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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/1092-0.txt b/1092-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..875e8b4 --- /dev/null +++ b/1092-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2331 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Description of Wales, by Geraldus +Cambrensis + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most +other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of +the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have +to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. + + + + +Title: The Description of Wales + + +Author: Geraldus Cambrensis + + + +Release Date: February 9, 2015 [eBook #1092] +[This file was first posted on October 30, 1997] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESCRIPTION OF WALES*** + + +Transcribed from the 1912 J. M. Dent edition by David Price, email +ccx074@pglaf.org + + + + + + THE DESCRIPTION OF WALES + by + Gerald of Wales + + +FIRST PREFACE +TO STEPHEN LANGTON, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY + + +I, WHO, at the expense of three years’ labour, arranged, a short time +ago, in three parts, the Topography of Ireland, with a description of its +natural curiosities, and who afterwards, by two years’ study, completed +in two parts the Vaticinal History of its Conquest; and who, by +publishing the Itinerary of the Holy Man (Baldwin) through Cambria, +prevented his laborious mission from perishing in obscurity, do now +propose, in the present little work, to give some account of this my +native country, and to describe the genius of its inhabitants, so +entirely distinct from that of other nations. And this production of my +industry I have determined to dedicate to you, illustrious Stephen, +archbishop of Canterbury, as I before ascribed to you my Itinerary; +considering you as a man no less distinguished by your piety, than +conspicuous for your learning; though so humble an offering may possibly +be unworthy the acceptance of a personage who, from his eminence, +deserves to be presented with works of the greatest merit. + +Some, indeed, object to this my undertaking, and, apparently from motives +of affection, compare me to a painter, who, rich in colours, and like +another Zeuxis, eminent in his art, is endeavouring with all his skill +and industry to give celebrity to a cottage, or to some other +contemptible object, whilst the world is anxiously expecting from his +hand a temple or a palace. Thus they wonder that I, amidst the many +great and striking subjects which the world presents, should choose to +describe and to adorn, with all the graces of composition, such remote +corners of the earth as Ireland and Wales. + +Others again, reproaching me with greater severity, say, that the gifts +which have been bestowed upon me from above, ought not to be wasted upon +these insignificant objects, nor lavished in a vain display of learning +on the commendation of princes, who, from their ignorance and want of +liberality, have neither taste to appreciate, nor hearts to remunerate +literary excellence. And they further add, that every faculty which +emanates from the Deity, ought rather to be applied to the illustration +of celestial objects, and to the exultation of his glory, from whose +abundance all our talents have been received; every faculty (say they) +ought to be employed in praising him from whom, as from a perennial +source, every perfect gift is derived, and from whose bounty everything +which is offered with sincerity obtains an ample reward. But since +excellent histories of other countries have been composed and published +by writers of eminence, I have been induced, by the love I bear to my +country and to posterity, to believe that I should perform neither an +useless nor an unacceptable service, were I to unfold the hidden merits +of my native land; to rescue from obscurity those glorious actions which +have been hitherto imperfectly described, and to bring into repute, by my +method of treating it, a subject till now regarded as contemptible. + +What indeed could my feeble and unexercised efforts add to the histories +of the destruction of Troy, Thebes, or Athens, or to the conquest of the +shores of Latium? Besides, to do what has been already done, is, in +fact, to be doing nothing; I have, therefore, thought it more eligible to +apply my industry to the arrangement of the history of my native country, +hitherto almost wholly overlooked by strangers; but interesting to my +relations and countrymen; and from these small beginnings to aspire by +degrees to works of a nobler cast. From these inconsiderable attempts, +some idea may be formed with what success, should Fortune afford an +opportunity, I am likely to treat matters of greater importance. For +although some things should be made our principal objects, whilst others +ought not to be wholly neglected, I may surely be allowed to exercise the +powers of my youth, as yet untaught and unexperienced, in pursuits of +this latter nature, lest by habit I should feel a pleasure in indolence +and in sloth, the parent of vice. + +I have therefore employed these studies as a kind of introduction to the +glorious treasures of that most excellent of the sciences, which alone +deserves the name of science; which alone can render us wise to rule and +to instruct mankind; which alone the other sciences follow, as attendants +do their queen. Laying therefore in my youth the foundations of so noble +a structure, it is my intention, if God will assist me and prolong my +life, to reserve my maturer years for composing a treatise upon so +perfect, so sacred a subject: for according to the poet, + + “Ardua quippe fides robustos exigit annos;” + + “The important concerns of faith require a mind in its full vigour;” + +I may be permitted to indulge myself for a short time in other pursuits; +but in this I should wish not only to continue, but to die. + +But before I enter on this important subject, I demand a short interval, +to enable me to lay before the public my Treatise on the Instruction of a +Prince, which has been so frequently promised, as well as the Description +of Wales, which is now before me, and the Topography of Britain. + +Of all the British writers, Gildas alone appears to me (as often as the +course of my subject leads me to consult him) worthy of imitation; for by +committing to paper the things which he himself saw and knew, and by +declaring rather than describing the desolation of his country, he has +compiled a history more remarkable for its truth than for its elegance. + +Giraldus therefore follows Gildas, whom he wishes he could copy in his +life and manners; becoming an imitator of his wisdom rather than of his +eloquence—of his mind rather than of his writings—of his zeal rather than +of his style—of his life rather than of his language. + + + + +SECOND PREFACE +TO THE SAME + + +WHEN, amidst various literary pursuits, I first applied my mind to the +compilation of history, I determined, lest I should appear ungrateful to +my native land, to describe, to the best of my abilities, my own country +and its adjoining regions; and afterwards, under God’s guidance, to +proceed to a description of more distant territories. But since some +leading men (whom we have both seen and known) show so great a contempt +for literature, that they immediately shut up within their book-cases the +excellent works with which they are presented, and thus doom them, as it +were, to a perpetual imprisonment; I entreat you, illustrious Prelate, to +prevent the present little work, which will shortly be delivered to you, +from perishing in obscurity. And because this, as well as my former +productions, though of no transcendent merit, may hereafter prove to many +a source of entertainment and instruction, I entreat you generously to +order it to be made public, by which it will acquire reputation. And I +shall consider myself sufficiently rewarded for my trouble, if, +withdrawing for a while from your religious and secular occupations, you +would kindly condescend to peruse this book, or, at least, give it an +attentive hearing; for in times like these, when no one remunerates +literary productions, I neither desire nor expect any other recompense. +Not that it would appear in any way inconsistent, however there exists +among men of rank a kind of conspiracy against authors, if a prelate so +eminently conspicuous for his virtues, for his abilities, both natural +and acquired, for irreproachable morals, and for munificence, should +distinguish himself likewise by becoming the generous and sole patron of +literature. To comprise your merits in a few words, the lines of Martial +addressed to Trajan, whilst serving under Dioclesian, may be deservedly +applied to you: + + “Laudari debes quoniam sub principe duro, + Temporibusque malis, ausus es esse bonus.” + +And those also of Virgil to Mecænas, which extol the humanity of that +great man: + + “Omnia cum possis tanto tam clarus amico, + Te sensit nemo posse nocere tamen.” + +Many indeed remonstrate against my proceedings, and those particularly +who call themselves my friends insist that, in consequence of my violent +attachment to study, I pay no attention to the concerns of the world, or +to the interests of my family; and that, on this account, I shall +experience a delay in my promotion to worldly dignities; that the +influence of authors, both poets and historians, has long since ceased; +that the respect paid to literature vanished with literary princes; and +that in these degenerate days very different paths lead to honours and +opulence. I allow all this, I readily allow it, and acquiesce in the +truth. For the unprincipled and covetous attach themselves to the court, +the churchmen to their books, and the ambitious to the public offices, +but as every man is under the influence of some darling passion, so the +love of letters and the study of eloquence have from my infancy had for +me peculiar charms of attraction. Impelled by this thirst for knowledge, +I have carried my researches into the mysterious works of nature farther +than the generality of my contemporaries, and for the benefit of +posterity have rescued from oblivion the remarkable events of my own +times. But this object was not to be secured without an indefatigable, +though at the same time an agreeable, exertion; for an accurate +investigation of every particular is attended with much difficulty. It +is difficult to produce an orderly account of the investigation and +discovery of truth; it is difficult to preserve from the beginning to the +end a connected relation unbroken by irrelevant matter; and it is +difficult to render the narration no less elegant in the diction, than +instructive in its matter, for in prosecuting the series of events, the +choice of happy expressions is equally perplexing, as the search after +them painful. Whatever is written requires the most intense thought, and +every expression should be carefully polished before it be submitted to +the public eye; for, by exposing itself to the examination of the present +and of future ages, it must necessarily undergo the criticism not only of +the acute, but also of the dissatisfied, reader. Words merely uttered +are soon forgotten, and the admiration or disgust which they occasioned +is no more; but writings once published are never lost, and remain as +lasting memorials either of the glory or of the disgrace of the author. +Hence the observation of Seneca, that the malicious attention of the +envious reader dwells with no less satisfaction on a faulty than on an +elegant expression, and is as anxious to discover what it may ridicule, +as what it may commend; as the poet also observes: + + “Discit enim citius meminitque libentius illud + Quod quis deridet, quam quod probat et veneratur.” + +Among the pursuits, therefore, most worthy of commendation, this holds by +no means the lowest rank; for history, as the moral philosopher declares, +“is the record of antiquity, the testimony of ages, the light of truth, +the soul of memory, the mistress of conduct, and the herald of ancient +times.” + +This study is the more delightful, as it is more honourable to produce +works worthy of being quoted than to quote the works of others; as it is +more desirable to be the author of compositions which deserve to be +admired than to be esteemed a good judge of the writings of other men; as +it is more meritorious to be the just object of other men’s commendations +than to be considered an adept in pointing out the merits of others. On +these pleasing reflections I feed and regale myself; for I would rather +resemble Jerome than Croesus, and I prefer to riches themselves the man +who is capable of despising them. With these gratifying ideas I rest +contented and delighted, valuing moderation more than intemperance, and +an honourable sufficiency more than superfluity; for intemperance and +superfluity produce their own destruction, but their opposite virtues +never perish; the former vanish, but the latter, like eternity, remain +for ever; in short, I prefer praise to lucre, and reputation to riches. + + + + +CONTENTS + + BOOK I + CHAPTER PAGE + I. Length and Breadth of Wales, the Nature of its 155 + Soil, and the Three Remaining Tribes of + Britons + II. Of the Ancient Division of Wales into Three 156 + Parts + III. Genealogy of the Princes of Wales 157 + IV. Cantreds—Royal Palaces—Cathedrals 158 + V. Mountains and Rivers of Wales 159 + VI. Concerning the Pleasantness and Fertility of 163 + Wales + VII. Origin of the Names Cambria and Wales 164 + VIII. Concerning the Nature, Manners, and Dress, the 166 + Boldness, Agility, and Courage, of this Nation + IX. Their Sober Supper and Frugality 168 + X. Their Hospitality and Liberality 170 + XI. Concerning their cutting of their Hair, their 171 + Care of their Teeth, and Shaving of their + Beard + XII. Their Quickness and Sharpness of Understanding 174 + XIII. Their Symphonies and Songs 175 + XIV. Their Wit and Pleasantry 177 + XV. Their Boldness and Confidence in Speaking 183 + XVI. Concerning the Soothsayers of this Nation, and 179 + Persons as it were possessed + XVII. Their Love of High Birth and Ancient Genealogy 183 + XVIII. Their Ancient Faith, Love of Christianity and 185 + Devotion + BOOK II + I. Concerning the Inconstancy and Instability of 189 + this Nation, and their Want of Reverence for + Good Faith and Oaths + II. Their living by Plunder, and Disregard of the 190 + Bonds of Peace and Friendship + III. Their Deficiency in Battle, and Base and 192 + Dishonourable Flight + IV. Their Ambitious Seizure of Lands, and 193 + Dissensions among Brothers + V. Their great Exaction, and Want of Moderation 194 + VI. Concerning the Crime of Incest, and the Abuse 195 + of Churches by Succession and Participation + VII. Their Sins, and the consequent Loss of Britain 196 + and of Troy + VIII. In what Manner this Nation is to be overcome 198 + IX. In what Manner Wales, when conquered, should 202 + be governed + X. In what Manner this Nation may resist and 204 + revolt + +BOOK I + + +CHAPTER I +OF THE LENGTH AND BREADTH OF WALES, THE NATURE OF ITS SOIL, AND THE THREE +REMAINING TRIBES OF BRITONS + + +CAMBRIA, which, by a corrupt and common term, though less proper, is in +modern times called Wales, is about two hundred miles long and one +hundred broad. The length from Port Gordber {155a} in Anglesey to Port +Eskewin {155b} in Monmouthshire is eight days’ journey in extent; the +breadth from Porth Mawr, {155c} or the great Port of St. David’s, to +Ryd-helic, {155d} which in Latin means _Vadum salicis_, or the Ford of +the Willow, and in English is called Willow-forde, is four days’ journey. +It is a country very strongly defended by high mountains, deep valleys, +extensive woods, rivers, and marshes; insomuch that from the time the +Saxons took possession of the island the remnants of the Britons, +retiring into these regions, could never be entirely subdued either by +the English or by the Normans. Those who inhabited the southern angle of +the island, which took its name from the chieftain Corinæus, {156} made +less resistance, as their country was more defenceless. The third +division of the Britons, who obtained a part of Britany in Gaul, were +transported thither, not after the defeat of their nation, but long +before, by king Maximus, and, in consequence of the hard and continued +warfare which they underwent with him, were rewarded by the royal +munificence with those districts in France. + + + +CHAPTER II +OF THE ANCIENT DIVISION OF WALES INTO THREE PARTS + + +WALES was in ancient times divided into three parts nearly equal, +consideration having been paid, in this division, more to the value than +to the just quantity or proportion of territory. They were Venedotia, +now called North Wales; Demetia, or South Wales, which in British is +called Deheubarth, that is, the southern part; and Powys, the middle or +eastern district. Roderic the Great, or Rhodri Mawr, who was king over +all Wales, was the cause of this division. He had three sons, Mervin, +Anarawt, and Cadell, amongst whom he partitioned the whole principality. +North Wales fell to the lot of Mervin; Powys to Anarawt; and Cadell +received the portion of South Wales, together with the general good +wishes of his brothers and the people; for although this district greatly +exceeded the others in quantity, it was the least desirable from the +number of noble chiefs, or Uchelwyr, {157a} men of a superior rank, who +inhabited it, and were often rebellious to their lords, and impatient of +control. But Cadell, on the death of his brothers, obtained the entire +dominion of Wales, {157b} as did his successors till the time of Tewdwr, +whose descendants, Rhys, son of Tewdwr, Gruflydd, son of Rhys, and Rhys, +son of Gruffydd, the ruling prince in our time, enjoyed only (like the +father) the sovereignty over South Wales. + + + +CHAPTER III +GENEALOGY OF THE PRINCES OF WALES + + +THE following is the generation of princes of South Wales: Rhys, son of +Gruffydd; Gruffydd, son of Rhys; Rhys, son of Tewdwr; Tewdwr, son of +Eineon; Eineon, son of Owen; Owen, son of Howel Dda, or Howel the Good; +Howel, son of Cadell, son of Roderic the Great. Thus the princes of +South Wales derived their origin from Cadell, son of Roderic the Great. +The princes of North Wales descended from Mervin in this manner: +Llewelyn, son of Iorwerth; Iorwerth, son of Owen; Owen, son of Gruffydd; +Gruffydd, son of Conan; Conan, son of Iago; Iago, son of Edoual; Edoual, +son of Meyric; Meyric, son of Anarawt (Anandhrec); Anarawt, son of +Mervin, son of Roderic the Great. Anarawt leaving no issue, the princes +of Powys have their own particular descent. + +It is worthy of remark, that the Welsh bards and singers, or reciters, +have the genealogies of the aforesaid princes, written in the Welsh +language, in their ancient and authentic books; and also retain them in +their memory from Roderic the Great to B.M.; {158a} and from thence to +Sylvius, Ascanius, and Æneas; and from the latter produce the +genealogical series in a lineal descent, even to Adam. + +But as an account of such long and remote genealogies may appear to many +persons trifling rather than historical, we have purposely omitted them +in our compendium. + + + +CHAPTER IV +HOW MANY CANTREDS, ROYAL PALACES, AND CATHEDRALS THERE ARE IN WALES + + +SOUTH WALES contains twenty-nine cantreds; North Wales, twelve; Powys, +six: many of which are at this time in the possession of the English and +Franks. For the country now called Shropshire formerly belonged to +Powys, and the place where the castle of Shrewsbury stands bore the name +of Pengwern, or the head of the Alder Grove. There were three royal +seats in South Wales: Dinevor, in South Wales, removed from Caerleon; +Aberfraw, {158b} in North Wales; and Pengwern, in Powys. + +Wales contains in all fifty-four cantreds. The word _Cantref_ is derived +from _Cant_, a hundred, and _Tref_, a village; and means in the British +and Irish languages such a portion of land as contains a hundred vills. + +There are four cathedral churches in Wales: St. David’s, upon the Irish +sea, David the archbishop being its patron: it was in ancient times the +metropolitan church, and the district only contained twenty-four +cantreds, though at this time only twenty-three; for Ergengl, in English +called Urchenfeld, {159a} is said to have been formerly within the +diocese of St. David’s, and sometimes was placed within that of Landaff. +The see of St. David’s had twenty-five successive archbishops; and from +the time of the removal of the pall into France, to this day, twenty-two +bishops; whose names and series, as well as the cause of the removal of +the archiepiscopal pall, may be seen in our Itinerary. {159b} + +In South Wales also is situated the bishopric of Landaff, near the Severn +sea, and near the noble castle of Caerdyf; bishop Teilo being its patron. +It contains five cantreds, and the fourth part of another, namely, +Senghennyd. + +In North Wales, between Anglesey and the Eryri mountains, is the see of +Bangor, under the patronage of Daniel, the abbot; it contains about nine +cantreds. + +In North Wales also is the poor little cathedral of Llan-Elwy, or St. +Asaph, containing about six cantreds, to which Powys is subject. + + + +CHAPTER V +OF THE TWO MOUNTAINS FROM WHICH THE NOBLE RIVERS WHICH DIVIDE WALES +SPRING + + +WALES is divided and distinguished by noble rivers, which derive their +source from two ranges of mountains, the Ellennith, in South Wales, which +the English call Moruge, as being the heads of moors, or bogs; and Eryri, +in North Wales, which they call Snowdon, or mountains of snow; the latter +of which are said to be of so great an extent, that if all the herds in +Wales were collected together, they would supply them with pasture for a +considerable time. Upon them are two lakes, one of which has a floating +island; and the other contains fish having only one eye, as we have +related in our Itinerary. + +We must also here remark, that at two places in Scotland, one on the +eastern, and the other on the western ocean, the sea-fish called mulvelli +(mullets) have only the right eye. + +The noble river Severn takes its rise from the Ellennith mountains, and +flowing by the castles of Shrewsbury and Bridgenorth, through the city of +Worcester, and that of Gloucester, celebrated for its iron manufactories, +falls into the sea a few miles from the latter place, and gives its name +to the Severn Sea. This river was for many years the boundary between +Cambria and Loegria, or Wales and England; it was called in British +Hafren, from the daughter of Locrinus, who was drowned in it by her +step-mother; the aspirate being changed, according to the Latin idiom, +into S, as is usual in words derived from the Greek, it was termed +Sarina, as hal becomes _sal_; hemi, _semi_; hepta, _septem_. + +The river Wye rises in the same mountains of Ellennith, and flows by the +castles of Hay and Clifford, through the city of Hereford, by the castles +of Wilton and Goodrich, through the forest of Dean, abounding with iron +and deer, and proceeds to Strigul castle, below which it empties itself +into the sea, and forms in modern times the boundary between England and +Wales. The Usk does not derive its origin from these mountains, but from +those of Cantref Bachan; it flows by the castle of Brecheinoc, or +Aberhodni, that is, the fall of the river Hodni into the Usk (for Aber, +in the British language, signifies every place where two rivers unite +their streams); by the castles of Abergevenni and Usk, through the +ancient city of Legions, and discharges itself into the Severn Sea, not +far from Newport. + +The river Remni flows towards the sea from the mountains of Brecheinoc, +having passed the castle and bridge of Remni. From the same range of +mountains springs the Taf, which pursues its course to the episcopal see +of Landaf (to which it gives its name), and falls into the sea below the +castle of Caerdyf. The river Avon rushes impetuously from the mountains +of Glamorgan, between the celebrated Cistercian monasteries of Margan and +Neth; and the river Neth, descending from the mountains of Brecheinoc, +unites itself with the sea, at no great distance from the castle of Neth; +each of these rivers forming a long tract of dangerous quicksands. From +the same mountains of Brecheinoc the river Tawe flows down to Abertawe, +called in English Swainsey. The Lochor joins the sea near the castle of +the same name; and the Wendraeth has its confluence near Cydweli. The +Tywy, another noble river, rises in the Ellennith mountains, and +separating the Cantref Mawr from the Cantref Bachan, passes by the castle +of Llanymddyfri, and the royal palace and castle of Dinevor, strongly +situated in the deep recesses of its woods, by the noble castle of +Caermarddin, where Merlin was found, and from whom the city received its +name, and runs into the sea near the castle of Lhanstephan. The river +Taf rises in the Presseleu mountains, not far from the monastery of +Whitland, and passing by the castle of St. Clare, falls into the sea near +Abercorran and Talacharn. From the same mountains flow the rivers +Cleddeu, encompassing the province of Daugleddeu, and giving it their +name one passes by the castle of Lahaden, and the other by Haverford, to +the sea; and in the British language they bear the name of Daugleddeu, or +two swords. + +The noble river Teivi springs from the Ellennith mountains, in the upper +part of the Cantref Mawr and Caerdigan, not far from the pastures and +excellent monastery of Stratflur, forming a boundary between Demetia and +Caerdigan down to the Irish channel; this is the only river in Wales that +produces beavers, an account of which is given in our Itinerary; and also +exceeds every other river in the abundance and delicacy of its salmon. +But as this book may fall into the hands of many persons who will not +meet with the other, I have thought it right here to insert many curious +and particular qualities relating to the nature of these animals, how +they convey their materials from the woods to the river, with what skill +they employ these materials in constructing places of safety in the +middle of the stream, how artfully they defend themselves against the +attack of the hunters on the eastern and how on the western side; the +singularity of their tails, which partake more of the nature of fish than +flesh. For further particulars see the Itinerary. {162a} + +From the same mountains issues the Ystuyth, and flowing through the upper +parts of Penwedic, in Cardiganshire, falls into the sea near the castle +of Aberystuyth. From the snowy mountains of Eryri flows the noble river +Devi, {162b} dividing for a great distance North and South Wales; and +from the same mountains also the large river Maw, {162c} forming by its +course the greater and smaller tract of sands called the Traeth Mawr and +the Traeth Bachan. The Dissennith also, and the Arthro, flow through +Merionethshire and the land of Conan. The Conwy, springing from the +northern side of the Eryri mountains, unites its waters with the sea +under the noble castle of Deganwy. The Cloyd rises from another side of +the same mountain, and passes by the castle of Ruthlan to the sea. The +Doverdwy, called by the English Dee, draws its source from the lake of +Penmelesmere, and runs through Chester, leaving the wood of Coleshulle, +Basinwerk, and a rich vein of silver in its neighbourhood, far to the +right, and by the influx of the sea forming a very dangerous quicksand; +thus the Dee makes the northern, and the river Wye the southern boundary +of Wales. + + + +CHAPTER VI +CONCERNING THE PLEASANTNESS AND FERTILITY OF WALES + + +AS the southern part of Wales near Cardiganshire, but particularly +Pembrokeshire, is much pleasanter, on account of its plains and +sea-coast, so North Wales is better defended by nature, is more +productive of men distinguished for bodily strength, and more fertile in +the nature of its soil; for, as the mountains of Eryri (Snowdon) could +supply pasturage for all the herds of cattle in Wales, if collected +together, so could the Isle of Mona (Anglesey) provide a requisite +quantity of corn for all the inhabitants: on which account there is an +old British proverb, “_Mon mam Cymbry_,” that is, “Mona is the mother of +Wales.” Merionyth, and the land of Conan, is the rudest and least +cultivated region, and the least accessible. The natives of that part of +Wales excel in the use of long lances, as those of Monmouthshire are +distinguished for their management of the bow. It is to be observed, +that the British language is more delicate and richer in North Wales, +that country being less intermixed with foreigners. Many, however, +assert that the language of Cardiganshire, in South Wales, placed as it +were in the middle and heart of Cambria, is the most refined. + +The people of Cornwall and the Armoricans speak a language similar to +that of the Britons; and from its origin and near resemblance, it is +intelligible to the Welsh in many instances, and almost in all; and +although less delicate and methodical, yet it approaches, as I judge, +more to the ancient British idiom. As in the southern parts of England, +and particularly in Devonshire, the English language seems less +agreeable, yet it bears more marks of antiquity (the northern parts being +much corrupted by the irruptions of the Danes and Norwegians), and +adheres more strictly to the original language and ancient mode of +speaking; a positive proof of which may be deduced from all the English +works of Bede, Rhabanus, and king Alfred, being written according to this +idiom. + + + +CHAPTER VII +ORIGIN OF THE NAMES CAMBRIA AND WALES + + +CAMBRIA was so called from Camber, son of Brutus, for Brutus, descending +from the Trojans, by his grandfather, Ascanius, and father, Silvius, led +the remnant of the Trojans, who had long been detained in Greece, into +this western isle; and having reigned many years, and given his name to +the country and people, at his death divided the kingdom of Wales between +his three sons. To his eldest son, Locrinus, he gave that part of the +island which lies between the rivers Humber and Severn, and which from +him was called Loegria. To his second son, Albanactus, he gave the lands +beyond the Humber, which took from him the name of Albania. But to his +youngest son, Camber, he bequeathed all that region which lies beyond the +Severn, and is called after him Cambria; hence the country is properly +and truly called Cambria, and its inhabitants Cambrians, or Cambrenses. +Some assert that their name was derived from _Cam_ and _Græco_, that is, +distorted Greek, on account of the affinity of their languages, +contracted by their long residence in Greece; but this conjecture, though +plausible, is not well founded on truth. + +The name of Wales was not derived from Wallo, a general, or Wandolena, +the queen, as the fabulous history of Geoffrey Arthurius {165a} falsely +maintains, because neither of these personages are to be found amongst +the Welsh; but it arose from a barbarian appellation. The Saxons, when +they seized upon Britain, called this nation, as they did all foreigners, +Wallenses; and thus the barbarous name remains to the people and their +country. {165b} + +Having discoursed upon the quality and quantity of the land, the +genealogies of the princes, the sources of the rivers, and the derivation +of the names of this country, we shall now consider the nature and +character of the nation. + + + +CHAPTER VIII +CONCERNING THE NATURE, MANNERS, AND DRESS, THE BOLDNESS, AGILITY, AND +COURAGE, OF THIS NATION + + +THIS people is light and active, hardy rather than strong, and entirely +bred up to the use of arms; for not only the nobles, but all the people +are trained to war, and when the trumpet sounds the alarm, the husbandman +rushes as eagerly from his plough as the courtier from his court; for +here it is not found that, as in other places, + + “Agricolis labor actus in orbem,” + +returns; for in the months of March and April only the soil is once +ploughed for oats, and again in the summer a third time, and in winter +for wheat. Almost all the people live upon the produce of their herds, +with oats, milk, cheese, and butter; eating flesh in larger proportions +than bread. They pay no attention to commerce, shipping, or +manufactures, and suffer no interruption but by martial exercises. They +anxiously study the defence of their country and their liberty; for these +they fight, for these they undergo hardships, and for these willingly +sacrifice their lives; they esteem it a disgrace to die in bed, an honour +to die in the field of battle; using the poet’s expressions,— + + “Procul hinc avertite pacem, + Nobilitas cum pace perit.” + +Nor is it wonderful if it degenerates, for the ancestors of these men, +the Æneadæ, rushed to arms in the cause of liberty. It is remarkable +that this people, though unarmed, dares attack an armed foe; the infantry +defy the cavalry, and by their activity and courage generally prove +victors. They resemble in disposition and situation those conquerors +whom the poet Lucan mentions: + + — —“Populi quos despicit Arctos, + Felices errore suo, quos ille timorum + Maximus haud urget leti metus, inde ruendi + In ferrum, mens prona viris, amimæque capaces, + Mortis et ignavum redituræ parsere vitæ.” + +They make use of light arms, which do not impede their agility, small +coats of mail, bundles of arrows, and long lances, helmets and shields, +and more rarely greaves plated with iron. The higher class go to battle +mounted on swift and generous steeds, which their country produces; but +the greater part of the people fight on foot, on account of the marshy +nature and unevenness of the soil. The horsemen as their situation or +occasion requires, willingly serve as infantry, in attacking or +retreating; and they either walk bare-footed, or make use of high shoes, +roughly constructed with untanned leather. In time of peace, the young +men, by penetrating the deep recesses of the woods, and climbing the tops +of mountains, learn by practice to endure fatigue through day and night; +and as they meditate on war during peace, they acquire the art of +fighting by accustoming themselves to the use of the lance, and by +inuring themselves to hard exercise. + +In our time, king Henry II., in reply to the inquiries of Emanuel, +emperor of Constantinople, concerning the situation, nature, and striking +peculiarities of the British island, among other remarkable circumstances +mentioned the following: “That in a certain part of the island there was +a people, called Welsh, so bold and ferocious that, when unarmed, they +did not fear to encounter an armed force; being ready to shed their blood +in defence of their country, and to sacrifice their lives for renown; +which is the more surprising, as the beasts of the field over the whole +face of the island became gentle, but these desperate men could not be +tamed. The wild animals, and particularly the stags and hinds, are so +abundant, owing to the little molestation they receive, that in our time, +in the northern parts of the island towards the Peak, {168} when pursued +by the hounds and hunters, they contributed, by their numbers, to their +own destruction.” + + + +CHAPTER IX +OF THEIR SOBER SUPPER AND FRUGALITY + + +NOT addicted to gluttony or drunkenness, this people who incur no expense +in food or dress, and whose minds are always bent upon the defence of +their country, and on the means of plunder, are wholly employed in the +care of their horses and furniture. Accustomed to fast from morning till +evening, and trusting to the care of Providence, they dedicate the whole +day to business, and in the evening partake of a moderate meal; and even +if they have none, or only a very scanty one, they patiently wait till +the next evening; and, neither deterred by cold nor hunger, they employ +the dark and stormy nights in watching the hostile motions of their +enemies. + + + +CHAPTER X +OF THEIR HOSPITALITY AND LIBERALITY + + +NO one of this nation ever begs, for the houses of all are common to all; +and they consider liberality and hospitality amongst the first virtues. +So much does hospitality here rejoice in communication, that it is +neither offered nor requested by travellers, who, on entering any house, +only deliver up their arms. When water is offered to them, if they +suffer their feet to be washed, they are received as guests; for the +offer of water to wash the feet is with this nation an hospitable +invitation. But if they refuse the proffered service, they only wish for +morning refreshment, not lodging. The young men move about in troops and +families under the direction of a chosen leader. Attached only to arms +and ease, and ever ready to stand forth in defence of their country, they +have free admittance into every house as if it were their own. + +Those who arrive in the morning are entertained till evening with the +conversation of young women, and the music of the harp; for each house +has its young women and harps allotted to this purpose. Two +circumstances here deserve notice: that as no nation labours more under +the vice of jealousy than the Irish, so none is more free from it than +the Welsh: and in each family the art of playing on the harp is held +preferable to any other learning. In the evening, when no more guests +are expected, the meal is prepared according to the number and dignity of +the persons assembled, and according to the wealth of the family who +entertains. The kitchen does not supply many dishes, nor high-seasoned +incitements to eating. The house is not furnished with tables, cloths, +or napkins. They study nature more than splendour, for which reason, the +guests being seated in threes, instead of couples as elsewhere, {169a} +they place the dishes before them all at once upon rushes and fresh +grass, in large platters or trenchers. They also make use of a thin and +broad cake of bread, baked every day, such as in old writings was called +_lagana_; {169b} and they sometimes add chopped meat, with broth. Such a +repast was formerly used by the noble youth, from whom this nation boasts +its descent, and whose manners it still partly imitates, according to the +word of the poet: + + “Heu! mensas consumimus, inquit Iulus.” + +While the family is engaged in waiting on the guests, the host and +hostess stand up, paying unremitting attention to everything, and take no +food till all the company are satisfied; that in case of any deficiency, +it may fall upon them. A bed made of rushes, and covered with a coarse +kind of cloth manufactured in the country, called _brychan_, {170} is +then placed along the side of the room, and they all in common lie down +to sleep; nor is their dress at night different from that by day, for at +all seasons they defend themselves from the cold only by a thin cloak and +tunic. The fire continues to burn by night as well as by day, at their +feet, and they receive much comfort from the natural heat of the persons +lying near them; but when the under side begins to be tired with the +hardness of the bed, or the upper one to suffer from cold, they +immediately leap up, and go to the fire, which soon relieves them from +both inconveniences; and then returning to their couch, they expose +alternately their sides to the cold, and to the hardness of the bed. + + + +CHAPTER XI +CONCERNING THEIR CUTTING OF THEIR HAIR, THEIR CARE OF THEIR TEETH, AND +SHAVING OF THEIR BEARD + + +THE men and women cut their hair close round to the ears and eyes. The +women, after the manner of the Parthians, cover their heads with a large +white veil, folded together in the form of a crown. + +Both sexes exceed any other nation in attention to their teeth, which +they render like ivory, by constantly rubbing them with green hazel and +wiping with a woollen cloth. For their better preservation, they abstain +from hot meats, and eat only such as are cold, warm, or temperate. The +men shave all their beard except the moustaches (_gernoboda_). This +custom is not recent, but was observed in ancient and remote ages, as we +find in the works of Julius Cæsar, who says, {171} “The Britons shave +every part of their body except their head and upper lip;” and to render +themselves more active, and avoid the fate of Absalon in their excursions +through the woods, they are accustomed to cut even the hair from their +heads; so that this nation more than any other shaves off all pilosity. +Julius also adds, that the Britons, previous to an engagement, anointed +their faces with a nitrous ointment, which gave them so ghastly and +shining an appearance, that the enemy could scarcely bear to look at +them, particularly if the rays of the sun were reflected on them. + + + +CHAPTER XII +OF THEIR QUICKNESS AND SHARPNESS OF UNDERSTANDING + + +THESE people being of a sharp and acute intellect, and gifted with a rich +and powerful understanding, excel in whatever studies they pursue, and +are more quick and cunning than the other inhabitants of a western clime. + +Their musical instruments charm and delight the ear with their sweetness, +are borne along by such celerity and delicacy of modulation, producing +such a consonance from the rapidity of seemingly discordant touches, that +I shall briefly