, by indulging his fancy, he represents only those
+parts of the subject which best suit him.</p>
+<p>Since, therefore, no man is born without faults, and he is
+esteemed the best whose errors are the least, let the wise man
+consider everything human as connected with himself; for in
+worldly affairs there is no perfect happiness under heaven.&nbsp;
+Evil borders upon good, and vices are confounded with virtues; as
+the report of good qualities is delightful to a well-disposed
+mind, so the relation of the contrary should not be
+offensive.&nbsp; The natural disposition of this nation might
+have been corrupted and perverted by long exile and poverty; for
+as poverty extinguisheth many faults, so it often generates
+failings that are contrary to virtue.</p>
+<h3><a name="page189"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+189</span>CHAPTER I<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">OF THE INCONSTANCY AND INSTABILITY OF THIS
+NATION, AND THEIR WANT OF REVERENCE FOR GOOD FAITH AND
+OATHS</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">These</span> people are no less light in
+mind than in body, and are by no means to be relied upon.&nbsp;
+They are easily urged to undertake any action, and are as easily
+checked from prosecuting it&mdash;a people quick in action, but
+more stubborn in a bad than in a good cause, and constant only in
+acts of inconstancy.&nbsp; They pay no respect to oaths, faith,
+or truth; and so lightly do they esteem the covenant of faith,
+held so inviolable by other nations, that it is usual to
+sacrifice their faith for nothing, by holding forth the right
+hand, not only in serious and important concerns, but even on
+every trifling occasion, and for the confirmation of almost every
+common assertion.&nbsp; They never scruple at taking a false oath
+for the sake of any temporary emolument or advantage; so that in
+civil and ecclesiastical causes, each party, being ready to swear
+whatever seems expedient to its purpose, endeavours both to prove
+and defend, although the venerable laws, by which oaths are
+deemed sacred, and truth is honoured and respected, by favouring
+the accused and throwing an odium upon the accuser, impose the
+burden of bringing proofs upon the latter.&nbsp; But to a people
+so cunning and crafty, this yoke is pleasant, and this burden is
+light.</p>
+<h3><a name="page190"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+190</span>CHAPTER II<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">THEIR LIVING BY PLUNDER, AND DISREGARD OF
+THE BONDS OF PEACE AND FRIENDSHIP</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">This</span> nation conceives it right to
+commit acts of plunder, theft, and robbery, not only against
+foreigners and hostile nations, but even against their own
+countrymen.&nbsp; When an opportunity of attacking the enemy with
+advantage occurs, they respect not the leagues of peace and
+friendship, preferring base lucre to the solemn obligations of
+oaths and good faith; to which circumstance Gildas alludes in his
+book concerning the overthrow of the Britons, actuated by the
+love of truth, and according to the rules of history, not
+suppressing the vices of his countrymen.&nbsp; &ldquo;They are
+neither brave in war, nor faithful in peace.&rdquo;&nbsp; But
+when Julius C&aelig;sar, great as the world itself,</p>
+<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">&ldquo;Territa
+qu&aelig;sitis ostendit terga Britannis,&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>were they not brave under their leader Cassivellaunus?&nbsp;
+And when Belinus and Brennus added the Roman empire to their
+conquests?&nbsp; What were they in the time of Constantine, son
+of our Helen?&nbsp; What, in the reign of Aurelius Ambrosius,
+whom even Eutropius commends?&nbsp; What were they in the time of
+our famous prince Arthur?&nbsp; I will not say fabulous.&nbsp; On
+the contrary, they, who were almost subdued by the Scots and
+Picts, often harassed with success the auxiliary Roman legions,
+and exclaimed, as we learn from Gildas, &ldquo;The barbarians
+drove us to the sea, the sea drove us again back to the
+barbarians; on one side we were subdued, on the other drowned,
+and here we were put to death.&nbsp; Were they not,&rdquo; says
+he, &ldquo;at that time brave and praiseworthy?&rdquo;&nbsp; When
+attacked and conquered by the Saxons, who originally had been
+called in as stipendiaries <a name="page191"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 191</span>to their assistance, were they not
+brave?&nbsp; But the strongest argument made use of by those who
+accuse this nation of cowardice, is, that Gildas, a holy man, and
+a Briton by birth, has handed down to posterity nothing
+remarkable concerning them, in any of his historical works.&nbsp;
+We promise, however, a solution of the contrary in our British
+Topography, if God grants us a continuance of life.</p>
+<p>As a further proof, it may be necessary to add, that from the
+time when that illustrious prince of the Britons, mentioned at
+the beginning of this book, totally exhausted the strength of the
+country, by transporting the whole armed force beyond the seas;
+that island, which had before been so highly illustrious for its
+incomparable valour, remained for many subsequent years destitute
+of men and arms, and exposed to the predatory attacks of pirates
+and robbers.&nbsp; So distinguished, indeed, were the natives of
+this island for their bravery, that, by their prowess, that king
+subdued almost all Cisalpine Gaul, and dared even to make an
+attack on the Roman empire.</p>
+<p>In process of time, the Britons, recovering their long-lost
+population and knowledge of the use of arms, re-acquired their
+high and ancient character.&nbsp; Let the different &aelig;ras be
+therefore marked, and the historical accounts will accord.&nbsp;
+With regard to Gildas, who inveighs so bitterly against his own
+nation, the Britons affirm that, highly irritated at the death of
+his brother, the prince of Albania, whom king Arthur had slain,
+he wrote these invectives, and upon the same occasion threw into
+the sea many excellent books, in which he had described the
+actions of Arthur, and the celebrated deeds of his countrymen;
+from which cause it arises, that no authentic account of so great
+a prince is any where to be found.</p>
+<h3><a name="page192"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+192</span>CHAPTER III<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">OF THEIR DEFICIENCY IN BATTLE, AND BASE
+AND DISHONOURABLE FLIGHT</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> war this nation is very severe
+in the first attack, terrible by their clamour and looks, filling
+the air with horrid shouts and the deep-toned clangour of very
+long trumpets; swift and rapid in their advances and frequent
+throwing of darts.&nbsp; Bold in the first onset, they cannot
+bear a repulse, being easily thrown into confusion as soon as
+they turn their backs; and they trust to flight for safety,
+without attempting to rally, which the poet thought reprehensible
+in martial conflicts:</p>
+<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">&ldquo;Ignavum scelus
+est tantum fuga;&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>and elsewhere&mdash;</p>
+<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">&ldquo;In vitium
+culp&aelig; ducit fuga, si caret arte.&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>The character given to the Teutones in the Roman History, may
+be applied to this people.&nbsp; &ldquo;In their first attack
+they are more than men, in the second, less than
+women.&rdquo;&nbsp; Their courage manifests itself chiefly in the
+retreat, when they frequently return, and, like the Parthians,
+shoot their arrows behind them; and, as after success and victory
+in battle, even cowards boast of their courage, so, after a
+reverse of fortune, even the bravest men are not allowed their
+due claims of merit.&nbsp; Their mode of fighting consists in
+chasing the enemy or in retreating.&nbsp; This light-armed
+people, relying more on their activity than on their strength,
+cannot struggle for the field of battle, enter into close
+engagement, or endure long and severe actions, such as the poet
+describes:</p>
+<blockquote><p>&ldquo;Jam clypeo clypeus, umbone repellitur
+umbo,<br />
+Ense minax ensis, pede pes, et cuspide cuspis.&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Though defeated and put to flight on one day, they are <a
+name="page193"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 193</span>ready to
+resume the combat on the next, neither dejected by their loss,
+nor by their dishonour; and although, perhaps, they do not
+display great fortitude in open engagements and regular
+conflicts, yet they harass the enemy by ambuscades and nightly
+sallies.&nbsp; Hence, neither oppressed by hunger or cold, nor
+fatigued by martial labours, nor despondent in adversity, but
+ready, after a defeat, to return immediately to action, and again
+endure the dangers of war; they are as easy to overcome in a
+single battle, as difficult to subdue in a protracted war.&nbsp;
+The poet Claudian thus speaks of a people similar in
+disposition:&mdash;</p>
+<blockquote><p>&ldquo;Dum percunt, memin&ecirc;re mali: si corda
+parumper<br />
+Respirare sinas, nullo tot funera censu<br />
+Pr&aelig;tercunt, tantique levis jactura cruoris.&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<h3>CHAPTER IV<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">THEIR AMBITIOUS SEIZURE OF LANDS, AND
+DISSENSIONS AMONG BROTHERS</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">This</span> nation is, above all others,
+addicted to the digging up of boundary ditches, removing the
+limits, transgressing landmarks, and extending their territory by
+every possible means.&nbsp; So great is their disposition towards
+this common violence, that they scruple not to claim as their
+hereditary right, those lands which are held under lease, or at
+will, on condition of planting, or by any other title, even
+although indemnity had been publicly secured on oath to the
+tenant by the lord proprietor of the soil.&nbsp; Hence arise
+suits and contentions, murders and conflagrations, and frequent
+fratricides, increased, perhaps, by the ancient national custom
+of brothers dividing their property amongst each other.&nbsp;
+Another heavy grievance also prevails; the princes entrust the
+education of their children to the care of the principal <a
+name="page194"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 194</span>men of
+their country, each of whom, after the death of his father,
+endeavours, by every possible means, to exalt his own charge
+above his neighbours.&nbsp; From which cause great disturbances
+have frequently arisen amongst brothers, and terminated in the
+most cruel and unjust murders; and on which account friendships
+are found to be more sincere between foster-brothers, than
+between those who are connected by the natural ties of
+brotherhood.&nbsp; It is also remarkable, that brothers shew more
+affection to one another when dead, than when living; for they
+persecute the living even unto death, but revenge the deceased
+with all their power.</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER V<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">THEIR GREAT EXACTION, AND WANT OF
+MODERATION</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">Where</span> they find plenty, and can
+exercise their power, they levy the most unjust exactions.&nbsp;
+Immoderate in their love of food and intoxicating drink, they say
+with the Apostle, &ldquo;We are instructed both to abound, and to
+suffer need;&rdquo; but do not add with him, &ldquo;becoming all
+things to all men, that I might by all means save
+some.&rdquo;&nbsp; As in times of scarcity their abstinence and
+parsimony are too severe, so, when seated at another man&rsquo;s
+table, after a long fasting, (like wolves and eagles, who, like
+them, live by plunder, and are rarely satisfied,) their appetite
+is immoderate.&nbsp; They are therefore penurious in times of
+scarcity, and extravagant in times of plenty; but no man, as in
+England, mortgages his property for the gluttonous gratification
+of his own appetite.&nbsp; They wish, however, that all people
+would join with them in their bad habits and expenses; as the
+commission of crimes reduces to a level all those who are
+concerned in the perpetration of them.</p>
+<h3><a name="page195"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+195</span>CHAPTER VI<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">CONCERNING THE CRIME OF INCEST, AND THE
+ABUSE OF CHURCHES BY SUCCESSION AND PARTICIPATION</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> crime of incest hath so much
+prevailed, not only among the higher, but among the lower orders
+of this people, that, not having the fear of God before their
+eyes, they are not ashamed of intermarrying with their relations,
+even in the third degree of consanguinity.&nbsp; They generally
+abuse these dispensations with a view of appeasing those enmities
+which so often subsist between them, because &ldquo;their feet
+are swift to shed blood;&rdquo; and from their love of high
+descent, which they so ardently affect and covet, they unite
+themselves to their own people, refusing to intermarry with
+strangers, and arrogantly presuming on their own superiority of
+blood and family.&nbsp; They do not engage in marriage, until
+they have tried, by previous cohabitation, the disposition, and
+particularly the fecundity, of the person with whom they are
+engaged.&nbsp; An ancient custom also prevails of hiring girls
+from their parents at a certain price, and a stipulated penalty,
+in case of relinquishing their connection.</p>
+<p>Their churches have almost as many parsons and sharers as
+there are principal men in the parish.&nbsp; The sons, after the
+decease of their fathers, succeed to the ecclesiastical
+benefices, not by election, but by hereditary right possessing
+and polluting the sanctuary of God.&nbsp; And if a prelate should
+by chance presume to appoint or institute any other person, the
+people would certainly revenge the injury upon the institutor and
+the instituted.&nbsp; With respect to these two excesses of
+incest and succession, which took root formerly in Armorica, and
+are not yet eradicated, Ildebert, bishop of Le Mans, in one of
+his epistles, says, &ldquo;that he was <a
+name="page196"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 196</span>present
+with a British priest at a council summoned with a view of
+putting an end to the enormities of this nation:&rdquo; hence it
+appears that these vices have for a long time prevailed both in
+Britany and Britain.&nbsp; The words of the Psalmist may not
+inaptly be applied to them; &ldquo;They are corrupt and become
+abominable in their doings, there is none that doeth good, no,
+not one: they are all gone out of the way, they are altogether
+become abominable,&rdquo; etc.</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER VII<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">OF THEIR SINS, AND THE CONSEQUENT LOSS OF
+BRITAIN AND OF TROY</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">Moreover</span>, through their sins, and
+particularly that detestable and wicked vice of Sodom, as well as
+by divine vengeance, they lost Britain as they formerly lost
+Troy.&nbsp; For we read in the Roman history, that the emperor
+Constantine having resigned the city and the Western empire to
+the blessed Sylvester and his successors, with an intention of
+rebuilding Troy, and there establishing the chief seat of the
+Eastern Empire, heard a voice, saying, &ldquo;Dost thou go to
+rebuild Sodom?&rdquo; upon which, he altered his intention,
+turned his ships and standards towards Byzantium, and there
+fixing his seat of empire, gave his own propitious name to the
+city.&nbsp; The British history informs us, that Mailgon, king of
+the Britons, and many others, were addicted to this vice; that
+enormity, however, had entirely ceased for so long a time, that
+the recollection of it was nearly worn out.&nbsp; But since that,
+as if the time of repentance was almost expired, and because the
+nation, by its warlike successes and acquisition of territory,
+has in our times unusually increased in population and strength,
+they boast in their turn, and most confidently and unanimously
+affirm, that in a <a name="page197"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+197</span>short time their countrymen shall return to the island,
+and, according to the prophecies of Merlin, the nation, and even
+the name, of foreigners, shall be extinguished in the island, and
+the Britons shall exult again in their ancient name and
+privileges.&nbsp; But to me it appears far otherwise; for
+since</p>
+<blockquote><p>&ldquo;Luxuriant animi rebus plerumque
+secundis,<br />
+Nec facile est &aelig;qua commoda mente pati;&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>And because</p>
+<blockquote><p>&ldquo;Non habet unde suum paupertas pascat
+amorem, . . .<br />
+Divitiis alitur luxuriosus amor.&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>So that their abstinence from that vice, which in their
+prosperity they could not resist, may be attributed more justly
+to their poverty and state of exile than to their sense of
+virtue.&nbsp; For they cannot be said to have repented, when we
+see them involved in such an abyss of vices, perjury, theft,
+robbery, rapine, murders, fratricides, adultery, and incest, and
+become every day more entangled and ensnared in evil-doing; so
+that the words of the prophet Hosea may be truly applied to them,
+&ldquo;There is no truth, nor mercy,&rdquo; etc.</p>
+<p>Other matters of which they boast are more properly to be
+attributed to the diligence and activity of the Norman kings than
+to their own merits or power.&nbsp; For previous to the coming of
