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diff --git a/1092-0.txt b/1092-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..875e8b4 --- /dev/null +++ b/1092-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2331 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Description of Wales, by Geraldus +Cambrensis + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most +other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of +the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have +to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. + + + + +Title: The Description of Wales + + +Author: Geraldus Cambrensis + + + +Release Date: February 9, 2015 [eBook #1092] +[This file was first posted on October 30, 1997] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESCRIPTION OF WALES*** + + +Transcribed from the 1912 J. M. Dent edition by David Price, email +ccx074@pglaf.org + + + + + + THE DESCRIPTION OF WALES + by + Gerald of Wales + + +FIRST PREFACE +TO STEPHEN LANGTON, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY + + +I, WHO, at the expense of three years’ labour, arranged, a short time +ago, in three parts, the Topography of Ireland, with a description of its +natural curiosities, and who afterwards, by two years’ study, completed +in two parts the Vaticinal History of its Conquest; and who, by +publishing the Itinerary of the Holy Man (Baldwin) through Cambria, +prevented his laborious mission from perishing in obscurity, do now +propose, in the present little work, to give some account of this my +native country, and to describe the genius of its inhabitants, so +entirely distinct from that of other nations. And this production of my +industry I have determined to dedicate to you, illustrious Stephen, +archbishop of Canterbury, as I before ascribed to you my Itinerary; +considering you as a man no less distinguished by your piety, than +conspicuous for your learning; though so humble an offering may possibly +be unworthy the acceptance of a personage who, from his eminence, +deserves to be presented with works of the greatest merit. + +Some, indeed, object to this my undertaking, and, apparently from motives +of affection, compare me to a painter, who, rich in colours, and like +another Zeuxis, eminent in his art, is endeavouring with all his skill +and industry to give celebrity to a cottage, or to some other +contemptible object, whilst the world is anxiously expecting from his +hand a temple or a palace. Thus they wonder that I, amidst the many +great and striking subjects which the world presents, should choose to +describe and to adorn, with all the graces of composition, such remote +corners of the earth as Ireland and Wales. + +Others again, reproaching me with greater severity, say, that the gifts +which have been bestowed upon me from above, ought not to be wasted upon +these insignificant objects, nor lavished in a vain display of learning +on the commendation of princes, who, from their ignorance and want of +liberality, have neither taste to appreciate, nor hearts to remunerate +literary excellence. And they further add, that every faculty which +emanates from the Deity, ought rather to be applied to the illustration +of celestial objects, and to the exultation of his glory, from whose +abundance all our talents have been received; every faculty (say they) +ought to be employed in praising him from whom, as from a perennial +source, every perfect gift is derived, and from whose bounty everything +which is offered with sincerity obtains an ample reward. But since +excellent histories of other countries have been composed and published +by writers of eminence, I have been induced, by the love I bear to my +country and to posterity, to believe that I should perform neither an +useless nor an unacceptable service, were I to unfold the hidden merits +of my native land; to rescue from obscurity those glorious actions which +have been hitherto imperfectly described, and to bring into repute, by my +method of treating it, a subject till now regarded as contemptible. + +What indeed could my feeble and unexercised efforts add to the histories +of the destruction of Troy, Thebes, or Athens, or to the conquest of the +shores of Latium? Besides, to do what has been already done, is, in +fact, to be doing nothing; I have, therefore, thought it more eligible to +apply my industry to the arrangement of the history of my native country, +hitherto almost wholly overlooked by strangers; but interesting to my +relations and countrymen; and from these small beginnings to aspire by +degrees to works of a nobler cast. From these inconsiderable attempts, +some idea may be formed with what success, should Fortune afford an +opportunity, I am likely to treat matters of greater importance. For +although some things should be made our principal objects, whilst others +ought not to be wholly neglected, I may surely be allowed to exercise the +powers of my youth, as yet untaught and unexperienced, in pursuits of +this latter nature, lest by habit I should feel a pleasure in indolence +and in sloth, the parent of vice. + +I have therefore employed these studies as a kind of introduction to the +glorious treasures of that most excellent of the sciences, which alone +deserves the name of science; which alone can render us wise to rule and +to instruct mankind; which alone the other sciences follow, as attendants +do their queen. Laying therefore in my youth the foundations of so noble +a structure, it is my intention, if God will assist me and prolong my +life, to reserve my maturer years for composing a treatise upon so +perfect, so sacred a subject: for according to the poet, + + “Ardua quippe fides robustos exigit annos;” + + “The important concerns of faith require a mind in its full vigour;” + +I may be permitted to indulge myself for a short time in other pursuits; +but in this I should wish not only to continue, but to die. + +But before I enter on this important subject, I demand a short interval, +to enable me to lay before the public my Treatise on the Instruction of a +Prince, which has been so frequently promised, as well as the Description +of Wales, which is now before me, and the Topography of Britain. + +Of all the British writers, Gildas alone appears to me (as often as the +course of my subject leads me to consult him) worthy of imitation; for by +committing to paper the things which he himself saw and knew, and by +declaring rather than describing the desolation of his country, he has +compiled a history more remarkable for its truth than for its elegance. + +Giraldus therefore follows Gildas, whom he wishes he could copy in his +life and manners; becoming an imitator of his wisdom rather than of his +eloquence—of his mind rather than of his writings—of his zeal rather than +of his style—of his life rather than of his language. + + + + +SECOND PREFACE +TO THE SAME + + +WHEN, amidst various literary pursuits, I first applied my mind to the +compilation of history, I determined, lest I should appear ungrateful to +my native land, to describe, to the best of my abilities, my own country +and its adjoining regions; and afterwards, under God’s guidance, to +proceed to a description of more distant territories. But since some +leading men (whom we have both seen and known) show so great a contempt +for literature, that they immediately shut up within their book-cases the +excellent works with which they are presented, and thus doom them, as it +were, to a perpetual imprisonment; I entreat you, illustrious Prelate, to +prevent the present little work, which will shortly be delivered to you, +from perishing in obscurity. And because this, as well as my former +productions, though of no transcendent merit, may hereafter prove to many +a source of entertainment and instruction, I entreat you generously to +order it to be made public, by which it will acquire reputation. And I +shall consider myself sufficiently rewarded for my trouble, if, +withdrawing for a while from your religious and secular occupations, you +would kindly condescend to peruse this book, or, at least, give it an +attentive hearing; for in times like these, when no one remunerates +literary productions, I neither desire nor expect any other recompense. +Not that it would appear in any way inconsistent, however there exists +among men of rank a kind of conspiracy against authors, if a prelate so +eminently conspicuous for his virtues, for his abilities, both natural +and acquired, for irreproachable morals, and for munificence, should +distinguish himself likewise by becoming the generous and sole patron of +literature. To comprise your merits in a few words, the lines of Martial +addressed to Trajan, whilst serving under Dioclesian, may be deservedly +applied to you: + + “Laudari debes quoniam sub principe duro, + Temporibusque malis, ausus es esse bonus.” + +And those also of Virgil to Mecænas, which extol the humanity of that +great man: + + “Omnia cum possis tanto tam clarus amico, + Te sensit nemo posse nocere tamen.” + +Many indeed remonstrate against my proceedings, and those particularly +who call themselves my friends insist that, in consequence of my violent +attachment to study, I pay no attention to the concerns of the world, or +to the interests of my family; and that, on this account, I shall +experience a delay in my promotion to worldly dignities; that the +influence of authors, both poets and historians, has long since ceased; +that the respect paid to literature vanished with literary princes; and +that in these degenerate days very different paths lead to honours and +opulence. I allow all this, I readily allow it, and acquiesce in the +truth. For the unprincipled and covetous attach themselves to the court, +the churchmen to their books, and the ambitious to the public offices, +but as every man is under the influence of some darling passion, so the +love of letters and the study of eloquence have from my infancy had for +me peculiar charms of attraction. Impelled by this thirst for knowledge, +I have carried my researches into the mysterious works of nature farther +than the generality of my contemporaries, and for the benefit of +posterity have rescued from oblivion the remarkable events of my own +times. But this object was not to be secured without an indefatigable, +though at the same time an agreeable, exertion; for an accurate +investigation of every particular is attended with much difficulty. It +is difficult to produce an orderly account of the investigation and +discovery of truth; it is difficult to preserve from the beginning to the +end a connected relation unbroken by irrelevant matter; and it is +difficult to render the narration no less elegant in the diction, than +instructive in its matter, for in prosecuting the series of events, the +choice of happy expressions is equally perplexing, as the search after +them painful. Whatever is written requires the most intense thought, and +every expression should be carefully polished before it be submitted to +the public eye; for, by exposing itself to the examination of the present +and of future ages, it must necessarily undergo the criticism not only of +the acute, but also of the dissatisfied, reader. Words merely uttered +are soon forgotten, and the admiration or disgust which they occasioned +is no more; but writings once published are never lost, and remain as +lasting memorials either of the glory or of the disgrace of the author. +Hence the observation of Seneca, that the malicious attention of the +envious reader dwells with no less satisfaction on a faulty than on an +elegant expression, and is as anxious to discover what it may ridicule, +as what it may commend; as the poet also observes: + + “Discit enim citius meminitque libentius illud + Quod quis deridet, quam quod probat et veneratur.” + +Among the pursuits, therefore, most worthy of commendation, this holds by +no means the lowest rank; for history, as the moral philosopher declares, +“is the record of antiquity, the testimony of ages, the light of truth, +the soul of memory, the mistress of conduct, and the herald of ancient +times.” + +This study is the more delightful, as it is more honourable to produce +works worthy of being quoted than to quote the works of others; as it is +more desirable to be the author of compositions which deserve to be +admired than to be esteemed a good judge of the writings of other men; as +it is more meritorious to be the just object of other men’s commendations +than to be considered an adept in pointing out the merits of others. On +these pleasing reflections I feed and regale myself; for I would rather +resemble Jerome than Croesus, and I prefer to riches themselves the man +who is capable of despising them. With these gratifying ideas I rest +contented and delighted, valuing moderation more than intemperance, and +an honourable sufficiency more than superfluity; for intemperance and +superfluity produce their own destruction, but their opposite virtues +never perish; the former vanish, but the latter, like eternity, remain +for ever; in short, I prefer praise to lucre, and reputation to riches. + + + + +CONTENTS + + BOOK I + CHAPTER PAGE + I. Length and Breadth of Wales, the Nature of its 155 + Soil, and the Three Remaining Tribes of + Britons + II. Of the Ancient Division of Wales into Three 156 + Parts + III. Genealogy of the Princes of Wales 157 + IV. Cantreds—Royal Palaces—Cathedrals 