repeat what is set forth in our Irish Topography on the +subject of the musical instruments of the three nations. It is +astonishing that in so complex and rapid a movement of the fingers, the +musical proportions can be preserved, and that throughout the difficult +modulations on their various instruments, the harmony is completed with +such a sweet velocity, so unequal an equality, so discordant a concord, +as if the chords sounded together fourths or fifths. They always begin +from B flat, and return to the same, that the whole may be completed +under the sweetness of a pleasing sound. They enter into a movement, and +conclude it in so delicate a manner, and play the little notes so +sportively under the blunter sounds of the base strings, enlivening with +wanton levity, or communicating a deeper internal sensation of pleasure, +so that the perfection of their art appears in the concealment of it: + + “Si lateat, prosit; + — — ferat ars deprensa pudorem.” + + “Art profits when concealed, + Disgraces when revealed.” + +From this cause, those very strains which afford deep and unspeakable +mental delight to those who have skilfully penetrated into the mysteries +of the art, fatigue rather than gratify the ears of others, who seeing, +do not perceive, and hearing, do not understand; and by whom the finest +music is esteemed no better than a confused and disorderly noise, and +will be heard with unwillingness and disgust. + +They make use of three instruments, the harp, the pipe, and the crwth or +crowd (_chorus_). {172} + +They omit no part of natural rhetoric in the management of civil actions, +in quickness of invention, disposition, refutation, and confirmation. In +their rhymed songs and set speeches they are so subtle and ingenious, +that they produce, in their native tongue, ornaments of wonderful and +exquisite invention both in the words and sentences. Hence arise those +poets whom they call Bards, of whom you will find many in this nation, +endowed with the above faculty, according to the poet’s observation: + + “Plurima concreti fuderunt carmina Bardi.” + +But they make use of alliteration (_anominatione_) in preference to all +other ornaments of rhetoric, and that particular kind which joins by +consonancy the first letters or syllables of words. So much do the +English and Welsh nations employ this ornament of words in all exquisite +composition, that no sentence is esteemed to be elegantly spoken, no +oration to be otherwise than uncouth and unrefined, unless it be fully +polished with the file of this figure. Thus in the British tongue: + + “Digawn Duw da i unic.” + + “Wrth bob crybwyll rhaïd pwyll parawd.” {173} + +And in English, + + “God is together gammen and wisedom.” + +The same ornament of speech is also frequent in the Latin language. +Virgil says, + + “Tales casus Cassandra canebat.” + +And again, in his address to Augustus, + + “Dum dubitet natura marem, faceretve puellam, + Natus es, o pulcher, pene puella, puer.” + +This ornament occurs not in any language we know so frequently as in the +two first; it is, indeed, surprising that the French, in other respects +so ornamented, should be entirely ignorant of this verbal elegance so +much adopted in other languages. Nor can I believe that the English and +Welsh, so different and adverse to each other, could designedly have +agreed in the usage of this figure; but I should rather suppose that it +had grown habitual to both by long custom, as it pleases the ear by a +transition from similar to similar sounds. Cicero, in his book “On +Elocution,” observes of such who know the practice, not the art, “Other +persons when they read good orations or poems, approve of the orators or +poets, not understanding the reason why, being affected, they approve; +because they cannot know in what place, of what nature, nor how that +effect is caused which so highly delights them.” + + + +CHAPTER XIII +OF THEIR SYMPHONIES AND SONGS + + +IN their musical concerts they do not sing in unison like the inhabitants +of other countries, but in many different parts; so that in a company of +singers, which one very frequently meets with in Wales, you will hear as +many different parts and voices as there are performers, who all at +length unite, with organic melody, in one consonance and the soft +sweetness of B flat. In the northern district of Britain, beyond the +Humber, and on the borders of Yorkshire, the inhabitants make use of the +same kind of symphonious harmony, but with less variety; singing only in +two parts, one murmuring in the base, the other warbling in the acute or +treble. Neither of the two nations has acquired this peculiarity by art, +but by long habit, which has rendered it natural and familiar; and the +practice is now so firmly rooted in them, that it is unusual to hear a +simple and single melody well sung; and, what is still more wonderful, +the children, even from their infancy, sing in the same manner. As the +English in general do not adopt this mode of singing, but only those of +the northern countries, I believe that it was from the Danes and +Norwegians, by whom these parts of the island were more frequently +invaded, and held longer under their dominion, that the natives +contracted their mode of singing as well as speaking. + + + +CHAPTER XIV +THEIR WIT AND PLEASANTRY + + +THE heads of different families, in order to excite the laughter of their +guests, and gain credit by their sayings, make use of great facetiousness +in their conversation; at one time uttering their jokes in a light, easy +manner, at another time, under the disguise of equivocation, passing the +severest censures. For the sake of explanation I shall here subjoin a +few examples. Tegeingl is the name of a province in North Wales, over +which David, son of Owen, had dominion, and which had once been in the +possession of his brother. The same word also was the name of a certain +woman with whom, it was said, each brother had an intrigue, from which +circumstance arose this term of reproach, “To have Tegeingl, after +Tegeingl had been in possession of his brother.” + +At another time, when Rhys, son of Gruffydd, prince of South Wales, +accompanied by a multitude of his people, devoutly entered the church of +St. David’s, previous to an intended journey, the oblations having been +made, and mass solemnised, a young man came to him in the church, and +publicly declared himself to be his son, threw himself at his feet, and +with tears humbly requested that the truth of this assertion might be +ascertained by the trial of the burning iron. Intelligence of this +circumstance being conveyed to his family and his two sons, who had just +gone out of the church, a youth who was present made this remark: “This +is not wonderful; some have brought gold, and others silver, as +offerings; but this man, who had neither, brought what he had, namely, +iron;” thus taunting him with his poverty. On mentioning a certain house +that was strongly built and almost impregnable, one of the company said, +“This house indeed is strong, for if it should contain food it could +never be got at,” thus alluding both to the food and to the house. In +like manner, a person, wishing to hint at the avaricious disposition of +the mistress of a house, said, “I only find fault with our hostess for +putting too little butter to her salt,” whereas the accessory should be +put to the principal; thus, by a subtle transposition of the words, +converting the accessory into the principal, by making it appear to +abound in quantity. Many similar sayings of great men and philosophers +are recorded in the Saturnalia of Macrobius. When Cicero saw his +son-in-law, Lentulus, a man of small stature, with a long sword by his +side: “Who,” says he, “has girded my son-in-law to that sword?” thus +changing the accessary into the principal. The same person, on seeing +the half-length portrait of his brother Quintus Cicero, drawn with very +large features and an immense shield, exclaimed, “Half of my brother is +greater than the whole!” When the sister of Faustus had an intrigue with +a fuller, “Is it strange,” says he, “that my sister has a spot, when she +is connected with a fuller?” When Antiochus showed Hannibal his army, +and the great warlike preparations he had made against the Romans, and +asked him, “Thinkest thou, O Hannibal, that these are sufficient for the +Romans?” Hannibal, ridiculing the unmilitary appearance of the soldiers, +wittily and severely replied, “I certainly think them sufficient for the +Romans, however greedy;” Antiochus asking his opinion about the military +preparations, and Hannibal alluding to them as becoming a prey to the +Romans. + + + +CHAPTER XV +THEIR BOLDNESS AND CONFIDENCE IN SPEAKING + + +NATURE hath given not only to the highest, but also to the inferior, +classes of the people of this nation, a boldness and confidence in +speaking and answering, even in the presence of their princes and +chieftains. The Romans and Franks had the same faculty; but neither the +English, nor the Saxons and Germans, from whom they are descended, had +it. It is in vain urged, that this defect may arise from the state of +servitude which the English endured; for the Saxons and Germans, who +enjoy their liberty, have the same failing, and derive this natural +coldness of disposition from the frozen region they inhabit; the English +also, although placed in a distant climate, still retain the exterior +fairness of complexion and inward coldness of disposition, as inseparable +from their original and natural character. The Britons, on the contrary, +transplanted from the hot and parched regions of Dardania into these more +temperate districts, as + + “Cœlum non animum mutant qui trans mare currunt,” + +still retain their brown complexion and that natural warmth of temper +from which their confidence is derived. For three nations, remnants of +the Greeks after the destruction of Troy, fled from Asia into different +parts of Europe, the Romans under Æneas, the Franks under Antenor, and +the Britons under Brutus; and from thence arose that courage, that +nobleness of mind, that ancient dignity, that acuteness of understanding, +and confidence of speech, for which these three nations are so highly +distinguished. But the Britons, from having been detained longer in +Greece than the other two nations, after the destruction of their +country, and having migrated at a later period into the western parts of +Europe, retained in a greater degree the primitive words and phrases of +their native language. You will find amongst them the names Oenus, +Resus, Æneas, Hector, Achilles, Heliodorus, Theodorus, Ajax, Evander, +Uliex, Anianus, Elisa, Guendolena, and many others, bearing marks of +their antiquity. It is also to be observed, that almost all words in the +British language correspond either with the Greek or Latin, as ὑδωζ, +water, is called in British, dwr; ἁλς, salt, in British, halen; ονομα, +eno, a name; πεντε, pump, five; δεκα, deg, ten. The Latins also use the +words frænum, tripos, gladius, lorica; the Britons, froyn (ffrwyn), +trepet (tribedd), cleddyf, and lluric (llurig); unicus is made unic +(unig); canis, can (cwn); and belua, beleu. + + + +CHAPTER XVI +CONCERNING THE SOOTHSAYERS OF THIS NATION, AND PERSONS AS IT WERE +POSSESSED + + +THERE are certain persons in Cambria, whom you will find nowhere else, +called Awenddyon, {179} or people inspired; when consulted upon any +doubtful event, they roar out violently, are rendered beside themselves, +and become, as it were, possessed by a spirit. They do not deliver the +answer to what is required in a connected manner; but the person who +skilfully observes them, will find, after many preambles, and many +nugatory and incoherent, though ornamented speeches, the desired +explanation conveyed in some turn of a word: they are then roused from +their ecstasy, as from a deep sleep, and, as it were, by violence +compelled to return to their proper senses. After having answered the +questions, they do not recover till violently shaken by other people; nor +can they remember the replies they have given. If consulted a second or +third time upon the same point, they will make use of expressions totally +different; perhaps they speak by the means of fanatic and ignorant +spirits. These gifts are usually conferred upon them in dreams: some +seem to have sweet milk or honey poured on their lips; others fancy that +a written schedule is applied to their mouths and on awaking they +publicly declare that they have received this gift. Such is the saying +of Esdras, “The Lord said unto me, open thy mouth, and I opened my mouth, +and behold a cup full of water, whose colour was like fire; and when I +had drank it, my heart brought forth understanding, and wisdom entered +into my breast.” They invoke, during their prophecies, the true and +living God, and the Holy Trinity, and pray that they may not by their +sins be prevented from finding the truth. These prophets are only found +among the Britons descended from the Trojans. For Calchas and Cassandra, +endowed with the spirit of prophecy, openly foretold, during the siege of +Troy, the destruction of that fine city; on which account the high +priest, Helenus, influenced by the prophetic books of Calchas, and of +others who had long before predicted the ruin of their country, in the +first year went over to the Greeks with the sons of Priam (to whom he was +high priest), and was afterwards rewarded in Greece. Cassandra, daughter +of king Priam, every day foretold the overthrow of the city; but the +pride and presumption of the Trojans prevented them from believing her +word. Even on the very night that the city was betrayed, she clearly +described the treachery and the method of it: + + “— tales casus Cassandra canebat,” + +as in the same manner, during the existence of the kingdom of the +Britons, both Merlin Caledonius and Ambrosius are said to have foretold +the destruction of their nation, as well as the coming of the Saxons, and +afterwards that of the Normans; and I think a circumstance related by +Aulus Gellius worth inserting in this place. On the day that Caius Cæsar +and Cneius Pompey, during the civil war, fought a pitched battle in +Thessalia, a memorable event occurred in that part of Italy situated +beyond the river Po. A priest named Cornelius, honourable from his rank, +venerable for his religion, and holy in his manners, in an inspired +moment proclaimed, “Cæsar has conquered,” and named the day, the events, +the mutual attack, and the conflicts of the two armies. Whether such +things are exhibited by the spirit, let the reader more particularly +inquire; I do not assert they are the acts of a Pythonic or a diabolic +spirit; for as foreknowledge is the property of God alone, so is it in +his power to confer knowledge of future events. There are differences of +gifts, says the Apostle, but one and the same spirit; whence Peter, in +his second Epistle, writes, “For the prophecy came not in the old time by +the will of man, but men spake as if they were inspired by the Holy +Ghost:” to the same effect did the Chaldeans answer king Nebuchadonazar +on the interpretation of his dream, which he wished to extort from them. +“There is not,” say they, “a man upon earth who can, O king, +satisfactorily answer your question; let no king therefore, however great +or potent, make a similar request to any magician, astrologer, or +Chaldean; for it is a rare thing that the king requireth, and there is +none other that can shew it before the king, except the Gods, whose +dwelling is not with flesh.” On this passage Jerome remarks, “The +diviners and all the learned of this world confess, that the prescience +of future events belongs to God alone; the prophets therefore, who +foretold things to come, spake by the spirit of God. Hence some persons +object, that, if they were under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, they +would sometimes premise, “Thus saith the Lord God,” or make use of some +expression in the prophetic style; and as such a mode of prophesying is +not taken notice of by Merlin, and no mention is made of his sanctity, +devotion, or faith, many think that he spake by a Pythonic spirit. To +which I answer, that the spirit of prophecy was given not only to the +holy, but sometimes to unbelievers and Gentiles, to Baal, to the sibyls, +and even to bad people, as to Caiaphas and Bela. On which occasion +Origen says: “Do not wonder, if he whom ye have mentioned declares that +the Scribes and Pharisees and doctors amongst the Jews prophesied +concerning Christ; for Caiaphas said: “It is expedient for us that one +man die for the people:” but asserts at the same time, that because he +was high priest for that year, he prophesied. Let no man therefore be +lifted up, if he prophesies, if he merits prescience; for prophecies +shall fail, tongues shall cease, knowledge shall vanish away; and now +abideth, faith, hope, and charity: these three; but the greatest of these +is Charity, which never faileth. But these bad men not only prophesied, +but sometimes performed great miracles, which others could not +accomplish. John the Baptist, who was so great a personage, performed no +miracle, as John the Evangelist testifies: “And many came to Jesus and +said, Because John wrought no signs,” etc. Nor do we hear that the +mother of God performed any miracle; we read in the Acts of the Apostles, +that the sons of Sheva cast out devils in the name of Jesus, whom Paul +preached; and in Matthew and Luke we may find these words: “Many shall +say unto me in that day, Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in thy name? +and in thy name have cast out devils? and in thy name done many wonderful +works? and then I will profess unto them, I never knew you.” And in +another place, John says: “Master, we saw a certain man casting out +devils in thy name, and forbade him, because he followeth not with us.” +But Jesus said: “Forbid him not; no man can do a miracle in my name, and +speak evil of me; for whoever is not against me, is for me.” + +Alexander of Macedon, a gentile, traversed the Caspian mountains, and +miraculously confined ten tribes within their promontories, where they +still remain, and will continue until the coming of Elias and Enoch. We +read, indeed, the prophecies of Merlin, but hear nothing either of his +sanctity or his miracles. Some say, that the prophets, when they +prophesied, did not become frantic, as it is affirmed of Merlin +Silvestris, and others possessed, whom we have before mentioned. Some +prophesied by dreams, visions, and enigmatical sayings, as Ezechiel and +Daniel; others by acts and words, as Noah, in the construction of the +ark, alluded to the church; Abraham, in the slaying of his son, to the +passion of Christ; and Moses by his speech, when he said, “A prophet +shall the Lord God raise up to you of your brethren; hear him;” meaning +Christ. Others have prophesied in a more excellent way by the internal +revelation and inspiration of the Holy Spirit, as David did when +persecuted by Saul: “When Saul heard that David had fled to Naioth (which +is a hill in Ramah, and the seat of the prophets), he sent messengers to +take him; and when they saw the company of the prophets prophesying, and +Samuel standing at their head, the Spirit of God came upon the messengers +of Saul, and they also prophesied; and he sent messengers a second and +again a third time, and they also prophesied. And Saul enraged went +thither also; and the Spirit of God was upon him also, and he went on, +and prophesied until he came to Naioth, and he stripped off his royal +vestments, and prophesied with the rest for all that day and all that +night; whilst David and Samuel secretly observed what passed.” Nor is it +wonderful that those persons who suddenly receive the Spirit of God, and +so signal a mark of grace, should for a time seem alienated from their +earthly state of mind. + + + +CHAPTER XVII +THEIR LOVE OF HIGH BIRTH AND ANCIENT GENEALOGY + + +THE Welsh esteem noble birth and generous descent above all things, {183} +and are, therefore, more desirous of marrying into noble than rich +families. Even the common people retain their genealogy, and can not +only readily recount the names of their grandfathers and +great-grandfathers, but even refer back to the sixth or seventh +generation, or beyond them, in this manner: Rhys, son of Gruffydd, son of +Rhys, son of Tewdwr, son of Eineon, son of Owen, son of Howel, son of +Cadell, son of Roderic Mawr, and so on. + +Being particularly attached to family descent, they revenge with +vehemence the injuries which may tend to the disgrace of their blood; and +being naturally of a vindictive and passionate disposition, they are ever +ready to avenge not only recent but ancient affronts; they neither +inhabit towns, villages, nor castles, but lead a solitary life in the +woods, on the borders of which they do not erect sumptuous palaces, nor +lofty stone buildings, but content themselves with small huts made of the +boughs of trees twisted together, constructed with little labour and +expense, and sufficient to endure throughout the year. They have neither +orchards nor gardens, but gladly eat the fruit of both when given to +them. The greater part of their land is laid down to pasturage; little +is cultivated, a very small quantity is ornamented with flowers, and a +still smaller is sown. They seldom yoke less than four oxen to their +ploughs; the driver walks before, but backwards, and when he falls down, +is frequently exposed to danger from the refractory oxen. Instead of +small sickles in mowing, they make use of a moderate-sized piece of iron +formed like a knife, with two pieces of wood fixed loosely and flexibly +to the head, which they think a more expeditious instrument; but since + + “Segnius irritant animos demissa per aures, + Quam quæ sunt oculis subjecta fidelibus,” + +their mode of using it will be better known by inspection than by any +description. The boats {184} which they employ in fishing or in crossing +the rivers are made of twigs, not oblong nor pointed, but almost round, +or rather triangular, covered both within and without with raw hides. +When a salmon thrown into one of these boats strikes it hard with his +tail, he often oversets it, and endangers both the vessel and its +navigator. The fishermen, according to the custom of the country, in +going to and from the rivers, carry these boats on their shoulders; on +which occasion that famous dealer in fables, Bleddercus, who lived a +little before our time, thus mysteriously said: “There is amongst us a +people who, when they go out in search of prey, carry their horses on +their backs to the place of plunder; in order to catch their prey, they +leap upon their horses, and when it is taken, carry their horses home +again upon their shoulders.” + + + +CHAPTER XVIII +OF THE ANTIQUITY OF THEIR FAITH, THEIR LOVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND DEVOTION + + +IN ancient times, and about two hundred years before the overthrow of +Britain, the Welsh were instructed and confirmed in the faith by Faganus +and Damianus, sent into the island at the request of king Lucius by pope +Eleutherius, and from that period when Germanus of Auxerre, and Lupus of +Troyes, came over on account of the corruption which had crept into the +island by the invasion of the Saxons, but particularly with a view of +expelling the Pelagian heresy, nothing heretical or contrary to the true +faith was to be found amongst the natives. But it is said that some +parts of the ardent doctrines are still retained. They give the first +piece broken off from every loaf of bread to the poor; they sit down to +dinner by three to a dish, in honour of the Trinity. With extended arms +and bowing head, they ask a blessing of every monk or priest, or of every +person wearing a religious habit. But they desire, above all other +nations, the episcopal ordination and unction, by which the grace of the +spirit is given. They give a tenth of all their property, animals, +cattle, and sheep, either when they marry, or go on a pilgrimage, or, by +the counsel of the church, are persuaded to amend their lives. This +partition of their effects they call the great tithe, two parts of which +they give to the church where they were baptised, and the third to the +bishop of the diocese. But of all pilgrimages they prefer that to Rome, +where they pay the most fervent adoration to the apostolic see. We +observe that they show a greater respect than other nations to churches +and ecclesiastical persons, to the relics of saints, bells, holy books, +and the cross, which they devoutly revere; and hence their churches enjoy +more than common tranquillity. For peace is not only preserved towards +all animals feeding in churchyards, but at a great distance beyond them, +where certain boundaries and ditches have been appointed by the bishops, +in order to maintain the security of the sanctuary. But the principal +churches to which antiquity has annexed the greater reverence extend +their protection to the herds as far as they can go to feed in the +morning and return at night. If, therefore, any person has incurred the +enmity of his prince, on applying to the church for protection, he and +his family will continue to live unmolested; but many persons abuse this +indemnity, far exceeding the indulgence of the canon, which in such cases +grants only personal safety; and from the places of refuge even make +hostile irruptions, and more severely harass the country than the prince +himself. Hermits and anchorites more strictly abstinent and more +spiritual can nowhere be found; for this nation is earnest in all its +pursuits, and neither worse men than the bad, nor better than the good, +can be met with. + +Happy and fortunate indeed would this nation be, nay, completely blessed, +if it had good prelates and pastors, and but one prince, and that prince +a good one. + + + + +BOOK II + + +PREFACE + + +HAVING in the former book clearly set forth the character, manners, and +customs of the British nation, and having collected and explained +everything which could redound to its credit or glory; an attention to +order now requires that, in this second part, we should employ our pen in +pointing out those particulars in which it seems to transgress the line +of virtue and commendation; having first obtained leave to speak the +truth, without which history not only loses its authority, but becomes +undeserving of its very name. For the painter who professes to imitate +nature, loses his reputation, if, by indulging his fancy, he represents +only those parts of the subject which best suit him. + +Since, therefore, no man is born without faults, and he is esteemed the +best whose errors are the least, let the wise man consider everything +human as connected with himself; for in worldly affairs there is no +perfect happiness under heaven. Evil borders upon good, and vices are +confounded with virtues; as the report of good qualities is delightful to +a well-disposed mind, so the relation of the contrary should not be +offensive. The natural disposition of this nation might have been +corrupted and perverted by long exile and poverty; for as poverty +extinguisheth many faults, so it often generates failings that are +contrary to virtue. + + + +CHAPTER I +OF THE INCONSTANCY AND INSTABILITY OF THIS NATION, AND THEIR WANT OF +REVERENCE FOR GOOD FAITH AND OATHS + + +THESE people are no less light in mind than in body, and are by no means +to be relied upon. They are easily urged to undertake any action, and +are as easily checked from prosecuting it—a people quick in action, but +more stubborn in a bad than in a good cause, and constant only in acts of +inconstancy. They pay no respect to oaths, faith, or truth; and so +lightly do they esteem the covenant of faith, held so inviolable by other +nations, that it is usual to sacrifice their faith for nothing, by +holding forth the right hand, not only in serious and important concerns, +but even on every trifling occasion, and for the confirmation of almost +every common assertion. They never scruple at taking a false oath for +the sake of any temporary emolument or advantage; so that in civil and +ecclesiastical causes, each party, being ready to swear whatever seems +expedient to its purpose, endeavours both to prove and defend, although +the venerable laws, by which oaths are deemed sacred, and truth is +honoured and respected, by favouring the accused and throwing an odium +upon the accuser, impose the burden of bringing proofs upon the latter. +But to a people so cunning and crafty, this yoke is pleasant, and this +burden is light. + + + +CHAPTER II +THEIR LIVING BY PLUNDER, AND DISREGARD OF THE BONDS OF PEACE AND +FRIENDSHIP + + +THIS nation conceives it right to commit acts of plunder, theft, and +robbery, not only against foreigners and hostile nations, but even +against their own countrymen. When an opportunity of attacking the enemy +with advantage occurs, they respect not the leagues of peace and +friendship, preferring base lucre to the solemn obligations of oaths and +good faith; to which circumstance Gildas alludes in his book concerning +the overthrow of the Britons, actuated by the love of truth, and +according to the rules of history, not suppressing the vices of his +countrymen. “They are neither brave in war, nor faithful in peace.” But +when Julius Cæsar, great as the world itself, + + “Territa quæsitis ostendit terga Britannis,” + +were they not brave under their leader Cassivellaunus? And when Belinus +and Brennus added the Roman empire to their conquests? What were they in +the time of Constantine, son of our Helen? What, in the reign of +Aurelius Ambrosius, whom even Eutropius commends? What were they in the +time of our famous prince Arthur? I will not say fabulous. On the +contrary, they, who were almost subdued by the Scots and Picts, often +harassed with success the auxiliary Roman legions, and exclaimed, as we +learn from Gildas, “The barbarians drove us to the sea, the sea drove us +again back to the barbarians; on one side we were subdued, on the other +drowned, and here we were put to death. Were they not,” says he, “at +that time brave and praiseworthy?” When attacked and conquered by the +Saxons, who originally had been called in as stipendiaries to their +assistance, were they not brave? But the strongest argument made use of +by those who accuse this nation of cowardice, is, that Gildas, a holy +man, and a Briton by birth, has handed down to posterity nothing +remarkable concerning them, in any of his historical works. We promise, +however, a solution of the contrary in our British Topography, if God +grants us a continuance of life. + +As a further proof, it may be necessary to add, that from the time when +that illustrious prince of the Britons, mentioned at the beginning of +this book, totally exhausted the strength of the country, by transporting +the whole armed force beyond the seas; that island, which had before been +so highly illustrious for its incomparable valour, remained for many +subsequent years destitute of men and arms, and exposed to the predatory +attacks of pirates and robbers. So distinguished, indeed, were the +natives of this island for their bravery, that, by their prowess, that +king subdued almost all Cisalpine Gaul, and dared even to make an attack +on the Roman empire. + +In process of time, the Britons, recovering their long-lost population +and knowledge of the use of arms, re-acquired their high and ancient +character. Let the different æras be therefore marked, and the +historical accounts will accord. With regard to Gildas, who inveighs so +bitterly against his own nation, the Britons affirm that, highly +irritated at the death of his brother, the prince of Albania, whom king +Arthur had slain, he wrote these invectives, and upon the same occasion +threw into the sea many excellent books, in which he had described the +actions of Arthur, and the celebrated deeds of his countrymen; from which +cause it arises, that no authentic account of so great a prince is any +where to be found. + + + +CHAPTER III +OF THEIR DEFICIENCY IN BATTLE, AND BASE AND DISHONOURABLE FLIGHT + + +IN war this nation is very severe in the first attack, terrible by their +clamour and looks, filling the air with horrid shouts and the deep-toned +clangour of very long trumpets; swift and rapid in their advances and +frequent throwing of darts. Bold in the first onset, they cannot bear a +repulse, being easily thrown into confusion as soon as they turn their +backs; and they trust to flight for safety, without attempting to rally, +which the poet thought reprehensible in martial conflicts: + + “Ignavum scelus est tantum fuga;” + +and elsewhere— + + “In vitium culpæ ducit fuga, si caret arte.” + +The character given to the Teutones in the Roman History, may be applied +to this people. “In their first attack they are more than men, in the +second, less than women.” Their courage manifests itself chiefly in the +retreat, when they frequently return, and, like the Parthians, shoot +their arrows behind them; and, as after success and victory in battle, +even cowards boast of their courage, so, after a reverse of fortune, even +the bravest men are not allowed their due claims of merit. Their mode of +fighting consists in chasing the enemy or in retreating. This +light-armed people, relying more on their activity than on their +strength, cannot struggle for the field of battle, enter into close +engagement, or endure long and severe actions, such as the poet +describes: + + “Jam clypeo clypeus, umbone repellitur umbo, + Ense minax ensis, pede pes, et cuspide cuspis.” + +Though defeated and put to flight on one day, they are ready to resume +the combat on the next, neither dejected by their loss, nor by their +dishonour; and although, perhaps, they do not display great fortitude in +open engagements and regular conflicts, yet they harass the enemy by +ambuscades and nightly sallies. Hence, neither oppressed by hunger or +cold, nor fatigued by martial labours, nor despondent in adversity, but +ready, after a defeat, to return immediately to action, and again endure +the dangers of war; they are as easy to overcome in a single battle, as +difficult to subdue in a protracted war. The poet Claudian thus speaks +of a people similar in disposition:— + + “Dum percunt, meminêre mali: si corda parumper + Respirare sinas, nullo tot funera censu + Prætercunt, tantique levis jactura cruoris.” + + + +CHAPTER IV +THEIR AMBITIOUS SEIZURE OF LANDS, AND DISSENSIONS AMONG BROTHERS + + +THIS nation is, above all others, addicted to the digging up of boundary +ditches, removing the limits, transgressing landmarks, and extending +their territory by every possible means. So great is their disposition +towards this common violence, that they scruple not to claim as their +hereditary right, those lands which are held under lease, or at will, on +condition of planting, or by any other title, even although indemnity had +been publicly secured on oath to the tenant by the lord proprietor of the +soil. Hence arise suits and contentions, murders and conflagrations, and +frequent fratricides, increased, perhaps, by the ancient national custom +of brothers dividing their property amongst each other. Another heavy +grievance also prevails; the princes entrust the education of their +children to the care of the principal men of their country, each of whom, +after the death of his father, endeavours, by every possible means, to +exalt his own charge above his neighbours. From which cause great +disturbances have frequently arisen amongst brothers, and terminated in +the most cruel and unjust murders; and on which account friendships are +found to be more sincere between foster-brothers, than between those who +are connected by the natural ties of brotherhood. It is also remarkable, +that brothers shew more affection to one another when dead, than when +living; for they persecute the living even unto death, but revenge the +deceased with all their power. + + + +CHAPTER V +THEIR GREAT EXACTION, AND WANT OF MODERATION + + +WHERE they find plenty, and can exercise their power, they levy the most +unjust exactions. Immoderate in their love of food and intoxicating +drink, they say with the Apostle, “We are instructed both to abound, and +to suffer need;” but do not add with him, “becoming all things to all +men, that I might by all means save some.” As in times of scarcity their +abstinence and parsimony are too severe, so, when seated at another man’s +table, after a long fasting, (like wolves and eagles, who, like them, +live by plunder, and are rarely satisfied,) their appetite is immoderate. +They are therefore penurious in times of scarcity, and extravagant in +times of plenty; but no man, as in England, mortgages his property for +the gluttonous gratification of his own appetite. They wish, however, +that all people would join with them in their bad habits and expenses; as +the commission of crimes reduces to a level all those who are concerned +in the perpetration of them. + + + +CHAPTER VI +CONCERNING THE CRIME OF INCEST, AND THE ABUSE OF CHURCHES BY SUCCESSION +AND PARTICIPATION + + +THE crime of incest hath so much prevailed, not only among the higher, +but among the lower orders of this people, that, not having the fear of +God before their eyes, they are not ashamed of intermarrying with their +relations, even in the third degree of consanguinity. They generally +abuse these dispensations with a view of appeasing those enmities which +so often subsist between them, because “their feet are swift to shed +blood;” and from their love of high descent, which they so ardently +affect and covet, they unite themselves to their own people, refusing to +intermarry with strangers, and arrogantly presuming on their own +superiority of blood and family. They do not engage in marriage, until +they have tried, by previous cohabitation, the disposition, and +particularly the fecundity, of the person with whom they are engaged. An +ancient custom also prevails of hiring girls from their parents at a +certain price, and a stipulated penalty, in case of relinquishing their +connection. + +Their churches have almost as many parsons and sharers as there are +principal men in the parish. The sons, after the decease of their +fathers, succeed to the ecclesiastical benefices, not by election, but by +hereditary right possessing and polluting the sanctuary of God. And if a +prelate should by chance presume to appoint or institute any other +person, the people would certainly revenge the injury upon the institutor +and the instituted. With respect to these two excesses of incest and +succession, which took root formerly in Armorica, and are not yet +eradicated, Ildebert, bishop of Le Mans, in one of his epistles, says, +“that he was present with a British priest at a council summoned with a +view of putting an end to the enormities of this nation:” hence it +appears that these vices have for a long time prevailed both in Britany +and Britain. The words of the Psalmist may not inaptly be applied to +them; “They are corrupt and become abominable in their doings, there is +none that doeth good, no, not one: they are all gone out of the way, they +are altogether become abominable,” etc. + + + +CHAPTER VII +OF THEIR SINS, AND THE CONSEQUENT LOSS OF BRITAIN AND OF TROY + + +MOREOVER, through their sins, and particularly that detestable and wicked +vice of Sodom, as well as by divine vengeance, they lost Britain as they +formerly lost Troy. For we read in the Roman history, that the emperor +Constantine having resigned the city and the Western empire to the +blessed Sylvester and his successors, with an intention of rebuilding +Troy, and there establishing the chief seat of the Eastern Empire, heard +a voice, saying, “Dost thou go to rebuild Sodom?” upon which, he altered +his intention, turned his ships and standards towards Byzantium, and +there fixing his seat of empire, gave his own propitious name to the +city. The British history informs us, that Mailgon, king of the Britons, +and many others, were addicted to this vice; that enormity, however, had +entirely ceased for so long a time, that the recollection of it was +nearly worn out. But since that, as if the time of repentance was almost +expired, and because the nation, by its warlike successes and acquisition +of territory, has in our times unusually increased in population and +strength, they boast in their turn, and most confidently and unanimously +affirm, that in a short time their countrymen shall return to the island, +and, according to the prophecies of Merlin, the nation, and even the +name, of foreigners, shall be extinguished in the island, and the Britons +shall exult again in their ancient name and privileges. But to me it +appears far otherwise; for since + + “Luxuriant animi rebus plerumque secundis, + Nec facile est æqua commoda mente pati;” + +And because + + “Non habet unde suum paupertas pascat amorem, . . . + Divitiis alitur luxuriosus amor.” + +So that their abstinence from that vice, which in their prosperity they +could not resist, may be attributed more justly to their poverty and +state of exile than to their sense of virtue. For they cannot be said to +have repented, when we see them involved in such an abyss of vices, +perjury, theft, robbery, rapine, murders, fratricides, adultery, and +incest, and become every day more entangled and ensnared in evil-doing; +so that the words of the prophet Hosea may be truly applied to them, +“There is no truth, nor mercy,” etc. + +Other matters of which they boast are more properly to be attributed to +the diligence and activity of the Norman kings than to their own merits +or power. For previous to the coming of the Normans, when the English +kings contented themselves with the sovereignty of Britain alone, and +employed their whole military force in the subjugation of this people, +they almost wholly extirpated them; as did king Offa, who by a long and +extensive dyke separated the British from the English; Ethelfrid also, +who demolished the noble city of Legions, {197} and put to death the +monks of the celebrated monastery at Banchor, who had been called in to +promote the success of the Britons by their prayers; and lastly Harold, +who himself on foot, with an army of light-armed infantry, and conforming +to the customary diet of the country, so bravely penetrated through every +part of Wales, that he scarcely left a man alive in it; and as a memorial +of his signal victories many stones may be found in Wales bearing this +inscription:—“HIC VICTOR FUIT HAROLDUS”—“HERE HAROLD CONQUERED.” {198} + +To these bloody and recent victories of the English may be attributed the +peaceable state of Wales during the reigns of the three first Norman +kings; when the nation increased in population, and being taught the use +of arms and the management of horses by the English and Normans (with +whom they had much intercourse, by following the court, or by being sent +as hostages), took advantage of the necessary attention which the three +succeeding kings were obliged to pay to their foreign possessions, and +once more lifting up their crests, recovered their lands, and spurned the +yoke that had formerly been imposed upon them. + + + +CHAPTER VIII +IN WHAT MANNER THIS NATION IS TO BE OVERCOME + + +THE prince who would wish to subdue this nation, and govern it peaceably, +must use this method. He must be determined to apply a diligent and +constant attention to this purpose for one year at least; for a people +who with a collected force will not openly attack the enemy in the field, +nor wait to be besieged in castles, is not to be overcome at the first +onset, but to be worn out by prudent delay and patience. Let him divide +their strength, and by bribes and promises endeavour to stir up one +against the other, knowing the spirit of hatred and envy which generally +prevails amongst them; and in the autumn let not only the marches, but +also the interior part of the country be strongly fortified with castles, +provisions, and confidential families. In the meantime the purchase of +corn, cloth, and salt, with which they are usually supplied from England, +should be strictly interdicted; and well-manned ships placed as a guard +on the coast, to prevent their importation of these articles from Ireland +or the Severn sea, and to facilitate the supply of his own army. +Afterwards, when the severity of winter approaches, when the trees are +void of leaves, and the mountains no longer afford pasturage—when they +are deprived of any hopes of plunder, and harassed on every side by the +repeated attacks of the enemy—let a body of light-armed infantry +penetrate into their woody and mountainous retreats, and let these troops +be supported and relieved by others; and thus by frequent changes, and +replacing the men who are either fatigued or slain in battle, this nation +may be ultimately subdued; nor can it be overcome without the above +precautions, nor without great danger and loss of men. Though many of +the English hired troops may perish in a day of battle, money will +procure as many or more on the morrow for the same service; but to the +Welsh, who have neither foreign nor stipendiary troops, the loss is for +the time irreparable. In these matters, therefore, as an artificer is to +be trusted in his trade, so attention is to be paid to the counsel of +those who, having been long conversant in similar concerns, are become +acquainted with the manners and customs of their country, and whom it +greatly interests, that an enemy, for whom during long and frequent +conflicts they have contracted an implacable hatred, should by their +assistance be either weakened or destroyed. Happy should I have termed +the borders of Wales inhabited by the English, if their kings, in the +government of these parts, and in their military operations against the +enemy, had rather employed the marchers and barons of the country, than +adopted the counsels and policy of the people of Anjou and the Normans. +In this, as well as in every other military expedition, either in Ireland +or in Wales, the natives of the marches, from the constant state of +warfare in which they are engaged, and whose manners are formed from the +habits of war, are bold and active, skilful on horseback, quick on foot, +not nice as to their diet, and ever prepared when necessity requires to +abstain both from corn and wine. By such men were the first hostile +attacks made upon Wales as well as Ireland, and by such men alone can +their final conquest be accomplished. For the Flemings, Normans, +Coterells, and Bragmans, are good and well-disciplined soldiers in their +own country; but the Gallic soldiery is known to differ much from the +Welsh and Irish. In their country the battle is on level, here on rough +ground; there in an open field, here in forests; there they consider +their armour as an honour, here as a burden; there soldiers are taken +prisoners, here they are beheaded; there they are ransomed, here they are +put to death. Where, therefore, the armies engage in a flat country, a +heavy and complex armour, made of cloth and iron, both protects and +decorates the soldier; but when the engagement is in narrow defiles, in +woods or marshes, where the infantry have the advantage over the cavalry, +a light armour is preferable. For light arms afford sufficient +protection against unarmed men, by whom victory is either lost or won at +the first onset; where it is necessary that an active and retreating +enemy should be overcome by a certain proportional quantity of moderate +armour; whereas with a more complex sort, and with high and curved +saddles, it is difficult to dismount, more so to mount, and with the +greatest difficulty can such troops march, if required, with the +infantry. In order, therefore, that + + “Singula quæque locum teneant sortita decenter,” + +we maintain it is necessary to employ heavy-armed and strong troops +against men heavily armed, depending entirely upon their natural +strength, and accustomed to fight in an open plain; but against +light-armed and active troops, who prefer rough ground, men accustomed to +such conflicts, and armed in a similar manner, must be employed. But let +the cities and fortresses on the Severn, and the whole territory on its +western banks towards Wales, occupied by the English, as well as the +provinces of Shropshire and Cheshire, which are protected by powerful +armies, or by any other special privileges and honourable independence, +rejoice in the provident bounty of their prince. There should be a +yearly examination of the warlike stores, of the arms, and horses, by +good and discreet men deputed for that purpose, and who, not intent on +its plunder and ruin, interest themselves in the defence and protection +of their country. By these salutary measures, the soldiers, citizens, +and the whole mass of the people, being instructed and accustomed to the +use of arms, liberty may be opposed by liberty, and pride be checked by +pride. For the Welsh, who are neither worn out by laborious burdens, nor +molested by the exactions of their lords, are ever prompt to avenge an +injury. Hence arise their distinguished bravery in the defence of their +country; hence their readiness to take up arms and to rebel. Nothing so +much excites, encourages, and invites the hearts of men to probity as the +cheerfulness of liberty; nothing so much dejects and dispirits them as +the oppression of servitude. This portion of the kingdom, protected by +arms and courage, might be of great use to the prince, not only in these +or the adjacent parts, but, if necessity required, in more remote +regions; and although the public treasury might receive a smaller annual +revenue from these provinces, yet the deficiency would be abundantly +compensated by the peace of the kingdom and the honour of its sovereign; +especially as the heavy and dangerous expenses of one military expedition +into Wales usually amount to the whole income among from the revenues of +the province. + + + +CHAPTER IX +IN WHAT MANNER WALES, WHEN CONQUERED, SHOULD BE GOVERNED + + +AS therefore this nation is to be subdued by resolution in the manner +proposed, so when subdued, its government must be directed by moderation, +according to the following plan. Let the care of it be committed to a +man of a firm and determined mind; who during the time of peace, by +paying due obedience to the laws, and respect to the government, may +render it firm and stable. For like other nations in a barbarous state, +this people, although they are strangers to the principles of honour, yet +above all things desire to be honoured; and approve and respect in others +that truth which they themselves do not profess. Whenever the natural +inconstancy of their indisposition shall induce them to revolt, let +punishment instantly follow the offence; but when they shall have +submitted themselves again to order, and made proper amends for their +faults (as it is the custom of bad men to remember wrath after quarrels), +let their former transgression be overlooked, and let them enjoy security +and respect, as long as they continue faithful. Thus, by mild treatment +they will be invited to obedience and the love of peace, and the thought +of certain punishment will deter them from rash attempts. We have often +observed persons who, confounding these matters, by complaining of +faults, depressing for services, flattering in war, plundering in peace, +despoiling the weak, paying respect to revolters, by thus rendering all +things confused, have at length been confounded themselves. Besides, as +circumstances which are foreseen do less mischief, and as that state is +happy which thinks of war in the time of peace, let the wise man be upon +his guard, and prepared against the approaching inconveniences of war, by +the construction of forts, the widening of passes through woods, and the +providing of a trusty household. For those who are cherished and +sustained during the time of peace, are more ready to come forward in +times of danger, and are more confidently to be depended upon; and as a +nation unsubdued ever meditates plots under the disguise of friendship, +let not the prince or his governor entrust the protection of his camp or +capital to their fidelity. By the examples of many remarkable men, some +of whom have been cruelly put to death, and others deprived of their +castles and dignities, through their own neglect and want of care, we may +see, that the artifices of a crafty and subdued nation are much more to +be dreaded than their open warfare; their good-will than their anger, +their honey than their gall, their malice than their attack, their +treachery than their aggression, and their pretended friendship more than +their open enmity. A prudent and provident man therefore should +contemplate in the misfortune of others what he ought himself to avoid; +correction taught by example is harmless, as Ennodius {203} says: “The +ruin of predecessors instructs those who succeed; and a former +miscarriage becomes a future caution.” If a well-disposed prince should +wish these great designs to be accomplished without the effusion of +blood, the marches, as we before mentioned, must be put into a state of +defence on all sides, and all intercourse by sea and land interdicted; +some of the Welsh may be stirred up to deadly feuds, by means of +stipends, and by transferring the property of one person to another; and +thus worn out with hunger, and a want of the necessaries of life, and +harassed by frequent murders and implacable enmities, they will at last +be compelled to surrender. + +There are three things which ruin this nation, and prevent its enjoying +the satisfaction of a fruitful progeny. First, because both the natural +and legitimate sons endeavour to divide the paternal inheritance amongst +themselves; from which cause, as we have before observed, continual +fratricides take place. Secondly, because the education of their sons is +committed to the care of the high-born people of the country, who, on the +death of their fathers, endeavour by all possible means to exalt their +pupil; from whence arise murders, conflagrations, and almost a total +destruction of the country. And, thirdly, because from the pride and +obstinacy of their disposition, they will not (like other nations) +subject themselves to the dominion of one lord and king. + + + +CHAPTER X +IN WHAT MANNER THIS NATION MAY RESIST AND REVOLT + + +HAVING hitherto so partially and elaborately spoken in favour of the +English, and being equally connected by birth with each nation, justice +demands that we should argue on both sides; let us therefore, at the +close of our work, turn our attention towards the Welsh, and briefly, but +effectually, instruct them in the art of resistance. If the Welsh were +more commonly accustomed to the Gallic mode of arming, and depended more +on steady fighting than on their agility; if their princes were unanimous +and inseparable in their defence; or rather, if they had only one prince, +and that a good one; this nation situated in so powerful, strong, and +inaccessible a country, could hardly ever be completely overcome. If, +therefore, they would be inseparable, they would become insuperable, +being assisted by these three circumstances; a country well defended by +nature, a people both contented and accustomed to live upon little, a +community whose nobles as well as privates are instructed in the use of +arms; and especially as the English fight for power, the Welsh for +liberty; the one to procure gain, the other to avoid loss; the English +hirelings for money, the Welsh patriots for their country. The English, +I say, fight in order to expel the natural inhabitants from the island, +and secure to themselves the possession of the whole; but the Welsh +maintain the conflict, that they, who have so long enjoyed the +sovereignty of the whole kingdom, may at least find a hiding place in the +worst corner of it, amongst woods and marshes; and, banished, as it were, +for their offences, may there in a state of poverty, for a limited time, +perform penance for the excesses they committed in the days of their +prosperity. For the perpetual remembrance of their former greatness, the +recollection of their Trojan descent, and the high and continued majesty +of the kingdom of Britain, may draw forth many a latent spark of +animosity, and encourage the daring spirit of rebellion. Hence during +the military expedition which king Henry II. made in our days against +South Wales, an old Welshman at Pencadair, who had faithfully adhered to +him, being desired to give his opinion about the royal army, and whether +he thought that of the rebels would make resistance, and what would be +the final event of this war, replied, “This nation, O king, may now, as +in former times, be harassed, and in a great measure weakened and +destroyed by your and other powers, and it will often prevail by its +laudable exertions; but it can never be totally subdued through the wrath +of man, unless the wrath of God shall concur. Nor do I think, that any +other nation than this of Wales, or any other language, whatever may +hereafter come to pass, shall, in the day of severe examination before +the Supreme Judge, answer for this corner of the earth.” + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + +{155a} Port Gordber, written _Gordwr_ by Humphrey Lhwyd in his Breviary +of Britain, probably a corruption from Gorddyar, a roaring, applied to +the sea, as Gorddyar môr, the roaring of the sea. + +{155b} The harbour, now known by the name of Portscwit, (and recorded in +the Triads as one of the three passages or ferries in the Isle of +Britain), is situated on the Welsh side of the Bristol channel, at a +short distance from the lower passage. + +{155c} Port Mawr, or the large port, is thus mentioned by Leland in his +Itinerary, tom. v. pp. 28, 29:—“About a mile of is Port Mawre, where is a +great sande with a shorte estuary into the lande. And sum say that there +hath beene a castel at or aboute Port Mawr, but the tokens be not very +evidente.” + +{155d} Rhyd-helyg, or the Ford of the Willow.—I imagine this place is +Walford in Herefordshire, near the banks of the river Wye. + +{156} Brutus, according to the fable, in his way to Britain, met with a +company of Trojans, who had fled from Troy with Antenor and Corinæus at +their head, who submitted themselves to Brutus, and joined his company; +which Corinæus, being a very valiant man, rendered great service to +Brutus during his wars in Gaul and Britain; in return for which, Brutus, +having subdued the island, and divided it amongst his people, gave +Cornwall to Corinæus, who, as it is said, called it after his own name, +Cernyw. + +{157a} Uchelwyr, so called from _Uchel_, high, and _gwr_, a man. + +{157b} This assertion is unfounded, if we give credit to the Welsh +Chronicle, which dates the death of Cadell in 907, and that of Anarawdin +in 913. [Howell Dda, the son of Cadell, reunited Wales under one +sovereign.] + +{158a} B.M.—This abbreviation, which in every manuscript I have seen of +Giraldus has been construed into _Beatam Mariam_, and in many of them is +written _Beatam Virginem_, may with much greater propriety be applied to +_Belinus Magnus_, or Beli the Great, a distinguished British King, to +whom most of the British pedigrees ascended; and because his name +occurred so frequently in them it was often written short, B.M., which +some men, by mistake, interpret _Beata Maria_.—(Sir R. C. H.) + +{158b} Aberfraw, a small town at the conflux of the river Fraw and the +sea, on the S.W. part of the isle of Anglesey, and twelve miles S.E. of +Holyhead. + +{159a} A great lordship in Herefordshire, including the district between +Hereford and Monmouth, bordering on the river Wye. + +{159b} Book ii. chapter i. + +{162a} Book ii. c. 4. + +{162b} If by the mountains of Eryri we are to understand the Snowdonian +range of hills, our author has not been quite accurate in fixing the +source of the river Dovy, which rises between Dynas-y-mowddu and Bala +Lake, to the southward of Mount Arran: from whence it pursues its course +to Mallwyd, and Machynlleth, below which place it becomes an estuary, and +the boundary between North and South Wales. + +{162c} Our author is again incorrect in stating that the river Maw +forms, by its course, the two tracts of sands called Traeth Mawr and +Traeth Bychan. This river, from which Barmouth derives the name of +Abermaw, and to which Giraldus, in the fifth chapter of the second book +of his Itinerary, has given the epithet of _bifurcus_, runs far to the +southward of either of the Traeths. The Traeth Mawr, or large sands, are +formed by the impetuous torrents which descend from Snowdon by +Beddgelert, and pass under the Devil’s Bridge at Pont Aberglasllyn, so +called from the river Glasllyn; and the Traeth Bychan, or little sands, +are formed by numerous streams which unite themselves in the vale of +Festiniog, and become an æstuary near the village of Maentwrog. + +{165a} Better known as Geoffrey of Monmouth. + +{165b} The Anglo-Saxons called the Britons _Wealhas_, from a word in +their own language, which signified literally foreigners; and hence we +derive the modern name Welsh. + +{168} The Peak, in Derbyshire. + +{169a} Sir R. C. Hoare has altogether misunderstood the original here. +It was the custom in the middle ages to place the guests at table in +pairs, and each two persons ate out of one plate. Each couple was a +_mess_. At a later period, among the great the mess consisted of four +persons; but it appears that in Wales, at this time, it was formed of +three guests. + +{169b} “Bread, called _Lagana_, was, I suppose, the sort of household +bread, or thin cake baked on an iron plate, called a griddle (_gradell_), +still common in Caermarthenshire, and called _Bara Llech_ and _Bara +Llechan_, or griddle bread, from being so baked.”—Owen. “_Laganum_, a +fritter or pancake, _Baranyiod_.”—_Lluyd_, _Archaiology_, p. 75. + +{170} _Brychan_, in Lhuyd’s Archaiology and Cornish Grammar, is spelt +Bryccan, and interpreted a blanket. + +{171} “Omnes vero se Britanni vitro inficiunt, quod cæruleum efficit +colorem, atque hoc horridore sunt in pugna adspectu; capilloque sunt +promisso, atque omni parte corporis rasa, præter caput et labrum +superius.”—_Cæsar de Bello Gallico_, cap. 13, 14. + +{172} This instrument is generally supposed to have been the origin of +the violin, which was not commonly known in England till the reign of +Charles I. Before this time the crwth was not probably confined to the +Principality, from the name of _Crowdero_ in Hudibras; as also from a +fiddler being still called a _crowder_ in some parts of England, though +he now plays on a violin instead of a crwth. + +{173} These Welsh lines quoted by Giraldus are selected from two +different stanzas of moral verses, called Eglynion y Clywed, the +composition of some anonymous bard; or probably the work of several: + + “A glyweisti a gant Dywyneg, + Milwr doeth detholedig; + Digawn Duw da i unig? + + “Hast thou heard what was sung by Dywynic? + A wise and chosen warrior; + God will effect solace to the orphan. + + “A glyweisti a gant Anarawd? + Milwr doniawg did lawd; + Rhaid wrth anmhwyll pwyll parawd. + + “Hast thou heard what was sung by Anarawd? + A warrior endowed with many gifts; + With want of sense ready wit is necessary.” + +Or, as Giraldus quotes it, + + “Wrth bob crybwll rhaid pwyll parawd.” + + “With every hint ready wit is necessary.” + + _Myvyvrian Archaiology_, page 172. + +{179} Awenydhion, in a literal sense, means persons inspired by the +Muse, and is derived from Awen and Awenydd, a poetical rapture, or the +gift of poetry. It was the appellation of the disciples, or candidates +for the Bardic Order; but the most general acceptation of the word was, +Poets, or Bards. + +{183} Genealogies were preserved as a principle of necessity under the +ancient British constitution. A man’s pedigree was in reality his title +deed, by which he claimed his birthright in the country. Every one was +obliged to show his descent through nine generations, in order to be +acknowledged a free native, and by this right he claimed his portion of +land in the community. He was affected with respect to legal process in +his collateral affinities through nine degrees. For instance, every +murder committed had a fine levied on the relations of the murderer, +divided into nine degrees; his brother paying the greatest, and the ninth +in affinity the least. This fine was distributed in the same way among +the relatives of the victim. A person past the ninth descent formed a +new family. Every family was represented by its elder; and these elders +from every family were delegates to the national council.—_Owen_. + +{184} The _naviculæ_ mentioned by Giraldus bear the modern name of +_coracles_, and are much used on the Welsh rivers for the taking of +salmon. Their name is derived probably from the Celtic word _corawg_, +which signifies a _ship_. They are mentioned by the ancient writers. + +{197} By the city of Legions Chester is here meant, not Caerleon. + +{198} Of the stones inscribed “HIC VICTOR FUIT HAROLDUS”—“HERE HAROLD +CONQUERED,” no original, I believe, remains extant; but at the village of +Trelech, in Monmouthshire, there is a modern pedestal bearing the above +inscription.—See the description and engraving in Coxe’s Monmouthshire, +p. 234. + +{203} In one MS. of Giraldus in the British Museum, this name is written +Ovidius. + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESCRIPTION OF WALES*** + + +******* This file should be named 1092-0.txt or 1092-0.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/0/9/1092 + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of +the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have +to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. + + + + +Title: The Description of Wales + + +Author: Geraldus Cambrensis + + + +Release Date: February 9, 2015 [eBook #1092] +[This file was first posted on October 30, 1997] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESCRIPTION OF WALES*** +</pre> +<p>Transcribed from the 1912 J. M. Dent edition by David Price, +email ccx074@pglaf.org</p> +<h1><span class="smcap">The Description of Wales</span><br /> +by<br /> +Gerald of Wales</h1> +<h2><a name="page145"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +145</span>FIRST PREFACE<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">TO STEPHEN LANGTON, ARCHBISHOP OF +CANTERBURY</span></h2> +<p>I, <span class="smcap">who</span>, at the expense of three +years’ labour, arranged, a short time ago, in three parts, +the Topography of Ireland, with a description of its natural +curiosities, and who afterwards, by two years’ study, +completed in two parts the Vaticinal History of its Conquest; and +who, by publishing the Itinerary of the Holy Man (Baldwin) +through Cambria, prevented his laborious mission from perishing +in obscurity, do now propose, in the present little work, to give +some account of this my native country, and to describe the +genius of its inhabitants, so entirely distinct from that of +other nations. And this production of my industry I have +determined to dedicate to you, illustrious Stephen, archbishop of +Canterbury, as I before ascribed to you my Itinerary; considering +you as a man no less distinguished by your piety, than +conspicuous for your learning; though so humble an offering may +possibly be unworthy the acceptance of a personage who, from his +eminence, deserves to be presented with works of the greatest +merit.</p> +<p>Some, indeed, object to this my undertaking, and, apparently +from motives of affection, compare me to a painter, who, rich in +colours, and like another Zeuxis, eminent in his art, is +endeavouring with all his skill and industry to give celebrity to +a cottage, or to some other contemptible object, whilst the world +is anxiously expecting from his hand a temple or a palace. +Thus they wonder that I, amidst the many great and striking +subjects <a name="page146"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +146</span>which the world presents, should choose to describe and +to adorn, with all the graces of composition, such remote corners +of the earth as Ireland and Wales.</p> +<p>Others again, reproaching me with greater severity, say, that +the gifts which have been bestowed upon me from above, ought not +to be wasted upon these insignificant objects, nor lavished in a +vain display of learning on the commendation of princes, who, +from their ignorance and want of liberality, have neither taste +to appreciate, nor hearts to remunerate literary +excellence. And they further add, that every faculty which +emanates from the Deity, ought rather to be applied to the +illustration of celestial objects, and to the exultation of his +glory, from whose abundance all our talents have been received; +every faculty (say they) ought to be employed in praising him +from whom, as from a perennial source, every perfect gift is +derived, and from whose bounty everything which is offered with +sincerity obtains an ample reward. But since excellent +histories of other countries have been composed and published by +writers of eminence, I have been induced, by the love I bear to +my country and to posterity, to believe that I should perform +neither an useless nor an unacceptable service, were I to unfold +the hidden merits of my native land; to rescue from obscurity +those glorious actions which have been hitherto imperfectly +described, and to bring into repute, by my method of treating it, +a subject till now regarded as contemptible.</p> +<p>What indeed could my feeble and unexercised efforts add to the +histories of the destruction of Troy, Thebes, or Athens, or to +the conquest of the shores of Latium? Besides, to do what +has been already done, is, in fact, to be doing nothing; I have, +therefore, thought it more eligible to apply my industry to the +arrangement of the history of my native country, hitherto almost +wholly overlooked by strangers; but interesting to my relations +and countrymen; and from these small beginnings to aspire by +degrees to works of a nobler cast. <a +name="page147"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 147</span>From these +inconsiderable attempts, some idea may be formed with what +success, should Fortune afford an opportunity, I am likely to +treat matters of greater importance. For although some +things should be made our principal objects, whilst others ought +not to be wholly neglected, I may surely be allowed to exercise +the powers of my youth, as yet untaught and unexperienced, in +pursuits of this latter nature, lest by habit I should feel a +pleasure in indolence and in sloth, the parent of vice.</p> +<p>I have therefore employed these studies as a kind of +introduction to the glorious treasures of that most excellent of +the sciences, which alone deserves the name of science; which +alone can render us wise to rule and to instruct mankind; which +alone the other sciences follow, as attendants do their +queen. Laying therefore in my youth the foundations of so +noble a structure, it is my intention, if God will assist me and +prolong my life, to reserve my maturer years for composing a +treatise upon so perfect, so sacred a subject: for according to +the poet,</p> +<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">“Ardua quippe +fides robustos exigit annos;”</p> +<p style="text-align: center">“The important concerns of +faith require a mind in its full vigour;”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>I may be permitted to indulge myself for a short time in other +pursuits; but in this I should wish not only to continue, but to +die.</p> +<p>But before I enter on this important subject, I demand a short +interval, to enable me to lay before the public my Treatise on +the Instruction of a Prince, which has been so frequently +promised, as well as the Description of Wales, which is now +before me, and the Topography of Britain.</p> +<p>Of all the British writers, Gildas alone appears to me (as +often as the course of my subject leads me to consult him) worthy +of imitation; for by committing to paper the things which he +himself saw and knew, and by declaring rather than describing the +desolation of his <a name="page148"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +148</span>country, he has compiled a history more remarkable for +its truth than for its elegance.</p> +<p>Giraldus therefore follows Gildas, whom he wishes he could +copy in his life and manners; becoming an imitator of his wisdom +rather than of his eloquence—of his mind rather than of his +writings—of his zeal rather than of his style—of his +life rather than of his language.</p> +<h2><a name="page149"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +149</span>SECOND PREFACE<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">TO THE SAME</span></h2> +<p><span class="smcap">When</span>, amidst various literary +pursuits, I first applied my mind to the compilation of history, +I determined, lest I should appear ungrateful to my native land, +to describe, to the best of my abilities, my own country and its +adjoining regions; and afterwards, under God’s guidance, to +proceed to a description of more distant territories. But +since some leading men (whom we have both seen and known) show so +great a contempt for literature, that they immediately shut up +within their book-cases the excellent works with which they are +presented, and thus doom them, as it were, to a perpetual +imprisonment; I entreat you, illustrious Prelate, to prevent the +present little work, which will shortly be delivered to you, from +perishing in obscurity. And because this, as well as my +former productions, though of no transcendent merit, may +hereafter prove to many a source of entertainment and +instruction, I entreat you generously to order it to be made +public, by which it will acquire reputation. And I shall +consider myself sufficiently rewarded for my trouble, if, +withdrawing for a while from your religious and secular +occupations, you would kindly condescend to peruse this book, or, +at least, give it an attentive hearing; for in times like these, +when no one remunerates literary productions, I neither desire +nor expect any other recompense. Not that it would appear +in any way inconsistent, however there exists among men of rank a +kind of conspiracy against authors, if a prelate so eminently +conspicuous for his <a name="page150"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 150</span>virtues, for his abilities, both +natural and acquired, for irreproachable morals, and for +munificence, should distinguish himself likewise by becoming the +generous and sole patron of literature. To comprise your +merits in a few words, the lines of Martial addressed to Trajan, +whilst serving under Dioclesian, may be deservedly applied to +you:</p> +<blockquote><p>“Laudari debes quoniam sub principe duro,<br +/> + Temporibusque malis, ausus es esse bonus.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>And those also of Virgil to Mecænas, which extol the +humanity of that great man:</p> +<blockquote><p>“Omnia cum possis tanto tam clarus amico,<br +/> +Te sensit nemo posse nocere tamen.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>Many indeed remonstrate against my proceedings, and those +particularly who call themselves my friends insist that, in +consequence of my violent attachment to study, I pay no attention +to the concerns of the world, or to the interests of my family; +and that, on this account, I shall experience a delay in my +promotion to worldly dignities; that the influence of authors, +both poets and historians, has long since ceased; that the +respect paid to literature vanished with literary princes; and +that in these degenerate days very different paths lead to +honours and opulence. I allow all this, I readily allow it, +and acquiesce in the truth. For the unprincipled and +covetous attach themselves to the court, the churchmen to their +books, and the ambitious to the public offices, but as every man +is under the influence of some darling passion, so the love of +letters and the study of eloquence have from my infancy had for +me peculiar charms of attraction. Impelled by this thirst +for knowledge, I have carried my researches into the mysterious +works of nature farther than the generality of my contemporaries, +and for the benefit of posterity have rescued from oblivion the +remarkable events of my own times. But this object was not +to be secured without an indefatigable, <a +name="page151"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 151</span>though at +the same time an agreeable, exertion; for an accurate +investigation of every particular is attended with much +difficulty. It is difficult to produce an orderly account +of the investigation and discovery of truth; it is difficult to +preserve from the beginning to the end a connected relation +unbroken by irrelevant matter; and it is difficult to render the +narration no less elegant in the diction, than instructive in its +matter, for in prosecuting the series of events, the choice of +happy expressions is equally perplexing, as the search after them +painful. Whatever is written requires the most intense +thought, and every expression should be carefully polished before +it be submitted to the public eye; for, by exposing itself to the +examination of the present and of future ages, it must +necessarily undergo the criticism not only of the acute, but also +of the dissatisfied, reader. Words merely uttered are soon +forgotten, and the admiration or disgust which they occasioned is +no more; but writings once published are never lost, and remain +as lasting memorials either of the glory or of the disgrace of +the author. Hence the observation of Seneca, that the +malicious attention of the envious reader dwells with no less +satisfaction on a faulty than on an elegant expression, and is as +anxious to discover what it may ridicule, as what it may commend; +as the poet also observes:</p> +<blockquote><p>“Discit enim citius meminitque libentius +illud<br /> +Quod quis deridet, quam quod probat et veneratur.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>Among the pursuits, therefore, most worthy of commendation, +this holds by no means the lowest rank; for history, as the moral +philosopher declares, “is the record of antiquity, the +testimony of ages, the light of truth, the soul of memory, the +mistress of conduct, and the herald of ancient times.”</p> +<p>This study is the more delightful, as it is more honourable to +produce works worthy of being quoted than to quote the works of +others; as it is more desirable to be <a name="page152"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 152</span>the author of compositions which +deserve to be admired than to be esteemed a good judge of the +writings of other men; as it is more meritorious to be the just +object of other men’s commendations than to be considered +an adept in pointing out the merits of others. On these +pleasing reflections I feed and regale myself; for I would rather +resemble Jerome than Croesus, and I prefer to riches themselves +the man who is capable of despising them. With these +gratifying ideas I rest contented and delighted, valuing +moderation more than intemperance, and an honourable sufficiency +more than superfluity; for intemperance and superfluity produce +their own destruction, but their opposite virtues never perish; +the former vanish, but the latter, like eternity, remain for +ever; in short, I prefer praise to lucre, and reputation to +riches.</p> +<h2><a name="page153"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +153</span>CONTENTS</h2> +<table> +<tr> +<td colspan="3"><p style="text-align: center">BOOK I</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span +class="GutSmall">CHAPTER</span></p> +</td> +<td><p> </p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span +class="GutSmall">PAGE</span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">I.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Length and Breadth of Wales, the Nature of its Soil, and +the Three Remaining Tribes of Britons</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page155">155</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">II.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Of the Ancient Division of Wales into Three Parts</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page156">156</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">III.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Genealogy of the Princes of Wales</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page157">157</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">IV.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Cantreds—Royal Palaces—Cathedrals</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page158">158</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">V.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Mountains and Rivers of Wales</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page159">159</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">VI.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Concerning the Pleasantness and Fertility of Wales</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page163">163</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">VII.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Origin of the Names Cambria and Wales</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page164">164</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">VIII.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Concerning the Nature, Manners, and Dress, the Boldness, +Agility, and Courage, of this Nation</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page166">166</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">IX.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Their Sober Supper and Frugality</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page168">168</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">X.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Their Hospitality and Liberality</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page170">170</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">XI.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Concerning their cutting of their Hair, their Care of +their Teeth, and Shaving of their Beard</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page171">171</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">XII.