+the Normans, when the English kings contented themselves with the
+sovereignty of Britain alone, and employed their whole military
+force in the subjugation of this people, they almost wholly
+extirpated them; as did king Offa, who by a long and extensive
+dyke separated the British from the English; Ethelfrid also, who
+demolished the noble city of Legions, <a
+name="citation197"></a><a href="#footnote197"
+class="citation">[197]</a> and put to death the monks of the
+celebrated monastery at Banchor, who had been called in to
+promote the success of the Britons by their prayers; and lastly
+Harold, who himself on foot, with an army of light-armed
+infantry, and conforming to the customary diet of the <a
+name="page198"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 198</span>country, so
+bravely penetrated through every part of Wales, that he scarcely
+left a man alive in it; and as a memorial of his signal victories
+many stones may be found in Wales bearing this
+inscription:&mdash;&ldquo;<span class="GutSmall">HIC VICTOR FUIT
+HAROLDUS</span>&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;<span class="smcap">Here
+harold conquered</span>.&rdquo; <a name="citation198"></a><a
+href="#footnote198" class="citation">[198]</a></p>
+<p>To these bloody and recent victories of the English may be
+attributed the peaceable state of Wales during the reigns of the
+three first Norman kings; when the nation increased in
+population, and being taught the use of arms and the management
+of horses by the English and Normans (with whom they had much
+intercourse, by following the court, or by being sent as
+hostages), took advantage of the necessary attention which the
+three succeeding kings were obliged to pay to their foreign
+possessions, and once more lifting up their crests, recovered
+their lands, and spurned the yoke that had formerly been imposed
+upon them.</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER VIII<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">IN WHAT MANNER THIS NATION IS TO BE
+OVERCOME</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> prince who would wish to subdue
+this nation, and govern it peaceably, must use this method.&nbsp;
+He must be determined to apply a diligent and constant attention
+to this purpose for one year at least; for a people who with a
+collected force will not openly attack the enemy in the field,
+nor wait to be besieged in castles, is not to be overcome at the
+first onset, but to be worn out by prudent delay and
+patience.&nbsp; Let him divide their strength, and by bribes and
+promises endeavour to stir up one against the other, knowing the
+spirit of hatred and envy <a name="page199"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 199</span>which generally prevails amongst
+them; and in the autumn let not only the marches, but also the
+interior part of the country be strongly fortified with castles,
+provisions, and confidential families.&nbsp; In the meantime the
+purchase of corn, cloth, and salt, with which they are usually
+supplied from England, should be strictly interdicted; and
+well-manned ships placed as a guard on the coast, to prevent
+their importation of these articles from Ireland or the Severn
+sea, and to facilitate the supply of his own army.&nbsp;
+Afterwards, when the severity of winter approaches, when the
+trees are void of leaves, and the mountains no longer afford
+pasturage&mdash;when they are deprived of any hopes of plunder,
+and harassed on every side by the repeated attacks of the
+enemy&mdash;let a body of light-armed infantry penetrate into
+their woody and mountainous retreats, and let these troops be
+supported and relieved by others; and thus by frequent changes,
+and replacing the men who are either fatigued or slain in battle,
+this nation may be ultimately subdued; nor can it be overcome
+without the above precautions, nor without great danger and loss
+of men.&nbsp; Though many of the English hired troops may perish
+in a day of battle, money will procure as many or more on the
+morrow for the same service; but to the Welsh, who have neither
+foreign nor stipendiary troops, the loss is for the time
+irreparable.&nbsp; In these matters, therefore, as an artificer
+is to be trusted in his trade, so attention is to be paid to the
+counsel of those who, having been long conversant in similar
+concerns, are become acquainted with the manners and customs of
+their country, and whom it greatly interests, that an enemy, for
+whom during long and frequent conflicts they have contracted an
+implacable hatred, should by their assistance be either weakened
+or destroyed.&nbsp; Happy should I have termed the borders of
+Wales inhabited by the English, if their kings, in the government
+of these parts, and in their military operations against the
+enemy, had rather employed the marchers and barons of the
+country, than adopted the <a name="page200"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 200</span>counsels and policy of the people of
+Anjou and the Normans.&nbsp; In this, as well as in every other
+military expedition, either in Ireland or in Wales, the natives
+of the marches, from the constant state of warfare in which they
+are engaged, and whose manners are formed from the habits of war,
+are bold and active, skilful on horseback, quick on foot, not
+nice as to their diet, and ever prepared when necessity requires
+to abstain both from corn and wine.&nbsp; By such men were the
+first hostile attacks made upon Wales as well as Ireland, and by
+such men alone can their final conquest be accomplished.&nbsp;
+For the Flemings, Normans, Coterells, and Bragmans, are good and
+well-disciplined soldiers in their own country; but the Gallic
+soldiery is known to differ much from the Welsh and Irish.&nbsp;
+In their country the battle is on level, here on rough ground;
+there in an open field, here in forests; there they consider
+their armour as an honour, here as a burden; there soldiers are
+taken prisoners, here they are beheaded; there they are ransomed,
+here they are put to death.&nbsp; Where, therefore, the armies
+engage in a flat country, a heavy and complex armour, made of
+cloth and iron, both protects and decorates the soldier; but when
+the engagement is in narrow defiles, in woods or marshes, where
+the infantry have the advantage over the cavalry, a light armour
+is preferable.&nbsp; For light arms afford sufficient protection
+against unarmed men, by whom victory is either lost or won at the
+first onset; where it is necessary that an active and retreating
+enemy should be overcome by a certain proportional quantity of
+moderate armour; whereas with a more complex sort, and with high
+and curved saddles, it is difficult to dismount, more so to
+mount, and with the greatest difficulty can such troops march, if
+required, with the infantry.&nbsp; In order, therefore, that</p>
+<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">&ldquo;Singula
+qu&aelig;que locum teneant sortita decenter,&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>we maintain it is necessary to employ heavy-armed and strong
+troops against men heavily armed, depending <a
+name="page201"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 201</span>entirely
+upon their natural strength, and accustomed to fight in an open
+plain; but against light-armed and active troops, who prefer
+rough ground, men accustomed to such conflicts, and armed in a
+similar manner, must be employed.&nbsp; But let the cities and
+fortresses on the Severn, and the whole territory on its western
+banks towards Wales, occupied by the English, as well as the
+provinces of Shropshire and Cheshire, which are protected by
+powerful armies, or by any other special privileges and
+honourable independence, rejoice in the provident bounty of their
+prince.&nbsp; There should be a yearly examination of the warlike
+stores, of the arms, and horses, by good and discreet men deputed
+for that purpose, and who, not intent on its plunder and ruin,
+interest themselves in the defence and protection of their
+country.&nbsp; By these salutary measures, the soldiers,
+citizens, and the whole mass of the people, being instructed and
+accustomed to the use of arms, liberty may be opposed by liberty,
+and pride be checked by pride.&nbsp; For the Welsh, who are
+neither worn out by laborious burdens, nor molested by the
+exactions of their lords, are ever prompt to avenge an
+injury.&nbsp; Hence arise their distinguished bravery in the
+defence of their country; hence their readiness to take up arms
+and to rebel.&nbsp; Nothing so much excites, encourages, and
+invites the hearts of men to probity as the cheerfulness of
+liberty; nothing so much dejects and dispirits them as the
+oppression of servitude.&nbsp; This portion of the kingdom,
+protected by arms and courage, might be of great use to the
+prince, not only in these or the adjacent parts, but, if
+necessity required, in more remote regions; and although the
+public treasury might receive a smaller annual revenue from these
+provinces, yet the deficiency would be abundantly compensated by
+the peace of the kingdom and the honour of its sovereign;
+especially as the heavy and dangerous expenses of one military
+expedition into Wales usually amount to the whole income among
+from the revenues of the province.</p>
+<h3><a name="page202"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+202</span>CHAPTER IX<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">IN WHAT MANNER WALES, WHEN CONQUERED,
+SHOULD BE GOVERNED</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">As</span> therefore this nation is to be
+subdued by resolution in the manner proposed, so when subdued,
+its government must be directed by moderation, according to the
+following plan.&nbsp; Let the care of it be committed to a man of
+a firm and determined mind; who during the time of peace, by
+paying due obedience to the laws, and respect to the government,
+may render it firm and stable.&nbsp; For like other nations in a
+barbarous state, this people, although they are strangers to the
+principles of honour, yet above all things desire to be honoured;
+and approve and respect in others that truth which they
+themselves do not profess.&nbsp; Whenever the natural inconstancy
+of their indisposition shall induce them to revolt, let
+punishment instantly follow the offence; but when they shall have
+submitted themselves again to order, and made proper amends for
+their faults (as it is the custom of bad men to remember wrath
+after quarrels), let their former transgression be overlooked,
+and let them enjoy security and respect, as long as they continue
+faithful.&nbsp; Thus, by mild treatment they will be invited to
+obedience and the love of peace, and the thought of certain
+punishment will deter them from rash attempts.&nbsp; We have
+often observed persons who, confounding these matters, by
+complaining of faults, depressing for services, flattering in
+war, plundering in peace, despoiling the weak, paying respect to
+revolters, by thus rendering all things confused, have at length
+been confounded themselves.&nbsp; Besides, as circumstances which
+are foreseen do less mischief, and as that state is happy which
+thinks of war in the time of peace, let the wise man be upon his
+guard, and prepared against the approaching <a
+name="page203"></a><span class="pagenum">p.
+203</span>inconveniences of war, by the construction of forts,
+the widening of passes through woods, and the providing of a
+trusty household.&nbsp; For those who are cherished and sustained
+during the time of peace, are more ready to come forward in times
+of danger, and are more confidently to be depended upon; and as a
+nation unsubdued ever meditates plots under the disguise of
+friendship, let not the prince or his governor entrust the
+protection of his camp or capital to their fidelity.&nbsp; By the
+examples of many remarkable men, some of whom have been cruelly
+put to death, and others deprived of their castles and dignities,
+through their own neglect and want of care, we may see, that the
+artifices of a crafty and subdued nation are much more to be
+dreaded than their open warfare; their good-will than their
+anger, their honey than their gall, their malice than their
+attack, their treachery than their aggression, and their
+pretended friendship more than their open enmity.&nbsp; A prudent
+and provident man therefore should contemplate in the misfortune
+of others what he ought himself to avoid; correction taught by
+example is harmless, as Ennodius <a name="citation203"></a><a
+href="#footnote203" class="citation">[203]</a> says: &ldquo;The
+ruin of predecessors instructs those who succeed; and a former
+miscarriage becomes a future caution.&rdquo;&nbsp; If a
+well-disposed prince should wish these great designs to be
+accomplished without the effusion of blood, the marches, as we
+before mentioned, must be put into a state of defence on all
+sides, and all intercourse by sea and land interdicted; some of
+the Welsh may be stirred up to deadly feuds, by means of
+stipends, and by transferring the property of one person to
+another; and thus worn out with hunger, and a want of the
+necessaries of life, and harassed by frequent murders and
+implacable enmities, they will at last be compelled to
+surrender.</p>
+<p>There are three things which ruin this nation, and prevent its
+enjoying the satisfaction of a fruitful progeny.&nbsp; <a
+name="page204"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 204</span>First,
+because both the natural and legitimate sons endeavour to divide
+the paternal inheritance amongst themselves; from which cause, as
+we have before observed, continual fratricides take place.&nbsp;
+Secondly, because the education of their sons is committed to the
+care of the high-born people of the country, who, on the death of
+their fathers, endeavour by all possible means to exalt their
+pupil; from whence arise murders, conflagrations, and almost a
+total destruction of the country.&nbsp; And, thirdly, because
+from the pride and obstinacy of their disposition, they will not
+(like other nations) subject themselves to the dominion of one
+lord and king.</p>
+<h3>CHAPTER X<br />
+<span class="GutSmall">IN WHAT MANNER THIS NATION MAY RESIST AND
+REVOLT</span></h3>
+<p><span class="smcap">Having</span> hitherto so partially and
+elaborately spoken in favour of the English, and being equally
+connected by birth with each nation, justice demands that we
+should argue on both sides; let us therefore, at the close of our
+work, turn our attention towards the Welsh, and briefly, but
+effectually, instruct them in the art of resistance.&nbsp; If the
+Welsh were more commonly accustomed to the Gallic mode of arming,
+and depended more on steady fighting than on their agility; if
+their princes were unanimous and inseparable in their defence; or
+rather, if they had only one prince, and that a good one; this
+nation situated in so powerful, strong, and inaccessible a
+country, could hardly ever be completely overcome.&nbsp; If,
+therefore, they would be inseparable, they would become
+insuperable, being assisted by these three circumstances; a
+country well defended by nature, a people both contented and
+accustomed to live upon <a name="page205"></a><span
+class="pagenum">p. 205</span>little, a community whose nobles as
+well as privates are instructed in the use of arms; and
+especially as the English fight for power, the Welsh for liberty;
+the one to procure gain, the other to avoid loss; the English
+hirelings for money, the Welsh patriots for their country.&nbsp;
+The English, I say, fight in order to expel the natural
+inhabitants from the island, and secure to themselves the
+possession of the whole; but the Welsh maintain the conflict,
+that they, who have so long enjoyed the sovereignty of the whole
+kingdom, may at least find a hiding place in the worst corner of
+it, amongst woods and marshes; and, banished, as it were, for
+their offences, may there in a state of poverty, for a limited
+time, perform penance for the excesses they committed in the days
+of their prosperity.&nbsp; For the perpetual remembrance of their
+former greatness, the recollection of their Trojan descent, and
+the high and continued majesty of the kingdom of Britain, may
+draw forth many a latent spark of animosity, and encourage the
+daring spirit of rebellion.&nbsp; Hence during the military
+expedition which king Henry II. made in our days against South
+Wales, an old Welshman at Pencadair, who had faithfully adhered
+to him, being desired to give his opinion about the royal army,
+and whether he thought that of the rebels would make resistance,
+and what would be the final event of this war, replied,
+&ldquo;This nation, O king, may now, as in former times, be
+harassed, and in a great measure weakened and destroyed by your
+and other powers, and it will often prevail by its laudable
+exertions; but it can never be totally subdued through the wrath
+of man, unless the wrath of God shall concur.&nbsp; Nor do I
+think, that any other nation than this of Wales, or any other
+language, whatever may hereafter come to pass, shall, in the day
+of severe examination before the Supreme Judge, answer for this
+corner of the earth.&rdquo;</p>
+<h2>FOOTNOTES</h2>
+<p><a name="footnote155a"></a><a href="#citation155a"
+class="footnote">[155a]</a>&nbsp; Port Gordber, written
+<i>Gordwr</i> by Humphrey Lhwyd in his Breviary of Britain,
+probably a corruption from Gorddyar, a roaring, applied to the
+sea, as Gorddyar m&ocirc;r, the roaring of the sea.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote155b"></a><a href="#citation155b"
+class="footnote">[155b]</a>&nbsp; The harbour, now known by the
+name of Portscwit, (and recorded in the Triads as one of the
+three passages or ferries in the Isle of Britain), is situated on
+the Welsh side of the Bristol channel, at a short distance from