158 + V. Mountains and Rivers of Wales 159 + VI. Concerning the Pleasantness and Fertility of 163 + Wales + VII. Origin of the Names Cambria and Wales 164 + VIII. Concerning the Nature, Manners, and Dress, the 166 + Boldness, Agility, and Courage, of this Nation + IX. Their Sober Supper and Frugality 168 + X. Their Hospitality and Liberality 170 + XI. Concerning their cutting of their Hair, their 171 + Care of their Teeth, and Shaving of their + Beard + XII. Their Quickness and Sharpness of Understanding 174 + XIII. Their Symphonies and Songs 175 + XIV. Their Wit and Pleasantry 177 + XV. Their Boldness and Confidence in Speaking 183 + XVI. Concerning the Soothsayers of this Nation, and 179 + Persons as it were possessed + XVII. Their Love of High Birth and Ancient Genealogy 183 + XVIII. Their Ancient Faith, Love of Christianity and 185 + Devotion + BOOK II + I. Concerning the Inconstancy and Instability of 189 + this Nation, and their Want of Reverence for + Good Faith and Oaths + II. Their living by Plunder, and Disregard of the 190 + Bonds of Peace and Friendship + III. Their Deficiency in Battle, and Base and 192 + Dishonourable Flight + IV. Their Ambitious Seizure of Lands, and 193 + Dissensions among Brothers + V. Their great Exaction, and Want of Moderation 194 + VI. Concerning the Crime of Incest, and the Abuse 195 + of Churches by Succession and Participation + VII. Their Sins, and the consequent Loss of Britain 196 + and of Troy + VIII. In what Manner this Nation is to be overcome 198 + IX. In what Manner Wales, when conquered, should 202 + be governed + X. In what Manner this Nation may resist and 204 + revolt + +BOOK I + + +CHAPTER I +OF THE LENGTH AND BREADTH OF WALES, THE NATURE OF ITS SOIL, AND THE THREE +REMAINING TRIBES OF BRITONS + + +CAMBRIA, which, by a corrupt and common term, though less proper, is in +modern times called Wales, is about two hundred miles long and one +hundred broad. The length from Port Gordber {155a} in Anglesey to Port +Eskewin {155b} in Monmouthshire is eight days’ journey in extent; the +breadth from Porth Mawr, {155c} or the great Port of St. David’s, to +Ryd-helic, {155d} which in Latin means _Vadum salicis_, or the Ford of +the Willow, and in English is called Willow-forde, is four days’ journey. +It is a country very strongly defended by high mountains, deep valleys, +extensive woods, rivers, and marshes; insomuch that from the time the +Saxons took possession of the island the remnants of the Britons, +retiring into these regions, could never be entirely subdued either by +the English or by the Normans. Those who inhabited the southern angle of +the island, which took its name from the chieftain Corinæus, {156} made +less resistance, as their country was more defenceless. The third +division of the Britons, who obtained a part of Britany in Gaul, were +transported thither, not after the defeat of their nation, but long +before, by king Maximus, and, in consequence of the hard and continued +warfare which they underwent with him, were rewarded by the royal +munificence with those districts in France. + + + +CHAPTER II +OF THE ANCIENT DIVISION OF WALES INTO THREE PARTS + + +WALES was in ancient times divided into three parts nearly equal, +consideration having been paid, in this division, more to the value than +to the just quantity or proportion of territory. They were Venedotia, +now called North Wales; Demetia, or South Wales, which in British is +called Deheubarth, that is, the southern part; and Powys, the middle or +eastern district. Roderic the Great, or Rhodri Mawr, who was king over +all Wales, was the cause of this division. He had three sons, Mervin, +Anarawt, and Cadell, amongst whom he partitioned the whole principality. +North Wales fell to the lot of Mervin; Powys to Anarawt; and Cadell +received the portion of South Wales, together with the general good +wishes of his brothers and the people; for although this district greatly +exceeded the others in quantity, it was the least desirable from the +number of noble chiefs, or Uchelwyr, {157a} men of a superior rank, who +inhabited it, and were often rebellious to their lords, and impatient of +control. But Cadell, on the death of his brothers, obtained the entire +dominion of Wales, {157b} as did his successors till the time of Tewdwr, +whose descendants, Rhys, son of Tewdwr, Gruflydd, son of Rhys, and Rhys, +son of Gruffydd, the ruling prince in our time, enjoyed only (like the +father) the sovereignty over South Wales. + + + +CHAPTER III +GENEALOGY OF THE PRINCES OF WALES + + +THE following is the generation of princes of South Wales: Rhys, son of +Gruffydd; Gruffydd, son of Rhys; Rhys, son of Tewdwr; Tewdwr, son of +Eineon; Eineon, son of Owen; Owen, son of Howel Dda, or Howel the Good; +Howel, son of Cadell, son of Roderic the Great. Thus the princes of +South Wales derived their origin from Cadell, son of Roderic the Great. +The princes of North Wales descended from Mervin in this manner: +Llewelyn, son of Iorwerth; Iorwerth, son of Owen; Owen, son of Gruffydd; +Gruffydd, son of Conan; Conan, son of Iago; Iago, son of Edoual; Edoual, +son of Meyric; Meyric, son of Anarawt (Anandhrec); Anarawt, son of +Mervin, son of Roderic the Great. Anarawt leaving no issue, the princes +of Powys have their own particular descent. + +It is worthy of remark, that the Welsh bards and singers, or reciters, +have the genealogies of the aforesaid princes, written in the Welsh +language, in their ancient and authentic books; and also retain them in +their memory from Roderic the Great to B.M.; {158a} and from thence to +Sylvius, Ascanius, and Æneas; and from the latter produce the +genealogical series in a lineal descent, even to Adam. + +But as an account of such long and remote genealogies may appear to many +persons trifling rather than historical, we have purposely omitted them +in our compendium. + + + +CHAPTER IV +HOW MANY CANTREDS, ROYAL PALACES, AND CATHEDRALS THERE ARE IN WALES + + +SOUTH WALES contains twenty-nine cantreds; North Wales, twelve; Powys, +six: many of which are at this time in the possession of the English and +Franks. For the country now called Shropshire formerly belonged to +Powys, and the place where the castle of Shrewsbury stands bore the name +of Pengwern, or the head of the Alder Grove. There were three royal +seats in South Wales: Dinevor, in South Wales, removed from Caerleon; +Aberfraw, {158b} in North Wales; and Pengwern, in Powys. + +Wales contains in all fifty-four cantreds. The word _Cantref_ is derived +from _Cant_, a hundred, and _Tref_, a village; and means in the British +and Irish languages such a portion of land as contains a hundred vills. + +There are four cathedral churches in Wales: St. David’s, upon the Irish +sea, David the archbishop being its patron: it was in ancient times the +metropolitan church, and the district only contained twenty-four +cantreds, though at this time only twenty-three; for Ergengl, in English +called Urchenfeld, {159a} is said to have been formerly within the +diocese of St. David’s, and sometimes was placed within that of Landaff. +The see of St. David’s had twenty-five successive archbishops; and from +the time of the removal of the pall into France, to this day, twenty-two +bishops; whose names and series, as well as the cause of the removal of +the archiepiscopal pall, may be seen in our Itinerary. {159b} + +In South Wales also is situated the bishopric of Landaff, near the Severn +sea, and near the noble castle of Caerdyf; bishop Teilo being its patron. +It contains five cantreds, and the fourth part of another, namely, +Senghennyd. + +In North Wales, between Anglesey and the Eryri mountains, is the see of +Bangor, under the patronage of Daniel, the abbot; it contains about nine +cantreds. + +In North Wales also is the poor little cathedral of Llan-Elwy, or St. +Asaph, containing about six cantreds, to which Powys is subject. + + + +CHAPTER V +OF THE TWO MOUNTAINS FROM WHICH THE NOBLE RIVERS WHICH DIVIDE WALES +SPRING + + +WALES is divided and distinguished by noble rivers, which derive their +source from two ranges of mountains, the Ellennith, in South Wales, which +the English call Moruge, as being the heads of moors, or bogs; and Eryri, +in North Wales, which they call Snowdon, or mountains of snow; the latter +of which are said to be of so great an extent, that if all the herds in +Wales were collected together, they would supply them with pasture for a +considerable time. Upon them are two lakes, one of which has a floating +island; and the other contains fish having only one eye, as we have +related in our Itinerary. + +We must also here remark, that at two places in Scotland, one on the +eastern, and the other on the western ocean, the sea-fish called mulvelli +(mullets) have only the right eye. + +The noble river Severn takes its rise from the Ellennith mountains, and +flowing by the castles of Shrewsbury and Bridgenorth, through the city of +Worcester, and that of Gloucester, celebrated for its iron manufactories, +falls into the sea a few miles from the latter place, and gives its name +to the Severn Sea. This river was for many years the boundary between +Cambria and Loegria, or Wales and England; it was called in British +Hafren, from the daughter of Locrinus, who was drowned in it by her +step-mother; the aspirate being changed, according to the Latin idiom, +into S, as is usual in words derived from the Greek, it was termed +Sarina, as hal becomes _sal_; hemi, _semi_; hepta, _septem_. + +The river Wye rises in the same mountains of Ellennith, and flows by the +castles of Hay and Clifford, through the city of Hereford, by the castles +of Wilton and Goodrich, through the forest of Dean, abounding with iron +and deer, and proceeds to Strigul castle, below which it empties itself +into the sea, and forms in modern times the boundary between England and +Wales. The Usk does not derive its origin from these mountains, but from +those of Cantref Bachan; it flows by the castle of Brecheinoc, or +Aberhodni, that is, the fall of the river Hodni into the Usk (for Aber, +in the British language, signifies every place where two rivers unite +their streams); by the castles of Abergevenni and Usk, through the +ancient city of Legions, and discharges itself into the Severn Sea, not +far from Newport. + +The river Remni flows towards the sea from the mountains of Brecheinoc, +having passed the castle and bridge of Remni. From the same range of +mountains springs the Taf, which pursues its course to the episcopal see +of Landaf (to which it gives its name), and falls into the sea below the +castle of Caerdyf. The river Avon rushes impetuously from the mountains +of Glamorgan, between the celebrated Cistercian monasteries of Margan and +Neth; and the river Neth, descending from the mountains of Brecheinoc, +unites itself with the sea, at no great distance from the castle of Neth; +each of these rivers forming a long tract of dangerous quicksands. From +the same mountains of Brecheinoc the river Tawe flows down to Abertawe, +called in English Swainsey. The Lochor joins the sea near the castle of +the same name; and the Wendraeth has its confluence near Cydweli. The +Tywy, another noble river, rises in the Ellennith mountains, and +separating the Cantref Mawr from the Cantref Bachan, passes by the castle +of Llanymddyfri, and the royal palace and castle of Dinevor, strongly +situated in the deep recesses of its woods, by the noble castle of +Caermarddin, where Merlin was found, and from whom the city received its +name, and runs into the sea near the castle of Lhanstephan. The river +Taf rises in the Presseleu mountains, not far from the monastery of +Whitland, and passing by the castle of St. Clare, falls into the sea near +Abercorran and Talacharn. From the same mountains flow the rivers +Cleddeu, encompassing the province of Daugleddeu, and giving it their +name one passes by the castle of Lahaden, and the other by Haverford, to +the sea; and in the British language they bear the name of Daugleddeu, or +two swords. + +The noble river Teivi springs from the Ellennith mountains, in the upper +part of the Cantref Mawr and Caerdigan, not far from the pastures and +excellent monastery of Stratflur, forming a boundary between Demetia and +Caerdigan down to the Irish channel; this is the only river in Wales that +produces beavers, an account of which is given in our Itinerary; and also +exceeds every other river in the abundance and delicacy of its salmon. +But as this book may fall into the hands of many persons who will not +meet with the other, I have thought it right here to insert many curious +and particular qualities relating to the nature of these animals, how +they convey their materials from the woods to the river, with what skill +they employ these materials in constructing places of safety in the +middle of the stream, how artfully they defend themselves against the +attack of the hunters on the eastern and how on the western side; the +singularity of their tails, which partake more of the nature of fish than +flesh. For further particulars see the Itinerary. {162a} + +From the same mountains issues the Ystuyth, and flowing through the upper +parts of Penwedic, in Cardiganshire, falls into the sea near the castle +of Aberystuyth. From the snowy mountains of Eryri flows the noble river +Devi, {162b} dividing for a great distance North and South Wales; and +from the same mountains