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Their Quickness and Sharpness of Understanding</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page174">174</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">XIII.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Their Symphonies and Songs</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page175">175</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">XIV.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Their Wit and Pleasantry</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page177">177</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">XV.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Their Boldness and Confidence in Speaking</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page183">183</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">XVI.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Concerning the Soothsayers of this Nation, and Persons as +it were possessed</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page179">179</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">XVII.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Their Love of High Birth and Ancient Genealogy</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page183">183</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">XVIII.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Their Ancient Faith, Love of Christianity and Devotion</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page185">185</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="3"><p style="text-align: center"><a +name="page154"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 154</span>BOOK II</p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">I.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Concerning the Inconstancy and Instability of this Nation, +and their Want of Reverence for Good Faith and Oaths</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page189">189</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">II.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Their living by Plunder, and Disregard of the Bonds of +Peace and Friendship</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page190">190</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">III.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Their Deficiency in Battle, and Base and Dishonourable +Flight</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page192">192</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">IV.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Their Ambitious Seizure of Lands, and Dissensions among +Brothers</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page193">193</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">V.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Their great Exaction, and Want of Moderation</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page194">194</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">VI.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Concerning the Crime of Incest, and the Abuse of Churches +by Succession and Participation</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page195">195</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">VII.</p> +</td> +<td><p>Their Sins, and the consequent Loss of Britain and of +Troy</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page196">196</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">VIII.</p> +</td> +<td><p>In what Manner this Nation is to be overcome</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page198">198</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">IX.</p> +</td> +<td><p>In what Manner Wales, when conquered, should be +governed</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page202">202</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p style="text-align: right">X.</p> +</td> +<td><p>In what Manner this Nation may resist and revolt</p> +</td> +<td><p style="text-align: right"><span class="indexpageno"><a +href="#page204">204</a></span></p> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h2><a name="page155"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 155</span>BOOK +I</h2> +<h3>CHAPTER I<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">OF THE LENGTH AND BREADTH OF WALES, THE +NATURE OF ITS SOIL, AND THE THREE REMAINING TRIBES OF +BRITONS</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">Cambria</span>, which, by a corrupt and +common term, though less proper, is in modern times called Wales, +is about two hundred miles long and one hundred broad. The +length from Port Gordber <a name="citation155a"></a><a +href="#footnote155a" class="citation">[155a]</a> in Anglesey to +Port Eskewin <a name="citation155b"></a><a href="#footnote155b" +class="citation">[155b]</a> in Monmouthshire is eight days’ +journey in extent; the breadth from Porth Mawr, <a +name="citation155c"></a><a href="#footnote155c" +class="citation">[155c]</a> or the great Port of St. +David’s, to Ryd-helic, <a name="citation155d"></a><a +href="#footnote155d" class="citation">[155d]</a> which in Latin +means <i>Vadum salicis</i>, or the Ford of the Willow, and in +English is called Willow-forde, is four days’ +journey. It is a country very strongly defended by high +mountains, deep valleys, extensive woods, rivers, and marshes; +insomuch that from <a name="page156"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +156</span>the time the Saxons took possession of the island the +remnants of the Britons, retiring into these regions, could never +be entirely subdued either by the English or by the +Normans. Those who inhabited the southern angle of the +island, which took its name from the chieftain Corinæus, <a +name="citation156"></a><a href="#footnote156" +class="citation">[156]</a> made less resistance, as their country +was more defenceless. The third division of the Britons, +who obtained a part of Britany in Gaul, were transported thither, +not after the defeat of their nation, but long before, by king +Maximus, and, in consequence of the hard and continued warfare +which they underwent with him, were rewarded by the royal +munificence with those districts in France.</p> +<h3>CHAPTER II<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">OF THE ANCIENT DIVISION OF WALES INTO +THREE PARTS</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">Wales</span> was in ancient times divided +into three parts nearly equal, consideration having been paid, in +this division, more to the value than to the just quantity or +proportion of territory. They were Venedotia, now called +North Wales; Demetia, or South Wales, which in British is called +Deheubarth, that is, the southern part; and Powys, the middle or +eastern district. Roderic the Great, or Rhodri Mawr, who +was king over all Wales, was the cause of this division. He +had three sons, Mervin, Anarawt, and Cadell, amongst whom he +partitioned the whole principality. North Wales fell to the +lot of Mervin; Powys to Anarawt; and Cadell received <a +name="page157"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 157</span>the portion +of South Wales, together with the general good wishes of his +brothers and the people; for although this district greatly +exceeded the others in quantity, it was the least desirable from +the number of noble chiefs, or Uchelwyr, <a +name="citation157a"></a><a href="#footnote157a" +class="citation">[157a]</a> men of a superior rank, who inhabited +it, and were often rebellious to their lords, and impatient of +control. But Cadell, on the death of his brothers, obtained +the entire dominion of Wales, <a name="citation157b"></a><a +href="#footnote157b" class="citation">[157b]</a> as did his +successors till the time of Tewdwr, whose descendants, Rhys, son +of Tewdwr, Gruflydd, son of Rhys, and Rhys, son of Gruffydd, the +ruling prince in our time, enjoyed only (like the father) the +sovereignty over South Wales.</p> +<h3>CHAPTER III<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">GENEALOGY OF THE PRINCES OF +WALES</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> following is the generation of +princes of South Wales: Rhys, son of Gruffydd; Gruffydd, son of +Rhys; Rhys, son of Tewdwr; Tewdwr, son of Eineon; Eineon, son of +Owen; Owen, son of Howel Dda, or Howel the Good; Howel, son of +Cadell, son of Roderic the Great. Thus the princes of South +Wales derived their origin from Cadell, son of Roderic the +Great. The princes of North Wales descended from Mervin in +this manner: Llewelyn, son of Iorwerth; Iorwerth, son of Owen; +Owen, son of Gruffydd; Gruffydd, son of Conan; Conan, son of +Iago; Iago, son of Edoual; Edoual, son of Meyric; Meyric, son of +Anarawt (Anandhrec); Anarawt, son of Mervin, son of Roderic the +Great. Anarawt leaving no issue, the princes of Powys have +their own particular descent.</p> +<p>It is worthy of remark, that the Welsh bards and <a +name="page158"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 158</span>singers, or +reciters, have the genealogies of the aforesaid princes, written +in the Welsh language, in their ancient and authentic books; and +also retain them in their memory from Roderic the Great to B.M.; +<a name="citation158a"></a><a href="#footnote158a" +class="citation">[158a]</a> and from thence to Sylvius, Ascanius, +and Æneas; and from the latter produce the genealogical +series in a lineal descent, even to Adam.</p> +<p>But as an account of such long and remote genealogies may +appear to many persons trifling rather than historical, we have +purposely omitted them in our compendium.</p> +<h3>CHAPTER IV<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">HOW MANY CANTREDS, ROYAL PALACES, AND +CATHEDRALS THERE ARE IN WALES</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">South Wales</span> contains twenty-nine +cantreds; North Wales, twelve; Powys, six: many of which are at +this time in the possession of the English and Franks. For +the country now called Shropshire formerly belonged to Powys, and +the place where the castle of Shrewsbury stands bore the name of +Pengwern, or the head of the Alder Grove. There were three +royal seats in South Wales: Dinevor, in South Wales, removed from +Caerleon; Aberfraw, <a name="citation158b"></a><a +href="#footnote158b" class="citation">[158b]</a> in North Wales; +and Pengwern, in Powys.</p> +<p>Wales contains in all fifty-four cantreds. The word +<i>Cantref</i> is derived from <i>Cant</i>, a hundred, and +<i>Tref</i>, a village; <a name="page159"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 159</span>and means in the British and Irish +languages such a portion of land as contains a hundred vills.</p> +<p>There are four cathedral churches in Wales: St. David’s, +upon the Irish sea, David the archbishop being its patron: it was +in ancient times the metropolitan church, and the district only +contained twenty-four cantreds, though at this time only +twenty-three; for Ergengl, in English called Urchenfeld, <a +name="citation159a"></a><a href="#footnote159a" +class="citation">[159a]</a> is said to have been formerly within +the diocese of St. David’s, and sometimes was placed within +that of Landaff. The see of St. David’s had +twenty-five successive archbishops; and from the time of the +removal of the pall into France, to this day, twenty-two bishops; +whose names and series, as well as the cause of the removal of +the archiepiscopal pall, may be seen in our Itinerary. <a +name="citation159b"></a><a href="#footnote159b" +class="citation">[159b]</a></p> +<p>In South Wales also is situated the bishopric of Landaff, near +the Severn sea, and near the noble castle of Caerdyf; bishop +Teilo being its patron. It contains five cantreds, and the +fourth part of another, namely, Senghennyd.</p> +<p>In North Wales, between Anglesey and the Eryri mountains, is +the see of Bangor, under the patronage of Daniel, the abbot; it +contains about nine cantreds.</p> +<p>In North Wales also is the poor little cathedral of Llan-Elwy, +or St. Asaph, containing about six cantreds, to which Powys is +subject.</p> +<h3>CHAPTER V<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">OF THE TWO MOUNTAINS FROM WHICH THE NOBLE +RIVERS WHICH DIVIDE WALES SPRING</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">Wales</span> is divided and distinguished +by noble rivers, which derive their source from two ranges of +mountains, <a name="page160"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +160</span>the Ellennith, in South Wales, which the English call +Moruge, as being the heads of moors, or bogs; and Eryri, in North +Wales, which they call Snowdon, or mountains of snow; the latter +of which are said to be of so great an extent, that if all the +herds in Wales were collected together, they would supply them +with pasture for a considerable time. Upon them are two +lakes, one of which has a floating island; and the other contains +fish having only one eye, as we have related in our +Itinerary.</p> +<p>We must also here remark, that at two places in Scotland, one +on the eastern, and the other on the western ocean, the sea-fish +called mulvelli (mullets) have only the right eye.</p> +<p>The noble river Severn takes its rise from the Ellennith +mountains, and flowing by the castles of Shrewsbury and +Bridgenorth, through the city of Worcester, and that of +Gloucester, celebrated for its iron manufactories, falls into the +sea a few miles from the latter place, and gives its name to the +Severn Sea. This river was for many years the boundary +between Cambria and Loegria, or Wales and England; it was called +in British Hafren, from the daughter of Locrinus, who was drowned +in it by her step-mother; the aspirate being changed, according +to the Latin idiom, into S, as is usual in words derived from the +Greek, it was termed Sarina, as hal becomes <i>sal</i>; hemi, +<i>semi</i>; hepta, <i>septem</i>.</p> +<p>The river Wye rises in the same mountains of Ellennith, and +flows by the castles of Hay and Clifford, through the city of +Hereford, by the castles of Wilton and Goodrich, through the +forest of Dean, abounding with iron and deer, and proceeds to +Strigul castle, below which it empties itself into the sea, and +forms in modern times the boundary between England and +Wales. The Usk does not derive its origin from these +mountains, but from those of Cantref Bachan; it flows by the +castle of Brecheinoc, or Aberhodni, that is, the fall of the +river Hodni into the Usk (for Aber, in the British language, +signifies every place where two rivers unite their <a +name="page161"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 161</span>streams); +by the castles of Abergevenni and Usk, through the ancient city +of Legions, and discharges itself into the Severn Sea, not far +from Newport.</p> +<p>The river Remni flows towards the sea from the mountains of +Brecheinoc, having passed the castle and bridge of Remni. +From the same range of mountains springs the Taf, which pursues +its course to the episcopal see of Landaf (to which it gives its +name), and falls into the sea below the castle of Caerdyf. +The river Avon rushes impetuously from the mountains of +Glamorgan, between the celebrated Cistercian monasteries of +Margan and Neth; and the river Neth, descending from the +mountains of Brecheinoc, unites itself with the sea, at no great +distance from the castle of Neth; each of these rivers forming a +long tract of dangerous quicksands. From the same mountains +of Brecheinoc the river Tawe flows down to Abertawe, called in +English Swainsey. The Lochor joins the sea near the castle +of the same name; and the Wendraeth has its confluence near +Cydweli. The Tywy, another noble river, rises in the +Ellennith mountains, and separating the Cantref Mawr from the +Cantref Bachan, passes by the castle of Llanymddyfri, and the +royal palace and castle of Dinevor, strongly situated in the deep +recesses of its woods, by the noble castle of Caermarddin, where +Merlin was found, and from whom the city received its name, and +runs into the sea near the castle of Lhanstephan. The river +Taf rises in the Presseleu mountains, not far from the monastery +of Whitland, and passing by the castle of St. Clare, falls into +the sea near Abercorran and Talacharn. From the same +mountains flow the rivers Cleddeu, encompassing the province of +Daugleddeu, and giving it their name one passes by the castle of +Lahaden, and the other by Haverford, to the sea; and in the +British language they bear the name of Daugleddeu, or two +swords.</p> +<p>The noble river Teivi springs from the Ellennith mountains, in +the upper part of the Cantref Mawr and <a +name="page162"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 162</span>Caerdigan, +not far from the pastures and excellent monastery of Stratflur, +forming a boundary between Demetia and Caerdigan down to the +Irish channel; this is the only river in Wales that produces +beavers, an account of which is given in our Itinerary; and also +exceeds every other river in the abundance and delicacy of its +salmon. But as this book may fall into the hands of many +persons who will not meet with the other, I have thought it right +here to insert many curious and particular qualities relating to +the nature of these animals, how they convey their materials from +the woods to the river, with what skill they employ these +materials in constructing places of safety in the middle of the +stream, how artfully they defend themselves against the attack of +the hunters on the eastern and how on the western side; the +singularity of their tails, which partake more of the nature of +fish than flesh. For further particulars see the Itinerary. +<a name="citation162a"></a><a href="#footnote162a" +class="citation">[162a]</a></p> +<p>From the same mountains issues the Ystuyth, and flowing +through the upper parts of Penwedic, in Cardiganshire, falls into +the sea near the castle of Aberystuyth. From the snowy +mountains of Eryri flows the noble river Devi, <a +name="citation162b"></a><a href="#footnote162b" +class="citation">[162b]</a> dividing for a great distance North +and South Wales; and from the same mountains also the large river +Maw, <a name="citation162c"></a><a href="#footnote162c" +class="citation">[162c]</a> forming by its course the greater and +<a name="page163"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 163</span>smaller +tract of sands called the Traeth Mawr and the Traeth +Bachan. The Dissennith also, and the Arthro, flow through +Merionethshire and the land of Conan. The Conwy, springing +from the northern side of the Eryri mountains, unites its waters +with the sea under the noble castle of Deganwy. The Cloyd +rises from another side of the same mountain, and passes by the +castle of Ruthlan to the sea. The Doverdwy, called by the +English Dee, draws its source from the lake of Penmelesmere, and +runs through Chester, leaving the wood of Coleshulle, Basinwerk, +and a rich vein of silver in its neighbourhood, far to the right, +and by the influx of the sea forming a very dangerous quicksand; +thus the Dee makes the northern, and the river Wye the southern +boundary of Wales.</p> +<h3>CHAPTER VI<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">CONCERNING THE PLEASANTNESS AND FERTILITY +OF WALES</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">As</span> the southern part of Wales near +Cardiganshire, but particularly Pembrokeshire, is much +pleasanter, on account of its plains and sea-coast, so North +Wales is better defended by nature, is more productive of men +distinguished for bodily strength, and more fertile in the nature +of its soil; for, as the mountains of Eryri (Snowdon) could +supply pasturage for all the herds of cattle in Wales, if +collected together, so could the Isle of Mona (Anglesey) provide +a requisite quantity of corn for all the inhabitants: on which +account there is an old British proverb, “<i>Mon mam +Cymbry</i>,” that is, “Mona is the mother of +Wales.” Merionyth, and the land of <a +name="page164"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 164</span>Conan, is +the rudest and least cultivated region, and the least +accessible. The natives of that part of Wales excel in the +use of long lances, as those of Monmouthshire are distinguished +for their management of the bow. It is to be observed, that +the British language is more delicate and richer in North Wales, +that country being less intermixed with foreigners. Many, +however, assert that the language of Cardiganshire, in South +Wales, placed as it were in the middle and heart of Cambria, is +the most refined.</p> +<p>The people of Cornwall and the Armoricans speak a language +similar to that of the Britons; and from its origin and near +resemblance, it is intelligible to the Welsh in many instances, +and almost in all; and although less delicate and methodical, yet +it approaches, as I judge, more to the ancient British +idiom. As in the southern parts of England, and +particularly in Devonshire, the English language seems less +agreeable, yet it bears more marks of antiquity (the northern +parts being much corrupted by the irruptions of the Danes and +Norwegians), and adheres more strictly to the original language +and ancient mode of speaking; a positive proof of which may be +deduced from all the English works of Bede, Rhabanus, and king +Alfred, being written according to this idiom.</p> +<h3>CHAPTER VII<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">ORIGIN OF THE NAMES CAMBRIA AND +WALES</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">Cambria</span> was so called from Camber, +son of Brutus, for Brutus, descending from the Trojans, by his +grandfather, Ascanius, and father, Silvius, led the remnant of +the Trojans, who had long been detained in Greece, into this +western isle; and having reigned many years, and given his name +to the country and people, at his <a name="page165"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 165</span>death divided the kingdom of Wales +between his three sons. To his eldest son, Locrinus, he +gave that part of the island which lies between the rivers Humber +and Severn, and which from him was called Loegria. To his +second son, Albanactus, he gave the lands beyond the Humber, +which took from him the name of Albania. But to his +youngest son, Camber, he bequeathed all that region which lies +beyond the Severn, and is called after him Cambria; hence the +country is properly and truly called Cambria, and its inhabitants +Cambrians, or Cambrenses. Some assert that their name was +derived from <i>Cam</i> and <i>Græco</i>, that is, +distorted Greek, on account of the affinity of their languages, +contracted by their long residence in Greece; but this +conjecture, though plausible, is not well founded on truth.</p> +<p>The name of Wales was not derived from Wallo, a general, or +Wandolena, the queen, as the fabulous history of Geoffrey +Arthurius <a name="citation165a"></a><a href="#footnote165a" +class="citation">[165a]</a> falsely maintains, because neither of +these personages are to be found amongst the Welsh; but it arose +from a barbarian appellation. The Saxons, when they seized +upon Britain, called this nation, as they did all foreigners, +Wallenses; and thus the barbarous name remains to the people and +their country. <a name="citation165b"></a><a href="#footnote165b" +class="citation">[165b]</a></p> +<p>Having discoursed upon the quality and quantity of the land, +the genealogies of the princes, the sources of the rivers, and +the derivation of the names of this country, we shall now +consider the nature and character of the nation.</p> +<h3><a name="page166"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +166</span>CHAPTER VIII<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">CONCERNING THE NATURE, MANNERS, AND DRESS, +THE BOLDNESS, AGILITY, AND COURAGE, OF THIS NATION</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">This</span> people is light and active, +hardy rather than strong, and entirely bred up to the use of +arms; for not only the nobles, but all the people are trained to +war, and when the trumpet sounds the alarm, the husbandman rushes +as eagerly from his plough as the courtier from his court; for +here it is not found that, as in other places,</p> +<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">“Agricolis labor +actus in orbem,”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>returns; for in the months of March and April only the soil is +once ploughed for oats, and again in the summer a third time, and +in winter for wheat. Almost all the people live upon the +produce of their herds, with oats, milk, cheese, and butter; +eating flesh in larger proportions than bread. They pay no +attention to commerce, shipping, or manufactures, and suffer no +interruption but by martial exercises. They anxiously study +the defence of their country and their liberty; for these they +fight, for these they undergo hardships, and for these willingly +sacrifice their lives; they esteem it a disgrace to die in bed, +an honour to die in the field of battle; using the poet’s +expressions,—</p> + +<blockquote><p> “Procul +hinc avertite pacem,<br /> +Nobilitas cum pace perit.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>Nor is it wonderful if it degenerates, for the ancestors of +these men, the Æneadæ, rushed to arms in the cause of +liberty. It is remarkable that this people, though unarmed, +dares attack an armed foe; the infantry defy the cavalry, and by +their activity and courage generally prove victors. They +resemble in disposition and <a name="page167"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 167</span>situation those conquerors whom the +poet Lucan mentions:</p> +<blockquote><p>— —“Populi quos despicit +Arctos,<br /> +Felices errore suo, quos ille timorum<br /> +Maximus haud urget leti metus, inde ruendi<br /> +In ferrum, mens prona viris, amimæque capaces,<br /> +Mortis et ignavum redituræ parsere vitæ.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>They make use of light arms, which do not impede their +agility, small coats of mail, bundles of arrows, and long lances, +helmets and shields, and more rarely greaves plated with +iron. The higher class go to battle mounted on swift and +generous steeds, which their country produces; but the greater +part of the people fight on foot, on account of the marshy nature +and unevenness of the soil. The horsemen as their situation +or occasion requires, willingly serve as infantry, in attacking +or retreating; and they either walk bare-footed, or make use of +high shoes, roughly constructed with untanned leather. In +time of peace, the young men, by penetrating the deep recesses of +the woods, and climbing the tops of mountains, learn by practice +to endure fatigue through day and night; and as they meditate on +war during peace, they acquire the art of fighting by accustoming +themselves to the use of the lance, and by inuring themselves to +hard exercise.</p> +<p>In our time, king Henry II., in reply to the inquiries of +Emanuel, emperor of Constantinople, concerning the situation, +nature, and striking peculiarities of the British island, among +other remarkable circumstances mentioned the following: +“That in a certain part of the island there was a people, +called Welsh, so bold and ferocious that, when unarmed, they did +not fear to encounter an armed force; being ready to shed their +blood in defence of their country, and to sacrifice their lives +for renown; which is the more surprising, as the beasts of the +field over the whole face of the island became gentle, but these +desperate men could not be tamed. The wild animals, and +particularly the stags and hinds, <a name="page168"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 168</span>are so abundant, owing to the little +molestation they receive, that in our time, in the northern parts +of the island towards the Peak, <a name="citation168"></a><a +href="#footnote168" class="citation">[168]</a> when pursued by +the hounds and hunters, they contributed, by their numbers, to +their own destruction.”</p> +<h3>CHAPTER IX<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">OF THEIR SOBER SUPPER AND +FRUGALITY</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">Not</span> addicted to gluttony or +drunkenness, this people who incur no expense in food or dress, +and whose minds are always bent upon the defence of their +country, and on the means of plunder, are wholly employed in the +care of their horses and furniture. Accustomed to fast from +morning till evening, and trusting to the care of Providence, +they dedicate the whole day to business, and in the evening +partake of a moderate meal; and even if they have none, or only a +very scanty one, they patiently wait till the next evening; and, +neither deterred by cold nor hunger, they employ the dark and +stormy nights in watching the hostile motions of their +enemies.</p> +<h3>CHAPTER X<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">OF THEIR HOSPITALITY AND +LIBERALITY</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">No</span> one of this nation ever begs, +for the houses of all are common to all; and they consider +liberality and hospitality amongst the first virtues. So +much does hospitality here rejoice in communication, that it is +neither offered nor requested by travellers, who, on entering any +house, only deliver up their arms. When <a +name="page169"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 169</span>water is +offered to them, if they suffer their feet to be washed, they are +received as guests; for the offer of water to wash the feet is +with this nation an hospitable invitation. But if they +refuse the proffered service, they only wish for morning +refreshment, not lodging. The young men move about in +troops and families under the direction of a chosen leader. +Attached only to arms and ease, and ever ready to stand forth in +defence of their country, they have free admittance into every +house as if it were their own.</p> +<p>Those who arrive in the morning are entertained till evening +with the conversation of young women, and the music of the harp; +for each house has its young women and harps allotted to this +purpose. Two circumstances here deserve notice: that as no +nation labours more under the vice of jealousy than the Irish, so +none is more free from it than the Welsh: and in each family the +art of playing on the harp is held preferable to any other +learning. In the evening, when no more guests are expected, +the meal is prepared according to the number and dignity of the +persons assembled, and according to the wealth of the family who +entertains. The kitchen does not supply many dishes, nor +high-seasoned incitements to eating. The house is not +furnished with tables, cloths, or napkins. They study +nature more than splendour, for which reason, the guests being +seated in threes, instead of couples as elsewhere, <a +name="citation169a"></a><a href="#footnote169a" +class="citation">[169a]</a> they place the dishes before them all +at once upon rushes and fresh grass, in large platters or +trenchers. They also make use of a thin and broad cake of +bread, baked every day, such as in old writings was called +<i>lagana</i>; <a name="citation169b"></a><a href="#footnote169b" +class="citation">[169b]</a> and they <a name="page170"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 170</span>sometimes add chopped meat, with +broth. Such a repast was formerly used by the noble youth, +from whom this nation boasts its descent, and whose manners it +still partly imitates, according to the word of the poet:</p> +<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">“Heu! mensas +consumimus, inquit Iulus.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>While the family is engaged in waiting on the guests, the host +and hostess stand up, paying unremitting attention to everything, +and take no food till all the company are satisfied; that in case +of any deficiency, it may fall upon them. A bed made of +rushes, and covered with a coarse kind of cloth manufactured in +the country, called <i>brychan</i>, <a name="citation170"></a><a +href="#footnote170" class="citation">[170]</a> is then placed +along the side of the room, and they all in common lie down to +sleep; nor is their dress at night different from that by day, +for at all seasons they defend themselves from the cold only by a +thin cloak and tunic. The fire continues to burn by night +as well as by day, at their feet, and they receive much comfort +from the natural heat of the persons lying near them; but when +the under side begins to be tired with the hardness of the bed, +or the upper one to suffer from cold, they immediately leap up, +and go to the fire, which soon relieves them from both +inconveniences; and then returning to their couch, they expose +alternately their sides to the cold, and to the hardness of the +bed.</p> +<h3>CHAPTER XI<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">CONCERNING THEIR CUTTING OF THEIR HAIR, +THEIR CARE OF THEIR TEETH, AND SHAVING OF THEIR BEARD</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> men and women cut their hair +close round to the ears and eyes. The women, after the +manner of the <a name="page171"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +171</span>Parthians, cover their heads with a large white veil, +folded together in the form of a crown.</p> +<p>Both sexes exceed any other nation in attention to their +teeth, which they render like ivory, by constantly rubbing them +with green hazel and wiping with a woollen cloth. For their +better preservation, they abstain from hot meats, and eat only +such as are cold, warm, or temperate. The men shave all +their beard except the moustaches (<i>gernoboda</i>). This +custom is not recent, but was observed in ancient and remote +ages, as we find in the works of Julius Cæsar, who says, <a +name="citation171"></a><a href="#footnote171" +class="citation">[171]</a> “The Britons shave every part of +their body except their head and upper lip;” and to render +themselves more active, and avoid the fate of Absalon in their +excursions through the woods, they are accustomed to cut even the +hair from their heads; so that this nation more than any other +shaves off all pilosity. Julius also adds, that the +Britons, previous to an engagement, anointed their faces with a +nitrous ointment, which gave them so ghastly and shining an +appearance, that the enemy could scarcely bear to look at them, +particularly if the rays of the sun were reflected on them.</p> +<h3>CHAPTER XII<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">OF THEIR QUICKNESS AND SHARPNESS OF +UNDERSTANDING</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">These</span> people being of a sharp and +acute intellect, and gifted with a rich and powerful +understanding, excel in whatever studies they pursue, and are +more quick and cunning than the other inhabitants of a western +clime.</p> +<p>Their musical instruments charm and delight the ear <a +name="page172"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 172</span>with their +sweetness, are borne along by such celerity and delicacy of +modulation, producing such a consonance from the rapidity of +seemingly discordant touches, that I shall briefly repeat what is +set forth in our Irish Topography on the subject of the musical +instruments of the three nations. It is astonishing that in +so complex and rapid a movement of the fingers, the musical +proportions can be preserved, and that throughout the difficult +modulations on their various instruments, the harmony is +completed with such a sweet velocity, so unequal an equality, so +discordant a concord, as if the chords sounded together fourths +or fifths. They always begin from B flat, and return to the +same, that the whole may be completed under the sweetness of a +pleasing sound. They enter into a movement, and conclude it +in so delicate a manner, and play the little notes so sportively +under the blunter sounds of the base strings, enlivening with +wanton levity, or communicating a deeper internal sensation of +pleasure, so that the perfection of their art appears in the +concealment of it:</p> +<blockquote><p>“Si lateat, prosit;<br /> +— — ferat ars deprensa pudorem.”</p> +<p>“Art profits when concealed,<br /> +Disgraces when revealed.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>From this cause, those very strains which afford deep and +unspeakable mental delight to those who have skilfully penetrated +into the mysteries of the art, fatigue rather than gratify the +ears of others, who seeing, do not perceive, and hearing, do not +understand; and by whom the finest music is esteemed no better +than a confused and disorderly noise, and will be heard with +unwillingness and disgust.</p> +<p>They make use of three instruments, the harp, the pipe, and +the crwth or crowd (<i>chorus</i>). <a name="citation172"></a><a +href="#footnote172" class="citation">[172]</a></p> +<p><a name="page173"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 173</span>They +omit no part of natural rhetoric in the management of civil +actions, in quickness of invention, disposition, refutation, and +confirmation. In their rhymed songs and set speeches they +are so subtle and ingenious, that they produce, in their native +tongue, ornaments of wonderful and exquisite invention both in +the words and sentences. Hence arise those poets whom they +call Bards, of whom you will find many in this nation, endowed +with the above faculty, according to the poet’s +observation:</p> +<blockquote><p>“Plurima concreti fuderunt carmina +Bardi.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>But they make use of alliteration (<i>anominatione</i>) in +preference to all other ornaments of rhetoric, and that +particular kind which joins by consonancy the first letters or +syllables of words. So much do the English and Welsh +nations employ this ornament of words in all exquisite +composition, that no sentence is esteemed to be elegantly spoken, +no oration to be otherwise than uncouth and unrefined, unless it +be fully polished with the file of this figure. Thus in the +British tongue:</p> +<blockquote><p>“Digawn Duw da i unic.”</p> +<p>“Wrth bob crybwyll rhaïd pwyll parawd.” <a +name="citation173"></a><a href="#footnote173" +class="citation">[173]</a></p> +</blockquote> +<p><a name="page174"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 174</span>And +in English,</p> +<blockquote><p>“God is together gammen and +wisedom.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>The same ornament of speech is also frequent in the Latin +language. Virgil says,</p> +<blockquote><p>“Tales casus Cassandra canebat.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>And again, in his address to Augustus,</p> +<blockquote><p>“Dum dubitet natura marem, faceretve +puellam,<br /> +Natus es, o pulcher, pene puella, puer.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>This ornament occurs not in any language we know so frequently +as in the two first; it is, indeed, surprising that the French, +in other respects so ornamented, should be entirely ignorant of +this verbal elegance so much adopted in other languages. +Nor can I believe that the English and Welsh, so different and +adverse to each other, could designedly have agreed in the usage +of this figure; but I should rather suppose that it had grown +habitual to both by long custom, as it pleases the ear by a +transition from similar to similar sounds. Cicero, in his +book “On Elocution,” observes of such who know the +practice, not the art, “Other persons when they read good +orations or poems, approve of the orators or poets, not +understanding the reason why, being affected, they approve; +because they cannot know in what place, of what nature, nor how +that effect is caused which so highly delights them.”</p> +<h3>CHAPTER XIII<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">OF THEIR SYMPHONIES AND SONGS</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> their musical concerts they do +not sing in unison like the inhabitants of other countries, but +in many different <a name="page175"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +175</span>parts; so that in a company of singers, which one very +frequently meets with in Wales, you will hear as many different +parts and voices as there are performers, who all at length +unite, with organic melody, in one consonance and the soft +sweetness of B flat. In the northern district of Britain, +beyond the Humber, and on the borders of Yorkshire, the +inhabitants make use of the same kind of symphonious harmony, but +with less variety; singing only in two parts, one murmuring in +the base, the other warbling in the acute or treble. +Neither of the two nations has acquired this peculiarity by art, +but by long habit, which has rendered it natural and familiar; +and the practice is now so firmly rooted in them, that it is +unusual to hear a simple and single melody well sung; and, what +is still more wonderful, the children, even from their infancy, +sing in the same manner. As the English in general do not +adopt this mode of singing, but only those of the northern +countries, I believe that it was from the Danes and Norwegians, +by whom these parts of the island were more frequently invaded, +and held longer under their dominion, that the natives contracted +their mode of singing as well as speaking.