+the lower passage.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote155c"></a><a href="#citation155c"
+class="footnote">[155c]</a>&nbsp; Port Mawr, or the large port,
+is thus mentioned by Leland in his Itinerary, tom. v. pp. 28,
+29:&mdash;&ldquo;About a mile of is Port Mawre, where is a great
+sande with a shorte estuary into the lande.&nbsp; And sum say
+that there hath beene a castel at or aboute Port Mawr, but the
+tokens be not very evidente.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><a name="footnote155d"></a><a href="#citation155d"
+class="footnote">[155d]</a>&nbsp; Rhyd-helyg, or the Ford of the
+Willow.&mdash;I imagine this place is Walford in Herefordshire,
+near the banks of the river Wye.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote156"></a><a href="#citation156"
+class="footnote">[156]</a>&nbsp; Brutus, according to the fable,
+in his way to Britain, met with a company of Trojans, who had
+fled from Troy with Antenor and Corin&aelig;us at their head, who
+submitted themselves to Brutus, and joined his company; which
+Corin&aelig;us, being a very valiant man, rendered great service
+to Brutus during his wars in Gaul and Britain; in return for
+which, Brutus, having subdued the island, and divided it amongst
+his people, gave Cornwall to Corin&aelig;us, who, as it is said,
+called it after his own name, Cernyw.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote157a"></a><a href="#citation157a"
+class="footnote">[157a]</a>&nbsp; Uchelwyr, so called from
+<i>Uchel</i>, high, and <i>gwr</i>, a man.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote157b"></a><a href="#citation157b"
+class="footnote">[157b]</a>&nbsp; This assertion is unfounded, if
+we give credit to the Welsh Chronicle, which dates the death of
+Cadell in 907, and that of Anarawdin in 913.&nbsp; [Howell Dda,
+the son of Cadell, reunited Wales under one sovereign.]</p>
+<p><a name="footnote158a"></a><a href="#citation158a"
+class="footnote">[158a]</a>&nbsp; B.M.&mdash;This abbreviation,
+which in every manuscript I have seen of Giraldus has been
+construed into <i>Beatam Mariam</i>, and in many of them is
+written <i>Beatam Virginem</i>, may with much greater propriety
+be applied to <i>Belinus Magnus</i>, or Beli the Great, a
+distinguished British King, to whom most of the British pedigrees
+ascended; and because his name occurred so frequently in them it
+was often written short, B.M., which some men, by mistake,
+interpret <i>Beata Maria</i>.&mdash;(Sir R. C. H.)</p>
+<p><a name="footnote158b"></a><a href="#citation158b"
+class="footnote">[158b]</a>&nbsp; Aberfraw, a small town at the
+conflux of the river Fraw and the sea, on the S.W. part of the
+isle of Anglesey, and twelve miles S.E. of Holyhead.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote159a"></a><a href="#citation159a"
+class="footnote">[159a]</a>&nbsp; A great lordship in
+Herefordshire, including the district between Hereford and
+Monmouth, bordering on the river Wye.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote159b"></a><a href="#citation159b"
+class="footnote">[159b]</a>&nbsp; Book ii. chapter i.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote162a"></a><a href="#citation162a"
+class="footnote">[162a]</a>&nbsp; Book ii. c. 4.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote162b"></a><a href="#citation162b"
+class="footnote">[162b]</a>&nbsp; If by the mountains of Eryri we
+are to understand the Snowdonian range of hills, our author has
+not been quite accurate in fixing the source of the river Dovy,
+which rises between Dynas-y-mowddu and Bala Lake, to the
+southward of Mount Arran: from whence it pursues its course to
+Mallwyd, and Machynlleth, below which place it becomes an
+estuary, and the boundary between North and South Wales.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote162c"></a><a href="#citation162c"
+class="footnote">[162c]</a>&nbsp; Our author is again incorrect
+in stating that the river Maw forms, by its course, the two
+tracts of sands called Traeth Mawr and Traeth Bychan.&nbsp; This
+river, from which Barmouth derives the name of Abermaw, and to
+which Giraldus, in the fifth chapter of the second book of his
+Itinerary, has given the epithet of <i>bifurcus</i>, runs far to
+the southward of either of the Traeths.&nbsp; The Traeth Mawr, or
+large sands, are formed by the impetuous torrents which descend
+from Snowdon by Beddgelert, and pass under the Devil&rsquo;s
+Bridge at Pont Aberglasllyn, so called from the river Glasllyn;
+and the Traeth Bychan, or little sands, are formed by numerous
+streams which unite themselves in the vale of Festiniog, and
+become an &aelig;stuary near the village of Maentwrog.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote165a"></a><a href="#citation165a"
+class="footnote">[165a]</a>&nbsp; Better known as Geoffrey of
+Monmouth.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote165b"></a><a href="#citation165b"
+class="footnote">[165b]</a>&nbsp; The Anglo-Saxons called the
+Britons <i>Wealhas</i>, from a word in their own language, which
+signified literally foreigners; and hence we derive the modern
+name Welsh.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote168"></a><a href="#citation168"
+class="footnote">[168]</a>&nbsp; The Peak, in Derbyshire.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote169a"></a><a href="#citation169a"
+class="footnote">[169a]</a>&nbsp; Sir R. C. Hoare has altogether
+misunderstood the original here.&nbsp; It was the custom in the
+middle ages to place the guests at table in pairs, and each two
+persons ate out of one plate.&nbsp; Each couple was a
+<i>mess</i>.&nbsp; At a later period, among the great the mess
+consisted of four persons; but it appears that in Wales, at this
+time, it was formed of three guests.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote169b"></a><a href="#citation169b"
+class="footnote">[169b]</a>&nbsp; &ldquo;Bread, called
+<i>Lagana</i>, was, I suppose, the sort of household bread, or
+thin cake baked on an iron plate, called a griddle
+(<i>gradell</i>), still common in Caermarthenshire, and called
+<i>Bara Llech</i> and <i>Bara Llechan</i>, or griddle bread, from
+being so baked.&rdquo;&mdash;Owen.&nbsp; &ldquo;<i>Laganum</i>, a
+fritter or pancake, <i>Baranyiod</i>.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Lluyd</i>,
+<i>Archaiology</i>, p. 75.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote170"></a><a href="#citation170"
+class="footnote">[170]</a>&nbsp; <i>Brychan</i>, in Lhuyd&rsquo;s
+Archaiology and Cornish Grammar, is spelt Bryccan, and
+interpreted a blanket.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote171"></a><a href="#citation171"
+class="footnote">[171]</a>&nbsp; &ldquo;Omnes vero se Britanni
+vitro inficiunt, quod c&aelig;ruleum efficit colorem, atque hoc
+horridore sunt in pugna adspectu; capilloque sunt promisso, atque
+omni parte corporis rasa, pr&aelig;ter caput et labrum
+superius.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>C&aelig;sar de Bello Gallico</i>, cap.
+13, 14.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote172"></a><a href="#citation172"
+class="footnote">[172]</a>&nbsp; This instrument is generally
+supposed to have been the origin of the violin, which was not
+commonly known in England till the reign of Charles I.&nbsp;
+Before this time the crwth was not probably confined to the
+Principality, from the name of <i>Crowdero</i> in Hudibras; as
+also from a fiddler being still called a <i>crowder</i> in some
+parts of England, though he now plays on a violin instead of a
+crwth.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote173"></a><a href="#citation173"
+class="footnote">[173]</a>&nbsp; These Welsh lines quoted by
+Giraldus are selected from two different stanzas of moral verses,
+called Eglynion y Clywed, the composition of some anonymous bard;
+or probably the work of several:</p>
+<blockquote><p>&ldquo;A glyweisti a gant Dywyneg,<br />
+Milwr doeth detholedig;<br />
+Digawn Duw da i unig?</p>
+<p>&ldquo;Hast thou heard what was sung by Dywynic?<br />
+A wise and chosen warrior;<br />
+God will effect solace to the orphan.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;A glyweisti a gant Anarawd?<br />
+Milwr doniawg did lawd;<br />
+Rhaid wrth anmhwyll pwyll parawd.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;Hast thou heard what was sung by Anarawd?<br />
+A warrior endowed with many gifts;<br />
+With want of sense ready wit is necessary.&rdquo;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Or, as Giraldus quotes it,</p>
+<blockquote><p>&ldquo;Wrth bob crybwll rhaid pwyll
+parawd.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>&ldquo;With every hint ready wit is necessary.&rdquo;</p>
+<p style="text-align: right"><i>Myvyvrian Archaiology</i>, page
+172.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><a name="footnote179"></a><a href="#citation179"
+class="footnote">[179]</a>&nbsp; Awenydhion, in a literal sense,
+means persons inspired by the Muse, and is derived from Awen and
+Awenydd, a poetical rapture, or the gift of poetry.&nbsp; It was
+the appellation of the disciples, or candidates for the Bardic
+Order; but the most general acceptation of the word was, Poets,
+or Bards.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote183"></a><a href="#citation183"
+class="footnote">[183]</a>&nbsp; Genealogies were preserved as a
+principle of necessity under the ancient British
+constitution.&nbsp; A man&rsquo;s pedigree was in reality his
+title deed, by which he claimed his birthright in the
+country.&nbsp; Every one was obliged to show his descent through
+nine generations, in order to be acknowledged a free native, and
+by this right he claimed his portion of land in the
+community.&nbsp; He was affected with respect to legal process in
+his collateral affinities through nine degrees.&nbsp; For
+instance, every murder committed had a fine levied on the
+relations of the murderer, divided into nine degrees; his brother
+paying the greatest, and the ninth in affinity the least.&nbsp;
+This fine was distributed in the same way among the relatives of
+the victim.&nbsp; A person past the ninth descent formed a new
+family.&nbsp; Every family was represented by its elder; and
+these elders from every family were delegates to the national
+council.&mdash;<i>Owen</i>.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote184"></a><a href="#citation184"
+class="footnote">[184]</a>&nbsp; The <i>navicul&aelig;</i>
+mentioned by Giraldus bear the modern name of <i>coracles</i>,
+and are much used on the Welsh rivers for the taking of
+salmon.&nbsp; Their name is derived probably from the Celtic word
+<i>corawg</i>, which signifies a <i>ship</i>.&nbsp; They are
+mentioned by the ancient writers.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote197"></a><a href="#citation197"
+class="footnote">[197]</a>&nbsp; By the city of Legions Chester
+is here meant, not Caerleon.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote198"></a><a href="#citation198"
+class="footnote">[198]</a>&nbsp; Of the stones inscribed
+&ldquo;<span class="GutSmall">HIC VICTOR FUIT
+HAROLDUS</span>&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;<span class="GutSmall">HERE
+HAROLD CONQUERED</span>,&rdquo; no original, I believe, remains
+extant; but at the village of Trelech, in Monmouthshire, there is
+a modern pedestal bearing the above inscription.&mdash;See the
+description and engraving in Coxe&rsquo;s Monmouthshire, p.
+234.</p>
+<p><a name="footnote203"></a><a href="#citation203"
+class="footnote">[203]</a>&nbsp; In one MS. of Giraldus in the
+British Museum, this name is written Ovidius.</p>
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESCRIPTION OF WALES***</p>
+<pre>
+
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+The Description of Wales
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+
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+This etext was prepared by David Price from the 1912 J. M. Dent
+edition, email ccx074@coventry.ac.uk
+
+
+
+
+
+The Description of Wales
+
+
+
+
+FIRST PREFACE to Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury
+
+
+
+I, who, at the expense of three years' labour, arranged, a short
+time ago, in three parts, the Topography of Ireland, with a
+description of its natural curiosities, and who afterwards, by two
+years' study, completed in two parts the Vaticinal History of its
+Conquest; and who, by publishing the Itinerary of the Holy Man
+(Baldwin) through Cambria, prevented his laborious mission from
+perishing in obscurity, do now propose, in the present little work,
+to give some account of this my native country, and to describe the
+genius of its inhabitants, so entirely distinct from that of other
+nations.  And this production of my industry I have determined to
+dedicate to you, illustrious Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury, as
+I before ascribed to you my Itinerary; considering you as a man no
+less distinguished by your piety, than conspicuous for your
+learning; though so humble an offering may possibly be unworthy the
+acceptance of a personage who, from his eminence, deserves to be
+presented with works of the greatest merit.
+
+Some, indeed, object to this my undertaking, and, apparently from
+motives of affection, compare me to a painter, who, rich in
+colours, and like another Zeuxis, eminent in his art, is
+endeavouring with all his skill and industry to give celebrity to a
+cottage, or to some other contemptible object, whilst the world is
+anxiously expecting from his hand a temple or a palace.  Thus they
+wonder that I, amidst the many great and striking subjects which
+the world presents, should choose to describe and to adorn, with
+all the graces of composition, such remote corners of the earth as
+Ireland and Wales.
+
+Others again, reproaching me with greater severity, say, that the
+gifts which have been bestowed upon me from above, ought not to be
+wasted upon these insignificant objects, nor lavished in a vain
+display of learning on the commendation of princes, who, from their
+ignorance and want of liberality, have neither taste to appreciate,
+nor hearts to remunerate literary excellence.  And they further
+add, that every faculty which emanates from the Deity, ought rather
+to be applied to the illustration of celestial objects, and to the
+exultation of his glory, from whose abundance all our talents have
+been received; every faculty (say they) ought to be employed in
+praising him from whom, as from a perennial source, every perfect
+gift is derived, and from whose bounty everything which is offered
+with sincerity obtains an ample reward.  But since excellent
+histories of other countries have been composed and published by
+writers of eminence, I have been induced, by the love I bear to my
+country and to posterity, to believe that I should perform neither
+an useless nor an unacceptable service, were I to unfold the hidden
+merits of my native land; to rescue from obscurity those glorious
+actions which have been hitherto imperfectly described, and to
+bring into repute, by my method of treating it, a subject till now
+regarded as contemptible.
+
+What indeed could my feeble and unexercised efforts add to the
+histories of the destruction of Troy, Thebes, or Athens, or to the
+conquest of the shores of Latium?  Besides, to do what has been
+already done, is, in fact, to be doing nothing; I have, therefore,
+thought it more eligible to apply my industry to the arrangement of
+the history of my native country, hitherto almost wholly overlooked
+by strangers; but interesting to my relations and countrymen; and
+from these small beginnings to aspire by degrees to works of a
+nobler cast.  From these inconsiderable attempts, some idea may be
+formed with what success, should Fortune afford an opportunity, I
+am likely to treat matters of greater importance.  For although
+some things should be made our principal objects, whilst others
+ought not to be wholly neglected, I may surely be allowed to
+exercise the powers of my youth, as yet untaught and unexperienced,
+in pursuits of this latter nature, lest by habit I should feel a
+pleasure in indolence and in sloth, the parent of vice.
+
+I have therefore employed these studies as a kind of introduction
+to the glorious treasures of that most excellent of the sciences,
+which alone deserves the name of science; which alone can render us
+wise to rule and to instruct mankind; which alone the other
+sciences follow, as attendants do their queen.  Laying therefore in
+my youth the foundations of so noble a structure, it is my
+intention, if God will assist me and prolong my life, to reserve my
+maturer years for composing a treatise upon so perfect, so sacred a
+subject:  for according to the poet,
+
+
+"Ardua quippe fides robustos exigit annos;"
+"The important concerns of faith require a mind in its full
+vigour;"
+
+
+I may be permitted to indulge myself for a short time in other
+pursuits; but in this I should wish not only to continue, but to
+die.
+
+But before I enter on this important subject, I demand a short
+interval, to enable me to lay before the public my Treatise on the
+Instruction of a Prince, which has been so frequently promised, as
+well as the Description of Wales, which is now before me, and the
+Topography of Britain.
+
+Of all the British writers, Gildas alone appears to me (as often as
+the course of my subject leads me to consult him) worthy of
+imitation; for by committing to paper the things which he himself
+saw and knew, and by declaring rather than describing the
+desolation of his country, he has compiled a history more
+remarkable for its truth than for its elegance.
+
+Giraldus therefore follows Gildas, whom he wishes he could copy in
+his life and manners; becoming an imitator of his wisdom rather
+than of his eloquence - of his mind rather than of his writings -
+of his zeal rather than of his style - of his life rather than of
+his language.