also the large river Maw, {162c} forming by its +course the greater and smaller tract of sands called the Traeth Mawr and +the Traeth Bachan. The Dissennith also, and the Arthro, flow through +Merionethshire and the land of Conan. The Conwy, springing from the +northern side of the Eryri mountains, unites its waters with the sea +under the noble castle of Deganwy. The Cloyd rises from another side of +the same mountain, and passes by the castle of Ruthlan to the sea. The +Doverdwy, called by the English Dee, draws its source from the lake of +Penmelesmere, and runs through Chester, leaving the wood of Coleshulle, +Basinwerk, and a rich vein of silver in its neighbourhood, far to the +right, and by the influx of the sea forming a very dangerous quicksand; +thus the Dee makes the northern, and the river Wye the southern boundary +of Wales. + + + +CHAPTER VI +CONCERNING THE PLEASANTNESS AND FERTILITY OF WALES + + +AS the southern part of Wales near Cardiganshire, but particularly +Pembrokeshire, is much pleasanter, on account of its plains and +sea-coast, so North Wales is better defended by nature, is more +productive of men distinguished for bodily strength, and more fertile in +the nature of its soil; for, as the mountains of Eryri (Snowdon) could +supply pasturage for all the herds of cattle in Wales, if collected +together, so could the Isle of Mona (Anglesey) provide a requisite +quantity of corn for all the inhabitants: on which account there is an +old British proverb, “_Mon mam Cymbry_,” that is, “Mona is the mother of +Wales.” Merionyth, and the land of Conan, is the rudest and least +cultivated region, and the least accessible. The natives of that part of +Wales excel in the use of long lances, as those of Monmouthshire are +distinguished for their management of the bow. It is to be observed, +that the British language is more delicate and richer in North Wales, +that country being less intermixed with foreigners. Many, however, +assert that the language of Cardiganshire, in South Wales, placed as it +were in the middle and heart of Cambria, is the most refined. + +The people of Cornwall and the Armoricans speak a language similar to +that of the Britons; and from its origin and near resemblance, it is +intelligible to the Welsh in many instances, and almost in all; and +although less delicate and methodical, yet it approaches, as I judge, +more to the ancient British idiom. As in the southern parts of England, +and particularly in Devonshire, the English language seems less +agreeable, yet it bears more marks of antiquity (the northern parts being +much corrupted by the irruptions of the Danes and Norwegians), and +adheres more strictly to the original language and ancient mode of +speaking; a positive proof of which may be deduced from all the English +works of Bede, Rhabanus, and king Alfred, being written according to this +idiom. + + + +CHAPTER VII +ORIGIN OF THE NAMES CAMBRIA AND WALES + + +CAMBRIA was so called from Camber, son of Brutus, for Brutus, descending +from the Trojans, by his grandfather, Ascanius, and father, Silvius, led +the remnant of the Trojans, who had long been detained in Greece, into +this western isle; and having reigned many years, and given his name to +the country and people, at his death divided the kingdom of Wales between +his three sons. To his eldest son, Locrinus, he gave that part of the +island which lies between the rivers Humber and Severn, and which from +him was called Loegria. To his second son, Albanactus, he gave the lands +beyond the Humber, which took from him the name of Albania. But to his +youngest son, Camber, he bequeathed all that region which lies beyond the +Severn, and is called after him Cambria; hence the country is properly +and truly called Cambria, and its inhabitants Cambrians, or Cambrenses. +Some assert that their name was derived from _Cam_ and _Græco_, that is, +distorted Greek, on account of the affinity of their languages, +contracted by their long residence in Greece; but this conjecture, though +plausible, is not well founded on truth. + +The name of Wales was not derived from Wallo, a general, or Wandolena, +the queen, as the fabulous history of Geoffrey Arthurius {165a} falsely +maintains, because neither of these personages are to be found amongst +the Welsh; but it arose from a barbarian appellation. The Saxons, when +they seized upon Britain, called this nation, as they did all foreigners, +Wallenses; and thus the barbarous name remains to the people and their +country. {165b} + +Having discoursed upon the quality and quantity of the land, the +genealogies of the princes, the sources of the rivers, and the derivation +of the names of this country, we shall now consider the nature and +character of the nation. + + + +CHAPTER VIII +CONCERNING THE NATURE, MANNERS, AND DRESS, THE BOLDNESS, AGILITY, AND +COURAGE, OF THIS NATION + + +THIS people is light and active, hardy rather than strong, and entirely +bred up to the use of arms; for not only the nobles, but all the people +are trained to war, and when the trumpet sounds the alarm, the husbandman +rushes as eagerly from his plough as the courtier from his court; for +here it is not found that, as in other places, + + “Agricolis labor actus in orbem,” + +returns; for in the months of March and April only the soil is once +ploughed for oats, and again in the summer a third time, and in winter +for wheat. Almost all the people live upon the produce of their herds, +with oats, milk, cheese, and butter; eating flesh in larger proportions +than bread. They pay no attention to commerce, shipping, or +manufactures, and suffer no interruption but by martial exercises. They +anxiously study the defence of their country and their liberty; for these +they fight, for these they undergo hardships, and for these willingly +sacrifice their lives; they esteem it a disgrace to die in bed, an honour +to die in the field of battle; using the poet’s expressions,— + + “Procul hinc avertite pacem, + Nobilitas cum pace perit.” + +Nor is it wonderful if it degenerates, for the ancestors of these men, +the Æneadæ, rushed to arms in the cause of liberty. It is remarkable +that this people, though unarmed, dares attack an armed foe; the infantry +defy the cavalry, and by their activity and courage generally prove +victors. They resemble in disposition and situation those conquerors +whom the poet Lucan mentions: + + — —“Populi quos despicit Arctos, + Felices errore suo, quos ille timorum + Maximus haud urget leti metus, inde ruendi + In ferrum, mens prona viris, amimæque capaces, + Mortis et ignavum redituræ parsere vitæ.” + +They make use of light arms, which do not impede their agility, small +coats of mail, bundles of arrows, and long lances, helmets and shields, +and more rarely greaves plated with iron. The higher class go to battle +mounted on swift and generous steeds, which their country produces; but +the greater part of the people fight on foot, on account of the marshy +nature and unevenness of the soil. The horsemen as their situation or +occasion requires, willingly serve as infantry, in attacking or +retreating; and they either walk bare-footed, or make use of high shoes, +roughly constructed with untanned leather. In time of peace, the young +men, by penetrating the deep recesses of the woods, and climbing the tops +of mountains, learn by practice to endure fatigue through day and night; +and as they meditate on war during peace, they acquire the art of +fighting by accustoming themselves to the use of the lance, and by +inuring themselves to hard exercise. + +In our time, king Henry II., in reply to the inquiries of Emanuel, +emperor of Constantinople, concerning the situation, nature, and striking +peculiarities of the British island, among other remarkable circumstances +mentioned the following: “That in a certain part of the island there was +a people, called Welsh, so bold and ferocious that, when unarmed, they +did not fear to encounter an armed force; being ready to shed their blood +in defence of their country, and to sacrifice their lives for renown; +which is the more surprising, as the beasts of the field over the whole +face of the island became gentle, but these desperate men could not be +tamed. The wild animals, and particularly the stags and hinds, are so +abundant, owing to the little molestation they receive, that in our time, +in the northern parts of the island towards the Peak, {168} when pursued +by the hounds and hunters, they contributed, by their numbers, to their +own destruction.” + + + +CHAPTER IX +OF THEIR SOBER SUPPER AND FRUGALITY + + +NOT addicted to gluttony or drunkenness, this people who incur no expense +in food or dress, and whose minds are always bent upon the defence of +their country, and on the means of plunder, are wholly employed in the +care of their horses and furniture. Accustomed to fast from morning till +evening, and trusting to the care of Providence, they dedicate the whole +day to business, and in the evening partake of a moderate meal; and even +if they have none, or only a very scanty one, they patiently wait till +the next evening; and, neither deterred by cold nor hunger, they employ +the dark and stormy nights in watching the hostile motions of their +enemies. + + + +CHAPTER X +OF THEIR HOSPITALITY AND LIBERALITY + + +NO one of this nation ever begs, for the houses of all are common to all; +and they consider liberality and hospitality amongst the first virtues. +So much does hospitality here rejoice in communication, that it is +neither offered nor requested by travellers, who, on entering any house, +only deliver up their arms. When water is offered to them, if they +suffer their feet to be washed, they are received as guests; for the +offer of water to wash the feet is with this nation an hospitable +invitation. But if they refuse the proffered service, they only wish for +morning refreshment, not lodging. The young men move about in troops and +families under the direction of a chosen leader. Attached only to arms +and ease, and ever ready to stand forth in defence of their country, they +have free admittance into every house as if it were their own. + +Those who arrive in the morning are entertained till evening with the +conversation of young women, and the music of the harp; for each house +has its young women and harps allotted to this purpose. Two +circumstances here deserve notice: that as no nation labours more under +the vice of jealousy than the Irish, so none is more free from it than +the Welsh: and in each family the art of playing on the harp is held +preferable to any other learning. In the evening, when no more guests +are expected, the meal is prepared according to the number and dignity of +the persons assembled, and according to the wealth of the family who +entertains. The kitchen does not supply many dishes, nor high-seasoned +incitements to eating. The house is not furnished with tables, cloths, +or napkins. They study nature more than splendour, for which reason, the +guests being seated in threes, instead of couples as elsewhere, {169a} +they place the dishes before them all at once upon rushes and fresh +grass, in large platters or trenchers. They also make use of a thin and +broad cake of bread, baked every day, such as in old writings was called +_lagana_; {169b} and they sometimes add chopped meat, with broth. Such a +repast was formerly used by the noble youth, from whom this nation boasts +its descent, and whose manners it still partly imitates, according to the +word of the poet: + + “Heu! mensas consumimus, inquit Iulus.” + +While the family is engaged in waiting on the guests, the host and +hostess stand up, paying unremitting attention to everything, and take no +food till all the company are satisfied; that in case of any deficiency, +it may fall upon them. A bed made of rushes, and covered with a coarse +kind of cloth manufactured in the country, called _brychan_, {170} is +then placed along the side of the room, and they all in common lie down +to sleep; nor is their dress at night different from that by day, for at +all seasons they defend themselves from the cold only by a thin cloak and +tunic. The fire continues to burn by night as well as by day, at their +feet, and they receive much comfort from the natural heat of the persons +lying near them; but when the under side begins to be tired with the +hardness of the bed, or the upper one to suffer from cold, they +immediately leap up, and go to the fire, which soon relieves them from +both inconveniences; and then returning to their couch, they expose +alternately their sides to the cold, and to the hardness of the bed. + + + +CHAPTER XI +CONCERNING THEIR CUTTING OF THEIR HAIR, THEIR CARE OF THEIR TEETH, AND +SHAVING OF THEIR BEARD + + +THE men and women cut their hair close round to the ears and eyes. The +women, after the manner of the Parthians, cover their heads with a large +white veil, folded together in the form of a crown. + +Both sexes exceed any other nation in attention to their teeth, which +they render like ivory, by constantly rubbing them with green hazel and +wiping with a woollen cloth. For their better preservation, they abstain +from hot meats, and eat only such as are cold, warm, or temperate. The +men shave all their beard except the moustaches (_gernoboda_). This +custom is not recent, but was observed in ancient and remote ages, as we +find in the works of Julius