</p> +<h3>CHAPTER XIV<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">THEIR WIT AND PLEASANTRY</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> heads of different families, in +order to excite the laughter of their guests, and gain credit by +their sayings, make use of great facetiousness in their +conversation; at one time uttering their jokes in a light, easy +manner, at another time, under the disguise of equivocation, +passing the severest censures. For the sake of explanation +I shall here subjoin a few examples. Tegeingl is the name +of a province in North Wales, over which David, son of <a +name="page176"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 176</span>Owen, had +dominion, and which had once been in the possession of his +brother. The same word also was the name of a certain woman +with whom, it was said, each brother had an intrigue, from which +circumstance arose this term of reproach, “To have +Tegeingl, after Tegeingl had been in possession of his +brother.”</p> +<p>At another time, when Rhys, son of Gruffydd, prince of South +Wales, accompanied by a multitude of his people, devoutly entered +the church of St. David’s, previous to an intended journey, +the oblations having been made, and mass solemnised, a young man +came to him in the church, and publicly declared himself to be +his son, threw himself at his feet, and with tears humbly +requested that the truth of this assertion might be ascertained +by the trial of the burning iron. Intelligence of this +circumstance being conveyed to his family and his two sons, who +had just gone out of the church, a youth who was present made +this remark: “This is not wonderful; some have brought +gold, and others silver, as offerings; but this man, who had +neither, brought what he had, namely, iron;” thus taunting +him with his poverty. On mentioning a certain house that +was strongly built and almost impregnable, one of the company +said, “This house indeed is strong, for if it should +contain food it could never be got at,” thus alluding both +to the food and to the house. In like manner, a person, +wishing to hint at the avaricious disposition of the mistress of +a house, said, “I only find fault with our hostess for +putting too little butter to her salt,” whereas the +accessory should be put to the principal; thus, by a subtle +transposition of the words, converting the accessory into the +principal, by making it appear to abound in quantity. Many +similar sayings of great men and philosophers are recorded in the +Saturnalia of Macrobius. When Cicero saw his son-in-law, +Lentulus, a man of small stature, with a long sword by his side: +“Who,” says he, “has girded my son-in-law to +that sword?” thus changing the accessary into the +principal. The same person, on seeing <a +name="page177"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 177</span>the +half-length portrait of his brother Quintus Cicero, drawn with +very large features and an immense shield, exclaimed, “Half +of my brother is greater than the whole!” When the +sister of Faustus had an intrigue with a fuller, “Is it +strange,” says he, “that my sister has a spot, when +she is connected with a fuller?” When Antiochus +showed Hannibal his army, and the great warlike preparations he +had made against the Romans, and asked him, “Thinkest thou, +O Hannibal, that these are sufficient for the +Romans?” Hannibal, ridiculing the unmilitary +appearance of the soldiers, wittily and severely replied, +“I certainly think them sufficient for the Romans, however +greedy;” Antiochus asking his opinion about the military +preparations, and Hannibal alluding to them as becoming a prey to +the Romans.</p> +<h3>CHAPTER XV<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">THEIR BOLDNESS AND CONFIDENCE IN +SPEAKING</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">Nature</span> hath given not only to the +highest, but also to the inferior, classes of the people of this +nation, a boldness and confidence in speaking and answering, even +in the presence of their princes and chieftains. The Romans +and Franks had the same faculty; but neither the English, nor the +Saxons and Germans, from whom they are descended, had it. +It is in vain urged, that this defect may arise from the state of +servitude which the English endured; for the Saxons and Germans, +who enjoy their liberty, have the same failing, and derive this +natural coldness of disposition from the frozen region they +inhabit; the English also, although placed in a distant climate, +still retain the exterior fairness of complexion and inward +coldness of disposition, as inseparable from their original and +natural character. The Britons, on <a +name="page178"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 178</span>the +contrary, transplanted from the hot and parched regions of +Dardania into these more temperate districts, as</p> +<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">“Cœlum non +animum mutant qui trans mare currunt,”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>still retain their brown complexion and that natural warmth of +temper from which their confidence is derived. For three +nations, remnants of the Greeks after the destruction of Troy, +fled from Asia into different parts of Europe, the Romans under +Æneas, the Franks under Antenor, and the Britons under +Brutus; and from thence arose that courage, that nobleness of +mind, that ancient dignity, that acuteness of understanding, and +confidence of speech, for which these three nations are so highly +distinguished. But the Britons, from having been detained +longer in Greece than the other two nations, after the +destruction of their country, and having migrated at a later +period into the western parts of Europe, retained in a greater +degree the primitive words and phrases of their native +language. You will find amongst them the names Oenus, +Resus, Æneas, Hector, Achilles, Heliodorus, Theodorus, +Ajax, Evander, Uliex, Anianus, Elisa, Guendolena, and many +others, bearing marks of their antiquity. It is also to be +observed, that almost all words in the British language +correspond either with the Greek or Latin, as +ὑδωζ, water, is called in British, dwr; +ἁλς, salt, in British, halen; +ονομα, eno, a name; +πεντε, pump, five; +δεκα, deg, ten. The Latins also +use the words frænum, tripos, gladius, lorica; the Britons, +froyn (ffrwyn), trepet (tribedd), cleddyf, and lluric (llurig); +unicus is made unic (unig); canis, can (cwn); and belua, +beleu.</p> +<h3><a name="page179"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +179</span>CHAPTER XVI<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">CONCERNING THE SOOTHSAYERS OF THIS NATION, +AND PERSONS AS IT WERE POSSESSED</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are certain persons in +Cambria, whom you will find nowhere else, called Awenddyon, <a +name="citation179"></a><a href="#footnote179" +class="citation">[179]</a> or people inspired; when consulted +upon any doubtful event, they roar out violently, are rendered +beside themselves, and become, as it were, possessed by a +spirit. They do not deliver the answer to what is required +in a connected manner; but the person who skilfully observes +them, will find, after many preambles, and many nugatory and +incoherent, though ornamented speeches, the desired explanation +conveyed in some turn of a word: they are then roused from their +ecstasy, as from a deep sleep, and, as it were, by violence +compelled to return to their proper senses. After having +answered the questions, they do not recover till violently shaken +by other people; nor can they remember the replies they have +given. If consulted a second or third time upon the same +point, they will make use of expressions totally different; +perhaps they speak by the means of fanatic and ignorant +spirits. These gifts are usually conferred upon them in +dreams: some seem to have sweet milk or honey poured on their +lips; others fancy that a written schedule is applied to their +mouths and on awaking they publicly declare that they have +received this gift. Such is the saying of Esdras, +“The Lord said unto me, open thy mouth, and I opened my +mouth, and behold a cup full of water, whose colour was like +fire; and when I had drank it, my heart brought forth +understanding, and wisdom entered <a name="page180"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 180</span>into my breast.” They +invoke, during their prophecies, the true and living God, and the +Holy Trinity, and pray that they may not by their sins be +prevented from finding the truth. These prophets are only +found among the Britons descended from the Trojans. For +Calchas and Cassandra, endowed with the spirit of prophecy, +openly foretold, during the siege of Troy, the destruction of +that fine city; on which account the high priest, Helenus, +influenced by the prophetic books of Calchas, and of others who +had long before predicted the ruin of their country, in the first +year went over to the Greeks with the sons of Priam (to whom he +was high priest), and was afterwards rewarded in Greece. +Cassandra, daughter of king Priam, every day foretold the +overthrow of the city; but the pride and presumption of the +Trojans prevented them from believing her word. Even on the +very night that the city was betrayed, she clearly described the +treachery and the method of it:</p> +<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">“— tales +casus Cassandra canebat,”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>as in the same manner, during the existence of the kingdom of +the Britons, both Merlin Caledonius and Ambrosius are said to +have foretold the destruction of their nation, as well as the +coming of the Saxons, and afterwards that of the Normans; and I +think a circumstance related by Aulus Gellius worth inserting in +this place. On the day that Caius Cæsar and Cneius +Pompey, during the civil war, fought a pitched battle in +Thessalia, a memorable event occurred in that part of Italy +situated beyond the river Po. A priest named Cornelius, +honourable from his rank, venerable for his religion, and holy in +his manners, in an inspired moment proclaimed, “Cæsar +has conquered,” and named the day, the events, the mutual +attack, and the conflicts of the two armies. Whether such +things are exhibited by the spirit, let the reader more +particularly inquire; I do not assert they are the acts of a +Pythonic or a diabolic spirit; for as foreknowledge is the +property of God alone, so is it in his <a +name="page181"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 181</span>power to +confer knowledge of future events. There are differences of +gifts, says the Apostle, but one and the same spirit; whence +Peter, in his second Epistle, writes, “For the prophecy +came not in the old time by the will of man, but men spake as if +they were inspired by the Holy Ghost:” to the same effect +did the Chaldeans answer king Nebuchadonazar on the +interpretation of his dream, which he wished to extort from +them. “There is not,” say they, “a man +upon earth who can, O king, satisfactorily answer your question; +let no king therefore, however great or potent, make a similar +request to any magician, astrologer, or Chaldean; for it is a +rare thing that the king requireth, and there is none other that +can shew it before the king, except the Gods, whose dwelling is +not with flesh.” On this passage Jerome remarks, +“The diviners and all the learned of this world confess, +that the prescience of future events belongs to God alone; the +prophets therefore, who foretold things to come, spake by the +spirit of God. Hence some persons object, that, if they +were under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, they would sometimes +premise, “Thus saith the Lord God,” or make use of +some expression in the prophetic style; and as such a mode of +prophesying is not taken notice of by Merlin, and no mention is +made of his sanctity, devotion, or faith, many think that he +spake by a Pythonic spirit. To which I answer, that the +spirit of prophecy was given not only to the holy, but sometimes +to unbelievers and Gentiles, to Baal, to the sibyls, and even to +bad people, as to Caiaphas and Bela. On which occasion +Origen says: “Do not wonder, if he whom ye have mentioned +declares that the Scribes and Pharisees and doctors amongst the +Jews prophesied concerning Christ; for Caiaphas said: “It +is expedient for us that one man die for the people:” but +asserts at the same time, that because he was high priest for +that year, he prophesied. Let no man therefore be lifted +up, if he prophesies, if he merits prescience; for prophecies +shall fail, tongues shall cease, knowledge shall vanish <a +name="page182"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 182</span>away; and +now abideth, faith, hope, and charity: these three; but the +greatest of these is Charity, which never faileth. But +these bad men not only prophesied, but sometimes performed great +miracles, which others could not accomplish. John the +Baptist, who was so great a personage, performed no miracle, as +John the Evangelist testifies: “And many came to Jesus and +said, Because John wrought no signs,” etc. Nor do we +hear that the mother of God performed any miracle; we read in the +Acts of the Apostles, that the sons of Sheva cast out devils in +the name of Jesus, whom Paul preached; and in Matthew and Luke we +may find these words: “Many shall say unto me in that day, +Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in thy name? and in thy name +have cast out devils? and in thy name done many wonderful works? +and then I will profess unto them, I never knew you.” +And in another place, John says: “Master, we saw a certain +man casting out devils in thy name, and forbade him, because he +followeth not with us.” But Jesus said: “Forbid +him not; no man can do a miracle in my name, and speak evil of +me; for whoever is not against me, is for me.”</p> +<p>Alexander of Macedon, a gentile, traversed the Caspian +mountains, and miraculously confined ten tribes within their +promontories, where they still remain, and will continue until +the coming of Elias and Enoch. We read, indeed, the +prophecies of Merlin, but hear nothing either of his sanctity or +his miracles. Some say, that the prophets, when they +prophesied, did not become frantic, as it is affirmed of Merlin +Silvestris, and others possessed, whom we have before +mentioned. Some prophesied by dreams, visions, and +enigmatical sayings, as Ezechiel and Daniel; others by acts and +words, as Noah, in the construction of the ark, alluded to the +church; Abraham, in the slaying of his son, to the passion of +Christ; and Moses by his speech, when he said, “A prophet +shall the Lord God raise up to you of your brethren; hear +him;” meaning Christ. Others have prophesied in a +more excellent <a name="page183"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +183</span>way by the internal revelation and inspiration of the +Holy Spirit, as David did when persecuted by Saul: “When +Saul heard that David had fled to Naioth (which is a hill in +Ramah, and the seat of the prophets), he sent messengers to take +him; and when they saw the company of the prophets prophesying, +and Samuel standing at their head, the Spirit of God came upon +the messengers of Saul, and they also prophesied; and he sent +messengers a second and again a third time, and they also +prophesied. And Saul enraged went thither also; and the +Spirit of God was upon him also, and he went on, and prophesied +until he came to Naioth, and he stripped off his royal vestments, +and prophesied with the rest for all that day and all that night; +whilst David and Samuel secretly observed what +passed.” Nor is it wonderful that those persons who +suddenly receive the Spirit of God, and so signal a mark of +grace, should for a time seem alienated from their earthly state +of mind.</p> +<h3>CHAPTER XVII<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">THEIR LOVE OF HIGH BIRTH AND ANCIENT +GENEALOGY</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Welsh esteem noble birth and +generous descent above all things, <a name="citation183"></a><a +href="#footnote183" class="citation">[183]</a> and are, +therefore, more desirous of marrying into noble than rich +families. Even the <a name="page184"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 184</span>common people retain their +genealogy, and can not only readily recount the names of their +grandfathers and great-grandfathers, but even refer back to the +sixth or seventh generation, or beyond them, in this manner: +Rhys, son of Gruffydd, son of Rhys, son of Tewdwr, son of Eineon, +son of Owen, son of Howel, son of Cadell, son of Roderic Mawr, +and so on.</p> +<p>Being particularly attached to family descent, they revenge +with vehemence the injuries which may tend to the disgrace of +their blood; and being naturally of a vindictive and passionate +disposition, they are ever ready to avenge not only recent but +ancient affronts; they neither inhabit towns, villages, nor +castles, but lead a solitary life in the woods, on the borders of +which they do not erect sumptuous palaces, nor lofty stone +buildings, but content themselves with small huts made of the +boughs of trees twisted together, constructed with little labour +and expense, and sufficient to endure throughout the year. +They have neither orchards nor gardens, but gladly eat the fruit +of both when given to them. The greater part of their land +is laid down to pasturage; little is cultivated, a very small +quantity is ornamented with flowers, and a still smaller is +sown. They seldom yoke less than four oxen to their +ploughs; the driver walks before, but backwards, and when he +falls down, is frequently exposed to danger from the refractory +oxen. Instead of small sickles in mowing, they make use of +a moderate-sized piece of iron formed like a knife, with two +pieces of wood fixed loosely and flexibly to the head, which they +think a more expeditious instrument; but since</p> +<blockquote><p>“Segnius irritant animos demissa per +aures,<br /> +Quam quæ sunt oculis subjecta fidelibus,”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>their mode of using it will be better known by inspection than +by any description. The boats <a name="citation184"></a><a +href="#footnote184" class="citation">[184]</a> which they employ +<a name="page185"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 185</span>in +fishing or in crossing the rivers are made of twigs, not oblong +nor pointed, but almost round, or rather triangular, covered both +within and without with raw hides. When a salmon thrown +into one of these boats strikes it hard with his tail, he often +oversets it, and endangers both the vessel and its +navigator. The fishermen, according to the custom of the +country, in going to and from the rivers, carry these boats on +their shoulders; on which occasion that famous dealer in fables, +Bleddercus, who lived a little before our time, thus mysteriously +said: “There is amongst us a people who, when they go out +in search of prey, carry their horses on their backs to the place +of plunder; in order to catch their prey, they leap upon their +horses, and when it is taken, carry their horses home again upon +their shoulders.”</p> +<h3>CHAPTER XVIII<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">OF THE ANTIQUITY OF THEIR FAITH, THEIR +LOVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND DEVOTION</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> ancient times, and about two +hundred years before the overthrow of Britain, the Welsh were +instructed and confirmed in the faith by Faganus and Damianus, +sent into the island at the request of king Lucius by pope +Eleutherius, and from that period when Germanus of Auxerre, and +Lupus of Troyes, came over on account of the corruption which had +crept into the island by the invasion of the Saxons, but +particularly with a view of expelling the Pelagian heresy, +nothing heretical or contrary to the true faith was to be found +amongst the natives. But it is said that some parts of the +ardent doctrines are still retained. They give the first +piece broken off from every loaf of bread to the poor; they sit +down to dinner by three to a dish, in honour of the +Trinity. With extended arms and bowing head, they ask a +blessing of every monk or priest, or of every person <a +name="page186"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 186</span>wearing a +religious habit. But they desire, above all other nations, +the episcopal ordination and unction, by which the grace of the +spirit is given. They give a tenth of all their property, +animals, cattle, and sheep, either when they marry, or go on a +pilgrimage, or, by the counsel of the church, are persuaded to +amend their lives. This partition of their effects they +call the great tithe, two parts of which they give to the church +where they were baptised, and the third to the bishop of the +diocese. But of all pilgrimages they prefer that to Rome, +where they pay the most fervent adoration to the apostolic +see. We observe that they show a greater respect than other +nations to churches and ecclesiastical persons, to the relics of +saints, bells, holy books, and the cross, which they devoutly +revere; and hence their churches enjoy more than common +tranquillity. For peace is not only preserved towards all +animals feeding in churchyards, but at a great distance beyond +them, where certain boundaries and ditches have been appointed by +the bishops, in order to maintain the security of the +sanctuary. But the principal churches to which antiquity +has annexed the greater reverence extend their protection to the +herds as far as they can go to feed in the morning and return at +night. If, therefore, any person has incurred the enmity of +his prince, on applying to the church for protection, he and his +family will continue to live unmolested; but many persons abuse +this indemnity, far exceeding the indulgence of the canon, which +in such cases grants only personal safety; and from the places of +refuge even make hostile irruptions, and more severely harass the +country than the prince himself. Hermits and anchorites +more strictly abstinent and more spiritual can nowhere be found; +for this nation is earnest in all its pursuits, and neither worse +men than the bad, nor better than the good, can be met with.</p> +<p>Happy and fortunate indeed would this nation be, nay, +completely blessed, if it had good prelates and pastors, and but +one prince, and that prince a good one.</p> +<h2><a name="page187"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 187</span>BOOK +II</h2> +<h3><a name="page188"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +188</span>PREFACE</h3> +<p><span class="smcap">Having</span> in the former book clearly +set forth the character, manners, and customs of the British +nation, and having collected and explained everything which could +redound to its credit or glory; an attention to order now +requires that, in this second part, we should employ our pen in +pointing out those particulars in which it seems to transgress +the line of virtue and commendation; having first obtained leave +to speak the truth, without which history not only loses its +authority, but becomes undeserving of its very name. For +the painter who professes to imitate nature, loses his +reputation, if, by indulging his fancy, he represents only those +parts of the subject which best suit him.</p> +<p>Since, therefore, no man is born without faults, and he is +esteemed the best whose errors are the least, let the wise man +consider everything human as connected with himself; for in +worldly affairs there is no perfect happiness under heaven. +Evil borders upon good, and vices are confounded with virtues; as +the report of good qualities is delightful to a well-disposed +mind, so the relation of the contrary should not be +offensive. The natural disposition of this nation might +have been corrupted and perverted by long exile and poverty; for +as poverty extinguisheth many faults, so it often generates +failings that are contrary to virtue.</p> +<h3><a name="page189"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +189</span>CHAPTER I<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">OF THE INCONSTANCY AND INSTABILITY OF THIS +NATION, AND THEIR WANT OF REVERENCE FOR GOOD FAITH AND +OATHS</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">These</span> people are no less light in +mind than in body, and are by no means to be relied upon. +They are easily urged to undertake any action, and are as easily +checked from prosecuting it—a people quick in action, but +more stubborn in a bad than in a good cause, and constant only in +acts of inconstancy. They pay no respect to oaths, faith, +or truth; and so lightly do they esteem the covenant of faith, +held so inviolable by other nations, that it is usual to +sacrifice their faith for nothing, by holding forth the right +hand, not only in serious and important concerns, but even on +every trifling occasion, and for the confirmation of almost every +common assertion. They never scruple at taking a false oath +for the sake of any temporary emolument or advantage; so that in +civil and ecclesiastical causes, each party, being ready to swear +whatever seems expedient to its purpose, endeavours both to prove +and defend, although the venerable laws, by which oaths are +deemed sacred, and truth is honoured and respected, by favouring +the accused and throwing an odium upon the accuser, impose the +burden of bringing proofs upon the latter. But to a people +so cunning and crafty, this yoke is pleasant, and this burden is +light.</p> +<h3><a name="page190"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +190</span>CHAPTER II<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">THEIR LIVING BY PLUNDER, AND DISREGARD OF +THE BONDS OF PEACE AND FRIENDSHIP</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">This</span> nation conceives it right to +commit acts of plunder, theft, and robbery, not only against +foreigners and hostile nations, but even against their own +countrymen. When an opportunity of attacking the enemy with +advantage occurs, they respect not the leagues of peace and +friendship, preferring base lucre to the solemn obligations of +oaths and good faith; to which circumstance Gildas alludes in his +book concerning the overthrow of the Britons, actuated by the +love of truth, and according to the rules of history, not +suppressing the vices of his countrymen. “They are +neither brave in war, nor faithful in peace.” But +when Julius Cæsar, great as the world itself,</p> +<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">“Territa +quæsitis ostendit terga Britannis,”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>were they not brave under their leader Cassivellaunus? +And when Belinus and Brennus added the Roman empire to their +conquests? What were they in the time of Constantine, son +of our Helen? What, in the reign of Aurelius Ambrosius, +whom even Eutropius commends? What were they in the time of +our famous prince Arthur? I will not say fabulous. On +the contrary, they, who were almost subdued by the Scots and +Picts, often harassed with success the auxiliary Roman legions, +and exclaimed, as we learn from Gildas, “The barbarians +drove us to the sea, the sea drove us again back to the +barbarians; on one side we were subdued, on the other drowned, +and here we were put to death. Were they not,” says +he, “at that time brave and praiseworthy?” When +attacked and conquered by the Saxons, who originally had been +called in as stipendiaries <a name="page191"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 191</span>to their assistance, were they not +brave? But the strongest argument made use of by those who +accuse this nation of cowardice, is, that Gildas, a holy man, and +a Briton by birth, has handed down to posterity nothing +remarkable concerning them, in any of his historical works. +We promise, however, a solution of the contrary in our British +Topography, if God grants us a continuance of life.</p> +<p>As a further proof, it may be necessary to add, that from the +time when that illustrious prince of the Britons, mentioned at +the beginning of this book, totally exhausted the strength of the +country, by transporting the whole armed force beyond the seas; +that island, which had before been so highly illustrious for its +incomparable valour, remained for many subsequent years destitute +of men and arms, and exposed to the predatory attacks of pirates +and robbers. So distinguished, indeed, were the natives of +this island for their bravery, that, by their prowess, that king +subdued almost all Cisalpine Gaul, and dared even to make an +attack on the Roman empire.</p> +<p>In process of time, the Britons, recovering their long-lost +population and knowledge of the use of arms, re-acquired their +high and ancient character. Let the different æras be +therefore marked, and the historical accounts will accord. +With regard to Gildas, who inveighs so bitterly against his own +nation, the Britons affirm that, highly irritated at the death of +his brother, the prince of Albania, whom king Arthur had slain, +he wrote these invectives, and upon the same occasion threw into +the sea many excellent books, in which he had described the +actions of Arthur, and the celebrated deeds of his countrymen; +from which cause it arises, that no authentic account of so great +a prince is any where to be found.</p> +<h3><a name="page192"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +192</span>CHAPTER III<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">OF THEIR DEFICIENCY IN BATTLE, AND BASE +AND DISHONOURABLE FLIGHT</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> war this nation is very severe +in the first attack, terrible by their clamour and looks, filling +the air with horrid shouts and the deep-toned clangour of very +long trumpets; swift and rapid in their advances and frequent +throwing of darts. Bold in the first onset, they cannot +bear a repulse, being easily thrown into confusion as soon as +they turn their backs; and they trust to flight for safety, +without attempting to rally, which the poet thought reprehensible +in martial conflicts:</p> +<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">“Ignavum scelus +est tantum fuga;”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>and elsewhere—</p> +<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">“In vitium +culpæ ducit fuga, si caret arte.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>The character given to the Teutones in the Roman History, may +be applied to this people. “In their first attack +they are more than men, in the second, less than +women.” Their courage manifests itself chiefly in the +retreat, when they frequently return, and, like the Parthians, +shoot their arrows behind them; and, as after success and victory +in battle, even cowards boast of their courage, so, after a +reverse of fortune, even the bravest men are not allowed their +due claims of merit. Their mode of fighting consists in +chasing the enemy or in retreating. This light-armed +people, relying more on their activity than on their strength, +cannot struggle for the field of battle, enter into close +engagement, or endure long and severe actions, such as the poet +describes:</p> +<blockquote><p>“Jam clypeo clypeus, umbone repellitur +umbo,<br /> +Ense minax ensis, pede pes, et cuspide cuspis.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>Though defeated and put to flight on one day, they are <a +name="page193"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 193</span>ready to +resume the combat on the next, neither dejected by their loss, +nor by their dishonour; and although, perhaps, they do not +display great fortitude in open engagements and regular +conflicts, yet they harass the enemy by ambuscades and nightly +sallies. Hence, neither oppressed by hunger or cold, nor +fatigued by martial labours, nor despondent in adversity, but +ready, after a defeat, to return immediately to action, and again +endure the dangers of war; they are as easy to overcome in a +single battle, as difficult to subdue in a protracted war. +The poet Claudian thus speaks of a people similar in +disposition:—</p> +<blockquote><p>“Dum percunt, meminêre mali: si corda +parumper<br /> +Respirare sinas, nullo tot funera censu<br /> +Prætercunt, tantique levis jactura cruoris.”</p> +</blockquote> +<h3>CHAPTER IV<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">THEIR AMBITIOUS SEIZURE OF LANDS, AND +DISSENSIONS AMONG BROTHERS</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">This</span> nation is, above all others, +addicted to the digging up of boundary ditches, removing the +limits, transgressing landmarks, and extending their territory by +every possible means. So great is their disposition towards +this common violence, that they scruple not to claim as their +hereditary right, those lands which are held under lease, or at +will, on condition of planting, or by any other title, even +although indemnity had been publicly secured on oath to the +tenant by the lord proprietor of the soil. Hence arise +suits and contentions, murders and conflagrations, and frequent +fratricides, increased, perhaps, by the ancient national custom +of brothers dividing their property amongst each other. +Another heavy grievance also prevails; the princes entrust the +education of their children to the care of the principal <a +name="page194"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 194</span>men of +their country, each of whom, after the death of his father, +endeavours, by every possible means, to exalt his own charge +above his neighbours. From which cause great disturbances +have frequently arisen amongst brothers, and terminated in the +most cruel and unjust murders; and on which account friendships +are found to be more sincere between foster-brothers, than +between those who are connected by the natural ties of +brotherhood. It is also remarkable, that brothers shew more +affection to one another when dead, than when living; for they +persecute the living even unto death, but revenge the deceased +with all their power.</p> +<h3>CHAPTER V<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">THEIR GREAT EXACTION, AND WANT OF +MODERATION</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">Where</span> they find plenty, and can +exercise their power, they levy the most unjust exactions. +Immoderate in their love of food and intoxicating drink, they say +with the Apostle, “We are instructed both to abound, and to +suffer need;” but do not add with him, “becoming all +things to all men, that I might by all means save +some.” As in times of scarcity their abstinence and +parsimony are too severe, so, when seated at another man’s +table, after a long fasting, (like wolves and eagles, who, like +them, live by plunder, and are rarely satisfied,) their appetite +is immoderate. They are therefore penurious in times of +scarcity, and extravagant in times of plenty; but no man, as in +England, mortgages his property for the gluttonous gratification +of his own appetite. They wish, however, that all people +would join with them in their bad habits and expenses; as the +commission of crimes reduces to a level all those who are +concerned in the perpetration of them.</p> +<h3><a name="page195"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +195</span>CHAPTER VI<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">CONCERNING THE CRIME OF INCEST, AND THE +ABUSE OF CHURCHES BY SUCCESSION AND PARTICIPATION</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> crime of incest hath so much +prevailed, not only among the higher, but among the lower orders +of this people, that, not having the fear of God before their +eyes, they are not ashamed of intermarrying with their relations, +even in the third degree of consanguinity. They generally +abuse these dispensations with a view of appeasing those enmities +which so often subsist between them, because “their feet +are swift to shed blood;” and from their love of high +descent, which they so ardently affect and covet, they unite +themselves to their own people, refusing to intermarry with +strangers, and arrogantly presuming on their own superiority of +blood and family. They do not engage in marriage, until +they have tried, by previous cohabitation, the disposition, and +particularly the fecundity, of the person with whom they are +engaged. An ancient custom also prevails of hiring girls +from their parents at a certain price, and a stipulated penalty, +in case of relinquishing their connection.</p> +<p>Their churches have almost as many parsons and sharers as +there are principal men in the parish. The sons, after the +decease of their fathers, succeed to the ecclesiastical +benefices, not by election, but by hereditary right possessing +and polluting the sanctuary of God. And if a prelate should +by chance presume to appoint or institute any other person, the +people would certainly revenge the injury upon the institutor and +the instituted. With respect to these two excesses of +incest and succession, which took root formerly in Armorica, and +are not yet eradicated, Ildebert, bishop of Le Mans, in one of +his epistles, says, “that he was <a +name="page196"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 196</span>present +with a British priest at a council summoned with a view of +putting an end to the enormities of this nation:” hence it +appears that these vices have for a long time prevailed both in +Britany and Britain. The words of the Psalmist may not +inaptly be applied to them; “They are corrupt and become +abominable in their doings, there is none that doeth good, no, +not one: they are all gone out of the way, they are altogether +become abominable,” etc.</p> +<h3>CHAPTER VII<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">OF THEIR SINS, AND THE CONSEQUENT LOSS OF +BRITAIN AND OF TROY</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">Moreover</span>, through their sins, and +particularly that detestable and wicked vice of Sodom, as well as +by divine vengeance, they lost Britain as they formerly lost +Troy. For we read in the Roman history, that the emperor +Constantine having resigned the city and the Western empire to +the blessed Sylvester and his successors, with an intention of +rebuilding Troy, and there establishing the chief seat of the +Eastern Empire, heard a voice, saying, “Dost thou go to +rebuild Sodom?” upon which, he altered his intention, +turned his ships and standards towards Byzantium, and there +fixing his seat of empire, gave his own propitious name to the +city. The British history informs us, that Mailgon, king of +the Britons, and many others, were addicted to this vice; that +enormity, however, had entirely ceased for so long a time, that +the recollection of it was nearly worn out. But since that, +as if the time of repentance was almost expired, and because the +nation, by its warlike successes and acquisition of territory, +has in our times unusually increased in population and strength, +they boast in their turn, and most confidently and unanimously +affirm, that in a <a name="page197"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +197</span>short time their countrymen shall return to the island, +and, according to the prophecies of Merlin, the nation, and even +the name, of foreigners, shall be extinguished in the island, and +the Britons shall exult again in their ancient name and +privileges. But to me it appears far otherwise; for +since</p> +<blockquote><p>“Luxuriant animi rebus plerumque +secundis,<br /> +Nec facile est æqua commoda mente pati;”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>And because</p> +<blockquote><p>“Non habet unde suum paupertas pascat +amorem, . . .<br /> +Divitiis alitur luxuriosus amor.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>So that their abstinence from that vice, which in their +prosperity they could not resist, may be attributed more justly +to their poverty and state of exile than to their sense of +virtue. For they cannot be said to have repented, when we +see them involved in such an abyss of vices, perjury, theft, +robbery, rapine, murders, fratricides, adultery, and incest, and +become every day more entangled and ensnared in evil-doing; so +that the words of the prophet Hosea may be truly applied to them, +“There is no truth, nor mercy,” etc.