+
+
+
+SECOND PREFACE to the same
+
+
+
+When, amidst various literary pursuits, I first applied my mind to
+the compilation of history, I determined, lest I should appear
+ungrateful to my native land, to describe, to the best of my
+abilities, my own country and its adjoining regions; and
+afterwards, under God's guidance, to proceed to a description of
+more distant territories.  But since some leading men (whom we have
+both seen and known) show so great a contempt for literature, that
+they immediately shut up within their book-cases the excellent
+works with which they are presented, and thus doom them, as it
+were, to a perpetual imprisonment; I entreat you, illustrious
+Prelate, to prevent the present little work, which will shortly be
+delivered to you, from perishing in obscurity.  And because this,
+as well as my former productions, though of no transcendent merit,
+may hereafter prove to many a source of entertainment and
+instruction, I entreat you generously to order it to be made
+public, by which it will acquire reputation.  And I shall consider
+myself sufficiently rewarded for my trouble, if, withdrawing for a
+while from your religious and secular occupations, you would kindly
+condescend to peruse this book, or, at least, give it an attentive
+hearing; for in times like these, when no one remunerates literary
+productions, I neither desire nor expect any other recompense.  Not
+that it would appear in any way inconsistent, however there exists
+among men of rank a kind of conspiracy against authors, if a
+prelate so eminently conspicuous for his virtues, for his
+abilities, both natural and acquired, for irreproachable morals,
+and for munificence, should distinguish himself likewise by
+becoming the generous and sole patron of literature.  To comprise
+your merits in a few words, the lines of Martial addressed to
+Trajan, whilst serving under Dioclesian, may be deservedly applied
+to you:
+
+
+"Laudari debes quoniam sub principe duro,
+Temporibusque malis, ausus es esse bonus."
+
+
+And those also of Virgil to Mecaenas, which extol the humanity of
+that great man:
+
+
+"Omnia cum possis tanto tam clarus amico,
+Te sensit nemo posse nocere tamen."
+
+
+Many indeed remonstrate against my proceedings, and those
+particularly who call themselves my friends insist that, in
+consequence of my violent attachment to study, I pay no attention
+to the concerns of the world, or to the interests of my family; and
+that, on this account, I shall experience a delay in my promotion
+to worldly dignities; that the influence of authors, both poets and
+historians, has long since ceased; that the respect paid to
+literature vanished with literary princes; and that in these
+degenerate days very different paths lead to honours and opulence.
+I allow all this, I readily allow it, and acquiesce in the truth.
+For the unprincipled and covetous attach themselves to the court,
+the churchmen to their books, and the ambitious to the public
+offices, but as every man is under the influence of some darling
+passion, so the love of letters and the study of eloquence have
+from my infancy had for me peculiar charms of attraction.  Impelled
+by this thirst for knowledge, I have carried my researches into the
+mysterious works of nature farther than the generality of my
+contemporaries, and for the benefit of posterity have rescued from
+oblivion the remarkable events of my own times.  But this object
+was not to be secured without an indefatigable, though at the same
+time an agreeable, exertion; for an accurate investigation of every
+particular is attended with much difficulty.  It is difficult to
+produce an orderly account of the investigation and discovery of
+truth; it is difficult to preserve from the beginning to the end a
+connected relation unbroken by irrelevant matter; and it is
+difficult to render the narration no less elegant in the diction,
+than instructive in its matter, for in prosecuting the series of
+events, the choice of happy expressions is equally perplexing, as
+the search after them painful.  Whatever is written requires the
+most intense thought, and every expression should be carefully
+polished before it be submitted to the public eye; for, by exposing
+itself to the examination of the present and of future ages, it
+must necessarily undergo the criticism not only of the acute, but
+also of the dissatisfied, reader.  Words merely uttered are soon
+forgotten, and the admiration or disgust which they occasioned is
+no more; but writings once published are never lost, and remain as
+lasting memorials either of the glory or of the disgrace of the
+author.  Hence the observation of Seneca, that the malicious
+attention of the envious reader dwells with no less satisfaction on
+a faulty than on an elegant expression, and is as anxious to
+discover what it may ridicule, as what it may commend; as the poet
+also observes:
+
+
+"Discit enim citius meminitque libentius illud
+Quod quis deridet, quam quod probat et veneratur."
+
+
+Among the pursuits, therefore, most worthy of commendation, this
+holds by no means the lowest rank; for history, as the moral
+philosopher declares, "is the record of antiquity, the testimony of
+ages, the light of truth, the soul of memory, the mistress of
+conduct, and the herald of ancient times."
+
+This study is the more delightful, as it is more honourable to
+produce works worthy of being quoted than to quote the works of
+others; as it is more desirable to be the author of compositions
+which deserve to be admired than to be esteemed a good judge of the
+writings of other men; as it is more meritorious to be the just
+object of other men's commendations than to be considered an adept
+in pointing out the merits of others.  On these pleasing
+reflections I feed and regale myself; for I would rather resemble
+Jerome than Croesus, and I prefer to riches themselves the man who
+is capable of despising them.  With these gratifying ideas I rest
+contented and delighted, valuing moderation more than intemperance,
+and an honourable sufficiency more than superfluity; for
+intemperance and superfluity produce their own destruction, but
+their opposite virtues never perish; the former vanish, but the
+latter, like eternity, remain for ever; in short, I prefer praise
+to lucre, and reputation to riches.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK I
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+
+
+Of the length and breadth of Wales, the nature of its soil, and the
+three remaining tribes of Britons
+
+
+Cambria, which, by a corrupt and common term, though less proper,
+is in modern times called Wales, is about two hundred miles long
+and one hundred broad.  The length from Port Gordber (1) in
+Anglesey to Port Eskewin (2) in Monmouthshire is eight days'
+journey in extent; the breadth from Porth Mawr, (3) or the great
+Port of St. David's, to Ryd-helic, (4) which in Latin means VADUM
+SALICIS, or the Ford of the Willow, and in English is called
+Willow-forde, is four days' journey.  It is a country very strongly
+defended by high mountains, deep valleys, extensive woods, rivers,
+and marshes; insomuch that from the time the Saxons took possession
+of the island the remnants of the Britons, retiring into these
+regions, could never be entirely subdued either by the English or
+by the Normans.  Those who inhabited the southern angle of the
+island, which took its name from the chieftain Corinaeus, (5) made
+less resistance, as their country was more defenceless.  The third
+division of the Britons, who obtained a part of Britany in Gaul,
+were transported thither, not after the defeat of their nation, but
+long before, by king Maximus, and, in consequence of the hard and
+continued warfare which they underwent with him, were rewarded by
+the royal munificence with those districts in France.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+
+
+Of the ancient division of Wales into three parts
+
+
+Wales was in ancient times divided into three parts nearly equal,
+consideration having been paid, in this division, more to the value
+than to the just quantity or proportion of territory.  They were
+Venedotia, now called North Wales; Demetia, or South Wales, which
+in British is called Deheubarth, that is, the southern part; and
+Powys, the middle or eastern district.  Roderic the Great, or
+Rhodri Mawr, who was king over all Wales, was the cause of this
+division.  He had three sons, Mervin, Anarawt, and Cadell, amongst
+whom he partitioned the whole principality.  North Wales fell to
+the lot of Mervin; Powys to Anarawt; and Cadell received the
+portion of South Wales, together with the general good wishes of
+his brothers and the people; for although this district greatly
+exceeded the others in quantity, it was the least desirable from
+the number of noble chiefs, or Uchelwyr, (6) men of a superior
+rank, who inhabited it, and were often rebellious to their lords,
+and impatient of control.  But Cadell, on the death of his
+brothers, obtained the entire dominion of Wales, (7) as did his
+successors till the time of Tewdwr, whose descendants, Rhys, son of
+Tewdwr, Gruflydd, son of Rhys, and Rhys, son of Gruffydd, the
+ruling prince in our time, enjoyed only (like the father) the
+sovereignty over South Wales.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+
+
+Genealogy of the Princes of Wales
+
+
+The following is the generation of princes of South Wales:  Rhys,
+son of Gruffydd; Gruffydd, son of Rhys; Rhys, son of Tewdwr;
+Tewdwr, son of Eineon; Eineon, son of Owen; Owen, son of Howel Dda,
+or Howel the Good; Howel, son of Cadell, son of Roderic the Great.
+Thus the princes of South Wales derived their origin from Cadell,
+son of Roderic the Great.  The princes of North Wales descended
+from Mervin in this manner:  Llewelyn, son of Iorwerth; Iorwerth,
+son of Owen; Owen, son of Gruffydd; Gruffydd, son of Conan; Conan,
+son of Iago; Iago, son of Edoual; Edoual, son of Meyric; Meyric,
+son of Anarawt (Anandhrec); Anarawt, son of Mervin, son of Roderic
+the Great.  Anarawt leaving no issue, the princes of Powys have
+their own particular descent.
+
+It is worthy of remark, that the Welsh bards and singers, or
+reciters, have the genealogies of the aforesaid princes, written in
+the Welsh language, in their ancient and authentic books; and also
+retain them in their memory from Roderic the Great to B.M.; (8) and
+from thence to Sylvius, Ascanius, and AEneas; and from the latter
+produce the genealogical series in a lineal descent, even to Adam.
+
+But as an account of such long and remote genealogies may appear to
+many persons trifling rather than historical, we have purposely
+omitted them in our compendium.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+
+
+How many cantreds, royal palaces, and cathedrals there are in Wales
+
+
+South Wales contains twenty-nine cantreds; North Wales, twelve;
+Powys, six:  many of which are at this time in the possession of
+the English and Franks.  For the country now called Shropshire
+formerly belonged to Powys, and the place where the castle of
+Shrewsbury stands bore the name of Pengwern, or the head of the
+Alder Grove.  There were three royal seats in South Wales:
+Dinevor, in South Wales, removed from Caerleon; Aberfraw, (9) in
+North Wales; and Pengwern, in Powys.
+
+Wales contains in all fifty-four cantreds.  The word CANTREF is
+derived from CANT, a hundred, and TREF, a village; and means in the
+British and Irish languages such a portion of land as contains a
+hundred vills.
+
+There are four cathedral churches in Wales:  St. David's, upon the
+Irish sea, David the archbishop being its patron:  it was in
+ancient times the metropolitan church, and the district only
+contained twenty-four cantreds, though at this time only twenty-
+three; for Ergengl, in English called Urchenfeld, (10) is said to
+have been formerly within the diocese of St. David's, and sometimes
+was placed within that of Landaff.  The see of St. David's had
+twenty-five successive archbishops; and from the time of the
+removal of the pall into France, to this day, twenty-two bishops;
+whose names and series, as well as the cause of the removal of the
+archiepiscopal pall, may be seen in our Itinerary. (11)
+
+In South Wales also is situated the bishopric of Landaff, near the
+Severn sea, and near the noble castle of Caerdyf; bishop Teilo
+being its patron.  It contains five cantreds, and the fourth part
+of another, namely, Senghennyd.
+
+In North Wales, between Anglesey and the Eryri mountains, is the
+see of Bangor, under the patronage of Daniel, the abbot; it
+contains about nine cantreds.
+
+In North Wales also is the poor little cathedral of Llan-Elwy, or
+St. Asaph, containing about six cantreds, to which Powys is
+subject.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+
+
+Of the two mountains from which the noble rivers which divide Wales
+spring
+
+
+Wales is divided and distinguished by noble rivers, which derive
+their source from two ranges of mountains, the Ellennith, in South
+Wales, which the English call Moruge, as being the heads of moors,
+or bogs; and Eryri, in North Wales, which they call Snowdon, or
+mountains of snow; the latter of which are said to be of so great
+an extent, that if all the herds in Wales were collected together,
+they would supply them with pasture for a considerable time.  Upon
+them are two lakes, one of which has a floating island; and the
+other contains fish having only one eye, as we have related in our
+Itinerary.
+
+We must also here remark, that at two places in Scotland, one on
+the eastern, and the other on the western ocean, the sea-fish
+called mulvelli (mullets) have only the right eye.
+
+The noble river Severn takes its rise from the Ellennith mountains,
+and flowing by the castles of Shrewsbury and Bridgenorth, through
+the city of Worcester, and that of Gloucester, celebrated for its
+iron manufactories, falls into the sea a few miles from the latter
+place, and gives its name to the Severn Sea.  This river was for
+many years the boundary between Cambria and Loegria, or Wales and
+England; it was called in British Hafren, from the daughter of
+Locrinus, who was drowned in it by her step-mother; the aspirate
+being changed, according to the Latin idiom, into S, as is usual in
+words derived from the Greek, it was termed Sarina, as hal becomes
+SAL; hemi, SEMI; hepta, SEPTEM.
+
+The river Wye rises in the same mountains of Ellennith, and flows
+by the castles of Hay and Clifford, through the city of Hereford,
+by the castles of Wilton and Goodrich, through the forest of Dean,
+abounding with iron and deer, and proceeds to Strigul castle, below
+which it empties itself into the sea, and forms in modern times the
+boundary between England and Wales.  The Usk does not derive its
+origin from these mountains, but from those of Cantref Bachan; it
+flows by the castle of Brecheinoc, or Aberhodni, that is, the fall
+of the river Hodni into the Usk (for Aber, in the British language,
+signifies every place where two rivers unite their streams); by the
+castles of Abergevenni and Usk, through the ancient city of
+Legions, and discharges itself into the Severn Sea, not far from
+Newport.
+
+The river Remni flows towards the sea from the mountains of
+Brecheinoc, having passed the castle and bridge of Remni.  From the
+same range of mountains springs the Taf, which pursues its course
+to the episcopal see of Landaf (to which it gives its name), and
+falls into the sea below the castle of Caerdyf.  The river Avon
+rushes impetuously from the mountains of Glamorgan, between the
+celebrated Cistercian monasteries of Margan and Neth; and the river
+Neth, descending from the mountains of Brecheinoc, unites itself
+with the sea, at no great distance from the castle of Neth; each of
+these rivers forming a long tract of dangerous quicksands.  From
+the same mountains of Brecheinoc the river Tawe flows down to
+Abertawe, called in English Swainsey.  The Lochor joins the sea
+near the castle of the same name; and the Wendraeth has its
+confluence near Cydweli.  The Tywy, another noble river, rises in
+the Ellennith mountains, and separating the Cantref Mawr from the
+Cantref Bachan, passes by the castle of Llanymddyfri, and the royal
+palace and castle of Dinevor, strongly situated in the deep
+recesses of its woods, by the noble castle of Caermarddin, where
+Merlin was found, and from whom the city received its name, and
+runs into the sea near the castle of Lhanstephan.  The river Taf
+rises in the Presseleu mountains, not far from the monastery of
+Whitland, and passing by the castle of St. Clare, falls into the
+sea near Abercorran and Talacharn.  From the same mountains flow
+the rivers Cleddeu, encompassing the province of Daugleddeu, and
+giving it their name one passes by the castle of Lahaden, and the
+other by Haverford, to the sea; and in the British language they
+bear the name of Daugleddeu, or two swords.