Cæsar, who says, {171} “The Britons shave +every part of their body except their head and upper lip;” and to render +themselves more active, and avoid the fate of Absalon in their excursions +through the woods, they are accustomed to cut even the hair from their +heads; so that this nation more than any other shaves off all pilosity. +Julius also adds, that the Britons, previous to an engagement, anointed +their faces with a nitrous ointment, which gave them so ghastly and +shining an appearance, that the enemy could scarcely bear to look at +them, particularly if the rays of the sun were reflected on them. + + + +CHAPTER XII +OF THEIR QUICKNESS AND SHARPNESS OF UNDERSTANDING + + +THESE people being of a sharp and acute intellect, and gifted with a rich +and powerful understanding, excel in whatever studies they pursue, and +are more quick and cunning than the other inhabitants of a western clime. + +Their musical instruments charm and delight the ear with their sweetness, +are borne along by such celerity and delicacy of modulation, producing +such a consonance from the rapidity of seemingly discordant touches, that +I shall briefly repeat what is set forth in our Irish Topography on the +subject of the musical instruments of the three nations. It is +astonishing that in so complex and rapid a movement of the fingers, the +musical proportions can be preserved, and that throughout the difficult +modulations on their various instruments, the harmony is completed with +such a sweet velocity, so unequal an equality, so discordant a concord, +as if the chords sounded together fourths or fifths. They always begin +from B flat, and return to the same, that the whole may be completed +under the sweetness of a pleasing sound. They enter into a movement, and +conclude it in so delicate a manner, and play the little notes so +sportively under the blunter sounds of the base strings, enlivening with +wanton levity, or communicating a deeper internal sensation of pleasure, +so that the perfection of their art appears in the concealment of it: + + “Si lateat, prosit; + — — ferat ars deprensa pudorem.” + + “Art profits when concealed, + Disgraces when revealed.” + +From this cause, those very strains which afford deep and unspeakable +mental delight to those who have skilfully penetrated into the mysteries +of the art, fatigue rather than gratify the ears of others, who seeing, +do not perceive, and hearing, do not understand; and by whom the finest +music is esteemed no better than a confused and disorderly noise, and +will be heard with unwillingness and disgust. + +They make use of three instruments, the harp, the pipe, and the crwth or +crowd (_chorus_). {172} + +They omit no part of natural rhetoric in the management of civil actions, +in quickness of invention, disposition, refutation, and confirmation. In +their rhymed songs and set speeches they are so subtle and ingenious, +that they produce, in their native tongue, ornaments of wonderful and +exquisite invention both in the words and sentences. Hence arise those +poets whom they call Bards, of whom you will find many in this nation, +endowed with the above faculty, according to the poet’s observation: + + “Plurima concreti fuderunt carmina Bardi.” + +But they make use of alliteration (_anominatione_) in preference to all +other ornaments of rhetoric, and that particular kind which joins by +consonancy the first letters or syllables of words. So much do the +English and Welsh nations employ this ornament of words in all exquisite +composition, that no sentence is esteemed to be elegantly spoken, no +oration to be otherwise than uncouth and unrefined, unless it be fully +polished with the file of this figure. Thus in the British tongue: + + “Digawn Duw da i unic.” + + “Wrth bob crybwyll rhaïd pwyll parawd.” {173} + +And in English, + + “God is together gammen and wisedom.” + +The same ornament of speech is also frequent in the Latin language. +Virgil says, + + “Tales casus Cassandra canebat.” + +And again, in his address to Augustus, + + “Dum dubitet natura marem, faceretve puellam, + Natus es, o pulcher, pene puella, puer.” + +This ornament occurs not in any language we know so frequently as in the +two first; it is, indeed, surprising that the French, in other respects +so ornamented, should be entirely ignorant of this verbal elegance so +much adopted in other languages. Nor can I believe that the English and +Welsh, so different and adverse to each other, could designedly have +agreed in the usage of this figure; but I should rather suppose that it +had grown habitual to both by long custom, as it pleases the ear by a +transition from similar to similar sounds. Cicero, in his book “On +Elocution,” observes of such who know the practice, not the art, “Other +persons when they read good orations or poems, approve of the orators or +poets, not understanding the reason why, being affected, they approve; +because they cannot know in what place, of what nature, nor how that +effect is caused which so highly delights them.” + + + +CHAPTER XIII +OF THEIR SYMPHONIES AND SONGS + + +IN their musical concerts they do not sing in unison like the inhabitants +of other countries, but in many different parts; so that in a company of +singers, which one very frequently meets with in Wales, you will hear as +many different parts and voices as there are performers, who all at +length unite, with organic melody, in one consonance and the soft +sweetness of B flat. In the northern district of Britain, beyond the +Humber, and on the borders of Yorkshire, the inhabitants make use of the +same kind of symphonious harmony, but with less variety; singing only in +two parts, one murmuring in the base, the other warbling in the acute or +treble. Neither of the two nations has acquired this peculiarity by art, +but by long habit, which has rendered it natural and familiar; and the +practice is now so firmly rooted in them, that it is unusual to hear a +simple and single melody well sung; and, what is still more wonderful, +the children, even from their infancy, sing in the same manner. As the +English in general do not adopt this mode of singing, but only those of +the northern countries, I believe that it was from the Danes and +Norwegians, by whom these parts of the island were more frequently +invaded, and held longer under their dominion, that the natives +contracted their mode of singing as well as speaking. + + + +CHAPTER XIV +THEIR WIT AND PLEASANTRY + + +THE heads of different families, in order to excite the laughter of their +guests, and gain credit by their sayings, make use of great facetiousness +in their conversation; at one time uttering their jokes in a light, easy +manner, at another time, under the disguise of equivocation, passing the +severest censures. For the sake of explanation I shall here subjoin a +few examples. Tegeingl is the name of a province in North Wales, over +which David, son of Owen, had dominion, and which had once been in the +possession of his brother. The same word also was the name of a certain +woman with whom, it was said, each brother had an intrigue, from which +circumstance arose this term of reproach, “To have Tegeingl, after +Tegeingl had been in possession of his brother.” + +At another time, when Rhys, son of Gruffydd, prince of South Wales, +accompanied by a multitude of his people, devoutly entered the church of +St. David’s, previous to an intended journey, the oblations having been +made, and mass solemnised, a young man came to him in the church, and +publicly declared himself to be his son, threw himself at his feet, and +with tears humbly requested that the truth of this assertion might be +ascertained by the trial of the burning iron. Intelligence of this +circumstance being conveyed to his family and his two sons, who had just +gone out of the church, a youth who was present made this remark: “This +is not wonderful; some have brought gold, and others silver, as +offerings; but this man, who had neither, brought what he had, namely, +iron;” thus taunting him with his poverty. On mentioning a certain house +that was strongly built and almost impregnable, one of the company said, +“This house indeed is strong, for if it should contain food it could +never be got at,” thus alluding both to the food and to the house. In +like manner, a person, wishing to hint at the avaricious disposition of +the mistress of a house, said, “I only find fault with our hostess for +putting too little butter to her salt,” whereas the accessory should be +put to the principal; thus, by a subtle transposition of the words, +converting the accessory into the principal, by making it appear to +abound in quantity. Many similar sayings of great men and philosophers +are recorded in the Saturnalia of Macrobius. When Cicero saw his +son-in-law, Lentulus, a man of small stature, with a long sword by his +side: “Who,” says he, “has girded my son-in-law to that sword?” thus +changing the accessary into the principal. The same person, on seeing +the half-length portrait of his brother Quintus Cicero, drawn with very +large features and an immense shield, exclaimed, “Half of my brother is +greater than the whole!” When the sister of Faustus had an intrigue with +a fuller, “Is it strange,” says he, “that my sister has a spot, when she +is connected with a fuller?” When Antiochus showed Hannibal his army, +and the great warlike preparations he had made against the Romans, and +asked him, “Thinkest thou, O Hannibal, that these are sufficient for the +Romans?” Hannibal, ridiculing the unmilitary appearance of the soldiers, +wittily and severely replied, “I certainly think them sufficient for the +Romans, however greedy;” Antiochus asking his opinion about the military +preparations, and Hannibal alluding to them as becoming a prey to the +Romans. + + + +CHAPTER XV +THEIR BOLDNESS AND CONFIDENCE IN SPEAKING + + +NATURE hath given not only to the highest, but also to the inferior, +classes of the people of this nation, a boldness and confidence in +speaking and answering, even in the presence of their princes and +chieftains. The Romans and Franks had the same faculty; but neither the +English, nor the Saxons and Germans, from whom they are descended, had +it. It is in vain urged, that this defect may arise from the state of +servitude which the English endured; for the Saxons and Germans, who +enjoy their liberty, have the same failing, and derive this natural +coldness of disposition from the frozen region they inhabit; the English +also, although placed in a distant climate, still retain the exterior +fairness of complexion and inward coldness of disposition, as inseparable +from their original and natural character. The Britons, on the contrary, +transplanted from the hot and parched regions of Dardania into these more +temperate districts, as + + “Cœlum non animum mutant qui trans mare currunt,” + +still retain their brown complexion and that natural warmth of temper +from which their confidence is derived. For three nations, remnants of +the Greeks after the destruction of Troy, fled from Asia into different +parts of Europe, the Romans under Æneas, the Franks under Antenor, and +the Britons under Brutus; and from thence arose that courage, that +nobleness of mind, that ancient dignity, that acuteness of understanding, +and confidence of speech, for which these three nations are so highly +distinguished. But the Britons, from having been detained longer in +Greece than the other two nations, after the destruction of their +country, and having migrated at a later period into the western parts of +Europe, retained in a greater degree the primitive words and phrases of +their native language. You will find amongst them the names Oenus, +Resus, Æneas, Hector, Achilles, Heliodorus, Theodorus, Ajax, Evander, +Uliex, Anianus, Elisa, Guendolena, and many others, bearing marks of +their antiquity. It is also to be observed, that almost all words in the +British language correspond either with the Greek or Latin, as ὑδωζ, +water, is called in British, dwr; ἁλς, salt, in British, halen; ονομα, +eno, a name; πεντε, pump, five; δεκα, deg, ten. The Latins also use the +words frænum, tripos, gladius, lorica; the Britons, froyn (ffrwyn), +trepet (tribedd), cleddyf, and lluric (llurig); unicus is made unic +(unig); canis, can (cwn); and belua, beleu. + + + +CHAPTER XVI +CONCERNING THE SOOTHSAYERS OF THIS NATION, AND PERSONS AS IT WERE +POSSESSED + + +THERE are certain persons in Cambria, whom you will find nowhere else, +called Awenddyon, {179} or people inspired; when consulted upon any +doubtful event, they roar out violently, are rendered beside themselves, +and become, as it were, possessed by a spirit. They do not deliver the +answer to what is required in a connected manner; but the person who +skilfully observes them, will find, after many preambles, and many +nugatory and incoherent, though ornamented speeches, the desired +explanation conveyed in some turn of a word: they are then roused from +their ecstasy, as from a deep sleep, and, as it were, by violence +compelled to return to their proper senses. After having answered the +questions, they do not recover till violently shaken by other people; nor +can they remember the replies they have given. If consulted a second or +third time upon the same point, they will make use of expressions totally +different; perhaps they speak by the means of fanatic and ignorant +spirits. These