</p> +<p>Other matters of which they boast are more properly to be +attributed to the diligence and activity of the Norman kings than +to their own merits or power. For previous to the coming of +the Normans, when the English kings contented themselves with the +sovereignty of Britain alone, and employed their whole military +force in the subjugation of this people, they almost wholly +extirpated them; as did king Offa, who by a long and extensive +dyke separated the British from the English; Ethelfrid also, who +demolished the noble city of Legions, <a +name="citation197"></a><a href="#footnote197" +class="citation">[197]</a> and put to death the monks of the +celebrated monastery at Banchor, who had been called in to +promote the success of the Britons by their prayers; and lastly +Harold, who himself on foot, with an army of light-armed +infantry, and conforming to the customary diet of the <a +name="page198"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 198</span>country, so +bravely penetrated through every part of Wales, that he scarcely +left a man alive in it; and as a memorial of his signal victories +many stones may be found in Wales bearing this +inscription:—“<span class="GutSmall">HIC VICTOR FUIT +HAROLDUS</span>”—“<span class="smcap">Here +harold conquered</span>.” <a name="citation198"></a><a +href="#footnote198" class="citation">[198]</a></p> +<p>To these bloody and recent victories of the English may be +attributed the peaceable state of Wales during the reigns of the +three first Norman kings; when the nation increased in +population, and being taught the use of arms and the management +of horses by the English and Normans (with whom they had much +intercourse, by following the court, or by being sent as +hostages), took advantage of the necessary attention which the +three succeeding kings were obliged to pay to their foreign +possessions, and once more lifting up their crests, recovered +their lands, and spurned the yoke that had formerly been imposed +upon them.</p> +<h3>CHAPTER VIII<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">IN WHAT MANNER THIS NATION IS TO BE +OVERCOME</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> prince who would wish to subdue +this nation, and govern it peaceably, must use this method. +He must be determined to apply a diligent and constant attention +to this purpose for one year at least; for a people who with a +collected force will not openly attack the enemy in the field, +nor wait to be besieged in castles, is not to be overcome at the +first onset, but to be worn out by prudent delay and +patience. Let him divide their strength, and by bribes and +promises endeavour to stir up one against the other, knowing the +spirit of hatred and envy <a name="page199"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 199</span>which generally prevails amongst +them; and in the autumn let not only the marches, but also the +interior part of the country be strongly fortified with castles, +provisions, and confidential families. In the meantime the +purchase of corn, cloth, and salt, with which they are usually +supplied from England, should be strictly interdicted; and +well-manned ships placed as a guard on the coast, to prevent +their importation of these articles from Ireland or the Severn +sea, and to facilitate the supply of his own army. +Afterwards, when the severity of winter approaches, when the +trees are void of leaves, and the mountains no longer afford +pasturage—when they are deprived of any hopes of plunder, +and harassed on every side by the repeated attacks of the +enemy—let a body of light-armed infantry penetrate into +their woody and mountainous retreats, and let these troops be +supported and relieved by others; and thus by frequent changes, +and replacing the men who are either fatigued or slain in battle, +this nation may be ultimately subdued; nor can it be overcome +without the above precautions, nor without great danger and loss +of men. Though many of the English hired troops may perish +in a day of battle, money will procure as many or more on the +morrow for the same service; but to the Welsh, who have neither +foreign nor stipendiary troops, the loss is for the time +irreparable. In these matters, therefore, as an artificer +is to be trusted in his trade, so attention is to be paid to the +counsel of those who, having been long conversant in similar +concerns, are become acquainted with the manners and customs of +their country, and whom it greatly interests, that an enemy, for +whom during long and frequent conflicts they have contracted an +implacable hatred, should by their assistance be either weakened +or destroyed. Happy should I have termed the borders of +Wales inhabited by the English, if their kings, in the government +of these parts, and in their military operations against the +enemy, had rather employed the marchers and barons of the +country, than adopted the <a name="page200"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 200</span>counsels and policy of the people of +Anjou and the Normans. In this, as well as in every other +military expedition, either in Ireland or in Wales, the natives +of the marches, from the constant state of warfare in which they +are engaged, and whose manners are formed from the habits of war, +are bold and active, skilful on horseback, quick on foot, not +nice as to their diet, and ever prepared when necessity requires +to abstain both from corn and wine. By such men were the +first hostile attacks made upon Wales as well as Ireland, and by +such men alone can their final conquest be accomplished. +For the Flemings, Normans, Coterells, and Bragmans, are good and +well-disciplined soldiers in their own country; but the Gallic +soldiery is known to differ much from the Welsh and Irish. +In their country the battle is on level, here on rough ground; +there in an open field, here in forests; there they consider +their armour as an honour, here as a burden; there soldiers are +taken prisoners, here they are beheaded; there they are ransomed, +here they are put to death. Where, therefore, the armies +engage in a flat country, a heavy and complex armour, made of +cloth and iron, both protects and decorates the soldier; but when +the engagement is in narrow defiles, in woods or marshes, where +the infantry have the advantage over the cavalry, a light armour +is preferable. For light arms afford sufficient protection +against unarmed men, by whom victory is either lost or won at the +first onset; where it is necessary that an active and retreating +enemy should be overcome by a certain proportional quantity of +moderate armour; whereas with a more complex sort, and with high +and curved saddles, it is difficult to dismount, more so to +mount, and with the greatest difficulty can such troops march, if +required, with the infantry. In order, therefore, that</p> +<blockquote><p style="text-align: center">“Singula +quæque locum teneant sortita decenter,”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>we maintain it is necessary to employ heavy-armed and strong +troops against men heavily armed, depending <a +name="page201"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 201</span>entirely +upon their natural strength, and accustomed to fight in an open +plain; but against light-armed and active troops, who prefer +rough ground, men accustomed to such conflicts, and armed in a +similar manner, must be employed. But let the cities and +fortresses on the Severn, and the whole territory on its western +banks towards Wales, occupied by the English, as well as the +provinces of Shropshire and Cheshire, which are protected by +powerful armies, or by any other special privileges and +honourable independence, rejoice in the provident bounty of their +prince. There should be a yearly examination of the warlike +stores, of the arms, and horses, by good and discreet men deputed +for that purpose, and who, not intent on its plunder and ruin, +interest themselves in the defence and protection of their +country. By these salutary measures, the soldiers, +citizens, and the whole mass of the people, being instructed and +accustomed to the use of arms, liberty may be opposed by liberty, +and pride be checked by pride. For the Welsh, who are +neither worn out by laborious burdens, nor molested by the +exactions of their lords, are ever prompt to avenge an +injury. Hence arise their distinguished bravery in the +defence of their country; hence their readiness to take up arms +and to rebel. Nothing so much excites, encourages, and +invites the hearts of men to probity as the cheerfulness of +liberty; nothing so much dejects and dispirits them as the +oppression of servitude. This portion of the kingdom, +protected by arms and courage, might be of great use to the +prince, not only in these or the adjacent parts, but, if +necessity required, in more remote regions; and although the +public treasury might receive a smaller annual revenue from these +provinces, yet the deficiency would be abundantly compensated by +the peace of the kingdom and the honour of its sovereign; +especially as the heavy and dangerous expenses of one military +expedition into Wales usually amount to the whole income among +from the revenues of the province.</p> +<h3><a name="page202"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +202</span>CHAPTER IX<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">IN WHAT MANNER WALES, WHEN CONQUERED, +SHOULD BE GOVERNED</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">As</span> therefore this nation is to be +subdued by resolution in the manner proposed, so when subdued, +its government must be directed by moderation, according to the +following plan. Let the care of it be committed to a man of +a firm and determined mind; who during the time of peace, by +paying due obedience to the laws, and respect to the government, +may render it firm and stable. For like other nations in a +barbarous state, this people, although they are strangers to the +principles of honour, yet above all things desire to be honoured; +and approve and respect in others that truth which they +themselves do not profess. Whenever the natural inconstancy +of their indisposition shall induce them to revolt, let +punishment instantly follow the offence; but when they shall have +submitted themselves again to order, and made proper amends for +their faults (as it is the custom of bad men to remember wrath +after quarrels), let their former transgression be overlooked, +and let them enjoy security and respect, as long as they continue +faithful. Thus, by mild treatment they will be invited to +obedience and the love of peace, and the thought of certain +punishment will deter them from rash attempts. We have +often observed persons who, confounding these matters, by +complaining of faults, depressing for services, flattering in +war, plundering in peace, despoiling the weak, paying respect to +revolters, by thus rendering all things confused, have at length +been confounded themselves. Besides, as circumstances which +are foreseen do less mischief, and as that state is happy which +thinks of war in the time of peace, let the wise man be upon his +guard, and prepared against the approaching <a +name="page203"></a><span class="pagenum">p. +203</span>inconveniences of war, by the construction of forts, +the widening of passes through woods, and the providing of a +trusty household. For those who are cherished and sustained +during the time of peace, are more ready to come forward in times +of danger, and are more confidently to be depended upon; and as a +nation unsubdued ever meditates plots under the disguise of +friendship, let not the prince or his governor entrust the +protection of his camp or capital to their fidelity. By the +examples of many remarkable men, some of whom have been cruelly +put to death, and others deprived of their castles and dignities, +through their own neglect and want of care, we may see, that the +artifices of a crafty and subdued nation are much more to be +dreaded than their open warfare; their good-will than their +anger, their honey than their gall, their malice than their +attack, their treachery than their aggression, and their +pretended friendship more than their open enmity. A prudent +and provident man therefore should contemplate in the misfortune +of others what he ought himself to avoid; correction taught by +example is harmless, as Ennodius <a name="citation203"></a><a +href="#footnote203" class="citation">[203]</a> says: “The +ruin of predecessors instructs those who succeed; and a former +miscarriage becomes a future caution.” If a +well-disposed prince should wish these great designs to be +accomplished without the effusion of blood, the marches, as we +before mentioned, must be put into a state of defence on all +sides, and all intercourse by sea and land interdicted; some of +the Welsh may be stirred up to deadly feuds, by means of +stipends, and by transferring the property of one person to +another; and thus worn out with hunger, and a want of the +necessaries of life, and harassed by frequent murders and +implacable enmities, they will at last be compelled to +surrender.</p> +<p>There are three things which ruin this nation, and prevent its +enjoying the satisfaction of a fruitful progeny. <a +name="page204"></a><span class="pagenum">p. 204</span>First, +because both the natural and legitimate sons endeavour to divide +the paternal inheritance amongst themselves; from which cause, as +we have before observed, continual fratricides take place. +Secondly, because the education of their sons is committed to the +care of the high-born people of the country, who, on the death of +their fathers, endeavour by all possible means to exalt their +pupil; from whence arise murders, conflagrations, and almost a +total destruction of the country. And, thirdly, because +from the pride and obstinacy of their disposition, they will not +(like other nations) subject themselves to the dominion of one +lord and king.</p> +<h3>CHAPTER X<br /> +<span class="GutSmall">IN WHAT MANNER THIS NATION MAY RESIST AND +REVOLT</span></h3> +<p><span class="smcap">Having</span> hitherto so partially and +elaborately spoken in favour of the English, and being equally +connected by birth with each nation, justice demands that we +should argue on both sides; let us therefore, at the close of our +work, turn our attention towards the Welsh, and briefly, but +effectually, instruct them in the art of resistance. If the +Welsh were more commonly accustomed to the Gallic mode of arming, +and depended more on steady fighting than on their agility; if +their princes were unanimous and inseparable in their defence; or +rather, if they had only one prince, and that a good one; this +nation situated in so powerful, strong, and inaccessible a +country, could hardly ever be completely overcome. If, +therefore, they would be inseparable, they would become +insuperable, being assisted by these three circumstances; a +country well defended by nature, a people both contented and +accustomed to live upon <a name="page205"></a><span +class="pagenum">p. 205</span>little, a community whose nobles as +well as privates are instructed in the use of arms; and +especially as the English fight for power, the Welsh for liberty; +the one to procure gain, the other to avoid loss; the English +hirelings for money, the Welsh patriots for their country. +The English, I say, fight in order to expel the natural +inhabitants from the island, and secure to themselves the +possession of the whole; but the Welsh maintain the conflict, +that they, who have so long enjoyed the sovereignty of the whole +kingdom, may at least find a hiding place in the worst corner of +it, amongst woods and marshes; and, banished, as it were, for +their offences, may there in a state of poverty, for a limited +time, perform penance for the excesses they committed in the days +of their prosperity. For the perpetual remembrance of their +former greatness, the recollection of their Trojan descent, and +the high and continued majesty of the kingdom of Britain, may +draw forth many a latent spark of animosity, and encourage the +daring spirit of rebellion. Hence during the military +expedition which king Henry II. made in our days against South +Wales, an old Welshman at Pencadair, who had faithfully adhered +to him, being desired to give his opinion about the royal army, +and whether he thought that of the rebels would make resistance, +and what would be the final event of this war, replied, +“This nation, O king, may now, as in former times, be +harassed, and in a great measure weakened and destroyed by your +and other powers, and it will often prevail by its laudable +exertions; but it can never be totally subdued through the wrath +of man, unless the wrath of God shall concur. Nor do I +think, that any other nation than this of Wales, or any other +language, whatever may hereafter come to pass, shall, in the day +of severe examination before the Supreme Judge, answer for this +corner of the earth.”</p> +<h2>FOOTNOTES</h2> +<p><a name="footnote155a"></a><a href="#citation155a" +class="footnote">[155a]</a> Port Gordber, written +<i>Gordwr</i> by Humphrey Lhwyd in his Breviary of Britain, +probably a corruption from Gorddyar, a roaring, applied to the +sea, as Gorddyar môr, the roaring of the sea.</p> +<p><a name="footnote155b"></a><a href="#citation155b" +class="footnote">[155b]</a> The harbour, now known by the +name of Portscwit, (and recorded in the Triads as one of the +three passages or ferries in the Isle of Britain), is situated on +the Welsh side of the Bristol channel, at a short distance from +the lower passage.</p> +<p><a name="footnote155c"></a><a href="#citation155c" +class="footnote">[155c]</a> Port Mawr, or the large port, +is thus mentioned by Leland in his Itinerary, tom. v. pp. 28, +29:—“About a mile of is Port Mawre, where is a great +sande with a shorte estuary into the lande. And sum say +that there hath beene a castel at or aboute Port Mawr, but the +tokens be not very evidente.”</p> +<p><a name="footnote155d"></a><a href="#citation155d" +class="footnote">[155d]</a> Rhyd-helyg, or the Ford of the +Willow.—I imagine this place is Walford in Herefordshire, +near the banks of the river Wye.</p> +<p><a name="footnote156"></a><a href="#citation156" +class="footnote">[156]</a> Brutus, according to the fable, +in his way to Britain, met with a company of Trojans, who had +fled from Troy with Antenor and Corinæus at their head, who +submitted themselves to Brutus, and joined his company; which +Corinæus, being a very valiant man, rendered great service +to Brutus during his wars in Gaul and Britain; in return for +which, Brutus, having subdued the island, and divided it amongst +his people, gave Cornwall to Corinæus, who, as it is said, +called it after his own name, Cernyw.</p> +<p><a name="footnote157a"></a><a href="#citation157a" +class="footnote">[157a]</a> Uchelwyr, so called from +<i>Uchel</i>, high, and <i>gwr</i>, a man.</p> +<p><a name="footnote157b"></a><a href="#citation157b" +class="footnote">[157b]</a> This assertion is unfounded, if +we give credit to the Welsh Chronicle, which dates the death of +Cadell in 907, and that of Anarawdin in 913. [Howell Dda, +the son of Cadell, reunited Wales under one sovereign.]</p> +<p><a name="footnote158a"></a><a href="#citation158a" +class="footnote">[158a]</a> B.M.—This abbreviation, +which in every manuscript I have seen of Giraldus has been +construed into <i>Beatam Mariam</i>, and in many of them is +written <i>Beatam Virginem</i>, may with much greater propriety +be applied to <i>Belinus Magnus</i>, or Beli the Great, a +distinguished British King, to whom most of the British pedigrees +ascended; and because his name occurred so frequently in them it +was often written short, B.M., which some men, by mistake, +interpret <i>Beata Maria</i>.—(Sir R. C. H.)</p> +<p><a name="footnote158b"></a><a href="#citation158b" +class="footnote">[158b]</a> Aberfraw, a small town at the +conflux of the river Fraw and the sea, on the S.W. part of the +isle of Anglesey, and twelve miles S.E. of Holyhead.</p> +<p><a name="footnote159a"></a><a href="#citation159a" +class="footnote">[159a]</a> A great lordship in +Herefordshire, including the district between Hereford and +Monmouth, bordering on the river Wye.</p> +<p><a name="footnote159b"></a><a href="#citation159b" +class="footnote">[159b]</a> Book ii. chapter i.</p> +<p><a name="footnote162a"></a><a href="#citation162a" +class="footnote">[162a]</a> Book ii. c. 4.</p> +<p><a name="footnote162b"></a><a href="#citation162b" +class="footnote">[162b]</a> If by the mountains of Eryri we +are to understand the Snowdonian range of hills, our author has +not been quite accurate in fixing the source of the river Dovy, +which rises between Dynas-y-mowddu and Bala Lake, to the +southward of Mount Arran: from whence it pursues its course to +Mallwyd, and Machynlleth, below which place it becomes an +estuary, and the boundary between North and South Wales.</p> +<p><a name="footnote162c"></a><a href="#citation162c" +class="footnote">[162c]</a> Our author is again incorrect +in stating that the river Maw forms, by its course, the two +tracts of sands called Traeth Mawr and Traeth Bychan. This +river, from which Barmouth derives the name of Abermaw, and to +which Giraldus, in the fifth chapter of the second book of his +Itinerary, has given the epithet of <i>bifurcus</i>, runs far to +the southward of either of the Traeths. The Traeth Mawr, or +large sands, are formed by the impetuous torrents which descend +from Snowdon by Beddgelert, and pass under the Devil’s +Bridge at Pont Aberglasllyn, so called from the river Glasllyn; +and the Traeth Bychan, or little sands, are formed by numerous +streams which unite themselves in the vale of Festiniog, and +become an æstuary near the village of Maentwrog.</p> +<p><a name="footnote165a"></a><a href="#citation165a" +class="footnote">[165a]</a> Better known as Geoffrey of +Monmouth.</p> +<p><a name="footnote165b"></a><a href="#citation165b" +class="footnote">[165b]</a> The Anglo-Saxons called the +Britons <i>Wealhas</i>, from a word in their own language, which +signified literally foreigners; and hence we derive the modern +name Welsh.</p> +<p><a name="footnote168"></a><a href="#citation168" +class="footnote">[168]</a> The Peak, in Derbyshire.</p> +<p><a name="footnote169a"></a><a href="#citation169a" +class="footnote">[169a]</a> Sir R. C. Hoare has altogether +misunderstood the original here. It was the custom in the +middle ages to place the guests at table in pairs, and each two +persons ate out of one plate. Each couple was a +<i>mess</i>. At a later period, among the great the mess +consisted of four persons; but it appears that in Wales, at this +time, it was formed of three guests.</p> +<p><a name="footnote169b"></a><a href="#citation169b" +class="footnote">[169b]</a> “Bread, called +<i>Lagana</i>, was, I suppose, the sort of household bread, or +thin cake baked on an iron plate, called a griddle +(<i>gradell</i>), still common in Caermarthenshire, and called +<i>Bara Llech</i> and <i>Bara Llechan</i>, or griddle bread, from +being so baked.”—Owen. “<i>Laganum</i>, a +fritter or pancake, <i>Baranyiod</i>.”—<i>Lluyd</i>, +<i>Archaiology</i>, p. 75.</p> +<p><a name="footnote170"></a><a href="#citation170" +class="footnote">[170]</a> <i>Brychan</i>, in Lhuyd’s +Archaiology and Cornish Grammar, is spelt Bryccan, and +interpreted a blanket.</p> +<p><a name="footnote171"></a><a href="#citation171" +class="footnote">[171]</a> “Omnes vero se Britanni +vitro inficiunt, quod cæruleum efficit colorem, atque hoc +horridore sunt in pugna adspectu; capilloque sunt promisso, atque +omni parte corporis rasa, præter caput et labrum +superius.”—<i>Cæsar de Bello Gallico</i>, cap. +13, 14.</p> +<p><a name="footnote172"></a><a href="#citation172" +class="footnote">[172]</a> This instrument is generally +supposed to have been the origin of the violin, which was not +commonly known in England till the reign of Charles I. +Before this time the crwth was not probably confined to the +Principality, from the name of <i>Crowdero</i> in Hudibras; as +also from a fiddler being still called a <i>crowder</i> in some +parts of England, though he now plays on a violin instead of a +crwth.</p> +<p><a name="footnote173"></a><a href="#citation173" +class="footnote">[173]</a> These Welsh lines quoted by +Giraldus are selected from two different stanzas of moral verses, +called Eglynion y Clywed, the composition of some anonymous bard; +or probably the work of several:</p> +<blockquote><p>“A glyweisti a gant Dywyneg,<br /> +Milwr doeth detholedig;<br /> +Digawn Duw da i unig?</p> +<p>“Hast thou heard what was sung by Dywynic?<br /> +A wise and chosen warrior;<br /> +God will effect solace to the orphan.</p> +<p>“A glyweisti a gant Anarawd?<br /> +Milwr doniawg did lawd;<br /> +Rhaid wrth anmhwyll pwyll parawd.</p> +<p>“Hast thou heard what was sung by Anarawd?<br /> +A warrior endowed with many gifts;<br /> +With want of sense ready wit is necessary.”</p> +</blockquote> +<p>Or, as Giraldus quotes it,</p> +<blockquote><p>“Wrth bob crybwll rhaid pwyll +parawd.”</p> +<p>“With every hint ready wit is necessary.”</p> +<p style="text-align: right"><i>Myvyvrian Archaiology</i>, page +172.</p> +</blockquote> +<p><a name="footnote179"></a><a href="#citation179" +class="footnote">[179]</a> Awenydhion, in a literal sense, +means persons inspired by the Muse, and is derived from Awen and +Awenydd, a poetical rapture, or the gift of poetry. It was +the appellation of the disciples, or candidates for the Bardic +Order; but the most general acceptation of the word was, Poets, +or Bards.</p> +<p><a name="footnote183"></a><a href="#citation183" +class="footnote">[183]</a> Genealogies were preserved as a +principle of necessity under the ancient British +constitution. A man’s pedigree was in reality his +title deed, by which he claimed his birthright in the +country. Every one was obliged to show his descent through +nine generations, in order to be acknowledged a free native, and +by this right he claimed his portion of land in the +community. He was affected with respect to legal process in +his collateral affinities through nine degrees. For +instance, every murder committed had a fine levied on the +relations of the murderer, divided into nine degrees; his brother +paying the greatest, and the ninth in affinity the least. +This fine was distributed in the same way among the relatives of +the victim. A person past the ninth descent formed a new +family. Every family was represented by its elder; and +these elders from every family were delegates to the national +council.—<i>Owen</i>.</p> +<p><a name="footnote184"></a><a href="#citation184" +class="footnote">[184]</a> The <i>naviculæ</i> +mentioned by Giraldus bear the modern name of <i>coracles</i>, +and are much used on the Welsh rivers for the taking of +salmon. Their name is derived probably from the Celtic word +<i>corawg</i>, which signifies a <i>ship</i>. They are +mentioned by the ancient writers.</p> +<p><a name="footnote197"></a><a href="#citation197" +class="footnote">[197]</a> By the city of Legions Chester +is here meant, not Caerleon.</p> +<p><a name="footnote198"></a><a href="#citation198" +class="footnote">[198]</a> Of the stones inscribed +“<span class="GutSmall">HIC VICTOR FUIT +HAROLDUS</span>”—“<span class="GutSmall">HERE +HAROLD CONQUERED</span>,” no original, I believe, remains +extant; but at the village of Trelech, in Monmouthshire, there is +a modern pedestal bearing the above inscription.—See the +description and engraving in Coxe’s Monmouthshire, p. +234.</p> +<p><a name="footnote203"></a><a href="#citation203" +class="footnote">[203]</a> In one MS. of Giraldus in the +British Museum, this name is written Ovidius.</p> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESCRIPTION OF WALES***</p> +<pre> + + +***** This file should be named 1092-h.htm or 1092-h.zip****** + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/0/9/1092 + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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Dent +edition, email ccx074@coventry.ac.uk + + + + + +The Description of Wales + + + + +FIRST PREFACE to Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury + + + +I, who, at the expense of three years' labour, arranged, a short +time ago, in three parts, the Topography of Ireland, with a +description of its natural curiosities, and who afterwards, by two +years' study, completed in two parts the Vaticinal History of its +Conquest; and who, by publishing the Itinerary of the Holy Man +(Baldwin) through Cambria, prevented his laborious mission from +perishing in obscurity, do now propose, in the present little work, +to give some account of this my native country, and to describe the +genius of its inhabitants, so entirely distinct from that of other +nations. And this production of my industry I have determined to +dedicate to you, illustrious Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury, as +I before ascribed to you my Itinerary; considering you as a man no +less distinguished by your piety, than conspicuous for your +learning; though so humble an offering may possibly be unworthy the +acceptance of a personage who, from his eminence, deserves to be +presented with works of the greatest merit. + +Some, indeed, object to this my undertaking, and, apparently from +motives of affection, compare me to a painter, who, rich in +colours, and like another Zeuxis, eminent in his art, is +endeavouring with all his skill and industry to give celebrity to a +cottage, or to some other contemptible object, whilst the world is +anxiously expecting from his hand a temple or a palace. Thus they +wonder that I, amidst the many great and striking subjects which +the world presents, should choose to describe and to adorn, with +all the graces of composition, such remote corners of the earth as +Ireland and Wales. + +Others again, reproaching me with greater severity, say, that the +gifts which have been bestowed upon me from above, ought not to be +wasted upon these insignificant objects, nor lavished in a vain +display of learning on the commendation of princes, who, from their +ignorance and want of liberality, have neither taste to appreciate, +nor hearts to remunerate literary excellence. And they further +add, that every faculty which emanates from the Deity, ought rather +to be applied to the illustration of celestial objects, and to the +exultation of his glory, from whose abundance all our talents have +been received; every faculty (say they) ought to be employed in +praising him from whom, as from a perennial source, every perfect +gift is derived, and from whose bounty everything which is offered +with sincerity obtains an ample reward. But since excellent +histories of other countries have been composed and published by +writers of eminence, I have been induced, by the love I bear to my +country and to posterity, to believe that I should perform neither +an useless nor an unacceptable service, were I to unfold the hidden +merits of my native land; to rescue from obscurity those glorious +actions which have been hitherto imperfectly described, and to +bring into repute, by my method of treating it, a subject till now +regarded as contemptible. + +What indeed could my feeble and unexercised efforts add to the +histories of the destruction of Troy, Thebes, or Athens, or to the +conquest of the shores of Latium? Besides, to do what has been +already done, is, in fact, to be doing nothing; I have, therefore, +thought it more eligible to apply my industry to the arrangement of +the history of my native country, hitherto almost wholly overlooked +by strangers; but interesting to my relations and countrymen; and +from these small beginnings to aspire by degrees to works of a +nobler cast. From these inconsiderable attempts, some idea may be +formed with what success, should Fortune afford an opportunity, I +am likely to treat matters of greater importance. For although +some things should be made our principal objects, whilst others +ought not to be wholly neglected, I may surely be allowed to +exercise the powers of my youth, as yet untaught and unexperienced, +in pursuits of this latter nature, lest by habit I should feel a +pleasure in indolence and in sloth, the parent of vice. + +I have therefore employed these studies as a kind of introduction +to the glorious treasures of that most excellent of the sciences, +which alone deserves the name of science; which alone can render us +wise to rule and to instruct mankind; which alone the other +sciences follow, as attendants do their queen. Laying therefore in +my youth the foundations of so noble a structure, it is my +intention, if God will assist me and prolong my life, to reserve my +maturer years for composing a treatise upon so perfect, so sacred a +subject: for according to the poet, + + +"Ardua quippe fides robustos exigit annos;" +"The important concerns of faith require a mind in its full +vigour;" + + +I may be permitted to indulge myself for a short time in other +pursuits; but in this I should wish not only to continue, but to +die. + +But before I enter on this important subject, I demand a short +interval, to enable me to lay before the public my Treatise on the +Instruction of a Prince, which has been so frequently promised, as +well as the Description of Wales, which is now before me, and the +Topography of Britain. + +Of all the British writers, Gildas alone appears to me (as often as +the course of my subject leads me to consult him) worthy of +imitation; for by committing to paper the things which he himself +saw and knew, and by declaring rather than describing the +desolation of his country, he has compiled a history more +remarkable for its truth than for its elegance. + +Giraldus therefore follows Gildas, whom he wishes he could copy in +his life and manners; becoming an imitator of his wisdom rather +than of his eloquence - of his mind rather than of his writings - +of his zeal rather than of his style - of his life rather than of +his language. + + + +SECOND PREFACE to the same + + + +When, amidst various literary pursuits, I first applied my mind to +the compilation of history, I determined, lest I should appear +ungrateful to my native land, to describe, to the best of my +abilities, my own country and its adjoining regions; and +afterwards, under God's guidance, to proceed to a description of +more distant territories. But since some leading men (whom we have +both seen and known) show so great a contempt for literature, that +they immediately shut up within their book-cases the excellent +works with which they are presented, and thus doom them, as it +were, to a perpetual imprisonment; I entreat you, illustrious +Prelate, to prevent the present little work, which will shortly be +delivered to you, from perishing in obscurity. And because this, +as well as my former productions, though of no transcendent merit, +may hereafter prove to many a source of entertainment and +instruction, I entreat you generously to order it to be made +public, by which it will acquire reputation. And I shall consider +myself sufficiently rewarded for my trouble, if, withdrawing for a +while from your religious and secular occupations, you would kindly +condescend to peruse this book, or, at least, give it an attentive +hearing; for in times like these, when no one remunerates literary +productions, I neither desire nor expect any other recompense. Not +that it would appear in any way inconsistent, however there exists +among men of rank a kind of conspiracy against authors, if a +prelate so eminently conspicuous for his virtues, for his +abilities, both natural and acquired, for irreproachable morals, +and for munificence, should distinguish himself likewise by +becoming the generous and sole patron of literature. To comprise +your merits in a few words, the lines of Martial addressed to +Trajan, whilst serving under Dioclesian, may be deservedly applied +to you: + + +"Laudari debes quoniam sub principe duro, +Temporibusque malis, ausus es esse bonus." + + +And those also of Virgil to Mecaenas, which extol the humanity of +that great man: + + +"Omnia cum possis tanto tam clarus amico, +Te sensit nemo posse nocere tamen." + + +Many indeed remonstrate against my proceedings, and those +particularly who call themselves my friends insist that, in +consequence of my violent attachment to study, I pay no attention +to the concerns of the world, or to the interests of my family; and +that, on this account, I shall experience a delay in my promotion +to worldly dignities; that the influence of authors, both poets and +historians, has long since ceased; that the respect paid to +literature vanished with literary princes; and that in these +degenerate days very different paths lead to honours and opulence. +I allow all this, I readily allow it, and acquiesce in the truth. +For the unprincipled and covetous attach themselves to the court, +the churchmen to their books, and the ambitious to the public +offices, but as every man is under the influence of some darling +passion, so the love of letters and the study of eloquence have +from my infancy had for me peculiar charms of attraction. Impelled +by this thirst for knowledge, I have carried my researches into the +mysterious works of nature farther than the generality of my +contemporaries, and for the benefit of posterity have rescued from +oblivion the remarkable events of my own times. But this object +was not to be secured without an indefatigable, though at the same +time an agreeable, exertion; for an accurate investigation of every +particular is attended with much difficulty. It is difficult to +produce an orderly account of the investigation and discovery of +truth; it is difficult to preserve from the beginning to the end a +connected relation unbroken by irrelevant matter; and it is +difficult to render the narration no less elegant in the diction, +than instructive in its matter, for in prosecuting the series of +events, the choice of happy expressions is equally perplexing, as +the search after them painful. Whatever is written requires the +most intense thought, and every expression should be carefully +polished before it be submitted to the public eye; for, by exposing +itself to the examination of the present and of future ages, it +must necessarily undergo the criticism not only of the acute, but +also of the dissatisfied, reader. Words merely uttered are soon +forgotten, and the admiration or disgust which they occasioned is +no more; but writings once published are never lost, and remain as +lasting memorials either of the glory or of the disgrace of the +author. Hence the observation of Seneca, that the malicious +attention of the envious reader dwells with no less satisfaction on +a faulty than on an elegant expression, and is as anxious to +discover what it may ridicule, as what it may commend; as the poet +also observes: + + +"Discit enim citius meminitque libentius illud +Quod quis deridet, quam quod probat et veneratur." + + +Among the pursuits, therefore, most worthy of commendation, this +holds by no means the lowest rank; for history, as the moral +philosopher declares, "is the record of antiquity, the testimony of +ages, the light of truth, the soul of memory, the mistress of +conduct, and the herald of ancient times." + +This study is the more delightful, as it is more honourable to +produce works worthy of being quoted than to quote the works of +others; as it is more desirable to be the author of compositions +which deserve to be admired than to be esteemed a good judge of the +writings of other men; as it is more meritorious to be the just +object of other men's commendations than to be considered an adept +in pointing out the merits of others. On these pleasing +reflections I feed and regale myself; for I would rather resemble +Jerome than Croesus, and I prefer to riches themselves the man who +is capable of despising them. With these gratifying ideas I rest +contented and delighted, valuing moderation more than intemperance, +and an honourable sufficiency more than superfluity; for +intemperance and superfluity produce their own destruction, but +their opposite virtues never perish; the former vanish, but the +latter, like eternity, remain for ever; in short, I prefer praise +to lucre, and reputation to riches. + + + + +BOOK I + + + + +CHAPTER I + + + +Of the length and breadth of Wales, the nature of its soil, and the +three remaining tribes of Britons + + +Cambria, which, by a corrupt and common term, though less proper, +is in modern times called Wales, is about two hundred miles long +and one hundred broad. The length from Port Gordber (1) in +Anglesey to Port Eskewin (2) in Monmouthshire is eight days' +journey in extent; the breadth from Porth Mawr, (3) or the great +Port of St. David's, to Ryd-helic, (4) which in Latin means VADUM +SALICIS, or the Ford of the Willow, and in English is called +Willow-forde, is four days' journey. It is a country very strongly +defended by high mountains, deep valleys, extensive woods, rivers, +and marshes; insomuch that from the time the Saxons took possession +of the island the remnants of the Britons, retiring into these +regions, could never be entirely subdued either by the English or +by the Normans. Those who inhabited the southern angle of the +island, which took its name from the chieftain Corinaeus, (5) made +less resistance, as their country was more defenceless. The third +division of the Britons, who obtained a part of Britany in Gaul, +were transported thither, not after the defeat of their nation, but +long before, by king Maximus, and, in consequence of the hard and +continued warfare which they underwent with him, were rewarded by +the royal munificence with those districts in France. + + + +CHAPTER II + + + +Of the ancient division of Wales into three parts + + +Wales was in ancient times divided into three parts nearly equal, +consideration having been paid, in this division, more