+
+The noble river Teivi springs from the Ellennith mountains, in the
+upper part of the Cantref Mawr and Caerdigan, not far from the
+pastures and excellent monastery of Stratflur, forming a boundary
+between Demetia and Caerdigan down to the Irish channel; this is
+the only river in Wales that produces beavers, an account of which
+is given in our Itinerary; and also exceeds every other river in
+the abundance and delicacy of its salmon.  But as this book may
+fall into the hands of many persons who will not meet with the
+other, I have thought it right here to insert many curious and
+particular qualities relating to the nature of these animals, how
+they convey their materials from the woods to the river, with what
+skill they employ these materials in constructing places of safety
+in the middle of the stream, how artfully they defend themselves
+against the attack of the hunters on the eastern and how on the
+western side; the singularity of their tails, which partake more of
+the nature of fish than flesh.  For further particulars see the
+Itinerary. (12)
+
+From the same mountains issues the Ystuyth, and flowing through the
+upper parts of Penwedic, in Cardiganshire, falls into the sea near
+the castle of Aberystuyth.  From the snowy mountains of Eryri flows
+the noble river Devi, (13) dividing for a great distance North and
+South Wales; and from the same mountains also the large river Maw,
+(14) forming by its course the greater and smaller tract of sands
+called the Traeth Mawr and the Traeth Bachan.  The Dissennith also,
+and the Arthro, flow through Merionethshire and the land of Conan.
+The Conwy, springing from the northern side of the Eryri mountains,
+unites its waters with the sea under the noble castle of Deganwy.
+The Cloyd rises from another side of the same mountain, and passes
+by the castle of Ruthlan to the sea.  The Doverdwy, called by the
+English Dee, draws its source from the lake of Penmelesmere, and
+runs through Chester, leaving the wood of Coleshulle, Basinwerk,
+and a rich vein of silver in its neighbourhood, far to the right,
+and by the influx of the sea forming a very dangerous quicksand;
+thus the Dee makes the northern, and the river Wye the southern
+boundary of Wales.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+
+
+Concerning the pleasantness and fertility of Wales
+
+
+As the southern part of Wales near Cardiganshire, but particularly
+Pembrokeshire, is much pleasanter, on account of its plains and
+sea-coast, so North Wales is better defended by nature, is more
+productive of men distinguished for bodily strength, and more
+fertile in the nature of its soil; for, as the mountains of Eryri
+(Snowdon) could supply pasturage for all the herds of cattle in
+Wales, if collected together, so could the Isle of Mona (Anglesey)
+provide a requisite quantity of corn for all the inhabitants:  on
+which account there is an old British proverb, "MON MAM CYMBRY,"
+that is, "Mona is the mother of Wales."  Merionyth, and the land of
+Conan, is the rudest and least cultivated region, and the least
+accessible.  The natives of that part of Wales excel in the use of
+long lances, as those of Monmouthshire are distinguished for their
+management of the bow.  It is to be observed, that the British
+language is more delicate and richer in North Wales, that country
+being less intermixed with foreigners.  Many, however, assert that
+the language of Cardiganshire, in South Wales, placed as it were in
+the middle and heart of Cambria, is the most refined.
+
+The people of Cornwall and the Armoricans speak a language similar
+to that of the Britons; and from its origin and near resemblance,
+it is intelligible to the Welsh in many instances, and almost in
+all; and although less delicate and methodical, yet it approaches,
+as I judge, more to the ancient British idiom.  As in the southern
+parts of England, and particularly in Devonshire, the English
+language seems less agreeable, yet it bears more marks of antiquity
+(the northern parts being much corrupted by the irruptions of the
+Danes and Norwegians), and adheres more strictly to the original
+language and ancient mode of speaking; a positive proof of which
+may be deduced from all the English works of Bede, Rhabanus, and
+king Alfred, being written according to this idiom.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+
+
+Origin of the names Cambria and Wales
+
+
+Cambria was so called from Camber, son of Brutus, for Brutus,
+descending from the Trojans, by his grandfather, Ascanius, and
+father, Silvius, led the remnant of the Trojans, who had long been
+detained in Greece, into this western isle; and having reigned many
+years, and given his name to the country and people, at his death
+divided the kingdom of Wales between his three sons.  To his eldest
+son, Locrinus, he gave that part of the island which lies between
+the rivers Humber and Severn, and which from him was called
+Loegria.  To his second son, Albanactus, he gave the lands beyond
+the Humber, which took from him the name of Albania.  But to his
+youngest son, Camber, he bequeathed all that region which lies
+beyond the Severn, and is called after him Cambria; hence the
+country is properly and truly called Cambria, and its inhabitants
+Cambrians, or Cambrenses.  Some assert that their name was derived
+from CAM and GRAECO, that is, distorted Greek, on account of the
+affinity of their languages, contracted by their long residence in
+Greece; but this conjecture, though plausible, is not well founded
+on truth.
+
+The name of Wales was not derived from Wallo, a general, or
+Wandolena, the queen, as the fabulous history of Geoffrey Arthurius
+(15) falsely maintains, because neither of these personages are to
+be found amongst the Welsh; but it arose from a barbarian
+appellation.  The Saxons, when they seized upon Britain, called
+this nation, as they did all foreigners, Wallenses; and thus the
+barbarous name remains to the people and their country. (16)
+
+Having discoursed upon the quality and quantity of the land, the
+genealogies of the princes, the sources of the rivers, and the
+derivation of the names of this country, we shall now consider the
+nature and character of the nation.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+
+
+Concerning the nature, manners, and dress, the boldness, agility,
+and courage, of this nation
+
+
+This people is light and active, hardy rather than strong, and
+entirely bred up to the use of arms; for not only the nobles, but
+all the people are trained to war, and when the trumpet sounds the
+alarm, the husbandman rushes as eagerly from his plough as the
+courtier from his court; for here it is not found that, as in other
+places,
+
+
+"Agricolis labor actus in orbem,"
+
+
+returns; for in the months of March and April only the soil is once
+ploughed for oats, and again in the summer a third time, and in
+winter for wheat.  Almost all the people live upon the produce of
+their herds, with oats, milk, cheese, and butter; eating flesh in
+larger proportions than bread.  They pay no attention to commerce,
+shipping, or manufactures, and suffer no interruption but by
+martial exercises.  They anxiously study the defence of their
+country and their liberty; for these they fight, for these they
+undergo hardships, and for these willingly sacrifice their lives;
+they esteem it a disgrace to die in bed, an honour to die in the
+field of battle; using the poet's expressions, -
+
+
+"Procul hinc avertite pacem,
+Nobilitas cum pace perit."
+
+
+Nor is it wonderful if it degenerates, for the ancestors of these
+men, the AEneadae, rushed to arms in the cause of liberty.  It is
+remarkable that this people, though unarmed, dares attack an armed
+foe; the infantry defy the cavalry, and by their activity and
+courage generally prove victors.  They resemble in disposition and
+situation those conquerors whom the poet Lucan mentions:
+
+
+- "Populi quos despicit Arctos,
+Felices errore suo, quos ille timorum
+Maximus haud urget leti metus, inde ruendi
+In ferrum, mens prona viris, amimaeque capaces,
+Mortis et ignavum rediturae parsere vitae."
+
+
+They make use of light arms, which do not impede their agility,
+small coats of mail, bundles of arrows, and long lances, helmets
+and shields, and more rarely greaves plated with iron.  The higher
+class go to battle mounted on swift and generous steeds, which
+their country produces; but the greater part of the people fight on
+foot, on account of the marshy nature and unevenness of the soil.
+The horsemen as their situation or occasion requires, willingly
+serve as infantry, in attacking or retreating; and they either walk
+bare-footed, or make use of high shoes, roughly constructed with
+untanned leather.  In time of peace, the young men, by penetrating
+the deep recesses of the woods, and climbing the tops of mountains,
+learn by practice to endure fatigue through day and night; and as
+they meditate on war during peace, they acquire the art of fighting
+by accustoming themselves to the use of the lance, and by inuring
+themselves to hard exercise.
+
+In our time, king Henry II., in reply to the inquiries of Emanuel,
+emperor of Constantinople, concerning the situation, nature, and
+striking peculiarities of the British island, among other
+remarkable circumstances mentioned the following:  "That in a
+certain part of the island there was a people, called Welsh, so
+bold and ferocious that, when unarmed, they did not fear to
+encounter an armed force; being ready to shed their blood in
+defence of their country, and to sacrifice their lives for renown;
+which is the more surprising, as the beasts of the field over the
+whole face of the island became gentle, but these desperate men
+could not be tamed.  The wild animals, and particularly the stags
+and hinds, are so abundant, owing to the little molestation they
+receive, that in our time, in the northern parts of the island
+towards the Peak, (17) when pursued by the hounds and hunters, they
+contributed, by their numbers, to their own destruction."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+
+
+Of their sober supper and frugality
+
+
+Not addicted to gluttony or drunkenness, this people who incur no
+expense in food or dress, and whose minds are always bent upon the
+defence of their country, and on the means of plunder, are wholly
+employed in the care of their horses and furniture.  Accustomed to
+fast from morning till evening, and trusting to the care of
+Providence, they dedicate the whole day to business, and in the
+evening partake of a moderate meal; and even if they have none, or
+only a very scanty one, they patiently wait till the next evening;
+and, neither deterred by cold nor hunger, they employ the dark and
+stormy nights in watching the hostile motions of their enemies.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+
+
+Of their hospitality and liberality
+
+
+No one of this nation ever begs, for the houses of all are common
+to all; and they consider liberality and hospitality amongst the
+first virtues.  So much does hospitality here rejoice in
+communication, that it is neither offered nor requested by
+travellers, who, on entering any house, only deliver up their arms.
+When water is offered to them, if they suffer their feet to be
+washed, they are received as guests; for the offer of water to wash
+the feet is with this nation an hospitable invitation.  But if they
+refuse the proffered service, they only wish for morning
+refreshment, not lodging.  The young men move about in troops and
+families under the direction of a chosen leader.  Attached only to
+arms and ease, and ever ready to stand forth in defence of their
+country, they have free admittance into every house as if it were
+their own.
+
+Those who arrive in the morning are entertained till evening with
+the conversation of young women, and the music of the harp; for
+each house has its young women and harps allotted to this purpose.
+Two circumstances here deserve notice:  that as no nation labours
+more under the vice of jealousy than the Irish, so none is more
+free from it than the Welsh:  and in each family the art of playing
+on the harp is held preferable to any other learning.  In the
+evening, when no more guests are expected, the meal is prepared
+according to the number and dignity of the persons assembled, and
+according to the wealth of the family who entertains.  The kitchen
+does not supply many dishes, nor high-seasoned incitements to
+eating.  The house is not furnished with tables, cloths, or
+napkins.  They study nature more than splendour, for which reason,
+the guests being seated in threes, instead of couples as elsewhere,
+(18) they place the dishes before them all at once upon rushes and
+fresh grass, in large platters or trenchers.  They also make use of
+a thin and broad cake of bread, baked every day, such as in old
+writings was called LAGANA; (19) and they sometimes add chopped
+meat, with broth.  Such a repast was formerly used by the noble
+youth, from whom this nation boasts its descent, and whose manners
+it still partly imitates, according to the word of the poet:
+
+
+"Heu! mensas consumimus, inquit Iulus."
+
+
+While the family is engaged in waiting on the guests, the host and
+hostess stand up, paying unremitting attention to everything, and
+take no food till all the company are satisfied; that in case of
+any deficiency, it may fall upon them.  A bed made of rushes, and
+covered with a coarse kind of cloth manufactured in the country,
+called BRYCHAN, (20) is then placed along the side of the room, and
+they all in common lie down to sleep; nor is their dress at night
+different from that by day, for at all seasons they defend
+themselves from the cold only by a thin cloak and tunic.  The fire
+continues to burn by night as well as by day, at their feet, and
+they receive much comfort from the natural heat of the persons
+lying near them; but when the under side begins to be tired with
+the hardness of the bed, or the upper one to suffer from cold, they
+immediately leap up, and go to the fire, which soon relieves them
+from both inconveniences; and then returning to their couch, they
+expose alternately their sides to the cold, and to the hardness of
+the bed.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+
+
+Concerning their cutting of their hair, their care of their teeth,
+and shaving of their beard
+
+
+The men and women cut their hair close round to the ears and eyes.
+The women, after the manner of the Parthians, cover their heads
+with a large white veil, folded together in the form of a crown.
+
+Both sexes exceed any other nation in attention to their teeth,
+which they render like ivory, by constantly rubbing them with green
+hazel and wiping with a woollen cloth.  For their better
+preservation, they abstain from hot meats, and eat only such as are
+cold, warm, or temperate.  The men shave all their beard except the
+moustaches (GERNOBODA).  This custom is not recent, but was
+observed in ancient and remote ages, as we find in the works of
+Julius Caesar, who says, (21) "The Britons shave every part of
+their body except their head and upper lip;" and to render
+themselves more active, and avoid the fate of Absalon in their
+excursions through the woods, they are accustomed to cut even the
+hair from their heads; so that this nation more than any other
+shaves off all pilosity.  Julius also adds, that the Britons,
+previous to an engagement, anointed their faces with a nitrous
+ointment, which gave them so ghastly and shining an appearance,
+that the enemy could scarcely bear to look at them, particularly if
+the rays of the sun were reflected on them.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+
+
+Of their quickness and sharpness of understanding
+
+
+These people being of a sharp and acute intellect, and gifted with
+a rich and powerful understanding, excel in whatever studies they
+pursue, and are more quick and cunning than the other inhabitants
+of a western clime.
+
+Their musical instruments charm and delight the ear with their
+sweetness, are borne along by such celerity and delicacy of
+modulation, producing such a consonance from the rapidity of
+seemingly discordant touches, that I shall briefly repeat what is
+set forth in our Irish Topography on the subject of the musical
+instruments of the three nations.  It is astonishing that in so
+complex and rapid a movement of the fingers, the musical
+proportions can be preserved, and that throughout the difficult
+modulations on their various instruments, the harmony is completed
+with such a sweet velocity, so unequal an equality, so discordant a
+concord, as if the chords sounded together fourths or fifths.  They
+always begin from B flat, and return to the same, that the whole
+may be completed under the sweetness of a pleasing sound.  They
+enter into a movement, and conclude it in so delicate a manner, and
+play the little notes so sportively under the blunter sounds of the
+base strings, enlivening with wanton levity, or communicating a
+deeper internal sensation of pleasure, so that the perfection of
+their art appears in the concealment of it:
+
+
+"Si lateat, prosit;
+- - ferat ars deprensa pudorem."
+"Art profits when concealed,
+Disgraces when revealed."
+
+
+From this cause, those very strains which afford deep and
+unspeakable mental delight to those who have skilfully penetrated
+into the mysteries of the art, fatigue rather than gratify the ears
+of others, who seeing, do not perceive, and hearing, do not
+understand; and by whom the finest music is esteemed no better than
+a confused and disorderly noise, and will be heard with
+unwillingness and disgust.
+
+They make use of three instruments, the harp, the pipe, and the
+crwth or crowd (CHORUS). (22)
+
+They omit no part of natural rhetoric in the management of civil
+actions, in quickness of invention, disposition, refutation, and
+confirmation.  In their rhymed songs and set speeches they are so
+subtle and ingenious, that they produce, in their native tongue,
+ornaments of wonderful and exquisite invention both in the words
+and sentences.  Hence arise those poets whom they call Bards, of
+whom you will find many in this nation, endowed with the above
+faculty, according to the poet's observation:
+
+
+"Plurima concreti fuderunt carmina Bardi."
+
+
+But they make use of alliteration (ANOMINATIONE) in preference to
+all other ornaments of rhetoric, and that particular kind which
+joins by consonancy the first letters or syllables of words.  So
+much do the English and Welsh nations employ this ornament of words
+in all exquisite composition, that no sentence is esteemed to be
+elegantly spoken, no oration to be otherwise than uncouth and
+unrefined, unless it be fully polished with the file of this
+figure.  Thus in the British tongue:
+
+
+"Digawn Duw da i unic."
+"Wrth bob crybwyll rhaid pwyll parawd." (23)
+
+
+And in English,
+
+
+"God is together gammen and wisedom."