gifts are usually conferred upon them in dreams: some +seem to have sweet milk or honey poured on their lips; others fancy that +a written schedule is applied to their mouths and on awaking they +publicly declare that they have received this gift. Such is the saying +of Esdras, “The Lord said unto me, open thy mouth, and I opened my mouth, +and behold a cup full of water, whose colour was like fire; and when I +had drank it, my heart brought forth understanding, and wisdom entered +into my breast.” They invoke, during their prophecies, the true and +living God, and the Holy Trinity, and pray that they may not by their +sins be prevented from finding the truth. These prophets are only found +among the Britons descended from the Trojans. For Calchas and Cassandra, +endowed with the spirit of prophecy, openly foretold, during the siege of +Troy, the destruction of that fine city; on which account the high +priest, Helenus, influenced by the prophetic books of Calchas, and of +others who had long before predicted the ruin of their country, in the +first year went over to the Greeks with the sons of Priam (to whom he was +high priest), and was afterwards rewarded in Greece. Cassandra, daughter +of king Priam, every day foretold the overthrow of the city; but the +pride and presumption of the Trojans prevented them from believing her +word. Even on the very night that the city was betrayed, she clearly +described the treachery and the method of it: + + “— tales casus Cassandra canebat,” + +as in the same manner, during the existence of the kingdom of the +Britons, both Merlin Caledonius and Ambrosius are said to have foretold +the destruction of their nation, as well as the coming of the Saxons, and +afterwards that of the Normans; and I think a circumstance related by +Aulus Gellius worth inserting in this place. On the day that Caius Cæsar +and Cneius Pompey, during the civil war, fought a pitched battle in +Thessalia, a memorable event occurred in that part of Italy situated +beyond the river Po. A priest named Cornelius, honourable from his rank, +venerable for his religion, and holy in his manners, in an inspired +moment proclaimed, “Cæsar has conquered,” and named the day, the events, +the mutual attack, and the conflicts of the two armies. Whether such +things are exhibited by the spirit, let the reader more particularly +inquire; I do not assert they are the acts of a Pythonic or a diabolic +spirit; for as foreknowledge is the property of God alone, so is it in +his power to confer knowledge of future events. There are differences of +gifts, says the Apostle, but one and the same spirit; whence Peter, in +his second Epistle, writes, “For the prophecy came not in the old time by +the will of man, but men spake as if they were inspired by the Holy +Ghost:” to the same effect did the Chaldeans answer king Nebuchadonazar +on the interpretation of his dream, which he wished to extort from them. +“There is not,” say they, “a man upon earth who can, O king, +satisfactorily answer your question; let no king therefore, however great +or potent, make a similar request to any magician, astrologer, or +Chaldean; for it is a rare thing that the king requireth, and there is +none other that can shew it before the king, except the Gods, whose +dwelling is not with flesh.” On this passage Jerome remarks, “The +diviners and all the learned of this world confess, that the prescience +of future events belongs to God alone; the prophets therefore, who +foretold things to come, spake by the spirit of God. Hence some persons +object, that, if they were under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, they +would sometimes premise, “Thus saith the Lord God,” or make use of some +expression in the prophetic style; and as such a mode of prophesying is +not taken notice of by Merlin, and no mention is made of his sanctity, +devotion, or faith, many think that he spake by a Pythonic spirit. To +which I answer, that the spirit of prophecy was given not only to the +holy, but sometimes to unbelievers and Gentiles, to Baal, to the sibyls, +and even to bad people, as to Caiaphas and Bela. On which occasion +Origen says: “Do not wonder, if he whom ye have mentioned declares that +the Scribes and Pharisees and doctors amongst the Jews prophesied +concerning Christ; for Caiaphas said: “It is expedient for us that one +man die for the people:” but asserts at the same time, that because he +was high priest for that year, he prophesied. Let no man therefore be +lifted up, if he prophesies, if he merits prescience; for prophecies +shall fail, tongues shall cease, knowledge shall vanish away; and now +abideth, faith, hope, and charity: these three; but the greatest of these +is Charity, which never faileth. But these bad men not only prophesied, +but sometimes performed great miracles, which others could not +accomplish. John the Baptist, who was so great a personage, performed no +miracle, as John the Evangelist testifies: “And many came to Jesus and +said, Because John wrought no signs,” etc. Nor do we hear that the +mother of God performed any miracle; we read in the Acts of the Apostles, +that the sons of Sheva cast out devils in the name of Jesus, whom Paul +preached; and in Matthew and Luke we may find these words: “Many shall +say unto me in that day, Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in thy name? +and in thy name have cast out devils? and in thy name done many wonderful +works? and then I will profess unto them, I never knew you.” And in +another place, John says: “Master, we saw a certain man casting out +devils in thy name, and forbade him, because he followeth not with us.” +But Jesus said: “Forbid him not; no man can do a miracle in my name, and +speak evil of me; for whoever is not against me, is for me.” + +Alexander of Macedon, a gentile, traversed the Caspian mountains, and +miraculously confined ten tribes within their promontories, where they +still remain, and will continue until the coming of Elias and Enoch. We +read, indeed, the prophecies of Merlin, but hear nothing either of his +sanctity or his miracles. Some say, that the prophets, when they +prophesied, did not become frantic, as it is affirmed of Merlin +Silvestris, and others possessed, whom we have before mentioned. Some +prophesied by dreams, visions, and enigmatical sayings, as Ezechiel and +Daniel; others by acts and words, as Noah, in the construction of the +ark, alluded to the church; Abraham, in the slaying of his son, to the +passion of Christ; and Moses by his speech, when he said, “A prophet +shall the Lord God raise up to you of your brethren; hear him;” meaning +Christ. Others have prophesied in a more excellent way by the internal +revelation and inspiration of the Holy Spirit, as David did when +persecuted by Saul: “When Saul heard that David had fled to Naioth (which +is a hill in Ramah, and the seat of the prophets), he sent messengers to +take him; and when they saw the company of the prophets prophesying, and +Samuel standing at their head, the Spirit of God came upon the messengers +of Saul, and they also prophesied; and he sent messengers a second and +again a third time, and they also prophesied. And Saul enraged went +thither also; and the Spirit of God was upon him also, and he went on, +and prophesied until he came to Naioth, and he stripped off his royal +vestments, and prophesied with the rest for all that day and all that +night; whilst David and Samuel secretly observed what passed.” Nor is it +wonderful that those persons who suddenly receive the Spirit of God, and +so signal a mark of grace, should for a time seem alienated from their +earthly state of mind. + + + +CHAPTER XVII +THEIR LOVE OF HIGH BIRTH AND ANCIENT GENEALOGY + + +THE Welsh esteem noble birth and generous descent above all things, {183} +and are, therefore, more desirous of marrying into noble than rich +families. Even the common people retain their genealogy, and can not +only readily recount the names of their grandfathers and +great-grandfathers, but even refer back to the sixth or seventh +generation, or beyond them, in this manner: Rhys, son of Gruffydd, son of +Rhys, son of Tewdwr, son of Eineon, son of Owen, son of Howel, son of +Cadell, son of Roderic Mawr, and so on. + +Being particularly attached to family descent, they revenge with +vehemence the injuries which may tend to the disgrace of their blood; and +being naturally of a vindictive and passionate disposition, they are ever +ready to avenge not only recent but ancient affronts; they neither +inhabit towns, villages, nor castles, but lead a solitary life in the +woods, on the borders of which they do not erect sumptuous palaces, nor +lofty stone buildings, but content themselves with small huts made of the +boughs of trees twisted together, constructed with little labour and +expense, and sufficient to endure throughout the year. They have neither +orchards nor gardens, but gladly eat the fruit of both when given to +them. The greater part of their land is laid down to pasturage; little +is cultivated, a very small quantity is ornamented with flowers, and a +still smaller is sown. They seldom yoke less than four oxen to their +ploughs; the driver walks before, but backwards, and when he falls down, +is frequently exposed to danger from the refractory oxen. Instead of +small sickles in mowing, they make use of a moderate-sized piece of iron +formed like a knife, with two pieces of wood fixed loosely and flexibly +to the head, which they think a more expeditious instrument; but since + + “Segnius irritant animos demissa per aures, + Quam quæ sunt oculis subjecta fidelibus,” + +their mode of using it will be better known by inspection than by any +description. The boats {184} which they employ in fishing or in crossing +the rivers are made of twigs, not oblong nor pointed, but almost round, +or rather triangular, covered both within and without with raw hides. +When a salmon thrown into one of these boats strikes it hard with his +tail, he often oversets it, and endangers both the vessel and its +navigator. The fishermen, according to the custom of the country, in +going to and from the rivers, carry these boats on their shoulders; on +which occasion that famous dealer in fables, Bleddercus, who lived a +little before our time, thus mysteriously said: “There is amongst us a +people who, when they go out in search of prey, carry their horses on +their backs to the place of plunder; in order to catch their prey, they +leap upon their horses, and when it is taken, carry their horses home +again upon their shoulders.” + + + +CHAPTER XVIII +OF THE ANTIQUITY OF THEIR FAITH, THEIR LOVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND DEVOTION + + +IN ancient times, and about two hundred years before the overthrow of +Britain, the Welsh were instructed and confirmed in the faith by Faganus +and Damianus, sent into the island at the request of king Lucius by pope +Eleutherius, and from that period when Germanus of Auxerre, and Lupus of +Troyes, came over on account of the corruption which had crept into the +island by the invasion of the Saxons, but particularly with a view of +expelling the Pelagian heresy, nothing heretical or contrary to the true +faith was to be found amongst the natives. But it is said that some +parts of the ardent doctrines are still retained. They give the first +piece broken off from every loaf of bread to the poor; they sit down to +dinner by three to a dish, in honour of the Trinity. With extended arms +and bowing head, they ask a blessing of every monk or priest, or of every +person wearing a religious habit. But they desire, above all other +nations, the episcopal ordination and unction, by which the grace of the +spirit is given. They give a tenth of all their property, animals, +cattle, and sheep, either when they marry, or go on a pilgrimage, or, by +the counsel of the church, are persuaded to amend their lives. This +partition of their effects they call the great tithe, two parts of which +they give to the church where they were baptised, and the third to the +bishop of the diocese. But of all pilgrimages they prefer that to Rome, +where they pay the most fervent adoration to the apostolic see. We +observe that they show a greater respect than other nations to churches +and ecclesiastical persons, to the relics of saints, bells, holy books, +and the cross, which they devoutly revere; and hence their churches enjoy +more than common tranquillity. For peace is not only preserved towards +all animals feeding in churchyards, but at a great distance beyond them, +where certain boundaries and ditches have been appointed by the bishops, +in order to maintain the security of the sanctuary. But the principal +churches to which antiquity has annexed the greater reverence extend +their protection to the herds as far as they can go to feed in the +morning and return at night. If, therefore, any person has incurred the +enmity of his prince, on applying to the church for protection, he and +his family will continue to live unmolested; but many persons abuse this +indemnity, far exceeding the indulgence of the canon, which in such cases +grants only personal safety; and from the places of refuge even make +hostile irruptions, and more severely harass the country than the prince +himself. Hermits and anchorites more strictly abstinent and more +spiritual can nowhere be found; for this nation is earnest in all its +pursuits, and neither worse men than the bad, nor better than the good, +can be met with. + +Happy and fortunate indeed would this nation be, nay, completely blessed, +if it had good prelates and pastors, and but one prince, and that prince +a good one. + + + + +BOOK II + + +PREFACE + + +HAVING in the former book clearly set forth the character, manners, and +customs of the British nation, and having collected and explained +everything which could redound to its credit or glory; an attention to +order now requires that, in this second part, we should employ our pen in +pointing out those particulars in which it seems to transgress the line +of virtue and commendation; having first obtained leave to speak the +truth, without which history not only loses its authority, but becomes +undeserving of its very name. For the painter who professes to imitate +nature, loses his reputation, if, by indulging his fancy, he represents +only those parts of the subject which best suit him. + +Since, therefore, no man is born without faults, and he is esteemed the +best whose errors are the least, let the wise man consider everything +human as connected with himself; for in worldly affairs there is no +perfect happiness under heaven. Evil borders upon good, and vices are +confounded with virtues; as the report of good qualities is delightful to +a well-disposed mind, so the relation of the contrary should not be +offensive. The natural disposition of this nation might have been +corrupted and perverted by long exile and poverty; for as poverty +extinguisheth many faults, so it often generates failings that are +contrary to virtue. + + + +CHAPTER I +OF THE INCONSTANCY AND INSTABILITY OF THIS NATION, AND THEIR WANT OF +REVERENCE FOR GOOD FAITH AND OATHS + + +THESE people are no less light in mind than in body, and are by no means +to be relied upon. They are easily urged to undertake any action, and +are as easily checked from prosecuting it—a people quick in action, but +more stubborn in a bad than in a good cause, and constant only in acts of +inconstancy. They pay no respect to oaths, faith, or truth; and so +lightly do they esteem the covenant of faith, held so inviolable by other +nations, that it is usual to sacrifice their faith for nothing, by +holding forth the right hand, not only in serious and important concerns, +but even on every trifling occasion, and for the confirmation of almost +every common assertion. They never scruple at taking a false oath for +the sake of any temporary emolument or advantage; so that in civil and +ecclesiastical causes, each party, being ready to swear whatever seems +expedient to its purpose, endeavours both to prove and defend, although +the venerable laws, by which oaths are deemed sacred, and truth is +honoured and respected, by favouring the accused and throwing an odium +upon the accuser, impose the burden of bringing proofs upon the latter. +But to a people so cunning and crafty, this yoke is pleasant, and this +burden is light. + + + +CHAPTER II +THEIR LIVING BY PLUNDER, AND DISREGARD OF THE BONDS OF PEACE AND +FRIENDSHIP + + +THIS nation conceives it right to commit acts of plunder, theft, and +robbery, not only against foreigners and hostile nations, but even +against their own countrymen. When an opportunity of attacking the enemy +with advantage occurs, they respect not the leagues of peace and +friendship, preferring base lucre to the solemn obligations of oaths and +good faith; to which circumstance Gildas alludes in his book concerning +the overthrow of the Britons, actuated by the love of truth, and +according to the rules of history, not suppressing the vices of his +countrymen. “They are neither brave in war, nor faithful in peace.” But +when Julius Cæsar, great as the world itself, + + “Territa quæsitis ostendit terga Britannis,” + +were they not brave under their leader Cassivellaunus? And when Belinus +and Brennus added the Roman empire to their conquests? What were they in +the time of Constantine, son of our Helen? What, in the reign of +Aurelius Ambrosius, whom even Eutropius commends? What were they in the +time of our famous prince Arthur? I will not say fabulous. On the +contrary, they, who were almost subdued by the Scots and Picts, often +harassed with success the auxiliary Roman legions, and exclaimed, as we +learn from Gildas, “The barbarians drove us to the sea, the sea drove us +again back to the barbarians; on one side we were subdued, on the other +drowned, and here we were put to death. Were they not,” says he, “at +that time brave and praiseworthy?” When attacked and conquered by the +Saxons, who originally had been called in as stipendiaries to their +assistance, were they not brave? But the strongest argument made use of +by those who accuse this nation of cowardice, is, that Gildas, a holy +man, and a Briton by birth, has handed down to posterity nothing +remarkable concerning them, in any of his historical works. We promise, +however, a solution of the contrary in our British Topography, if God +grants us a continuance of life. + +As a further proof, it may be necessary to add, that from the time when +that illustrious prince of the Britons, mentioned at the beginning of +this book, totally exhausted the strength of the country, by transporting +the whole armed force beyond the seas; that island, which had before been +so highly illustrious for its incomparable valour, remained for many +subsequent years destitute of men and arms, and exposed to the predatory +attacks of pirates and robbers. So distinguished, indeed, were the +natives of this island for their bravery, that, by their prowess, that +king subdued almost all Cisalpine Gaul, and dared even to make an attack +on the Roman empire. + +In process of time, the Britons, recovering their long-lost population +and knowledge of the use of arms, re-acquired their high and ancient +character. Let the different æras be therefore marked, and the +historical accounts will accord. With regard to Gildas, who inveighs so +bitterly against his own nation, the Britons affirm that, highly +irritated at the death of his brother, the prince of Albania, whom king +Arthur had slain, he wrote these invectives, and upon the same occasion +threw into the sea many excellent books, in which he had described the +actions of Arthur, and the celebrated deeds of his countrymen; from which +cause it arises, that no authentic account of so great a prince is any +where to be found. + + + +CHAPTER III +OF THEIR DEFICIENCY IN BATTLE, AND BASE AND DISHONOURABLE FLIGHT + + +IN war this nation is very severe in the first attack, terrible by their +clamour and looks, filling the air with horrid shouts and the deep-toned +clangour of very long trumpets; swift and rapid in their advances and +frequent throwing of darts. Bold in the first onset, they cannot bear a +repulse, being easily thrown into confusion as soon as they turn their +backs; and they trust to flight for safety, without attempting to rally, +which the poet thought reprehensible in martial conflicts: + + “Ignavum scelus est tantum fuga;” + +and elsewhere— + + “In vitium culpæ ducit fuga, si caret arte.” + +The character given to the Teutones in the Roman History, may be applied +to this people. “In their first attack they are more than men, in the +second, less than women.” Their courage manifests itself chiefly in the +retreat, when they frequently return, and, like the Parthians, shoot +their arrows behind them; and, as after success and victory in battle, +even cowards boast of their courage, so, after a reverse of fortune, even +the bravest men are not allowed their due claims of merit. Their mode of +fighting consists in chasing the enemy or in retreating. This +light-armed people, relying more on their activity than on their +strength, cannot struggle for the field of battle, enter into close +engagement, or endure long and severe actions, such as the poet +describes: + + “Jam clypeo clypeus, umbone repellitur umbo, + Ense minax ensis, pede pes, et cuspide cuspis.” + +Though defeated and put to flight on one day, they are ready to resume +the combat on the next, neither dejected by their loss, nor by their +dishonour; and although, perhaps, they do not display great fortitude in +open engagements and regular conflicts, yet they harass the enemy by +ambuscades and nightly sallies. Hence, neither oppressed by hunger or +cold, nor fatigued by martial labours, nor despondent in adversity, but +ready, after a defeat, to return immediately to action, and again endure +the dangers of war; they are as easy to overcome in a single battle, as +difficult to subdue in a protracted war. The poet Claudian thus speaks +of a people similar in disposition:— + + “Dum percunt, meminêre mali: si corda parumper + Respirare sinas, nullo tot funera censu + Prætercunt, tantique levis jactura cruoris.” + + + +CHAPTER IV +THEIR AMBITIOUS SEIZURE OF LANDS, AND DISSENSIONS AMONG BROTHERS + + +THIS nation is, above all others, addicted to the digging up of boundary +ditches, removing the limits, transgressing landmarks, and extending +their territory by every possible means. So great is their disposition +towards this common violence, that they scruple not to claim as their +hereditary right, those lands which are held under lease, or at will, on +condition of planting, or by any other title, even although indemnity had +been publicly secured on oath to the tenant by the lord proprietor of the +soil. Hence arise suits and contentions, murders and conflagrations, and +frequent fratricides, increased, perhaps, by the ancient national custom +of brothers dividing their property amongst each other. Another heavy +grievance also prevails; the princes entrust the education of their +children to the care of the principal men of their country, each of whom, +after the death of his father, endeavours, by every possible means, to +exalt his own charge above his neighbours. From which cause great +disturbances have frequently arisen amongst brothers, and terminated in +the most cruel and unjust murders; and on which account friendships are +found to be more sincere between foster-brothers, than between those who +are connected by the natural ties of brotherhood. It is also remarkable, +that brothers shew more affection to one another when dead, than when +living; for they persecute the living even unto death, but revenge the +deceased with all their power. + + + +CHAPTER V +THEIR GREAT EXACTION, AND WANT OF MODERATION + + +WHERE they find plenty, and can exercise their power, they levy the most +unjust exactions. Immoderate in their love of food and intoxicating +drink, they say with the Apostle, “We are instructed both to abound, and +to suffer need;” but do not add with him, “becoming all things to all +men, that I might by all means save some.” As in times of scarcity their +abstinence and parsimony are too severe, so, when seated at another man’s +table, after a long fasting, (like wolves and eagles, who, like them, +live by plunder, and are rarely satisfied,) their appetite is immoderate. +They are therefore penurious in times of scarcity, and extravagant in +times of plenty; but no man, as in England, mortgages his property for +the gluttonous gratification of his own appetite. They wish, however, +that all people would join with them in their bad habits and expenses; as +the commission of crimes reduces to a level all those who are concerned +in the perpetration of them. + + + +CHAPTER VI +CONCERNING THE CRIME OF INCEST, AND THE ABUSE OF CHURCHES BY SUCCESSION +AND PARTICIPATION + + +THE crime of incest hath so much prevailed, not only among the higher, +but among the lower orders of this people, that, not having the fear of +God before their eyes, they are not ashamed of intermarrying with their +relations, even in the third degree of consanguinity. They generally +abuse these dispensations with a view of appeasing those enmities which +so often subsist between them, because “their feet are swift to shed +blood;” and from their love of high descent, which they so ardently +affect and covet, they unite themselves to their own people, refusing to +intermarry with strangers, and arrogantly presuming on their own +superiority of blood and family. They do not engage in marriage, until +they have tried, by previous cohabitation, the disposition, and +particularly the fecundity, of the person with whom they are engaged. An +ancient custom also prevails of hiring girls from their parents at a +certain price, and a stipulated penalty, in case of relinquishing their +connection. + +Their churches have almost as many parsons and sharers as there are +principal men in the parish. The sons, after the decease of their +fathers, succeed to the ecclesiastical benefices, not by election, but by +hereditary right possessing and polluting the sanctuary of God. And if a +prelate should by chance presume to appoint or institute any other +person, the people would certainly revenge the injury upon the institutor +and the instituted. With respect to these two excesses of incest and +succession, which took root formerly in Armorica, and are not yet +eradicated, Ildebert, bishop of Le Mans, in one of his epistles, says, +“that he was present with a British priest at a council summoned with a +view of putting an end to the enormities of this nation:” hence it +appears that these vices have for a long time prevailed both in Britany +and Britain. The words of the