to the value +than to the just quantity or proportion of territory. They were +Venedotia, now called North Wales; Demetia, or South Wales, which +in British is called Deheubarth, that is, the southern part; and +Powys, the middle or eastern district. Roderic the Great, or +Rhodri Mawr, who was king over all Wales, was the cause of this +division. He had three sons, Mervin, Anarawt, and Cadell, amongst +whom he partitioned the whole principality. North Wales fell to +the lot of Mervin; Powys to Anarawt; and Cadell received the +portion of South Wales, together with the general good wishes of +his brothers and the people; for although this district greatly +exceeded the others in quantity, it was the least desirable from +the number of noble chiefs, or Uchelwyr, (6) men of a superior +rank, who inhabited it, and were often rebellious to their lords, +and impatient of control. But Cadell, on the death of his +brothers, obtained the entire dominion of Wales, (7) as did his +successors till the time of Tewdwr, whose descendants, Rhys, son of +Tewdwr, Gruflydd, son of Rhys, and Rhys, son of Gruffydd, the +ruling prince in our time, enjoyed only (like the father) the +sovereignty over South Wales. + + + +CHAPTER III + + + +Genealogy of the Princes of Wales + + +The following is the generation of princes of South Wales: Rhys, +son of Gruffydd; Gruffydd, son of Rhys; Rhys, son of Tewdwr; +Tewdwr, son of Eineon; Eineon, son of Owen; Owen, son of Howel Dda, +or Howel the Good; Howel, son of Cadell, son of Roderic the Great. +Thus the princes of South Wales derived their origin from Cadell, +son of Roderic the Great. The princes of North Wales descended +from Mervin in this manner: Llewelyn, son of Iorwerth; Iorwerth, +son of Owen; Owen, son of Gruffydd; Gruffydd, son of Conan; Conan, +son of Iago; Iago, son of Edoual; Edoual, son of Meyric; Meyric, +son of Anarawt (Anandhrec); Anarawt, son of Mervin, son of Roderic +the Great. Anarawt leaving no issue, the princes of Powys have +their own particular descent. + +It is worthy of remark, that the Welsh bards and singers, or +reciters, have the genealogies of the aforesaid princes, written in +the Welsh language, in their ancient and authentic books; and also +retain them in their memory from Roderic the Great to B.M.; (8) and +from thence to Sylvius, Ascanius, and AEneas; and from the latter +produce the genealogical series in a lineal descent, even to Adam. + +But as an account of such long and remote genealogies may appear to +many persons trifling rather than historical, we have purposely +omitted them in our compendium. + + + +CHAPTER IV + + + +How many cantreds, royal palaces, and cathedrals there are in Wales + + +South Wales contains twenty-nine cantreds; North Wales, twelve; +Powys, six: many of which are at this time in the possession of +the English and Franks. For the country now called Shropshire +formerly belonged to Powys, and the place where the castle of +Shrewsbury stands bore the name of Pengwern, or the head of the +Alder Grove. There were three royal seats in South Wales: +Dinevor, in South Wales, removed from Caerleon; Aberfraw, (9) in +North Wales; and Pengwern, in Powys. + +Wales contains in all fifty-four cantreds. The word CANTREF is +derived from CANT, a hundred, and TREF, a village; and means in the +British and Irish languages such a portion of land as contains a +hundred vills. + +There are four cathedral churches in Wales: St. David's, upon the +Irish sea, David the archbishop being its patron: it was in +ancient times the metropolitan church, and the district only +contained twenty-four cantreds, though at this time only twenty- +three; for Ergengl, in English called Urchenfeld, (10) is said to +have been formerly within the diocese of St. David's, and sometimes +was placed within that of Landaff. The see of St. David's had +twenty-five successive archbishops; and from the time of the +removal of the pall into France, to this day, twenty-two bishops; +whose names and series, as well as the cause of the removal of the +archiepiscopal pall, may be seen in our Itinerary. (11) + +In South Wales also is situated the bishopric of Landaff, near the +Severn sea, and near the noble castle of Caerdyf; bishop Teilo +being its patron. It contains five cantreds, and the fourth part +of another, namely, Senghennyd. + +In North Wales, between Anglesey and the Eryri mountains, is the +see of Bangor, under the patronage of Daniel, the abbot; it +contains about nine cantreds. + +In North Wales also is the poor little cathedral of Llan-Elwy, or +St. Asaph, containing about six cantreds, to which Powys is +subject. + + + +CHAPTER V + + + +Of the two mountains from which the noble rivers which divide Wales +spring + + +Wales is divided and distinguished by noble rivers, which derive +their source from two ranges of mountains, the Ellennith, in South +Wales, which the English call Moruge, as being the heads of moors, +or bogs; and Eryri, in North Wales, which they call Snowdon, or +mountains of snow; the latter of which are said to be of so great +an extent, that if all the herds in Wales were collected together, +they would supply them with pasture for a considerable time. Upon +them are two lakes, one of which has a floating island; and the +other contains fish having only one eye, as we have related in our +Itinerary. + +We must also here remark, that at two places in Scotland, one on +the eastern, and the other on the western ocean, the sea-fish +called mulvelli (mullets) have only the right eye. + +The noble river Severn takes its rise from the Ellennith mountains, +and flowing by the castles of Shrewsbury and Bridgenorth, through +the city of Worcester, and that of Gloucester, celebrated for its +iron manufactories, falls into the sea a few miles from the latter +place, and gives its name to the Severn Sea. This river was for +many years the boundary between Cambria and Loegria, or Wales and +England; it was called in British Hafren, from the daughter of +Locrinus, who was drowned in it by her step-mother; the aspirate +being changed, according to the Latin idiom, into S, as is usual in +words derived from the Greek, it was termed Sarina, as hal becomes +SAL; hemi, SEMI; hepta, SEPTEM. + +The river Wye rises in the same mountains of Ellennith, and flows +by the castles of Hay and Clifford, through the city of Hereford, +by the castles of Wilton and Goodrich, through the forest of Dean, +abounding with iron and deer, and proceeds to Strigul castle, below +which it empties itself into the sea, and forms in modern times the +boundary between England and Wales. The Usk does not derive its +origin from these mountains, but from those of Cantref Bachan; it +flows by the castle of Brecheinoc, or Aberhodni, that is, the fall +of the river Hodni into the Usk (for Aber, in the British language, +signifies every place where two rivers unite their streams); by the +castles of Abergevenni and Usk, through the ancient city of +Legions, and discharges itself into the Severn Sea, not far from +Newport. + +The river Remni flows towards the sea from the mountains of +Brecheinoc, having passed the castle and bridge of Remni. From the +same range of mountains springs the Taf, which pursues its course +to the episcopal see of Landaf (to which it gives its name), and +falls into the sea below the castle of Caerdyf. The river Avon +rushes impetuously from the mountains of Glamorgan, between the +celebrated Cistercian monasteries of Margan and Neth; and the river +Neth, descending from the mountains of Brecheinoc, unites itself +with the sea, at no great distance from the castle of Neth; each of +these rivers forming a long tract of dangerous quicksands. From +the same mountains of Brecheinoc the river Tawe flows down to +Abertawe, called in English Swainsey. The Lochor joins the sea +near the castle of the same name; and the Wendraeth has its +confluence near Cydweli. The Tywy, another noble river, rises in +the Ellennith mountains, and separating the Cantref Mawr from the +Cantref Bachan, passes by the castle of Llanymddyfri, and the royal +palace and castle of Dinevor, strongly situated in the deep +recesses of its woods, by the noble castle of Caermarddin, where +Merlin was found, and from whom the city received its name, and +runs into the sea near the castle of Lhanstephan. The river Taf +rises in the Presseleu mountains, not far from the monastery of +Whitland, and passing by the castle of St. Clare, falls into the +sea near Abercorran and Talacharn. From the same mountains flow +the rivers Cleddeu, encompassing the province of Daugleddeu, and +giving it their name one passes by the castle of Lahaden, and the +other by Haverford, to the sea; and in the British language they +bear the name of Daugleddeu, or two swords. + +The noble river Teivi springs from the Ellennith mountains, in the +upper part of the Cantref Mawr and Caerdigan, not far from the +pastures and excellent monastery of Stratflur, forming a boundary +between Demetia and Caerdigan down to the Irish channel; this is +the only river in Wales that produces beavers, an account of which +is given in our Itinerary; and also exceeds every other river in +the abundance and delicacy of its salmon. But as this book may +fall into the hands of many persons who will not meet with the +other, I have thought it right here to insert many curious and +particular qualities relating to the nature of these animals, how +they convey their materials from the woods to the river, with what +skill they employ these materials in constructing places of safety +in the middle of the stream, how artfully they defend themselves +against the attack of the hunters on the eastern and how on the +western side; the singularity of their tails, which partake more of +the nature of fish than flesh. For further particulars see the +Itinerary. (12) + +From the same mountains issues the Ystuyth, and flowing through the +upper parts of Penwedic, in Cardiganshire, falls into the sea near +the castle of Aberystuyth. From the snowy mountains of Eryri flows +the noble river Devi, (13) dividing for a great distance North and +South Wales; and from the same mountains also the large river Maw, +(14) forming by its course the greater and smaller tract of sands +called the Traeth Mawr and the Traeth Bachan. The Dissennith also, +and the Arthro, flow through Merionethshire and the land of Conan. +The Conwy, springing from the northern side of the Eryri mountains, +unites its waters with the sea under the noble castle of Deganwy. +The Cloyd rises from another side of the same mountain, and passes +by the castle of Ruthlan to the sea. The Doverdwy, called by the +English Dee, draws its source from the lake of Penmelesmere, and +runs through Chester, leaving the wood of Coleshulle, Basinwerk, +and a rich vein of silver in its neighbourhood, far to the right, +and by the influx of the sea forming a very dangerous quicksand; +thus the Dee makes the northern, and the river Wye the southern +boundary of Wales. + + + +CHAPTER VI + + + +Concerning the pleasantness and fertility of Wales + + +As the southern part of Wales near Cardiganshire, but particularly +Pembrokeshire, is much pleasanter, on account of its plains and +sea-coast, so North Wales is better defended by nature, is more +productive of men distinguished for bodily strength, and more +fertile in the nature of its soil; for, as the mountains of Eryri +(Snowdon) could supply pasturage for all the herds of cattle in +Wales, if collected together, so could the Isle of Mona (Anglesey) +provide a requisite quantity of corn for all the inhabitants: on +which account there is an old British proverb, "MON MAM CYMBRY," +that is, "Mona is the mother of Wales." Merionyth, and the land of +Conan, is the rudest and least cultivated region, and the least +accessible. The natives of that part of Wales excel in the use of +long lances, as those of Monmouthshire are distinguished for their +management of the bow. It is to be observed, that the British +language is more delicate and richer in North Wales, that country +being less intermixed with foreigners. Many, however, assert that +the language of Cardiganshire, in South Wales, placed as it were in +the middle and heart of Cambria, is the most refined. + +The people of Cornwall and the Armoricans speak a language similar +to that of the Britons; and from its origin and near resemblance, +it is intelligible to the Welsh in many instances, and almost in +all; and although less delicate and methodical, yet it approaches, +as I judge, more to the ancient British idiom. As in the southern +parts of England, and particularly in Devonshire, the English +language seems less agreeable, yet it bears more marks of antiquity +(the northern parts being much corrupted by the irruptions of the +Danes and Norwegians), and adheres more strictly to the original +language and ancient mode of speaking; a positive proof of which +may be deduced from all the English works of Bede, Rhabanus, and +king Alfred, being written according to this idiom. + + + +CHAPTER VII + + + +Origin of the names Cambria and Wales + + +Cambria was so called from Camber, son of Brutus, for Brutus, +descending from the Trojans, by his grandfather, Ascanius, and +father, Silvius, led the remnant of the Trojans, who had long been +detained in Greece, into this western isle; and having reigned many +years, and given his name to the country and people, at his death +divided the kingdom of Wales between his three sons. To his eldest +son, Locrinus, he gave that part of the island which lies between +the rivers Humber and Severn, and which from him was called +Loegria. To his second son, Albanactus, he gave the lands beyond +the Humber, which took from him the name of Albania. But to his +youngest son, Camber, he bequeathed all that region which lies +beyond the Severn, and is called after him Cambria; hence the +country is properly and truly called Cambria, and its inhabitants +Cambrians, or Cambrenses. Some assert that their name was derived +from CAM and GRAECO, that is, distorted Greek, on account of the +affinity of their languages, contracted by their long residence in +Greece; but this conjecture, though plausible, is not well founded +on truth. + +The name of Wales was not derived from Wallo, a general, or +Wandolena, the queen, as the fabulous history of Geoffrey Arthurius +(15) falsely maintains, because neither of these personages are to +be found amongst the Welsh; but it arose from a barbarian +appellation. The Saxons, when they seized upon Britain, called +this nation, as they did all foreigners, Wallenses; and thus the +barbarous name remains to the people and their country. (16) + +Having discoursed upon the quality and quantity of the land, the +genealogies of the princes, the sources of the rivers, and the +derivation of the names of this country, we shall now consider the +nature and character of the nation. + + + +CHAPTER VIII + + + +Concerning the nature, manners, and dress, the boldness, agility, +and courage, of this nation + + +This people is light and active, hardy rather than strong, and +entirely bred up to the use of arms; for not only the nobles, but +all the people are trained to war, and when the trumpet sounds the +alarm, the husbandman rushes as eagerly from his plough as the +courtier from his court; for here it is not found that, as in other +places, + + +"Agricolis labor actus in orbem," + + +returns; for in the months of March and April only the soil is once +ploughed for oats, and again in the summer a third time, and in +winter for wheat. Almost all the people live upon the produce of +their herds, with oats, milk, cheese, and butter; eating flesh in +larger proportions than bread. They pay no attention to commerce, +shipping, or manufactures, and suffer no interruption but by +martial exercises. They anxiously study the defence of their +country and their liberty; for these they fight, for these they +undergo hardships, and for these willingly sacrifice their lives; +they esteem it a disgrace to die in bed, an honour to die in the +field of battle; using the poet's expressions, - + + +"Procul hinc avertite pacem, +Nobilitas cum pace perit." + + +Nor is it wonderful if it degenerates, for the ancestors of these +men, the AEneadae, rushed to arms in the cause of liberty. It is +remarkable that this people, though unarmed, dares attack an armed +foe; the infantry defy the cavalry, and by their activity and +courage generally prove victors. They resemble in disposition and +situation those conquerors whom the poet Lucan mentions: + + +- "Populi quos despicit Arctos, +Felices errore suo, quos ille timorum +Maximus haud urget leti metus, inde ruendi +In ferrum, mens prona viris, amimaeque capaces, +Mortis et ignavum rediturae parsere vitae." + + +They make use of light arms, which do not impede their agility, +small coats of mail, bundles of arrows, and long lances, helmets +and shields, and more rarely greaves plated with iron. The higher +class go to battle mounted on swift and generous steeds, which +their country produces; but the greater part of the people fight on +foot, on account of the marshy nature and unevenness of the soil. +The horsemen as their situation or occasion requires, willingly +serve as infantry, in attacking or retreating; and they either walk +bare-footed, or make use of high shoes, roughly constructed with +untanned leather. In time of peace, the young men, by penetrating +the deep recesses of the woods, and climbing the tops of mountains, +learn by practice to endure fatigue through day and night; and as +they meditate on war during peace, they acquire the art of fighting +by accustoming themselves to the use of the lance, and by inuring +themselves to hard exercise. + +In our time, king Henry II., in reply to the inquiries of Emanuel, +emperor of Constantinople, concerning the situation, nature, and +striking peculiarities of the British island, among other +remarkable circumstances mentioned the following: "That in a +certain part of the island there was a people, called Welsh, so +bold and ferocious that, when unarmed, they did not fear to +encounter an armed force; being ready to shed their blood in +defence of their country, and to sacrifice their lives for renown; +which is the more surprising, as the beasts of the field over the +whole face of the island became gentle, but these desperate men +could not be tamed. The wild animals, and particularly the stags +and hinds, are so abundant, owing to the little molestation they +receive, that in our time, in the northern parts of the island +towards the Peak, (17) when pursued by the hounds and hunters, they +contributed, by their numbers, to their own destruction." + + + +CHAPTER IX + + + +Of their sober supper and frugality + + +Not addicted to gluttony or drunkenness, this people who incur no +expense in food or dress, and whose minds are always bent upon the +defence of their country, and on the means of plunder, are wholly +employed in the care of their horses and furniture. Accustomed to +fast from morning till evening, and trusting to the care of +Providence, they dedicate the whole day to business, and in the +evening partake of a moderate meal; and even if they have none, or +only a very scanty one, they patiently wait till the next evening; +and, neither deterred by cold nor hunger, they employ the dark and +stormy nights in watching the hostile motions of their enemies. + + + +CHAPTER X + + + +Of their hospitality and liberality + + +No one of this nation ever begs, for the houses of all are common +to all; and they consider liberality and hospitality amongst the +first virtues. So much does hospitality here rejoice in +communication, that it is neither offered nor requested by +travellers, who, on entering any house, only deliver up their arms. +When water is offered to them, if they suffer their feet to be +washed, they are received as guests; for the offer of water to wash +the feet is with this nation an hospitable invitation. But if they +refuse the proffered service, they only wish for morning +refreshment, not lodging. The young men move about in troops and +families under the direction of a chosen leader. Attached only to +arms and ease, and ever ready to stand forth in defence of their +country, they have free admittance into every house as if it were +their own. + +Those who arrive in the morning are entertained till evening with +the conversation of young women, and the music of the harp; for +each house has its young women and harps allotted to this purpose. +Two circumstances here deserve notice: that as no nation labours +more under the vice of jealousy than the Irish, so none is more +free from it than the Welsh: and in each family the art of playing +on the harp is held preferable to any other learning. In the +evening, when no more guests are expected, the meal is prepared +according to the number and dignity of the persons assembled, and +according to the wealth of the family who entertains. The kitchen +does not supply many dishes, nor high-seasoned incitements to +eating. The house is not furnished with tables, cloths, or +napkins. They study nature more than splendour, for which reason, +the guests being seated in threes, instead of couples as elsewhere, +(18) they place the dishes before them all at once upon rushes and +fresh grass, in large platters or trenchers. They also make use of +a thin and broad cake of bread, baked every day, such as in old +writings was called LAGANA; (19) and they sometimes add chopped +meat, with broth. Such a repast was formerly used by the noble +youth, from whom this nation boasts its descent, and whose manners +it still partly imitates, according to the word of the poet: + + +"Heu! mensas consumimus, inquit Iulus." + + +While the family is engaged in waiting on the guests, the host and +hostess stand up, paying unremitting attention to everything, and +take no food till all the company are satisfied; that in case of +any deficiency, it may fall upon them. A bed made of rushes, and +covered with a coarse kind of cloth manufactured in the country, +called BRYCHAN, (20) is then placed along the side of the room, and +they all in common lie down to sleep; nor is their dress at night +different from that by day, for at all seasons they defend +themselves from the cold only by a thin cloak and tunic. The fire +continues to burn by night as well as by day, at their feet, and +they receive much comfort from the natural heat of the persons +lying near them; but when the under side begins to be tired with +the hardness of the bed, or the upper one to suffer from cold, they +immediately leap up, and go to the fire, which soon relieves them +from both inconveniences; and then returning to their couch, they +expose alternately their sides to the cold, and to the hardness of +the bed. + + + +CHAPTER XI + + + +Concerning their cutting of their hair, their care of their teeth, +and shaving of their beard + + +The men and women cut their hair close round to the ears and eyes. +The women, after the manner of the Parthians, cover their heads +with a large white veil, folded together in the form of a crown. + +Both sexes exceed any other nation in attention to their teeth, +which they render like ivory, by constantly rubbing them with green +hazel and wiping with a woollen cloth. For their better +preservation, they abstain from hot meats, and eat only such as are +cold, warm, or temperate. The men shave all their beard except the +moustaches (GERNOBODA). This custom is not recent, but was +observed in ancient and remote ages, as we find in the works of +Julius Caesar, who says, (21) "The Britons shave every part of +their body except their head and upper lip;" and to render +themselves more active, and avoid the fate of Absalon in their +excursions through the woods, they are accustomed to cut even the +hair from their heads; so that this nation more than any other +shaves off all pilosity. Julius also adds, that the Britons, +previous to an engagement, anointed their faces with a nitrous +ointment, which gave them so ghastly and shining an appearance, +that the enemy could scarcely bear to look at them, particularly if +the rays of the sun were reflected on them. + + + +CHAPTER XII + + + +Of their quickness and sharpness of understanding + + +These people being of a sharp and acute intellect, and gifted with +a rich and powerful understanding, excel in whatever studies they +pursue, and are more quick and cunning than the other inhabitants +of a western clime. + +Their musical instruments charm and delight the ear with their +sweetness, are borne along by such celerity and delicacy of +modulation, producing such a consonance from the rapidity of +seemingly discordant touches, that I shall briefly repeat what is +set forth in our Irish Topography on the subject of the musical +instruments of the three nations. It is astonishing that in so +complex and rapid a movement of the fingers, the musical +proportions can be preserved, and that throughout the difficult +modulations on their various instruments, the harmony is completed +with such a sweet velocity, so unequal an equality, so discordant a +concord, as if the chords sounded together fourths or fifths. They +always begin from B flat, and return to the same, that the whole +may be completed under the sweetness of a pleasing sound. They +enter into a movement, and conclude it in so delicate a manner, and +play the little notes so sportively under the blunter sounds of the +base strings, enlivening with wanton levity, or communicating a +deeper internal sensation of pleasure, so that the perfection of +their art appears in the concealment of it: + + +"Si lateat, prosit; +- - ferat ars deprensa pudorem." +"Art profits when concealed, +Disgraces when revealed." + + +From this cause, those very strains which afford deep and +unspeakable mental delight to those who have skilfully penetrated +into the mysteries of the art, fatigue rather than gratify the ears +of others, who seeing, do not perceive, and hearing, do not +understand; and by whom the finest music is esteemed no better than +a confused and disorderly noise, and will be heard with +unwillingness and disgust. + +They make use of three instruments, the harp, the pipe, and the +crwth or crowd (CHORUS). (22) + +They omit no part of natural rhetoric in the management of civil +actions, in quickness of invention, disposition, refutation, and +confirmation. In their rhymed songs and set speeches they are so +subtle and ingenious, that they produce, in their native tongue, +ornaments of wonderful and exquisite invention both in the words +and sentences. Hence arise those poets whom they call Bards, of +whom you will find many in this nation, endowed with the above +faculty, according to the poet's observation: + + +"Plurima concreti fuderunt carmina Bardi." + + +But they make use of alliteration (ANOMINATIONE) in preference to +all other ornaments of rhetoric, and that particular kind which +joins by consonancy the first letters or syllables of words. So +much do the English and Welsh nations employ this ornament of words +in all exquisite composition, that no sentence is esteemed to be +elegantly spoken, no oration to be otherwise than uncouth and +unrefined, unless it be fully polished with the file of this +figure. Thus in the British tongue: + + +"Digawn Duw da i unic." +"Wrth bob crybwyll rhaid pwyll parawd." (23) + + +And in English, + + +"God is together gammen and wisedom." + + +The same ornament of speech is also frequent in the Latin language. +Virgil says, + + +"Tales casus Cassandra canebat." + + +And again, in his address to Augustus, + + +"Dum dubitet natura marem, faceretve puellam, +Natus es, o pulcher, pene puella, puer." + + +This ornament occurs not in any language we know so frequently as +in the two first; it is, indeed, surprising that the French, in +other respects so ornamented, should be entirely ignorant of this +verbal elegance so much adopted in other languages. Nor can I +believe that the English and Welsh, so different and adverse to +each other, could designedly have agreed in the usage of this +figure; but I should rather suppose that it had grown habitual to +both by long custom, as it pleases the ear by a transition from +similar to similar sounds. Cicero, in his book "On Elocution," +observes of such who know the practice, not the art, "Other persons +when they read good orations or poems, approve of the orators or +poets, not understanding the reason why, being affected, they +approve; because they cannot know in what place, of what nature, +nor how that effect is caused which so highly delights them." + + + +CHAPTER XIII + + + +Of their symphonies and songs + + +In their musical concerts they do not sing in unison like the +inhabitants of other countries, but in many different parts; so +that in a company of singers, which one very frequently meets with +in Wales, you will hear as many different parts and voices as there +are performers, who all at length unite, with organic melody, in +one consonance and the soft sweetness of B flat. In the northern +district of Britain, beyond the Humber, and on the borders of +Yorkshire, the inhabitants make use of the same kind of symphonious +harmony, but with less variety; singing only in two parts, one +murmuring in the base, the other warbling in the acute or treble. +Neither of the two nations has acquired this peculiarity by art, +but by long habit, which has rendered it natural and familiar; and +the practice is now so firmly rooted in them, that it is unusual to +hear a simple and single melody well sung; and, what is still more +wonderful, the children, even from their infancy, sing in the same +manner. As the English in general do not adopt this mode of +singing, but only those of the northern countries, I believe that +it was from the Danes and Norwegians, by whom these parts of the +island were more frequently invaded, and held longer under their +dominion, that the natives contracted their mode of singing as well +as speaking. + + + +CHAPTER XIV + + + +Their wit and pleasantry + + +The heads of different families, in order to excite the laughter of +their guests, and gain credit by their sayings, make use of great +facetiousness in their conversation; at one time uttering their +jokes in a light, easy manner, at another time, under the disguise +of equivocation, passing the severest censures. For the sake of +explanation I shall here subjoin a few examples. Tegeingl is the +name of a province in North Wales, over which David, son of Owen, +had dominion, and which had once been in the possession of his +brother. The same word also was the name of a certain woman with +whom, it was said, each brother had an intrigue, from which +circumstance arose this term of reproach, "To have Tegeingl, after +Tegeingl had been in possession of his brother." + +At another time, when Rhys, son of Gruffydd, prince of South Wales, +accompanied by a multitude of his people, devoutly entered the +church of St. David's, previous to an intended journey, the +oblations having been made, and mass solemnised, a young man came +to him in the church, and publicly declared himself to be his son, +threw himself at his feet, and with tears humbly requested that the +truth of this assertion might be ascertained by the trial of the +burning iron. Intelligence of this circumstance being conveyed to +his family and his two sons, who had just gone out of the church, a +youth who was present made this remark: "This is not wonderful; +some have brought gold, and others silver, as offerings; but this +man, who had neither, brought what he had, namely, iron;" thus +taunting him with his poverty. On mentioning a certain house that +was strongly built and almost impregnable, one of the company said, +"This house indeed is strong, for if it should contain food it +could never be got at," thus alluding both to the food and to the +house. In like manner, a person, wishing to hint at the avaricious +disposition of the mistress of a house, said, "I only find fault +with our hostess for putting too little butter to her salt," +whereas the accessory should be put to the principal; thus, by a +subtle transposition of the words, converting the accessory into +the principal, by making it appear to abound in quantity. Many +similar sayings of great men and philosophers are recorded in the +Saturnalia of Macrobius. When Cicero saw his son-in-law, Lentulus, +a man of small stature, with a long sword by his side: "Who," says +he, "has girded my son-in-law to that sword?" thus changing the +accessary into the principal. The same person, on seeing the half- +length portrait of his brother Quintus Cicero, drawn with very +large features and an immense shield, exclaimed, "Half of my +brother is greater than the whole!" When the sister of Faustus had +an intrigue with a fuller, "Is it strange," says he, "that my +sister has a spot, when she is connected with a fuller?" When +Antiochus showed Hannibal his army, and the great warlike +preparations he had made against the Romans, and asked him, +"Thinkest thou, O Hannibal, that these are sufficient for the +Romans?" Hannibal, ridiculing the unmilitary appearance of the +soldiers, wittily and severely replied, "I certainly think them +sufficient for the Romans, however greedy;" Antiochus asking his +opinion about the military preparations, and Hannibal alluding to +them as becoming a prey to the Romans. + + + +CHAPTER XV + + + +Their boldness and confidence in speaking + + +Nature hath given not only to the highest, but also to the +inferior, classes of the people of this nation, a boldness and +confidence in speaking and answering, even in the presence of their +princes and chieftains. The Romans and Franks had the same +faculty; but neither the English, nor the Saxons and Germans, from +whom they are descended, had it. It is in vain urged, that this +defect may arise from the state of servitude which the English +endured; for the Saxons and Germans, who enjoy their liberty, have +the same failing, and derive this natural coldness of disposition +from the frozen region they inhabit; the English also, although +placed in a distant climate, still retain the exterior fairness of +complexion and inward coldness of disposition, as inseparable from +their original and natural character. The Britons, on the +contrary, transplanted from the hot and parched regions of Dardania +into these more temperate districts, as + + +"Coelum non animum mutant qui trans mare currunt," + + +still retain their brown complexion and that natural warmth of +temper from which their confidence is derived. For three nations, +remnants of the Greeks after the destruction of Troy, fled from +Asia into different parts of Europe, the Romans under AEneas, the +Franks under Antenor, and the Britons under Brutus; and from thence +arose that courage, that nobleness of mind, that ancient dignity, +that acuteness of understanding, and confidence of speech, for +which these three nations are so highly distinguished. But the +Britons, from having been detained longer in Greece than the other +two nations, after the destruction of their country, and having +migrated at a later period into the western parts of Europe, +retained in a greater degree the primitive words and phrases of +their native language. You will find amongst them the names Oenus, +Resus, AEneas, Hector, Achilles, Heliodorus, Theodorus, Ajax, +Evander, Uliex, Anianus, Elisa, Guendolena, and many others, +bearing marks of their antiquity. It is also to be observed, that +almost all words in the British language correspond either with the +Greek or Latin, as [Greek text which cannot be reproduced], water, +is called in British, dwr; [Greek text], salt, in British, halen; +[Greek text], eno, a name; [Greek text], pump, five; [Greek text], +deg, ten. The Latins also use the words fraenum, tripos, gladius, +lorica; the Britons, froyn (ffrwyn), trepet (tribedd), cleddyf, and +lluric (llurig); unicus is made unic (unig); canis, can (cwn); and +belua, beleu. + + + +CHAPTER XVI + + + +Concerning the soothsayers of this nation, and persons as it were +possessed + + +There are certain persons in Cambria, whom you will find nowhere +else, called Awenddyon, (24) or people inspired; when consulted +upon any doubtful event, they roar out violently, are rendered +beside themselves, and become, as it were, possessed by a spirit. +They do not deliver the answer to what is required in a connected +manner; but the person who skilfully observes them, will find, +after many preambles, and many nugatory and incoherent, though +ornamented speeches, the desired explanation conveyed in some turn +of a word: they are then roused from their ecstasy, as from a deep +sleep, and, as it were, by violence compelled to return to their +proper senses. After having answered the questions, they do not +recover till violently shaken by other people; nor can they +remember the replies they have given. If consulted a second or +third time upon the same point, they will make use of expressions +totally different; perhaps they speak by the means of fanatic and +ignorant spirits. These gifts are usually conferred upon them in +dreams: some seem to have sweet milk or honey poured on their +lips; others fancy that a written schedule is applied to their +mouths and on awaking they publicly declare that they have received +this gift. Such is the saying of Esdras, "The Lord said unto me, +open thy mouth, and I opened my mouth, and behold a cup full of +water, whose colour was like fire; and when I had drank it, my +heart brought forth understanding, and wisdom entered into my +breast." They invoke, during their prophecies, the true and living +God, and the Holy Trinity, and pray that they may not by their sins +be prevented from finding the truth. These prophets are only found +among the Britons descended from the Trojans. For Calchas and +Cassandra, endowed with the spirit of prophecy, openly foretold, +during the siege of Troy, the destruction of that fine city; on +which account the high priest, Helenus, influenced by the prophetic +books of Calchas, and of others who had long before predicted the +ruin of their country, in the first year went over to the Greeks +with the sons of Priam (to whom he was high priest), and was +afterwards rewarded in Greece. Cassandra, daughter of king Priam, +every day foretold the overthrow of the city; but the pride and +presumption of the Trojans prevented them from believing her word. +Even on the very night that the city was betrayed, she clearly +described the treachery and the method of it: + + +" - tales casus Cassandra canebat," + + +as in the same manner, during the existence of the kingdom of the +Britons, both Merlin Caledonius and Ambrosius are said to have +foretold the destruction of their nation, as well as the coming of +the Saxons, and afterwards that of the Normans; and I think a +circumstance related by Aulus Gellius worth inserting in this +place. On the day that Caius Caesar and Cneius Pompey, during the +civil war, fought a pitched battle in Thessalia, a memorable event +occurred in that part of Italy situated beyond the river Po. A +priest named Cornelius, honourable from his rank, venerable for his +religion, and holy in his manners, in an inspired moment +proclaimed, "Caesar has conquered," and named the day, the events, +the mutual attack, and the conflicts of the two armies. Whether +such things are exhibited by the spirit, let the reader more +particularly inquire; I do not assert they are the acts of a +Pythonic or a diabolic spirit; for as foreknowledge is the property +of God alone, so is it in his power to confer knowledge of future +events. There are differences of gifts, says the Apostle, but one +and the same spirit; whence Peter, in his second Epistle, writes, +"For the prophecy came not in the old time by the will of man, but +men spake as if they were inspired by the Holy Ghost:" to the same +effect did the Chaldeans answer king Nebuchadonazar on the +interpretation of his dream, which he wished to extort from them. +"There is not," say they, "a man upon earth who can, O king, +satisfactorily answer your question; let no king therefore, however +great or potent, make a similar request to any magician, +astrologer, or Chaldean; for it is a rare thing that the king +requireth, and there is none other that can shew it before the +king, except the Gods, whose dwelling is not with flesh." On this +passage Jerome remarks, "The diviners and all the learned of this +world confess, that the prescience of future events belongs to God +alone; the prophets therefore, who foretold things to come, spake +by the spirit of God. Hence some persons object, that, if they +were under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, they would sometimes +premise, "Thus saith the Lord God," or make use of some expression +in the prophetic style; and as such a mode of prophesying is not +taken notice of by Merlin, and no mention is made of his sanctity, +devotion, or faith, many think that he spake by a Pythonic spirit. +To which I answer, that the spirit of prophecy was given not only +to the holy, but sometimes to unbelievers and Gentiles, to Baal, to +the sibyls, and even to bad people, as to Caiaphas and Bela. On +which occasion Origen says: "Do not wonder, if he whom ye have +mentioned declares that the Scribes and Pharisees and doctors +amongst the Jews prophesied concerning