+
+
+The same ornament of speech is also frequent in the Latin language.
+Virgil says,
+
+
+"Tales casus Cassandra canebat."
+
+
+And again, in his address to Augustus,
+
+
+"Dum dubitet natura marem, faceretve puellam,
+Natus es, o pulcher, pene puella, puer."
+
+
+This ornament occurs not in any language we know so frequently as
+in the two first; it is, indeed, surprising that the French, in
+other respects so ornamented, should be entirely ignorant of this
+verbal elegance so much adopted in other languages.  Nor can I
+believe that the English and Welsh, so different and adverse to
+each other, could designedly have agreed in the usage of this
+figure; but I should rather suppose that it had grown habitual to
+both by long custom, as it pleases the ear by a transition from
+similar to similar sounds.  Cicero, in his book "On Elocution,"
+observes of such who know the practice, not the art, "Other persons
+when they read good orations or poems, approve of the orators or
+poets, not understanding the reason why, being affected, they
+approve; because they cannot know in what place, of what nature,
+nor how that effect is caused which so highly delights them."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+
+
+Of their symphonies and songs
+
+
+In their musical concerts they do not sing in unison like the
+inhabitants of other countries, but in many different parts; so
+that in a company of singers, which one very frequently meets with
+in Wales, you will hear as many different parts and voices as there
+are performers, who all at length unite, with organic melody, in
+one consonance and the soft sweetness of B flat.  In the northern
+district of Britain, beyond the Humber, and on the borders of
+Yorkshire, the inhabitants make use of the same kind of symphonious
+harmony, but with less variety; singing only in two parts, one
+murmuring in the base, the other warbling in the acute or treble.
+Neither of the two nations has acquired this peculiarity by art,
+but by long habit, which has rendered it natural and familiar; and
+the practice is now so firmly rooted in them, that it is unusual to
+hear a simple and single melody well sung; and, what is still more
+wonderful, the children, even from their infancy, sing in the same
+manner.  As the English in general do not adopt this mode of
+singing, but only those of the northern countries, I believe that
+it was from the Danes and Norwegians, by whom these parts of the
+island were more frequently invaded, and held longer under their
+dominion, that the natives contracted their mode of singing as well
+as speaking.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+
+
+Their wit and pleasantry
+
+
+The heads of different families, in order to excite the laughter of
+their guests, and gain credit by their sayings, make use of great
+facetiousness in their conversation; at one time uttering their
+jokes in a light, easy manner, at another time, under the disguise
+of equivocation, passing the severest censures.  For the sake of
+explanation I shall here subjoin a few examples.  Tegeingl is the
+name of a province in North Wales, over which David, son of Owen,
+had dominion, and which had once been in the possession of his
+brother.  The same word also was the name of a certain woman with
+whom, it was said, each brother had an intrigue, from which
+circumstance arose this term of reproach, "To have Tegeingl, after
+Tegeingl had been in possession of his brother."
+
+At another time, when Rhys, son of Gruffydd, prince of South Wales,
+accompanied by a multitude of his people, devoutly entered the
+church of St. David's, previous to an intended journey, the
+oblations having been made, and mass solemnised, a young man came
+to him in the church, and publicly declared himself to be his son,
+threw himself at his feet, and with tears humbly requested that the
+truth of this assertion might be ascertained by the trial of the
+burning iron.  Intelligence of this circumstance being conveyed to
+his family and his two sons, who had just gone out of the church, a
+youth who was present made this remark:  "This is not wonderful;
+some have brought gold, and others silver, as offerings; but this
+man, who had neither, brought what he had, namely, iron;" thus
+taunting him with his poverty.  On mentioning a certain house that
+was strongly built and almost impregnable, one of the company said,
+"This house indeed is strong, for if it should contain food it
+could never be got at," thus alluding both to the food and to the
+house.  In like manner, a person, wishing to hint at the avaricious
+disposition of the mistress of a house, said, "I only find fault
+with our hostess for putting too little butter to her salt,"
+whereas the accessory should be put to the principal; thus, by a
+subtle transposition of the words, converting the accessory into
+the principal, by making it appear to abound in quantity.  Many
+similar sayings of great men and philosophers are recorded in the
+Saturnalia of Macrobius.  When Cicero saw his son-in-law, Lentulus,
+a man of small stature, with a long sword by his side:  "Who," says
+he, "has girded my son-in-law to that sword?" thus changing the
+accessary into the principal.  The same person, on seeing the half-
+length portrait of his brother Quintus Cicero, drawn with very
+large features and an immense shield, exclaimed, "Half of my
+brother is greater than the whole!"  When the sister of Faustus had
+an intrigue with a fuller, "Is it strange," says he, "that my
+sister has a spot, when she is connected with a fuller?"  When
+Antiochus showed Hannibal his army, and the great warlike
+preparations he had made against the Romans, and asked him,
+"Thinkest thou, O Hannibal, that these are sufficient for the
+Romans?"  Hannibal, ridiculing the unmilitary appearance of the
+soldiers, wittily and severely replied, "I certainly think them
+sufficient for the Romans, however greedy;" Antiochus asking his
+opinion about the military preparations, and Hannibal alluding to
+them as becoming a prey to the Romans.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+
+
+Their boldness and confidence in speaking
+
+
+Nature hath given not only to the highest, but also to the
+inferior, classes of the people of this nation, a boldness and
+confidence in speaking and answering, even in the presence of their
+princes and chieftains.  The Romans and Franks had the same
+faculty; but neither the English, nor the Saxons and Germans, from
+whom they are descended, had it.  It is in vain urged, that this
+defect may arise from the state of servitude which the English
+endured; for the Saxons and Germans, who enjoy their liberty, have
+the same failing, and derive this natural coldness of disposition
+from the frozen region they inhabit; the English also, although
+placed in a distant climate, still retain the exterior fairness of
+complexion and inward coldness of disposition, as inseparable from
+their original and natural character.  The Britons, on the
+contrary, transplanted from the hot and parched regions of Dardania
+into these more temperate districts, as
+
+
+"Coelum non animum mutant qui trans mare currunt,"
+
+
+still retain their brown complexion and that natural warmth of
+temper from which their confidence is derived.  For three nations,
+remnants of the Greeks after the destruction of Troy, fled from
+Asia into different parts of Europe, the Romans under AEneas, the
+Franks under Antenor, and the Britons under Brutus; and from thence
+arose that courage, that nobleness of mind, that ancient dignity,
+that acuteness of understanding, and confidence of speech, for
+which these three nations are so highly distinguished.  But the
+Britons, from having been detained longer in Greece than the other
+two nations, after the destruction of their country, and having
+migrated at a later period into the western parts of Europe,
+retained in a greater degree the primitive words and phrases of
+their native language.  You will find amongst them the names Oenus,
+Resus, AEneas, Hector, Achilles, Heliodorus, Theodorus, Ajax,
+Evander, Uliex, Anianus, Elisa, Guendolena, and many others,
+bearing marks of their antiquity.  It is also to be observed, that
+almost all words in the British language correspond either with the
+Greek or Latin, as [Greek text which cannot be reproduced], water,
+is called in British, dwr; [Greek text], salt, in British, halen;
+[Greek text], eno, a name; [Greek text], pump, five; [Greek text],
+deg, ten.  The Latins also use the words fraenum, tripos, gladius,
+lorica; the Britons, froyn (ffrwyn), trepet (tribedd), cleddyf, and
+lluric (llurig); unicus is made unic (unig); canis, can (cwn); and
+belua, beleu.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+
+
+Concerning the soothsayers of this nation, and persons as it were
+possessed
+
+
+There are certain persons in Cambria, whom you will find nowhere
+else, called Awenddyon, (24) or people inspired; when consulted
+upon any doubtful event, they roar out violently, are rendered
+beside themselves, and become, as it were, possessed by a spirit.
+They do not deliver the answer to what is required in a connected
+manner; but the person who skilfully observes them, will find,
+after many preambles, and many nugatory and incoherent, though
+ornamented speeches, the desired explanation conveyed in some turn
+of a word:  they are then roused from their ecstasy, as from a deep
+sleep, and, as it were, by violence compelled to return to their
+proper senses.  After having answered the questions, they do not
+recover till violently shaken by other people; nor can they
+remember the replies they have given.  If consulted a second or
+third time upon the same point, they will make use of expressions
+totally different; perhaps they speak by the means of fanatic and
+ignorant spirits.  These gifts are usually conferred upon them in
+dreams:  some seem to have sweet milk or honey poured on their
+lips; others fancy that a written schedule is applied to their
+mouths and on awaking they publicly declare that they have received
+this gift.  Such is the saying of Esdras, "The Lord said unto me,
+open thy mouth, and I opened my mouth, and behold a cup full of
+water, whose colour was like fire; and when I had drank it, my
+heart brought forth understanding, and wisdom entered into my
+breast."  They invoke, during their prophecies, the true and living
+God, and the Holy Trinity, and pray that they may not by their sins
+be prevented from finding the truth.  These prophets are only found
+among the Britons descended from the Trojans.  For Calchas and
+Cassandra, endowed with the spirit of prophecy, openly foretold,
+during the siege of Troy, the destruction of that fine city; on
+which account the high priest, Helenus, influenced by the prophetic
+books of Calchas, and of others who had long before predicted the
+ruin of their country, in the first year went over to the Greeks
+with the sons of Priam (to whom he was high priest), and was
+afterwards rewarded in Greece.  Cassandra, daughter of king Priam,
+every day foretold the overthrow of the city; but the pride and
+presumption of the Trojans prevented them from believing her word.
+Even on the very night that the city was betrayed, she clearly
+described the treachery and the method of it:
+
+
+" - tales casus Cassandra canebat,"
+
+
+as in the same manner, during the existence of the kingdom of the
+Britons, both Merlin Caledonius and Ambrosius are said to have
+foretold the destruction of their nation, as well as the coming of
+the Saxons, and afterwards that of the Normans; and I think a
+circumstance related by Aulus Gellius worth inserting in this
+place.  On the day that Caius Caesar and Cneius Pompey, during the
+civil war, fought a pitched battle in Thessalia, a memorable event
+occurred in that part of Italy situated beyond the river Po.  A
+priest named Cornelius, honourable from his rank, venerable for his
+religion, and holy in his manners, in an inspired moment
+proclaimed, "Caesar has conquered," and named the day, the events,
+the mutual attack, and the conflicts of the two armies.  Whether
+such things are exhibited by the spirit, let the reader more
+particularly inquire; I do not assert they are the acts of a
+Pythonic or a diabolic spirit; for as foreknowledge is the property
+of God alone, so is it in his power to confer knowledge of future
+events.  There are differences of gifts, says the Apostle, but one
+and the same spirit; whence Peter, in his second Epistle, writes,
+"For the prophecy came not in the old time by the will of man, but
+men spake as if they were inspired by the Holy Ghost:" to the same
+effect did the Chaldeans answer king Nebuchadonazar on the
+interpretation of his dream, which he wished to extort from them.
+"There is not," say they, "a man upon earth who can, O king,
+satisfactorily answer your question; let no king therefore, however
+great or potent, make a similar request to any magician,
+astrologer, or Chaldean; for it is a rare thing that the king
+requireth, and there is none other that can shew it before the
+king, except the Gods, whose dwelling is not with flesh."  On this
+passage Jerome remarks, "The diviners and all the learned of this
+world confess, that the prescience of future events belongs to God
+alone; the prophets therefore, who foretold things to come, spake
+by the spirit of God.  Hence some persons object, that, if they
+were under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, they would sometimes
+premise, "Thus saith the Lord God," or make use of some expression
+in the prophetic style; and as such a mode of prophesying is not
+taken notice of by Merlin, and no mention is made of his sanctity,
+devotion, or faith, many think that he spake by a Pythonic spirit.
+To which I answer, that the spirit of prophecy was given not only
+to the holy, but sometimes to unbelievers and Gentiles, to Baal, to
+the sibyls, and even to bad people, as to Caiaphas and Bela.  On
+which occasion Origen says:  "Do not wonder, if he whom ye have
+mentioned declares that the Scribes and Pharisees and doctors
+amongst the Jews prophesied concerning Christ; for Caiaphas said:
+"It is expedient for us that one man die for the people:" but
+asserts at the same time, that because he was high priest for that
+year, he prophesied.  Let no man therefore be lifted up, if he
+prophesies, if he merits prescience; for prophecies shall fail,
+tongues shall cease, knowledge shall vanish away; and now abideth,
+faith, hope, and charity:  these three; but the greatest of these
+is Charity, which never faileth.  But these bad men not only
+prophesied, but sometimes performed great miracles, which others
+could not accomplish.  John the Baptist, who was so great a
+personage, performed no miracle, as John the Evangelist testifies:
+"And many came to Jesus and said, Because John wrought no signs,"
+etc.  Nor do we hear that the mother of God performed any miracle;
+we read in the Acts of the Apostles, that the sons of Sheva cast
+out devils in the name of Jesus, whom Paul preached; and in Matthew
+and Luke we may find these words:  "Many shall say unto me in that
+day, Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in thy name? and in thy
+name have cast out devils? and in thy name done many wonderful
+works? and then I will profess unto them, I never knew you."  And
+in another place, John says:  "Master, we saw a certain man casting
+out devils in thy name, and forbade him, because he followeth not
+with us."  But Jesus said:  "Forbid him not; no man can do a
+miracle in my name, and speak evil of me; for whoever is not
+against me, is for me."
+
+Alexander of Macedon, a gentile, traversed the Caspian mountains,
+and miraculously confined ten tribes within their promontories,
+where they still remain, and will continue until the coming of
+Elias and Enoch.  We read, indeed, the prophecies of Merlin, but
+hear nothing either of his sanctity or his miracles.  Some say,
+that the prophets, when they prophesied, did not become frantic, as
+it is affirmed of Merlin Silvestris, and others possessed, whom we
+have before mentioned.  Some prophesied by dreams, visions, and
+enigmatical sayings, as Ezechiel and Daniel; others by acts and
+words, as Noah, in the construction of the ark, alluded to the
+church; Abraham, in the slaying of his son, to the passion of
+Christ; and Moses by his speech, when he said, "A prophet shall the
+Lord God raise up to you of your brethren; hear him;" meaning
+Christ.  Others have prophesied in a more excellent way by the
+internal revelation and inspiration of the Holy Spirit, as David
+did when persecuted by Saul:  "When Saul heard that David had fled
+to Naioth (which is a hill in Ramah, and the seat of the prophets),
+he sent messengers to take him; and when they saw the company of
+the prophets prophesying, and Samuel standing at their head, the
+Spirit of God came upon the messengers of Saul, and they also
+prophesied; and he sent messengers a second and again a third time,
+and they also prophesied.  And Saul enraged went thither also; and
+the Spirit of God was upon him also, and he went on, and prophesied
+until he came to Naioth, and he stripped off his royal vestments,
+and prophesied with the rest for all that day and all that night;
+whilst David and Samuel secretly observed what passed."  Nor is it
+wonderful that those persons who suddenly receive the Spirit of
+God, and so signal a mark of grace, should for a time seem
+alienated from their earthly state of mind.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+
+
+Their love of high birth and ancient genealogy
+
+
+The Welsh esteem noble birth and generous descent above all things,
+(25) and are, therefore, more desirous of marrying into noble than
+rich families.  Even the common people retain their genealogy, and
+can not only readily recount the names of their grandfathers and
+great-grandfathers, but even refer back to the sixth or seventh
+generation, or beyond them, in this manner:  Rhys, son of Gruffydd,
+son of Rhys, son of Tewdwr, son of Eineon, son of Owen, son of
+Howel, son of Cadell, son of Roderic Mawr, and so on.