Psalmist may not inaptly be applied to +them; “They are corrupt and become abominable in their doings, there is +none that doeth good, no, not one: they are all gone out of the way, they +are altogether become abominable,” etc. + + + +CHAPTER VII +OF THEIR SINS, AND THE CONSEQUENT LOSS OF BRITAIN AND OF TROY + + +MOREOVER, through their sins, and particularly that detestable and wicked +vice of Sodom, as well as by divine vengeance, they lost Britain as they +formerly lost Troy. For we read in the Roman history, that the emperor +Constantine having resigned the city and the Western empire to the +blessed Sylvester and his successors, with an intention of rebuilding +Troy, and there establishing the chief seat of the Eastern Empire, heard +a voice, saying, “Dost thou go to rebuild Sodom?” upon which, he altered +his intention, turned his ships and standards towards Byzantium, and +there fixing his seat of empire, gave his own propitious name to the +city. The British history informs us, that Mailgon, king of the Britons, +and many others, were addicted to this vice; that enormity, however, had +entirely ceased for so long a time, that the recollection of it was +nearly worn out. But since that, as if the time of repentance was almost +expired, and because the nation, by its warlike successes and acquisition +of territory, has in our times unusually increased in population and +strength, they boast in their turn, and most confidently and unanimously +affirm, that in a short time their countrymen shall return to the island, +and, according to the prophecies of Merlin, the nation, and even the +name, of foreigners, shall be extinguished in the island, and the Britons +shall exult again in their ancient name and privileges. But to me it +appears far otherwise; for since + + “Luxuriant animi rebus plerumque secundis, + Nec facile est æqua commoda mente pati;” + +And because + + “Non habet unde suum paupertas pascat amorem, . . . + Divitiis alitur luxuriosus amor.” + +So that their abstinence from that vice, which in their prosperity they +could not resist, may be attributed more justly to their poverty and +state of exile than to their sense of virtue. For they cannot be said to +have repented, when we see them involved in such an abyss of vices, +perjury, theft, robbery, rapine, murders, fratricides, adultery, and +incest, and become every day more entangled and ensnared in evil-doing; +so that the words of the prophet Hosea may be truly applied to them, +“There is no truth, nor mercy,” etc. + +Other matters of which they boast are more properly to be attributed to +the diligence and activity of the Norman kings than to their own merits +or power. For previous to the coming of the Normans, when the English +kings contented themselves with the sovereignty of Britain alone, and +employed their whole military force in the subjugation of this people, +they almost wholly extirpated them; as did king Offa, who by a long and +extensive dyke separated the British from the English; Ethelfrid also, +who demolished the noble city of Legions, {197} and put to death the +monks of the celebrated monastery at Banchor, who had been called in to +promote the success of the Britons by their prayers; and lastly Harold, +who himself on foot, with an army of light-armed infantry, and conforming +to the customary diet of the country, so bravely penetrated through every +part of Wales, that he scarcely left a man alive in it; and as a memorial +of his signal victories many stones may be found in Wales bearing this +inscription:—“HIC VICTOR FUIT HAROLDUS”—“HERE HAROLD CONQUERED.” {198} + +To these bloody and recent victories of the English may be attributed the +peaceable state of Wales during the reigns of the three first Norman +kings; when the nation increased in population, and being taught the use +of arms and the management of horses by the English and Normans (with +whom they had much intercourse, by following the court, or by being sent +as hostages), took advantage of the necessary attention which the three +succeeding kings were obliged to pay to their foreign possessions, and +once more lifting up their crests, recovered their lands, and spurned the +yoke that had formerly been imposed upon them. + + + +CHAPTER VIII +IN WHAT MANNER THIS NATION IS TO BE OVERCOME + + +THE prince who would wish to subdue this nation, and govern it peaceably, +must use this method. He must be determined to apply a diligent and +constant attention to this purpose for one year at least; for a people +who with a collected force will not openly attack the enemy in the field, +nor wait to be besieged in castles, is not to be overcome at the first +onset, but to be worn out by prudent delay and patience. Let him divide +their strength, and by bribes and promises endeavour to stir up one +against the other, knowing the spirit of hatred and envy which generally +prevails amongst them; and in the autumn let not only the marches, but +also the interior part of the country be strongly fortified with castles, +provisions, and confidential families. In the meantime the purchase of +corn, cloth, and salt, with which they are usually supplied from England, +should be strictly interdicted; and well-manned ships placed as a guard +on the coast, to prevent their importation of these articles from Ireland +or the Severn sea, and to facilitate the supply of his own army. +Afterwards, when the severity of winter approaches, when the trees are +void of leaves, and the mountains no longer afford pasturage—when they +are deprived of any hopes of plunder, and harassed on every side by the +repeated attacks of the enemy—let a body of light-armed infantry +penetrate into their woody and mountainous retreats, and let these troops +be supported and relieved by others; and thus by frequent changes, and +replacing the men who are either fatigued or slain in battle, this nation +may be ultimately subdued; nor can it be overcome without the above +precautions, nor without great danger and loss of men. Though many of +the English hired troops may perish in a day of battle, money will +procure as many or more on the morrow for the same service; but to the +Welsh, who have neither foreign nor stipendiary troops, the loss is for +the time irreparable. In these matters, therefore, as an artificer is to +be trusted in his trade, so attention is to be paid to the counsel of +those who, having been long conversant in similar concerns, are become +acquainted with the manners and customs of their country, and whom it +greatly interests, that an enemy, for whom during long and frequent +conflicts they have contracted an implacable hatred, should by their +assistance be either weakened or destroyed. Happy should I have termed +the borders of Wales inhabited by the English, if their kings, in the +government of these parts, and in their military operations against the +enemy, had rather employed the marchers and barons of the country, than +adopted the counsels and policy of the people of Anjou and the Normans. +In this, as well as in every other military expedition, either in Ireland +or in Wales, the natives of the marches, from the constant state of +warfare in which they are engaged, and whose manners are formed from the +habits of war, are bold and active, skilful on horseback, quick on foot, +not nice as to their diet, and ever prepared when necessity requires to +abstain both from corn and wine. By such men were the first hostile +attacks made upon Wales as well as Ireland, and by such men alone can +their final conquest be accomplished. For the Flemings, Normans, +Coterells, and Bragmans, are good and well-disciplined soldiers in their +own country; but the Gallic soldiery is known to differ much from the +Welsh and Irish. In their country the battle is on level, here on rough +ground; there in an open field, here in forests; there they consider +their armour as an honour, here as a burden; there soldiers are taken +prisoners, here they are beheaded; there they are ransomed, here they are +put to death. Where, therefore, the armies engage in a flat country, a +heavy and complex armour, made of cloth and iron, both protects and +decorates the soldier; but when the engagement is in narrow defiles, in +woods or marshes, where the infantry have the advantage over the cavalry, +a light armour is preferable. For light arms afford sufficient +protection against unarmed men, by whom victory is either lost or won at +the first onset; where it is necessary that an active and retreating +enemy should be overcome by a certain proportional quantity of moderate +armour; whereas with a more complex sort, and with high and curved +saddles, it is difficult to dismount, more so to mount, and with the +greatest difficulty can such troops march, if required, with the +infantry. In order, therefore, that + + “Singula quæque locum teneant sortita decenter,” + +we maintain it is necessary to employ heavy-armed and strong troops +against men heavily armed, depending entirely upon their natural +strength, and accustomed to fight in an open plain; but against +light-armed and active troops, who prefer rough ground, men accustomed to +such conflicts, and armed in a similar manner, must be employed. But let +the cities and fortresses on the Severn, and the whole territory on its +western banks towards Wales, occupied by the English, as well as the +provinces of Shropshire and Cheshire, which are protected by powerful +armies, or by any other special privileges and honourable independence, +rejoice in the provident bounty of their prince. There should be a +yearly examination of the warlike stores, of the arms, and horses, by +good and discreet men deputed for that purpose, and who, not intent on +its plunder and ruin, interest themselves in the defence and protection +of their country. By these salutary measures, the soldiers, citizens, +and the whole mass of the people, being instructed and accustomed to the +use of arms, liberty may be opposed by liberty, and pride be checked by +pride. For the Welsh, who are neither worn out by laborious burdens, nor +molested by the exactions of their lords, are ever prompt to avenge an +injury. Hence arise their distinguished bravery in the defence of their +country; hence their readiness to take up arms and to rebel. Nothing so +much excites, encourages, and invites the hearts of men to probity as the +cheerfulness of liberty; nothing so much dejects and dispirits them as +the oppression of servitude. This portion of the kingdom, protected by +arms and courage, might be of great use to the prince, not only in these +or the adjacent parts, but, if necessity required, in more remote +regions; and although the public treasury might receive a smaller annual +revenue from these provinces, yet the deficiency would be abundantly +compensated by the peace of the kingdom and the honour of its sovereign; +especially as the heavy and dangerous expenses of one military expedition +into Wales usually amount to the whole income among from the revenues of +the province. + + + +CHAPTER IX +IN WHAT MANNER WALES, WHEN CONQUERED, SHOULD BE GOVERNED + + +AS therefore this nation is to be subdued by resolution in the manner +proposed, so when subdued, its government must be directed by moderation, +according to the following plan. Let the care of it be committed to a +man of a firm and determined mind; who during the time of peace, by +paying due obedience to the laws, and respect to the government, may +render it firm and stable. For like other nations in a barbarous state, +this people, although they are strangers to the principles of honour, yet +above all things desire to be honoured; and approve and respect in others +that truth which they themselves do not profess. Whenever the natural +inconstancy of their indisposition shall induce them to revolt, let +punishment instantly follow the offence; but when they shall have +submitted themselves again to order, and made proper amends for their +faults (as it is the custom of bad men to remember wrath after quarrels), +let their former transgression be overlooked, and let them enjoy security +and respect, as long as they continue faithful. Thus, by mild treatment +they will be invited to obedience and the love of peace, and the thought +of certain punishment will deter them from rash attempts. We have often +observed persons who, confounding these matters, by complaining of +faults, depressing for services, flattering in war, plundering in peace, +despoiling the weak, paying respect to revolters, by thus rendering all +things confused, have at length been confounded themselves. Besides, as +circumstances which are foreseen do less mischief, and as that state is +happy which thinks of war in the time of peace, let the wise man be upon +his guard, and prepared against the approaching inconveniences of war, by +the construction of forts, the widening of passes through woods, and the +providing of a trusty household. For those who are cherished and +sustained during the time of peace, are more ready to come forward in +times of danger, and are more confidently to be depended upon; and as a +nation unsubdued ever meditates plots under the disguise of friendship, +let not the prince or his governor entrust the protection of his camp or +capital to their fidelity. By the examples of many remarkable men, some +of whom have been cruelly put to death, and others deprived of their +castles and