Christ; for Caiaphas said: +"It is expedient for us that one man die for the people:" but +asserts at the same time, that because he was high priest for that +year, he prophesied. Let no man therefore be lifted up, if he +prophesies, if he merits prescience; for prophecies shall fail, +tongues shall cease, knowledge shall vanish away; and now abideth, +faith, hope, and charity: these three; but the greatest of these +is Charity, which never faileth. But these bad men not only +prophesied, but sometimes performed great miracles, which others +could not accomplish. John the Baptist, who was so great a +personage, performed no miracle, as John the Evangelist testifies: +"And many came to Jesus and said, Because John wrought no signs," +etc. Nor do we hear that the mother of God performed any miracle; +we read in the Acts of the Apostles, that the sons of Sheva cast +out devils in the name of Jesus, whom Paul preached; and in Matthew +and Luke we may find these words: "Many shall say unto me in that +day, Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in thy name? and in thy +name have cast out devils? and in thy name done many wonderful +works? and then I will profess unto them, I never knew you." And +in another place, John says: "Master, we saw a certain man casting +out devils in thy name, and forbade him, because he followeth not +with us." But Jesus said: "Forbid him not; no man can do a +miracle in my name, and speak evil of me; for whoever is not +against me, is for me." + +Alexander of Macedon, a gentile, traversed the Caspian mountains, +and miraculously confined ten tribes within their promontories, +where they still remain, and will continue until the coming of +Elias and Enoch. We read, indeed, the prophecies of Merlin, but +hear nothing either of his sanctity or his miracles. Some say, +that the prophets, when they prophesied, did not become frantic, as +it is affirmed of Merlin Silvestris, and others possessed, whom we +have before mentioned. Some prophesied by dreams, visions, and +enigmatical sayings, as Ezechiel and Daniel; others by acts and +words, as Noah, in the construction of the ark, alluded to the +church; Abraham, in the slaying of his son, to the passion of +Christ; and Moses by his speech, when he said, "A prophet shall the +Lord God raise up to you of your brethren; hear him;" meaning +Christ. Others have prophesied in a more excellent way by the +internal revelation and inspiration of the Holy Spirit, as David +did when persecuted by Saul: "When Saul heard that David had fled +to Naioth (which is a hill in Ramah, and the seat of the prophets), +he sent messengers to take him; and when they saw the company of +the prophets prophesying, and Samuel standing at their head, the +Spirit of God came upon the messengers of Saul, and they also +prophesied; and he sent messengers a second and again a third time, +and they also prophesied. And Saul enraged went thither also; and +the Spirit of God was upon him also, and he went on, and prophesied +until he came to Naioth, and he stripped off his royal vestments, +and prophesied with the rest for all that day and all that night; +whilst David and Samuel secretly observed what passed." Nor is it +wonderful that those persons who suddenly receive the Spirit of +God, and so signal a mark of grace, should for a time seem +alienated from their earthly state of mind. + + + +CHAPTER XVII + + + +Their love of high birth and ancient genealogy + + +The Welsh esteem noble birth and generous descent above all things, +(25) and are, therefore, more desirous of marrying into noble than +rich families. Even the common people retain their genealogy, and +can not only readily recount the names of their grandfathers and +great-grandfathers, but even refer back to the sixth or seventh +generation, or beyond them, in this manner: Rhys, son of Gruffydd, +son of Rhys, son of Tewdwr, son of Eineon, son of Owen, son of +Howel, son of Cadell, son of Roderic Mawr, and so on. + +Being particularly attached to family descent, they revenge with +vehemence the injuries which may tend to the disgrace of their +blood; and being naturally of a vindictive and passionate +disposition, they are ever ready to avenge not only recent but +ancient affronts; they neither inhabit towns, villages, nor +castles, but lead a solitary life in the woods, on the borders of +which they do not erect sumptuous palaces, nor lofty stone +buildings, but content themselves with small huts made of the +boughs of trees twisted together, constructed with little labour +and expense, and sufficient to endure throughout the year. They +have neither orchards nor gardens, but gladly eat the fruit of both +when given to them. The greater part of their land is laid down to +pasturage; little is cultivated, a very small quantity is +ornamented with flowers, and a still smaller is sown. They seldom +yoke less than four oxen to their ploughs; the driver walks before, +but backwards, and when he falls down, is frequently exposed to +danger from the refractory oxen. Instead of small sickles in +mowing, they make use of a moderate-sized piece of iron formed like +a knife, with two pieces of wood fixed loosely and flexibly to the +head, which they think a more expeditious instrument; but since + + +"Segnius irritant animos demissa per aures, +Quam quae sunt oculis subjecta fidelibus," + + +their mode of using it will be better known by inspection than by +any description. The boats (26) which they employ in fishing or in +crossing the rivers are made of twigs, not oblong nor pointed, but +almost round, or rather triangular, covered both within and without +with raw hides. When a salmon thrown into one of these boats +strikes it hard with his tail, he often oversets it, and endangers +both the vessel and its navigator. The fishermen, according to the +custom of the country, in going to and from the rivers, carry these +boats on their shoulders; on which occasion that famous dealer in +fables, Bleddercus, who lived a little before our time, thus +mysteriously said: "There is amongst us a people who, when they go +out in search of prey, carry their horses on their backs to the +place of plunder; in order to catch their prey, they leap upon +their horses, and when it is taken, carry their horses home again +upon their shoulders." + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + + + +Of the antiquity of their faith, their love of Christianity and +devotion + + +In ancient times, and about two hundred years before the overthrow +of Britain, the Welsh were instructed and confirmed in the faith by +Faganus and Damianus, sent into the island at the request of king +Lucius by pope Eleutherius, and from that period when Germanus of +Auxerre, and Lupus of Troyes, came over on account of the +corruption which had crept into the island by the invasion of the +Saxons, but particularly with a view of expelling the Pelagian +heresy, nothing heretical or contrary to the true faith was to be +found amongst the natives. But it is said that some parts of the +ardent doctrines are still retained. They give the first piece +broken off from every loaf of bread to the poor; they sit down to +dinner by three to a dish, in honour of the Trinity. With extended +arms and bowing head, they ask a blessing of every monk or priest, +or of every person wearing a religious habit. But they desire, +above all other nations, the episcopal ordination and unction, by +which the grace of the spirit is given. They give a tenth of all +their property, animals, cattle, and sheep, either when they marry, +or go on a pilgrimage, or, by the counsel of the church, are +persuaded to amend their lives. This partition of their effects +they call the great tithe, two parts of which they give to the +church where they were baptised, and the third to the bishop of the +diocese. But of all pilgrimages they prefer that to Rome, where +they pay the most fervent adoration to the apostolic see. We +observe that they show a greater respect than other nations to +churches and ecclesiastical persons, to the relics of saints, +bells, holy books, and the cross, which they devoutly revere; and +hence their churches enjoy more than common tranquillity. For +peace is not only preserved towards all animals feeding in +churchyards, but at a great distance beyond them, where certain +boundaries and ditches have been appointed by the bishops, in order +to maintain the security of the sanctuary. But the principal +churches to which antiquity has annexed the greater reverence +extend their protection to the herds as far as they can go to feed +in the morning and return at night. If, therefore, any person has +incurred the enmity of his prince, on applying to the church for +protection, he and his family will continue to live unmolested; but +many persons abuse this indemnity, far exceeding the indulgence of +the canon, which in such cases grants only personal safety; and +from the places of refuge even make hostile irruptions, and more +severely harass the country than the prince himself. Hermits and +anchorites more strictly abstinent and more spiritual can nowhere +be found; for this nation is earnest in all its pursuits, and +neither worse men than the bad, nor better than the good, can be +met with. + +Happy and fortunate indeed would this nation be, nay, completely +blessed, if it had good prelates and pastors, and but one prince, +and that prince a good one. + + + + +BOOK II + + + + +PREFACE + + + +Having in the former book clearly set forth the character, manners, +and customs of the British nation, and having collected and +explained everything which could redound to its credit or glory; an +attention to order now requires that, in this second part, we +should employ our pen in pointing out those particulars in which it +seems to transgress the line of virtue and commendation; having +first obtained leave to speak the truth, without which history not +only loses its authority, but becomes undeserving of its very name. +For the painter who professes to imitate nature, loses his +reputation, if, by indulging his fancy, he represents only those +parts of the subject which best suit him. + +Since, therefore, no man is born without faults, and he is esteemed +the best whose errors are the least, let the wise man consider +everything human as connected with himself; for in worldly affairs +there is no perfect happiness under heaven. Evil borders upon +good, and vices are confounded with virtues; as the report of good +qualities is delightful to a well-disposed mind, so the relation of +the contrary should not be offensive. The natural disposition of +this nation might have been corrupted and perverted by long exile +and poverty; for as poverty extinguisheth many faults, so it often +generates failings that are contrary to virtue. + + + +CHAPTER I + + + +Of the inconstancy and instability of this nation, and their want +of reverence for good faith and oaths + + +These people are no less light in mind than in body, and are by no +means to be relied upon. They are easily urged to undertake any +action, and are as easily checked from prosecuting it - a people +quick in action, but more stubborn in a bad than in a good cause, +and constant only in acts of inconstancy. They pay no respect to +oaths, faith, or truth; and so lightly do they esteem the covenant +of faith, held so inviolable by other nations, that it is usual to +sacrifice their faith for nothing, by holding forth the right hand, +not only in serious and important concerns, but even on every +trifling occasion, and for the confirmation of almost every common +assertion. They never scruple at taking a false oath for the sake +of any temporary emolument or advantage; so that in civil and +ecclesiastical causes, each party, being ready to swear whatever +seems expedient to its purpose, endeavours both to prove and +defend, although the venerable laws, by which oaths are deemed +sacred, and truth is honoured and respected, by favouring the +accused and throwing an odium upon the accuser, impose the burden +of bringing proofs upon the latter. But to a people so cunning and +crafty, this yoke is pleasant, and this burden is light. + + + +CHAPTER II + + + +Their living by plunder, and disregard of the bonds of peace and +friendship + + +This nation conceives it right to commit acts of plunder, theft, +and robbery, not only against foreigners and hostile nations, but +even against their own countrymen. When an opportunity of +attacking the enemy with advantage occurs, they respect not the +leagues of peace and friendship, preferring base lucre to the +solemn obligations of oaths and good faith; to which circumstance +Gildas alludes in his book concerning the overthrow of the Britons, +actuated by the love of truth, and according to the rules of +history, not suppressing the vices of his countrymen. "They are +neither brave in war, nor faithful in peace." But when Julius +Caesar, great as the world itself, + + +"Territa quaesitis ostendit terga Britannis," + + +were they not brave under their leader Cassivellaunus? And when +Belinus and Brennus added the Roman empire to their conquests? +What were they in the time of Constantine, son of our Helen? What, +in the reign of Aurelius Ambrosius, whom even Eutropius commends? +What were they in the time of our famous prince Arthur? I will not +say fabulous. On the contrary, they, who were almost subdued by +the Scots and Picts, often harassed with success the auxiliary +Roman legions, and exclaimed, as we learn from Gildas, "The +barbarians drove us to the sea, the sea drove us again back to the +barbarians; on one side we were subdued, on the other drowned, and +here we were put to death. Were they not," says he, "at that time +brave and praiseworthy?" When attacked and conquered by the +Saxons, who originally had been called in as stipendiaries to their +assistance, were they not brave? But the strongest argument made +use of by those who accuse this nation of cowardice, is, that +Gildas, a holy man, and a Briton by birth, has handed down to +posterity nothing remarkable concerning them, in any of his +historical works. We promise, however, a solution of the contrary +in our British Topography, if God grants us a continuance of life. + +As a further proof, it may be necessary to add, that from the time +when that illustrious prince of the Britons, mentioned at the +beginning of this book, totally exhausted the strength of the +country, by transporting the whole armed force beyond the seas; +that island, which had before been so highly illustrious for its +incomparable valour, remained for many subsequent years destitute +of men and arms, and exposed to the predatory attacks of pirates +and robbers. So distinguished, indeed, were the natives of this +island for their bravery, that, by their prowess, that king subdued +almost all Cisalpine Gaul, and dared even to make an attack on the +Roman empire. + +In process of time, the Britons, recovering their long-lost +population and knowledge of the use of arms, re-acquired their high +and ancient character. Let the different aeras be therefore +marked, and the historical accounts will accord. With regard to +Gildas, who inveighs so bitterly against his own nation, the +Britons affirm that, highly irritated at the death of his brother, +the prince of Albania, whom king Arthur had slain, he wrote these +invectives, and upon the same occasion threw into the sea many +excellent books, in which he had described the actions of Arthur, +and the celebrated deeds of his countrymen; from which cause it +arises, that no authentic account of so great a prince is any where +to be found. + + + +CHAPTER III + + + +Of their deficiency in battle, and base and dishonourable flight + + +In war this nation is very severe in the first attack, terrible by +their clamour and looks, filling the air with horrid shouts and the +deep-toned clangour of very long trumpets; swift and rapid in their +advances and frequent throwing of darts. Bold in the first onset, +they cannot bear a repulse, being easily thrown into confusion as +soon as they turn their backs; and they trust to flight for safety, +without attempting to rally, which the poet thought reprehensible +in martial conflicts: + + +"Ignavum scelus est tantum fuga;" + + +and elsewhere - + + +"In vitium culpae ducit fuga, si caret arte." + + +The character given to the Teutones in the Roman History, may be +applied to this people. "In their first attack they are more than +men, in the second, less than women." Their courage manifests +itself chiefly in the retreat, when they frequently return, and, +like the Parthians, shoot their arrows behind them; and, as after +success and victory in battle, even cowards boast of their courage, +so, after a reverse of fortune, even the bravest men are not +allowed their due claims of merit. Their mode of fighting consists +in chasing the enemy or in retreating. This light-armed people, +relying more on their activity than on their strength, cannot +struggle for the field of battle, enter into close engagement, or +endure long and severe actions, such as the poet describes: + + +"Jam clypeo clypeus, umbone repellitur umbo, +Ense minax ensis, pede pes, et cuspide cuspis." + + +Though defeated and put to flight on one day, they are ready to +resume the combat on the next, neither dejected by their loss, nor +by their dishonour; and although, perhaps, they do not display +great fortitude in open engagements and regular conflicts, yet they +harass the enemy by ambuscades and nightly sallies. Hence, neither +oppressed by hunger or cold, nor fatigued by martial labours, nor +despondent in adversity, but ready, after a defeat, to return +immediately to action, and again endure the dangers of war; they +are as easy to overcome in a single battle, as difficult to subdue +in a protracted war. The poet Claudian thus speaks of a people +similar in disposition:- + + +"Dum percunt, meminere mali: si corda parumper +Respirare sinas, nullo tot funera censu +Praetercunt, tantique levis jactura cruoris." + + + +CHAPTER IV + + + +Their ambitious seizure of lands, and dissensions among brothers + + +This nation is, above all others, addicted to the digging up of +boundary ditches, removing the limits, transgressing landmarks, and +extending their territory by every possible means. So great is +their disposition towards this common violence, that they scruple +not to claim as their hereditary right, those lands which are held +under lease, or at will, on condition of planting, or by any other +title, even although indemnity had been publicly secured on oath to +the tenant by the lord proprietor of the soil. Hence arise suits +and contentions, murders and conflagrations, and frequent +fratricides, increased, perhaps, by the ancient national custom of +brothers dividing their property amongst each other. Another heavy +grievance also prevails; the princes entrust the education of their +children to the care of the principal men of their country, each of +whom, after the death of his father, endeavours, by every possible +means, to exalt his own charge above his neighbours. From which +cause great disturbances have frequently arisen amongst brothers, +and terminated in the most cruel and unjust murders; and on which +account friendships are found to be more sincere between foster- +brothers, than between those who are connected by the natural ties +of brotherhood. It is also remarkable, that brothers shew more +affection to one another when dead, than when living; for they +persecute the living even unto death, but revenge the deceased with +all their power. + + + +CHAPTER V + + + +Their great exaction, and want of moderation + + +Where they find plenty, and can exercise their power, they levy the +most unjust exactions. Immoderate in their love of food and +intoxicating drink, they say with the Apostle, "We are instructed +both to abound, and to suffer need;" but do not add with him, +"becoming all things to all men, that I might by all means save +some." As in times of scarcity their abstinence and parsimony are +too severe, so, when seated at another man's table, after a long +fasting, (like wolves and eagles, who, like them, live by plunder, +and are rarely satisfied,) their appetite is immoderate. They are +therefore penurious in times of scarcity, and extravagant in times +of plenty; but no man, as in England, mortgages his property for +the gluttonous gratification of his own appetite. They wish, +however, that all people would join with them in their bad habits +and expenses; as the commission of crimes reduces to a level all +those who are concerned in the perpetration of them. + + + +CHAPTER VI + + + +Concerning the crime of incest, and the abuse of churches by +succession and participation + + +The crime of incest hath so much prevailed, not only among the +higher, but among the lower orders of this people, that, not having +the fear of God before their eyes, they are not ashamed of +intermarrying with their relations, even in the third degree of +consanguinity. They generally abuse these dispensations with a +view of appeasing those enmities which so often subsist between +them, because "their feet are swift to shed blood;" and from their +love of high descent, which they so ardently affect and covet, they +unite themselves to their own people, refusing to intermarry with +strangers, and arrogantly presuming on their own superiority of +blood and family. They do not engage in marriage, until they have +tried, by previous cohabitation, the disposition, and particularly +the fecundity, of the person with whom they are engaged. An +ancient custom also prevails of hiring girls from their parents at +a certain price, and a stipulated penalty, in case of relinquishing +their connection. + +Their churches have almost as many parsons and sharers as there are +principal men in the parish. The sons, after the decease of their +fathers, succeed to the ecclesiastical benefices, not by election, +but by hereditary right possessing and polluting the sanctuary of +God. And if a prelate should by chance presume to appoint or +institute any other person, the people would certainly revenge the +injury upon the institutor and the instituted. With respect to +these two excesses of incest and succession, which took root +formerly in Armorica, and are not yet eradicated, Ildebert, bishop +of Le Mans, in one of his epistles, says, "that he was present with +a British priest at a council summoned with a view of putting an +end to the enormities of this nation:" hence it appears that these +vices have for a long time prevailed both in Britany and Britain. +The words of the Psalmist may not inaptly be applied to them; "They +are corrupt and become abominable in their doings, there is none +that doeth good, no, not one: they are all gone out of the way, +they are altogether become abominable," etc. + + + +CHAPTER VII + + + +Of their sins, and the consequent loss of Britain and of Troy + + +Moreover, through their sins, and particularly that detestable and +wicked vice of Sodom, as well as by divine vengeance, they lost +Britain as they formerly lost Troy. For we read in the Roman +history, that the emperor Constantine having resigned the city and +the Western empire to the blessed Sylvester and his successors, +with an intention of rebuilding Troy, and there establishing the +chief seat of the Eastern Empire, heard a voice, saying, "Dost thou +go to rebuild Sodom?" upon which, he altered his intention, turned +his ships and standards towards Byzantium, and there fixing his +seat of empire, gave his own propitious name to the city. The +British history informs us, that Mailgon, king of the Britons, and +many others, were addicted to this vice; that enormity, however, +had entirely ceased for so long a time, that the recollection of it +was nearly worn out. But since that, as if the time of repentance +was almost expired, and because the nation, by its warlike +successes and acquisition of territory, has in our times unusually +increased in population and strength, they boast in their turn, and +most confidently and unanimously affirm, that in a short time their +countrymen shall return to the island, and, according to the +prophecies of Merlin, the nation, and even the name, of foreigners, +shall be extinguished in the island, and the Britons shall exult +again in their ancient name and privileges. But to me it appears +far otherwise; for since + + +"Luxuriant animi rebus plerumque secundis, +Nec facile est aequa commoda mente pati;" + + +And because + + +"Non habet unde suum paupertas pascat amorem, . . . +Divitiis alitur luxuriosus amor." + + +So that their abstinence from that vice, which in their prosperity +they could not resist, may be attributed more justly to their +poverty and state of exile than to their sense of virtue. For they +cannot be said to have repented, when we see them involved in such +an abyss of vices, perjury, theft, robbery, rapine, murders, +fratricides, adultery, and incest, and become every day more +entangled and ensnared in evil-doing; so that the words of the +prophet Hosea may be truly applied to them, "There is no truth, nor +mercy," etc. + +Other matters of which they boast are more properly to be +attributed to the diligence and activity of the Norman kings than +to their own merits or power. For previous to the coming of the +Normans, when the English kings contented themselves with the +sovereignty of Britain alone, and employed their whole military +force in the subjugation of this people, they almost wholly +extirpated them; as did king Offa, who by a long and extensive dyke +separated the British from the English; Ethelfrid also, who +demolished the noble city of Legions, (27) and put to death the +monks of the celebrated monastery at Banchor, who had been called +in to promote the success of the Britons by their prayers; and +lastly Harold, who himself on foot, with an army of light-armed +infantry, and conforming to the customary diet of the country, so +bravely penetrated through every part of Wales, that he scarcely +left a man alive in it; and as a memorial of his signal victories +many stones may be found in Wales bearing this inscription:- "HIC +VICTOR FUIT HAROLDUS" - "HERE HAROLD CONQUERED." (28) + +To these bloody and recent victories of the English may be +attributed the peaceable state of Wales during the reigns of the +three first Norman kings; when the nation increased in population, +and being taught the use of arms and the management of horses by +the English and Normans (with whom they had much intercourse, by +following the court, or by being sent as hostages), took advantage +of the necessary attention which the three succeeding kings were +obliged to pay to their foreign possessions, and once more lifting +up their crests, recovered their lands, and spurned the yoke that +had formerly been imposed upon them. + + + +CHAPTER VIII + + + +In what manner this nation is to be overcome + + +The prince who would wish to subdue this nation, and govern it +peaceably, must use this method. He must be determined to apply a +diligent and constant attention to this purpose for one year at +least; for a people who with a collected force will not openly +attack the enemy in the field, nor wait to be besieged in castles, +is not to be overcome at the first onset, but to be worn out by +prudent delay and patience. Let him divide their strength, and by +bribes and promises endeavour to stir up one against the other, +knowing the spirit of hatred and envy which generally prevails +amongst them; and in the autumn let not only the marches, but also +the interior part of the country be strongly fortified with +castles, provisions, and confidential families. In the meantime +the purchase of corn, cloth, and salt, with which they are usually +supplied from England, should be strictly interdicted; and well- +manned ships placed as a guard on the coast, to prevent their +importation of these articles from Ireland or the Severn sea, and +to facilitate the supply of his own army. Afterwards, when the +severity of winter approaches, when the trees are void of leaves, +and the mountains no longer afford pasturage - when they are +deprived of any hopes of plunder, and harassed on every side by the +repeated attacks of the enemy - let a body of light-armed infantry +penetrate into their woody and mountainous retreats, and let these +troops be supported and relieved by others; and thus by frequent +changes, and replacing the men who are either fatigued or slain in +battle, this nation may be ultimately subdued; nor can it be +overcome without the above precautions, nor without great danger +and loss of men. Though many of the English hired troops may +perish in a day of battle, money will procure as many or more on +the morrow for the same service; but to the Welsh, who have neither +foreign nor stipendiary troops, the loss is for the time +irreparable. In these matters, therefore, as an artificer is to be +trusted in his trade, so attention is to be paid to the counsel of +those who, having been long conversant in similar concerns, are +become acquainted with the manners and customs of their country, +and whom it greatly interests, that an enemy, for whom during long +and frequent conflicts they have contracted an implacable hatred, +should by their assistance be either weakened or destroyed. Happy +should I have termed the borders of Wales inhabited by the English, +if their kings, in the government of these parts, and in their +military operations against the enemy, had rather employed the +marchers and barons of the country, than adopted the counsels and +policy of the people of Anjou and the Normans. In this, as well as +in every other military expedition, either in Ireland or in Wales, +the natives of the marches, from the constant state of warfare in +which they are engaged, and whose manners are formed from the +habits of war, are bold and active, skilful on horseback, quick on +foot, not nice as to their diet, and ever prepared when necessity +requires to abstain both from corn and wine. By such men were the +first hostile attacks made upon Wales as well as Ireland, and by +such men alone can their final conquest be accomplished. For the +Flemings, Normans, Coterells, and Bragmans, are good and well- +disciplined soldiers in their own country; but the Gallic soldiery +is known to differ much from the Welsh and Irish. In their country +the battle is on level, here on rough ground; there in an open +field, here in forests; there they consider their armour as an +honour, here as a burden; there soldiers are taken prisoners, here +they are beheaded; there they are ransomed, here they are put to +death. Where, therefore, the armies engage in a flat country, a +heavy and complex armour, made of cloth and iron, both protects and +decorates the soldier; but when the engagement is in narrow +defiles, in woods or marshes, where the infantry have the advantage +over the cavalry, a light armour is preferable. For light arms +afford sufficient protection against unarmed men, by whom victory +is either lost or won at the first onset; where it is necessary +that an active and retreating enemy should be overcome by a certain +proportional quantity of moderate armour; whereas with a more +complex sort, and with high and curved saddles, it is difficult to +dismount, more so to mount, and with the greatest difficulty can +such troops march, if required, with the infantry. In order, +therefore, that + + +"Singula quaeque locum teneant sortita decenter," + + +we maintain it is necessary to employ heavy-armed and strong troops +against men heavily armed, depending entirely upon their natural +strength, and accustomed to fight in an open plain; but against +light-armed and active troops, who prefer rough ground, men +accustomed to such conflicts, and armed in a similar manner, must +be employed. But let the cities and fortresses on the Severn, and +the whole territory on its western banks towards Wales, occupied by +the English, as well as the provinces of Shropshire and Cheshire, +which are protected by powerful armies, or by any other special +privileges and honourable independence, rejoice in the provident +bounty of their prince. There should be a yearly examination of +the warlike stores, of the arms, and horses, by good and discreet +men deputed for that purpose, and who, not intent on its plunder +and ruin, interest themselves in the defence and protection of +their country. By these salutary measures, the soldiers, citizens, +and the whole mass of the people, being instructed and accustomed +to the use of arms, liberty may be opposed by liberty, and pride be +checked by pride. For the Welsh, who are neither worn out by +laborious burdens, nor molested by the exactions of their lords, +are ever prompt to avenge an injury. Hence arise their +distinguished bravery in the defence of their country; hence their +readiness to take up arms and to rebel. Nothing so much excites, +encourages, and invites the hearts of men to probity as the +cheerfulness of liberty; nothing so much dejects and dispirits them +as the oppression of servitude. This portion of the kingdom, +protected by arms and courage, might be of great use to the prince, +not only in these or the adjacent parts, but, if necessity +required, in more remote regions; and although the public treasury +might receive a smaller annual revenue from these provinces, yet +the deficiency would be abundantly compensated by the peace of the +kingdom and the honour of its sovereign; especially as the heavy +and dangerous expenses of one military expedition into Wales +usually amount to the whole income among from the revenues of the +province. + + + +CHAPTER IX + + + +In what manner Wales, when conquered, should be governed + + +As therefore this nation is to be subdued by resolution in the +manner proposed, so when subdued, its government must be directed +by moderation, according to the following plan. Let the care of it +be committed to a man of a firm and determined mind; who during the +time of peace, by paying due obedience to the laws, and respect to +the government, may render it firm and stable. For like other +nations in a barbarous state, this people, although they are +strangers to the principles of honour, yet above all things desire +to be honoured; and approve and respect in others that truth which +they themselves do not profess. Whenever the natural inconstancy +of their indisposition shall induce them to revolt, let punishment +instantly follow the offence; but when they shall have submitted +themselves again to order, and made proper amends for their faults +(as it is the custom of bad men to remember wrath after quarrels), +let their former transgression be overlooked, and let them enjoy +security and respect, as long as they continue faithful. Thus, by +mild treatment they will be invited to obedience and the love of +peace, and the thought of certain punishment will deter them from +rash attempts. We have often observed persons who, confounding +these matters, by complaining of faults, depressing for services, +flattering in war, plundering in peace, despoiling the weak, paying +respect to revolters, by thus rendering all things confused, have +at length been confounded themselves. Besides, as circumstances +which are foreseen do less mischief, and as that state is happy +which thinks of war in the time of peace, let the wise man be upon +his guard, and prepared against the approaching inconveniences of +war, by the construction of forts, the widening of passes through +woods, and the providing of a trusty household. For those who are +cherished and sustained during the time of peace, are more ready to +come forward in times of danger, and are more confidently to be +depended upon; and as a nation unsubdued ever meditates plots under +the disguise of friendship, let not the prince or his governor +entrust the protection of his camp or capital to their fidelity. +By the examples of many remarkable men, some of whom have been +cruelly put to death, and others deprived of their castles and +dignities, through their own neglect and want of care, we may see, +that the artifices of a crafty and subdued nation are much more to +be dreaded than their open warfare; their good-will than their +anger, their honey than their gall, their malice than their attack, +their treachery than their aggression, and their pretended +friendship more than their open enmity. A prudent and provident +man therefore should contemplate in the misfortune of others what +he ought himself to avoid; correction taught by example is +harmless, as Ennodius (29) says: "The ruin of predecessors +instructs those who succeed; and a former miscarriage becomes a +future caution." If a well-disposed prince should wish these great +designs to be accomplished without the effusion of blood, the +marches, as we before mentioned, must be put into a state of +defence on all sides, and all intercourse by sea and land +interdicted; some of the Welsh may be stirred up to deadly feuds, +by means of stipends, and by transferring the property of one +person to another; and thus worn out with hunger, and a want of the +necessaries of life, and harassed by frequent murders and +implacable enmities, they will at last be compelled to surrender. + +There are three things which ruin this nation, and prevent its +enjoying the satisfaction of a fruitful progeny. First, because +both the natural and legitimate sons endeavour to divide the +paternal inheritance amongst themselves; from which cause, as we +have before observed, continual fratricides take place. Secondly, +because the education of their sons is committed to the care of the +high-born people of the country, who, on the death of their +fathers, endeavour by all possible means to exalt their pupil; from +whence arise murders, conflagrations, and almost a total +destruction of the country. And, thirdly, because from the pride +and obstinacy of their disposition, they will not (like other +nations) subject themselves to the dominion of one lord and king. + + + +CHAPTER X + + + +In what manner this nation may resist and revolt + + +Having hitherto so partially and elaborately spoken in favour of +the English, and being equally connected by birth with each nation, +justice demands that we should argue on both sides; let us +therefore, at the close of our work, turn our attention towards the +Welsh, and briefly, but effectually, instruct them in the art of +resistance. If the Welsh were more commonly accustomed to the +Gallic mode of arming, and depended more on steady fighting than on +their agility; if their princes were unanimous and inseparable in +their defence; or rather, if they had only one prince, and that a +good one; this nation situated in so powerful, strong, and +inaccessible a country, could hardly ever be completely overcome. +If, therefore, they would be inseparable, they would become +insuperable, being assisted by these three circumstances; a country +well defended by nature, a people both contented and accustomed to +live upon little, a community whose nobles as well as privates are +instructed in the use of arms; and especially as the English fight +for power, the Welsh for liberty; the one to procure gain, the +other to avoid loss; the English hirelings for money, the Welsh +patriots for their country. The English, I say, fight in order to +expel the natural inhabitants from the island, and secure to +themselves the possession of the whole; but the Welsh maintain the +conflict, that they, who have so long enjoyed the sovereignty of +the whole kingdom, may at least find a hiding place in the worst +corner of it, amongst woods and marshes; and, banished, as it were, +for their offences, may there in a state of poverty, for a limited +time, perform penance for the excesses they committed in the days +of their prosperity. For the perpetual remembrance of their former +greatness, the recollection of their Trojan descent, and the high +and continued majesty of the kingdom of Britain, may draw forth +many a latent spark of animosity, and encourage the daring spirit +of rebellion. Hence during the military expedition which king +Henry II. made in our days against South Wales, an old Welshman at +Pencadair, who had faithfully adhered to him, being desired to give +his opinion about the royal army, and whether he thought that of +the rebels would make resistance, and what would be the final event +of this war, replied, "This nation, O king, may now, as in former +times, be harassed, and in a great measure weakened and destroyed +by your and other powers, and it will often prevail by its laudable +exertions; but it can never be totally subdued through the wrath of +man, unless the wrath of God shall concur. Nor do I think, that +any other nation than this of Wales, or any other language, +whatever may hereafter come to pass, shall, in the day of severe +examination before the Supreme Judge, answer for this corner of the +earth." + + + +Footnotes: + + +[The text of the footnotes has been removed from this version of +the eText until their copyright status can be ascertained.] + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg Etext of Description of Wales by G. Cambrensis + diff --git a/old/dscwl10.zip b/old/dscwl10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8615962 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/dscwl10.zip |