+
+Being particularly attached to family descent, they revenge with
+vehemence the injuries which may tend to the disgrace of their
+blood; and being naturally of a vindictive and passionate
+disposition, they are ever ready to avenge not only recent but
+ancient affronts; they neither inhabit towns, villages, nor
+castles, but lead a solitary life in the woods, on the borders of
+which they do not erect sumptuous palaces, nor lofty stone
+buildings, but content themselves with small huts made of the
+boughs of trees twisted together, constructed with little labour
+and expense, and sufficient to endure throughout the year.  They
+have neither orchards nor gardens, but gladly eat the fruit of both
+when given to them.  The greater part of their land is laid down to
+pasturage; little is cultivated, a very small quantity is
+ornamented with flowers, and a still smaller is sown.  They seldom
+yoke less than four oxen to their ploughs; the driver walks before,
+but backwards, and when he falls down, is frequently exposed to
+danger from the refractory oxen.  Instead of small sickles in
+mowing, they make use of a moderate-sized piece of iron formed like
+a knife, with two pieces of wood fixed loosely and flexibly to the
+head, which they think a more expeditious instrument; but since
+
+
+"Segnius irritant animos demissa per aures,
+Quam quae sunt oculis subjecta fidelibus,"
+
+
+their mode of using it will be better known by inspection than by
+any description.  The boats (26) which they employ in fishing or in
+crossing the rivers are made of twigs, not oblong nor pointed, but
+almost round, or rather triangular, covered both within and without
+with raw hides.  When a salmon thrown into one of these boats
+strikes it hard with his tail, he often oversets it, and endangers
+both the vessel and its navigator.  The fishermen, according to the
+custom of the country, in going to and from the rivers, carry these
+boats on their shoulders; on which occasion that famous dealer in
+fables, Bleddercus, who lived a little before our time, thus
+mysteriously said:  "There is amongst us a people who, when they go
+out in search of prey, carry their horses on their backs to the
+place of plunder; in order to catch their prey, they leap upon
+their horses, and when it is taken, carry their horses home again
+upon their shoulders."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+
+
+Of the antiquity of their faith, their love of Christianity and
+devotion
+
+
+In ancient times, and about two hundred years before the overthrow
+of Britain, the Welsh were instructed and confirmed in the faith by
+Faganus and Damianus, sent into the island at the request of king
+Lucius by pope Eleutherius, and from that period when Germanus of
+Auxerre, and Lupus of Troyes, came over on account of the
+corruption which had crept into the island by the invasion of the
+Saxons, but particularly with a view of expelling the Pelagian
+heresy, nothing heretical or contrary to the true faith was to be
+found amongst the natives.  But it is said that some parts of the
+ardent doctrines are still retained.  They give the first piece
+broken off from every loaf of bread to the poor; they sit down to
+dinner by three to a dish, in honour of the Trinity.  With extended
+arms and bowing head, they ask a blessing of every monk or priest,
+or of every person wearing a religious habit.  But they desire,
+above all other nations, the episcopal ordination and unction, by
+which the grace of the spirit is given.  They give a tenth of all
+their property, animals, cattle, and sheep, either when they marry,
+or go on a pilgrimage, or, by the counsel of the church, are
+persuaded to amend their lives.  This partition of their effects
+they call the great tithe, two parts of which they give to the
+church where they were baptised, and the third to the bishop of the
+diocese.  But of all pilgrimages they prefer that to Rome, where
+they pay the most fervent adoration to the apostolic see.  We
+observe that they show a greater respect than other nations to
+churches and ecclesiastical persons, to the relics of saints,
+bells, holy books, and the cross, which they devoutly revere; and
+hence their churches enjoy more than common tranquillity.  For
+peace is not only preserved towards all animals feeding in
+churchyards, but at a great distance beyond them, where certain
+boundaries and ditches have been appointed by the bishops, in order
+to maintain the security of the sanctuary.  But the principal
+churches to which antiquity has annexed the greater reverence
+extend their protection to the herds as far as they can go to feed
+in the morning and return at night.  If, therefore, any person has
+incurred the enmity of his prince, on applying to the church for
+protection, he and his family will continue to live unmolested; but
+many persons abuse this indemnity, far exceeding the indulgence of
+the canon, which in such cases grants only personal safety; and
+from the places of refuge even make hostile irruptions, and more
+severely harass the country than the prince himself.  Hermits and
+anchorites more strictly abstinent and more spiritual can nowhere
+be found; for this nation is earnest in all its pursuits, and
+neither worse men than the bad, nor better than the good, can be
+met with.
+
+Happy and fortunate indeed would this nation be, nay, completely
+blessed, if it had good prelates and pastors, and but one prince,
+and that prince a good one.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK II
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+
+Having in the former book clearly set forth the character, manners,
+and customs of the British nation, and having collected and
+explained everything which could redound to its credit or glory; an
+attention to order now requires that, in this second part, we
+should employ our pen in pointing out those particulars in which it
+seems to transgress the line of virtue and commendation; having
+first obtained leave to speak the truth, without which history not
+only loses its authority, but becomes undeserving of its very name.
+For the painter who professes to imitate nature, loses his
+reputation, if, by indulging his fancy, he represents only those
+parts of the subject which best suit him.
+
+Since, therefore, no man is born without faults, and he is esteemed
+the best whose errors are the least, let the wise man consider
+everything human as connected with himself; for in worldly affairs
+there is no perfect happiness under heaven.  Evil borders upon
+good, and vices are confounded with virtues; as the report of good
+qualities is delightful to a well-disposed mind, so the relation of
+the contrary should not be offensive.  The natural disposition of
+this nation might have been corrupted and perverted by long exile
+and poverty; for as poverty extinguisheth many faults, so it often
+generates failings that are contrary to virtue.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+
+
+Of the inconstancy and instability of this nation, and their want
+of reverence for good faith and oaths
+
+
+These people are no less light in mind than in body, and are by no
+means to be relied upon.  They are easily urged to undertake any
+action, and are as easily checked from prosecuting it - a people
+quick in action, but more stubborn in a bad than in a good cause,
+and constant only in acts of inconstancy.  They pay no respect to
+oaths, faith, or truth; and so lightly do they esteem the covenant
+of faith, held so inviolable by other nations, that it is usual to
+sacrifice their faith for nothing, by holding forth the right hand,
+not only in serious and important concerns, but even on every
+trifling occasion, and for the confirmation of almost every common
+assertion.  They never scruple at taking a false oath for the sake
+of any temporary emolument or advantage; so that in civil and
+ecclesiastical causes, each party, being ready to swear whatever
+seems expedient to its purpose, endeavours both to prove and
+defend, although the venerable laws, by which oaths are deemed
+sacred, and truth is honoured and respected, by favouring the
+accused and throwing an odium upon the accuser, impose the burden
+of bringing proofs upon the latter.  But to a people so cunning and
+crafty, this yoke is pleasant, and this burden is light.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+
+
+Their living by plunder, and disregard of the bonds of peace and
+friendship
+
+
+This nation conceives it right to commit acts of plunder, theft,
+and robbery, not only against foreigners and hostile nations, but
+even against their own countrymen.  When an opportunity of
+attacking the enemy with advantage occurs, they respect not the
+leagues of peace and friendship, preferring base lucre to the
+solemn obligations of oaths and good faith; to which circumstance
+Gildas alludes in his book concerning the overthrow of the Britons,
+actuated by the love of truth, and according to the rules of
+history, not suppressing the vices of his countrymen.  "They are
+neither brave in war, nor faithful in peace."  But when Julius
+Caesar, great as the world itself,
+
+
+"Territa quaesitis ostendit terga Britannis,"
+
+
+were they not brave under their leader Cassivellaunus?  And when
+Belinus and Brennus added the Roman empire to their conquests?
+What were they in the time of Constantine, son of our Helen?  What,
+in the reign of Aurelius Ambrosius, whom even Eutropius commends?
+What were they in the time of our famous prince Arthur?  I will not
+say fabulous.  On the contrary, they, who were almost subdued by
+the Scots and Picts, often harassed with success the auxiliary
+Roman legions, and exclaimed, as we learn from Gildas, "The
+barbarians drove us to the sea, the sea drove us again back to the
+barbarians; on one side we were subdued, on the other drowned, and
+here we were put to death.  Were they not," says he, "at that time
+brave and praiseworthy?"  When attacked and conquered by the
+Saxons, who originally had been called in as stipendiaries to their
+assistance, were they not brave?  But the strongest argument made
+use of by those who accuse this nation of cowardice, is, that
+Gildas, a holy man, and a Briton by birth, has handed down to
+posterity nothing remarkable concerning them, in any of his
+historical works.  We promise, however, a solution of the contrary
+in our British Topography, if God grants us a continuance of life.
+
+As a further proof, it may be necessary to add, that from the time
+when that illustrious prince of the Britons, mentioned at the
+beginning of this book, totally exhausted the strength of the
+country, by transporting the whole armed force beyond the seas;
+that island, which had before been so highly illustrious for its
+incomparable valour, remained for many subsequent years destitute
+of men and arms, and exposed to the predatory attacks of pirates
+and robbers.  So distinguished, indeed, were the natives of this
+island for their bravery, that, by their prowess, that king subdued
+almost all Cisalpine Gaul, and dared even to make an attack on the
+Roman empire.
+
+In process of time, the Britons, recovering their long-lost
+population and knowledge of the use of arms, re-acquired their high
+and ancient character.  Let the different aeras be therefore
+marked, and the historical accounts will accord.  With regard to
+Gildas, who inveighs so bitterly against his own nation, the
+Britons affirm that, highly irritated at the death of his brother,
+the prince of Albania, whom king Arthur had slain, he wrote these
+invectives, and upon the same occasion threw into the sea many
+excellent books, in which he had described the actions of Arthur,
+and the celebrated deeds of his countrymen; from which cause it
+arises, that no authentic account of so great a prince is any where
+to be found.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+
+
+Of their deficiency in battle, and base and dishonourable flight
+
+
+In war this nation is very severe in the first attack, terrible by
+their clamour and looks, filling the air with horrid shouts and the
+deep-toned clangour of very long trumpets; swift and rapid in their
+advances and frequent throwing of darts.  Bold in the first onset,
+they cannot bear a repulse, being easily thrown into confusion as
+soon as they turn their backs; and they trust to flight for safety,
+without attempting to rally, which the poet thought reprehensible
+in martial conflicts:
+
+
+"Ignavum scelus est tantum fuga;"
+
+
+and elsewhere -
+
+
+"In vitium culpae ducit fuga, si caret arte."
+
+
+The character given to the Teutones in the Roman History, may be
+applied to this people.  "In their first attack they are more than
+men, in the second, less than women."  Their courage manifests
+itself chiefly in the retreat, when they frequently return, and,
+like the Parthians, shoot their arrows behind them; and, as after
+success and victory in battle, even cowards boast of their courage,
+so, after a reverse of fortune, even the bravest men are not
+allowed their due claims of merit.  Their mode of fighting consists
+in chasing the enemy or in retreating.  This light-armed people,
+relying more on their activity than on their strength, cannot
+struggle for the field of battle, enter into close engagement, or
+endure long and severe actions, such as the poet describes:
+
+
+"Jam clypeo clypeus, umbone repellitur umbo,
+Ense minax ensis, pede pes, et cuspide cuspis."
+
+
+Though defeated and put to flight on one day, they are ready to
+resume the combat on the next, neither dejected by their loss, nor
+by their dishonour; and although, perhaps, they do not display
+great fortitude in open engagements and regular conflicts, yet they
+harass the enemy by ambuscades and nightly sallies.  Hence, neither
+oppressed by hunger or cold, nor fatigued by martial labours, nor
+despondent in adversity, but ready, after a defeat, to return
+immediately to action, and again endure the dangers of war; they
+are as easy to overcome in a single battle, as difficult to subdue
+in a protracted war.  The poet Claudian thus speaks of a people
+similar in disposition:-
+
+
+"Dum percunt, meminere mali:  si corda parumper
+Respirare sinas, nullo tot funera censu
+Praetercunt, tantique levis jactura cruoris."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+
+
+Their ambitious seizure of lands, and dissensions among brothers
+
+
+This nation is, above all others, addicted to the digging up of
+boundary ditches, removing the limits, transgressing landmarks, and
+extending their territory by every possible means.  So great is
+their disposition towards this common violence, that they scruple
+not to claim as their hereditary right, those lands which are held
+under lease, or at will, on condition of planting, or by any other
+title, even although indemnity had been publicly secured on oath to
+the tenant by the lord proprietor of the soil.  Hence arise suits
+and contentions, murders and conflagrations, and frequent
+fratricides, increased, perhaps, by the ancient national custom of
+brothers dividing their property amongst each other.  Another heavy
+grievance also prevails; the princes entrust the education of their
+children to the care of the principal men of their country, each of
+whom, after the death of his father, endeavours, by every possible
+means, to exalt his own charge above his neighbours.  From which
+cause great disturbances have frequently arisen amongst brothers,
+and terminated in the most cruel and unjust murders; and on which
+account friendships are found to be more sincere between foster-
+brothers, than between those who are connected by the natural ties
+of brotherhood.  It is also remarkable, that brothers shew more
+affection to one another when dead, than when living; for they
+persecute the living even unto death, but revenge the deceased with
+all their power.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+
+
+Their great exaction, and want of moderation
+
+
+Where they find plenty, and can exercise their power, they levy the
+most unjust exactions.  Immoderate in their love of food and
+intoxicating drink, they say with the Apostle, "We are instructed
+both to abound, and to suffer need;" but do not add with him,
+"becoming all things to all men, that I might by all means save
+some."  As in times of scarcity their abstinence and parsimony are
+too severe, so, when seated at another man's table, after a long
+fasting, (like wolves and eagles, who, like them, live by plunder,
+and are rarely satisfied,) their appetite is immoderate.  They are
+therefore penurious in times of scarcity, and extravagant in times
+of plenty; but no man, as in England, mortgages his property for
+the gluttonous gratification of his own appetite.  They wish,
+however, that all people would join with them in their bad habits
+and expenses; as the commission of crimes reduces to a level all
+those who are concerned in the perpetration of them.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+
+
+Concerning the crime of incest, and the abuse of churches by
+succession and participation
+
+
+The crime of incest hath so much prevailed, not only among the
+higher, but among the lower orders of this people, that, not having
+the fear of God before their eyes, they are not ashamed of
+intermarrying with their relations, even in the third degree of
+consanguinity.  They generally abuse these dispensations with a
+view of appeasing those enmities which so often subsist between
+them, because "their feet are swift to shed blood;" and from their
+love of high descent, which they so ardently affect and covet, they
+unite themselves to their own people, refusing to intermarry with
+strangers, and arrogantly presuming on their own superiority of
+blood and family.  They do not engage in marriage, until they have
+tried, by previous cohabitation, the disposition, and particularly
+the fecundity, of the person with whom they are engaged.  An
+ancient custom also prevails of hiring girls from their parents at
+a certain price, and a stipulated penalty, in case of relinquishing
+their connection.
+
+Their churches have almost as many parsons and sharers as there are
+principal men in the parish.  The sons, after the decease of their
+fathers, succeed to the ecclesiastical benefices, not by election,
+but by hereditary right possessing and polluting the sanctuary of
+God.  And if a prelate should by chance presume to appoint or
+institute any other person, the people would certainly revenge the
+injury upon the institutor and the instituted.  With respect to
+these two excesses of incest and succession, which took root
+formerly in Armorica, and are not yet eradicated, Ildebert, bishop
+of Le Mans, in one of his epistles, says, "that he was present with
+a British priest at a council summoned with a view of putting an
+end to the enormities of this nation:" hence it appears that these
+vices have for a long time prevailed both in Britany and Britain.