dignities, through their own neglect and want of care, we may +see, that the artifices of a crafty and subdued nation are much more to +be dreaded than their open warfare; their good-will than their anger, +their honey than their gall, their malice than their attack, their +treachery than their aggression, and their pretended friendship more than +their open enmity. A prudent and provident man therefore should +contemplate in the misfortune of others what he ought himself to avoid; +correction taught by example is harmless, as Ennodius {203} says: “The +ruin of predecessors instructs those who succeed; and a former +miscarriage becomes a future caution.” If a well-disposed prince should +wish these great designs to be accomplished without the effusion of +blood, the marches, as we before mentioned, must be put into a state of +defence on all sides, and all intercourse by sea and land interdicted; +some of the Welsh may be stirred up to deadly feuds, by means of +stipends, and by transferring the property of one person to another; and +thus worn out with hunger, and a want of the necessaries of life, and +harassed by frequent murders and implacable enmities, they will at last +be compelled to surrender. + +There are three things which ruin this nation, and prevent its enjoying +the satisfaction of a fruitful progeny. First, because both the natural +and legitimate sons endeavour to divide the paternal inheritance amongst +themselves; from which cause, as we have before observed, continual +fratricides take place. Secondly, because the education of their sons is +committed to the care of the high-born people of the country, who, on the +death of their fathers, endeavour by all possible means to exalt their +pupil; from whence arise murders, conflagrations, and almost a total +destruction of the country. And, thirdly, because from the pride and +obstinacy of their disposition, they will not (like other nations) +subject themselves to the dominion of one lord and king. + + + +CHAPTER X +IN WHAT MANNER THIS NATION MAY RESIST AND REVOLT + + +HAVING hitherto so partially and elaborately spoken in favour of the +English, and being equally connected by birth with each nation, justice +demands that we should argue on both sides; let us therefore, at the +close of our work, turn our attention towards the Welsh, and briefly, but +effectually, instruct them in the art of resistance. If the Welsh were +more commonly accustomed to the Gallic mode of arming, and depended more +on steady fighting than on their agility; if their princes were unanimous +and inseparable in their defence; or rather, if they had only one prince, +and that a good one; this nation situated in so powerful, strong, and +inaccessible a country, could hardly ever be completely overcome. If, +therefore, they would be inseparable, they would become insuperable, +being assisted by these three circumstances; a country well defended by +nature, a people both contented and accustomed to live upon little, a +community whose nobles as well as privates are instructed in the use of +arms; and especially as the English fight for power, the Welsh for +liberty; the one to procure gain, the other to avoid loss; the English +hirelings for money, the Welsh patriots for their country. The English, +I say, fight in order to expel the natural inhabitants from the island, +and secure to themselves the possession of the whole; but the Welsh +maintain the conflict, that they, who have so long enjoyed the +sovereignty of the whole kingdom, may at least find a hiding place in the +worst corner of it, amongst woods and marshes; and, banished, as it were, +for their offences, may there in a state of poverty, for a limited time, +perform penance for the excesses they committed in the days of their +prosperity. For the perpetual remembrance of their former greatness, the +recollection of their Trojan descent, and the high and continued majesty +of the kingdom of Britain, may draw forth many a latent spark of +animosity, and encourage the daring spirit of rebellion. Hence during +the military expedition which king Henry II. made in our days against +South Wales, an old Welshman at Pencadair, who had faithfully adhered to +him, being desired to give his opinion about the royal army, and whether +he thought that of the rebels would make resistance, and what would be +the final event of this war, replied, “This nation, O king, may now, as +in former times, be harassed, and in a great measure weakened and +destroyed by your and other powers, and it will often prevail by its +laudable exertions; but it can never be totally subdued through the wrath +of man, unless the wrath of God shall concur. Nor do I think, that any +other nation than this of Wales, or any other language, whatever may +hereafter come to pass, shall, in the day of severe examination before +the Supreme Judge, answer for this corner of the earth.” + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + +{155a} Port Gordber, written _Gordwr_ by Humphrey Lhwyd in his Breviary +of Britain, probably a corruption from Gorddyar, a roaring, applied to +the sea, as Gorddyar môr, the roaring of the sea. + +{155b} The harbour, now known by the name of Portscwit, (and recorded in +the Triads as one of the three passages or ferries in the Isle of +Britain), is situated on the Welsh side of the Bristol channel, at a +short distance from the lower passage. + +{155c} Port Mawr, or the large port, is thus mentioned by Leland in his +Itinerary, tom. v. pp. 28, 29:—“About a mile of is Port Mawre, where is a +great sande with a shorte estuary into the lande. And sum say that there +hath beene a castel at or aboute Port Mawr, but the tokens be not very +evidente.” + +{155d} Rhyd-helyg, or the Ford of the Willow.—I imagine this place is +Walford in Herefordshire, near the banks of the river Wye. + +{156} Brutus, according to the fable, in his way to Britain, met with a +company of Trojans, who had fled from Troy with Antenor and Corinæus at +their head, who submitted themselves to Brutus, and joined his company; +which Corinæus, being a very valiant man, rendered great service to +Brutus during his wars in Gaul and Britain; in return for which, Brutus, +having subdued the island, and divided it amongst his people, gave +Cornwall to Corinæus, who, as it is said, called it after his own name, +Cernyw. + +{157a} Uchelwyr, so called from _Uchel_, high, and _gwr_, a man. + +{157b} This assertion is unfounded, if we give credit to the Welsh +Chronicle, which dates the death of Cadell in 907, and that of Anarawdin +in 913. [Howell Dda, the son of Cadell, reunited Wales under one +sovereign.] + +{158a} B.M.—This abbreviation, which in every manuscript I have seen of +Giraldus has been construed into _Beatam Mariam_, and in many of them is +written _Beatam Virginem_, may with much greater propriety be applied to +_Belinus Magnus_, or Beli the Great, a distinguished British King, to +whom most of the British pedigrees ascended; and because his name +occurred so frequently in them it was often written short, B.M., which +some men, by mistake, interpret _Beata Maria_.—(Sir R. C. H.) + +{158b} Aberfraw, a small town at the conflux of the river Fraw and the +sea, on the S.W. part of the isle of Anglesey, and twelve miles S.E. of +Holyhead. + +{159a} A great lordship in Herefordshire, including the district between +Hereford and Monmouth, bordering on the river Wye. + +{159b} Book ii. chapter i. + +{162a} Book ii. c. 4. + +{162b} If by the mountains of Eryri we are to understand the Snowdonian +range of hills, our author has not been quite accurate in fixing the +source of the river Dovy, which rises between Dynas-y-mowddu and Bala +Lake, to the southward of Mount Arran: from whence it pursues its course +to Mallwyd, and Machynlleth, below which place it becomes an estuary, and +the boundary between North and South Wales. + +{162c} Our author is again incorrect in stating that the river Maw +forms, by its course, the two tracts of sands called Traeth Mawr and +Traeth Bychan. This river, from which Barmouth derives the name of +Abermaw, and to which Giraldus, in the fifth chapter of the second book +of his Itinerary, has given the epithet of _bifurcus_, runs far to the +southward of either of the Traeths. The Traeth Mawr, or large sands, are +formed by the impetuous torrents which descend from Snowdon by +Beddgelert, and pass under the Devil’s Bridge at Pont Aberglasllyn, so +called from the river Glasllyn; and the Traeth Bychan, or little sands, +are formed by numerous streams which unite themselves in the vale of +Festiniog, and become an æstuary near the village of Maentwrog. + +{165a} Better known as Geoffrey of Monmouth. + +{165b} The Anglo-Saxons called the Britons _Wealhas_, from a word in +their own language, which signified literally foreigners; and hence we +derive the modern name Welsh. + +{168} The Peak, in Derbyshire. + +{169a} Sir R. C. Hoare has altogether misunderstood the original here. +It was the custom in the middle ages to place the guests at table in +pairs, and each two persons ate out of one plate. Each couple was a +_mess_. At a later period, among the great the mess consisted of four +persons; but it appears that in Wales, at this time, it was formed of +three guests. + +{169b} “Bread, called _Lagana_, was, I suppose, the sort of household +bread, or thin cake baked on an iron plate, called a griddle (_gradell_), +still common in Caermarthenshire, and called _Bara Llech_ and _Bara +Llechan_, or griddle bread, from being so baked.”—Owen. “_Laganum_, a +fritter or pancake, _Baranyiod_.”—_Lluyd_, _Archaiology_, p. 75. + +{170} _Brychan_, in Lhuyd’s Archaiology and Cornish Grammar, is spelt +Bryccan, and interpreted a blanket. + +{171} “Omnes vero se Britanni vitro inficiunt, quod cæruleum efficit +colorem, atque hoc horridore sunt in pugna adspectu; capilloque sunt +promisso, atque omni parte corporis rasa, præter caput et labrum +superius.”—_Cæsar de Bello Gallico_, cap. 13, 14. + +{172} This instrument is generally supposed to have been the origin of +the violin, which was not commonly known in England till the reign of +Charles I. Before this time the crwth was not probably confined to the +Principality, from the name of _Crowdero_ in Hudibras; as also from a +fiddler being still called a _crowder_ in some parts of England, though +he now plays on a violin instead of a crwth. + +{173} These Welsh lines quoted by Giraldus are selected from two +different stanzas of moral verses, called Eglynion y Clywed, the +composition of some anonymous bard; or probably the work of several: + + “A glyweisti a gant Dywyneg, + Milwr doeth detholedig; + Digawn Duw da i unig? + + “Hast thou heard what was sung by Dywynic? + A wise and chosen warrior; + God will effect solace to the orphan. + + “A glyweisti a gant Anarawd? + Milwr doniawg did lawd; + Rhaid wrth anmhwyll pwyll parawd. + + “Hast thou heard what was sung by Anarawd? + A warrior endowed with many gifts; + With want of sense ready wit is necessary.” + +Or, as Giraldus quotes it, + + “Wrth bob crybwll rhaid pwyll parawd.” + + “With every hint ready wit is necessary.” + + _Myvyvrian Archaiology_, page 172. + +{179} Awenydhion, in a literal sense, means persons inspired by the +Muse, and is derived from Awen and Awenydd, a poetical rapture, or the +gift of poetry. It was the appellation of the disciples, or candidates +for the Bardic Order; but the most general acceptation of the word was, +Poets, or Bards. + +{183} Genealogies were preserved as a principle of necessity under the +ancient British constitution. A man’s pedigree was in reality his title +deed, by which he claimed his birthright in the country. Every one was +obliged to show his descent through nine generations, in order to be +acknowledged a free native, and by this right he claimed his portion of +land in the community. He was affected with respect to legal process in +his collateral affinities through nine degrees. For instance, every +murder committed had a fine levied on the relations of the murderer, +divided into nine degrees; his brother paying the greatest, and the ninth +in affinity the least. This fine was distributed in the same way among +the relatives of the victim. A person past the ninth descent formed a +new family. Every family was represented by its elder; and these elders +from every family were delegates to the national council.—_Owen_. + +{184} The _naviculæ_ mentioned by Giraldus bear the modern name of +_coracles_, and are much used on the Welsh rivers for the taking of +salmon. Their name is derived probably from the Celtic word _corawg_, +which signifies a _ship_. They are mentioned by the ancient writers. + +{197} By the city of Legions Chester is here meant, not Caerleon. + +{198} Of the stones inscribed “HIC VICTOR FUIT HAROLDUS”—“HERE HAROLD +CONQUERED,” no original, I believe, remains extant; but at the village of +Trelech, in Monmouthshire, there is a modern pedestal bearing the above +inscription.—See the description and engraving in Coxe’s Monmouthshire, +p. 234. + +{203} In one MS. of Giraldus in the British Museum, this name is written +Ovidius. + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESCRIPTION OF WALES*** + + +******* This file should be named 1092-0.txt or 1092-0.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/0/9/1092 + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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