+The words of the Psalmist may not inaptly be applied to them; "They
+are corrupt and become abominable in their doings, there is none
+that doeth good, no, not one:  they are all gone out of the way,
+they are altogether become abominable," etc.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+
+
+Of their sins, and the consequent loss of Britain and of Troy
+
+
+Moreover, through their sins, and particularly that detestable and
+wicked vice of Sodom, as well as by divine vengeance, they lost
+Britain as they formerly lost Troy.  For we read in the Roman
+history, that the emperor Constantine having resigned the city and
+the Western empire to the blessed Sylvester and his successors,
+with an intention of rebuilding Troy, and there establishing the
+chief seat of the Eastern Empire, heard a voice, saying, "Dost thou
+go to rebuild Sodom?" upon which, he altered his intention, turned
+his ships and standards towards Byzantium, and there fixing his
+seat of empire, gave his own propitious name to the city.  The
+British history informs us, that Mailgon, king of the Britons, and
+many others, were addicted to this vice; that enormity, however,
+had entirely ceased for so long a time, that the recollection of it
+was nearly worn out.  But since that, as if the time of repentance
+was almost expired, and because the nation, by its warlike
+successes and acquisition of territory, has in our times unusually
+increased in population and strength, they boast in their turn, and
+most confidently and unanimously affirm, that in a short time their
+countrymen shall return to the island, and, according to the
+prophecies of Merlin, the nation, and even the name, of foreigners,
+shall be extinguished in the island, and the Britons shall exult
+again in their ancient name and privileges.  But to me it appears
+far otherwise; for since
+
+
+"Luxuriant animi rebus plerumque secundis,
+Nec facile est aequa commoda mente pati;"
+
+
+And because
+
+
+"Non habet unde suum paupertas pascat amorem, . . .
+Divitiis alitur luxuriosus amor."
+
+
+So that their abstinence from that vice, which in their prosperity
+they could not resist, may be attributed more justly to their
+poverty and state of exile than to their sense of virtue.  For they
+cannot be said to have repented, when we see them involved in such
+an abyss of vices, perjury, theft, robbery, rapine, murders,
+fratricides, adultery, and incest, and become every day more
+entangled and ensnared in evil-doing; so that the words of the
+prophet Hosea may be truly applied to them, "There is no truth, nor
+mercy," etc.
+
+Other matters of which they boast are more properly to be
+attributed to the diligence and activity of the Norman kings than
+to their own merits or power.  For previous to the coming of the
+Normans, when the English kings contented themselves with the
+sovereignty of Britain alone, and employed their whole military
+force in the subjugation of this people, they almost wholly
+extirpated them; as did king Offa, who by a long and extensive dyke
+separated the British from the English; Ethelfrid also, who
+demolished the noble city of Legions, (27) and put to death the
+monks of the celebrated monastery at Banchor, who had been called
+in to promote the success of the Britons by their prayers; and
+lastly Harold, who himself on foot, with an army of light-armed
+infantry, and conforming to the customary diet of the country, so
+bravely penetrated through every part of Wales, that he scarcely
+left a man alive in it; and as a memorial of his signal victories
+many stones may be found in Wales bearing this inscription:- "HIC
+VICTOR FUIT HAROLDUS" - "HERE HAROLD CONQUERED." (28)
+
+To these bloody and recent victories of the English may be
+attributed the peaceable state of Wales during the reigns of the
+three first Norman kings; when the nation increased in population,
+and being taught the use of arms and the management of horses by
+the English and Normans (with whom they had much intercourse, by
+following the court, or by being sent as hostages), took advantage
+of the necessary attention which the three succeeding kings were
+obliged to pay to their foreign possessions, and once more lifting
+up their crests, recovered their lands, and spurned the yoke that
+had formerly been imposed upon them.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+
+
+In what manner this nation is to be overcome
+
+
+The prince who would wish to subdue this nation, and govern it
+peaceably, must use this method.  He must be determined to apply a
+diligent and constant attention to this purpose for one year at
+least; for a people who with a collected force will not openly
+attack the enemy in the field, nor wait to be besieged in castles,
+is not to be overcome at the first onset, but to be worn out by
+prudent delay and patience.  Let him divide their strength, and by
+bribes and promises endeavour to stir up one against the other,
+knowing the spirit of hatred and envy which generally prevails
+amongst them; and in the autumn let not only the marches, but also
+the interior part of the country be strongly fortified with
+castles, provisions, and confidential families.  In the meantime
+the purchase of corn, cloth, and salt, with which they are usually
+supplied from England, should be strictly interdicted; and well-
+manned ships placed as a guard on the coast, to prevent their
+importation of these articles from Ireland or the Severn sea, and
+to facilitate the supply of his own army.  Afterwards, when the
+severity of winter approaches, when the trees are void of leaves,
+and the mountains no longer afford pasturage - when they are
+deprived of any hopes of plunder, and harassed on every side by the
+repeated attacks of the enemy - let a body of light-armed infantry
+penetrate into their woody and mountainous retreats, and let these
+troops be supported and relieved by others; and thus by frequent
+changes, and replacing the men who are either fatigued or slain in
+battle, this nation may be ultimately subdued; nor can it be
+overcome without the above precautions, nor without great danger
+and loss of men.  Though many of the English hired troops may
+perish in a day of battle, money will procure as many or more on
+the morrow for the same service; but to the Welsh, who have neither
+foreign nor stipendiary troops, the loss is for the time
+irreparable.  In these matters, therefore, as an artificer is to be
+trusted in his trade, so attention is to be paid to the counsel of
+those who, having been long conversant in similar concerns, are
+become acquainted with the manners and customs of their country,
+and whom it greatly interests, that an enemy, for whom during long
+and frequent conflicts they have contracted an implacable hatred,
+should by their assistance be either weakened or destroyed.  Happy
+should I have termed the borders of Wales inhabited by the English,
+if their kings, in the government of these parts, and in their
+military operations against the enemy, had rather employed the
+marchers and barons of the country, than adopted the counsels and
+policy of the people of Anjou and the Normans.  In this, as well as
+in every other military expedition, either in Ireland or in Wales,
+the natives of the marches, from the constant state of warfare in
+which they are engaged, and whose manners are formed from the
+habits of war, are bold and active, skilful on horseback, quick on
+foot, not nice as to their diet, and ever prepared when necessity
+requires to abstain both from corn and wine.  By such men were the
+first hostile attacks made upon Wales as well as Ireland, and by
+such men alone can their final conquest be accomplished.  For the
+Flemings, Normans, Coterells, and Bragmans, are good and well-
+disciplined soldiers in their own country; but the Gallic soldiery
+is known to differ much from the Welsh and Irish.  In their country
+the battle is on level, here on rough ground; there in an open
+field, here in forests; there they consider their armour as an
+honour, here as a burden; there soldiers are taken prisoners, here
+they are beheaded; there they are ransomed, here they are put to
+death.  Where, therefore, the armies engage in a flat country, a
+heavy and complex armour, made of cloth and iron, both protects and
+decorates the soldier; but when the engagement is in narrow
+defiles, in woods or marshes, where the infantry have the advantage
+over the cavalry, a light armour is preferable.  For light arms
+afford sufficient protection against unarmed men, by whom victory
+is either lost or won at the first onset; where it is necessary
+that an active and retreating enemy should be overcome by a certain
+proportional quantity of moderate armour; whereas with a more
+complex sort, and with high and curved saddles, it is difficult to
+dismount, more so to mount, and with the greatest difficulty can
+such troops march, if required, with the infantry.  In order,
+therefore, that
+
+
+"Singula quaeque locum teneant sortita decenter,"
+
+
+we maintain it is necessary to employ heavy-armed and strong troops
+against men heavily armed, depending entirely upon their natural
+strength, and accustomed to fight in an open plain; but against
+light-armed and active troops, who prefer rough ground, men
+accustomed to such conflicts, and armed in a similar manner, must
+be employed.  But let the cities and fortresses on the Severn, and
+the whole territory on its western banks towards Wales, occupied by
+the English, as well as the provinces of Shropshire and Cheshire,
+which are protected by powerful armies, or by any other special
+privileges and honourable independence, rejoice in the provident
+bounty of their prince.  There should be a yearly examination of
+the warlike stores, of the arms, and horses, by good and discreet
+men deputed for that purpose, and who, not intent on its plunder
+and ruin, interest themselves in the defence and protection of
+their country.  By these salutary measures, the soldiers, citizens,
+and the whole mass of the people, being instructed and accustomed
+to the use of arms, liberty may be opposed by liberty, and pride be
+checked by pride.  For the Welsh, who are neither worn out by
+laborious burdens, nor molested by the exactions of their lords,
+are ever prompt to avenge an injury.  Hence arise their
+distinguished bravery in the defence of their country; hence their
+readiness to take up arms and to rebel.  Nothing so much excites,
+encourages, and invites the hearts of men to probity as the
+cheerfulness of liberty; nothing so much dejects and dispirits them
+as the oppression of servitude.  This portion of the kingdom,
+protected by arms and courage, might be of great use to the prince,
+not only in these or the adjacent parts, but, if necessity
+required, in more remote regions; and although the public treasury
+might receive a smaller annual revenue from these provinces, yet
+the deficiency would be abundantly compensated by the peace of the
+kingdom and the honour of its sovereign; especially as the heavy
+and dangerous expenses of one military expedition into Wales
+usually amount to the whole income among from the revenues of the
+province.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+
+
+In what manner Wales, when conquered, should be governed
+
+
+As therefore this nation is to be subdued by resolution in the
+manner proposed, so when subdued, its government must be directed
+by moderation, according to the following plan.  Let the care of it
+be committed to a man of a firm and determined mind; who during the
+time of peace, by paying due obedience to the laws, and respect to
+the government, may render it firm and stable.  For like other
+nations in a barbarous state, this people, although they are
+strangers to the principles of honour, yet above all things desire
+to be honoured; and approve and respect in others that truth which
+they themselves do not profess.  Whenever the natural inconstancy
+of their indisposition shall induce them to revolt, let punishment
+instantly follow the offence; but when they shall have submitted
+themselves again to order, and made proper amends for their faults
+(as it is the custom of bad men to remember wrath after quarrels),
+let their former transgression be overlooked, and let them enjoy
+security and respect, as long as they continue faithful.  Thus, by
+mild treatment they will be invited to obedience and the love of
+peace, and the thought of certain punishment will deter them from
+rash attempts.  We have often observed persons who, confounding
+these matters, by complaining of faults, depressing for services,
+flattering in war, plundering in peace, despoiling the weak, paying
+respect to revolters, by thus rendering all things confused, have
+at length been confounded themselves.  Besides, as circumstances
+which are foreseen do less mischief, and as that state is happy
+which thinks of war in the time of peace, let the wise man be upon
+his guard, and prepared against the approaching inconveniences of
+war, by the construction of forts, the widening of passes through
+woods, and the providing of a trusty household.  For those who are
+cherished and sustained during the time of peace, are more ready to
+come forward in times of danger, and are more confidently to be
+depended upon; and as a nation unsubdued ever meditates plots under
+the disguise of friendship, let not the prince or his governor
+entrust the protection of his camp or capital to their fidelity.
+By the examples of many remarkable men, some of whom have been
+cruelly put to death, and others deprived of their castles and
+dignities, through their own neglect and want of care, we may see,
+that the artifices of a crafty and subdued nation are much more to
+be dreaded than their open warfare; their good-will than their
+anger, their honey than their gall, their malice than their attack,
+their treachery than their aggression, and their pretended
+friendship more than their open enmity.  A prudent and provident
+man therefore should contemplate in the misfortune of others what
+he ought himself to avoid; correction taught by example is
+harmless, as Ennodius (29) says:  "The ruin of predecessors
+instructs those who succeed; and a former miscarriage becomes a
+future caution."  If a well-disposed prince should wish these great
+designs to be accomplished without the effusion of blood, the
+marches, as we before mentioned, must be put into a state of
+defence on all sides, and all intercourse by sea and land
+interdicted; some of the Welsh may be stirred up to deadly feuds,
+by means of stipends, and by transferring the property of one
+person to another; and thus worn out with hunger, and a want of the
+necessaries of life, and harassed by frequent murders and
+implacable enmities, they will at last be compelled to surrender.
+
+There are three things which ruin this nation, and prevent its
+enjoying the satisfaction of a fruitful progeny.  First, because
+both the natural and legitimate sons endeavour to divide the
+paternal inheritance amongst themselves; from which cause, as we
+have before observed, continual fratricides take place.  Secondly,
+because the education of their sons is committed to the care of the
+high-born people of the country, who, on the death of their
+fathers, endeavour by all possible means to exalt their pupil; from
+whence arise murders, conflagrations, and almost a total
+destruction of the country.  And, thirdly, because from the pride
+and obstinacy of their disposition, they will not (like other
+nations) subject themselves to the dominion of one lord and king.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+
+
+In what manner this nation may resist and revolt
+
+
+Having hitherto so partially and elaborately spoken in favour of
+the English, and being equally connected by birth with each nation,
+justice demands that we should argue on both sides; let us
+therefore, at the close of our work, turn our attention towards the
+Welsh, and briefly, but effectually, instruct them in the art of
+resistance.  If the Welsh were more commonly accustomed to the
+Gallic mode of arming, and depended more on steady fighting than on
+their agility; if their princes were unanimous and inseparable in
+their defence; or rather, if they had only one prince, and that a
+good one; this nation situated in so powerful, strong, and
+inaccessible a country, could hardly ever be completely overcome.
+If, therefore, they would be inseparable, they would become
+insuperable, being assisted by these three circumstances; a country
+well defended by nature, a people both contented and accustomed to
+live upon little, a community whose nobles as well as privates are
+instructed in the use of arms; and especially as the English fight
+for power, the Welsh for liberty; the one to procure gain, the
+other to avoid loss; the English hirelings for money, the Welsh
+patriots for their country.  The English, I say, fight in order to
+expel the natural inhabitants from the island, and secure to
+themselves the possession of the whole; but the Welsh maintain the
+conflict, that they, who have so long enjoyed the sovereignty of
+the whole kingdom, may at least find a hiding place in the worst
+corner of it, amongst woods and marshes; and, banished, as it were,
+for their offences, may there in a state of poverty, for a limited
+time, perform penance for the excesses they committed in the days
+of their prosperity.  For the perpetual remembrance of their former
+greatness, the recollection of their Trojan descent, and the high
+and continued majesty of the kingdom of Britain, may draw forth
+many a latent spark of animosity, and encourage the daring spirit
+of rebellion.  Hence during the military expedition which king
+Henry II. made in our days against South Wales, an old Welshman at
+Pencadair, who had faithfully adhered to him, being desired to give
+his opinion about the royal army, and whether he thought that of
+the rebels would make resistance, and what would be the final event
+of this war, replied, "This nation, O king, may now, as in former
+times, be harassed, and in a great measure weakened and destroyed
+by your and other powers, and it will often prevail by its laudable
+exertions; but it can never be totally subdued through the wrath of
+man, unless the wrath of God shall concur.  Nor do I think, that
+any other nation than this of Wales, or any other language,
+whatever may hereafter come to pass, shall, in the day of severe
+examination before the Supreme Judge, answer for this corner of the
+earth."
+
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+
+[The text of the footnotes has been removed from this version of
+the eText until their copyright status can be ascertained.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg Etext of Description of Wales by G. Cambrensis
+
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